Town Planning Anna University Material PDF

HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
PLANNING
COMPILED BY
CT.LAKSHMANAN B.Arch., M.C.P.
AR 443 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PLANNING
1. INTRODUCTION 10
Elements of Human Settlements - Role of Man and Society in the growth and decay of
human settlements.
2. PLANNING CONCEPTS 10
Contribution to planning throught - Patric Geddes, Ebener Howard - CA Perry - Le
Corbusior - Doxiadis - Mumford - Relevance to Indian Planning Practice.
3. URBAN PLANNING 10
Various types of plans, Master plan, structure plan, comprehensive plan, subject plan,
Zonal Development plan, their scope and content, planning process.
4. URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 8

IUDP, IDSMT, Megacity, FIRE, Sustainable City Programme - their context, concept,
scope, content and funding mechanism.
5. RURAL PLANNING 7
Rural settlement structure - Demographic dynamics - micro level planning: Scope and
content.
Total 45
References:
1. C.L.Doxiadis, Ekistics, 'An Introduction to the Science of Human Settlements', Hutchinson,

London, 1968.
2. Madras Metropolitan Development Authority, 'Master Plan for Madras Metropolitan Area,
Second Master Plan - 1995.
3. Government of India, 'Report of the National Commission on Urbanisation', 1988.
4. Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment, Government of India, New Delhi, 'Urban
Development Plans: Formulation & Implementation' - Guidelines - 1996.
5. Hansen N., 'Regional Policy and Regional Integration' Edward Elgar, UK, 1996.
6. Centre for Human Settlements, Anna University, Chennai 'Development Plan for Uthokottai
Taluk, Cheyyur Taluk', 1999.
7. Andro D.Thomas, 'Housing and Urban Renewal, George Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1986.
Chapter 1
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - GENERAL

The definition of human settlement is as given below:
The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these
elements provide the material support. The physical components comprise shelter, i.e. the
superstructures of different shape, size, type and materials erected by mankind for security,
privacy, and protection from the elements and for his singularity within a community; infrastructure,
i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver or remove from the shelter people, goods, energy of
information. Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a
social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition.
Human settlements means the totality of the human community - whether city, town or village - with
all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural elements that sustain it. The fabric of
human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the
material support. The physical components comprise,
Shelter, i.e. the superstructures of different shapes, size, type and materials erected by
mankind for security, privacy and protection from the elements and for his singularity within
a community;
Infrastructure, i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver to or remove from the shelter
people, goods, energy or information;
Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a social
body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
NATURE
NETWORK MAN
SHELL SOCIETY
These elements always interact with one another. A human being has some invisible spheres
around him. These spheres are the spheres of the senses like touch, smell, sight, hearing and also
supernatural or spiritual. The spiritual sphere is directly proportional to his intellect. People interact
with one another by direct interaction of these spheres. Human habitation requires a certain amount
of overlapping of these spheres, and the planning of habitation would mean, social planning.
Human desires and endurances have remained the same throughout the years and manifestations
of which have changed by evolution.
GROWTH AND DECAY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - GENERAL

Primitive man lived in caves, tree-holes and treetops and fed himself on plants, fruits roots, animals
and water, directly collected from nature, without much effort on his part. When his number
increased and his food requirements became enormous he came out of the forests to live in the
plains, to cultivate and make more food materials. Availability of water was the main criterion for
selecting land for cultivation and habitation.
Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Chapter 1
This happened according to scientist, about 10,000 years back and that was the beginning of
human settlements, when man made houses to live in and worked for his food. Thus it was a
transition from cave to village. Protection from the vagaries of climate and wild animals was the
main purpose of a house, rightly called a shelter. He built houses with whatever materials were
available near about him, like mud, wood, reeds boughs, leaves and what not. For better protection
and mutual help he used to live in groups, surrounded by the cultivated lands, which invariably
were selected where water was available throughout the seasons.
This gave rise to villages or small human settlements, all of them near perennial fresh water
sources like rivers, and lakes. Villages were also located on sites offering natural protection of
elevated hills & terrains, islands and peninsulas. Wherever natural protection was lacking
barricades and moats surrounded them. Later, when transportation of men and materials became
necessary, seacoasts and riverbanks were selected for settlements. As we learn from history, early
civilization spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, tigres, Euphrates, Indus rivers etc. where
water, food and transportation were at hand.
In all settlements, there were both natural and man-made elements like hills, valleys buildings,
roads etc. each settlement had its own definite boundaries. They were scattered throughout,
especially along riverbanks and in plains, fed by rivers. Inter relations and inter-actions between
settlements, both near and far off, developed gradually and it gave rise to social, cultural, political,
economic and many other institutions
Conflict between men and environment started when man began to change the environment for
better convenience and better comfort. This conflict is a continuous process, and is continuing with
all its ramifications supported by science and technology.
Man being aggressive in nature, did not easily adjust himself to be part of a self-disciplined
community. Personal and group rivalries flared up within settlements. Survival of the fittest was the
order of the day. The winner assumed the role of a leader and maintained discipline. When the
leader gained more and more power and strength, several settlements came under him. He himself
assumed titles of king or emperor. To protect himself and his kingdom, he wanted an army and a
safe place to live. For this he established non-agricultural settlements, exclusively for himself, his
army and the people around him. Such settlements were fortified and moats built all around, for
additional protection from attacking enemies. People from the villages, whose main occupation was
agriculture, began to migrate to such urban centers, to get better employment and better wages.
Further, the developments came out of the forts and moats, to accommodate more people and this
gave rise to bigger settlements, what we call towns and cities.
Socio-economic and socio-cultural changes, as well as developments in science and technology

influenced the life styles of the people and their quality of life. In the process, some settlements,
perished, may be by war, floods or drying up of water sources and some other prospered becoming
larger and larger, like our present day giant cities which we call metropolis, mega polis etc. this
makes human settlements a part of history and every settlement has a history of its own.
The fundamental human needs, wherever one lives and whichever natural environment one has,
are food, clothing and shelter apart from air & water. Shelter use to get the lowest priority from the
very beginning of mans existence. Till the recent past, shelter, especially in small settlements, was
not a serious problem as the shelter requirements were quite simple and limited. There was no
difficulty in getting a piece of land, either owned or rented.

Chapter 1
They constructed their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and
using their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and using their
own labour.
The harmful impact of intensive urbanization, consequent to the industrial revolution, accelerated
deterioration of the living environment. But in spite of all the efforts to improve the living
environment in human settlements, the challenge of poverty, congestion and insanitation still
remains in cities throughout the world. Man had made unprecedented progress during the current
century in the fields of industry, Education, Health, Communication, Transportation etc. as a result
of spectacular achievements in science and technology. But it is a paradox that the majority of the
worlds population still does not have a shelter providing minimum privacy, and protection against
the elements. The struggle for shelter still continues. A significant reason, for this lag is the
population explosion followed by urban explosion.
EVOLUTION Of HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

The evolution of human settlements is a continuous cyclic process from the smallest, the room, to
the largest possible, the universal human settlement. The process are born, develop, decline and
die which can be compared to plant and animal which are everywhere in this universe.
Settlements may have an initial structure, which only allows for a certain degree of growth, but
nothing excludes the possibility of an expansion and transformation of this structure, which will
allow them to surpass the initial structural limitations. The human settlements have no pre-
determined death, though there is death in their activities, there will be born of another where the
active exists. .
The evolution of human settlements can be divided into five major phases:
1. Primitive non-organised human settlements (started with the evolution of man.)

2. Primitive organised settlements ( the period of villages - eopolis - which lasted
about 10,000 years.)
3. Static urban settlements or cities (polis - which lasted about 5,000-6,000 years.)
4. Dynamic urban settlements (dynapolis - which lasted 200 - 400 years.)
5. The universal city (ecumenopolis - which is now beginning.)
Primitive human settlements

Non - organised settlements
The man began to modify Nature and to settle temporarily or permanently in different location.
Probably began with fire, they went on to animal husbandry and the domestication of grazing
animals; afterwards came deforestation and agriculture, and with it, permanent human settlements.
Man had settled first in natural shelters such as hollows in the ground, hollow trees or shallow
caves, before he began to build his own primitive and unorganised habitat. After first exploiting
natural formations and transforming them into dwellings, by various changes and additions, he
began to create shells independent of, and unrelated to, pre-existing natural forms and their
boundary were within certain limit beyond which the settlement had no link and transportation.
For example observing the level of agriculture communities. The communities take up a smaller
area where they are agricultural, and a larger one where they are hunting and cattle-breeding
communities. Their nucleus under normal conditions is in the center of gravity; or of security
problem, in the safest place in their area, or even beyond their area of cultivation.

Chapter 1
There are no transportation and communication lines between the communities. If we look at these
primitive non-organised communities on a macro scale, there consists of a nucleus which is the
built up part of the human settlement, and several parts which lead out into the open, thinning out
until they disappear either because nobody goes beyond certain limits of the community or
because these trips take place so seldom that they would not be placed on the same scale of
densities. There is no physical lines connecting this primitive settlement with others; there are no
networks between settlements.
Organised settlements
Man, some ten to twelve thousand years ago, began to enter the era of organised agriculture, his
settlements also began to show some characteristics of organisation. It required time and
acquisition of experience in organising the relationship between man and man, man and nature,
and finally expressing these relationships through cohesive forms of settlements.
In initial the human had one-room dwelling in circular form, to organise the relationship of
his community with other communities he expanded his dwelling by placing many round forms side
by side, then elongated to elliptical ones and at some point came to conclusion and adopted the
rectilinear forms. Due to the loss of space between them, they developed more regular shapes with
no space lost between them. The evolution reached the stage at which a rectilinear pattern
develops into a regular grid - iron one.

Chapter 1
In Nature evolution work towards a compression of circles and the gradual formation of polygonic
systems, the clearest form of which is the hexagon. In evolution of human settlements we see two
courses:
On the micro-scale, where man must divide the land, construct one or more shells (rooms and
houses), and circulate within a built-up area (neighbourhood), the solution leads to a synthesis
at a right angle;
On the macro-scale, where man must own and use space but not build it, and circulate within it,
although to a much lesser degree than before (usually non more than one movement to and fro
every day), man continues to follow the course of nature towards hexagonal patterns.
During this era of the development of human settlements the patterns or regional distribution of the
settlements differ depending on the phase of evolution and the prevailing conditions of safety, the
population still small, the villages can be found in the plains, near the rivers and near the sea.
When the population becomes dense, new patterns develop, and the villages come over to cover
the entire plain on the basis of the small hexagonal pattern and the hills and the mountains on a
larger hexagonal pattern. The development of land cultivation, the population might be larger, but
would still be smaller than that of the era of large population and full exploitation of the land, when it
would reach five hundred thousand or even one million.
Static urban settlements

At some point 5,000 or 6,000 years ago, the first urban settlement appeared as small cities in a
plain or as fortresses on hills and mountains. As settlements grew in size, man came to realise that
the principle of the single-nucleus was not always valid in the internal organisation of the total shells
of the community, at this single nodal point, which was adequate for the village and for small cities,
no longer sufficed. The first thing to happen was the expansion of the nucleus in one or more
directions; it was no longer limited to the settlement's center of gravity.
Example: The small settlement of Priene, in ancient Greece, where the central nucleus expanded in
two ways: first in a linear form along a main street which contained shops that would normally be
clustered in the central agora, the secondly through the decentralisation of some functions, such as
temples. In larger cities additional nodal points and central places gradually came into being within
the shells of the settlements - a phenomenon that is unique to human settlements.

Chapter 1
Dynamic urban settlement

Started in the seventeenth century and became apparent only a century later in all probability, it
wall last for another 100 or 200 years until we reach the next phase that of the universal settlement.
In the dynamic urban phase settlements in space are characterised by continuous growth. Hence,
all their problems are continuously intensified and new ones continuously created.
Dynamic settlements, created as a result of an industrial technological revolution, multiplying in

number and form, and now being created at an even higher rate. The evils described in them are
the evils of yesterday which are being multiplied today in a very dangerous manner. This makes the
dynamic settlement completely different from any other category of settlements and a real threat to
humanity itself.
Example: London - atmospheric pollution may be so severe as to account for 4,000 deaths in a
single week of intense "fog". Hydrocarbons, lead, carcinogenic agents, deteriorating conditions of
atmospheric electricity -- all of these represent retrogressive processes introduced and supported
by man.
The man's position is dangerous in the dynamic settlement, this can be shown through the
following graph.
Dynapolis:
First expansion of the urban settlement.
30 miles in diameter.
All part of the land it covers is not sterilised.
The microorganisms in the soil no longer exist.
The original animal inhabit ants have largely been banished.
Rivers are foul and the atmosphere is polluted.
Climate and microclimate have retrogressed.

Chapter 1
The first dynamic urban settlement - the early Dynapolis. This is the phase when small independent
human settlements when small independent human settlements with independent administrative
units are beginning to grow beyond their initial boundaries. From the economic point of view this
development is related to industrialisation, and from the technological point of view to the railroad
era, which first made commuting from distance points possible.
The settlements expands in all directions, instead of spreading only along the railway lines creating
new islands of dependent settlements around railway stations, as during the phase of the early
Dynapolis. The city is breaking its walls and spreading into the countryside in a disorgnised
manner.
Metropolis I Dynametropolis:
The next phase of dynamic settlement is of metropolis, which incorporates several other urban and
rural settlements of the surrounding area.
The few metropolises from the past became static following a period of dynamic growth, then
declined and died. This was to a certain extent, true of ancient Rome in its last phases and
Byzantine Constantinople - which disintegrated to such a degree that the mobs in the streets
became uncontrollable and sometimes succeeded in imposing their will on the government. From
the economic, social, administrative or technological point of view, the fate of the historical
metropolises has been dynamic growth, a static phase, and then death. To base our experience on
the history of cities, we must recognise the fact that a static phase for a metropolis is the prelude of
its decline and death. In such a case this should be said as a dynamic metropolis, after losing its
momentum for growth, becomes negatively dynamic.
To calculate the number of metropolises attributed to the effect of the railway and to the effect of
the automobile, we will find the latter to be much greater, out of all proportion to the number of the
former.
Dynametropolis, continuing its course towards becoming a megalopolis.
Megalopolis I Dynamegalopolis:
The area on a large scale including more than one metropolis and many other urban settlements
and it cannot be static.
A megalopolis has the same external characteristics as the metropolis, the only difference being
that every phenomenon appears on a much larger scale. It is characteristic that all phenomenon of
the development of human settlements up to the metropolis shown on a 100 sq.km. Scale, for
megalopolis would be 1,000sq.km.
Universal human settlement: Ecumenopolis

Regardless of whether dynamic settlements are simple (Dynapolis), or composite
(metropolises and megalopolises), they have been growing continuously during the last centuries
and this is apparent everywhere at present i.e. the whole Earth will be covered by one human
settlement. The population explosion, will be definitely be the most decisive factor in the next phase
of human settlements.

