E~gineerj~g Frac&we Mechanics Vol. 35, No. l/2/3, pp. 233-240, 1990 ~13-7~~0 $3.00 + 0.

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Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press pk.

FRACTURE MECHANICS CONCEPTS APPLIED TO

MOMENT CAPACITY AND ROTATIONAL CAPACITY
OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
ARNE HILLERBORGt
Division of Building Materials, Lund Institute of Technology, Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden

Abstract-The theoretical stress-strain relation in the compression zone of a concrete beam is

determined by means of an approximate application of a model with strain softening and
localization, i.e. with the descending branch described as a stress-deformation relation instead of
a stress-strain relation. This results in a stress-strain relation for the compression zone, which is
strongly dependent on the depth of this zone. This is in contradiction with existing design rules,
which assume that no such size dependence exists. The theoretical results are confirmed by
comparisons with test results regarding rotational capacities. Further test comparisons are
recommended.

INTRODUCTION
Trm ANALYSIS of bending stresses in a reinforced concrete beam is normally based on the assumption
that plane cross sections remain plane, and on assumptions regarding the shape of the stress-strain
curves of concrete and reinforcement. For several reasons these assumptions are rather rough, and
may lead to false conclusions.
When shear cracks occur close to the section of maximum bending moment, the section can
no longer be expected to be plane. When stirrups are present, their confinement of the concrete
will lead to higher ultimate strains. These two phenomena are well known, and are often taken
into account, at least in discussions, and they will not be addressed here.
A third phenomenon, which so far does not seem to have been understood and taken into
account, is the strain localization within the compression zone. This phenomenon, which is similar
to the nowadays generally recognized localization in tensile fracture, will be discussed in this paper.

STRESS-DEFORMATION RELATIONS IN PURE COMPRESSION

In tensile fracture of concrete a strain localization occurs after the stresses have passed the
peak point. This means that the deformations have to be described by means of one stress-strain
curve for the ascending part (before peak stress) and one stress-deformation curve for the
des~nding part, showing the additional defo~ation which occurs due to crack formation within
the fracture zone. This type of description is now generally accepted.
Also in compression a localization takes place after the peak point is reached, even though
the behaviour is more complex than in tension, due to incompressibility and lateral strains and
stresses. This has been clearly demonstrated by van Mier[l] (Fig. 1). Thus also in compression
failure a description of the stress-deformation properties by means of a stress-strain diagram
before the peak, and a stress~efo~ation diagram after the peak, may be expected to be a more
realistic material model than just a simple stress-strain curve.

STRESS-DEFORMATION RELATIONS IN THE

COMPRESSION ZONE OF A BENT BEAM
As has been pointed out in the Introduction, the assumption that plane sections remain plane
may be rather rough. Exchanging this assumption for some more realistic one leads to very
complicated analyses. It is therefore an advantage to maintain this assumption if the influence

tProfessor.

233
234 ARNE HI~~ERBORG

1.4 C3--01082-2 HElOHl tl = 200tlO STRESS SI/lSl-HRXl VS. SIRAIN E~ILOR.~L.I

UIOBI-3 HEIOn H = lOOfIn
1.3 --ISAi-5 tiEIOni n :: SOnN COR.COri6.~ Slm?/S3= -l/O0
CAtPtNOe T&S
LOA.SEOIIIE= tlONOlONIC
t .2
PERPENOtCUCAR
LOA.SPELO= 106S/SEC
1.1

.3

.I

0
0
STRIlfN EIlLOR.%~1 IX.1

Fig. I. Stress-deformation curves in compression for specimens of different lengths, according to van
Mier[ I].

of the lo~lization can be taken into account in some approximate way. This will be attempted
below.
For a given length I a formal complete stress-strain curve can be constructed by means of a
summation of the influence of the two curves according to the formula
Cl=6 -#w/l (1)
where t is taken from the stress-strain diagram and w from the stress~efo~ation diagram.
Such a formal complete stress-strain diagram can be used together with an assumption of
plane sections, and it can be expected to lead to realistic results, provided that the length I is chosen
in a suitable way.
From comparisons with a number of finite element analyses it has been concluded that for
a rectangular beam such a suitable length is approximately proportional to the depth of the
compression zone
l=fl<d (2)
where {d is the depth of the compression zone, d is the effective depth of the beam and /I is a
proportionality factor, which is of the order 0.8.
The general way of finding the complete stress-strain diagram is demonstrated in Fig. 2.

