Basic Measurement

INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
AIRFORCE COLLEGE
FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES 2
BASIC ELECTRICS
BASIC MEASUREMENT
MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY
Apprentice Course
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved
MIP/MECH/TN/014
RMAF TECHNICIAN
ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME
NAME :
CLASS :
Apprentice Course
MIP/MECH/TN/014
WARNING
This training note is intended for training purposes

only. The information it contains is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and it is not subjected to
amendment action. Where the information contained in
this training note is at variance with official documents,
the latter must be taken as the overriding authority. The
contents in this training note shall not be reproduced in
any form without the expressed permission of
(MATA) SDN. BHD.
Apprentice Course
MIP/MECH/TN/014
Basic Electrics Royal Malaysian Air Force Multimeter
Basic Measurement 4.1.1 - II - 1
Apprentice Course -- Phase I
4 Basic Measurement Techniques
4.1 Multimeter
4.1.1 Measurements by Multimeters
4.1.1.1 General Introduction
Analogue and digital multimeters are the most frequently used

measurement devices in the field of electrical and electronic engineer-
ing. When switched to DC range the meters indicate arithmetic mean
values, when switched to AC range the meters indicate rms values.
A multimeter consists of a voltmeter, an amperemeter and ohmmeter
combined in a single unit. A moving--coil meter forms the heart of an
analogue multimeter.
4.1.1.2 Construction and Operating Principle of a Moving--Coil Meter
Construction
-1
The heart of the moving--coil meter is the measuring element. The

most popular type of measuring element is the permanent magnet, the
design of which is shown in Figure 1.
-2
A horseshoe magnet produces the stationary magnetic field. In order

to concentrate the magnetic field in the area of the moving coil, pole
pieces are added to the magnet. The lines of flux tend to concentrate
in this area as shown in this Figure. Also, a stationary soft--iron core is
placed between the pole pieces.
-3
Figure 3 shows how the moving coil fits around the soft--iron core. The
coil consists of many turns of extremely fine wire on an aluminium
frame. The two ends of the coil are connected to the leads
of the meter.
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved.
-4
The pointer is attached to the moving coil so that it moves when the
coil does. Counterweights are often attached to the pointer so that a
perfect balance is achieved. Retaining pins on either side limit the
distance that the pointer and other rotating parts can move. Two spiral
springs at opposite ends of the moving coil force the pointer back to
zero position when no current is flowing through the coil. In most
cases, the spiral springs are also used to apply current to the
moving coil.
The moving coil, pointer, and counterweights rotate around

a pivot point.
Operating Principle
-5
A conductor is deflected at a right angle to a stationary magnetic field

if current flows through the conductor. The left--hand motor rule
describes this action. Current is forced to flow through the coil so that
current flows ’out of the page’ on the left. When applying the left--hand
rule to the coil at this point, the coil is forced up on the left and down
on the right. This forces the pointer to move up the scale or in clock-
wise direction.
The amount of torque produced by this tiny ’motor’ is proportional to

the magnitude of the current which flows through the moving coil.
Measuring elements are rated by the amount of current required to
produce full--scale deflection. For example, a 50 mA element deflects
full--scale when only 50 mA of current flow through it. The 50 mA
element is one of the most commonly used types.
With a pure moving--coil meter only DC measurements are possible.
4.1.1.3 Measuring of DC Quantities using a Moving--Coil Meter
Current
-6
The measuring elements are basically current meters (ammeters), i.e.

they deflect when current flows through them.
Each measuring element has a certain current rating. This is the

current which causes full--scale deflection. For example, a measuring
element may have a current rating of 1 mA. In order to obtain a usable
reading, the current through the element cannot be more than 1 mA,
so only a single usable range of 0 to 1 mA is achieved.
Rules for using an ammeter:

V the ammeter must be connected in series with the current which
is to be measured
V the polarity must be observed so that the current flows
into the positive terminal
V the current rating of the meter must not be exceeded.
Voltage
-7
The basic measuring element can be used for measuring voltage as

well as current. Each element has a certain voltage rating and current
rating. This is the voltage which causes full--scale deflection. The
voltage rating is determined by the current rating and the meter
resistance. For example, a 50 mA meter which has a resistance of
2,000 W deflects full--scale when connected across a voltage of:
U = I⋅R
U = 50 mA ⋅ 2, 000 Ω
U = 0.1 V.
That is, the measuring element could be employed to measure

voltages up to 0.1 V. Thus, the meter scale can be calibrated from 0 to
0.1 V. If the meter is connected across much higher voltage, such as
10 V, it may be damaged.
Rules for using a voltmeter:

V the voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the voltage
which is to be measured
V the meter polarity must be observed
V the voltage rating of the meter must not be exceeded.
Resistance
-8
The basic measuring element can be used for measuring the resis-
tance. The resulting circuit is called an ohmmeter. In its basic form the
ohmmeter comprises the measuring element, a battery and a series
resistor.
The operating principle of an ohmmeter is to force a current to flow

through an unknown resistor and to measure the current. For a given
voltage, the current will be determined by the unknown resistor. That
is, the amount of current measured by the meter is an indication of the
unknown resistor. Thus, the scale of the meter can be marked off in W.
Resistor R1 limits the current through the meter to a safe level.