Chapter 2
SIR EBENEZER HOWARD (1850-1928)
A well-known sociologist, who after studying the industrialist evils in Britain gave the concept of
Garden City, It soon became the landmark in the history of town planning. He had an idea which
he set forth in little book entitled To-morrow, published in 1898 which later republished under the
title of Garden City of To-morrow. He explained his idea of Garden City by an impressive diagram
of The Three Magnets namely the town magnet, country magnet with their advantages and
disadvantages and the third magnet with attractive features of both town and country life. Naturally
people preferred the third one namely Garden City. It made a deep impression in the field of town
planning.
GARDEN CITY
A town designed for healthy living and industry.
Town of a size that makes possible a full measure of social life, but not larger
Land will remain in a single ownership of the community or held in trust for the community.
Not a colony, but a complete working city of population about 30,000
A large central park containing public buildings
Central park surrounded by a shopping street
Central park and shopping street are surrounded by dwellings in all directions at density of 12
families / acre
The outer circle of factories and industries
The whole is surrounded by a permanent green belt of 5000 acres
The town area is of about 1000 acres
In 1899, the garden city association was formed.

In 1903 Letch worth started, 35 miles from London, town area: about 500 acres, designed for
35,000 persons, 3,000 acres of green belt. By 1947 it had about 16,000 populations and about 100
factories.
In 1920 Welwyn started, 2400 acres, 40000 persons design capacity. By 1947, it had about
18,000 population and 70 factories.
By keeping the land in single ownership, the possibility of speculation and overcrowding would be
eliminated and the increment of value created by the community in the industrial and commercial
(shops) sets would be preserved for it-self.
It was a thorough going experiment based on middle-class consumers cooperation
Howards general principles, including the communal ownership of the land and the permanent
green belt have been carried through on both cases, and the garden cities have been a testing
ground for technical and planning improvements which have later influenced all English, American,
Canadian and Australian planning, particularly in housing.
Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Chapter 2
PATRICK GEDDES
A Scot who has been called the father of modern town planning, Geddes did much of his
pioneering work in the Old Town of Edinburgh, having made his married home there in 1886.
Geddes name and spirit are imperishably associated with Ramsay Garden and the Outlook
Tower, both in Castle hill.
Geddes was concerned with the relationship between people and cities and how they affect
one another. He emphasized that people do not merely needed shelter, but also food and work,
the recreation and social life. This makes the house an inseparable part of the neighbourhood,
the city and the surrounding open country and the region.
The town planning primarily meant establishing organic relationship among Folk, place and
work, which corresponds to triad (Geddesian triad) of organism, function and environment.
FOLK WORK PLACE

i.e. organism i.e. function i.e. environment
(Social aspect) (Economical aspect) (Physical aspect)
Cities in Evolution published in 1915 essence of the book city beautiful movement and
too many small schemes here and there like garden cities were only poor examples of town
planning.
In this book he coined the term Conurbation to describe the waves of population inflow to
large cities, followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and then the wave of backflow the
whole process resulting in amorphous sprawl, waste, and unnecessary obsolescence.
True rural development, true urban planning, true city design have little in common and
repeating the same over all the three was disastrous and economically wasteful
Each valid scheme should and must embody the full utilization of its local and regional
conditions
Geddes was the originator of the idea and technique of Regional survey and city survey
The sequence of planning is to be:
1. Regional survey
2. Rural development
3. Town planning
4. City design
These are to be kept constantly up to-date
In 1911 he created a milestone exhibition, Cities and Town Planning, which was studied
appreciatively not only throughout Britain but also abroad. From 1920-23 he was Professor of
Civics and Sociology at the University of Bombay, and in 1924 he settled at Montpellier, in
France.
He died there in 1932, having been knighted that year.

Chapter 2
The Outlook Tower Interpreters House - Index Museum - Sociological Laboratory

Patrick Geddes took over the building
formerly known as Shorts Observatory
in 1892.
From the Prospect Roof of the Outlook
Tower are spectacular views across the
Firth of Forth and the surrounding city
region.
Positioned at the top of the Edinburghs
High Street, it still holds the camera
obscura, which refracts an image onto
a white table within, for study and
survey. A mirror at the top of the dome
picks up images and reflects then
through a lens which in turn focuses the
picture onto a white surface as on a film
in a camera.
The tower was conceived as a tool for
regional analysis, index-museum and
the worlds first sociological
laboratory. It represents the essence
of Geddess thought - his holism, visual
thinking, and commitment to
understanding the city in the region.
He said of it: Our greatest need today is to conceive life as a whole, to see its many
sides in their proper relations, but we must have a practical as well as a philosophic
interest in such an integrated view of life.
Hence the first contribution of this Tower towards understanding life is purely visual, for
from here everyone can make a start towards seeing completely that portion of the
world he can survey. He can also grasp what a natural region actually is and how a
great city is linked to such a region.
Now the tower is home to the Patrick Geddes Centre For Planning Studies, where
an archive and exhibition are housed.
PATRICK GEDDES IN INDIA

He came to India in 1915 at the invitation of Lord Pent land, the then Governor of Madras. He
gave his expert advice for the improvement of about eighteen major towns in India.
He laid emphasis on Survey before plan i.e. diagnosis before treatment to make a correct
diagnosis of various ills from which the town suffers and then prescribe the correct remedies for
its cure. These are the physical and social economic surveys.
He was the first man who introduced the sociological concept in the town planning. Before
coming to India, he had successfully overcome the horrors of Edinborough slums.

Chapter 2
LEWIS MUMFORD
Although French geographer Jean Gottman (1961) is credited for introducing the term, it was
Mumford (1938) who first elaborated the concept. His description was based on a revised version
of an idea his mentor Geddes had advanced in his Cities in Evolution (1915). Geddes had put
forward an outline of the six stages of city development, from polis to necropolis.
In Culture of Cities Mumford modified this scheme by including an earlier stage represented
by eopolis, the village community, and combining two of later stages of Geddes, parasitopolis
and patholopolis into tyrannopolis. So in this new scheme, city development originated with the
rise of the village (eopolis), it evolved into the polis as an association of villages and kinships, and
resulted in metropolis, an association of polis. The later three stages of city development,
megalopolis, tyrannopolis and necropolis represented the decline of the city.
In Culture of Cities Mumford regarded megalopolis as the beginning of decline: at this stage
of its development the city under the influence of a capitalistic mythos concentrates upon bigness
and power. For Mumford the aimless expansion of the metropolis into megalopolis was an
expression of a drive for capital accumulation: everything must become rational, big, methodical,
quantitative and ruthless. Megalopolis facilitated the repression and exploitation of working classes
by regimenting them and by making life increasingly insecure and volatile. This gives rise to a new
class conflict. As the conflict intensifies in megalopolis, an alliance of land-owning aristocracy,
speculators, financiers, enterprises, industrialists increase their interest in controlling the urban
space.
Mumford observed the transformation of the metropolis into the shapeless giantism of the
megalopolis in Culture of Cities. By 1961, however, for Mumford, understanding megalopolis
required understanding the origins of the mass suburb. In City in History the revised chapter
on megalopolis is now preceded by a new chapter on suburbia.
Although the most recent interpreters assumed that the suburb is a new phenomenon, Mumford
argued that it is as old as the city itself. For example, the city of Ur had a ring of houses
surrounding it. The Greek and Roman cities as well as medieval cities always had small huts,
gardens, villas surrounding them. It would be an error to regard suburbanism as a mere reaction to
the crowded and polluted industrial city.
The 18th century city witnessed the rise of the aristocratic suburb while the 19th century witnessed
the rise of the bourgeois suburb. In both aristocratic and bourgeois suburbs, to have enough
wealth to escape the city became a mark of success. The country life became a romantic ideal
where the free soul met nature. For them the city became merely a place where their capital was
concentrated and accumulated. The new utopia of suburb proposed in effect to create an asylum in
which the upper classes could overcome the chronic defects of civilization while still commanding at
will the privileges and benefits of urban society. The retreat from the city had hygienic and health
advantages but it also represented a retreat from the oppressive rules, manners and regulations of
an urban society.
Yet for Mumford, the ultimate outcome of the suburbs alienation from the city happened in
the twentieth century with mass production of housing. Mumford said: In the mass movement
into suburban areas a new kind of community was produced, which caricatured both the historic
city and the archetypal suburban refuge: a multitude of uniform, unidentifiable houses, lined up
inflexibly, at uniform distances, on uniform roads, in a treeless communal waste, inhabited

Chapter 2
by people of the same class, the same income, the same age group, witnessing the same
television performances, eating the same tasteless pre-fabricated foods, from the same
freezers, conforming in every outward and inward respect to a common mold, manufactured
in the central metropolis. Thus the ultimate effect of the suburban escape in our time, ironically, a
low-grade uniform environment from which escape is impossible.
Mumford argued that unfortunately this empty ideal that attracted the masses did not meet a
credible counterpart or alternative. Instead, the high density, concrete slabs, filing cabinets for
humans as Mumford called them, captured the imagination (if as such can be said to exist) of
planners and policy makers. Mumford called attention to The British planner Raymond Unwin
whose dictum Nothing Gained by Overcrowding illustrated that early in the century the traditional
industrial city designs were seemingly utilitarian but in effect very costly.
Nevertheless, Mumford argued, the planners and policy makers also failed to see what was
attractive in the suburbs and what they seemingly provided. The suburb was a neighbourhood
unit. The suburb helped to recreate a new consciousness of something that had been lost in the
rapid growth of the city: the sense of neighbourhood. The early neighbourhood fostered new
associations and the rise of civic responsibility in the absence of formal municipal governments.
As such, the early ideas of the suburb approximated the conditions required for citizenship in the
Greek polis: leisure, detachment from base occupations, concern for public goods. With the rise of
the motor car and the vehicular traffic dominating the suburb returned to its original
weaknesses: snobbery, segregation, status seeking and political irresponsibility. The suburbs are
...no longer held together either by the urban magnet or the urban container: they are rather
emblems of the disappearing city. Just as our expanding technological universe pushes our daily
existence ever farther form its human centre, so the expanding urban universe carries its
separate fragments ever farther form the city, leaving the individual more dissociated,
lonely, and helpless than he probably ever was before. Compulsory mobility provides fewer,
not more opportunities for association than compulsory stability in the walled town
Residential densities of about one hundred people per net acre would provide usable private
gardens and encourage small public inner parks for meeting and relaxing. If we are concerned
with human values, we can no longer afford either sprawling Suburbia or the congested
Metropolis
Mumford argued against those who justify the megalopolis as the final or the inevitable form or
urban growth by arguing that they overlook historic outcomes of such concentration of power.
Mumford argues that the myth of megalopolis gives legitimacy to modern accretion of power. The
persistence of overgrown containers such as Berlin, Warsaw, New York, Tokyo are concrete
manifestations of the dominant forces in our civilization. The fact that the same signs of overgrowth
and overconcentration persist in both communist and capitalist societies shows that these forces
are deeper than prevailing ideologies. Mumford criticized academics for their vacuous predictions of
urban growth concentrating on statistics, accusing them for slavery of large numbers. Ultimately
Whether they extrapolate 1960 or anticipate 2060 their goal is actually 1984
Mumford traced the rise of the giant metropolis directly to the rise of new classes in the industrial
city with their insatiable appetite for expansion. In the industrial city of the nineteenth century the
creed of the bourgeoisie was laissez-faire and free enterprise but with the growth of an immense
productive economy and a consumption economy, the bourgeoisie abandoned its belief in the free
market and appropriated state institutions for protection and subsidies. The rise of the metropolis

Chapter 2
was a symptom of this tendency toward monopoly and concentration of great numbers. By the
twentieth century, the metropolis brought into one vast complex the industrial town, the
commercial town, and the royal and aristocratic town, each stimulating and extending its influence
over the other. The metropolis was an embodiment and expression of a new stage in capitalism in
which industrial capital and class was among other equally powerful classes and forms of capital.
Mumford argues that massive accretion of power and concentration of numbers necessitated the
rise of bureaucratic administration and management. The metropolis became a form dominated
by a new trinity: finance, insurance, advertising. By means of these agents, the metropolis
extended its rule over subordinate regions, both within its own political territory and in outlying
domains
The metropolis became an arena for accumulation of different forms of capital: the banks,
brokerage offices, stock exchanges essentially serve a collecting point for the savings in the entire
country, centralizing and monopolizing the use of money. Similarly, the values of the real estate in
the metropolis were secured by the continued growth of the metropolis, thereby benefiting financial
institutions. In order to protect their investment and continued profitability, banks, insurance
companies, mortgage brokers encouraged further concentration and the rise of land values in the
metropolis.
The monopoly of cultural capital was also a mark of the metropolis. The effective monopoly of
news media, advertising, periodical literature, and the new channels of mass communication,
television and radio gave authenticity and value to the style of life that emanates from the
metropolis. The final goal of this process would be a unified, homogeneous, completely
standardized population, cut to the metropolitan pattern and conditioned to consume only those
goods that are offered by the controllers and conditioners, in the interests of continuously
expanding economy. This constituted a control without kingship. The metropolis became a
consumption machine. The princely ritual of conspicuous consumption became a mass
phenomenon.
To call the overgrown metropolis, aimlessly expanding, megalopolis is to give legitimacy to a

sprawling giant. These vast urban masses are comparable to a routed and disorganised
army, which has lost its leaders, scattered its battalions and companies, torn off its insignia,
and is fleeing in every direction.
With his historical insight Mumford could not bring himself to believe that megalopolis was a new
form of city. Megalopolis was for him the death of the city, a stage leading to necropolis. As
one moves away from the centre, the urban growth becomes more aimless and discontinuous,
more diffuse and unfocussed, except where some surviving town has left the original imprint of a
more orderly life. In megalopolis The original container has completely disappeared: the sharp
division between city and country no longer exists.
Although all living organisms are purposeful, goal-seeking, and self-limiting, the modern economy
seeks limitless expansion, and the metropolis is an expression of its aimlessness. The metropolis
produces motor cars and refrigerators galore but has no motive to produce magnificence: great
works of art, handsome gardens or untrammelled leisure.
But if the costs of metropolitan congestion are appalling the costs of de-congestion are equally
formidable. In the United States, with the eager connivance of municipal authorities, an ever-larger
part of the population is spreading over the countryside, seeking, as we have seen, the conditions