E W E a &*w/l
Fig. 2. The complete stress-strain curve described by means of one ascending stress-strain curve, and one
descending stress-deformation curve.
 Fracture mechanics concept 235

0 i i El%1 0 cis 110 wlmml

u
I x=lOOmm ; x=400 mm

Fig. 3. A numerical example of the determination of complete stress-strain curves according to the
proposed procedure. The length I is assumed to be 0.8x, where x is the depth of the compression zone.

As an example typical stress-strain and stress-deformation diagrams are shown in Fig. 3,

together with the corresponding complete stress-strain diagrams to be used in the analysis and
design of concrete sections. It has been assumed that /I = 0.8. The shown descending branch is more
or less a guess, as this curve is not well known. The guess is based on measured curves in pure
compression, e.g. according to Fig. 1, and it is estimated to be valid for normal concrete. For
high-strength concrete and light-weight concrete the curve is steeper. The curve is also dependent
on the amount of stirrups, and on other circumstances.
All existing concrete codes seem to be based on the assumption that the same stress-strain
diagram can be used for the concrete compression zone, independent of the depth of this zone.
If the ideas behind Fig. 3 are correct, all these codes ought to be reformulated.

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY UNDER SIMPLIFIED ASSUMPTIONS

The general ideas outlined above can be applied to practical situations with any assumed
shapes of the basic curves. The performance of systematic analyses is however easier if the chosen
curves are as simple as possible. Therefore, an analysis has been performed on the assumption of
linear relations (Fig. 4). The following definition is valid, with W, according to Fig. 4:

Only beams without compressive reinforcement have been analysed.

Before any compressive strain reaches the value G, the analysis is trivial, and will not be
demonstrated. After the strain c,, has been surpassed, the stresses and strains in the section are
shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Simplified stress-strain curve, used for the numerical analyses.

236 ARNE HILLER~ORG

5
CO- U[MPal
Eo rl 4 fC

m
0 a2 0.5 E I/01
Fig. 5. Strain and stress distributions in a rectangular cross Fig. 6. Assumed stress-strain curve for the reinforcing
section. steel.

From the figure it directly follows that

(4)

(5)

Equilibrium of forces gives

(6)
where index s refers to the reinforcing steel.
The bending moment M can be calculated from the expression

(7)

The curvature l/r is

1 60
-=3--,
(8)
* tld

By means of these formulae it is possible to follow the behaviour of a beam if the stress-strain
diagram of the reinforcing steel is known, as well as the concrete properties. A few examples will
be shown in order to demonstrate results of the application.
The following assumptions have been used
f,=40MPa
f, = 400 MPa
Es = 200,000 MPa
60= 0.002
6, = 0.002 and 0.008
and it has been assumed that the reinforcement steel has a bilinear elastic-perfectly plastic
stress-strain curve according to Fig. 6.
The theoretical relations between the bending moment and the curvature for reinfor~ment
ratios AJbd = 0.02,0.03,0.04 and 0.05 are shown in Fig. 7. This figure clearly shows the influence
oft, and of the reinforcement ratio on the ductility for low reinforcement ratios and on the ultimate
moment for high reinforcement ratios. For a given concrete quality, L, is inversely proportional
to the beam depth d. Thus d is an important parameter for the behaviour of a bent beam.
 Fracture mechanics concept 237

6M
bd2f,

- E, 50.002
--- E, = 0.008

1 I I I I I )
2 3 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12
a._l_
EO r

Fig. 7. Theoretical moment-curvature diagrams.

