Proposal Defense, 09-24-11 Final

West Visayas State University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
GRADUATE SCHOOL
La Paz, Iloilo City
Code-Switching Functions: Student Teachers Utterances in Focus
by
Rothsel P. Tagacay
Chapter 1
This chapter consists of five parts: (1) Background of the Study, (2) Epistemological and
Theoretical Research Perspectives, (3) Statement of the Problem, (4) Definition of Terms, and
(5) Significance of the Study
Background of the Study
This research endeavor is based on the belief that language determines the success of
the students learning and development. Stephen Krashen (1972), a famous linguist, said
Acquisition and learning require meaningful interaction in the language - natural
communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with
the messages they are conveying and understanding. Thus, it is undeniable that an individuals
first language (L1) has a great influence in his second language (L2) acquisition and learning as
a whole. Furthermore, in Gumperz Discourse Strategies (1982, in Hoenisch, 2006), he stressed
that code-alteration or code-mixing that occurs is a strategy of a bilingual person in discourses
to relay information and such phenomenon has certain functions in conveying the messages of
utterances.
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Lachica (2001; in Parcia, 2006) stressed that another factor which can affect students
performance is the teachers language competence and students deeper understanding of the
instruction given. Hence, language is inseparable from the teaching-learning process, and
students have no excuse that language greatly affects their learning.
According to Parcia (2006), code-switching is one of the common observable facts in
classroom processes and is generally defined as the phenomenon wherein a bilingual or
multilingual speaker shifts from one language to another in the course of conversation.
Greggio & Gil (2007) studied about several issues related to teachers and learners use
of the foreign language and the mother tongue (code-switching) in the foreign and second
language classroom. They found out that code-switching in teacher-learner interaction has an
important role in facilitating interaction among classroom participants as well as in facilitating
foreign language learning. They suggested that those who work in the area of foreign and
second language learning should not disregard the beneficial aspect that code-switching may
have not only in teacher learner interaction in the foreign language classroom, but also in
foreign or second language learning. However, they stipulated that more researches on
code-switching should be done in order to enhance teachers understanding of the demands of
the learning situation in the foreign or second language classroom. Some suggestions for
further investigation may include: (1) observing the use of code-switching in groups of the
same level of proficiency; (2) investigating teachers and learners perceptions and beliefs about
the use of code-switching in the EFL and ESL classroom; and (3) investigating the functions of
learners code-switching in pair or group work.
Reyes (2004) examined the code-switching patterns in the speech of immigrant Spanish-
speaking children. The study revealed that code-switching occurred both within and across
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turns. The older childrens switches were more frequent and were deployed for a wider variety
of functions than the younger childrens. The results challenge the negative view that
code-switching by children who are learning two languages is due to lack of proficiency, and
instead support the view that it is used as a strategy to extend their communicative
competence during peer interaction.
Several studies have been conducted about the effectivity of code-switching in
conversation in a sociolinguistic scope. In the classroom in general, there were also
investigations focusing on the effectivity of using code-switching of teachers. For instance, in
the study of Pollard (2011), she found out that teachers code-switched when they translated
difficult words and phrases too hard for the students to understand, when they wanted to get
the students attention or create order in the classroom, and when expressing feelings, for
example irritation.
This paper is also anchored on several studies being presented above. The gaps had
been seen, since most studies focused on conversational code-switching in sociolinguistics and
pedagogical areas. Teachers and children have been the focus of studies presented, but not
with the pre-service teachers who are having their training in a formal classroom setting. Some
studies also discussed and analyzed classroom use of code-switching, emphasizing its functions,
frequency, and benefits with foreign settings. Further studies are seen as necessities, and may
include the influence or relationship of code-switching to some skills necessary for the students
development or the effectivity of code-switching inside the classroom. Initially, a need of
analyzing code-switching in the local setting that would be applicable to Filipino and Hiligaynon
students, and even pre-service teachers is also apparent. The main purpose of this paper is to
closely examine and investigate the functions and features of the student teachers code-
switching inside the English class.

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Epistemological and Theoretical Research Perspective
Changes in the language teaching methods throughout history have reflected
recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need, such as a move toward oral
proficiency rather than reading comprehension as the goal of language study. They have also
reflected changes in the theories in the nature of language and language learning. Kelly (1969)
& Howatt (1984); in Richards & Rodgers, 2011) have demonstrated that many of the strategies
and methodologies are not new today. Todays controversies reflect contemporary responses to
questions that have been asked often throughout the history of language teaching. It has been
estimated that some of todays world population is multilingual. From both the contemporary
and historical perspective, bilingualism or multilingualism is a norm rather than an exception. It
is fair then to say that foreign or second language teaching and learning has always been an
important practical concern for educators (Richards & Rodgers, 2011). They added that
throughout history, Latin was first set as the standard language used to teach students, but
evolution of language and dynamism have made language teaching a flexible one.
According to Healey (2007), at this recent times, both modern languages themselves
and the techniques in teaching are the things which are in a constant state of flux, and are
likely to continue so, possibly at an ever-increasing rate, as the kind of forces, social,
technological, and political, economic and so on, which affect both or either of them. In that
kind of situation, it would appear that greater adaptability will be demanded all the time from
teachers of all subjects, and not least from the teachers of foreign and second language.
Significant factors have been attributed to the ever-changing trends in the classroom teaching
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of language, especially in English. That is why, great strides have been made in language
teaching methodology in the sector of educational field. The studies that have existed would
undoubtedly show that in the beginnings of such teachings, those were largely concerned with
language instructions that were fairly at elementary level, even in the major European tongue.
Since that time, the situation has changed very considerably over a wide area of language
studies.
This study is anchored in interpretive epistemology specializing in the examination of
ones social reality and subjective familiarity and acquaintance with a particular topic. From the
interpretive epistemological perspective, knowledge is multifaceted in nature, establishing
research methods that reveal the expressions of the participants social reality. The
interpretivist framework supports the principle of multiple realities that are ultimately
constructed and modified by each individual. There are two strains under this framework which
are phenomenology and hermeneutics. The two strains are analyzed in relation to the
ontological, axiological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions to ascertain the key
similarities, differences, challenges, and strengths that each may encompass within the realm of
practice and research (Hutton, 2009). Specifically, according to the hermeneutic paradigm, the
researcher is able to operate freely within the analysis, incorporating their own interpretation on
the data collected as a guide to the discussion of the results and in the hopes of gaining insight
to future understanding (Cole & Avison, 2007).
To further support the claims of the proposed study, several theories have been
examined under the Multiple Theory Scaffold Approach. The motivation for the use of this
theory in the stages of interpretive epistemological research is to create an initial theoretical
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framework which takes account of previous knowledge, and which creates a sensible theoretical
basis to inform the topics and approach of the recent empirical work (Walsham, 2009).
The following substantive theories are viewed as important in the pursuit of this study:
Gumperz Semantic Model of Code-switching (1982). An approach for the study of social
and cultural functions and meanings of language use in learning contexts, such as collaborative
problem-solving interactions (Baron, 2003) and schoolchildren's conversations (Reyes, 2004).
This model is used to find the use of code-switching by students and teachers for a variety of
conversational functions such as quotation, addressee specification, interjections, reiteration,
message qualification, personalisation or objectivisation, and situational code-switching
The Two Constraints Theory (1980). This theory is one of the first attempts to identify
syntactic constraints on code-switching. This was advocated by Sankoff and Poplack in 1980.
They stipulated that there are two factors important in code-switching: the free morpheme
constraints and the equivalence constraints. The free morpheme constraint predicts that there
cannot be a switch between a bound morpheme and a lexical form, unless the lexical form is
phonologically integrated into the language of the morpheme. They depend on their analysis on
Spanish-English code-switching. This constraint would predict that flipeando meaning flipping
is a possible form. The lexical English form flip has been integrated into the phonology of
Spanish. But the form catcheando meaning catching is not possible because the lexical form
catch has not been integrated into the phonology of Spanish. On the other hand, the
equivalence constraint theory states that code-switching tends to occur at points where
juxtaposition of elements from the two languages does violate a syntactic rule of either
language. It will occur at points where the surface structure of the two languages are the same.
Sankoff and Poplack (1980) tried to apply this theory to Spanish, and they found out that
Spanish English code-switching may occur between determiners and nouns and not between
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nouns and adjectives in the noun phrase. Thus, in Spanish, the adjective must come after the
noun, whereas in English, it comes before. Sometimes switching does not occur where there is
no structural equivalence between the languages. But if this happens, it is always accompanied
by omissions, repetitions, among others.
The Matrix language Hypothesis Theory (1999). is proposed by Myers-Scotton
(1999), which states that when two or both language varieties are brought together by a
bilingual or monolingual, there is a dominant language at work. Thus, one language should be
assigned the status of what she called a matrix language (ML). The matrix language supplies
the grammatical frame of constituents while both languages supply morphemes. Her main
hypothesis is that, there is always an ML in code-switched discourse, and there is only one ML
at a time. Hence, to analyze a structure, one must first recognize the ML. Such theories are
manifestations that code-switching may be looked at with different perspectives.
Table 1
Epistemological and Theoretical Framework of the Study
Epistemology Theoretical Research Substantive Theories
Perspective
Interpretive Epistemological Multiple Theories Gumperz Semantic Model of Code-switching
Perspective (Walsham, 2009) (Gumperz, 1982)
The Two Constraints Theory
(Sankoff and Poplack in 1980)
The Matrix language Hypothesis Theory
(Myers-Scotton, 1999)
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Statement of the Problem
This proposed study aims to analyze and examine the functions and features of code-
switching in classroom discourses used by student teachers in an English class.
Specifically, this research endeavor would like to address the following questions:
1. What are the features of code-switching among student teachers in the English class?
2. How do student teachers code-switch in an English classroom?
3. Why do student teachers code-switch in an English classroom
Assumptions of the Study
Educators, nowadays seem to look at the language implications in childrens learning,
that is why different studies have emerged investigating different classroom scenarios that
could contribute to the students development as a whole. Classroom code-switching is
perceived as a natural and expected practice of students and teachers who share a common
first language (Krashen & Terrell in Abad, 2005). The fact that they belong to multilingual
societies is a contributing factor to this. Speakers mix codes due to several reasons (Pandit in
Jacobson, 1990). Pandit (in Metila, 2009) explains that socio-psychological factors play a
significant role in code-switching. The context is a significant factor that influences what codes
will be combined and even the manner with which the codes will be mixed. The context where
the conversation happen may also demand for the use of code-switching because it is deemed
the most appropriate and most acceptable to use in a particular situation. Hence, in this manner,
the use of code-switching, is a conscious choice, especially because speakers are aware of the
social consequences of this particular action (Scotton & Ury in Metila, 2009). For instance,
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speakers have been known to shift to another language to allow everyone to use a particular
language comfortably (Pascasio in Marasigan, 1983).
Another use of code-switching is the discourse mode or communicative function that
allows speakers to express themselves and present pragmatic meaning (Gumperz in Metila,
2009). In this case, code-switching acts like a we-code that also serves as the minority
language for informal in-group activities. As such, code-switching establishes group
camaraderie as opposed to the they-code which is more frequently used by the out-group for
formal activities. This is clearly reflected by how code-switching usually marks the different
types of discourse or genres such as lectures or discussions (Gumperz in Metila, 2009). In a
study by Bloom and Gumperz (in Romaine, 1989), teachers were reported to use official
standard Norwegian for formal lectures, but they shifted to regional Norwegian dialect to
encourage discussion among students. The communicative function also promotes a positive
learning ambience inside the classroom. Codeswitching can easily transform the tenor of the
classroom from formal to informal (Bautista in Metila 2009). Hence, it is an option that a
teacher can take if he or she wants the class to be more relaxed and to ask questions during
the lecture. Poor language competence is another factor associated with the communicative
function. Code-switching is identified as one of the simplification strategies that students with
poor English and Filipino proficiency have been observed to use (Gonzalez & Sibayan in Bautista,
1994).
Code-switching fulfills a pedagogical function when it makes challenging subject matter
comprehensible to students. In this particular situation, code-switching is lesson-driven and not
language-motivated. Teachers tasked to implement the Dwibihasa bilingual policy in Brunei said
that switching to Malay was necessary especially in explaining abstract concepts which have no
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real object counterpart that could help define difficult terms (McLellan & Chua-Wong, 2002). In
another study (Martin in McLellan & Chua-Wong, 2002), interviewed teachers revealed that they
had no alternative but to code-switch in order for pupils to understand lesson content.
To summarize, supporters argue that code-switching should not be equated with an
imperfect grammar system. Code-switching may possibly be motivated by a speakers failure to
express himself in another code (Marasigan, 1983). However, this act is not viewed as so grave
to be regarded as an error. Poplack in Metila (2009) maintains that switches are mere
adjustments that even competent bilinguals make. It is simply a way for learners to bridge a
communication gap. Hence, this supports the contention that code-switching should be
accepted because it is natural and logical. It is fair and reasonable, therefore, to give a certain
degree of allowance to language learners who code-switch. Nevertheless, negative views on
codeswitching continue to give teachers, administrators, and even parents a cause for concern
(Metila, 2009). Abad (2005) explained that parents are worried about their childrens language
development. On a more technical level, educators and linguists argue on whether code-
switching facilitates or impedes learning. Conflicting findings make the issue more controversial.
However, some linguists like Weinreich (in Satuito, 1974) maintain that switching should not be
totally prohibited. The ideal bilingual has the facility to switch from one language to another
depending on appropriate changes in the speech situation but not within the same speech
situation and within a single sentence (in Satuito, 1974). Abad (2005) stressed that code-
switching is beneficial to learning situations and it should be allowed in content area subjects to
help students understand difficult concepts explained in English; however, she maintained that
language arts courses should continue to use the assigned medium of instruction.
In the Philippines, one of the apparent evidences that language teaching is evolving
important was the The Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) which emphasizes the value of Filipino
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and English competence. However, despite the noble goals of the policy, some Filipino learners
still become semilinguals, speakers who have inadequate command of two languages or who
have proficiency in both languages. Sibayan (in Abad, 2005) identified todays semilinguals as
young citizens who indulge in code- switching. Classroom code-switching is perceived as a
natural and expected practice of students and teachers who share a common first language
(Krashen & Terrell in Abad, 2005). That is why a need to analyze code-switching occurrences in
classroom context should also be taken into consideration as the results of the study may give
ample data and conclusions about the different methodologies in language teaching.
Definition of Terms
Code-switching
Code-switching functions
Student teachers
Student teachers Utterances
For clarity and understanding of the textual presentation in this proposed study, the
following terms are defined conceptually and operationally:
Classroom is a room, as in a school or college, in which classes are held.
(www.DictionaryBoss.com, retrieved on July 11, 2011)
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In this study, classroom is a term which refers to the high school setting of classes
where the student teachers are having their practice teaching with the English subject as their
field of specialization.
Code-switching is the alternation between two or more languages or varieties of a
language in the same utterance or dialogue Myers-Scotton (2001).
In this study, code-switching refers to the shifting of two languages used by the student
teachers from English to Hiligaynon or vice-versa in classroom discourses and utterances, like
lectures and discussions. EXEMPLIFY
Discourse often refers to the speech patterns and usage of language, dialects, and
acceptable statements, within a community (Oxford Dictionary, 2001).
In this study, discourse refers to the speech utterances of the student teachers during
the lectures and discussions inside the English classroom.
First Language (L1) which is also a native language, mother tongue, arterial language is
the language(s) a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person
speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity. (WikiPilipinas, the Philippine
Encyclopedia, retrieved on July 15, 2011)
In this study, First Language refers to Hiligaynon language used by the student teachers
in code-switching. This refers also to the dialect or vernacular used by the student teachers
inside the classroom aside from English as a medium of instruction.
Focus is defined as the activity, attraction, or attention (Meriam-Webster Dictionary,
2000).
In this study, focus refers to student teachers utterances which is the main feature of
the study.
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Functions are the kind of actions or activities proper to a person, thing, or institution; the
purposes for which something is designed or exist; roles (www.DictionaryBoss.com, retrieved
on July 11, 2011)
In this research, functions refer to the roles and purposes of the use of code-switching by
the student teachers. FUNCTIONS
Hiligaynon is an Austronesian language spoken in Western Visayas in the Philippines.
Hiligaynon is concentrated in the provinces of Iloilo and Negros Occidental. It is also spoken in
the other provinces of the Panay Island group, such as Capiz, Antique, Aklan, Guimaras, and
many parts of Mindanao like Koronadal City, South Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat (WikiPilipinas,
the Philippine Encyclopedia, retrieved on July 15, 2011)
In this study, Hiligaynon is the first language of the student teachers and the high
school students, and is used by the former in discourses during lectures and discussions inside
the English classroom.
Second Language (L2) refers to any language learned after the first language or mother
tongue (American Heritage Dictionary, 2001)
In this research, Second Language refers to English language which is used by the
student teachers as a medium of instruction for the subject.
Student teacher is a college student pursuing a degree in education who teaches in a
classroom under the supervision of an experienced, certified teacher (Webster's New World
College Dictionary)
In this study, student teacher refers to the Bachelor in Secondary Education major in
English student of West Visayas State University who is having his/her practice teaching during
the Academic-Year 2011-2012, and is the participant of the study.
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Utterances- in Linguistics, it is any speech sequence consisting of one or more words
and preceded and followed by silence: it may be coextensive with a sentence (Dictionary.com,
Retrieved on August 25, 2011)
In this study, utterances refer to the spoken language used by student teachers during
their discussions and lectures. - ELABORATE IN RELATION TO HOW YOULL ANALYZE CS?
TYPE? TOKEN?
Significance of the Study
This proposed research endeavor may shed light to all educators about the pedagogical
implications of language to teaching and learning processes. Furthermore, the results of this
study may be helpful to the following:
Education Policy and Curriculum Makers. In a multilingual country, it is a fact that
language affects the teaching and learning processes inside the classroom. Through this study,
policy makers may be given additional insights, ideas, and information about the language
dynamics inside the classroom. The result might give them baseline data in formulating new
policies and innovations regarding curriculum modification and development.
School Officials, Administrators, Principals. Through the in depth study of the English
classroom scenario, school officials may be aware of how language dominates the class, and
how it affects the learning processes of the students. They can propose language programs that
best suit to the local needs of the students in their specific classroom community. They could
also make assessment regarding the language capabilities of the students, as well as the
teachers to foster learning and good classroom interaction.