Chapter 2
for homelife, the space, the freedom of movement, that have become impossible within the central
core, hoping too, but vainly, that the lower land values and taxes of the outlying areas will remain
permanent even after the necessary civic improvements have been made. And all over the world
the same sort of urban dispersal is now taking place, at an accelerating rate. The emergence of
new forms of association, clubs and societies.
But the fastest rate of growth has been in the outlying areas; and, to enlarge the whole scope of
the urban problem, provincial towns and regional centres, which would often boast better
housing, more ample park space, and more accessible recreation areas than the big city have
themselves become the focus for still further metropolitan growth. These towns begin to
display the same environmental deficiencies, the same unbalanced budget, the same
expenditure on glib mechanical planning remedies instead of on positive human
improvements, that their larger historic rivals boast. Thus the new megalopolitan form is fast
becoming a universal one.
In 1938 Mumford had argued that the trend toward megalopolis had to be stopped. It would be
nothing less than a revaluation of values of modern culture: mastery of nature, the myth of the
machine and ceaseless expansion of capitalism. A regional framework of civilization that would
correspond to this revaluation would be necessary, nurturing the vitality, density, vigour and
diversity of the city while maintaining access to the countryside in symbiotic relationship with it. By
creating the regional city the historic balance between the city and the countryside would be
restored. It is hopeless to think that this problem is one that can be solved by local authorities,
even by one as colossal and competent as the London County Council. Nor is it a problem that can
be successfully attacked by a mere extension of the scope of political action, through creating
metropolitan governments. Rather, The internal problems of the metropolis and its
subsidiary areas are reflections of a whole civilization geared to expansion by strictly
rational and scientific means for purposes that have become progressively more empty and
trivial, more infantile and primitive, more barbarous and massively irrational.This is a
matter that must be attacked at the source
By 1961, the prospects didnt look good: Our present civilization is a gigantic motor car
moving along a one-way road at an ever-accelerating speed. Unfortunately as now
constructed the car lacks both steering wheel and brakes, and the only form of control the
driver exercises consists in making the car go faster, though in his fascination with the
machine itself and his commitment to achieving the highest speed possible, he has quite
forgotten the purpose of the journey. This state of helpless submission to the economic and
technological mechanisms modern man has created is curiously disguised as progress, freedom,
and the mastery of man over nature.

Chapter 2
CLARENCE A. PERRY
One of the earliest authorities to attempt a definition of the neighborhood in fairly specific terms was
Clarence A. Perry.
He said The underlying principle of the scheme is that an urban neighbourhood should regarded
both as a unit of larger whole and as a distinct entity in itself. There are certain other facilities,
functions or aspects that are strictly local and peculiar to a well arranged-Residential community.
They may be classified under four heads:

(1) The elementary school
(2) small parks and playgrounds
(3) local shops and
(4) residential environment other neighbourhood institutions and services are sometimes found,
but there are practically universal.
He laid down the fundamental elements on which he intended the neighbourhood unit should be
based size, boundaries open spaces, institutional sites, local shops and internal road system. Its
six basic principles were:
The size should be related to the catchment area of an elementary school.
The residential area should be bounded on all sides by arterial streets; there
should be no through traffic.
There should be ample provision of small parks and play areas.
There should be a central point to the neighbourhood containing the school and
other services.
District shops should be located on the periphery, thus serving approximately four
neighbourhoods.
There should be a hierarchy of streets facilitating access but discouraging through
traffic.

Chapter 2
DOXIADIS, CONSTANTINOS A
Constantinos A. Doxiadis, the son of Apostolos and Evanthia (Mezeviri) Doxiadis, was born in
1913. His father, a pediatrician, was Minister of Refugees, Social Welfare and Public Health and
organized many welfare services, especially for children. He graduated as Architect-Engineer from
the Athens Technical University in 1935 and obtained his doctorate at Charlottenburg University,
Berlin, one year later.
In 1937 he was appointed Chief Town Planning Officer for the Greater Athens Area and during the
war (1940-1945) held the post of Head of the Department of Regional and Town Planning in the
Ministry of Public Works while also serving as a corporal in the Greek Army. During the Occupation
he was Chief of the National Resistance Group, Hephaestus, and published a magazine called
"Regional Planning, Town Planning and Ekistics," the only underground technical publication
anywhere in occupied. At the time of Greece's liberation in 1945 he left the army with the rank of
captain, and went to the San Francisco Peace Conference as a member of the Greek delegation. In
1945 he also served as Greece's representative to England, France and the United States on the
problems of postwar reconstruction.
From 1945 to 1951 Doxiadis was one of the prime leaders in restoring Greece to a normal
peacetime existence, first as Undersecretary and Director-General of the Ministry of Housing and
Reconstruction (1945-48), and subsequently as Minister-Coordinator of the Greek Recovery
Program and Undersecretary of the Ministry of Coordination (1948-51). During these years he was
also head of the Greek Delegation at the UN International Conference on Housing, Planning and
Reconstruction (1947) and head of the Greek Delegation at the Greco-Italian War Reparations
Conference (1949-50).
In 1951 he founded Doxiadis Associates, a private firm of consulting engineers, with a small group
of architects and planners, many of whom had worked with him on the Greek Recovery Program.
The company grew rapidly until it had offices on five continents and projects in 40 countries,
acquiring its present legal form as DA International Co., Ltd., Consultants on Development and
Ekistics, in 1963. In 1959 Doxiadis founded the Athens Technological Organization and in 1963 the
Athens Center of Ekistics. From 1958 to 1971 he taught ekistics at the Athens Technological
Organization and lectured at universities all over the United States as well as at Oxford and Dublin.
In 1963 and 1964 he served as representative of Greece on the Housing, Building and Planning
Committee of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations in New York and was
chairman of the Session on Urban Problems at the UN Conference on the Application of Science
and Technology for the benefit of the less developed areas held in Geneva in 1963.
During his lifetime Doxiadis received several awards and decorations, both civil and military and
this year one posthumous award, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada's Gold Medal for
1976.
His awards and decorations are as follows: Greek Military Cross, for his services during the war
1940-41 (1941); Order of the British Empire, for his activities in the National Resistance and for his
collaboration with the Allied Forces, Middle East (1945); Order of the Cedar of Lebanon, for his
contribution to the development of Lebanon (1958); Royal Order of the Phoenix for his contribution
to the development of Greece (1960); Sir Patrick Abercrombie Prize of the International Union of
Architects (1963); Cali de Oro (Mexican Gold Medal) Award of the Society of Mexican Architects
(1963); Award of Excellence, Industrial Designers Society of America (1965); Aspen Award for the
Humanities (1966); and Yugoslav Flag Order with Golden Wreath (1966).

Chapter 2
In the last years of his life Constantinos A. Doxiadis was ravaged by a particularly debilitating,
terminal disease (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, also known as 'Lou Gehrig's disease) which led to
gradual complete paralysis, over three years. This, he fought with great courage and dignity, writing
to his last day, and making detailed notes of the progress of his disease, so as to help future
researchers. He died peacefully, at home,with his family, at 11am, June 28, 1975.
LE CORBUSIER
In the early twenties, Le Corbusier realized that many cities around the world were on
the brink of an urban implosion due to poor design, inadequate housing and
inefficient transportation. He studied these problems and advised bold new
solutions.
His theories helped shape the planning of many cities of the world, and the influence
they exerted on a new generation of architects and planners is legendary.
o He conceived plans for Algiers, Nemours, the university city of Brazil, Buenos
Aires (Argentina), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Barcelona (Spain), Geneva(
Switzerland), Stockholm (Sweden) and Antwerp (Belgium)
His plans for cities were the result of a detailed analysis of three major urban factors
roads, housing and open spaces.
He felt that roads should be arranged on the grid iron pattern with minimum
crossings. Consequently, segregation of different forms of traffic was inevitable.
He recommended skyscrapers for commercial and residential purposes, surrounded by
large open spaces or parks.
He claimed that on an average nearly 90 percent of the ground area of his modern city
would consist of open spaces encompassing residential areas. He called his city One
Great Park with a lot of greenery around the buildings.
LA VILLE CONTEMPORAINE (CONCENTRIC CITY)
The city of Tomorrow for 30,00,000 people was proposed by Le Corbusier in 1922, which was
based on four principles :
1. Decongestion of the centers of cities

2. Augmentation of the density
3. Enlargement of the means of circulation
4. Increase in the number of parks and open spaces
The ville contemporaine consisted of three zones: the central city, a protected green belt and the
periphery containing factories and the satellilte towns where their workers lived.
The central city featured a rectangle containing two cross axial super-highways. At its heart was a
siz-level transport interchange, a meeting place of underground and main-line railways, road
networks and at the top, a landing platform for aero-taxis. Around that point were 24 crucifrorm
skyscrapers made from steel and glass, serving the citys cicic and commercial needs.
These buildilng cover less than 15 percent of the central areas ground space, would be raised on
stilts (pilotis) so as to leave panoramas of unbroken greenery at ground level. The general
impression was less that of parkland in the city than of a city in a park.
The ville contemporaine generated considerable interest as a holistic conception of the future city,
but equally attracted critical comment. Fierce criticisms were directed at the class based conception
of life that it embodied, since Le corbusier envisaged different classes being separately housed.
Doubts were expressed about the ville contemporaines scale and degree of centralization.

Chapter 2
The city espoused space, speed, mass production and efficient organization, but also offered a
potentially sterile combination of natural and urban environments.
Gross FAR = 60x 5% = 3
Net FAR excluding roads = 4
Average floor space = 100 sq. ft/person
This scheme was a city of magnificent skyscraper towers surrounded by broad and
sweeping open space.
The city was a huge park. Sixty-story office buildings accommodating 1,200 people per
acre and covering only 5% of the ground area were grouped in the heart of the city
The hub of the plan is the transportation centre for motor, and rail lines, the roof of which is
the air field. Main highways are elevated.
Surrounding the skyscrapers was the apartment district, eight-story buildings arranged in
zigzag rows with broad open spaces about them, the density of population being 120
persons per acre.
Lying about the outskirts were the garden cities of single-family houses.
The residential zone contains schools, shopping centers, and recreational facilities.
The background of ville contemporaine : philosophy of Le Corbusier

No matter how open and green, cities should be frankly urban, urban surroundings are to
be definitely contrasting with rural surroundings
Densities are in themselves not a problem. Congestion and slum conditions in the cities are
due to excessive coverage, persistence of old street patterns and unrestricted land
speculation
Slums exist because of the failure to provide the proper surrounding for high density living
still providing for classified street system, parking areas, adequate open spaces for parks,
sport fields, and community services
He protests against strict functionalism : Human creations that survive are those which
produce emotions, and not those which are only useful
Ville contemporaine is primarily a revolt against the irrational growth of contemporary cities. It is a
plan for concentric city in which orderly, controlled elements replace the traditional pattern of the old
metropolis
PLAN VOISIN 1925

It reworked certain elements of the Ville Contemporaine. Le corbusier proposed the construction of
18 double cruciform 60 storey skyscrapers, surrounded by green open spaces. These buildings
were intended to attract international corporations so that a modern Paris could act as a world
center for administration. There would be three clusters of luxury apartments, intended to keep the
cultural elite in the city.
Particular attention centred on the road network. Le corbusier wanted to destroy the street in order
to save it. He was fully aware of the significance of the street in the drama of urban life, but
believed that the traditional rue corridor (corridor street) with its rigid line of buildings and
intermingling of traffic and pedestrians, was an impossible setting for that drama.
The new street system would have each functionally distinct traffic type occupying its own
dedicated channel placed at different levels. Heavy traffic would proceed at basement level, lighter
at ground level, and fast traffic should flow along limited-access arterial roads that supplied rapid
and unobstructed cross-city movement. There would also be pedestrianised streets, wholly
separate from vehicular traffic and placed at a raised level. The number of existing streets would be

Chapter 2
diminished by two-thirds due to the new arrangements of housing, leisure facilities and workplaces,
with same-level crossing points eliminated wherever possible.
Critics attacked its focus on the central city, where land values were highest and dislocations most
difficult; the creation of vast empty spaces in place of close-knit streets with their varied civic life
and the proposed obliteration of much of the citys architectural heritage. Although intended
seriously, the plan had immediate shock value, particularly for its determined approach to
reshaping the central districts the areas most resist to change.
LA VILLE RADIEUSE 1930 THE RADIANT CITY

The plan for the Radiant city was first displayed at Brussels meeting of CIAM in 1930 although it
was not available in published form until 1935. it retained, but rearranged, the key features of the
Ville Contemporaine. The basic ideas of free circulation and greenery were still present, but the
juxtaposition of different land-uses had changed. For example, the central area was now residential
instead of a skyscraper office core. The plan :
Was no longer a mandala of centralized power. Instead it spliced together an extendible linear city with the abstract
image of a man: head, spine, arms and body. The skyscrapers of the Ville Contemporaine were rearranged away from
the city center at the head[The] body was made up of acres of housing strips laid out in a stepping plan to generate
semi-courts and harbours of greenery containing tennis courts, playing fields and paths. These all faced south[and]
were raised on pilotis so that the entire surface of the city was a co-extensive, fully public space.
Perhaps the most interesting feature of the Ville Radieuse was its conscious reworking of the
design of housing. The idea of segregation of housing by social class was abandoned, replacing
the different types of housing by high-rise dwelling units for 2700 people. These would have
services that included communal kitchens, crches, shops and gymnasia supplied. Family size was
now the guiding rule for housing allocationh, without regard to the workers place in the industrial
hierarchy. These housing units were envisaged as an essential ingredient in constructing a
classless society
In addition, there was conscious effort to sketch the lifestyle of inhabitants of the future city. Unlike
soviet architects, Le corbusier believed in the power of architecture to bring social change without
necessarily requiring the transformation in the economic base of society.
The previous concentric plan is considerably revised to allow a normal organic growth
for the city
Now Le Corbusier comes to the belief that the essence of the city is the dwelling area
Residential area occupies the most central location, with possible expansions to the
right and left toward the open country. The civic center is on the main axis. The
business area on the top
Light manufacturing, freight yards and heavy industries at the bottom
Traffic pattern an orthogonal system with super imposed diagonals
Subway system shows an equal simplicity
The density is here 400 people per acre
Each residential block is 1300 ft. x 1300 ft. or about
40 acres 16000 people = one neighbourhood. Each block has stadium, swimming pool,
tennis courts, schools and playgrounds

Chapter 2
C.I.A.M. (CONGRESS INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE MODERNE) 1928 FRANCE
The international congress of modern architects subjected the city to re-examination

and posed four basic elements of the urban biology :
Sun
Space
Vegetation
Steel and concrete
Le Corbusier assumed a leading role
It affirmed that town planning is the organizations of functions of collective life this
applies to both rural and urban settlements
four functions of any settlement
dwelling
work
recreation
transportation, which connects the first three with one another.
Le Corbusier organized in CIAM assembly of constructors, for an Architectural
renovation
ASCORAL (Assembly of Constructors for an Architectural Renewal) OF CIAM
systematically studied the problems of construction, architecture and city planning. It
resulted in the publication of The Three Human Establishments. The examination of
working conditions in a mechanistic society led to the recognition of the utility and
necessity of three unit establishments indispensable for human activity :
i. The Farming unit the cooperative village : a unit for agricultural production
ii. The linear industrial city
iii. The radio concentric city - same as Radiant city (Ville Radieuse) for the exchange
of goods and services.
LINEAR INDUSTRIAL CITY THE LINEAR TOWN ; UNIT FOR INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
Leaving the evils of the sprawling town, the new industrial communities are located
along the main arteries of transportation water, rail and highway connecting the
existing cities.
Factories are placed along the main arteries, separated from the residential section by
the highway and a green strip
The residential areas include the horizontal garden town of single houses and vertical
apartment buildings with civic center. Sports, entertainments, shopping and office
facilities are distributed in this district and all community facilities are placed within
ample open space.
Industries are placed at intervals along the highway and railway. The existing cities so
connected remain as administrative, commercial and cultural centers.

