Computer Organization

A computer is a device that accepts data, processes it, and generates some output, based on a
program or a sequence of instructions.

Data it is defined as raw facts and figures.

Information it is defined as a collection of data.

A computer takes input in the form of data and generates output in the form of information.
This process of converting data into some meaningful information is called Information
Processing Cycle.

Computer
Data (Raw Material) Information
Input Output
(Data Processor) (Finished Product)

Characteristics of a Computer

1. Automatic it carries out a job normally without any human intervention.

2. Speed it can perform several billion (109), even trillion (1012), simple arithmetic
operations per second.
3. Accuracy it perform every calculation with same accuracy.
4. Diligence it is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
5. Versatility it can perform a wide variety of tasks.
6. Memory it can store huge amount of information and can recall any piece of this
information whenever required.
7. No I.Q. it cannot take its own decisions, and has to be instructed what to do and in
what sequence.
8. No feelings it cannot make judgments based on feelings and instincts.

Evolution of Computers

Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in the year 1642.
Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany invented the first calculator for
multiplication in the year 1671.
In the year 1880, keyboard machines were originated in the United States and we use
them even today. Around same period, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of
punched card that computer used extensively as input medium even in late 1970s.
 Business machines and calculators made their appearance in Europe and America
towards the end of the 19th century.
Charles Babbage, in the 19th century (Professor at Cambridge University) is considered
as the Father of modern digital programmable Computer.
Charles Babbage had employed a group of clerks for preparing mathematical and
statistical tables.
Babbage had to spend several hours checking these tables because even utmost
care and precautions could not eliminate human errors.
Soon he became dissatisfied and exasperated with this type of monotonous job.
As a result, he started thinking about building a machine that could compute
tables guaranteed to be error-free.
In this process, Babbage designed a Difference Engine in the year 1822 that
could produce reliable tables.
In the year 1842, Babbage come with his new idea of a completely automatic
Analytical Engine for performing basic arithmetic functions for any mathematical
problem at an average speed of 60 additions per minute.
Unfortunately he was unable to produce a working model of this machine
because the precision engineering required to manufacture the machine was not
available during that period.
However, his efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to
the design of any digital programmable computers.
In the year 1940s, Dr. John Von Neumann introduced the stored program concept
that helped in overcoming hard-wired program problem (drawback automatic
calculating machines was that their program were wired on the boards that made it
difficult to change program.)
The basic idea behind this concept is that a sequence of instructions and data can
be stored in memory of a computer for automatically directing flow of
operations.
This feature considerably influenced development of modern digital computer
because of ease with which different program can be loaded and executed on a
single computer.

Computer Generations

Generation in computer talks provides a framework for the growth of computer industry
based on key technologies developed.
The idea here is to provide an overview of the major developments and technologies during
the Five Generations of Computer.

First Generation (1942-55)

First-generation computers were built with a signal central processing unit (CPU) with
serial fixed-point arithmetic using a program counter, branch instructions, and an
accumulator.
The early computers were manufactured using vacuum tubes as electronic switching
device. A vacuum tube was a fragile glass device using filaments as a source of
electronics and could control and amplify electronic signals. It was the only high-speed
electronic switching device available in those days. This vacuum tube computer could
perform computation in milliseconds and are known as FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER.
Most of the first generation computers worked on the principles of storing program
instructions along with data in memory of the computer, so that they could
automatically execute program without human intervention.
Memory of these computers used electromagnetic relays, and users fed all data and
instructions into the system using punched cards.
Programmer wrote instructions in machine and assembly languages because of lack of
high-level programming languages in those days.

Advantages
Vacuum tubes were the only electronic components available during those days.
Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computer.
These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time. They could
perform computations in milliseconds.

Disadvantages
Too bulky in size and unreliable.
Thousands of vacuum tubes that were used emitted large amount of heat and
burnt out frequently.
Air-conditioned required.
Prone to frequent hardware failures.
Constant maintenance required.
Non-portable.
Manual assembly of individual components into functioning unit required.
Commercial production was difficult and costly.
 Limited commercial use.

