Twisted Pair

cables
Twisted Pair cables
Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern to minimize the electromagnetic interference
between adjacent pairs
Often used at customer facilities and also over distances to carry
voice as well as data communications
Low frequency transmission medium
STP (shielded twisted pair)
the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate the
pair from electromagnetic interference
UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is encased
in an outer covering
Effect of Noise without the twists
Effect of Noise after the twists
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES

BY.
SPOORTHI SHEKAR
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
F

R FDMA

U
TDMA
E

C
CDMA
Y
TIME
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
FDMA
Simplest
Best suited for analog links
Each station has its own frequency band,
separated by guard bands
Receivers tune to the right frequency
Number of frequencies is limited
reuse frequencies in non-adjacent cells
example: voice channel = 30 KHz
833 channels in 25 MHz band
FDMA
 TDMA
All stations transmit data on same frequency, but at
different times
Needs time synchronization
Pros
users can be given different amounts of bandwidth
mobiles can use idle times to determine best base station
can switch off power when not transmitting
Cons
synchronization overhead
greater problems with multipath interference on wireless
links
TDMA
CDMA - CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS
LARGE NUMBER OF TRANSMISSIONS ARE COMBINED
ON THE SAME RF CHANNEL AT THE SAME TIME BUT ARE
SEPERATED BY CODES

CDMA is a method in which users occupy the same time and frequency
allocations, and are channelized by unique assigned codes. The signals
are separated at the receiver by using a correlator that Access
accepts only signal energy from the desired channel. Undesired signals
contribute only to the noise.
A CDMA system uses effective power control process.
 CDMA
Users separated both by time and frequency
Send at a different frequency at each time slot (frequency hopping)
Or, convert a single set of bits on a frequency to a code (direct
sequence)
receiver can decipher bit by inverse process
Pros
hard to spy
immune from narrowband noise
no need for all stations to synchronize
no hard limit on capacity of a cell
all cells can use all frequencies
Cons
implementation complexity
need for power control
to avoid capture
need for a large contiguous frequency band (for direct sequence)
problems installing in the field
 CDMA Direct Sequence coding
Transmitter:
User 1: Data: 00; Spread code: 0101; Xor 0101 with 0 (first data
bit) four times and 0 (second data bit) four times
Spread and transmitted signal: 0101 0101
User 2: Data:10; Spread code: 0011; Xor 0011 with 1 (first data
bit) four times and 0 (second data bit) four times
Spread and transmitted signal: 1100 0011
Receiver:
User 3: Received signal: 0101 0101; Decode using spread code
0101; Xor spread code with received signal
Decoded output 0000 0000 = 00
User 4: Received signal: 1100 0011; Decode using spread code
0011; Xor spread code with received signal
Decoded output 1111 0000 = 10
Salient Features of CDMA
It is an advanced comm. Technology.
It has Anti-jam and security features.
Large capacity as compared to other Technology.
like FDMA and TDMA.
It uses spread spectrum technology.
Better use of the multipath.
Frequency Reuse.
 Frequency Reuse
Subscriber in every cell can use the same frequency at the same time. Subscriber is
discriminated from another by the assignment of a unique code to every
conversation.
In GSM freq. Reuse pattern of 7 is used.

E F D
C B E F
G C B
D A G C
B F D A
E F D
A C B E
G C B
Frequency Reuse pattern of 7 (FDMA)
 Spread spectrum : is an increasingly important form of encoding for
wireless communications. Use of spread spectrum is to modulate the
signal so as to increase significantly the bandwidth (spread the spectrum)
of a signal to be transmitted.
Frequency Hopping spread spectrum : in which , the signal is broadcast
over a seemingly random series of radio frequencies, hopping from
frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.
Direct Sequence Spread spectrum : in which each bit in the original signal
is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal using a spreading
code.
Code division multiple access : exploits the nature of spread spectrum
transmission to enable multiple users to independently use the same
bandwidth with very little interference .

A spectrum signal is generated by modulating the radio

frequency (RF) signal with a code consisting of different
pseudo random binary sequences, which is inherently
resistant to noisy signal environment
SPREADING SPECTRUM
Shannons Equation
C= W Log (1+S/N)
Where C=Capacity (bps)
W=Bandwidth
S=Signal Power
N=Noise Power
Shannons Capacity Equation is basis for spread spectrum. System
with large band width can operate at very low SNR level & can provide
acceptable data rate per user.
Therefore in CDMA
- All users uses same 1.25 MHz spectrum.
- Each user has unique Digital code identifier.
- Digital codes separate users to avoid interference.
 CDMA Calls
W/R 1 1
N= -------*-----*--------*n *g
Eb/Io d 1+f
Where
N= calls per sector
W= Spread spectrum Bandwidth (1.25 MHz)
R= data rate (9.6 kbps or 14.4 kbps)
Eb/Io= Bit energy/ other user interference density (7dB)
d= Voice activity factor (0.4)
f= other interference/ same interference (0.6)
n= loading factor (0.8)
g= reduction Factor for variable power (0.85)
N= 27 users per sector for R=9.6Kbps
18 users per sector for R=14.4Kbps
 ORTHOGONAL SPREADING:-
RX
TX