Chapter 2
CHANDIGARH
INDRODUCTION
The city of Chandigarh was the culmination of Le corbusiers life. This city is like the man. It is not
gentle. It is hard and assertive. It is not practical; it is riddled with mistakes made not in error but in
arrogance. It is disliked by small minds, but not by big ones. It is unforgettable. The man who
adored the Mediterranean has here found fulfillment, in the scorching heat of India.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, inspired the planners and builders of Chandigarh
with the words. This shall be the new city of free India, totally fresh and wholly responsive to the
aspirations of the future generations of this great country, and that the city shall be free from all
shackles and shall be unfettered by the traditions of the past the city shall be so built and nurtured
that it shall be a model for our glorious future growth of the country.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
It was bound by two seasonal choes, or rivulets, the patiali Rao and the Sukhna in the northwest
and the south east respectively. It extends in the northeast right up to the foothills of the shivaliks.
The region experiences extremes in the climate. The temperature could rise to 45 degrees in
summer and drop to freezing point in winter. The direction of the prevalent winds is southeast to the
northwest in summer and northwest to the southeast in winter.
THE SITE
After an extensive aerial survey, then the Capital Project Administrator, P.N. Thapar and Chief
Engineer, P.L. Verma selected the sitea sub-mountainous area of the then Ambala district about
240 km north of New Delhi, the capital of the republic. The area was a flat, gently sloping plain of
agricultural land dotted with groves of mango trees which marked the sites of 24 villages or
hamletsone of which was named Chandigarh on account of its temple dedicated to the goddess.
The general ground level of the site ranges from 305 to 366 meters with a 1 per cent grade giving
adequate drainage. To the northeast are the foothills of the Himalayasthe Shivalik Range
rising abruptly to about 1524 meters and a dramatic natural backdrop. One seasonal stream, the
Patiali ki Rao, lies on the western side of the city and another, the Sukhna Choe, on the eastern
side. A third, smaller seasonal stream flows through the very center of Chandigarh. The area along
this streambed has been turned into a series of public gardens called the Leisure Valley.
THE AMERICAN ARCHITECTS AND PLANNERS

Although the city is now forever linked with the name of Le Corbusier, he was not the Government
of Indias first choice. In the late 1940s very few Indian architects were professionally trained in
town planning so it was necessary to look abroad for a man to carry out the Chandigarh scheme.
The search led to the USA and Albert Mayer. Mayer wasnt new to India. In December, 1949, when
the Punjab government approached him for the Chandigarh project, he was already associated with
a rural development project at Etawah (Uttar Pradesh), and preparation of master plans for Greater
Bombay and Kanpur.
Mayer was thrilled with the prospect of planning a brand-new city, and he accepted the assignment
although it offered him a modest fee of $30,000 for the entire project. His brief was to prepare a
master plan for a city of half a million people, showing the location of major roads and areas for
residence, business, industry, recreation and allied uses. He was also to prepare detailed building
plans for the Capitol Complex, City Centre, and important government facilities and architectural
controls for other areas.

Chapter 2
On the advice of his friend Stein, Mayer inducted Matthew Nowicki. Nowicki was the head of the
North Carolina State College School of Architecture. Soon, Mayer and Nowicki became the key
American planners for Chandigarh.
The master plan as conceived by Mayer and Nowicki assumed a fan-shaped outline spreading
gently to fill the site between two seasonal riverbeds. At the head of the plan was the Capitol , the
seat of the state government, and the City Centre was located in the heart of the city. Two linear
parklands could also be noticed running continuously from the northeast head of the plain to its
southwestern tip. A curving network of main roads surrounded the neighborhood units called Super
blocks. The first phase of the city was to be developed on the northeastern side to accommodate
150,000 residents and the second phase on the southwestern side for another 350,000 people.
The proposed Super blocks were to be graded income wise in three density categories: 10, 30 and
40 persons per hectare. Mayer wanted a more democratic mix of housing types, and felt that the
old practice of providing palatial bungalows for the elite needed rethinking as the services and open
space provided to them would be at the expense of the have-nots living in the smaller houses. He
also desired that most houses in the neighbourhood units should be located on the periphery, so
that the central areas were left for playgrounds, parks and recreational areas.
Mayer liked the variation of [Indian] streets, offsetting and breaking from narrow into wider and
back and thought that they were appropriate to a land of strong sunlight, At the narrow points, his
house design involved an inner courtyard for ventilation with small openings on the street side to
protect privacy. We loved this little inner courtyard, Mayer wrote, for it seemed to us to bring the
advantages of coolness and dignity into a quite small house. Another element in planning was to
place a group of houses around a not very large court, with the ends somewhat narrowing, which
could serve as a social uniti.e. a group of relatives or friends or people from the same locality
might live there, with the central area for play, gossip, etc. The neighbourhood units were to
contain schools and local shopping centres.
The multi-mode transportation system was a major problem. Mayer tackled it by creating a three-
fold-system that segregated land use in the master plan; there were neighbourhoods and areas
for business, industry and cultural activities. He also planned separate roads for incompatible types
of traffic. Separate provisions were to be made for slow animal-drawn carts, for bicycles and
pedestrians. Also he proposed to have a configuration of fast-traffic arterial roads with at least 400
meters distance between the two. He also favoured use of cul-de-sacs so that pedestrians and
cyclists could move on paths through parks and green areas. Land was also to be reserved for
future expansion of roads, parking areas etc.
Although Mayers contract did not stipulate detailed architectural schemes, he felt that they could
not isolate two-dimensional planning of the city from its architectural character.
And it was left mainly to Nowicki his talented younger partner to sketch out conceptual schemes for
the image of the city. For the legislative assembly, he evolved a form that took the shape of a
parabolic dome inspired by the Indian stupa, symbolic motif of the sacred mountain.
Nowicki was keen to end all his modern architectural creations with the Indian idiom of built form.
He even endorsed the idea of the traditional home-cum-workplace of a small entrepreneur or
artisan. His sketches indicate typical Indian features such as shops with platforms to sit on the floor,
and overhanging balconies or awnings, with separate areas for hawkers. This house-cum-
workplace had typical traditional features like brickwork jalis and screens to shield the windows
from the hot summer winds.

Chapter 2
His conceptual sketches indicate curving streets, courtyards, and a delightful sequence of open and
closed spaces - with ample use of water and greenery to soften the built forms. Quite appropriately
the building materials of his choice was the good old brick, as it was the cheapest medium - a
conclusion that holds true even now
On August 31, 1950, Nowicki died in a plane crash. Mayer felt that he could not handle the
monumental project alone and withdrew, severing the American connection with Chandigarh.
LE CORBUSIERS MASTER PLAN

The city was still entirely on paper. To translate this dream into brick and cement, the government
would have to find another architect. The choice fell on Le Corbusier, an architect and urban
theorist, many of whose ideas were at variance with those of Mayer and Nowicki. The other
important members of his team were Pierre Jeanerette, Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew
Unlike Mayer, Le Corbusier had never set foot in India until the Chandigarh project first brought him
to the country in 1951. In four days of feverish activity, they redesigned the city. The leaf-like outline
of Mayers plan was squared up into a mesh of rectangles.
Although Le Corbusier made many radical changes in the Americans master plan, incorporating
his own architectural and city planning ideas, it is a tribute to Mayer and Nowickis vision that he
incorporated several of their seminal ideas. For example, the basic framework of the master plan
and its components - the Capitol , City Centre, university, industrial area, and a linear parkland - as
conceived by Mayer and Nowicki were retained by Le Corbusier. The restructured master plan
almost covered the same site and the neighbourhood unit was retained as the main module of the
plan. The Super block was replaced by now what is called the Sector covering an area of 91
hectares, approximately that of the three-block neighbourhood unit planned by Mayer. The City
Centre, the railway station and the industrial areas by and large retained their original locations.
However, the Capitol , though still sited at the prime location of the northeastern tip of the plan, was
shifted slightly to the northwest.
The neighbourhood unit, so important to Mayer, retained its importance in Le Corbusiers plan. But
the opposing viewpoints lay in the configuration of the neighbourhood units. While the former
preferred a naturalistic, curving street pattern without the rigidity of a sterile geometric gridthe
latter was adverse to solidification of the accidental. For Le Corbusier the straight line was the
logical connecting path between two points, and any forced naturalness was superfluous.
Moreover, Le Corbusier always looked at the city plan in terms of a single cohesive monumental
compositionwith major axes linking the focal points of the city. The emphasis on visual cohesion
between the various city components was an essential feature of his somewhat rigid gridiron plan.
BASIC PLANNING COMPONENTS

Le Corbusiers plan was based on the gridiron defined by a system of seven types of roads, which
Le Corbusier called the 7 Vs (from the French word voie) and their expected functions around and
within the neighbourhood. The neighbourhood itself is surrounded by the fast-traffic road called V3
intersecting at the junctions of the neighbourhood unit called sector with a dimension of 800 meters
by 1200 meters. The entrance of cars into the sectors of 800 meters by 1200m, which are
exclusively reserved to family life, can take place on four points only; in the middle of the 1200 m. in
the middle of the 800 meters. The transit traffic takes place out of the sectors: the sectors being
surrounded by four wall-bound car roads without openings (the V3s). And this (a novelty in town-
planning and decisive) was applied at Chandigarh: no house (or building) door opens on the
thoroughfare of rapid traffic.

Chapter 2
THE BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

Le Corbusier liked to compare the city he planned to a biological entity: the head was the Capitol,
the City Centre was the heart and work area of the institutional area and the university was
limbs. Aside from the Leisure Valley traversing almost the entire city, parks extended lengthwise
through each sector to enable every resident to lift their eyes to the changing panorama of hills and
sky. Le Corbusier identified four basic functions of a city: living, working, circulation and care of the
body and spirit. Each sector was provided with its own shopping and community facilities, schools
and places of worship. Circulation was of great importance to Le Corbusier and determined the
other three basic functions. By creating a hierarchy of roads, Le Corbusier sought to make every
place in the city swiftly and easily accessible and at the same time ensure tranquility and safety of
living spaces.
THE PERIPHERY CONTROL ACT
The Periphery Control Act of 1952 created a wide green belt around the entire union territory. It
regulated all development within 16 kilometers of the city limit, prohibited the establishment of any
other town or village and forbade commercial or industrial development. The idea was to guarantee
that Chandigarh would always be surrounded by countryside.
ADMINISTRATION & EDUCATION

Le Corbusier wanted Chandigarh to be devoted exclusively to administration and education; he
firmly believed that an industrial town did not mix with an administrative one. He supposed that the
majority of the inhabitants would spend their working hours in the Capitol, Estate Office or various
other buildings occupied by government departments , in the offices and shops of the City Centre
or along Madhya Marg, or on the campuses of the colleges and university, or in other research
institutions
INDUSTRY
Despite his bias against industry, Le Corbusier was persuaded to set aside 235 hectares for non-
Polluting, light industry on the extreme southeastern side near the railway line as far away from the
Educational Sector and Capitol as possible. Of this, 136 hectares were to be developed during the
first phase. While the Industrial Sector is directly connected to the civic centre by a V-3 road, a wide
buffer of fruit trees was planted to screen off this area from the rest of the city.
Plot sizes were laid out to accommodate both large and small establishments and were sold at
auction, subject to the restriction of industries considered obnoxious. Maximum site coverage up to
50 per cent was allowed and in this area, 2.5 per cent of the space is permitted for use as quarters
for essential staff. Sneh Pandit explains the rationale for this: It will indirectly force the industrialists
to provide accommodation for labour and staff within the city which is more desirable than their
living in an exclusive area. In Sector 30, which is sufficiently close to the Industrial Sector yet within
the city, multistoried buildings have gone up to provide suitable tenements for the workers. Later
controls enforce that structures be made mainly in brick, allowing only 25 per cent area to be
plastered. Sloping sheds or sloping roofs are not permitted, so that the Industrial Sector conforms
with the look of the rest of the townalthough this in not adhered to in reality. Aside from Sector
30, eventually sectors 28 and 29 were also set aside for industrial housing.
COMMERCE
The Jan Marg, culminating at the Capitol , is the main north-south axis of the city; Madhya Marg,
culminating at the Educational Sector, is the main east-west axis. The City Centre was laid out
immediately southeast of the intersection of these two axes. It is one complete sector of
approximately 100 hectares and broadly divided into a northern and southern zone.