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Classroom Teachers. Classroom teachers, specifically English teachers should not take
for granted the bearing of language as factor that could contribute to learning. In the light of
this proposed study, in-service teachers may be given idea about the strategies and methods in
teaching students with the English as a subject. They may explore language dynamics and
modification as an aid for their teaching. They may fully be aware that code-switching is a
phenomenon which could not be avoided inside a multi-lingual classroom in spite of the strict
policies implemented by the higher authorities.
Students. In a multi-lingual community, students are also faced with the challenges in
language barriers when it comes to classroom interaction. Through this study, they may be
aware of the importance of code-switching in their communication skills, as well as their
comprehension. They will be given proper understanding about their teachers style and
techniques in teaching them, thus they may grasp fully the lessons that they have inside an
English classroom.
Future Researchers. The result of this study could be used as a basis for a more
complex or in-depth analysis in the field of linguistics, psycholinguistics, or socio-linguistics and
its implications to pedagogy.
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Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
This chapter is divided into six parts: (1) Code-switching and Its Various Perspectives (2)
Approaches in the Study of Code-switching, (3) Sociolinguistic Studies of Code-switching, (4)
Pedagogical Implications of Code-switching, and
(6) Summary
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What is code-switching?
Code-switching is a subject which has existed in the literature on bilingualism since the
early nineteen hundreds when Espinosa (1917) wrote of a speech mixture in the speech of
New Mexicans Macas (2009). In addition, he noted that although code-switching may refer to
different styles of speech within the same language, as in the case of monolinguals using formal
and informal speech, it is most often used within the field of bilingualism or multilingualism to
refer to the alternate use of two or more languages in discourse. A myriad of terms exist in the
literature which describe specific occurrences (often with different linguistic configurations) of
this type of linguistic behavior--code-mixing, code-alternation, language switching, language
mixing, language alternation, and code-changing. Given that these terms have not been
standardized in the literature, code-switching in a global fashion may refer to describe any
kind of language alternation. The great majority of instances of oral codes-witching occurred
between utterances or conversational turns.
Hoffmann (1991) associated the term code-switching to the alternate use of two
languages within the same utterance or during the same conversation. Muysken (1995)
however argued that code-switching must, firstly, be distinguished from borrowing. According
to him, borrowing refers to the incorporation of lexical elements from one language in the
lexicon of another language. In addition, three levels may be distinguished in the process.
Initially, a fluent bilingual spontaneously inserts lexical element from language A into a
sentence in language B. With time, the insertion of A becomes a frequent occurrence in a
speech community, the so-called conventionalised code switching occurs. Finally, it becomes
adapted phonologically, morphologically and syntactically to the rules of language B and is fully
integrated into the lexicon, being recognised as a word of language B by monolingual speakers.
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It is worth noting that the distinction between code-switching and borrowing, specifically
between single word switches on the one hand, and loanwords on the other, is not always
clear-cut. Furthermore, there are two types of borrowing, namely nonce loans and established
loans, both of which they suggest difference from single word code-switches. Nonce loans
differ from established loans in being restricted to a single speaker in a specific context, and not
necessarily recognisable by monolingual speakers. Both established and nonce borrowings
entail a lexical item from language A occurring in language B, and crucially submitting to the
morphological and syntactic rules of language B. Single word code-switching, on the other hand,
occurs when each monolingual fragment is lexically, morphologically, and syntactically
grammatical in that language. Such a distinction, however, may be difficult to apply in certain
cases, such as when the morphological and syntactic rules of the two languages overlap.
Nonetheless, the assumption that code switching involves two grammars, whereas borrowing
only involves one remains a useful distinction.
Gumperz(1982, in Wiradisastra 2006) stated that code switching is the juxtaposition
within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical
systems or sub-systems. He identified six discourse functions which code-switching can be
used to as: a distinction between direct and reported speech, or quotations. The speech of
another speaker that is being reported in a conversation is expressed in a different language;
injections which function as sentence fillers; clarification or emphasis of a message. This is
often found in the form of a repetition of the same meaning but in a different language; a
means of qualifying the message. In this case the code-switch marks a new topic that is
introduced in one language and then commented on or further qualified in the other; a
specification of an addressee as the recipient of the message. The function of the switch to
another language is to draw attention to the fact that the addressee is being invited to
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participate in an exchange; a way to mark the distinction between personalization versus
objectivization.
On the other hand, (Valdes-Fallis, 1977in Duran, 2005) asserted that code-switching is
the use of two languages simultaneously or interchangeably. Traditionally code-switching was
seen and still is seen by many as a random process that could be explained by interference.
Today it is considered as rule-governed behavior and as a communication strategy. According to
the result of his study, code-switching implies some degree of competence in the two
languages even if bilingual fluency is not yet stable. Code-switching may be used to achieve
two things: (a) fill a linguistic/conceptual gap, or (b) for other multiple communicative purposes
(Gumperz, 1992). While in some places and cases code-switching is the exception, in many
multilingual and bilingual communities it is and should be seen as the norm (Swigart, 1992;
Goyvaerts & Zembele, 1992). It appears that where code-switching is the norm it is perceived
as fluid, unmarked, and uneventful, and where it is the exception it will be perceived as marked,
purposeful, emphasis-oriented, and strange. How is code-switching explained by those who
study it? Gumperz (1982) further studied about code-switching and he describes it as discourse
exchanges which form a single unitary interactional whole: Speakers communicate fluently,
maintaining an even flow of talk. No hesitation pauses, changes in sentence rhythm, pitch level
or intonation contour mark the shift in code. There is nothing in the exchange as a whole to
indicate that speakers don't understand each other. He further stated that code-switching is
generally defined as the phenomenon wherein a bilingual or multilingual speaker shift from one
language to another in the course of conversation. As with many definitions, there is
considerable flexibility (or, depending on how one looks at its ambiguity).
Zirker (2007) in his study, argued that code-switching has often been characterized by
seemingly random changes from one language to another. It has had many names and
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definitions, from Spanglish or Tex-Mex to code switching, code mixing, or code changing,
e.g. Mexican Spanish or Argentine Spanish are both codes of Spanish). There are several terms
referring to code switching, including code mixing; code-changing; and tag-switching,
situational and metaphorical code-switching. As these terms often have various meanings
attached to them, it is necessary to first define each type. Code- switching is the general term
for any kind of language switching, especially among bilingual Latinos (e.g. Spanish-English
code-switching-quiero ir al MALL NEXT TUESDAY I want to go to the mall next Tuesday). Code
mixing is a brief insertion of a few words from one language into the other (voy a comprar
PIZZA Im going to buy pizza). Code changing is defined as a long clause(s) inserted into one
language before or after a segment of the other language (Cheng & Butler, 1989) e.g.
Yesterday I went to school and learned about algebra and then suddenly un chico empez a
cantar muy fuerte durante el clase y por fin todos fueron cantando and then the teacher got
mad but she couldnt get us to stop singing a boy started singing very loud during the class
and finally everyone started singing). Tag-switching occurs when a speaker inserts a tag
statement from one language into another language. Examples of this in English are taking
phrases like you know, I mean, no way, etc, and then inserting them into a Spanish or second
language sentence, as seen in this example: es difcil encontrar trabajo estes dias, YOU KNOW?
(Its hard to find work these days, you know) (Romaine, 1989).This definition is in support with
the meanings given by several famous researchers: Code-switching may be defined as follows:
the use of more than one language by two people engaged in a speech act (Poplack, 1980;
Lipski, 1985; Gonzales-Velsquez, 1995; Myusken, 2000). It can occur between the speakers
involved in a conversation or within a speech turn of a single speaker. Code-switching can
appear on several language levels including syntactic, phonological and morphological levels.
(Grosjean, 2001) added that studies have shown that bilinguals, when discussing their own
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language abilities, will often confirm that they differ when speaking to monolinguals versus
bilinguals. They may completely avoid using their L2 with monolinguals, while code-switching
when conversing with bilinguals. Most importantly, however, is that when bilingual speakers
code-switch they switch from language to language with ease and fluidity, following the
syntactic and semantic rules of both languages (Muysken, 2000). Gonzales-Velsquez (1995)
states that code-switching is a linguistic option to bilingual speakers because they are proficient
in both their native language and another. Code-switching functions as part of their verbal
repertoire just as much as their first and second languages do.
Code-switching in the view of Valdes-Fallis, and Guadalope (2008) can be defined as the
alternating use of two languages: on the word, phrase, clause, or sentence level. Such
alteration differs from linguistic interference and integration in that in code-switching, there is
ordinarily a clean break between phonemic systems. In essence, code-switching involves
introducing into the context of one language stretches of speech that exhibits the other
languages phonological and morphological features. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (in Inductivo,
1994) defined code-switching as: an active, creative process of incorporating materials into
communicative activities; it involves the rapid and momentary shiftings from one language to
another, which may occur several times within a single conversation and frequently within a
single sentence.
When focusing to the definitions of code-switching, several researchers would define it
in different ways. For instance, Poplack and Meechan (1995) in Essizewa (2007) define code-
switching as the juxtaposition of sentences or sentence fragments, each of which is internally
consistent with the morphological and syntactic (phonological is optional) rules of its lexifier
language. They acknowledge that CS involves inter-sentential and intra-sentential switching.
However, their focus is on intra-sentential CS which according to them, may occur freely at
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equivalence sites: e.g. points around which constituents order in the two languages are
homologous.
A researcher who has worked on CS in African languages, specifically Bantu languages is
Bokamba (1988) in Essizewa (2007). For him, CS is a cover term which can be viewed as
consisting of two distinct phenomena: code-switching proper and code-mixing. According to
him, code-switching is the embedding or mixing of words, phrases, and sentences from two
codes within the same speech event and across sentence boundaries whereas code-mixing is
the embedding or mixing of various linguistic units, e.g. affixes, words, phrases, and clauses
from two distinct grammatical systems or subsystems within the same utterance and the same
speech situation. A close look at the difference between the definition of code-switching and
code-mixing shows that the former refers to what is commonly known as inter-sentential code-
switching, whereas the latter is often referred to as intra-sentential code-switching. In the same
book, Forson (1979) in Essizewa (2007) defines code-switching as conversational in nature.
According to him, it is the use of two or more languages n a single discourse within and
between sentences. Thus, the use of code-switching is predictable, given a necessary
sociolinguistic setting, particularly a primary common language for all the participants, the
ability to use a common second language, a knowledge of which has economics and or social
advantages over the primary language and is often used as a lingua franca in everyday
conversation. Essizewa (2007) agreed to Forsons definition of CS because the latter takes into
account not only the social statuses of the languages involved, but more importantly, the
definition covers both the inter-sentential and intra-sentential switching, and also the
circumstances in which CS normally takes place. Furthermore, Forsons statement that the use
of CS between interlocutors is predictable and that the subject speaks the languages involved
in the interaction confirms, that unlike borrowing, CS is not used by monolinguals.

