Cop Module 2

COMPUTER OPERATIONS & PACKAGES
DEFINE A COMPUTER
An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to
accept, process & output data/information for use by the operator.
A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored
program, generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage,
arithmetic, logic, and control units.
A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including
numerous arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention
during a run.
Note 1: This definition, distinguishes a computer from similar devices, such as
hand-held calculators and certain types of control devices.
Note 2: Computers have been loosely classified into microcomputers,
minicomputers, and mainframe computers, based on their size. These
distinctions are rapidly disappearing as the capabilities of even the smaller units
have increased. Microcomputers now are usually more powerful and versatile
than the minicomputers and the mainframe computers were a few years ago.
DEFINE A PROGRAM
A set of instructions that tells the computer what to do & what not to do.
Computer program:
A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a

computer follows in processing data, performing an operation, or solving a
logical problem. See also software.
A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or
indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain result.
A set of coded instructions that cause one or more tasks to be performed by the
computer when the program is executed.
A set of instructions in a language understood by a computer; used to direct the

operations of a computer.
STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Input unit
Output unit
Main memory
Central processing unit [ALU & CU]
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DRAW A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
CPU
ALU
INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

UNIT UNIT UNIT
MEMORY
UNIT
BACKING
STORAGE
The CPU consists of the ALU & CU
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.

ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit.
The mathematical circuitry necessary to perform the operations of a computer
Performs arithmetic & logic operations on data.
It also stores intermediate & final results of arithmetic operations.
CONTROL UNIT
Directs the operations of all the other units by providing timing & control signals.
Controls & coordinates the operations of a computer system.
MEMORY UNIT
Stores the address code of either an instruction or a data word.
Stores information from the ALU or from the input unit.
Information can be read from the memory into the ALU or into the output unit.
OUTPUT UNIT
Used to transfer data from the computer to the outside world.
Output devices are directed by the control unit and can receive data from memory or the ALU, which are then put into suitable form
for external use
INPUT UNIT
Used to take information & data that are external, into the computer and put into the memory unit or the ALU.
DEFINE HARDWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and the
software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish tasks.
DEFINE SOFTWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some
purpose.
Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer
hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software.
Data software exists solely for its eventual use by other program software.
Type of computers/computer categories
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Supercomputers
Mainframes
Minicomputers
Microcomputers
Supercomputers
Describes a category of extremely powerful computers specifically designed for high-speed numeric
computation.
The computers can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
High capacity computers capable of executing instructions faster than main frames & are extremely
expensive.
The speed of executing these instructions generates extreme heat, and therefore the computers require
special cooling system to operate.
Uses include weather forecasting, scientific and mathematical research, and design of high-speed
aircraft and space exploration.
Mainframes
Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and usually have one or
more central processors with faster instruction processing speeds.
They typically process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
Mainframes have large primary storage capacities.
Many mainframe models have the ability to service hundreds of users at once.
Some commercial organizations require large amounts of data to be processed in the list possible time.
Mainframes allow one to perform such functions
Uses of mainframes include: data warehousing, commercial airline ticketing & reservations, government
record keeping & financial servicing
Application categories: Host computers, Database servers, and Transaction processors.
Minicomputers
Are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most
mainframe computer systems.
Serve in industrial process-control manufacturing plant computers and play a major role in CAM.
Also take the form of powerful technical workstations for CAD applications.
Often used as front-end processors/computers to help mainframe computers control data
communications networks with large numbers of data entry terminals.
Also used as powerful Network servers to help manage large interconnected LANs that tie together many
workstations
Downsizing is a term that was commonly used in the early nineties when smaller computers, capable of
much of the functions of mainframes, began capturing the computer market.
Minicomputers are suitable for mid-sized companies that require the computing power of mainframes to
be efficient and at the same time be cost effective.
Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions, supermarket chains and
departmental stores.
Application categories: Network servers, and Application systems
Microcomputers
We refer to a microcomputer as a personal computer or PC.
Microcomputers categorized by size include: Desktops, Laptops for example.
Most microcomputers are single user computers.
The late nineties have seen a huge influx of microcomputers whose sole aim was to provide affordable
computing power to the general public.
They are now used as Network servers. The demand for microcomputers and the changes in microchip
technology have produced cheaper computers that are affordable to students and the general public.
Can support CAD.
Users of microcomputers range from students, who use them for word processing, to a salesperson.
Who depend on the microcomputer for information?
Application categories: PCs, Network servers.
Network servers are powerful microcomputers that controls & coordinates communication & resource
sharing in LANs of interconnected PCs & other devices.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Social and Economic Effects of IT
Before the industrial revolution nearly everyone worked in agriculture. Communication was by
word of mouth or paper. When the industrial revolution came, life became more complicated.
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People started to work in factories and the factories needed offices to deal with administration.
The amount of paperwork needed to trade started to increase. As time went on, technology
was used to develop machines such as the typewriter, telephone and telex machines and
eventually, the computer. We are now in an 'information age' and our society is very
dependent on information storage and communication. Many are now using some form of
information technology to help them.
Is information technology a good thing?
Some arguments for and against IT are given below. You may agree or disagree with these.
Arguments in favour
The jobs replaced by computers are the rather mundane ones. People are free to
do more interesting tasks.
Higher productivity enables people to work fewer hours and yet have the same
standard of living. A greater amount of leisure time will improve people's quality of
life.
Other countries make use of IT. If we did not, our goods and services would
become uncompetitive and there would be even more unemployment.
There are many tasks that would be impossible without the use of IT. Air-traffic
control, credit cards, space travel and medical research are just some examples.
New jobs are being created by the introduction of IT e.g. programming, network
managing etc.
Arguments against
Life without IT is slower and less stressful.
Computers are cheaper than people are so if a computer can do a job then it will
lead to higher unemployment.
The new jobs being created by the use of IT are only for highly skilled and
qualified people.
The people who did the boring repetitive jobs now done by computers no longer
have a job.
The storage of personal data held on computer has eroded people's privacy.
The gap will be widened between those countries able to afford the new
technologies and those that can't.
Changing Employment Patterns

With the introduction of computer controlled technology employment patterns have changed
considerably. Changes include the following:
Robots are now performing many of the manual tasks such as assembly work and
paint spraying in factories.
Many industrial processes operate 24 hours a day and are continually being
monitored and controlled by computers.
There are fewer paper-based systems in offices. Some jobs such as filing clerks no
longer exist. New jobs involving computers have been created.
More and more people work form home, with the advantage of no travelling and
the freedom of being able to live in any part of the country (or the world for that
matter).
Computers are sometimes used to monitor the performance of their users. For
instance, in supermarkets they can tell the management about the number of
customers dealt with per hour or how many items are passed through the scanner
in a day. Order entry clerks and airline booking clerks can have their work
similarly monitored.
Environmentally friendly computers