USER INPUT USER

01101001100101100110
10011 OUTPUT
Cell
Cell 10011

10011001100110011001
10011001100110011001
CODE
CODE

User Input 1 0 0 1 1

Spreading 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001

Sequence

TX Data 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110

 Switched Network
Nodes connected to
one another by
transmission links
Each station
attaches to a node
The collection of
nodes is a switched
communication
network

Two different switching

technologies
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Circuit Switching :
Dedicated communication path between two stations
Path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes
On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection
Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
Circuit Establishment
Data Transfer
Circuit Disconnect
Connection path must be established before data transmission
begins
Nodes must have switching capacity and channel capacity to
establish connection
Switches must have intelligence to work out routing
Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)

Private Branch Exchange

Circuit Switching Concepts
Digital Switch
Provides transparent signal path between devices
Network Interface
Represents functions and hardware needed to connect digital
devices (eg data processing devices, digital telephones) to the
network
Control Unit
Establishes connections
Generally on demand
Handles and acknowledges requests
Determines if destination is free
Constructs the path
Maintains connection
Disconnects
Space Division Switching
Developed for analog environment
Signal paths are physically separated from one another (divided in space)
Basic building block of the switch is a metallic crosspoint that can be enabled
and disabled by a control unit
Crossbar switch

Limitations
Number of crosspoints grows as square
of number of stations (costly for a large
switch)
Loss of crosspoint prevents connection
Inefficient use of crosspoints
All stations connected, only a few
crosspoints are in use
Single-stage crossbar matrix is non-
blocking i.e. a path is always available to
connect an input to an output
To overcome these limitations,
multiple-stage switches are used
Control Signaling Functions &
sequence : Consider a typical phone connection
sequence from one
In a circuit-switched network, control
signals are the
means by which the network is
managed and by which
calls are established, maintained and
terminated
Functions of control signaling are:
Audible communication with
subscriber (dial tone, ringing tone)
Transmission of dialed number
Call cannot be completed indication
Call ended indication
Signal to ring phone
Billing info
Equipment and trunk status info
Diagnostic info
Control of specialist equipment
line to another in the same central office
Prior to the call, both phones not in use
(on hook)
Subscriber lifts receiver (off hook)
End office switch signaled
Switch responds with dial tone
Caller dials number
If target not busy, sends ringer signal to
target subscriber
Feedback to caller
Ringing tone, engaged tone, unobtainable
Target accepts call by lifting receiver
Switch terminates ringing signal and
ringing tone
Switch establishes connection
Connection release when source
subscriber hangs up
Advantages
Circuit is dedicated to the call no interference,
no sharing
Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration
of the call
Guaranteed quality of service
Disadvantages
Inefficient the equipment may be unused for a lot of the
call; if no data is being sent, the dedicated line still remains
open.
It takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit.
During a crisis or disaster, the network may become
unstable or unavailable.
It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data
traffic.
Packet Switching :

Circuit switching designed for voice

Key characteristic is that resources within the network are dedicated to a
particular call
Much of the time a data connection is idle
inefficient
Data rate is fixed
Both ends must operate at the same rate, this limiting the utility of the
network in interconnecting a variety of computers
 Data transmitted in small packets
Typically 1000 octets (bytes)
Longer messages split into series of packets
Each packet contains a portion of user data plus
some control info
Control info
Includes routing (addressing) info
At each node packets are received, stored
briefly (buffered) and past on to the next node
Store and forward
Each packet is sent with a header address which tells itUDP =
where its final destination is, so it knows where to go.
The header address also describes the sequence for User Datagram
reassembly at the destination computer so that the Protocol
packets are put back into the correct order.
One packet also contains details of how many packets
should be arriving so that the recipient computer knows
if one packet has failed to turn up.
If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a
message back to the computer which originally sent the
data, asking for the missing packet to be resent.
 Advantages
Security
Bandwidth used to full potential
Devices of different speeds can communicate
Not affected by line failure (redirects signal)
Availability no waiting for a direct connection to become
available
During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network
might stop working, e-mails and texts can still be sent via packet
switching

Disadvantages
Under heavy use there can be a delay
Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
Not so good for some types data streams (e.g. real-time
video streams can lose frames due to the way packets arrive
out of sequence)