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Ashleigh (2009) defined code-switching as the ability of the dialectal speaker to actively
switch from one dialectal pattern to another, within the appropriate context, in an effort to
minimize conversational breakdown. Alternatively, code-switching code be defined as the use of
one language in the course of a single communicative episode (DeBose, 1992, in Ashleigh,
2009). Appropriateness is the overriding criterion for selecting one dialect over the other. A
given situation must be analyzed by asking if the type of language used is appropriate for the
situation and f it calls the least amount of attention to itself when used in that situation (Fasold
and Shuy, 1972 in Ashleigh 2009). Appropriateness varies with place and participants. While
code-switching according to Lessig (Meyer-Scotton, 1999)is a rational act. One code-switches to
enhance rewards, minimize costs, and optimize ones returns given the prevailing
circumstances. According to Meyer-Scotton (1999) code-switching is intentional and seemingly
unconscious act by the speaker. Rewards gained through its use are greater than when it is not
used. Often, the decision to code-switch may go against a preferred choice of communicating
in a effort to gain a desired goal. Code-switching widespread in a multi-lingual speech
community, s commonly exhibited in older and better educated speakers.
Sert (2005) however, asserted that before considering the functions of code switching
from the teachers and the students perspective, it would be appropriate to deal with the use of
code switching in its naturally occurring context; in other terms its functions in the discourse of
bilingual individuals. According to Trudgill, speakers switch to manipulate or influence or define
the situation as they wish, and to convey nuances of meaning and personal intention. Drawing
upon this quotation, it may be suggested that code-switching can be used for self expression
and is a way of modifying language for the sake of personal intentions. Another function of
code switching is that it may be used in order to build intimate interpersonal relationships
among members of a bilingual community. In this respect, it may be claimed that it is a tool for
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creating linguistic solidarity especially between individuals who share the same ethno-cultural
identity. In order to clarify the subject, the following dialogue which is observed and transcribed
by Holmes may be given.
Code-switching is a frequently occurred phenomenon in bilinguals discourse (Domingue,
1990; Myers-Scotton, 1993). Many linguists consider code switching a very critical issue in
bilingualism (Myers-Scotton, 1993; Romaine, 1994), and it has a significant impact on
bilingualism both at the societal level and individual level (Romaine, 1994). With bilinguals, the
term code switching refers to the behavior of switching between different languages in
discourse, oral or written.
Various Perspectives of Code-switching
Another area of code-switching was proposed by Blom and Gumperz (1972) wherein
they distinguished two types of code switching, situational code switching and metaphorical
code switching. Situational code-switching is related to a change in situation. For instance,
when a new participant joins the activity, or a change in the conversation topic or setting. On
the other hand, metaphorical code-switching is often used as a conversational strategy to
enhance or mitigate conversational acts such as requests, denials, topic shifts, elaborations or
clarifications. Gumperz (1982) later re-labels metaphorical code-switching as conversational
code-switching.
Myers-Scotton (1993) focused on the social motivation of code-switching and
distinguishes between unmarked (conventional) and marked (unexpected) uses of language.
Code-switching can be considered as the unmarked choice when linguistic choices are expected
in the speech community and determined by the social context and situational factors outside
the content of particular communication. Using in-group languages in inter-ethnic

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communication as in switching from English to Spanish between Chicanos in Los Angeles is an
example of this type of unmarked code-switching. On the other hand, speakers switch
languages unexpectedly ignoring social factors or other institutional constraints affecting
linguistic choices. Using out-group languages in inter-ethnic interaction could exemplify this
type of code-switching as in selecting English rather than Spanish between Chicanos in Los
Angeles.
Auer (1995) also distinguished between participant-related and discourse-related code-
switching. The former is motivated by the language preferences, or the participants
competences, and the latter plays a role in structuring conversational acts including turn-taking
and repair.
Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or
dialect in conversation. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages fluently, have the
ability to use elements of both languages when conversing with another bilingual. What is said
is syntactically and phonologically appropriate; that means that even if words from another
language are included into the sentence, they will be adapted to the grammatical rules of the
first language. Code-switching can occur between sentences (inter sentential) or within a single
sentence (intra-sentential). Code-switching is now considered to be a normal and natural
product of interaction between the bilingual (or multilingual) speaker's languages. Code-
switching can be distinguished from other language contact phenomena such as loan
translation (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transfer or interference. There are
different perspectives on code-switching. A major approach in sociolinguistics focuses on the
social motivations for switching, a line of inquiry concentrating both on immediate discourse
factors such as lexical need and the topic and setting of the discussion, and on more distant
factors such as speaker or group identity, and relationship-building (solidarity). Another