Green computers (not the colour!) are computers that have been built considering the
needs of the environment. For instance, they use less electricity than ordinary computers.
One way that they do this is that they power down the monitor and disk drives if the computer
has been inactive for a certain period of time. It is claimed that by the end of the century
computers will account for 10% of the world's power supply. Laser printers, however, are not
very environmentally friendly; they churn out a nasty gas called ozone (it's only useful in the
upper layers of the atmosphere), they use a lot of power and in addition destroy forests with
all the paper they use. If less paper were used it would help conserve the rain forests. This is
one of the ideas behind the development of the paperless offices.
Computer game addiction
Some children are addicted to computer games, sometimes playing them for more than 30
hours per week. Many experts are worried that this solitary activity is affecting the social and
educational development of addicted children. Many computer games do not mimic reality and
often involve simulated violence. Other people are worried that many children are becoming
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'couch potatoes', and are not involved in any physical activity and do not interact very well
with adults or people their own age.
The shape of things to come
The merger of three technologies: the silicon chip, fibre optics and satellite communications
has led to the concept of the information superhighway. This is a global network of
computers capable of moving huge amounts of information via satellite and cable. The digital
revolution is likely to change all our lives considerably. By pressing a key at any time of the
day you will be able to get information in a suitable form on demand anywhere in the world.
The information is not restricted to business: community information and learning data will be
provided. At the moment your television set is restricted to a few channels (more if you are
lucky enough to have satellite or cable). In the near future your television will be the gateway
to fibre optic network. This will bring hundreds of channels, video on demand, home shopping,
home banking and access to millions of data banks. Trips to the library to find out information
for a GCSE project will be a thing of the past. You will be able to get to the information you
want quickly and in the comfort of your own home.
Environmental, ethical, moral and social issues raised by information technology
Environmental issues
Reduced energy consumption - Computers now control many of the heating
systems in offices and factories so it is possible for only the rooms that are being
used to be heated. This can save huge amounts of energy.
Reduced wastage in industrial processes - There are many process control
systems used in our factories and because these are more accurate, there is less
wastage, thus saving valuable resources.
Saving trees - The use of the electronic office and EDI has led to paper being
almost eliminated in many offices and this means that fewer trees need to be
felled. So not only are the trees saved but the energy that went into the making of
the paper is also saved.
Reducing car pollution - Teleworking (working at home using information
technology) means that some people no longer have to travel to the office to
work. This reduces petrol consumption and car pollution.
Ethical, moral and social issues

Software theft - It could be said that the use of personal computers has made
many users into thieves. How many people could honestly say that they have
purchased all the software on their hard disks? As you can see from the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act, 1989, it is a criminal offence to copy or steal software.
Hacking - Hacking means gaining illegal access to someone else's computer
system. Many people see this type of thing as a challenge and not as an illegal
activity.
Privacy - Many people see the Data Protection Act as inadequate, since in 1984,
when the act was made law, there weren't anything like the number of personal
computers and communications networks that there are today. Some people are
totally unaware of the act and think that it only applies to large companies or
organisations.
Job losses - Is it right to develop new systems in the knowledge that staff will
inevitably be made redundant? Should we put shareholders' dividends and profit
before people? These are difficult questions and ones, which need to be addressed.
Everyone has his or her own opinion on this.
Social considerations for a cashless society

A future without any form of cash is unlikely but over the last ten years the use of cash for
making payments has reduced considerably. We will now look at the advantages and
disadvantage of a cashless society.
Advantages
It is far more convenient not to have to use cash. Mortgage and loan repayments,
gas, electricity and phone bills are paid automatically so you don't need to
remember to pay them.
You no longer need to take large sums of money out of the building society or
bank to pay for expensive items: the risk of being robbed is reduced.
You don't have to queue at the bank, building society or cash machine to get
money out.
Credit cards allow people to buy goods and then decide whether to pay for them at
the end of the month or obtain them on credit, paying a proportion each month.
Disadvantages
Credit is normally given only to people who are working and have a steady source
of income, so certain people won't be able to get it.
It is possible for people to spend more than they can really afford so they can
easily get into debt.
More information is kept about individuals. Inevitably some of this will be incorrect
and lead to people wrongly being refused cash or credit cards.
It is harder for people to keep track of how much they have spent, since
statements are usually sent only once a month, although statements can usually
be obtained more frequently if they are requested.
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Crime prevention and detection

Crime prevention
IT can be used to help prevent crime and the systems employed include the
following.
Speed camera systems and camera systems, which detect cars jumping red lights,
deter people from offending.
Computer controlled camera systems deter violent crime in many city centres.
Tagging of offenders means that they are less likely to commit crimes whilst on
bail.
Tagging systems on bikes, cars and other property reduces the chances of them
being stolen.
Computer controlled house security systems deter some burglars.
Crime detection
IT can be used to catch criminals and some of the ways it can do this are as
follows:
The Police National Computer (PNC) is used to hold details of all crimes committed
and criminals.
The National Criminal Intelligence System is a computer system used to piece
together information about individual criminals and their illegal activities. The
computer can interact with the data supplied by Interpol, the PNC, Customs and
Excise, the Inland Revenue, and the bank and building society computers. This
system is used to gather material on organised crimes such as drug smuggling.
DNA profiling and fingerprinting systems enables valuable, and often conclusive,
evidence to be collected.
Police headquarters computers for each police force are used in the day-to-day
administration of all the usual police work.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF COMPUTERS

Changes to existing methods of production:
E.g. the replacement of skilled & semi-skilled labour by microprocessor-controlled systems in manufacturing.
Electronic scabbing This is the electronic transfer or switching of duties from one geographical area to another e.g.
[From one country to another]
Development of new products and services
2. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF COMPUTERS

Changes in the working environment
Changes in employment. retraining
E.g. the need for constant retraining of staff as existing packages are upgraded and new ones are published
3. PRIVACY AND INTEGRITY OF DATA

Data protection legislation
Good practice in relation to the collection and storage of any personal data by companies. The Data Protection Act 1998 sets out how
data must be handled. Visit the Information Commissioner's web site at www.dataprotection.gov.uk for further details.
Data Security/Protection
Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural hazards, deliberate corruption or destruction of
software & hardware by malicious or terrorist acts, illegal access to data by hackers [people who break into the system] &
accidental destruction of data by hardware or software failure [operator error].
Measures to ensure Data security

Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is coded before transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have
the key & code to decrypt the data on the receiving end. The process of transforming a message in ordinary
language i.e. plain text to produce what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication
line/link. The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message.
Definitions of decryption on the Web:
Process of "unscrambling" an encrypted or coded message.
The process of transforming cipher text into plain
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Any process to convert cipher text back into plaintext.
The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the process of converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the
opposite of encryption.
Definitions of encryption on the Web:
Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to prevent anyone except the intended recipient from reading that
data. There are many types of data encryption, and they are the basis of network security. Common types include Data Encryption Standard and
public-key encryption.
A way of coding the information in a file or e-mail message so that if a third party intercepts it as it travels over a network it cannot be read. Only the
persons sending and receiving the information have the key and this makes it unreadable to anyone except the intended persons.
A procedure that renders the contents of a message or file unintelligible to anyone not authorized to read it.
Means the use of an algorithmic process to transform data into a form in which there is a low probability of assigning meaning without use of a
confidential process or key.
The process of coding data so that a specific code or key is required to restore the original data, used to make transmissions secure from
unauthorized reception.
Definitions of cipher text on the Web:
Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content (ie, its meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
Date that has been encrypted, Cipher text is unreadable until it has been converted into plain text (decrypted) with a key.
Text that has been encrypted
Encrypted information transformed from a plain text document or message

Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC or network
through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to and from the PC and comparing
the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any data that does not meet that criteria is blocked.
Firewalls also process encrypted data. They verify the validity of the user. User would require access to the
firewall before they can transmit data. Latest firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets
of data that is sent through the network. Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on
the data being transmitted.
Definitions of firewall on the Web:
A firewall is a hardware or software solution to enforce security policies. In the physical security analogy, a firewall is equivalent to a door lock on a
perimeter door or on a door to a room inside of the building - it permits only authorized users such as those with a key or access card to enter. A
firewall has built-in filters that can disallow unauthorized or.
Is a type of proxy server with additional features. Firewalls are usually placed between the users of a LAN and the Internet (some ISPs also use
firewalls). The firewall can be set to screen for incoming viruses and only allow access to certain resources on the Internet as a security measure. It
can also cache previously visited sites to avoid excessive use of bandwidth.
Usernames & Passwords-Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to the data or
computer rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is deleted, the person with
the password will be reported as the culprit through logging. Passwords can be forgotten. Widely used by
companies to protect their equipment & data
Authorized entry to computer installations-Most installations have card readers, voice recognition systems
or keypads on the doors that prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
BACK UP
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Copying or saving data to a different location. One can restore the backup copy if data is lost or damaged.
To create a copy of a disks contents on another location for safe keeping. Since hard drives are not infallible, it is
recommended that you backup its contents regularly.
To copy files to a second medium (a disk or tape) as a precaution in case the first medium fails. One of the cardinal rules
in using computers is. Back up your files regularly. Even the most reliable computer is apt to break down eventually. Many
professionals recommend that you make two, or even three, backups of all your files. To be especially safe, you should
keep one backup in a different location from the others. ...
DISASTER PLANNING
Many companies have comprehensive emergency plans so that even after suffering a severe:
Bomb
Fire damage
Natural disaster, the company can be up and running within a day or two.
A disaster recovery service/programme provides for example

Office space
Computer facilities
Phones
Desks, at an emergency BACKUP site.
A completely up to date copy of the company Database may be permanently maintained at this site with all transactions being transmitted
to this remote site updating the database, copying etc.
The data should be backed up/stored to one or more media to ensure recovery in case of disaster.
The back up procedures and media should be tested periodically to assess their effectiveness.
Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:
The documented policies and procedures intended to either prevent damage, minimize damage, or recover from damage to record materials.
Definitions of disaster recovery plan on the Web:
The document that defines the resources, actions, tasks and data required to manage the business recovery process in the event of a business
interruption. The plan is designed to assist in restoring the business process within the stated disaster recovery goals.
Part of an overall contingency plan. The plan for a process whereby an enterprise would restore any loss of data in the event of fire, vandalism,
natural disaster, or system failure.
As information technology systems, networks, and organizations become complex, disaster recovery becomes more essential to the continuity of
companies worldwide. The more complex an organization is, the more financial loss it can incur in the event of a disaster. Although some companies
can spend up to 25% of its information technology budget on disaster recovery, it is a worthwhile cost to minimize the downtime and reduce potential
losses.
MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS
THREAT IMPACT
Hackers Security is breached
Viruses Deletion of files

The computer system may fail to work [corrupt the computer]
Reformatting of documents

Hardware failure You are grounded

You cannot access the system
Data is incorrectly & incompletely processed
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Software failure Operations are grounded
Physical threats Absolute destruction
Electrical faults Loss of data

Disk crushes
Damage of hardware
Disruption of communication if it is a telephone system
Computer Abuse Using the computer to carry out unintended purposes e.g.
playing games
Computer time
Disgruntled employees Can destroy the information system

Can corrupt the information system
Computer crime Illegal use or disruption to data services

A program to steal money
Stealing software
Stealing computer memory leads to poor performance
Stealing of hardware
User errors [intentionally] or [unintentionally] Deletion of data

Corruption of data such that you end up getting wrong results
Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:
The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability, confidentiality, or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes
fraud, embezzlement, theft, malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and misappropriation
Definitions of hacking on the Web:
Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an information system or network. Hacking means illegally
accessing other people's computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the network or computer systems.
PREVENTION OF THESE THREATS
THREAT CONTROL
Natural disasters Relocation of backups to other countries free from disasters
Fire Fire extinguishers

Smoke detectors
Sprinklers
Electrical power failures Standby generators

UPS [uninterrupted power supply]
Surge suppressors/protectors

Spares in the warehouse

Hardware failure Regular servicing
Running diagnostics - a way of giving you warning signals, it
needs to be done frequently.
A disaster plan
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Software errors Buying software from reputable organizations

Regular backups
Software diagnostics.
Data Integrity/reliability
Refers to the correctness AND The accuracy of data after being transmitted or processed
Data in the computer system may become incorrect, corrupted or of poor quality in many different ways & at any stage
during data processing.
Consequences of system failure:
Loss of business due downtime
Delays
Air traffic control system could well have catastrophic results
4. COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
Hacking i.e.
Hackers are users of computer systems that gain unauthorized access into a computer system.
Cracking of ineffective security systems so as to gain unauthorized access to commercially sensitive or confidential personal files
Computer Fraud/Crime
Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems, especially with the intent to defraud, destroy,
damage, or make unauthorized use of computer resources.
E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another
Types of Computer Crime/Fraud
Intellectual Crime cracking into a computer system for the purpose of transferring or obtaining funds is a typical e.g.
Destruction of property destroying a computer property
Theft Software piracy which is unauthorized copying of software. Hardware & software being taken away without the
knowledge/consent of its owners
Measures to counter or combat computer crime [computer security]
Careful vetting of employees
Separation of duties
Use of passwords
Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system whether successful or not.
Educating staff
Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room
Data Encryption/Decryption
Computer Virus
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a computer operates without permission, to do
harm to the computer.
Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

Reduced memory or disk space
Files are overwritten or damaged
Hard drive may be erased
Data is modified /corrupted.
Change files & date stamp
Drive lights blink without reason
Longer times are experienced when loading programs
Slower system operation.
How computers are infected with Viruses?
Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers
Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.
Opening an E-mail attachment
Accepting program installations from the internet
Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
Copying Game programs e.g. Pac man
Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]
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Antivirus tools/packages/software
Scanner examine every file on a specific disk drive, looking/searching for known virus signatures. A signature is a
string of software code that identifies a virus program. Every virus has a unique signature
Norton Antivirus Package
Dr Solomons Antiviral package
MS Antiviral Package
MacAfee Antiviral Package
Precautions/Safety guides against viruses
Install a reliable antiviral package
Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
Never download unknown files from the internet
Boot the system from virus free disks
Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes should not be used
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Defined
A programming language that utilizes macro instructions and statements that closely resembles human language or
mathematical notation to describe the problem to be solved or the procedure to be used.
Compiler language
Examples
Pascal
COBOL
BASIC
FORTRAN
ALGOL
Advantages
Programs are much easier to write/read because they are next to English
It is a portable language
Errors are removed before translation to Machine code [during compiling].
Programs are problem oriented [written for specific problems].
Disadvantages
Programs tend to be wordy hence they take long to compile
Slower in execution
Requires more memory as implication on hardware.
Language translator programs
A Translator is a program that translates a source program/code into an equivalent object code [machine code] before the
program is executed by the computer.
Compiler
Translates a complete program written in HLL into machine code before it is executed.
Produces a translated document.
E.g. COBOL compiler.
Assembler
Translates a source program written in assembly language into machine code.
Interpreter
A computer program that translates one statement at a time [source code] and generates the machine
code for that statement only & executes it there & there before moving to the next line/statement.
Interpreter translates line per line and does not produce a translated document.
E.g. Pascal Interpreter, BASIC Interpreter.
Compare & contrast Interpreter & Compiler