Variable resistor R2 is called the ’zero ohms’ adjustment. Its purpose is
to compensate for battery voltage tolerances.
Whereas the marking 0 W appears on the right side of the scale (at
full--scale deflection) the left side of the scale is marked with the infinity
symbol ( ¥ ).
Rules for using an ohmmeter:

V the power must be removed from the circuit under test
V the correct range must be selected.
4.1.1.4 AC Meters
A variety of AC meters are used for measuring alternating current and

voltage values. Most of these meters are electromechanical devices,
whose operation depends on induced magnetism.
Rectifier--Type, Moving--Coil Meter

-9
One of the most widely used AC meters utilizes a moving--coil measur-
ing element which is actually designed to measure DC current.
The moving--coil may be used for measuring AC current if the AC is

converted to DC before it is applied to it. This is usually accomplished
by employing a group of rectifier diodes (also called rectifiers). These
rectifiers are connected between the input AC and the meter and they
allow the current flow through the meter in only one direction.
A variety of rectifier--type, moving--coil meters are available which are

capable of measuring a wide range of alternating currents. Each meter
is designed to measure up to a certain maximum current. Some
meters may have calibrated scales which extend from 0 to 1 mA,
0 to 10 mA or 0 to 100 mA.
Moving--Vane Meter
- 10
The meter previously described requires the use of rectifiers to convert
the AC input in DC which is necessary for the meter operation. Some
meters are capable of responding directly to the AC input. One of
these devices is commonly referred to as a moving--vane meter or a
moving--iron meter. The vane mechanism essentially contains the
same basic components as the measuring element described before
but these components are arranged in basically the opposite manner.
A stationary coil is used in this meter which surrounds a moving iron

vane attached to the meter pointer. A stationary iron vane is mounted
inside the coil so that it is lined up parallel to the moving vane.
When current flows through the coil (in either direction), a magnetic
field is produced which surrounds the coil. This field passes through
the moving and stationary vanes in the same direction and magnetizes
the two vanes in the same direction. Therefore the vanes will always
have north and south poles which are directly adjacent to each other.
A rule of magnetism states that equal poles repel each other, so the
movable vane is pushed away from the stationary vane and the meter
pointer is forced to rotate against the tension provided by the springs.
Thermocouple Meter
- 11
Another type of AC meter known as a thermocouple meter is also
employed to measure AC. This instrument utilizes a thermocouple to
generate the current needed to drive the meter.
The thermocouple meter basically consists of a thermocouple and a

moving--coil measuring element. The thermocouple consists of two
dissimilar metal strips or wires which are joined together at one end.
When this junction is heated, the two metals react by producing a
difference of potential or voltage across their opposite ends. Therefore
the thermocouple is used for converting heat into an electrical voltage.
4.1.1.5 Types of Multimeter
Generally, the voltmeter, current meter, and ohmmeter are combined

in a single instrument called a multimeter. There are several reasons
for this.
First, it is much easier to carry a single instrument than it is to carry

three separate ones. Second, when only a single meter, case, set of
test leads, etc. are required, it is much cheaper to buy a single
multimeter than to buy three separate single--function meters.
Moving--Coil Multimeter
- 12
This meter has three DC voltage ranges, two ohmmeter ranges, and
three current ranges. Function switch S2 determines whether the
multimeter is to act as an ammeter, a voltmeter, or an ohmmeter.
Range switch S1 determines the range of the meter.
When used as a voltmeter, S2 must be placed in the VOLTS position

and S1 must be placed in one of the voltage positions (1 V, 10 V, or
100 V). As the circuit is drawn, the multimeter is set up to measure
DC voltages up to 1 V.
The ohmmeter portion of the multimeter has only two ranges. On the
LO ohm range, B1 supplies the current which causes the meter to
deflect when S2 is in the OHMS position and a resistance is connected
between the two test probes. In the HI ohm position a higher voltage
battery and a larger value series resistor are used to increase the
resistance range.
When function switch S2 is placed in the current position, the two test
probes are connected directly to opposite ends of the meter. When the
range switch S1 is placed on one of the current ranges, a resistor
is placed in parallel (shunt) with the meter. On the 1 mA range, 50 mA
must flow through the meter when 1 mA flows through the circuit under
test. Thus, 950 mA must flow through the shunt R3. Since 19 times as
much current flows through R3 than through the meter, R3 resistance
must be 1/19th that of the meter.
Electronic Multimeter
- 13
All of the meters discussed up to this point are classified as electrical