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perspective is primarily concern with syntactic constraints on switching. This is a line of inquiry
that has postulated grammatical rules and specific syntactic boundaries for where a switch may
occur. While code-switching had previously been investigated as a matter of peripheral
importance within the more narrow tradition of research on bilingualism, it has now moved into
a more general focus of interest for sociolinguists, psycholinguists and also general linguists.
Code-switching can be related to and indicative of group membership in particular types of
bilingual speech communities, such that the regularities of the alternating use of two or more
languages within one conversation may vary to a considerable degree between speech
communities and that intra-sentential code-switching, where it occurs, may be constrained by
syntactic and morphosyntactic factors which may or may not be universal in nature
(Zirker, 2007).
Approaches in the Study of Code-switching
Code-switching is a naturally occurring phenomenon in bilingual speech, and it is
therefore not surprising that a great proportion of researches on bilingualism focuses on this
area. Most researchers, who have paid attention to code-switching, have however been
concerned with the sociological interpretation and discourse functions of code-switching. There
are three main approaches in the study of code-switching: the Socio-Pragmatic Approach , of
code-switching in which linguists who do not specialize in bilingualism often automatically
assume that research in code-switching means sociolinguistic research. It is certainly an
interesting issue to investigate when and why a speaker chooses one linguistic variety rather
than another: this can be explained by stylistic or metaphorical motivation, where factors such
as the interlocutor, social role, domain, topic, venue, medium, and type of interaction play an
important role. In this case, language alternation can also serve as a conversational cue,
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expressing attitudes towards language or marking linguistic identity (Tabouret- Keller 1995, in
Auer 1998). Another approach that emerged only in recent years has research on the patterns
of code-switching is the grammatical structure which has become increasingly focused on in
bilingualism research (Myers-Scotton 2002). Researchers in this field discuss the types of code-
switching structures that are possible within a given data set. It is possible to offer interesting
indications about the underlying structure of language systems by analyzing code-switching
constraints. For instance, the points within a sentence at which the transition from one
language to the other is possible. This approach can be described as the grammatical approach
to code-switching ( Auer, 1998). Beside this merely systematic aspect, there is a third approach
to code-switching that has not yet been widely considered, but which has been discussed by
Michael Clyne in a number of his publications ( Clyne 1967, 1991, 2003). This third aspect is
psycholinguistically motivated code-switching which states that language alternation that is
prompted not by the intentions of the speaker but by the specific conditions of language
production. In this case it is not the use of language (as in the sociolinguistically conditioned
approach) nor the system (as in the grammatical approach) that is the focus of discussion
but the processes taking place in the speakers brain:1 lexical items that are similar or identical
in both languages can function as a trigger for the alternation from one language to another.
Such instances provide interesting insights into the processes of mental representation of
bilingualism on the one hand and bilingual language processing on the other. In contrast to
socio-pragmatically conditioned code-switching, the speaker in this case does not alter the
language with a specific conversational aim. This means that the code-switching has no
function in the local conversational context, especially when the global interactional behaviour
(Franceschini 1998) is based on code-switching, for example when languages or codes are not
discrete in a given context (Franceschini 1998 speaks of non-functional uses of CS [code-

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switching]). Because of the obvious difference between these two types of code-switching. In
both cases, the sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic approach, the focus is on the speaker who
uses the different codes, whereas the grammatical approach focuses on the language system.
Franceschini (1998) calls it the dual focus, in which the speaker uses several codes
simultaneously for a longer period of time. She points out that this takes place in less normative
contexts and in situations where code-switching is highly accepted at a macro-social level. She
even gives evidence that in this case code-switching can be acquired directly without a full
knowledge of both languages involved.
Myers-Scotton notes the effectiveness of code-switching in defining social rights and
obligations in interactions in East Africa and suggests that linguistic choices can be explained in
terms of speaker motivation. In her most recent article (Myers-Scotton & Bolonyai, 2001), she
develops her Markedness Model into a Rational Choice Model by considering the speakers
experiences of linguistic choice and rationality, based on available resources other than the
social context and situational factors as both a mechanism and an explanation of code-
switching. Simply put, this Rational Choice approach aims to take into account of the speakers
own subjective motivations and their objective opportunities (Myers-Scotton & Bolonyai, 2001)
in their language choice. This model assumes that speakers choice of one language over
another is individual decision which is rationally based (Myers-Scotton & Bolonyai, 2001)
In contrast, Auer (1998) points out that in the models proposed by Blom and Gumperz (1972)
and Myers-Scotton (1993), one must assume the appropriate choice of language for the
occasion before any unexpected language choice could be interpreted. Thus, Auer (1998)
argues that code-switching is a serious conversational activity and be analyzed as a
contextualization cue. Auer (1995) applies a conversation analysis (CA) approach to analyze the
procedures to establish the participants interpretation of code-switching. Auer (1995) also