One way of expressing the ductility in bending is as rotational capacity. The rotational capacity
is as a rule defined as the non-elastic angle of deformation when the bending moment reaches its
maximum value. With the assumed steel and concrete properties used for the theoretical analyses
the maximum moment is reached for a rather small curvature. With more realistic assumptions
the maximum will be reached for higher curvatures. Therefore, in this analysis it has been chosen
to use the curvature when the moment starts to descend sharply (corresponds to the ends of the
curves in Fig. 7) as a basis for the calculation of the rotational capacity.
The non-elastic deformation corresponds in the assumed model to the deformation which is
due to the descending branch in the stress-deformation relation for concrete. This deformation is
assumed to take place within the length I according to eq. (2). The total angle of deformation 8
within this length is equal to the curvature multiplied by the length. The curvature l/r is given by
eq. (8). Thus the total deformation angle 8 = l/r is, with /I from eq. (3)
8 = _Kdso =-.-.-
eo 5 w,
(9)
rid 81~ d
This angle includes a certain elastic angle 8,,. Thus the rotational capacity ePl is
(10)
where t$,,,, is the e-value when the bending capacity starts descending sharply, cf. Fig. 7.
Based on curves of the type shown in Fig. 7 it is possible to calculate the theoretical rotational
capacities. Such calculations show that for underreinforced beams a good approximation of 8,,, is

(11)

where

is the mechanical reinforcement ratio.

This approximate expression seems to give results which in normal cases are within 10% of
the calculated values. The equation shows that the maximum angle of deformation is inversely
proportional to the beam depth d. As in most practical situations the elastic part is small compared
to the plastic part, the rotational capacity 8, is also approximately inversely proportional to the
beam depth for a constant mechanical reinforcement ratio.
238 ARNE HILLERBORG

It should be noticed that real reinforcement is not elastic-perfectly plastic, but has a
stress-strain curve which is more or less ascending after the yield stress has been reached. The real
shape certainly has an influence on the curvature and on the rotational capacity. This influence
may be analysed by means of the theoretical approach above.
One essential conclusion which can be drawn from the theoretical analysis is that the
reinforcement ratio corresponding to balanced reinforcement depends on the beam depth, and
decreases with an increasing beam depth.

COMPARISONS WITH TEST RESULTS

As the formulae and conclusions above are purely theoretical it is necessary to have them
checked by means of tests. The most fundamental conclusion is that the beam depth d is an
important parameter, particularly for the rotational capacity, for the ultimate moment of
overreinforced beams, and for the reinforcement ratio corresponding to balanced reinforcement,
but also in general for the concrete stress-strain diagram that should be used in the analyses and
design of sections in bending. On the other hand, the beam depth has no significant influence on
the ultimate moment for underreinforced beams.
In order to check the theoretical results, comparisons have to be made with tests where the
beam depth has been changed, but the other properties have been kept constant. Suitable values
to compare are the ultimate moments of overreinforced beams or the rotational capacities of
underreinforced beams, whereas the ultimate moments of underreinforced beams will not give any
information. The rotational capacities can be expected to be most sensitive to changes in the beam
depth, and thus tests of rotational capacities, where the beam depth has been varied, seem to be
best suited for an experimental check of the theoretical results.
So far only one comparison has been made, viz. with a test series for rotational capacities,
performed by Corley[2]. In this series the depth d was varied between 5 and 30 in., which ought
to be sufficient for an analysis of the influence of the beam depth.
Corley reported the rotational capacity as an angle called 8,,, which can be assumed to
correspond to half the value or,, above. Thus, if the theoretical analysis is correct, it should be
expected that the following relation should be approximately fulfilled with k as a constant

(141

The value 8,, depends on many factors, and varies between the different test beams, but in order
to facilitate the analysis a constant value 8,, = 0.005 has been assumed. As the most interesting thing
to analyse is if 8,,, is inversely proportional to the beam depth d, the test results have been plotted
in Fig. 8 with l/d on one axis and the remaining parts of the equation on the other axis.
The test beams had also some compressive reinforcement. Therefore, in the comparison only
the difference between the areas of tensile and compressive reinforcement has been used for
calculating 0.
Corleys tests comprised a total of 40 beams. In 9 of the beams the failure was due to inclined
cracks, and they were not supposed to show the real rotational capacity. These 9 beams were
excluded from Corleys own comparisons with his proposed formulae, and they have also been
excluded here.
From Fig. 8 it is evident that 8,,, is approximately proportional to l/d, just like the theoretical
analysis predicts, even though the scatter in the test results is rather large. Thus, the main
conclusion of the theoretical analysis, the size dependence, seems to have been verified.
A statistical analysis of the test results shows that if they are described by means of the
equation above, the ratio between theoretical results and test results shows a coefficient of variation
of 36%.
Corley in his report derived a semi-empirical method for the calculation of the rotational
capacity, based on an analysis of his test results. He then also included the influence of the amount
 Fracture mechanics concept 239

m
I

I x[ in-]