Compiler- fast execution of program.
Interpreter- Slowed down execution of program.
Compiler- compiler time overhead.
Interpreter- No compiler time overhead
Compiler- Stand alone executables
Interpreter- Dependency on interpreter
Compiler- Compiler is complex [time, space]
Interpreter- Relative simplicity of interpreter
List the advantages & disadvantages of interpreters & compilers.
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A compiled program will always run faster than an interpreted one

Object code generated by compilers may be saved on disk & run as many times as required without
being compiled.
A compiler gives more helpful error messages.
Compiler gives the line number where the error has occurred.
An interpreter will find the error at the first instance whereas the compiler will list all errors after
compiling.
A compiler will check the syntax of the entire program whereas the interpreter only checks the syntax of
statements that are executed during that particular run of a program.
Interpreters are very convenient for program development, since making modifications does not mean
the whole program has to be reloaded & recompiled which takes considerable time.
Interpreter is cheaper than compiler & is simpler to use
Many interpreters will allow a program to run up to a point where an error occurs, let the programmer
fix the error & then continue to run the program from that point.
With an interpreter debugging is easier since the code is executed line by line.
Line by line interpretation can be slow
Interpreter can test your code as you write it
With an Interpreter there is no need to create object code & link programs.
5. LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
Defined
Use representations of binary digits arranged in a sequence of instructions determined by the logic the program is supposed to
execute.
Also known as assembly language
Low level means the language can better communicate with the system.
Examples
Assembly language
Machine language
Advantages
They are powerful languages
Disadvantages
Much harder to code for programmers
It is not portable, it is machine dependent.
GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA

Define Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Definitions of software on the Web:
Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word, PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software
programs.
Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.
Programs, procedures, rules, and any associated documentation pertaining to the operation of a system. Contrast with hardware (page ***).
A program or set of instructions that controls the operation of a computer. Distinguished from are system operating software and application software.
See hardware.
Commercially available applications sold by Vendors through public catalogue listings, COTS software is not intended to be customerised or
enhanced. Contract-negotiated software.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS, Communication control programs. Service and utility programs,
and programming language translators.
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Definitions of system software on the Web:
refers to the disk operating software.
A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other programs, to function. Different from an page layout
application that the user may have, system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor display, the RAM, the hard
drive and the rest of the computer.
The programs that make up the operating system(OS), along with the associated utility programs, as distinct from an application program.
Programs that control and support operations of a computer system. System software includes a variety of programs, such as operating systems,
database management systems, communications control programs, service and utility programs, and programming language translators.
OPERATING SYSTEM
The main control of a computer system.
It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer programs and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output
control, system accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.
Definitions of operating system on the Web:
The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional. On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and
Linux are other operating systems often found in scientific and technical environments.
An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages
all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the
operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). ...
A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP,
Linux, and MacOS are common operating systems.
This is the software that manages a computer system. Windows 95 is an OS.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic
Spreadsheet and word processing programs or inventory or payroll programs.
o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal, organizational, or processing task, such as graphics
software.
o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating system software allows the computer to
work. A computer-aided dispatch system is application software, as is each word processing program
o A software program running on top of the operating system (Windows, UNIX, Mac) that has been created to perform a
specific task for a user. Examples include word processing software like Word/Word Perfect, spreadsheets like Excel or
Lotus 123, home finance packages like Quicken, etc.
Allows the user to accomplish specific tasks. Examples of this type of software are Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Access.
Software which performs a particular function for a user eg word processing, database management
Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform. This should be
contrasted with system software which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but does not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that
benefit the user. The term application refers to both the application software and its implementation.
1.OPERATING SYSTEM
Definition
Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU, controls the input/output and storage resources and
activities of the computer system, and provides various support services as the computer executes the application programs?
Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and the hardware?
All communications go through the operating system.
E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the command & processes it according to priorities with the
use of interrupts.
Once the processor is free to execute the command, the O/S sends the message to the processor & receives the output,
which is then directed to the printer.
Examples:
Windows 95
Windows 98
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Windows XP
MS-DOS
Unix
Novell
Window NT
The last 3 are used to connect computers to function as a network.
Functions:
A consistent platform for application program
Validates user identification & account number
Retrieving & saving files required by users
File management. Control the creation, deletion and access of files of data and programs
Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It may involve multitasking capability
where several computing tasks can occur at the same time.
Act as an interface between the application program & the hardware.
Communicating with the network
Provides user interface.
Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.
Recovery & shutdown procedures
Resources management. Manages resources such as processor time, memory space, disk space & peripheral devices
2.SYSTEM SOFTWARE- consists of programs that manage and support a computer system and its information processing activities. These
programs serve as a vital software interface between computer system hardware and the application programs of end users.
SYSTEMS
SOFTWARE
SYTEMS SUPPORT SYSTEMS

MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS DEVLOPMENT
OPERATING SERVICE TRANSLATORS

SYSTEMS PROGRAMS
GENERATORS &
DATABASE SECURITY VERIFIRS
MANAGEMENT MONITORS
APPLICATION
COMMUNIATION PERFORMANCE GENERATORS
MONITORS MONITORS
CASE TOOLS
3 functional categories
System management programs

Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources of the computer system during its
execution of the various information processing jobs of users.
The most important system management programs are operating systems and operating environments,
followed by telecommunications monitors & Database Management Systems.
System support programs

Programs that support the operations and management of a computer system by providing a variety of
support services.
Major support programs are system utilities, performance monitors, & security monitors.
System development programs

Programs that help users develop information system programs and procedures and prepare user
programs for computer processing.
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Major development programs are language translators, programming tools and CASE [computer-
aided software engineering] packages.
3.APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the shelf.
Benefits of application software to the user.