Chapter 2
The Southern zone has been developed as a centre of district administration, containing the district
courts and police headquarters, the fire station and interstate bus terminus, while major commercial
and civic functions are carried out in the northern section.
Lack of elevators, and the fact that Chandigarh lies in a zone of moderate seismic activity and
limitations of building materials and methods dictated the four-storey height limit for all buildings of
the City Centre. The size of the buildings was determined by what the planners thought the owners
could afford. The building form emerged from architectural control based on a standardised,
reinforced cement concrete frame of columns, beams and slabs, with room for interior modification
according to the needs of the owner.
Madhya Marg
While providing for a commercial heartSector 17, the City CentreLe Corbusier also designated
the northeastern side of the V-2 road known as Madhya Marg as a commercial district. Initially, Le
Corbusier had proposed to house the wholesale establishments in buildings which would present to
the street an unbroken brick faade. This was to be pierced only by a central doorway leading to an
interior courtyard on which the offices and showrooms would face. These austere three-storey
blocks are intended to line the street as a terrace formation, on the northeastern side, giving the
effect of an unbroken wall. To the government officials charged with the responsibility of approving
the plan, however, this appeared a scheme not only lacking in visual appeal as urban design, but
also one, which would fail to attract commercial users. As a result, the Capital Project Office
attempted a compromise design, in which the ground floor would have display windows facing the
street behind a verandah. To achieve something of Le Corbusiers completely blank faade, and
still permit a measure of light and ventilation to a second level of windows on the front faade, a
brick screen was extended in front of the second floor at the outer edge of the verandah and
continued to the upper level masking an open terrace. The plan of this type of building provided for
ground-floor showrooms, offices at the mezzanine level, with a residence for the caretaker or
manager at the top floor. To the rear of the block would be a walled compound for storage and
other purposes. It was intended that advertising signs would be permitted on the exterior of these
buildings. Their size, form and colour were, however, to be controlled. However many deviations
and changes have occurred in the present from the initial concept.
Sector Markets
Le Corbusier wanted to make each sector self-contained with respect to the necessities of daily life
and accordingly each sector was provided with a mini-commercial district of its own. Each sector
was to have its maintenance organisation, fire brigade, police, library, market, and the necessary
artisans. These services were set up in a line of 800 meters on one side (facing north) to avoid
dispersion and frequent road crossings as well as the suns heat. Cars can take this road at a
reduced speed and park there. This shop-street continues into the neighbouring sectors on the right
and left
OPEN SPACES
Some 800 hectares of green open space are spread over the approximately 114 square kilometers
of the Capital Project area. Major open areas include the Leisure Valley, Sukhna Lake, Rock
Garden and many other special gardens. In addition, the sectors are vertically integrated by green
space oriented in the direction of the mountains. Le Corbusier envisaged the construction of
schools and playing fields in these green bands.

Chapter 2
LANDSCAPING
Landscaping proceeded side by side with the construction of the city from the very inception. Three
spaces were identified for special plantation: the roadsides, spaces around important buildings,
parks and special features such as Sukhna Lake. In July, 1953, a Landscape Advisory Committee
was set up under the guidance of Dr M.S. Randhawa, later to be the Citys first Chief Commissioner
and a man of versatile talents.
Le Corbusiers contribution to landscaping was of categorising tree forms. He made a simple
analysis of the functional needs and aesthetic suitability for the various areas, devoting special
attention to specific roads.
ROADSIDE PLANTATION
It was intended to have continuous, informally planted interior and exterior tree belts to give a
sense of direction and culminate dramatically at the Capitol. For the V-2 Avenue of the Capitol, Le
Corbusier wrote:
The Avenue of the Capitol consists of heavy traffic with a parallel band of parking, a large
pavement on each side and with shops and arcades and high-rise buildings. Also outside this and
parallel will be the eroded valley (which touches from time to time). On the one hand, it seems
useful to demarcate the highway by a border of high trees and on the other hand to unite with one
glance the entire width of the avenue.
The V-4 will be the street, which will give its own character to each sector. Consequently each V-4
will be different from the others and furnished with special characteristics because it is
indispensable to create a great variety across the city and to furnish to inhabitants elements of
classification. All the possibilities of nature are at our disposal to give to each V-4 a personality
which will maintain itself in the whole width of the town and thus tie up five or six sectors traversed
by a V-4. To specialise the character of each V-4 will be planted with trees having different
colour, or of a different species. For example one V-4 will be yellow, one V-4 will be red, and one V-
4 will be blue.
At present, the prominent flowering trees are gulmohar (Delonix regia), amaltas (Cassia fistula),
kachnar (Bauhinea variegata), pink cassia (Cassia Javanica) and silver oak (Grevillea robusta).
Among the conspicuous non-flowering trees one finds kusum (Schleicheta trijuga) and pilkhan
(Ficus infectoria) along V3 roadsides. These trees, noted for their vast, thick spreading canopies
form great vaulting shelters over many of the citys roads. In all, more than 100 different tree
species have been planted in (Fieus religosa) Chandigarh .
March and April are autumn in North India. Trees such as pikhan, pipal kusum and many more
shed their old leaves creating a thick golden carpet that crunches underfoot. This is also the time
when the tall silk-cotton (Bombax malabaricum) trees put forth their enormous red blossoms and
the jacaranda appears like a wispy plume of purple smoke.
The dry riverbeds of the Patiala ki Rao and Sukhna were the focus of the earliest tree plantations.
Hardy species were planted down the entire length to mitigate the severe dust storms that ravaged
the site in summer. The areas were declared Reserved City Forests.
In 1952 the Tree Preservation Act was passed which prohibited cutting down, lopping or willful
destruction of trees in Chandigarh.
CITY GARDENS
While evolving the iron grid layout of the city, Le Corbusier incorporated an integrated park system
of continuous green belts from one end of the city to the other, allowing an unobstructed view of the

Chapter 2
mountains. Pedestrian paths and cycle-tracks were to be laid out through these irregularly shaped
linear parks to allow a person to travel the entire length of the city under a canopy of green. The
valley of a seasonal rivulet that ran through the city site for about 8 kilometers with a depth of about
6 meters and a width extending to a maximum of 300 meters was imaginatively made use of. A
series of special gardens transformed the existing eroded area into what is now called the Leisure
Valley. Aside from this large chain of gardens there are many other gardens: some devoted to
particular flowers or flowering trees, others created as memorials and still others planned around
topiary or fountains.
HOUSING
Lower category residential buildings are governed by a mechanism known as frame control to
control their facades. This fixes the building line and height and the use of building materials.
Certain standard sizes of doors and windows are specified and all the gates and boundary walls
must conform to standard design. This particularly applies to houses built on small plots of 250
square metres or less. All these houses are built on a terrace pattern and while they are allowed a
certain individual character, the idea is to ensure that the view from the street, which belongs to the
community, is one of order and discipline. Individuals are given the freedom to create the interiors
to suit their requirements for dwelling, working, relaxing. All buildings along the major axes of the
city are brought under architectural control. A person building a house in Chandigarh must employ
a qualified architect and the design is submitted to the Chief Architect for approval. Particular
scrutiny was applied to residential buildings constructed along Uttar Marg (the northernmost
avenue of the city at the very foot of the mountains), those abutting on Leisure Valley and along
certain V-3 roads.
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
All buildings located in the City Centre and commercial or institutional buildings located along V-2
roads are subjected to controls. The system of the City Centre is based on a grid of columns, fixed
5.26 meters shuttering pattern on concrete and a system of glazing or screen walls behind the line
of columns. The interior planning is left to the owners, and in the exterior, certain variations are
permitted to give variety to the architectural composition. Along the V-2 roads, other types of
treatments have been evolved for facades. All commercial buildings and all buildings constructed
along the V-4 roads in other sectors are also under strict control. For shops, complete designs have
been provided from the inception of the city.
SCHEMATIC DESIGN CONTROL

In cases where special types of buildings occur in the architectural control areas, a schematic
design is prepared on the basis of which the developer prepares the final designs in consultation
with the Chief Architect. This has been so far applied to the design of cinema theatres in the City
Centre and to petrol stations.
Aditya Prakash, one of the architects who worked with Le Corbusier, observes: It has always been
realised that Chandigarh must be well planned both in the private as well as in the public sector.
From the very beginning, all the commercial buildings of Chandigarh are under architectural control,
but private housing by and large had been left to its fate (of course, under the normal bye-laws and
zoning) hoping that good taste engendered by the government buildings will prevail and good
architects will settle in Chandigarh and fulfill the needs of private builders. [Now, many years later]
Having introduced so many controls, the process is still continuing. The existing controls are being
refined or new controls introduced. In all these controls, whereas restrictions are imposed on things
which are generally unsightly, provision is always made to permit a good architect to use his skill to
provide the otherwise prohibited things on the exterior so that they enhance the aesthetic appeal of

Chapter 2
the building or at any rate do not mar its beauty.
Functional distributions and placement of different activities within the city was based on human
analogy so as to enable the city to function as an organic entity. The industrial area was placed on
the southeast to eliminate entry of heavy traffic into the city. A 150 meters belt of trees thickly
planted with trees provided an organic seal around residential sectors to eliminate noise and
industrial pollution
Along with the Periphery Control Act and the Tree Protection Act, the more obtrusive types of
signboards and advertisements were banned. These three measures were intended to check
environmental and visual pollution and thereby protect the citys character and safeguard its quality
of life.
CIRCULATION
The 7Vs establishes a hierarchy of traffic circulation ranging from: arterial roads (V1), major
boulevards (V2) sector definers (V3), shopping streets (V4), neighbourhood streets (V5), access
lanes (V6) and pedestrian paths and cycle tracks (V7s and V8s). The essence of his plan for
Chandigarh rests on preserving intact the true functions of these seven types of roads.
The 7 Vs act in the town plan as the bloodstream, the lymph system and the respiratory system act
in biology. These systems are quite rational, they are different from each other, there is no
confusion between them, yet they are in harmony ... It is for us to learn from them when we are
organising the ground that lies beneath our feet. The 7Vs are no longer the sinister instruments of
death, but become an organised hierarchy of roads which can bring modern traffic circulation under
control.
The entrance of cars into the sectors, which are exclusively reserved to family life, can take place
on four points only; in the middle of the 1,200 meters; in the middle of the 800 meters
The road system was so designed that never a door will open on the surrounding V3s: precisely
the four surrounding V3s must be separated from the sector by a blind wall all along. Buses can
ply on the V4s, the horizontal connection between contiguous sectors, but not within the sector
interiors.

Chapter 3
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANS
STRUCTURE PLAN :
A structure plan is one that singles out for attention of certain aspect of the environment usually the
land-uses, the main movement systems and the location of critical facilities and buildings. Such a
plan aims to influence certain key vocational decisions while recognizing that there are many other
things that cant and perhaps should not be decided at the outset.
The term structure here means the social, economic, and physical systems of an area, so far as
they are subject to planning control or influence. The structure is, in effect, the planning framework
for an area and includes such matters as the distribution of the population, the activities and the
relationship between them, the patterns of land use and the development activities they give rise to,
together with the network of communication and the systems of utility services.
The structure plan will need to take account of regional and national policies. The structure plan for
an area will be integrated with the structure plans for adjoining areas and it means that aims,
policies and proposals in a structure plan must be coordinated with those for the adjoining areas.
Function of structure plans: the seven function of structure plans are stated below
1. Interpreting national and regional policies
2. Establishing aims, policies and general proposals for the area for which the plan is prepared
3. Providing framework for local plans; the broad policies and proposals of the structure plan form
a framework for the more detailed policies and proposals in local plans
4. Indicating action areas, which are priority areas for intensive action
5. Providing guidance for development control in those parts of the area not covered, or not yet
covered, by a local plan;
6. providing basis for co-ordinating decisions between various committees of the planning
authority and district councils who deal with various components of development, and other
public bodies likely to be concerned with important aspects of the plan.
7. bringing main planning issues and decisions before minister and public
The structure plan is decisions document i.e. only those policies or proposals are included in
structure plan which will affect significantly the structure of the area, or will help to conserve an
aspect of the structure. The structure plans will not only contain decisions but will also explain how
these decisions were arrived at. A report of the survey supporting the plan and description of
examination of alternative decision that may have been considered and the way in which a
particular course of action may have been chosen will also form part of the written document
accompanying the plan.
Whereas the structure plan needs to contain general development control policies for items of
structural importance, detailed development control standards should not be included in the
structure plan.
It is essential discipline in the preparation of the plan to ensure that what is proposed is realistic,
and the plan should demonstrate, as far it can be foreseen. It should take into account public as
well as private investment.

Chapter 3
The structure plan will not relate to a fixed end date, because it is not possible to look ahead over
the same period of time for all aspects of the plan. However, the time perspective will be taken into
account by setting priorities for short-term projects, setting-out phases of implementation, by
keeping track of projected populations for specific census years, and including policies for long-
term projects, which may be open-ended, long-term, and in broad outline only.
Since policies in the structure plan are stated in broad terms, considerable flexibility is available to
the authority to amend parts of structure plans at the time of working out details, to adjust to
situations not foreseen at the time of preparation of the plan.
DETAILED DEVELOPMENT PLAN (ZONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN)

The DDP to be prepared by the Local Planning authority may pro0pose or provide for all or any
of the following matters;
Laying out or relaying of land either vacant or already built upon, as building sites;
Construction, diversion, extension, alteration, improvement or closure of lanes, streets, roads
and communication;
Construction, alteration, removal or demolition of buildings, bridges and other structures;
Land acquisition by purchase, exchange or otherwise of any land, or other immovable property
within the area included in the DDP whether required immediately or not;
Redistribution of boundaries and the reconstitution of existing plots
Disposal by sale, exchange, lease or otherwise of land acquired or owned by LPA
Transport facilities, water supply, lighting
Drainage inclusive of sewage and of surface draining and sewage disposal
Allotment or reservation of land for public purposes
Defining, demarcating of the reconstituted plots
Construction of buildings, housing or resettlement of persons displaced by DDPs
Demarcation of places or objects and building of archaeological, religious, historical or
environmentally sensitive areas
Imposition of conditions and restrictions on buildings/structures with regard to character,
density, architectural features, height, building control lines for provision and maintenance of
sufficient open spaces about buildings and
Advance to land or building owners within DDPs upon such terms and conditions as may be
provided by the said plan, whole or part of the amount required for the erection of buildings or
for carrying out the works, alterations or improvements in accordance with DDP.
Without prejudice to the generality of the fore going provisions, every DDP shall contain the
following particulars
Plan showing lines of existing and proposed street network
Ownership of land and buildings in the area covered by the plan
Area of all lands, whether public or private
Description & details of the plan
Description of all lands either acquired or to be acquired for purposes mentioned above
Particulars regarding number and nature of houses to be provided by LPA, where DDps
provide for any housing or resettlement, extent of land to be acquired, and all supplemental,
incidental or consequential to such housing / rehousing
Zoning & enforcement regulations for carrying out the provisions for the DDP