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distinguishes between participant-related and discourse-related code-switching. The former is
motivated by the language preferences, or the participants competences, and the latter plays a
role in structuring conversational acts including turn-taking and repair.
MacSwan (1999, 2000) develops a model of intra-sentential code-switching in which
items may be drawn from the lexicon of multiple (discretely represented) languages (two, in the
simple case) to introduce features into the lexical array, which must then be checked for
convergence in just the same way as monolingual features must be checked, with no special
mechanisms permitted. The requirements are simply carried along with the lexical items
of the respective systems. On this view, the relevant theory of code-switching is stated as in
(2) Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars.
Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars. Note
that (2) is a theory of code-switching, and not part of the theory of grammar. Indeed, (2)
implies that no rule or principle of grammar may make explicit reference to code-switching, nor
to the identities of particular languages. The phonological component, responsible for mapping
the lexical array to PF, is of a very different character from the syntax. Phonological rules build
structure in a way that syntax does not, and in doing so they often refer to specific
morphological material with its phonetic content. Chomsky (1995) and others have pointed out
that the mapping to the phonetic form is very different from the syntactic component of the
grammar. Thus, while syntactic operations may apply at any time, operations of the
phonological component must apply in a particular order, as Bromberger and Halle (1989) have
also pointed out.
The study of the alternate use of two or more languages in conversation has developed
in two distinct but related directions: Structural and Sociolinguistic. The structural approach to
CS is primarily concerned with its grammatical aspects. Its focus is to identify syntactic and
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morphosyntactic constraints on CS. The sociolinguistic approach, on the other hand, sees CS
primarily as a discourse phenomenon focusing its attention on questions such as how social
meaning is created in CS and what specific discourse functions it serves. It should be noted at
the outset, however, that these approaches are not in contradiction, but complementary to
each other. The structural approach tries to identify the structural features of morphosyntactic
patterns underlying the grammar of CS, whereas the sociolinguistic approach builds on this in
its attempts to explain why bilingual speakers talk the way they do.
Code switching in adult conversations has been widely studied by researchers using
sociolinguistic, grammatical, and psycholinguistic approaches. Among them, the sociolinguistic
approach has been most influential. This approach focuses on bilinguals communicative
competence and motivation for code switching and code choice. Sociolinguists argue that one
should investigate bilinguals language use and code switching not only in terms of linguistic
rules, but more importantly, the rules of language use that are shared by the members of the
community to accomplish communicative functions (Romaine, 1989).
Sociolinguistic Studies of Code-switching
There is generally little doubt that the phenomenon of code switching is as old as that of
language contact leading to bilingualism. Argenter (2001), for example, discusses code
th th
switching between Hebrew and Catalan in texts from the 14 and 15 centuries. Formal interest
th
in the phenomenon of code switching can be traced back to the early 20 century, when
Espinoza (1917) reported on code switching between English and Spanish in New Mexico and
southern Colorado, USA. Espinoza (1917) focused on the influence of English on Spanish, the
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L1 of the majority of the regions population at the time, suggesting that this was due largely to
the perceived superiority of English in the commercial and political spheres. According to
Espinoza (1917), such code switching was not governed by any detectable laws or limits. Some
five decades later, Weinreich (1963) suggested the phones [T] and [D] do not occur in
Afrikaans, and are occasionally substituted by [f] and [v] by less fluent Afrikaans speakers of L2
English. Furthermore, final consonant devoicing is characteristic of Afrikaans, and can be seen
here to affect the final consonant of the English food. Subordinate clauses with an overt
complementiser in Afrikaans, unlike those of English, are verb-final. The study of code switching
that the ideal bilingual switches from one language to another according to appropriate
changes in the speech situation but, certainly not within a single sentence, reflecting the
structuralist preoccupation with language integrity. Following this early interest in code
switching as one of many language contact phenomena, a number of researchers have
presented evidence to the contrary, suggesting that there are indeed rules according to which
codes may be switched within sentences. Constraints on code switching in terms of both social
factors and grammatical structure have been proposed. What follows is a discussion of a
number of these proposals.
Among the first in-depth studies of the role of social factors in code-switching was that
by Blom and Gumperz (1972). Blom and Gumperz (1972) based their ethnolinguistic study of
code switching between Bokml and Ranaml in Hemnesberget, Norway on Bernsteins (1961)
suggestion that social and affective factors play a role in the speech mode adopted by
speakers. On the basis of their research, Blom and Gumperz (1972) suggest that speakers code
choices are patterned and predictable on the basis of certain features of the local social
system. Blom and Gumperz (1972) go on to distinguish between two types of code switching,
namely metaphorical switching, which takes place with a change of topic, and situational
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switching, in which speakers switch languages due to a change in their perceptions of one
anothers rights and obligations. Gumperz and Hernandz-Chavz (1976) take the study of the
social meaning of code switching further in their study of Spanish-English code switching, where
they suggest that code switching is a behavioural strategy reflecting notions of ethnic identity
and confidentiality (Gumperz and Hernandz-Chavz 1976). The distinction between situational
and metaphorical code switching is further discussed by Gumperz (1982), who likens situational
switching to diglossia, in which one observes functional specialisation of languages or varieties,
and a specific language or variety is deemed appropriate in a specific communicative situation.
For example, a formal variety is used in educational settings, whereas an informal variety is
used to discuss family affairs. Such diglossia differs from metaphorical code switching, in which
Gumperz (1982) suggests that the relationship between language and social context is more
complex. On the basis of code switching data from three language pairs, namely German-
Slovenian, English-Hindi, and Spanish-English, Gumperz (1982) goes on to discuss a number of
conversational functions of code switching, namely quotation, addressee specification,
interjection, reiteration, message qualification, and personification vs. objectification. A major
contribution to the literature on the role of social factors in code switching has been made by
Myers-Scotton ( among others, Myers-Scotton and Ury 1975; Scotton 1982, 1983, 1988; Myers-
Scotton 1993a, 1998). In terms of social motivations for code switching, Myers-Scotton (1993)
proposes the Markedness Model. Modelled on Grices (1975) co-operative principle, Myers-
Scotton (1993) proposes a so-called negotiation principle underlying code choices in code
switching contexts. This negotiation principle entails that speakers choose the form of their
utterances in accordance with the set of rights and obligations (RO set) which they wish to be
in force in a particular communicative exchange (Myers-Scotton 1993; Myers-Scotton 1998).
Myers-Scotton (1998) further proposes that speakers possess a markedness evaluator, which
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allows them (i) to recognise that there is a continuum of linguistic choices of varying degrees of
markedness in terms of discourse type, and (ii) to comprehend that addressees will react
differently to marked vs. unmarked choices. All code choices can thus be explained in terms of
speaker motivations, these motivations being linked to speakers perceptions of socially
appropriate RO sets. Speakers choose and switch codes in such a manner as to index these RO
sets. The Markedness Model proposes to account for four types of code switching. Firstly,
speakers may engage in code switching as a sequence of unmarked choices, by which codes
are switched in order to index any change in the RO set (Myers-Scotton 1993). Secondly, code
switching itself may be the unmarked choice, as when code switching is the pattern which
carries the desired communicative intention (Myers-Scotton 1993). Thirdly, a speaker may
engage in code switching as the marked choice, whereby s/he disidentifies with the expected
RO set, wishing to establish a new RO set as unmarked for a particular communicative
exchange (Myers-Scotton 1993). Finally, code switching may be an exploratory choice, as when
the speaker is unsure of what is expected or optimal, and wishes to find out which code choice
will match his/her desired RO set (Myers-Scotton 1993). In addition to this work on
sociolinguistic aspects of code switching, more recent work by Myers-Scotton (cf. Myers-Scotton
1993; Jake, Myers-Scotton and Gross 2002) focuses on structural aspects of code switching.
Zabrodskaja (2007) proposed that the main reason why learners code-switching had
not been exhaustively studied in the 1970s-1980s was the fact that learners were seldom
allowed to code-switch freely, and authentic data are hard to get (Legenhausen 1991). During
those years, the traditional and stereotypical view of code-switching was that it is a completely
haphazard mixture of two languages (Legenhausen 1991). Traditionally, SLA has been
interested in L2 acquisition in a more or less formal setting: the pronunciation of an L2, the
grammar of the L2 etc. (Ellis, 2000; Gass & Selinker, 2001; de Bot, et al. 2005).
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The 1990s saw a growing body of classroom-based research on the use of code-switching as a
contextualization cue (Martin-Jones, 2000). This term was developed by Gumperz (1982) and
refers to any choices of verbal or non-verbal forms within a communicative encounter which
interlocutors recognize as marked; that is, choices which depart from an established or
expected pattern of communication. In a comprehensive review of the research on code-
switching in the classroom, Martin-Jones (2000) points out that the first significant
breakthroughs were made in early 1980s when researchers began to work with audio-
recordings of classroom interactions, analyses took a more linguistic turn, and studies began to
focus on analysis of classroom discourse functions (Martin-Jones, 2000). A number of other
researchers have made significant contributions to the literature on sociolinguistic aspects of
code switching. Valds-Fallis (1976), for example, focuses on Spanish-English code switching,
distinguishing types such as situational, metaphorical, and contextual code switching. In later
work, Valds (1981) describes code switching as an interactional strategy, on the basis of a
study of direct and indirect requests in which Spanish and English are switched. Kachru (1978;
1983) discusses various social motivations for code switching in India between Indian
languages and English, as well as classifying types of code switching on the basis of such
Indian-English data. Heller (1988) discusses the strategic use of code switching for stylistic,
conversation management and social significance effects, drawing on Canadian French-English
code switching data. Appel and Muysken (1987), in discussing various language contact
phenomena, propose a number of social functions of code switching, namely referential,
directive, expressive, phatic, and metalinguistic functions. Gardner-Chloros (1991) reports on
French-Alsatian code switching as marked and unmarked choice in Strasbourg. Treffers-Daller
(1992; 1994) focuses on social factors playing a role in French-Dutch code switching in Brussels.
Finally, Clyne (2003) considers the role of code switching in the context of a range of language
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contact phenomena such as language shift and convergence, focusing on Dutch and German in
contact with English in Australia.
Pedagogical Implications of Code-switching
Code switching is a widely observed phenomenon especially seen in multilingual and
multicultural communities. In ELT classrooms, code-switching comes into use either in the
teachers or the students discourse. Although it is not favoured by many educators, one should
have at least an understanding of the functions of switching between the native language and
the foreign language and its underlying reasons. This understanding will provide language
teachers with a heightened awareness of its use in classroom discourse and will obviously lead
to better of instruction by either eliminating it or dominating its use during the foreign language
instruction Sert (2005). Alternation between languages in the form of code switching is a widely
observed phenomenon in foreign language classrooms. Numan and Carter briefly define the
term as a phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse.
Following this definition, discourse will be handled as the students and teachers naturally
occurring language use in classroom settings throughout this paper. Additionally, the languages
between which alternation is performed are the native language of the students, and the
foreign language that students are expected to gain competence in. It his study, Sert (2005) he
concluded that code switching in language classroom is not always a blockage or deficiency in
learning a language, but may be considered as a useful strategy in classroom interaction, if the
aim is to make meaning clear and to transfer the knowledge to students in an efficient way. Yet,
it should be kept in mind that in long term, when the students experience interaction with the
native speakers of the target language; code switching may be a barrier which prevents mutual
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intelligibility. Accordingly, the teacher has a vital role for preventing its long-term damages on
foreign language learning process.
Valdes-Fallis and Guadalope (2008) proposed that code-switching has been found
to be neither random nor meaningless, nor does it necessarily reflect language weakness.
Rather, code switching is a device that conveys social information (concerning, for example,
role relationships) or that is used as a stylistic process (e.g., to add color or emphasis to an
utterance). Code switching also seems to be rule-governed, with mastery of the structure of
both languages a prerequisite. Code switching will not usually take place in the monolingual
English classroom. In the bilingual Spanish/English classroom, it has been found that (1) code
switching takes place primarily during Spanish instruction; (2) students seem to follow a
teacher's switching pattern; and (3) Spanish is used essentially to teach the lesson, while
English is used for classroom control. The implications for bilingual education are varied and
complex. Policies concerning language use in bilingual schools must reflect the goals of the
bilingual program. Until such goals are established, teachers should accept code switching as
universal and creative verbal behavior among bilinguals.
There can be little doubt that one of the main reasons for the present interest in
the study of the varieties of languages and their implications for language teaching is the way
in which these varieties impinge on one another. Mixed populations from different ethnic
sources, geographical areas, and language backgrounds find their representations in and out of
the classroom. These studies show that in the classrooms where different language varieties are
found, students often do not respond to the teacher's control, directions, or questions. It is
necessary to study whole interactions to see whether delayed communication acts are not
random lapses, but part of an alternative communication strategy on the part of the children
who use them. Teachers and all others in "intervariety" situations require as full and detailed an
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awareness as possible of the features, the communication conventions, and the cultural
assumptions of the particular variety of English which they themselves use and of the language
varieties with which they are most likely to be dealing. Teachers thus aware of the effects of
varieties, and with a range of appropriate skills from which to choose will be able to build in
their students from the earliest stages of language learning a similar sensitivity toward their
own and other varieties of English (Alastair, 2001).
The role of code-switching in bilingual classrooms remains controversial ( Ramirez,
2005). Jacobson (1979) favors code-switching for pedagogical purposes. For instance, lexical
enrichment, conceptual development, capturing the students attention. But he advocated that
only intersentential switching (between sentences, each sentence in either L1 or L2) be used.
The teacher mat accept the intrasentential (the use of both LL1 and L2 within a sentence)
code-switching the child brings to class but the teacher should use full sentences in both
languages. Gonazales and Maez (1980 in Ramirez, 2005) make the following recommendations:
the teacher should ensure that when the child is engage n intrasentential code-switching, the
word switched to English is in his repertoire. In short, the teacher should ensure that the switch
is not brought about by lack of the equivalent word in L1. The ability to code-switch should not
be allowed to develop at the expense of L1. The child should develop code-switching abilities in
addition to skills in two languages. Intersentential code-switching exhibiting the childs ability to
produce full utterances in both lanaguages, does not pose the same threat to full development
of L1 skills as does intrasentential code-switching.
Code switching has long been stigmatized in education (Crowl and MacGinitie, 1974;
Lara, 1989; Ramirez & Milk; 1986). Myers-Scotton (1993) pointed out that earlier studies of
bilingualism treat code switching as a linguistic deficiency of the bilinguals who are not well
developed in either language that they use. Children who switch between languages tend to be
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considered as less developed in their abilities to master standard English, a prerequisite for
academic success. International Reading Association (IRA) and National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (1998) once more brought our attention to this negative
view of linguistic diversity in education. They stated, Unfortunately teachers too often react
negatively to childrens linguistic and cultural diversity, equating difference with deficit. In
schools, bilingual children are generally assessed according to how well they can read and write
in the standard English. Non-standard or mixed speech in particular has been considered
problematic. Bilingual children who engage themselves in code switching are questioned about
their academic abilities and potentials, and they are more likely to be placed in remedial classes
(Lara, 1989).
The education community has paid little attention to the simultaneous development
of the two languages in bilingual children. In particular, bilingual childrens mixing of languages
in the process of language acquisition has been viewed unfavorably by the mainstream society,
and it has been the least systematically studied (Romaine, 1989). As a result, there is a great
need to examine bilingual childrens code switching behavior in an educational setting so that a
more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon can be reached and be used to inform
the instructional practices of the teachers of bilingual children in American schools.
Ruan (2003) in his study said that code switching studies have pedagogical
implication for bilingual teaching, the development of bilingual instructional materials, and the
evaluation of bilinguality. This study suggests that as with bilingual adults, code switching is
employed as communicative devices by bilingual children. Young bilingual Chinese/English
children code-switched during their speech in order to realize different functions, such as social
function, pragmatic function, and meta-linguistic function.
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Ruan (2003) in his other study found out that among bilingual children, code
switching should not be used as an indicator of bilingual childrens English language learning
abilities. Children should not be discriminated against by the school or the teachers if they are
engaged in code switching behaviors. Instead, when teachers understand this language
phenomenon and the advantages it provides for bilingual children, they can help these children
improve their literacy through using their own linguistic funds of knowledge (Moll,1992). The
evidence from this study strongly supports the argument that there is a great need for
educators to view bilingual childrens code switching behaviors in a positive light. IRA and
NAEYC (1998) express a similar stance by stating, Linguistically and culturally diverse children
bring multiple perspectives and impressive skills, such as code switching (the ability to go back
and forth between two languages to deepen conceptual understanding), to the tasks of learning
to speak, read, and write a second language. These self-motivated, self-initiating, constructive
thinking processes should be celebrated and used as rich teaching and learning resources for all
children.
When we accept code switching as a natural and constructive behavior in bilingual
discourse, we can enhance the instructional effects when teaching linguistic minority children in
different multilingual schools. Allowing bilingual students to use their linguistic and cultural
resources supports their learning needs (Laliberty and Berzins, 2000), and building on childrens
understanding of their native languages can increase their chance for academic success (Flood,
Lapp, & Hurley, 1996).
Currently, bilingualism and bilingual education are under heated debate and scrutiny in
the public and political forums. Although a small-scaled study, the information gathered from
this cross-linguistic study has significant educational implications. The researcher also calls for
more studies on code switching and other language contact phenomena in public school
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settings so that educators can obtain a better understanding of how bilingual children use
languages and learn through languages. With more students coming from different linguistic
backgrounds, teachers are more likely to face children demonstrating code switching
behaviors. Studies of this nature can help teachers provide appropriate instructional support to
maximize bilingual childrens learning.
Simon (2001) in Zabrodskaja (2007) raises the question whether the methodology used
for analyzing social code-switching is adequate in the classroom context. Code-switching can be
exploited as part of actual teaching methodology. When the teacher knows the language of the
students, the classroom itself is a setting that potentially elicits code-switching. Code-switching
is inevitable in the classroom if the teacher and students share the same languages and should
be regarded as a natural component of a bilinguals behaviour. Systematic investigations of
learners code-switching are undertaken by Arnfast and Jrgensen (2003), who show how code-
switching may develop into a bilingual competence in learners within the first year of intensive
training. Bilingual teachers use two languages to teach the academic content. Within the
context of lessons, they switch between the languages in at least three ways: (a) spontaneously,
(b) for direct translation, or (c) intentionally. Teachers may decide on the spot when L1 should
be used and when a switching to L2 is appropriate in order to enable comprehension and
meaningful involvement of students (Cook, 2001). More often, however, teachers are unaware
of the fact that they are switching; i.e., switches are made unconsciously (Tikunoff, 1985;
Ovando & Collier, 1985; Mattson & Burenhult, 1999). An exception to unconscious code
switching or translation is the New Concurrent Approach (NCA) (Jacobson, 1981) which focuses
on purposeful and systematic alternation of languages by bilingual teachers within the context
of teaching a lesson. Both spontaneous and purposeful code switching or language alternation
as studied by Tikunoff (1985) and Valds-Fallis (1978), or as proposed by Jacobson (1981),