Installation should be easy, quick and should be provided by the vendor/supplier.
Good documentation is usually provided with the application for reference purposes.
Onsite assistance from the supplier or vendor
Provision of cheaper future upgrades upon acquisition of an application provided you have completed the registration
information.
Value for money
CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

1. Work enhancement applications
Commercial / generic Packages These are bought from a vendor. Also known as off the shelf packages e.g.
MS Office, Pastel.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place
Word Processing packages
Spreadsheet packages
Database /Information retrieval Packages
Graphics packages
Data communications Software
E-Mail
2. Functional applications
Homemade / Customized packages Has been written by the vendor specifically for a users needs. Also
known as in-house packages, tailor-made packages. E.g. most payroll packages.
Are usually custom-built applications to perform a certain function?
Payroll system
Billing software
Product design applications
3. Managerial applications
Help to make management decisions
Decision support systems
Database Management Systems Report Writing Tools
Generic/commercial packages Vs Written/customized software

Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive to build.
Custom built is expensive to maintain
Custom built; there is heavy reliance on the developers of the software for its continued existence & maintenance
Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological advancement in the field of computers.
Generic or Off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness due to larger market & the ability to incorporate available
technology in the shortest possible time.
MAKE NOTES ON:

How application packages solve problems?
Typical problems which can be solved by application packages
Customization of packages using macros
Utility software/ programs They are referred to as service programs for they provide a useful service to the user by facilitating
routine service.
Also known as System support programs.
computer programs that help to manage, recover, and back up files.
Utility software or software utilities are the software bits that function like full application software but at a smaller "scale" or for a particular purpose.
Utility software have long been integrated in most major operating systems. Windows Explorer in the MS Windows operating systems is one of the
utility software.
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Support the operation, management, and users of a computer system by providing a variety of support services.
Performs routine support functions for users of a computer system.
Used for general purpose E.g. Editor Program, Sort program, Copy program, Merge program etc.
A component of Operating Systems.
INTEGRATED SOFTWARE APPLICATION PACKAGES

In integrated software, you will be able to work on a spreadsheet to perform calculations, store addresses and phone numbers in a
database and be able to link information from the spreadsheet & the database when you work with the word processor in the
integrated package.
Object Linking Embedding [OLE] is a standard that, Allows applications to be linked together.
OLE-DB allows applications to import virtually any form of data into the database.
Definitions of integrated software on the Web:
a group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.
Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single program (eg, word processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and
communications).
Application software such as spreadsheets, word processing, and database programs that can be used interchangeably to exchange and operate on
the same data which is entered only once into the computer.
Software that works together as part of a common user interface rather than software that consists of separate programs to be used in sequence.
Advantages of integrated applications

Easy to use
Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations in an electronic spreadsheet & images in a graphical
application package
Disadvantages
Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that you wish to open the document.
Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
SOFTWARE PACKAGES
A computer program supplied by computer manufacturers, independent software companies, or other computer users.
Also known as canned programs, proprietary software or packaged programs.
Proprietary software/Applications
Is that application that has been written for a specific users needs by a software vendor.
Non-standard software.
Disadvantages
Being proprietary the non-standard software may not be used by any other organization.
It has huge support costs after implementation. Dependency syndrome with the supplier.
Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under or shuts down or liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance contract with.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
Unauthorized copying of software.
unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
unauthorized copying of software
The production of illegal copies of software.
By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge
problem mainly because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a program than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a
friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
unauthorized duplication of computer software.
Copyright infringement is the unauthorized use of copyrighted material in a manner that violates one of the copyright owner's exclusive rights, such as the right to
reproduce or perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative works that build upon it.
The copyright infringement of software, also called software piracy, refers to several practices when done without the permission of the copyright holder:*
Creating a copy and selling it. This is the act most people refer to as software piracy. This is copyright infringement in most countries and is unlikely to be fair use
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or fair dealing if the work remains commercially available. ...
Is the acquisition of software either by obtaining a copy or borrowing an original copy and installing it without a license?
Implications of Software piracy

Loss of business to software companies.
Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a result you cant install it.
Virus Spread
Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and money.
Definitions of data processing on the Web:
Operations performed on data to provide useful information to users.
Using a computer to manage or store information.
Systematically performing a series of actions with data. May be done by manual, mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic (primarily computer)
means. Often used interchangeably with automatic data processing (ADP). See also AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSING (ADP), INFORMATION
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (IRM).
Conversion of raw data into machine-readable form and subsequent processing of the data by a computer.
Taking the raw data gathered by interviewers, finding and correcting any errors, tabulating it and creating spreadsheets similar types of documents so
that response patterns can be read and interpreted.
The systematic performance of operations upon data, eg, handling, merging, sorting, computing. Synonymous with information processing.
DATA
Relationship between Data and Information
Data is raw information
a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully knowledge for the person who receives it. Information is the
output of information systems.
Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
Methods of data collection {see Systems Analysis & Design}
Questionnaires
Observation
Sampling
Interviews
Written documents & research
MAKE NOTES ON:

Verification
o The act of reviewing, inspecting, testing, checking, auditing, or otherwise establishing and documenting whether items, processes, services, or
documents conform to specified requirements.
o An effort to test the accuracy of the questionnaire response data. The concern is uniquely with data accuracy and deals with neither the
reliability nor the validity of measures.
Validation
o The process of evaluating software at the end of the software development process to ensure compliance with software requirements. The
techniques for validation is testing, inspection and reviewing.
o Determination of the correctness of the products of software development with respect to the user needs and requirements.
Analogue data/signals
Definition of analog data on the Web:
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The representation of information in a way that bears an exact relationship to the original information, so that it varies continuously rather than
discretely, as digital data does.
Definitions of analog signals on the Web:
continuous wave forms used to represent such things as sound

The analog signal that is used to transmit audio and video represents variable measurable quantities (eg, voltage) and is still used in
most television, radio, and telephone lines. The codec component of the videoconference unit coverts analog signals to digital signals.
Digital data/signals
Definitions of digital signals on the Web:
Audio/video signals represented by discrete variations (in voltage, frequency, amplitude, location, etc.). A digital clock, for example, displays the time
as discrete numeric values rather than angular displacement of analog hands. In general, digital signals can be transmitted faster and more
accurately than analog signals. As an example, music from digital cd is usually more clear than music from analog records. (Contrast with analog
signals.)
Discrete, uniform signals. In this manual, the term refers to the binary digits 0 and 1.
Audio and video signals represented by discrete variations, rather than continuously variable analog signals.
Information transmitted in discrete pulses rather than as continuous signals. Data is represented by a specific sequence of off-on electrical pulses.
(See also, Analog)
represent information with a sequence of 0s and 1s
Definitions of digital data on the Web:
refers to information that is converted to only a few specific values. Because the values are specific, digital data can be transmitted, received and
recreated with no loss of content. In contrast to digital data, analog data is always received with noise added into the content. Because of this signal
distortion, digital content (CDs, DVDs, HDTV) is usually preferred over analog content (VHS).
Of or relating to data in the form of digits; data displayed, recorded, or stored in binary notation.
Data that consists, at its most basic level, of just 0s and 1s.
A digital system is one that uses discrete values rather than a continuous spectrum of values: compare analog. The word comes from the same
source as the word digit: the Latin word for finger (counting on the fingers) as these are used for discrete counting.
Modem [analogue to digital analogue to digital conversion]

If computers communicate through analogue lines all digital signals must be converted into analogue form & then
reconverted back into digital form for the receiving computer.
The process of converting digital signals into analogue is called modulation
The process of converting analogue into digital is called demodulation
A device called a MODEM is used for this translation process.
DATABASE
Is a collection of files?
An organized collection of interrelated files.
Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly and easily from a chosen reference point?
Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many
applications.
Examples of databases are MS Access, MS Works Database, and DBaseIV.
File-Is a collection of related records.
Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a predefined order.
Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data attribute. It is the smallest unit of data to be
stored in a database.
Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a file.
Secondary key-An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value can identify single entity occurrences of all entity
occurrences. A subset of all entity occurrences.
Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A foreign key in one file must be a primary key in
another file.
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Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.