Chapter 3
COMPREHENSIVE PLAN :
Comprehensive means that the plan encompasses all geographical parts of the community and
all functional elements which bear on physical development. Although there is some variation in the
content of comprehensive plans, three technical elements are commonly included: the private uses
of land, community facilities, and circulation.
Comprehensive plans may cover other subjects, such as utilities, civic design and special uses of
land unique to the locality. Usually there is background information on the population, economy,
existing landuse, assumptions and community goals.
The comprehensive pan seeks to combine in one document the prescriptions for all aspects of city
development. It includes an analysis of the citys economy, its demographic characteristics, and the
history of its spatial development as a preface to plan for how the city should evolve over 20 year
period
There are six basic requirements, which the plan document should fulfill.
1. the plan should be comprehensive
2. the plan should be long-range
3. the plan should be general
4. the plan should focus on physical development
5. the plan should relate physical design proposals to community goals and social and
economic policies
6. the plan should be first a policy instrument, and only second a technical instrument.
SUBJECT PLANS
There will be cases, where there will be an urgent need to develop a particular structure policy in
advance of a comprehensive district plan, or where other issues in particular are insufficient to
justify a comprehensive treatment. Circumstances such as these call for the preparation of Subject
plans whose range of functions is the same as for other local plans.
Plans of this kind may be concerned with issues that cover parts of a wide area, such as the
reclamation of a number of sites left derelict by mineral workings, or the conservation of several
areas of architectural interest; alternatively they may be concerned with some form of linear
development, such as the visual or environmental treatment of a motorways corridor in the
courtside or the recreational use or river valley or a strip of coast. The coverage of such plans may
sometimes be similar to that of a district plan but their content may differ from it being confined to a
single aspect of planning. E.g. special proposals for dealing with the working of a mineral that only
occur in one part of a country.
In certain circumstances, subject plans may be needed to give immediate effect to certain
administrative procedures associated with the development plan. Plans of this type may be
concerned with the definition of areas within which certain policies, power or grant aid may apply.
Examples are green belt, for an area of outstanding natural beauty for an area designed for town
development. Normally such proposals, together with their associated policy statements, should
included as part of district or an action area plan. But where definition is required in advance of or
apart from comprehensive local plans, subject plans can be prepared

Chapter 3
MASTER PLANS FOR URBAN AREAS

For a successful town planning there must be a plan, which envisages the entire town as a single
unit. This is necessary to achieve overall development of the town in co-coordinated manner. The
development or expansion of a town takes a long time, and therefore, the development requires
control at any time on the basis of a plan. Such a plan is called as Master Plan
Necessity of the master plan

The period of Industrial revolution(1760 1820) marks an important epoch in the history of the
growth of all the cities. Between the two world wars and especially after the Second World War
(1939 45), many towns and cities have been grown up haphazardly without proper planning. And
the over-grown cities became a mess and a muddle with all the evils.
The industries have been set up in the heart of the cities without any consideration of transport and
other utility services. The migration of rural population has caused housing shortage and increased
congestion. The rapid development of transport has been found to be inadequate for the growing
needs of the automobiles. It has caused over-crowding and congestion on the roads resulting road
accidents. Industries have encroached upon the residential areas causing shortage of open and
recreational areas.
In order to eradicate the evils of the ill-planned cities, there is a need of a comprehensive Master
plan for the general welfare of the citizens in respect of health, convenience and comfort.
Scope and Content of the master plan

The master plan may propose or provide for all or any of the following matters, namely: -
The manner in which the land in the planning area shall be used
The allotment or reservation of land for residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural
purposes and for parks, playfields and open spaces
The allotment or reservation of land for public buildings, institutions and for civic amenities
The making of provision for the national highways, arterial roads, ring roads, major streets,
lines of communication including railways, airports and canals
The traffic and transportation pattern and traffic circulation pattern
The major road and street improvements
The areas reserved for future development, expansion and for new housing
The provision for the improvement of areas or bad layout or obsolete development and
slum areas and for relocation of population
The amenities, services and utilities
The provision for detailed development of specific areas for housing, shopping, industries
and civic amenities and educational and cultural facilities
The control of architectural features, elevation and frontage of buildings and structures
The provision for regulating the zone, the location height, number of storeys and size of
buildings and other structures, the size of the yards and other open spaces and the use of
buildings, structures and land
The stages by which the master plan shall be carried out
Stages in the preparation of Master plan

The re-planning of an existing town is more complex than planning or designing a new town on
virgin land, such as capital towns like New Delhi, Chandigarh, industrial town like rourkela, port
town, military cantonments etc. The work of ordinary town-planner is usually restricted to re-
planning of an existing town.
After taking the Government sanction to prepare the scheme, next work is to collect the data and
relevant information, with the help of a comprehensive civic survey. From the data collected in the
civic survey, he is in a position to make a correct diagnosis of the various ills of the town and
suggest remedies for their cure.

Chapter 3
For the collection of data for the planning scheme, the town is divided into old town and new town.
In the former case, the work is tedious because the old town usually consists of narrow streets,
congestion, insanitation, and un-healthy conditions etc. But in the later case, zoned areas, provision
of all civic amenities etc. However care should be taken to keep the whole town, old or new alike in
all aspect and finally blended skillfully so as to form in-separately interwoven structure.
Duration of preparation of master plan

The planning authority prepares the interim master plan, also called the outline
development plan. The statutory time limit is two years.
It shall then be notified for the public comments and suggestions (1 month).
The draft plan may be revised in the light of the public and expert comments and shall be
submitted for Govts sanction (4 months from date of publication of the draft plan to be
further extended by the Govt. by three months, if required).
The Govt. sanctions the revised plan and appoints an arbitrator (12 months).
The arbitrator after holding proceedings in respect of each plot, publishes the award and
submits the detailed proposals to the higher authority such as the president of the Tribunal
of Arbitration (no fixed time limit but at least 12 months for small scheme and more for longer
schemes).
The tribunal shall make thorough scrutiny of arbitrators proposals and convey their decision
( usually 6 months).
The arbitrator prepares the final scheme and submits to Govt. with plans through the local
authority (usually 6 months).
The local authority forwards the final scheme to the Govt. (usually 3 months).
Govt. sanctions the final scheme after the photozinco Dept., has printed all the plans
(normally 9 months) after which the final scheme of Action plan comes into force (usually 2
months after the Govt.s sanction).
The detailed master plan also called the comprehensive development plan is duly approved
and sanctioned by the Govt. then made legally bindings on all the authorities concerned, by
giving it a legal status.
Lastly a financial programme is prepared to devise the ways and means for the implementation
of the master plan according to the schedule.
APPROACH TO URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Taking into account the problems of existing planning system of urban development in India, the
UDPFI (Urban Development Plan Formulation and Implementation) guidelines were prepared by
ITPI (Institute of Town Planners, India) at the behest of the Ministry of Urban development and
poverty alleviation, Government of India and recommended urban development planning system
consisting of a set of four inter-related plans i.e. (a) perspective plan (b) Development plan
(c) Annual plan and (d) Plans of projects / schemes.
PERSPECTIVE PLAN
Perspective Plan is a document containing spatio-economic development policies, strategies and
general programmes of the local authority, which presents to the state government and people, the
intentions of the local authority regarding development of the urban center in the next 20-25 years.
The scope of this plan covers social / economic and spatial developmental goals, policies and
priorities relating to all those urban activities that have spatial implications. It would also cover long-
term policies regarding development of infrastructure and resource mobilization that are necessary
to promote urban activities. The spectial care is required to be taken to minimize the conflicts
between the environmental protection and urban development.

Chapter 3
DEVELOPMENT PLAN
Development plan prepared within the framework of the approved perspective plan is medium term
(5 years) comprehensive plan of spatio-economic development of the urban center. The objective
of a development plan is to provide further necessary details and intended actions in the form of
strategies and physical proposals for development of the urban center, including employment
generation, economic base, transportation and land use, housing and other infrastructure, and
matters like environment, conservation and ecology. It also contains implementation strategies,
agency-wise(including private sector) schemes / projects, development promotion rules, and
resource mobilization plan with particular reference to finance, land and manpower and provides an
efficient system of monitoring and review. Development plan is a statutory document, approved and
adopted by the local authority for implementation, with the help of schemes and projects and would
be co-terminus with five year plans of state governments / local bodies, which would provide
opportunities to incorporate the needs and development aspirations of the people through the
elected representatives.
ANNUAL PLANS
The purpose of preparation of Annual plan, is to identify the new schemes / projects, which the
authority will undertake for implementation, during the year, taking into account the physical and
fiscal performance of the preceding year, keeping in view the priorities, the policies and the
proposals contained in the approved Development plan. These plans would also provide the
resource requirements during the year and the sources of funding including those mobilized by the
local authorities, i.e. grants, aids and projects / scheme funds, of the state and central
governments. It is thus, an important document for resource mobilization. This will also enable the
funding agencies to allocate the funds in phased manner.
PLANS OF SCHEMES / PROJECTS

Conceived within the framework of the Development plan, schemes / projects are the working
layouts, providing all necessary details for execution including finance, development, administration
and management. These schemes / projects could be for any area, old or new, of any activity or
landuse like residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, educational or health related or
infrastructure development, separately or in an integrated manner, by any agency such as
government, semi-government, private or even individuals or for any agency.

Chapter 4
INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL & MEDIUM TOWNS

To improve the economic and physical infrastructure and also to provide essential facilities and
service and also to slow down the growth of large cities by developing small and medium towns
through increased investments in these towns the Centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated
Development of Small & Medium Towns (IDSMT) was initiated in the year 1979 80 and is
continuing. With the development of small urban centers would also help in reducing migration to
large cities and support the growth of surrounding rural areas as well.
Objectives of IDSMT:
Improving infrastructural facilities and helping in the creation of durable public assets in small
and medium towns.
Decentralising economic growth and employment opportunities and promoting dispersed
Urbanisation .
Increasing the availability of serviced sites for housing , commercial and industrial uses.
Intergrating spatial and socio economic planning as envisaged in the Constitution (74th
Amendment) Act, 1992.
Promoting resource generating schemes for the urban local bodies to improve their overall
financial position.
The main features of the Revised Guidelines of 8th Five Year Plan are as under:
Towns up to population of five lakhs will be included.
The share of Central and State assistance has been increased and made available as grant.
The State to prepare the urban strategy for the next 10 years and give justification for selecting
priority towns to be included under IDSMT.
In accordance with Constitution (74th) Amendment Act, 1992, IDSMT Scheme is applicable to
those towns where elections to the local bodies are held and elected representatives are in
position.
The State Government to create State Urban Development fund at the State level and
Municipal Revolving Fund at the Town level for continuous sustainable infrastructure
development.
A Sanctioning committee at the State level chaired by the Secretary Urban Development /Local
Govt. (incharge of IDSMT Scheme) will approve the projects.
Institutional finance is reduced to 20 40% through HUDCO / Other Institutional Financing
Agencies.
The component of assistance are enlarged and made more flexible.
Central assistance in the from of grant in aid would be made available in the ratio of 60: 40
(central & State ) for the preparation of Project Reports/Urban Development ( Investment plan) of
IDSMT towns ranging from Rs. 3 to Rs. 6 lakhs depending on the size of the town.
Selection of Towns
1. IDSMT Scheme will be applicable to town / cities with population up to 5 lakhs subject to the
stipulation that 1/3 of the total amount available each year, for the Scheme as a whole will be
allocated to town with less than 50,000 population. While Selecting the towns preference will
be given to headquarter of districts followed by Mandy towns and Industrial growth centers,
tourist places and pilgrim centers etc.
2. The IDSMT Scheme will be applicable to only those towns where elections to the local bodies
have been held and elected bodies are in position.
Chapter 4
Components for Funding

The components for assistance under IDSMT will include works as per City/Town
Development/Master Plans which may have city/townwide significance.
Strengthening of Master Plan road facilities including ring, arterial, bypass/link roads and small
bridges.
Sites and services.
Development of bus/truck terminals.
Construction/upgradation of Master Plan drains including Storm water channels.
Solid waste management.
Development of Market complexes/shopping centers.
Provision of tourist facilities.
Development of City/Town Parks
Street lighting for Master Plan roads.
Slaughter houses.
Major public amenities like Gardens, Playgrounds, Marriage halls, Pay-and-use toilets, etc.
Cycle/Rickshaw stands,
Traffic improvement and management schemes,
Construction of retaining walls and slope stability measures in hill station towns.
Social amenities, specially for the poorer sections.
Funding Pattern
Central assistance and State share provided under IDSMT scheme to the local bodies is in the
form of grant. However, depending on the nature of projects only 25% of the assistance may be
considered as outright grant, while the remaining 75% would be treated as corpus to be repayable
to the revolving fund for self sustaining development.
Under the revised guidelines funding will depend on the size of the town. The sharing pattern
between the Central and State Governments and the Financial Institutions/Other sources is given
(Rs. In lakhs)
Category of Town Project Cost Central State Share HUDCO / Financial
(Populations) Maximum Assistance (Grant) Instit. Loan / Other
(Grant) Sources
A (< 20000) 100 48 32 20 (20%)
B(20,000-50,000) 200 90 60 50(25%)
C(50,000-10,0000) 350 150 100 100 (29%)
D (1-3 Lakhs) 550 210 140 200 (36%)
E (3 5 Lakhs) 750 270 180 300 (40%)
Appraisal and Processing

The State Govt.UTs have to prepare and send detailed project report in the prescribed format and
send to TCPO for scrutiny and to prepare the appraisal reports for the consideration of the
Sanctioning Committee at the State level.
The recommendations of the Sanctioning committee along with consent letters from
HUDCO/Financial Institutions regarding making the Institutional Finance component available will
be submitted by the State Government to the Ministry of Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation
through TCPO for consideration of release of Central assistance.