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focuses on the bilingual teachers use of language during classroom lessons. Rodolpho Jacobson
(1981) has proposed and tested a model which incorporates the use of code-switching in the
teaching of content courses in bilingual courses. There are pros and cons to the application of
the concurrent approach that is using two or more languages in the same context. The NCA
advocated here resulted from a desire to bring together the childs two languages in a way that
would further the childs language development and, at the same time, lead to satisfactory
school performance. In Jacobsons research, the following issues are addressed: (1) the extent
to which the childs native language must be developed for success in learning a second
language; (2) the extent to which the home language should be used in school; (3) the extent
to which first language maintenance in the primary grades would not interfere with the
transition to English in postprimary education; (4) the extent to which the use of both
languages would lead to an understanding of the bilingual functioning of some sectors of our
society; and (5) the extent to which school subjects could be learned through two languages.
These issues are discussed in terms of the curriculum, the social situation of the classroom, the
content lesson, and various aspects of staff development and teacher training.
Cook (2001) in Zabrodskaja (2007) claims that SLA research does not provide any
reason for avoiding L1 in the classroom. Otherwise, there are purposes of code-switching during
lectures and the systematical use of can be:
1. a way into the meaning of the second language;
2. a short cut in explaining tasks;
3. a way of explaining grammar;
4. a way of demonstrating the classroom is a real L2 situation, not a fake monolingual
situation.
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Zabrodskaja (2007) added that code-switching in the university classroom is both
inevitable and necessary. It is not only a part of communicative resources of a bilingual
repertoire but also an active part in the learning experience. Jacobson has developed a teaching
method known as the NCA (Jacobson and Faltis, 1990), which gets teachers to balance the use
of the two languages within a single lesson. In his study about code-switching milieu, the
students and the teacher speak Russian as L1 and Estonian as L2; however, the former have a
more limited knowledge of Estonian. Thus, the interactions are characterized by the different
mastery of Estonian by the participants. A switch to L1, whether initiated by the teacher or the
student, increases attention to the content of L2 message and facilitates understanding. One
word, one phrase or even one sentence code-switching is very common in students speech or
written works. This kind of code-switch helps to bridge a gap in the discourse and plays a role
of compensatory strategy. The results show that during lectures or seminars students use
Russian as the language they feel most comfortable with and have greater competence in. In
the informal situations Estonian as L2 can fulfill a wide range of functions from changing topic
to showing expressivity.
Kasperczyk (2007) in his study Implementing Code-switching in the Classroom
suggested that code-switching can be used by teachers by integrating it into the activities used
to teach a second language. By having students get in pairs and switch languages at pre-
determined points in conversation, it helps them to learn each others language. Teachers can
also begin a lesson in one language, then switch to another language, forcing the children to
listen carefully and comprehend both languages (Skiba, 1997). However, code- switching can
be seen as a language interference in the classroom. This would put those who are not
bilingual at a disadvantage, because they would not be able to communicate effectively. Code
switching can be both beneficial and a possible language interference, However, code switching
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can be seen as a language interference in the classroom. Students may see code switching as
an acceptable form of communication in society, and would feel comfortable switching
languages in every day normal conversation. This would put those who are not bilingual at a
disadvantage, because they would not be able to communicate effectively. Code-switching can
be both beneficial and a possible language interference, depending on the situation and the
context in which it occurs (Skiba, 1997, in Kasperczyk 2007).
Kasperczyk (2007) proposed the Functions of Teacher Code-Switching. In this article,
The functions of teacher code switching are known as topic switch, affective functions, and
repetitive functions. In topic switching, the teacher alters his or her language according to the
topic being taught. This is mainly seen in grammar instruction, and the students attention is
directed towards the new knowledge. Affective functions are important in the expression of
emotions, and building a relationship between the teacher and the student. In repetitive
functions, code switching is used to clarify the meaning of a word, and stresses importance on
the foreign language content for better comprehension (Sert, 2005). He also added Functions
of Student Code-Switching The functions of code switching for students are known as
equivalence, floor-holding, reiteration, and conflict control. Equivalence gives the student the
opportunity to communicate without gaps because of incompetence. Floor-holding is used when
a student cannot remember a word, and uses their native language to avoid a break in
communication. Reiteration helps the student to become more competent in the language they
are trying to learn. Conflict control may be used to avoid misunderstanding when a child does
not use a correct meaning in communication (Sert, 2005). Another implication he had drawn is
the Comprehension of Code-Switched Words Research shows that several factors influence
the comprehension of code switched words. Bilinguals tend to comprehend code switched
words faster when there is a phonological overlap between the two languages. Other factors
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include context, phonetics, words pronounced the same (homophonic), and words spelled the
same (homographic). Other research indicates that language dominance, which language is
used more frequently, is important in code switching. It is shown the Spanish- English speaking
bilinguals use code switching more when they have conversations in Spanish than when they do
in English. Evidence also suggests that bilinguals retrieve English code switched words faster
when they listen to Spanish sentences, and are slower to retrieve Spanish code-switched words
in English sentences. Code-switched words may be retrieved faster than monolingual words,
but only if the code switched word is in English, and the language of communication is Spanish.
This suggests a reliance on a bilinguals second language rather than the first. The idea behind
this view is that a language shift occurs where the second language behaves as if it were the
first language, after a certain level of fluency and frequent use has occurred. The second
language becomes more accessible and bilinguals tend to rely on it more (Duran, 1994).
Ahmad (2009) in his study Teachers Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions
for Low English Proficient Learners Teachers Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions
for Low English Proficient Learners, he concluded that in ensuring that learners possess the
necessary affective support and that they succeed in their language learning, teachers can
code-switch between English and Malay systematically to perform the appropriate functions.
Teachers, nevertheless, need to be reminded that code-switching is a measure or a strategy to
ensure transfer of comprehensible input from the teachers to the learners. Systematic use of
code-switching to serve certain functions can ensure learning success. Code-switching is not an
allowance for teachers to use L1 excessively whenever they want to. Code-switching should be
considered as a strategy and not to be taken as a teaching method. Overall, the results of his
indicated that the learners have a positive perception of teachers code-switching in the
ELT/ESL classrooms. The study concluded that: (1) Teachers code-switching serves various
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functions in the classrooms. (2) Teachers code-switching is significantly associated with
learners affective support.
Abad (2005) claimed that, Taglish, a code-switching variety that refers to the
combination of Tagalog and English, is used by a whole generation of youngsters, some of
whom were elite private school students who (had) not been spared from becoming
semilinguals themselves . The term Taglish is a misnomer because in truth, it refers to the
combination of Filipino and English and not Tagalog and English from which the term was
derived. It is technically correct to say that Taglish borrows from both English and Filipino.
For a long period of time, code-switching was viewed as a deficiency rather than as n
important linguistic tool available to bilingual speakers (Amastae, Elias- Olivares, 1982 in
Wilkinson, 1987). From a language competence perspective however code-switching and
language choice by children are indicators of their bilingual abilities. As children become more
competent in another language, they can switch languages at different levels.
Generally, code-switching in informal contexts is not contested, but research is divided
on the matter of allowing code-switching in the classroom. On the local front, Inductivo (1994)
cites the studies of Menil (1980), Braganza (1988), Tito (1984), and Abad (2005) as supportive
of classroom code-switching. Similarly, international studies of Rivers (1984), Cabarteja (1991),
Faersch and Kasper (1983), Corson (1988), Lin (2001), and Edham (1997) maintain that
classroom code-switching should be allowed. This is due to the supposed advantages that code-
switching gives to learning.
Various studies had shown that code-switching benefited students and teachers. Taglish
was the preferred language for discussion of a majority of students and teachers for a science
class (Menil, 1980) and this was also true for a study on a Biology class (Braganza, 1988) where
codeswitching rather than Filipino was perceived to be used better for explanations.
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Codeswitching was also known to improve class participation (Tito, 1984) by inducing a relaxed
class atmosphere that allows students to recite more often. Abad (2005) noted that
codeswitching managed to lower the affective filter, and this consequently established rapport
and created an atmosphere of informality. Lee (2006) likewise contends that the discourse in a
math classroom should not be so different from the discourse used by students outside the
classroom. The similarity in the discourses will allow students to contribute in classroom
discussions and bridge any social and cultural gap.
On the other hand, research that presents the disadvantages of code-switching also
abound. A study of Payawal-Gabriel and Reyes-Otero (2006) shows that the code-switching of
mathematics teachers was said to negatively affect learning. Their analysis reveals that
teachers code-switching confused students and consequently affected their lesson
comprehension. In short, students whose teachers discussed and explained with less disruption
like code mixing, code-switching, and marked definitions had higher achievement. However, a
related study on how code-switching as a medium of instruction affects students attitude and
achievement in a science class (Inductivo, 1994) displayed that code-switching did not help nor
impede pupil achievement. Despite this finding, Inductivo (1994) recommended that provisions
be created for codeswitching in classroom interactions.
In the Philppine classroom, Borlongan (2009) conducted a study entitled Tagalog-
English Code-Switching in English Classes: Frequency and Forms. Shrouded by questions on
code-switching in the context of English language classes in the Philippines, her study analyzed
a total of 14 English language classes whose discourses have already been transcribed and
compiled in a teacher language corpus. The analysis focused on the frequency of teachers and
students code-switches in those classes as well as the forms of the code-switches of both the
teachers and students. The analysis showed the data reveals that most English language
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teachers in the samplecode-switch and therefore violate the implementing policy (Bilingual
Education Policy) and they code-switch in around less than five to almost fifty utterances or a
little less than fifteen, at the average, in the entire class session. students also have their share
of code-switching in class sessions. However, though the instances of code-switching could be
claimed to be significant, ones tendency to code-switch is more of an individual-specific trait.
Tagalog-English code-switching in the data are most in the form of or strategy smooth-
code-switching, at almost four-fifth of the total number of code-switches in the data.
Constituent insertion follows but very, very from smooth switching. Nonce borrowings and non-
smooth switches are relatively few.
According to Durano (2009), Attitudes Towards English and Fil-English Code-switching
Amongst High School Students in Ormoc City code-switching is an interesting linguistic activity
which is worth looking at from a pedagogical point of view. It signifies different social and
cultural functions in post-colonial territories such as the Philippines. Code-switching is pertinent
to different language teaching strategies e.g. the teaching approach. The Philippines has been
code-switching for over 30 years and Fil-English code-switching is now an established lingua
franca. Subsequently, the data to be found is of great number. Most bilingual speech
communities suffer from language imbalances. One language may be valued higher than the
other. This depends on different factors associated with particular languages. This study may
provide essential information and understanding of students learning motivation by looking at
students attitudes towards their languages. The students assessment of their languages may
also provide teachers with new insights on how specific languages influence the students
ambition to learn. Roger Thompson in his book entitled Filipino English and Taglish-Language
Switching from Multiple Perspectives in Durano (2009), suggests that Filipinos code-switch
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between English and Filipino because: English was indigenized in the Philippines from 1898 to
1946. When Philippines became an independent commonwealth in 1936, the rise of the Filipino
language created a linguistic tension between English and Filipino; Bilingual Education Scheme
was implemented in 1987 which gave way to the officialization of Fil-English (Thompson, 2003).
In addition, Thompson claims that English is mostly associated by Filipinos with better
opportunities for higher education and better employment. According to Bautista (2004) in
Durano (2009), there are two contrasting types of code-switching in the Philippines namely
proficiency-driven codeswitching and deficiency-driven code-switching. Proficiency driven code-
switching is when the speaker is competent in both Filipino and
English and can easily switch from one to the other, for maximum effect. Proficiency-
driven code-switchers switch codes for precision, for transition, for comic effect, for
atmosphere, for bridging or creating social distance, for snob appeal and for secrecy (Goulet,
1971, in Durano 2009). Deficiency-driven code-switching is when the speaker is not fully
competent in the use of one language and therefore has to utilize both languages.
In Duranos study he posited positive and negative results: participants are positive
towards English. Participants state that English has positive professional and social implications.
English is significant for academic and professional success. It also aids effortless international
communication. Reasons for Positive Attitudes Towards Code-switching are then explained.
(1) Education, Employment & Socio-Economy. Code-switching signifies education and
professional success. According to participants, frequent code-switchers are intelligent and
educated people. Some participants also claim that code-switching makes, people think they
come from privileged families. They added that Fil-English also denotes that they are well
educated.They believe that Fil-English shows competence in both Filipino and English. They
also believe that code-switching signifies level of education and level of competence. They
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consider code-switching as a positive linguistic activity and a good learning technique because
according to them it is a good way to practice and master the English language. Participants
added that code-switching enhances their English speaking skills. They also consider Fil
English a helpful language learning activity because being familiar with English helps an
individual to find work easily. Most students pointed out that English is a necessity especially
during job interviews.(2) Communication. Students argue that code-switching is a good
communicative practice which aids communication both in local and international domains.
Code-switching also helps to attain information transparency because the individual can
express himself/herself better if he/she code-switches. Furthermore, students maintain that Fil
English aids comprehension between speakers, specifically because some people [Filipinos] do
not particularly understand the uncommon words in Bisaya-based Filipino. They added that,
there are words in Filipino which are very difficult to explain and to understand. Code
switching is a way to practice the English language because English helps us communicate with
people who are speakers of other languages other than Filipino.(3) Culture. Students attitudes
towards code-switching are favorable because they claim that Fil-English is a part of the
Philippine language culture. Respondents maintain that it is part of who they are and what
makes them a Filipino. In addition, they claim that it is difficult to totally disconnect English
from Filipino because English is their second language. Some added, that code-switching is
what they are accustomed to as part of their daily communication.(4) Impression. Students are
in favor of code-switching because it apparently elicits a good impression. It is favourable
because it is nice to listen to. They added that the more language they know the more they
will make a good impression to other people. However, some students claim that impression
depends on how speakers assess the type of code-switching. One student claims that
impressions depend on how they [code-switchers] deliver and use their communication skills.
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Participants added that they value the significance of language correctness and the code-
switchers proficiency in the English language. These are some of the influential factors that
contribute to successfully attain positive impression on to others and amongst themselves.
Finally, Fil-English is a social technique to gain respect.
Durano (2009) did not only show the positive implications of code-switching but the
negative as well. Some of the reasons are: (1)Ethno-linguistic Threat. Students say that code-
switching poses a threat to their ethno-linguistic identity. They claim that code-switching is
unfavourable because their children in the future will be confused with their languages. Some
students claim that Fil-English code-switching will just add difficulties in communication. They
argue that they have enough languages to deal with in the country. Moreover, some students
have an unfavourable experience of Fil-English. They claim that too much use of English in Fil-
English triggers scrutinizing questions such as Why do you frequently code-switch to English?
We are not Americans! Apparently, some participants argue that Fil-English is a way to
demonstratively show that their indigenous language is insufficient. Some participants assume
that code-switching is perceived as rude and an insult to the Filipino language. Consequently,
because they are Filipinos, they should only speak Filipino and code-switchers are challenged
to stop acting like an American. (2) Communication Breakdown. Participants believe that code-
switching contributes to communication breakdown. It makes the conversation hard to
understand. Some participants also argue that English in code-switching impedes
communication They also added that code-switching will most likely increase the probability of
misunderstanding due to incorrect pronunciation, erroneous use of words as well as a lack of
language consistency. The participants believe that people around them think that code-
switching is an unnatural medium of communication. Therefore people think that code-
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switching deters communication because their interlocutors are not accustomed to the English
language. Thus, code-switching could signify waste of time and effort. (3) Boastful Assertion
Participants claim that Fil-English is a social technique which is used to boastfully assert an
individuals education and socio-economic background. One student stated that as a code-
switcher people will think of him/her as a show-off. Moreover, code-switching is a way to gain
respect because it signifies socio-economic background i.e. wealth, education, intellectual
competence and social class. Some participants believe that as code-switchers, people around
them perceive them as individuals coming from a socially and economically privileged social