Advantages of Databases
Supports data sharing
Ensures increased data security, since database management system software, a data dictionary, and a
database administrator function as control access to data & modification of the database.
Ensures Data independence. Programs are not dependent on the format of the data and the type of secondary
storage hardware being used.
Data integrity is guaranteed. Since database management system software, a data dictionary, and a database
administrator function control access to data & modification of the database.
Increases productivity
Reduces/eliminates data redundancy. It reduces the duplication of data and integrates the data so that
multiple programs and users can access them.
Consistence of data is ensured
Dis-Advantages of Databases
Limitations of databases arise from its increased technological complexity.
A Database management approach can pose problems in data resource management.
Developing a large database and installing a DBMS can be difficult and expensive.
More hardware capability is required, since storage requirements for the organizations data, overhead control data, and the DBMS
programs are greater.
Longer processing times may result from high volume transaction processing applications since extra layer software [the DBMS] exists
between application programs and the operating systems.
If an organization relies on centralized databases, its vulnerability to errors, fraud, and failures is increased.
Problems of inconsistency can arise if a distributed database approach is used.
The security and integrity of an organizations database are major concerns of an organizations resource management effort.
Types of databases/Database structures
Hierarchical database
A logical data structure in which the relationships between records form a hierarchy or tree structure.
The relationship among records is one to many, since each data element is related only to one element above it.
Network database
A logical data structure that allows many to many relationships among data records.
It allows entry into a database at multiple points, because any data element or record can be related to many other data elements.
Relational database
A logical data structure in which all data elements within the database are viewed as being stored in the form of tables.
DBMS packages based on the relational model can link data elements from various tables as long as the tables share common data
elements.
File types
Master file-Refers to a file that contains all the organizations records. It contains records of relatively permanent nature.
Definitions of master file on the Web:
A database file, often created manually as needed, that contains static records used to identify items, customers, vendors, bills of material, work
centers, etc. as opposed to files used to track the dynamic status of orders and inventory balances.
A file of data which is the principal source of information for a job which is updated or amended as necessary.
(computer science) a computer file that is used as the authority in a given job and that is relatively permanent
Transaction file-Contains records that describe events.

Contains details of transactions and or activities of the organization. The file does not necessarily
contain all records since transactions are done at different times in some situations.
Definitions of transaction file on the Web:
A list of transactions. In a business this might be a list of sales for the day. At the end of the day the transaction file is merged with a master file to
update such information as shop stock levels and year to date sales totals. One way of thinking of a transaction is that it represents a change to a
database. Processing a single sales transaction will mean updating several database tables. ...
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(computer science) a computer file containing relatively transient data about a particular data processing task
Scratch files- [Work files/Temporary files] are special files that contain temporary duplicates of subsets for alternate
sequencing of a master or transaction file.
Definition of scratch file on the Web:
A temporary file holding intermediate data during an operation, such as when calculating arc intersections, or building feature topology.
Log files-Are special records of updates to other files especially master and transaction files. They are used in conjunction with
archive files or to retrieve lost data
Definitions of log file on the Web:
A file that lists actions that have occurred.
A coverage or workspace history file containing a list of all commands used to operate on a coverage or all commands used in the workspace.
A file created by a Web or proxy server which contains information about the activity of the server.
A file maintained on a server showing where all files accessed are stored. Log file analysis reveals the visitors to your site, where they came from,
and which queries were used to access your site. Web Trends is an example of log file analysis software.
A separate file, created with the BACKUP command, that keeps track of the names of all files written to the backup diskette(s). logging on
file that records the activity on a Web server

File processing
Is the process of updating the records in a file to accurately reflect changes in the data?
It can be a manual process where procedures are in place to update forms, which are sent to the respective person
responsible for the update.
It can also be a computerized process where information is first stored in transaction files until the master file is updated.
File processing methods:
Batch Processing
Transactions are collected and processed in batches [groups].
E.g. a supermarket chain operates 5 outlets. At the end of the day all information on sales [transaction file] is
collected, & the main records [master file] are updated with the sales for that day.
Performs a group of tasks all at once, while requiring little [or no] interaction with the user.
It is a great time saver because the computer can perform repetitive functions quickly & consistently.
Real-time Processing
The master records are updated as and when the transactions occur.
A supermarket chain would be linked by a network to a main computer.
Each time a sale is made the stock information is updated and the sale information is also updated.
It is expensive and complicated.
Record and file locks are implemented to avoid problems with real-time processing.
Online processing
The master file is updated with the transactions through some form of communication link.
All real-time processing involves online processing.
Not all online processing needs to be real-time.
Require interaction of the user.
Master file is the main information source in any type of organization.

File processing is the update of the master file [actual records] through manual or
computerized methods.
MAKE NOTES ON:
Requirements for file processing.
File maintenance e.g. updates, additions, deletions, appending
File organization methods & access
File Organization-Is the arrangement of data records on storage media
It determines the manner in which individual records can be accessed or retrieved
Serial file organization
Records are placed one after another.
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It gives maximum utilization of space but there is no room left for inserting other records.
Examples of files stored using serial organization are: archive files, output files, security files.
It does not cater for direct access to records.
Is the only file organization method used on magnetic tapes?
Sequential file organization
Records are arranged in a predetermined sequence, determined by the primary key.
Records are stored using a specific key to arrange ascending, descending, alphabetic order etc.
Appropriate for files, which are stored on tape or disk.
Appropriate for master files, sorted transaction files in a batch-processing environment.
Not generally used for online systems that demand fast response.
Mainly used for batch processing applications
Suitable method to use when there is little need for file enquiry.
Simple method of writing to a file [easy to use].
Most effective method if records are going to be processed in the order that they are read.
It can be used for variable length records as well as fixed length records.
Wastes space as some space is reserved for other records to be inserted in order to preserve the order or
organization.
E.g. Customer records could be organized sequentially according to customer number [primary key] or
customer name [secondary key].
Sequential records can be stored adjacent to one another or they can be arranged sequentially with a linked
list.
Direct/Random/Relative file organization
Files are stored randomly or haphazardly and an address or key field is used as reference.
Records are physically located at an address that is calculated from its primary key field.
The calculation of the address from the key field is called hashing.
Records are scattered on the storage disk instead of being arranged next to one another or linked via a pointer
field.
Records can be retrieved rapidly
Used on magnetic disks e.g. Floppy disks & hard disks.
Types of files: transaction files, master files.
Direct access [information is readily available].
Method is costly in terms of device used and space.
Indexed file organization
Records are stored in sequence but in addition an index is provide to enable individual records to be located
directly after reading the index.
Records are pointed to by indexes.
Used with disks only not with magnetic tapes.
A method of storing data records in a file sequentially, But in addition some sectors of the disk are reserved
for an index-key field to locate data records in this organization.
Wastes space
The index may be ignored & the data is read sequentially.
The file may be accessed sequentially but using the index to skip over unwanted records, this is called
selective sequential access.
The index may be read into memory & used to obtain data randomly.
. FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF STORAGE DEVICES/MEDIA