meters. They consist of a measuring element, precision resistors, and
a battery for the ohmmeter. However, there is another family of meters
called electronic meters. These contain electronic circuits which can
amplify small voltages and currents. These instruments use devices,
such as transistors and vacuum tubes, which have not yet been
discussed. For this reason, their circuitry will not be discussed in this
course.
Generally, the electronic meter is used in the same way as the

electrical meter. However, one important difference is that the elec-
tronic meter has a much higher resistance than the electrical meter.
For example, a good electrical meter has a resistance of 200 W,
whereas most electronic meters have a resistance of more than 10 kW
in all DC ranges. Consequently, the electronic multimeter has very little
loading effect on most circuits.
Digital Multimeter
- 14
The digital multimeter is one of the most versatile measuring instru-

ments. In the practical experiments in the following lessons, a digital
multimeter will be used, as example the Philips PM 2522 digital
multimeter which is described here.
In order to obtain a clear and proper reading the instrument is provided

with seven segment displays. Range and function switching is effected
manually by means of push--buttons.
The instrument can be used to perform the following measurements:

V DC voltages of 100 mV to 1000 V
V AC voltages of 100 mV to 500 V
V DC currents of 100 mA to 2 A
V AC currents of 100 mA to 2 A
V resistance of 100 W to 200 MW.
The polarity of DC voltages and DC currents is automatically indicated.

The decimal point is set automatically by the range switches.
Direct Voltage Measurements
In order to measure DC voltage the following actions are necessary:

V depress push--button ’V =’
V select the correct measuring range
V connect the voltage to terminals ’O’ and ’VW’.
Direct Current Measurements
In order to measure direct current the following actions are necessary:

V depress push--button ’mA =’
V connect the current source to be measured to terminals
’O’ and ’A’.
Alternating Voltage Measurements
In order to measure alternating voltages the following actions are

necessary:
V depress push--button ’V~’
V connect the test voltage to terminals ’O’ and VW ’.
Alternating Current Measurements
In order to measure alternating currents the following actions are

necessary:
V depress push--button ’mA~’
V connect the current source to be measured to terminals
’O’ and ’A’.
Resistance Measurements
In order to measure resistance the following actions are necessary:

V depress push--button ’kW’ or ’20 MW’
V connect the unknown resistance to terminals ’O’ and ’VW’
V select the correct measuring range.
The following laboratory exercises are to be carried out in parallel to the

corresponding lecture. The laboratory provides the equipment to be used for
the particular exercise.
Compose practical exercises out of the catalogue of tasks and have the
students perform the tasks on the Worksheets. Give an introduction to the
practical exercises; explain the circuit diagrams and the set--up. During
execution of the exercises explain the experiments and ask questions.
Let the students read off the values and data from the measurement equipment
and have them transfer the values into the corresponding Worksheets.
Basic Measurement 4.1.1 - OT - 1
Scale Full--scale
deflection
Right
Pointer retaining pin
Left
Zero adjusting
retaining pin
screw
Counterweights
Permanent
magnet
Moving coil
Spiral spring
A 0723 A
Soft--iron core
Figure 1 Permanent Magnet, Moving Coil

Measuring Instrument
Horseshoe magnet
Soft--iron core
N S
A 0724 B
Pole pieces
Figure 2 Permanent Magnet
Moving aluminium frame
Stationary
core
Pivot
point
A 0725 A
Coil
Figure 3 Moving Coil
Scale
Full--scale
Pointer deflection
Left
retaining pin
Signal spring Right

retaining pin
Pivot
A 0726 A
Counterweights
Figure 4 Pointer Assembly
Resulting motion
of conductor
Magnetic field
Current flow
Full--scale
deflection
Pole piece Pole piece
N S
A 0727 A
Current out Current in
Figure 5 Motor Action of Moving Coil
Ammeter
Formula sign = Ι
Unit sign = A
Symbol
Current measuring in the electric circuit
+ --
A
Ι
+
--
A 0446 B
Figure 6 Current Measuring
Voltmeter
Formula sign = U
Unit sign = V
Symbol
Voltage measuring in the electric circuit
+
+ V
--
--
U
A 0445 B
--
Figure 7 Voltage Measuring
Ohmmeter
Formula sign = R
Unit sign = Ω
Symbol
Zero ohms adjustment
R1
Ω
Ι
R2
Unknown
resistor (RX)
A 0728 B
Figure 8 Resistance Measuring
Rectifier
+
-- AC
- +
Moving--coil meter
Current
A 0739 A
Figure 9 Rectifier--Type, Moving--Coil Meter
Scale Pointer Spring
Counter--
weights
N
Direction N Stationary
of motion coil
S
S
Movable vane Stationary

