Matter of Report

Chapter-1

Introduction to Diffraction

A. What is Diffraction?

Diffraction is a slight bending of light as it passes

around the edge of an object. The amount of bending

depends on the relative size of the wavelength of

light to the size of the opening. If the opening is

much larger than the lights wavelength, the bending

will be almost unnoticeable.

Fig. 1.1

Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle

or a slit. It is defined as the bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or aperture

into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.

In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the interference of waves

according to the HuygensFresnel principle. These characteristic behaviors are exhibited

when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wavelength.

Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves,

and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, rays and radio waves.

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If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the region of

geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright regions, just like in interference.

This is just due to the phenomenon of the diffraction, which is a general characteristic

exhibited by all types of the waves.

Since wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most of the obstacles,

we do not generally encounter the effects of diffraction of light in the everyday life

observations. However the finite resolution of our eye or of the optical fiber instruments

such as telescopes or microscopes is limited due to the phenomenon of diffraction

Since physical objects have wave-like properties, diffraction also occurs with matter and

can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics. Italian

scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the word "diffraction" and was the first to

record accurate observations of the phenomenon in 1660.

B. History of Diffraction

The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized

by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the

Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different

directions.

Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. Thomas

Young performed an experiment in 1803 demonstrating interference from two closely

spaced slits. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two

Different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves.

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C. When Does Diffraction Occurs

Diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter changes, its effects are

generally most pronounced for waves whose wavelength is roughly comparable to the

dimensions of the diffracting object or slit. If the obstructing object provides multiple,

closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result.

This is due to the addition, or interference, of different parts of a wave that travel to the

observer by different paths, where different path lengths result in different phases. The

formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which waves of finite extent

propagate in free space.

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 CHAPTER-2

UNDERSTANDING DIFFRACTION

A. Mechanism

In traditional classical physics diffraction

arises because of the way in which waves

propagate; this is described by

the HuygensFresnel principle and

the principle of superposition of waves.

The propagation of a wave can be

visualized by considering every particle Fig. 1.1

of the transmitted medium on a wave front as a point source for a secondary spherical

wave. The wave displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary

waves. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as

well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the

waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence,

diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima.

The smaller the slit, the greater the angle of the spread.

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B. Types of Diffraction

a) Single-slit diffraction

A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into a

series of circular waves and the wave front which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical

wave of uniform intensity.

A slit which is wider than a wavelength

produces interference effects in the space

downstream of the slit. These can be

explained by assuming that the slit behaves

as though it has a large number of point

sources spaced evenly across the width of

the slit. The analysis of this system is

simplified if we consider light of a single

wavelength. If the incident light is coherent,

these sources all have the same phase. Fig. 2.1

Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of

contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of these

contributions vary by 2 or more, we may expect to find minima and maxima in the

diffracted light. Such phase differences are caused by differences in the path lengths over

which contributing rays reach the point from the slit.

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When the double slit in youngs double slit

experiment is replaced by a single narrow slit

illuminated by a monochromatic source, a broad

pattern with a central bright region is seen. On

both sides there are alternate bright and dark

fringes and regions, the intensity becoming

weaker away from the centre. Fig. 2.2

We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the

following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes

destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference

between them is equal to /2.

Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the

source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. Along the entire height

of the slit, the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the

condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is

half the width of the slit.

If light consisted strictly of ordinary or classical particle, and these particles were fired in

a straight line through a slit and allowed to strike a screen on the other side we would

expect to see a pattern corresponding to the size and shape of the slit. However when the

single slit experiment is actually performed the pattern on the screen is a diffraction

pattern in which the light is spread out.

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b) Double Slit Diffraction

If light consisted of classical particles and we

illuminated two parallel slits, the expected pattern

on screen simply be the sum of the two single slit

patterns. In reality however, the pattern changes to

one with a series of light and dark bands. Fig. 3.1

When this phenomenon was studied, it indicated that light consists of waves as

distribution of brightness can be explained by the alternately constructive and destructive

interference of wave fronts.

The modern double - slit experiment is a

demonstration that light and matter can display

characteristics of both classically defined waves

and particles. A simpler form of the double-slit

experiment was performed originally by Thomas

Young in 1801. He believed it demonstrated that

the wave theory of light was correct, the

experiment in which a wave is split into two

separate waves that later combine into a single

wave. Changes in the path lengths of both waves

result in a phase shift, creating an interference pattern. Fig. 3.2

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In the experiment, a coherent light source, such as a laser beam, illuminates a plate with

two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind

the plate. The wave nature of light causes

the light waves passing through the two slits

to interfere, producing bright and dark

bands on the screen. However, the light is

always found to be absorbed at the screen at

discrete points, as individual particles (not

waves), the interference pattern appearing

via the varying density of these particle hits

on the screen Fig. 3.3

Other entities, such as electrons, are

found to exhibit the same behavior when fired towards a double slit.

The experiment can be done with entities

much larger than electrons and photons,

although it becomes more difficult as

size increases. The largest entities for

which the double-slit experiment has

been performed were molecules that each

comprised 810 atoms, whose total mass was Fig. 3.4

over 10,000 atomic mass units.