RAM
Stores programs and data that change often as well as intermediate and final results.
Definitions of random access memory on the Web:
The place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by
the computer's processor.
The memory in a computer that can be overwritten with new information repeatedly. It is erased when the computer is turned off.
the space in the computer on which information is temporarily stored while the computer is on.
Static RAM
It is a volatile memory
Data is stored; it remains there indefinitely unless if the power is lost or new data is written.
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Dynamic RAM
Is one which data is stored on capacitors, which require periodic recharging [refreshing] to retain data?
ROM
Stores instructions & data which do not change
It is written once during manufacture
It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.
It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user
It is static & non volatile
It stores control routines for personal computers
Definitions of read only memory on the Web:
The permanent portion of the computer's memory. The contents of ROM locations can be read, but not changed.
This is memory data that can be read by the CPU, but cannot be rewritten over, unlike RAM.
A technology for putting a large amount of information on a small disk that can be accessed by a computer; CD-ROMs in the Libraries contain
periodical indexes, abstracts, statistics, directories, and other complete texts.
PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture but can be programmed by the user. It is
programmed according to the needs of the user organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will
became permanent to the effect that any errors will never be corrected thus the user will throw away any chip if errors are
made.
EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased as many times. This time you dont have to
worry about errors too much because there is room for correction. The programming is done electronically. Stored data
can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light over a period of minutes.
EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read, erased, rewritten, without removing from the
computer. The erasing & rewriting process is very slow compared with reading, which limits their use. These can be
erased & programmed with electrical pulses. Can be erased in a few Milliseconds.
CD-ROM
Are Optical drives
Some are re-writable CD-RW
Some are WORM [Write Once Read Many] CD-R.
Definitions of CD rom on the Web:
CD ROM stands for Compact Disk Read-Only Memory. CD ROMs store and read massive amounts of information on a removable disk platter or
solid state storage chip. Unlike the data on hard drives and diskettes, data on CD ROMs can only be read--not altered--by the user. Also called
"firmware."
Compact Disk Read-only-Memory. Similar to audio CD but used for data storage.
(compact disc read only memory) - There are two kinds of those CD's which are for listening Only and CD ROMS which are electronic databases and
can include dictionaries, encyclopedias or indexes.
Information using read only memory (ROM) that is loaded onto computer using a compact disc.
Disk and Tapes
Magnetic tape: memory device consisting of a long thin plastic strip coated with iron oxide; used to record audio or video signals or to
store computer information; "he took along a dozen tapes to record the interview"
magnetic disk: (computer science) a memory device consisting of a flat disk covered with a magnetic coating on which information is
stored
Definitions of tape storage on the Web:
storage of tapes in a record center location other than the main site of business.
A mass storage device that uses removable magnetic tape as a medium.
Magnetic tape is an information storage medium consisting of a magnetisable coating on a thin plastic strip. ...
Definitions of disk storage on the Web:
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Data storage, the space your Website will require on a server's hard drive, ranges from small sites with 5 megabytes of storage space to large
business sites that require 250 MB or more. The server's hard disk is the device used to store information in the form of files. A website is typically
made up of numerous files, some containing HTML, ASP, PHP, Images, Real Audio & Video, and others containing many other types of information.
Storage on direct access devices that record data magnetically on rotating disks. Secondary storage.
Disk Storage-Include removable disk storage & fixed disk storage
In microcomputers you would have floppy disk drives & hard disk drives
These use magnetic tape technology & the access generally uses direct access.
Tape drives-These again come in many varieties and most common available on microcomputers are small tape cartridge
backup devices
BACK UP A copy of the computer files stored on media such as tape, disks that can be taken offsite. Usually it is done on
removable disk or tape
3. Computer Interface
Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.
Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the computer so that you can load programs, access files,
and accomplish other tasks?
When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a screen, keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input
devices.
Definitions of interface on the Web:
the interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of data between a computer and its peripherals.
Method or piece of equipment for interconnecting units or systems which may not be directly compatible.
a connection between hardware devices, applications, or different sections of a computer network.
For data communication, a hardware and software link that connects two computer systems, or a computer and its peripherals.
The common boundary between two substances such as a water and a solid, water and a gas, or two liquids such as water and oil.
The meeting point between a computer and something or (someone) outside of it. Common interfaces for peripherals are the serial and parallel ports.
Common interfaces for people are the monitor screen and keyboard.
Basically the interface can be

Command driven- include operating systems and database languages that provide users with flashes of text and in
which users would generally type in their command to perform an action.
Menu driven
GUI- point and click
WIMP interface
Menu driven
A characteristic of most interactive processing systems that provide menu displays and operator prompting to assist a
video terminal operator in performing a particular job.
Unix is a menu driven interface
Definition of menu driven on the Web:
An interface that offers the user a simple menu from which to choose an option.
Command driven- Using DOS environment
MS DOS is a command driven interface.
You need to remember commands to navigate/operate MS-DOS
Command driven interface is User-unfriendly.
instruction: (computer science) a line of code written as part of a computer program
In computing, a command is a directive to a computer program acting as an interpreter of some kind, in order to perform a specific task. Most
commonly a co
The name of a program and any arguments you specify to that program to cause its behavior to change. You might see the term command used
instead of the term utility for simple commands, where only the program name to execute is given.
A set of specialized actions on Variables. At present only READ and WRITE commands are implemented. READ loads data from a file or a database
into a Variable and WRITE transfers query results from a Variable to an output file. Commands start with an exclamation (!).
Graphical User Interface [GUI]
Uses icons, bars, buttons, boxes, and other images.
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A software interface that relies on icons, bars, buttons, boxes and other images to initiate computer based tasks for users.
GUIs rely on pointing devices like the electronic mouse to make selections that help you get things done.
Easy to use in other words it is user friendly.
Windows 95, 98, XP are all a Graphical User Interfaces.
Definitions of GUI on the Web:
Graphical User Interface. A computer terminal interface, such as Windows, that is based on graphics instead of text.
Graphical user interface.
(Graphical User Interface) A graphics-based user interface that incorporates icons, pull-down menus and a mouse.
Any of a number of programs and operating systems, such as windows and Macintosh systems, that are operated by using a mouse input device to
move a pointer to various graphics, icons, and menus (versus command-line or other text-based methods).
An acronym for Graphical User Interface, this term refers to a software front-end meant to provide an attractive and easy to use interface between a
computer user and application.
A program interface that takes advantage of the computer's graphics capabilities to make the program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user
interfaces can free the user from learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find that they work more effectively with a
command-driven interface, especially if they already know the command language.
WIMP interface
Definitions of wimp on the Web:
Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides
a much more intuitive 'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems provide
"Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to
computers much more straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface. The WIMP interface has been used on
Apple Macintosh computers since they were invented, and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and other
workstations through the X Window system.
In human-computer interaction, WIMP stands for "window, icon, menu, pointing device", denoting a style of interaction using these elements. It was
once often used as an approximate synonym of graphical user interfaces. WIMP interaction was developed at Xerox PARC and "popularized by the
Macintosh in 1984" (van Dam, 1997).
Definitions of single-user on the Web:
Single-User is when only one person can use a thing. The most common use is when talking about an Operating System being useable only by one
person at a time. The opposite is Multi-user
Single User Online systems