Chapter 4
Monitoring and Evaluation

The monitoring and evaluation of projects under IDSMT scheme is carried out by TCPO. Quarterly
progress reports should be submitted by the States/UTs/Nodal agencies to TCPO which in turn will
keep the Ministry informed about the progress of the scheme. TCPO will prepare a Status Report
on the IDSMT in consultation with MUD & PA every year.
Progress and Achievements

During Sixth Plan the central assistance amounting to Rs. 63.57 crores was released to 235
towns, while in the 7th Plan the scheme was continued with the provision of Rs. 88.00 crores
for covering additional 145 towns and for giving central assistance to the ongoing schemes of
the towns covered during 6th Five Year Plan, against which Rs. 80.02 crores were released
and 145 additional towns were covered.
During the year 1990-91 and 1991-92 the provision of Rs. 21.00 crores and Rs. 15.00 crores
respectively was made, against which central assistance amounting to Rs. 19.10 crores and
Rs. 13.44 crores was released and the additional towns numbering 77 & 60 were also covered
respectively. Out of 282 towns covered during the 7th Plan period, 1990-91 and 1991-92, 178
towns have availed first instalment only.
During 8th Five Year Plan total of 387 additional towns were covered and central assistance of
Rs. 107.81 crores was released (includes releases made to ongoing towns) against total plan
provision of Rs. 155.00 crores.
During the Ninth Five Year Plan in the financial year 1997-98, a total central assistance of Rs.
26.02 crores has been released 141 onging towns (Rs. 24.22 crores) and 16 additional towns
(Rs. 2.00 crores). Similarly during the financial year 1998-99 Central assistance of Rs. 35.35
crores has been released towards 110 ongoing towns (rs. 29.80 crores) and 25 new towns
(Rs. 5.55 crores). During the financial year 1999-2000 a total Central assistance of Rs. 43.46
crores has been released towards 121 ongoing towns (Rs. 30.00 crores) and 60 additional
towns (Rs. 13.46 crores). During year 2000-01 central assistance of Rs. 56.17 crores was
released to 129 ongoing towns (Rs. 41.82 crores) and 53 new towns (Rs. 14.35 crores) up to
march 2001. During the year 2001 - 2002 (upto 31.3.2002), central assistance of Rs. 76.71
crores was released to 182 ongoing towns and new towns.
Thus, the total release of central assistance amount to Rs. 531.62 crores for 1172 towns till
31.03.2002. The Plan wise number of towns covered and Central assistance released is given
in the following table.
No. of Towns Covered and Central Assistance released (Planwise)

(Rs. In Crores)
S. No. Plan Period (Rs. In crores) No. of Towns C A Released
1. VI Plan 235 63.57
2. VII Plan 145 80.12
3. 1990-91 77 19.10
4. 1991-92 60 13.44
5. 8th Plan 387 107.80
6. 9th Plan
1997 - 98 16 26.02
1998 - 99 25 35.35
1999 - 2000 60 43.46
2000 - 2001 53 56.17
2001 - 2002 (upto 31.03.2002) 114 76.71

Chapter 4
State wise number of towns covered, central assistance released and expenditure reported till
31.03.2002 is given below
TOWNS COVERED, CENTRAL ASSISTANCE RELEASED AND EXPENDITURE REPORTED

UNDER IDSMT SCHEME SINCE 1979 - 80 TILL MARCH 31ST, 2002
(Rs. In Lakh)
SL. NO. STATE TOTAL TOWNS TOWNS C.A. EXPENDITURE
COVERED RELEASED
01 Andhra Pradesh 261 94 4995.64 8185.12
02 Arunachal Pradesh 10 8 143.00 167.52
03 Assam 92 28 1057.77 1089.97
04 Bihar 152 35 1057.38 1089.62
05 Chhattisgarh 95 19 817.67 738.94
06 Goa 31 9 204.00 118.72
07 Gujarat 260 71 3640.47 5328.46
08 Haryana 93 19 1025.50 1252.36
09 Himachal Pradesh 58 15 526.42 796.94
10 Jammu & Kashmir 57 9 597.82 693.57
11 Jharkhand 117 12 343.76 439.58
12 Karnataka 303 93 4562.07 4261.68
13 Kerala 195 40 2028.56 3530.75
14 Madhya Pradesh 366 78 3155.61 3256.41
15 Maharashtra 327 108 6556.00 12652.99
16 Manipur 31 13 425.60 631.52
17 Meghalaya 12 8 287.90 471.87
18 Mizoram 22 9 455.40 765.66
19 Nagaland 9 9 334.99 530.16
20 Orissa 124 56 1993.11 2203.53
21 Punjab 117 33 1489.36 2570.53
22 Rajasthan 219 51 2673.22 4714.47
23 Sikkim 8 10 250.89 327.62
24 Tamil Nadu 466 119 4207.03 5561.88
25 Tripura 18 13 485.21 484.27
26 Uttaranchal 83 6 342.00 113.32
27 Uttar Pradesh 662 113 4333.72 5145.72
28 West Bengal 380 82 3550.54 4998.62
29 Andaman & Nicobar 1 1 92.00 124.00
Island
30 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1 2 112.22 16.38
31 Daman & Diu 2 1 23.00 0.00
32 Lakshadweep 4 1 25.00 0.00
33 Pondicherry 11 7 240.75 159.55
Grand Total 4565 1172 52033.60 72421.73
Note : C.A. - CENTRAL ASSISTANCE

Chapter 4
MEGA CITY PROJECT
The Ministry of Urban Affairs and employment had been receiving representations from various
state governments, Mayers of Metropolitan Cities, etc. for provision of Central Assistance for taking
the problems faced by the Mega/Metro Cities such as Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and
Bangalore. Frequently, Arguments have been advanced that many problems in these cities are due
to massive migration from rural areas and smaller towns all lover the country on which the city
authorities have little control.
Further, these cities are the engines of economic growth and have been greatly contributing to the
national productivity and generation of resources for planned economic development. This ministry
had approached the planning Commission regarding the possibility of Central Assistance for the
four super metros, also drawing attention to the recommendations of the National Commission on
Urbanization in its report "thatDelhi, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras be declared as national cities
and that a fund be created and administered through a specialised institution for the development
of these cities." The NCU had recommended Rs. 500 corers for each of the cities, which might be
allocated during the 7th and 8th Five year plans for the purpose of infrastructure development.
However, the Planning Commission was not in favors of providing funds from the Centre to
particular cities and indicated that any Central assistance to metro development projects should
from part of the State Developmentplan.
However, the planning Commission has been, from time to time, allocating sums on case-to-case
as Special Central Assistance to the State Governments to tackle the problems of infrastructure
development in Mega Cities. Since it was felt that there was need to move to a more structural
form of Central Assistance to Mega Cities, discussion was held between the State Government
representatives, the Planning Commission and the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment in
August, 1992 followed by another in December, 1992. The Centrally-sponsored Scheme of
Infrastructure Development in Mega Cities emerged as a result of these exercises and the
Planning Commission circulated an outline of the Scheme in May 1993. The Ministry of Urban
Affairs and Employment was requested to examine and convey the views on the Scheme/Projects
to the Planning Commission so that the full Planning Commission could consider the proposal. The
Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment conveyed its agreement with the broad parameters of
the Scheme and recommended the project reports submitted by the State Governments in respect
of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The Planning Commission was also requested to consider the
inclusion of Hyderabad and Bangalore considering the nature of activities, present population,
urban growth rate, estimated population in 2000 and cosmopolitan character of these cities and
also their contribution towards the national development/economy. The Mega City Scheme was
cleared by the Planning Commission in a meeting under the chairmanship of Prime Minister.
INDO US FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS REFORM AND EXPANSION PROJECT - Debt Market
Constraints to Developing Commercially Viable Urban Environmental Infrastructure Projects

Despite recent efforts in project development, success in developing and implementing
commercially viable projects has eluded the Urban environmental infrastructure sector more often
than not. A review of experiences in project development reveals a number of constraints. Chief
among them are weaknesses in process management, private sector capacity and risk
management and a lack of clarity in sub-sector priorities. This Project Note describes these and
other constraints and approaches to addressing them.
Chapter 4
Despite recent efforts in project development, success in developing and implementing

commercially viable projects has eluded the Urban environmental infrastructure sector more often
than not. Even when project development has appeared to be adequate, process management and
political commitment have wavered. This, of course, has been true of other sectors such as the
power sector, where new governments have resorted to renegotiations and even cancellations of
contracts which were signed by previous governments. Even in a few cases where projects appear
to be heading for technical and financial closure, project development and negotiations have
generally taken a long time and considerable resources. It is, therefore, necessary to identify the
main constraints which inhibit the process so that these may be addressed.
Weaknesses in Process Management

The entire notion of developing and implementing projects in a commercial format is a relatively
new trend In India. In the case of most Urban sector projects, initial sponsorship must come from
public sector agencies.However, unlike conventional projects, these projects require considerable
efforts in evolving project documentation, developing institutional arrangements for project
structures, securing approvals and clearances from stakeholders, financial structuring, selecting a
contractor, operator or concessionaire and ensuring overall financial closure. A wide range of
actors have to be involved in all these processes, and consistent coordination is necessary. In
addition, there is a constant need for the sponsor to pursue project related activities to mitigate and
minimize risks. Both capacity and legitimacy are required to perform these roles. Typically,
however, most public sector agencies do not have the necessary human resources to carry out
these tasks, and projects fail to take off because process management support has been missing.
It is in recognition
of this critical role that state governments have begun to set up project development facilities and
funds to manage development of projects in commercial formats.
Illustrative Priorities for Selected Sub-Sectors of Urban Infrastructure

Sector Appropriate focus and priorities
Water Supply Long term concessions, performance-based management contracts for entire
and Sanitation distribution systems
Commercialized water utility with corporatization or profit centre basis, with
management contracts (with private sector or community groups) for different
tasks such as reduction of physical leakages, improved consumer services,
billing and collection of water charges, etc.
Community contracts for provision of services in low income neighborhoods
Solid Waste Primary collection through contracts with community organizations and NGOs
Management Secondary collection through performance-based management contracts with
private contractors
Management contracts for collection and disposal of special wastes such as
from hospitals and markets
Safe disposal of solid waste through BOOT contracts
Roads and BOOT arrangements for by-passes and bridges
Public Needs to combine land development with mass transportation related projects
Transportation on a BOT basis
Possibility of corporatization or profit centre basis of public transportation
agencies

Chapter 4
CONSTRAINTS TO CVIP development

Appropriate institutional arrangements and clarity for stakeholder consultations is also important,
however there are no fora through which to provide for these effectively. Consultations are likely to
be ad-hoc in nature, and while Urban planning legislation generally requires dialogue, the
processes usually followed are not very effective.
Lack of Clarity in Sub-Sector Priorities

There is a lack of clarity in appropriate models and approaches in Urban infrastructure sub-sectors
such as water, sanitation, solid waste, roads and public transportation, area development and
management improvements. Commercial structuring will require different approaches in each area,
and there is need for debate at the national level and guidelines for each sub-sector.While
suggestions in this regard have begun to emerge, these need to be reflected in a clear policy
statement first at the national level, which could then be adapted by state governments to suit the
local contexts. For example, based on recent reports, the table above highlights possible priorities
in selected sub-sectors.
Risk Management
In view of the lack of any strong regulatory frameworks, the burden of risk management largely falls
on contract documents. While contractual documents could handle the risks during construction
and operations period, there are considerable risks at the project development stage itself. This is
evident from the number of projects which have been abandoned, due to either inadequate project
preparation or political exigencies. These development stage risks will need to be handled through
better project preparation and process management. Other risks can be handled through
development of regulatory frameworks and greater attention to contract development. Both
deserve critical and urgent attention. An important aspect in risk management relates to the need
to identify the party best able to handle the risks and develop cost-effective risk mitigation
strategies. The Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment (MOUAE), along with some state
governments, could support these developers through the proposed national policy reform group
and the project support facility.
Detailed risk assessment and mitigation measures will need to form part of the project
development process. Water supply and sewerage projects with PSP will require a risk
management plan for the entire project period, from development and construction to operations.
One of the key areas in this regard is to develop alternatives to the blanket state government
guarantees which have been routinely used for financing Urban infrastructure projects. Alternatives
such as escrow arrangements along with the necessary reserve funds and performance
guarantees, such as for raw water quantity and quality from a state government under a water
concession, need
to be explored further. The Tiruppur Project, for example, has provided for such
a facility. The Government of Tamil Nadu has commit-ted to establish a water shortage period fund
through a non-lien account with an initial corpus equivalent to six months revenues. In addition, the
risks of receivables to Tiruppur Municipality for the charges for bulk water supply are mitigated
through the escrow account charged to the New Tiruppur Area development Corporation Limited
(the Special Purpose Vehicle created for the project); a revolving security deposit equivalent to one
month receivables; and an irrevocable letter of credit from the municipality of the same amount.

Chapter 4
The bulk of rev-enues for the project come from industrial users, who will also provide a revolving
security deposit equivalent to three months receivables.
Private Sector Capacity and the Procurement Process

Commercial project structuring will, in most cases, re-quire some form of private sector
participation, at least in the implementation arrangements. The entire idea of PSP rests on the
assumption that there exist domestic (or even international) private sector firms with interest and
capacity to work in this sector. A systematic assessment of private sector capacity and the effort
needed to de-velop itfor different sectors and for different forms of private sector participationis
necessary. Based on a more casual analysis, it appears that while there may be local firms
capable of taking on construc-tion activities, there are only a few who can take on large scale
integrated turnkey contracts. Most domestic firms, however, have very limited, if any, experience
on the operations side of water and sewerage systems. This is mainly because there has never
been a demand for such services. Only a few international firms have opened offices in India and
possess or are ready to take on op-erations-related contracts in India. Strengthening the ca-pacity
of Indian firms through appropriate joint ventures, in addition to training support, is necessary. The
role of the private sector in services such as water supply and sewerage also needs to be
reviewed. More participatory arrangements with involvement of user groups in the planning, design
and implementation process need to be evolved. This necessitates that traditional construction or
even operator firms take a far more developmental approach with greater efforts toward com-
munity participation. There is also a lack of clarity in procurement process. No clear benchmarks
and guidelines exist and, therefore, the process has varied significantly in terms of the bidding
process, extent of preparedness of sponsor agencies and bid evaluation criteria and process.
Often, de-spite the competitive process, many bidders have ex-pressed doubts about the
authenticity of selection. In-adequate preparation, especially for PSP type projects,increases bid
preparation costs, and risks due to inad-equate information tend to inflate bid prices. An emerging
trend in concession type arrangements for water and sewerage services is to work through a
memo-randum of understanding (MOU). This route has been adopted in Karnataka and in Andhra
Pradesh. It must be understood that if a proper regulatory framework is in place for water tariffs
and service standards, and ad-
equate disclosure norms can be applied to the conces-sionaire, it will be possible to adopt this
route meaning- fully. This would be similar to the licensee system under the Central Electricity Act.
It must be recognized, however, that without such a framework, it will not be pos-sible to evolve a
meaningful system. This framework would also require a provision for com-petitive bidding for any
procurement of major construc-tion activities. In such cases, initial selection of the MOUpartner
may be done through a preferred bidder route.This is often referred to as a beauty parade as the
ini-tial selection is based on technical and financial capacity,as well as operational experience
based on a businessjudgement. It is likely that such processes, if carefully supported through state
governments, will provide use-ful local demonstration cases.
The Need for a Champion