Fig. 8. Comparisons with test results regarding rotational capacities O,, according to Corley[2].

of stirrups, and the span to depth ratio. The ratio between his test results and his theoretical values
shows a coefficient of variation of 42%. Thus the simple formula above shows a smaller coefficient
of variation, in spite of the fact that the influences of the amount of stirrups and of the span to
depth ratio have not been taken into account. If these influences had also been taken into account,
the agreement between calculated values and test values regarding rotational capacities would have
been better. However, the purpose of the comparison with test results has only been to demonstrate
that the large influence of the beam depth, which has been predicted by the theoretical approach,
seems to be confirmed by the test results.
In Corleys tests the relative amount of stirrups is as an average much larger in the smallest
beams. In his own treatment of the test results he assumed that the larger rotational capacity of
the smaller beams depends on their higher amount of stirrups, and not on their depth. If the
influence of the amount of stirrups is studied for one depth, there is however no clear indication
of a great influence, particularly not where this amount is very high, as they were in many of the
small beams.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

If the findings which have been presented are correct, it means that it is not suitable to use
one stress-strain diagram for concrete in the compressive zone of a bent beam, as it is advised in
all current concrete codes. The descending (or horizontal) part should be changed, and made
dependent on the depth of the compression zone.
The theoretically most correct way is to use a complete diagram as demonstrated in Fig. 3,
provided that the stress-deformation curve for the descending branch is known. For practical
purposes simplified diagrams may be used, of the same type as proposed in many current codes.
If we take the CEB Model Code[3] as an example, it gives a simplified stress-strain diagram
according to Fig. 9. The end of the horizontal part is defined as 6 = 0.0035. Based on the above
analyses it would be better to define the end as L, = k,/x according to Fig. 10, where x is the depth
of the compression zone, and k, is a material property (a length), which may also depend on other
240 ARNE HILLERBORG

I I
I
I

I
I
!
I I *EC
0.002 0.0035 OX02 k, lx

Fig. 9. Approximate ass~ption regrading the stress- Fig. 10. Proposed revised ass~ption regarding the stress-
strain diagram in the compression zone according to strain diagram in the compression zone, with x Being the
CEB[3]. depth of the compression zone and k, a material property.

factors, like the confinement of the compression zone (stirrups, beam width, etc.) and the bending
moment gradient. The value of k, is smaller for light-weight concrete, and presumably also for
high-strength concrete, than for ordinary concrete, but it may also differ for ordinary concrete
qualities.

NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The presented theoretical analyses needs to be supplements with a more thorough compari-
son between theoretical results and test results, where more realistic stress-strain curves are used,
and where, e.g., beams with high reinforcement ratios and varying depths should be studied. Also
beams with different concrete properties, particularly regarding the descending branch, should be
compared.
Of a particular interest in this connection is to study beams made of high-strength concrete
and of light-weight concrete, as steeper descending branches may be expected in these cases, i.e.
smaller values of t, for a given beam depth d, cf. Fig. 7.

CONCLUSIONS
(1) The stress-strain diagram for concrete in the comparison zone, which should be used for
the analysis of bent beams and slabs, is size dependent.
(2) If the stress-strain diagram is approximated by means of an ascending branch, followed
by a horizontal line, the strain at the end of this line may be taken to be inversely proportional
to the depth of the compression zone, cf. Fig. 10.
(3) If these conclusions are correct, the concrete codes ought to be changed in this respect.
(4) Further research is needed in order to check whether the conclusions are correct, and to
develop knowledge of the material properties.
(5) The rotational capacity of a plastic hinge is approximately inversely proportional to the
beam depth.

REFERENCES
[I] J. G. M. Van Mier, Strain-softening of concrete under multiaxial loading conditions, Technical University of
Eindhoven (1984).
[2] W. G. Corley, Rotational capacity of reinforced concrete beams. J. Srruct. Div., Proc of ASCE, 92, ST5, 121-146
(1966).
[3] CEB-FIP Model code for concrete structures. CEB Bulletin 124/125-E (1978).

(Received for publication 16 November 1988)