Users who dial into a computer on a remote machine to access information would be using an online system.
In a single user online system, one user will be allowed access at any one time.
The next person who dials in will be placed in a queue or will have to try again at a later time.
E.g. a PC
Definitions of multi-user on the Web:
The capability of some computer systems to provide access to many simultaneous users
A computer system designed to be used simultaneously by more than one user.
A system that enables more than one user to access the same data at the same time.
Multi-user systems consist of two or more computers that are connected together and that share data and peripherals. A multi-user system includes a
host computer (file server) and one or more stations. All stations share the same hard disk and may share other devices such as printers.
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A system or program designed to accommodate simultaneous use by multiple users, and protects against duplication, override or corruption of data
when the same records or resources are accessed.
Refers to computer systems that support two or more simultaneous users. All mainframes and minicomputers are multi-user systems, but most
personal computers and workstations are not. Another term for multi-user is time-sharing.
Multi-User Online Systems

Each operator will have to have access to the same information usually stored in databases.
Rules are implemented on data access
Complicated
Typical applications are word processing & online information retrieval.
MAN
Metropolitan Area Network.
A MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses similar technology.
It may cover a group of nearby corporate offices in a city and might be either private or public
A MAN can for example be related to the local television network.
Definitions of Metropolitan Area Network. on the Web:
A network designed to carry data over an area larger than a campus, such as an entire city and its outlying area.
A network spanning a geographical area greater than a LAN but less than a WAN (Wide Area Network). This type of network typically spans an area
from a few city blocks to a greater metropolitan region.
a short-haul network which fills the gap between access and long-haul networks by connecting three or more locations together within a single
municipality or adjacent municipalities, and then making private-line capacity available on those network segments in increments whose maximum is
no less than 44 Mbps. ...
A network of computers within the same geographic area, such as a city.
A network formed by the interconnection of two or more networks which may operate at higher speed than those networks, may cross administrative
boundaries, and may use multiple access methods. Contrast with LAN and WAN.
Definitions of single-user on the Web:
Single-User is when only one person can use a thing. The most common use is when talking about an Operating System being useable only by one
person at a time. The opposite is Multi-user
Single User Online systems

Users who dial into a computer on a remote machine to access information would be using an online system.
In a single user online system, one user will be allowed access at any one time.
The next person who dials in will be placed in a queue or will have to try again at a later time.
E.g. a PC
Definitions of multi-user on the Web:
The capability of some computer systems to provide access to many simultaneous users
A computer system designed to be used simultaneously by more than one user.
A system that enables more than one user to access the same data at the same time.
Multi-user systems consist of two or more computers that are connected together and that share data and peripherals. A multi-user system includes a
host computer (file server) and one or more stations. All stations share the same hard disk and may share other devices such as printers.
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A system or program designed to accommodate simultaneous use by multiple users, and protects against duplication, override or corruption of data
when the same records or resources are accessed.
Refers to computer systems that support two or more simultaneous users. All mainframes and minicomputers are multi-user systems, but most
personal computers and workstations are not. Another term for multi-user is time-sharing.
Multi-User Online Systems

Each operator will have to have access to the same information usually stored in databases.
Rules are implemented on data access
Complicated
Typical applications are word processing & online information retrieval.
Multi-media systems
Defined
A System that use a variety of media, including text & graphics displays, voice & other audio,
photographs, and video segments.
Supports thousands of users
Requires a lot of memory
Definitions of multimedia on the Web:
Used essentially to define applications and technologies that manipulate text, data, images, and voice and full motion video objects.
Systems that support the interactive use of text, audio, still images, video, and graphics. Each of these elements must be converted in some way from analog form
to digital form before they can be used in a computer application. Thus, the distinction of multimedia is the convergence of previously diverse systems.
PRACTICALS
MS EXCEL [spreadsheet]
Opening/Accessing/Retrieving Ms Excel
Creating a New Excel Document/file/folder
Typing information
Calculations: Additions, Multiplications, Subtractions, Average, Division, What if Analysis?
Inserting a Row btwn e.g. Row 4 & Row 5
Deleting a Row
Inserting a Column btwn Column C & Column D
Deleting a Column
Closing/Exiting an Excel Document/ file
Closing/Exiting MS Excel
MS ACCESS [database]
Database terminology
Data Types
Listing Data types
Creating a Table
Creating fields
Creating records
Loading Information
Navigating in a Table
Creating Reports
Navigating in a report
Printing Reports
Querying the Database
Query
Creating a query
Sorting contents
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Searching for a particular item

Merging Tables
AND gate
OR gate
MS WORD [word processor]
Opening/Accessing/retrieving MS word
Creating a new word document/file
Typing information
Underlining text
Bolding text
Formatting text into italics
Alignment of text: Left, Right, Center, Justify
Creating tables using MS word
Inserting Clip Art & Word Art
Inserting page numbers
Inserting date
Putting headers &/ or footers
Changing case
Checking spellings & grammar
Putting borders
Putting bullets & numbering
Saving a word document
Use of print preview
Print
Closing/exiting a word document
Closing/ exiting MS Word
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COMPUTER OPERATIONS & PACKAGES

A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a

A set of instructions in a language understood by a computer; used to direct the

STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

DRAW A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.

INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.

Social and Economic Effects of IT

Is information technology a good thing?

Changing Employment Patterns

Environmentally friendly computers

Ethical, moral and social issues

Social considerations for a cashless society

Crime prevention and detection

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF COMPUTERS

2. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF COMPUTERS

3. PRIVACY AND INTEGRITY OF DATA

Measures to ensure Data security

Definitions of decryption on the Web:

Process of "unscrambling" an encrypted or coded message.

The process of transforming cipher text into plain

Any process to convert cipher text back into plaintext.

Definitions of encryption on the Web:

Definitions of cipher text on the Web:

Text that has been encrypted

Encrypted information transformed from a plain text document or message

Definitions of firewall on the Web:

A disaster recovery service/programme provides for example

Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:

Definitions of disaster recovery plan on the Web:

MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS

Hackers Security is breached

Viruses Deletion of files

Hardware failure You are grounded

Software failure Operations are grounded

Physical threats Absolute destruction

Electrical faults Loss of data

Disgruntled employees Can destroy the information system

Computer crime Illegal use or disruption to data services

User errors [intentionally] or [unintentionally] Deletion of data

Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:

Definitions of hacking on the Web:

PREVENTION OF THESE THREATS

Natural disasters Relocation of backups to other countries free from disasters

Fire Fire extinguishers

Electrical power failures Standby generators

Spares in the warehouse

Software errors Buying software from reputable organizations

What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Compare & contrast Interpreter & Compiler

List the advantages & disadvantages of interpreters & compilers.

A compiled program will always run faster than an interpreted one

GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA

Definitions of software on the Web:

Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.

Definitions of system software on the Web:

refers to the disk operating software.

Definitions of operating system on the Web:

This is the software that manages a computer system. Windows 95 is an OS.

The last 3 are used to connect computers to function as a network.

SYTEMS SUPPORT SYSTEMS

OPERATING SERVICE TRANSLATORS