class. One student put it this way, as code-switchers, people will think we come from
privileged families, and that they are rich. Their attitude towards code-switching and
particularly their attitude towards the involvement of English in their daily repertoire are
believed to play an important role to gain respect and to make a positive impression on their
interlocutors. Again, marked code-switching refers to language choice in domains where
language switching is an unexpected pattern. Based on the findings, code-switching amongst
respondents could be further explained through speech accommodation theory where
participants as bilinguals converge or diverge their language depending on their interlocutors.
In his study, Durano (2009) also discovered that there are neutral attitudes towards
code-switching and there are several reasons: (1) Culture and Habit. Students believe that
code-switching is a part of their culture and it is a habitual language trend. One student claim,
Filipinos nowadays do not speak pure Filipino, they mix English all the time. Participants also
claim that code-switching is ok, because participants are just following the trend. They added
that code-switching is just a matter of adapting to the society. Further, they claim that Fil-
English is a necessity since they can not just stick to one language because they need English
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for better communication. Fil-English is also just adding another language. Furthermore,
participants are neutral towards code-switching because they believe that code-switching
is a learning technique to improve their knowledge in English. They claim that involvement of
English in code-switching is particularly important for international travel. Again, many
participants have their emphasis on English in Fil-English because it means upward mobility.
Many participants argue that code-switching is acceptable as long as it does not hinder
the communication between speakers.
Summary
Code-switching phenomenon in language is a natural occurrence for a bilingual or
multilingual individual and can be traced even from the year 1917 during the time of Espinosa.
It has been viewed differently by different authors and researchers in the field of language, and
one thing is common which is the involvement of two languages: the Native Language and the
Second language in which the speaker may use interchangeably. Among the many definitions
given, there is a clear cut characteristics for it, though all of the meanings speak about
alternating of two languages in one utterance. For instance, Hoffman distinguished the term
code-switching from borrowing in relation to how the speaker use the two languages. Another
outstanding work in the area of code-switching s that of Gumperz (1982) who defined it in
various perspectives. He gave six discourses functions of code-switching in conversational
analysis, and this study had been used by so many authors and researchers in finding more
results for their own studies about code-switching. Other researchers like Zirker (2007) even
gave a clear distinction of code-switching from other terms like code-mixing, code-changing, or
tag-switching. Other dominating studies would include like of Muysken, Myers-Scotton, Ashleigh
and Sert which distinguishes the different structures, ways, and features on how different
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individuals code-switch. Among the various definitions of code-switching, there are few things
which are common: code-switching is the use of two languages by an individual either n speech
or in written form; it can occur between speakers involved n a conversation or within a speech
turn of a single speaker; it can appear on several language level including syntactic,
phonological, and morphological levels; and it is a frequently and natural phenomenon which
occurs n bilinguals discourses.
From a single term, Code-switching (CS), various studies and investigations had
occurred which resulted to different perspectives, branches, and types of code-switching.
These may include the Situational Code-switching and Metaphorical Code-switching by
Gumperz (1972). In this types, he distinguished how a person uses code-switching when it s
situation driven or conversational strategy driven. Myers-Scotton (1993) however, had these
unmarked (conventional) and marked (unexpected) use of code-switching. It is using code-
switching in the speech community either because the entire speech group is expecting it or the
speaker choose to code-switch in his own preferences. Auer (1995), distinguished between
participant-related and discourse-related code-switching which is either motivated by the
language preferences or by the participants competences.
Because of the different areas and scope of code-switching studied by different
researchers, several approaches in the investigation also emerged. The study of code-switching
maybe looked into through a Socio-pragmatic Approach, Grammatical Approach,
Psycholinguistic Approach, Sociolinguistic Approach, etc. Among the different approaches, the
Sociolinguistic Studies of code-switching is dominating since, analysis, investigations and
researches would look into conversations happening in a speech community where code-
switching phenomenon occurs.
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In classroom discourses, code-switching has also pedagogical implications. Code-
switching is a widely observed phenomenon especially seen in a multilingual and multicultural
communities. It is a useful strategies in an ELT classrooms for both students and teachers.
According to Ramirez (2005) even n todays classroom scenarios, the role of code-switching in a
bilingual learners. Various studies had shown that code-switching benefited students and
teachers. On the other hand, there are also researches that presents the disadvantages of
code-switching inside the classroom. For a long period of time, code-switching was viewed as a
deficiency rather than as n important linguistic tool available to bilingual speakers (Amastae,
Elias- Olivares, 1982 in Wilkinson, 1987). From a language competence perspective however
code-switching and language choice by children are indicators of their bilingual abilities. As
children become more competent in another language, they can switch languages at different
levels. Code-switching can be both beneficial and a possible language interference, depending
on the situation and the context in which it occurs (Skiba, 1997, in Kasperczyk 2007). For
instance, code-switching code be used effectively by bilingual learners but may put confusion to
students who are not bilinguals. But generally, bilingual teachers use two languages to teach
the academic content. Within the context of lessons, they switch between the languages in at
least three ways: (a) spontaneously, (b) for direct translation, or (c) intentionally. Teachers may
decide on the spot when L1 should be used and when a switching to L2 is appropriate in order
to enable comprehension and meaningful involvement of students (Cook, 2001). More often,
however, teachers are unaware of the fact that they are switching; i.e., switches are made
unconsciously (Tikunoff, 1985; Ovando & Collier, 1985; Mattson & Burenhult, 1999).
In the Philippines, code-switching ay also refer to as Tag-lish, Most prominent studies are those
of Bautista and Durano. In his study, Durano (2009) also discovered that there are neutral
attitudes towards code-switching and there are several reasons: (1) Culture and Habit.
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Students believe that code-switching is a part of their culture and it is a habitual language trend.
However, some students claim that Fil-English code-switching will just add difficulties in
communication
Various changes in the educational implications have been viewed by researchers. It has
been evolving sing Espinosa had first coined the term. Since then, code-switching had been
viewed positive and negatively as classroom strategy especially in teaching English as a Second
Language. Generally, implications in language teaching are major premise why studes have
been conducted about code-switching.
Chapter 3
Research Design and Methodology
This chapter is divided into seven parts: (1) Methodological Perspective, (2) The
Participants/Respondents, (3) Context of the Study, (4) The Instruments, (5) Data Gathering
Procedure, (6) Data Analysis, (7) Ethical Consideration
Methodological Perspective
This research endeavor is descriptive in nature. The main goal of this type of research
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is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied for a better
understanding. This research is also an exploration and thorough investigation of an existing
phenomenon which is code-switching. In qualitative research which is more concerned of
describing and analysis, Bowen (2005) stipulated three major paradigm in this area: positivistc,
interpretive, and critical. This proposed research used the interpretive paradigm which deals
with the observation of relevant data, gathering of support information, and intensive
interpretation of data gathered. In finding out the features, reasons of student teachers
code-switching , and how they code-switch inside the English classroom analysis, transcriptions,
and interviews will be used. Specifically, this research endeavor will use observations,
interviews, and questionnaires.
Triangulation by Method used by Bowen (2005) will be applied in this study.
Figure 1.
Interviews Documents
Observations
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The Participants/Respondents
The participants and respondents of the study will be the Bachelor in Secondary
Education student teachers of West Visayas State University who are having their practice
teaching during the Academic Year 2011-2012, with English as their field of specialization.
These student teachers are fourth year college students of the said school. Their age range
from 19 years old to 21 years old. The respondents will be selected through a purposive
sampling. Thus, the observation and interviews will be used to supplement the data
gathered from the utterances. Their personal profile will also be included in the study as
additional data that may serve as bases of some interpretations in the study. The personal
data instrument will be used to gather the information about the student teachers.
Table 2
Personal Data Table adopted from the study The functions of Code-switching in a Korean
Sunday School by Sun-Young Shin, Indiana University, Bloomington
Participants Age Gender Place of birth Language
Name Preferences
1.
2.
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3.
Context of the Study
Setting
The fieldwork study will take place at West Vsayas State University- Integrated
laboratory School. The school is at the center of a multilingual community where members
speak different languages like Hiligaynon, Tagalog, and English. About three fourth of the
population speak Hiligaynon and others speak different languages. Most of the students come
from the city of Iloilo, and few come from outside cities and municipalities.
The fieldwork study, transcriptions and analysis will start from November 07, 2011 to
December 2, 2011. The observation will take place every day, depending on the availability of
the English classes. The observation period will cover three to four weeks, equivalent to fifteen
to twenty school days. Period of time and frequency of observations may vary depending on the
substantiality of the gathered data.
Venue
The venue of the observations will be the West Visayas state University-Integrated
laboratory School classrooms. Furthermore, the venue will vary according to the room
assignment of the student teacher who will be observed.
Research Locale
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The research locale of the study will be the city of Iloilo City. A capital city of Region 6,
Visayas. It is a multilingual community where most of the people speak Hiligaynon, kiniray-a,
Filipino, and English. The City of Iloilo is a highly urbanized city in the Philippines and the capital
city of Iloilo province. It is the regional center of the Western Visayas, as well as the center of
the Iloilo-Guimaras Metropolitan Area. In the 2007 census, Iloilo City had a population of
418,710 with a 1.8% population annual growth rate. It is bordered by the towns of Oton in the
east, Pavia in the north, Leganes in the northeast and the Iloilo Strait in its eastern and
southern coastline. The city was a conglomeration of former towns, which are now the
geographical districts, composing of: Jaro, Molo, La Paz, Mandurriao, Villa Arevalo, and Iloilo
City Proper. Hiligaynon is the language spoken in Iloilo City. English is used as the language of
business and education. In addition, Tagalog and other local dialects such as Kiniray-a (also
known as Kinaray-a) are also spoken. Spanish is still spoken by the elderly and some wealthy
families and also the elder members of the micro-community of sugar-plantations related
families. The Spanish language was the official language of Iloilo since the colonial period and it
was removed in the 70's, But it is still been spoken. Hiligaynon is part of the Austronesian
language branch spoken in Western Visayas, It was heavily influence and based on the Spanish
language and it's orthography. The Austronesian languages are a family of languages widely
dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members on
continental Asia. Hiligaynon is concentrated in the provinces of Iloilo and Negros Occidental
(WikiPilipinas.com).
Data Sources
The data that will be analyzed will come from the video and audio recorded utterances
of the student teachers. The utterances will be intensively copied and transcribed. Code-
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switching will be noted, and patterns will be analyzed extensively so that comprehensive
analysis will be attained.
The Instruments
A video, and tape recorder will be used in observing the classes to get the data needed.
The Code-switching functions as defined by Gumperz (1982) will be adopted in the
analysis and transcription of the discourse data. Modification and addition of the functions may
occur depending on the gathered data.
Table 3
Code-switching Functions as Defined by Gumperz (1989)
Functions Description Example
1. Quotation Serves as direct quotations or as reported speech.
2. Addressee Serves to direct the message to one of several addressees.
specification
3. Interjections Serves to mark an interjection or sentence filler.
4. Reiteration Serves to repeat a message from one code to another
code either literally or in somewhat modified form.
Functions Descriptions Example
5. Message Serves to qualify constructions such as sentence and verb
qualification complements or predicates following a copula.
6. Personalisation Serves to distinguish between talk about action and talk as
or objectivisation action, the degree of speaker involvement in, or distance
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from, a message, whether a statement reflects personal
opinion or knowledge, whether it refers to specific
instances or has the authority of generally known fact.
7. Situational Code-switching resulting from a change in social setting:
code-switching topic, setting or participants.
An observation guide will also be used to supplement the data gathered through videos
and recording.
An interview guide will be used in interviewing the student teachers to gather data
about the reasons why and how they code-switch inside an English classroom.
An interview guide questionnaire adopted from the study Intrasentential Versus Intersentential
Code-Switching by Kelly Ann Hill Zerker.
Questionnaire
1. Name(Optional) ___________________________________
2. Language used ___________________________________
3. Place of Origin (City, Country) ___________________________________
4. Native Language ___________________________________
5. Dominant Language ___________________________________
6. Age at which you first learned
English ___________________________________
7. Length of time speaking English on
a regular basis ___________________________________
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8. Length of time spend in the
bilingual community ___________________________________
9. Language used most often on
a daily basis ____________________________________
10. Language used most often inside the class ____________________________________
11. Do you code-switch inside the English class? ____________________________________
12. If yes, how often? ____________________________________
13. Why do you think you code-switch? ____________________________________
14. When do you code-switch usually? ____________________________________
15. What are the reasons of your
code-switching inside the class? ___________________________________
Data Gathering Procedure
Each respondent will be sent a personalized letter briefly explaining the purpose of the
study asking him/her to participate. A permission letter will also be sent to the principal,
cooperating teachers, and students of West Visayas State University- Integrated laboratory
School. After the approval of the letters, the researcher will set time and date for the
observation sessions for each day and week. A videographer will be hired to cover the whole
session using a camera. An audio recorder will also be set to record the utterances of the
student teacher. And the observation guide will be used by the researcher to note down the
activities that transpire throughout the duration of the class. A post interview to the students
and student teachers will also be conducted for additional data. Transcription and analysis will
then follow after the observations have been done to determine the sufficiency of the data.
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Data Analysis
The analysis of the transcriptions will be qualitative and open- ended. Instances of code-
switching will be first identified. The analysis of utterance transcripts and observation notes will
be based on an inductive approach geared to identifying patterns in the data by means of
thematic codes. Inductive analysis means that the patterns, themes, and categories of analysis
come from the data; they emerge out of the data rather than being imposed on them prior to
data collection and analysis (Patton, 1980).
Further, a constructivist-interpretive paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994) will underpin the
study. In line with this approach, the investigators interpretation of events and situations
involving participants themselves and other data sources will provide the building blocks for
theory construction. A constructivist-interpretive paradigm produces substantive-formal theory
grounded in the research (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Glaser & Strauss, 1967 in Bowen, 2005).
Substantive theories are developed for a substantive or an empirical area of inquiry. Data will
be analyzed whereby line, sentence, and paragraph segments of the transcribed utterances,
observation, and interview notes will be reviewed to decide what codes fit the concepts
suggested by the data. The utterance data will be given more weight in the analysis than with
the non-participant observation and the document reviews. Each code will also be constantly
compared to all other codes to identify similarities, differences, and general patterns.
Ethical Consideration
The names that will be used for the participants will be fictitious as ethical consideration
for their identity, but the purpose of the study will be discussed to them clearly as the
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obligation of the researcher (Fieldwork Ethics of Role Playing by William Labov, 1972). Although
the observers paradox (observing the participants in the natural setting) will be employed in
the course of observation, ethical considerations should also be taken into account like utmost
respect and courtesy to the participants. The data gathered from the observation will be used
for the sole purpose of this research endeavor and shall not be used for any unapproved
purposes. Thus, it will be the responsibility of the researcher not to inject any personal opinions
and judgment regarding the result of the study without proper and rigid analysis.
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FOR REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
David Chen-On Then and Su-Hie Ting (2007), conducted a study on the functions of teachers
code-switching in secondary school English and Science classrooms in Malaysia, where English
has recently been implemented as the language of instruction for science. The results showed
that the direction of the language switch from English to Bahasa Malaysia as well as the
proportion of teachers talk in English suggests that the base language for teaching is still
English, even for the science lesson, and code-switching is a necessary tool for teachers to
achieve teaching goals in content-based lessons involving students who lack proficiency in the
instructional language.
According to Pollard (2011), Generally, teachers believe that code-switching is a helpful
instrument when teaching English and is considered to be inevitable. Furthermore, in her other
study, Pollard (2002) had analyzed that students who were able to code-switch freely within the
classroom were faced with fewer language barriers when discussing subject matter. Thus, they
were better able to relay the information that they had learned to teachers or peers because of
the language freedom code-switching provides. Conversations of students who were not
allowed to code-switch or code-switched non-effectively were often choppy and came to an end
prematurely. These students were not able to accurately convey their knowledge of subject
matter to teachers or peers due to language barriers.
73