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The double slit experiment for its clarity in

expressing the results of quantum mechanics.

Because it demonstrates the fundamental

limitation of the ability of the observer to

predict experimental results, Richard

Feynman called it "a phenomenon which is

impossible to explain.

Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.6

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c) Diffraction Events

The amount of bending which occurs is based on the wavelength of the light or the

objects size in relation to light's wavelength. In addition to bending, light is sometimes

broken into its basic components. These components are the colors of the rainbow red,

orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet (ROYGBIV).Red light has the longest

wavelength, while violet has the shortest. This is why red is typically the prominent color

in a rainbow and appears to be wider than violet light.

Full lunar eclipses permit light waves to bend around the

edges of the moon to let the side facing earth remain

visible, albeit an orange-brown color instead of the white

color. This is a due to the distance of the moon from

earth, allowing the moon to completely cover the sun. Fig. 4.1

d) Diffraction and Interference

Diffraction is the bending of waves around an obstacle, while Interference is the meeting

of two waves during the diffraction process and usually happens when there are two or

more slits. Interference of the light waves with each other causes the diffracted light to

become brighter or dimmer during the diffraction process because of what we call

destructive and constructive interference. Also in diffraction and interference, light

energy is redistributed. If it reduces in one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in

another region producing a bright fringe. Hence there is no gain or loss of energy which

is consistent with the principle of conservation of Energy.

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 e) Examples and Applications of Diffraction

The effects of diffraction are often seen in

everyday life.

i. The closely spaced tracks on a CD or

DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the

familiar rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc.

Fig. 5.1

ii. This principle can be extended to

engineer a grating with a structure

such that it will produce any

diffraction pattern desired; the hologram Fig.5.2 Fig.5.3

on a book is an example.

iii. Iridescent clouds are a diffraction phenomenon

caused by small water droplets or small ice

crystals individually scattering light.

Fig.5.4

iv. The setting sun appears to be red because of

the diffraction of light from the dust particle

in the atmosphere.

Fig.5.5

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v. DJ/ Party Lights, Diffraction glasses, for Fireworks, Light shows, 3d movies, Lasers

are based on diffraction.

Fig.5.6 Fig.5.7

vi. Twinkling stars are another example of

diffraction of light. As light from stars

pass through the earth's atmosphere

which is laden with water vapor, the

light bends around the water droplets

causing the twinkling effect. The light

waves become brighter or dimmer and

the colors constantly change due to

constructive and destructive interference.

Fig.5.8

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vii. When light passes through solid

objects like diamonds, it

diffracts giving diffraction

patterns which depend upon the

type, nature and shape of the

material.

Fig. 5.9

Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be

visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. A shadow of a solid

object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges.

The speckle pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough

surface is also a diffraction phenomenon.

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 CHAPTER-3

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF DIFFRACTION

1. Single Slit Diffraction

Aim: Experiment to study the phenomena of single slit diffraction.

Requirements: Two Razor Blade, One glass electric Bulb, Filter, Black Paper

Procedure:

a) Hold the two blades so that the

edges are parallel and have a narrow

slit in between. This can be done

easily with thumb and forefingers as

shown in figure, and cover them

with black paper. Fig. 6.1

b) Keep the slit parallel to the filament of the bulb which plays the role of first slit, right

in front of eye.

c) Adjust the width of the slit and

the parallelism of the edges the

pattern the pattern of light and

dark bands is visible.

d) As the position of the bands

(except the central one)

depends on the wavelength, they will show some colours.

e) Use a filter for red and blue to make fringes clearer, Compare the fringes.

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Observations: Since the position of all

the bands depends on wavelength so

they will show some colour. More the

wavelength, More they will diffract.

Result: Fringes are wider for red

compared to blue.

Precaution: Protect your eyes by using spectacles while performing the experiment.

Dont use sunlight instead of the bulb as sun also produces infrared rays harmful to our

eyes.

*By repeating the above experiment with aluminium foil we can easily show double slit

diffraction.*

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REPORT CONCLUSION
 References

www.google.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.youtube.com

NCERT Part II Class XII

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 Contents
Introduction to Diffraction............................................................................................... 1

A. What is Diffraction? .................................................................................................. 1

B. History of Diffraction ................................................................................................ 2

C. When Does Diffraction Occurs ................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER-2 ...................................................................................................................... 4

UNDERSTANDING DIFFRACTION ............................................................................ 4

A. Mechanism ................................................................................................................. 4

B. Types of Diffraction ................................................................................................... 5

a) Single-slit diffraction .......................................................................................... 5

b) Double Slit Diffraction .............................................................................................. 6

c) Diffraction Events .................................................................................................... 10

d) Diffraction and Interference ................................................................................... 10

e) Examples and Applications of Diffraction ............................................................ 11

CHAPTER-3 .................................................................................................................... 14

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF DIFFRACTION ................................................. 14

1. Single Slit Diffraction .............................................................................................. 14

REPORT CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 15

References ........................................................................................................................ 17