The inability of some infrastructure projects to take off is due to the lack of a champion to guide
the process through. It is common among public agencies to find that officers in charge of project
development are trans-ferred half way through the process. This increases project development
risks to a great extent. The champion for a particular project may come from any of a number of
different stakeholder groups. For example, a public agency sponsor may be an elected
representative or an administrative officer. In other cases, the champion
Chapter 4
Inadequate Institutional Arrangements

The lack of commercial orientation among authorities charged with service provision also
constrains project development. For example, under the 74th Constitutional Amendment, in most
states provision of water supply and sanitation services vests with the local or municipal
authorities, and a municipal department is usually charged with this activity. However, there is no
clear link among investments, costs and revenues from the service. Further, there is a lack of
clarity of objec-tives, and efficiency in service provision is hampered by political interventions in
day-to-day functioning. Tariff policies are often skewed in the name of reaching the poor, who
receive hardly any municipal services. A review of institutional arrangements, especially for ser-
vices such as water, sanitation and public transporta-tion. The change in this regime will require a
move towards agencies which, under a contract to the municipality, can operate as a business
entity. Such activities may begin by developing separate departments which op-erate on a profit
centre basis. In the future, corporatization of such agencies may then be explored. This will,
however, also require that strong and well thought-out regulatory arrangements be developed. In
most states, there will also need to be some reform of the state water and sewerage boards.
Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board, for example, has decided to explore the
possibility of corporatization, along with the necessary regulatory framework. While the MOUAE
needs to develop alternative models, some of the more reform-minded state governments will need
to explore development and implementation of such institutional reforms.
The mission of the Indo-US FIRE(D) Project is to institutionalize the delivery of commercially viable
Urban environmental infrastructure and services at the local, state and national levels. Since 1994,
the Project has been working to sup-port the development of demonstration projects and of a
sustainable Urban infrastructure finance system. Now, the Project is also pursuing this mission
through:
Expansion of the roles of the private sector, NGOs and CBOs in the development, delivery,
operation and maintenance of Urban environmental infrastructure;
Increased efficiency in the operation and maintenance of existing water supply and sewerage
systems;
Strengthened financial management systems at the local level;
Development of legal and regulatory frame-works at the state level;
Continued implementation of the 74th Constitutional Amendment; and
Capacity-building through the development of an Urban Management Training Network.
THE SUSTAINABLE CITIES PROGRAMME

The Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) is a joint UN-HABITAT/UNEP facility for building
capacities in urban environmental planning and management. The programme is founded on
broad-based cross-sectoral and stakeholder participatory approaches. It contributes to promoting
urban environmental governance processes, as a basis for achieveing sustainable urban growth
and development. Currently the SCP operates in 20 main demonstration and 25 replicating cities
around the world, including cities in China, Chile, Egypt, Ghana, India, Kenya, Korea, Malawi,
Nigeria, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Tunisia and Zambia.
Preparatory activities are underway in Lesotho, South Africa, Thailand and Vietnam, whilst
countries such as Bahrein,Cameroon, Iran, Kenya and Rwanda have shown interest

Chapter 4
The SCP Promotes...

Sharing environment-development information and expertise
Understanding and accepting environment-development interaction
Building environmental planning and management capacities
Promoting systemwide decision-making
Stakeholder based development prioritisation, strategy and action planning
Managing environmental resources and risks for achieving sustainable development
Leveraging resources for lasting change
Building inter-agency partnerships, facilitating global exchange of experiences and
know-how
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF CHENNAI

Partners
Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA)
Housing and Urban Development Department
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat)
International Centre for Sustainable Cities (ICSC)
Background and Objectives

Within the context of the Sustainable Cities Programme, the project aims to support
environmentally sustainable development and growth for the city of Madras. This is by making a
process of participation and partnership between a range of interest groups and institutions.
Environmental conditions in Madras have decreased over the past decades as population growth
and increased economic activity has put great pressure on those institutions responsible for urban
management. In many cases, they lack the human and material resources to respond to growing
needs. Given the complexity of the issues at hand, the project will not only develop the capacity of
the public sector, but will actively promote the involvement of the private, of NGO's and community
organisations. The aim is to produce appropriate investment packages for the growing city.
Activities
The process of sustainable urban growth for Madras will be achieved through the identification and
continuing development of environmental planning and management strategies. Primary activities
will include:
promotion of planned development
planning process
building of institutional capacity
development of capital investment projects.
This will be achieved through the development of an Environmental Profile for the city. This will
lead to the making of broad-based working groups to make issue-specific action plans. A key
outcome of this activity will be a series of investment packages for possible support by local,
central and outside agencies. In addition, an analysis of the roles, functions and capacities of key
institutions and interest groups will be undertaken. This is part of a process to develop more
effective participation of public, private and popular sectors in the process of environmental
management.

Chapter 4
Results
The project will provide metropolitan Madras with an improved and strengthened environmental
planning and management capacity. Collaborative processes will identify and prioritise key
environmental issues within a number of specific action plans, resulting in:
an improvement in the availability and efficient use of natural resources
a reduction in openness to environmental hazards for the urban population
an improvement in the process of providing basic urban services and infrastructure facilities,
especially in low-income settlements
strengthening of local capacities to plan and manage sustainable urban development.

Chapter 5
RURAL ISSUES IN INDIA
Introduction
The third world countries are destined to be termed as rural even up to the 21st century even
though urbanisation has increased in developing countries at a faster rate during the last decades.
India with its overwhelmingly rural population (76.27 percent; 665.28 million) residing in about 6
lakh villages (571441,1981 census) will remain rural with a dominating rural environment.
Even rurality prevails in and penetrates, through the core of the cities and metropolises.
Some of the issues pertaining to the rural environment which determine the quality of life
and environment are-
management of land resource especially related to agriculture, water resource management, rural
energy demand;
physical infrastructure-rural roads, minor flood embankments, rural water supply, sanitation, rural
markets; social infrastructure - family planning, rural health, rural education.
Rural Trend
Agriculture, being the principal traditional occupation of the people in the country, plays a vital role
in the economy of the rural societies. But the rapid population growth in recent years, has
unprecedented pressure
on the existing cultivated land as production has to account for not only the demand of the
population but also for meeting unexpected adversities such as drought, floods etc. Application of
fertilizers, use of improved seeds may only hold good as long as they do not impact the
environment in the long run.
FAO has rightly put up that " At the turn of the century the increase of the yield per unit area will be
enhanced by 60 percent with the addition of 26 per cent area in cultivation and 14 percent by crop
intensification. Thus, the problem will be that the increase in yield by unit area means the over
exploitation of cultivated area by way of chemical fertilization, pesticides, intensive cultivation
without rotation system. Therefore, all the methods of modernising agriculture, may lead to the
overall imbalance of the ecosystem with adding more pesticides, unidentified crop/plant diseases,
chemical reactions in soil, and declining general productivity. All these require ameliorating efforts
with judicious planning in protecting the ecosystem."
The Census of India ,1981, adopted certain criteria for treating a place as urban. From the
definition of urban areas, rural areas can be identified.
Places with human habitation of 5,000 and below,
with agriculture (and allied) as the main economic activity, and
with a density of population less than 400 per sq. km.
may be described as rural areas.
However, some habitations with more than 5,000 populations are also classified as rural in view of
agriculture being the main economic activity of a vast majority of population in that area. A small
village is described as a hamlet and a group of hamlets is known as a village (revenue village with
a panchayat ). There are 557,139 villages in India, each with a population ranging between 500
and 10,000. The areas covered by all the villages are considered as rural areas. The average
village consists of a few hundred acres of land supporting about fifty to two hundred families. The
distribution of villages according to population size is as follows

Chapter 5
Distribution of Villages according to Population Size

Population Size Inhabited Villages Percentage of total inhabited
villages
Below 500 2,70,796 48.60
500-999 1,35,928 24.40
1,000-1,999 94,486 16.96
2,000-4,999 46,893 08.42
5,000-9999 7,202 01.29
Above 10,000 1,834 00.33
TOTAL 5,57,139 100.00
Note: Excludes Assam Population Source: Indian agriculture in brief,1985
Source: Census of India 1981,Series 1,India,Paper 2 of 1981
It is clear from the table that nearly 50 per cent of villages are with a population below 500. Villages
with 10,000 and above constitute less than one per cent of the total number of villages in India.
Predominance of rural population in India over a long period can be seen from the growth trend of
rural population vs. urban population.
Relative Growth of Urban and Rural Population

Year Population in millions Percentage of total population
Rural Urban Rural Urban
1901 270.3 25.6 89.0 11.0
1911 220.4 25.6 89.6 10.4
1921 216.6 27.7 88.7 11.3
1931 237.8 33.0 87.8 12.2
1941 265.5 43.6 85.9 14.1
1951 288.2 61.6 82.4 17.6
1961 347.2 77.6 81.7 18.3
1971 421.9 107.0 79.8 20.2
1981 502.0 156.2 76.3 23.7
Note: 1981 data excludes the population of Assam and Jammu & Kashmir
Source: Census of India 1981,Series 1, India, and Paper 2 of 1981
A vast majority of our population still continues to be rural although the rate of urbanisation has
showed a marked increase. Agriculture is still the major source of living and employment. Villages
continue to provide a source of living to many without much improvement in the living conditions of
rural people.
The average standard of living of people in rural areas is still low as judged from different socio-
economic indicators.

Chapter 5
In 1979-80, 48.4 per cent of the population in the country was below the poverty line while in rural
areas 50.7 per cent of the population were below the poverty line as against 40.3 per cent in urban
areas.
As per the 1981 census, while the all India literacy percentage was 36.2, the literacy percentage in
rural areas was only 29.6 as against 57.4 in urban areas, whereas womens literacy rate was only
17.96 percent (rural women form 77 percent of the female population in India) as against 47.82 per
cent in urban areas.
Crude birth rate in 1980 per 1000 population in rural areas was 35 as against 27.6 in urban areas
and the national figure at 33.5.
Crude death rate per 1000 population in rural areas was 13.1 as against 7.3 in urban areas and
11.8 in all-India.
In 1980, per 1000 live birth, the infant mortality in rural areas was 124 as against 65 in urban areas
and 11.8 in all India.
The National Building Organisation (NBO) estimated that the housing shortage in 1981 was around
21 million dwelling units (16 million in rural areas and 5 million in urban areas.)
According to the Seventh plan report about 36 percent of the villages in the country are still without
any road connection and as much as 65 percent without any all weather road.
MULTI LEVEL PLANNING IN INDIA

A country like India with vast diversities needs to have an effective planning, and this can be
justified through multi-level planning. It is basically an exercise in the decentralization of the
planning process. The centralized type of planning cannot adequately take care of all the
requirements of different territorial and sectoral levels of planning process. A national plan is not
adequate as it covers only broad categories at national level, while great spatial variations exist in
levels of development, resource development etc.
Therefore, we have a national plan and lower level plans or a multi-level plan. The levels, lower
than the national plan in multi-level planning could be state, district and block level plans.
Institutionally, multi-level planning has pegged down to the administrative unit
A multi-level planning system has to be designed for the specific situations and cannot be
generalized. The multi-level planning operation represents a system approach in planning. The
systems approach implies that there are sub systems within a system
The concept of multi level planning incorporates the principle that proper decision making is
possible at any level if the strategy at each level is determined after a careful consideration of the
potentials, needs and limitation at the next higher as well as the next lower levels of planning
Multi level planning is two-way approach, requiring many preparatory efforts from both ends. The
higher level gives macro framework indicators and guideline for planning. The lower levels must
feed the higher level with information and has to prepare from below.
The various processes involved in multi-level planning are
Determination of approach levels of decision making with reference to various activities
Organizing interaction between different levels in terms of exchange of information and
interactive consultations of different stages of plan formulation and appraisal
Nesting of plans at different levels and integrating them into a unified frame work. Nesting
implies securing both the balances within the plans drawn up for different levels and also
their harmonization. Securing integration within plans at different levels implies achieving
balance at three levels i.e. sectoral, spatial and operational

Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ekistics: An Introduction to the Science of Human Settlements (1968) CA Doxiadis
1. An Introduction to Town and Country Planning, John Ratcliffe, Hutchinson 1981
2. Text book of Town Planning, A.Bandopadhyay, Books and Allied, Calcutta 2000
3. The Urban Pattern City planning and Design, Arthur B. Gallion and Simon Eisner, Van
Nostrand Reinhold company
4. Town Planning, Rangwala, Charotar publishing house
5. Town Planning, G.K.Hiraskar
6. Urban and Regional planning, Rame Gowda
7. Town and country planning and Housing, N.V.Modak, V.N.Ambedkar, orient longman, 1971
Doxiadis.org

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HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

4. URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 8

1. C.L.Doxiadis, Ekistics, 'An Introduction to the Science of Human Settlements', Hutchinson,

HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - GENERAL

ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

GROWTH AND DECAY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - GENERAL

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Socio-economic and socio-cultural changes, as well as developments in science and technology

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

EVOLUTION Of HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

1. Primitive non-organised human settlements (started with the evolution of man.)

Primitive human settlements

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Static urban settlements

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Dynamic urban settlement

Dynamic settlements, created as a result of an industrial technological revolution, multiplying in

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Dynametropolis, continuing its course towards becoming a megalopolis.

Universal human settlement: Ecumenopolis

Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

SIR EBENEZER HOWARD (1850-1928)

In 1899, the garden city association was formed.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

FOLK WORK PLACE

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

The Outlook Tower Interpreters House - Index Museum - Sociological Laboratory

PATRICK GEDDES IN INDIA

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

To call the overgrown metropolis, aimlessly expanding, megalopolis is to give legitimacy to a

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

They may be classified under four heads:

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

LA VILLE CONTEMPORAINE (CONCENTRIC CITY)

1. Decongestion of the centers of cities

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

The background of ville contemporaine : philosophy of Le Corbusier

PLAN VOISIN 1925

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

LA VILLE RADIEUSE 1930 THE RADIANT CITY

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

C.I.A.M. (CONGRESS INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE MODERNE) 1928 FRANCE

The international congress of modern architects subjected the city to re-examination

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

THE AMERICAN ARCHITECTS AND PLANNERS

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

LE CORBUSIERS MASTER PLAN

BASIC PLANNING COMPONENTS

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

THE BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

ADMINISTRATION & EDUCATION

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

SCHEMATIC DESIGN CONTROL

Notes on Human settlements Planning Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

the building or at any rate do not mar its beauty.