Second Generation (1955-64)

John Bardeen, Willian Shockley, and Walter Brattain invented new electronic switching
device called Transistor at Bell Laboratories in the year 1947.
Transistor soon proved to be a better electronic switching device than vacuum tubes
due to their following properties :-
o They were more rugged and easier to handle than tubes. (As, they were made of
germanium semiconductor material rather than glass.)
o They were highly reliable as compared to tubes. (As, they had no parts like a
filament that could burn out.)
o They could switch much faster (almost 10 times faster) than tubes. (As, switching
circuits made of transistors could operate much faster than their counterparts
made of tubes.)
o They consumed almost 1/10th the power consumed by a tube.
o They were much smaller than a tube.
o They were less expensive to produce.
o They dissipated much less heat as compared to vacuum tubes.
The second-generation computers were manufactured using transistors. They were
powerful, more reliable, less expensive, smaller and cooler to operate than the first-
generation.
The second-generation also experienced a change in storage technology. Memory of
second-generation computers was composed of magnetic cores.
Magnetic cores are small rings made of ferrite that can be magnetized in either
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
Index registers, floating-point arithmetic, multiplexed memory, and I/O processors were
introduced with Second-generation computers. High level languages (such as FORTAN,
ALGOL, and COBOL) were introduced along with compiler, subroutine libraries, and
batch processing monitors.
Register transfer language was developed by Irving Reed in the year 1957 for systematic
digital computer.

Advantages
Similar in size as compared to first-generation computers.
More reliable and less heat generated.
 These computers were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds to
microseconds.
Less Prone to hardware failures.
Wider commercial use.

Disadvantages
Air-conditioning required.
Frequent maintenance required.
Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required.
Commercial production was difficult and costly.

Third Generation (1965-74)

In the year 1958, St. Clair Kilby and Robert Noyce invented first INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
(ICs).
It consisting of several electronic components likes transistor, resistors, and capacitors
grown on a single chip of silicon eliminating wired interconnection between
components.
IC technology was also known as Microelectronics technology because it made it
possible to integrate larger number of circuit components into very small (less than
5mm square) surface of silicon, known as Chips.
Initially the ICs contained only 10 or 20 components on a single chip known as SMALL
SCALE INTEGRATION (SSI).
Later with the advancement in technology for manufacturing ICs it became possible to
integrate up to about hundred components on a single chip known as MEDIUM SCALE
INTEGRATION (MSI).
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the first commercially available
minicomputers, the PDP-8 (programmed Data Processor) in the year 1965.
Third-generation computer can easily fit in the corner of a room and did not require
attention of a full time computer operator.

Advantages
Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers.
More Reliable than the second generation computers.
Lower heat generated than the second generation computers.
Computers were able to reduce computational times from microseconds to
nanoseconds.
 Maintenance cost is low because hardware failures were rare.
Easily portable.
Totally used for general purpose.
Less power requirement than the previous computers.
Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit not required.
So human labour and cost involved at assembly stage reduced drastically.
Commercial production was easier and cheaper.

Disadvantages
Air conditions required in many cases.
Highly sophisticated technology required for manufacture of IC chips.

Fourth Generation (1975-90)

Average number of electronic components packed on a silicon chip doubled each year
after 1965. This progress soon led to the era of large-scale integration (LSI), when it was
possible to integrate over 30,000 electronic components on a single chip, followed by
very-large-scale integration (VLSI), when it was possible to integrate about 1 million
electronic components on a single chip.
This progress led to dramatic development i.e. creation of micro-processor.
Micro-processor contains all circuits needed to perform arithmetic logic and control
functions, the core activities of all computers, on a single chip.
It started a new social revolution personal computer (PC) revolution.
Overnight computer became incredibly compact. They become inexpensive to make,
and suddenly it became possible for anyone and everyone to own computer.

Advantages
Smallest in size because of high component density.
Very reliable.
Heat generated is negligible.
No air conditioning required in most cases.
Much faster in computation than previous generation.
Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance is required.
Easily portable because of their small size.
Totally general purpose use.
Minimal Labour and cost is involved at the assembly stage.
Cheapest among all generation
 Disadvantage
Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

Fifth Generation (1991-Present)

Portable PCs (called notebook computers) are much smaller and handy than PCs of
fourth generation allowing users to use computing facility even while travelling.
Fifth generation desktop PCs and workstations are several times more powerful than
PCs of fourth generation.
No air-conditioning is required for notebook computers, desktop PCs and workstations.
They consume less power than their predecessors do.
More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than their predecessors were,
requiring negligible maintenance cost.
General purpose machine.
Have faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to their
predecessors.
More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features make the systems easier to learn
and use by anyone, including children.
These systems also use the concept of unbundled software and add-on hardware
allowing the users to invest only in the hardware configuration and software of their
needs and value.
Newer and power applications, including multimedia applications, make the systems
more useful in every occupation.