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West Visayas State University

Code-Switching Functions: Student Teachers Utterances in Focus

(5) Significance of the Study

Background of the Study

Acquisition and learning require meaningful interaction in the language - natural

a whole. Furthermore, in Gumperz Discourse Strategies (1982, in Hoenisch, 2006), he stressed

that code-alteration or code-mixing that occurs is a strategy of a bilingual person in discourses

students have no excuse that language greatly affects their learning.

According to Parcia (2006), code-switching is one of the common observable facts in

classroom processes and is generally defined as the phenomenon wherein a bilingual or

important role in facilitating interaction among classroom participants as well as in facilitating

code-switching should be done in order to enhance teachers understanding of the demands of

learners code-switching in pair or group work.

competence during peer interaction.

Several studies have been conducted about the effectivity of code-switching in

conversation in a sociolinguistic scope. In the classroom in general, there were also

investigations focusing on the effectivity of using code-switching of teachers. For instance, in

development or the effectivity of code-switching inside the classroom. Initially, a need of

switching inside the English class.

Epistemological and Theoretical Research Perspective

Changes in the language teaching methods throughout history have reflected

and historical perspective, bilingualism or multilingualism is a norm rather than an exception. It

This study is anchored in interpretive epistemology specializing in the examination of

interpretive epistemological perspective, knowledge is multifaceted in nature, establishing

ontological, axiological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions to ascertain the key

to future understanding (Cole & Avison, 2007).

theory in the stages of interpretive epistemological research is to create an initial theoretical

problem-solving interactions (Baron, 2003) and schoolchildren's conversations (Reyes, 2004).

conversational functions such as quotation, addressee specification, interjections, reiteration,

message qualification, personalisation or objectivisation, and situational code-switching

by omissions, repetitions, among others.

The Matrix language Hypothesis Theory (1999). is proposed by Myers-Scotton

manifestations that code-switching may be looked at with different perspectives.

Epistemological and Theoretical Framework of the Study

Epistemology Theoretical Research Substantive Theories

Interpretive Epistemological Multiple Theories Gumperz Semantic Model of Code-switching

Perspective (Walsham, 2009) (Gumperz, 1982)

The Two Constraints Theory

(Sankoff and Poplack in 1980)

The Matrix language Hypothesis Theory

Statement of the Problem

switching in classroom discourses used by student teachers in an English class.

2. How do student teachers code-switch in an English classroom?

3. Why do student teachers code-switch in an English classroom

Assumptions of the Study

Educators, nowadays seem to look at the language implications in childrens learning,

could contribute to the students development as a whole. Classroom code-switching is

language comfortably (Pascasio in Marasigan, 1983).

Another use of code-switching is the discourse mode or communicative function that

language for informal in-group activities. As such, code-switching establishes group

types of discourse or genres such as lectures or discussions (Gumperz in Metila, 2009). In a

Code-switching fulfills a pedagogical function when it makes challenging subject matter

comprehensible to students. In this particular situation, code-switching is lesson-driven and not

To summarize, supporters argue that code-switching should not be equated with an

imperfect grammar system. Code-switching may possibly be motivated by a speakers failure to

degree of allowance to language learners who code-switch. Nevertheless, negative views on

young citizens who indulge in code- switching. Classroom code-switching is perceived as a

Student teachers Utterances

following terms are defined conceptually and operationally:

Classroom is a room, as in a school or college, in which classes are held.

(www.DictionaryBoss.com, retrieved on July 11, 2011)

Code-switching is the alternation between two or more languages or varieties of a

language in the same utterance or dialogue Myers-Scotton (2001).

lectures and discussions. EXEMPLIFY