vane
A 0740 A
Spring
Figure 10 Moving--Vane Meter
Moving--coil
measuring
element
N S
DC output
-- +
Thermocouple
AC input
A 0741 A
Heater wire
Figure 11 Thermocouple Meter
AMPERES Function
R4 18 k switch S2
R5 198 k VOLTS
Basic Electrics
Range switch S1
10 V
Basic Measurement
100 V R6
1V 2 OHMS
1 3 1.5 V R7 22 k
LO Ω
4
B1
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01

50 µ A
R9 R8 6 k
2,000 Ω
5 HI Ω 270 k
Dec 06
B2
8 6
R1 100 mA 7 1 mA
R2 10 Ω 10 mA
R3 105 Ω
Royal Malaysian Air Force
A 0745 C
Test probes
Figure 12 Schematic Diagram of a Moving–Coil Multimeter

Multimeter
4.1.1 - OT - 12
Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved.

Range switch 1 =1V 4 = 1mA 7 = Ω high

2 = 10 V 5 = 10 mA 8 = Ω low
3 = 100V 6 = 1000 mA
Range
Electronic
switch
circuits
Function
switch
Function switch 1 = Amperes

2 = Volts
3 = Ohms
A 0746 B
Test probes
Figure 13 Electronic Multimeter
A 0447 A
20MW
2000
200
kW
BU2
A
Figure 14 Digital Multimeter PM 2522

20
mA
BU1
VW
mA
2
BU3
0
1000V 600V
0.2
V
MAX
Digital display
HOLD
BU4
V
SK201
SK102
PM 2522 digital VAW meter
OFF
ON
SK101
Basic Measurement 4.1.1 - WS - 1
Task 1: Determination of Voltage and Polarity
Objective:
Various DC voltages in a simple network, fed from a variable AC/DC power supply
are to be measured by means of analogue and digital multimeters.
The determined values are to be entered in tables.
Comparisons are to be made between the measurements by analogue and digital

multimeters.
Materials/equipment required:
V 1 variable AC/DC power supply
V 2 analogue multimeters
V 1 digital multimeter
V 1 resistor 82 W (R1)
Task 1 (continued):
Execution:
1. Build up the following circuit:
R1
B
+
R2
Variable C
AC/DC
power US UA
supply
R3
D UB
--
UC
R4
UD
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 to the variable AC/DC power supply.
3. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to DC.
4. Switch on the power supply and adjust the voltage (US) to 15 V DC.
5. Connect analogue multimeter (V) to A and ground.
6. Enter the measured value of UA⊥ = US in table 1.
Table 1
US = V
Task 1 (continued):
7. By means of the analogue multimeter measure the voltages as given in
table 2 and enter the results in table 2.
Note: The second letter or sign of the voltages U to be measured is to be

seen as reference point. This point has to be connected to 0 V,
ground (⊥) or minus (--) terminal of the multimeter.
Table 2
UA⊥ = V
UB⊥ = V
UC⊥ = V
UD⊥ = V
8. By means of the digital multimeter measure the voltages given in table 3 and
enter the results in table 3.
Table 3
UAB = V UBA = V
UAC = V UCA = V
UAD = V UDA = V
UBC = V UCB = V
UBD = V UDB = V
UCD = V UDC = V
Task 1 (continued):
9. Answer the following question:
What difference is indicated on the display of the multimeter if the reference
points are exchanged?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
10. Switch off the power supply.
11. In the following circuit diagram enter the voltage values UAB, UCB, UAD, UDB
and the related voltage arrows with correct direction.
U = ........V
R1 UAB
B
U = ........V
+
R2 U = ........V UAD
UCB
U = ........V
Variable C
AC/DC
power US UDB
supply
R3
-- D
R4
Note: US = USupply.
Task 1 (continued):
R1
+
R2
Variable
AC/DC
power US
supply
R3
--
R4
Note: US = USupply.
13. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 and analogue multimeter (A)
to the variable AC/DC power supply.
14. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to DC. Switch on the power supply and
adjust the voltage (US) to 15 V DC.
15. How has the analogue multimeter to be connected to the power supply
to indicate a positive value?
plus terminal to plus pole
minus terminal to plus pole
16. Enter polarity and current values in table 4.

Table 4
Current value = mA
Polarity =
Task 1 (continued):
17. Substitute the analogue multimeter by the digital multimeter.

Table 5
Current value = mA
Polarity =
19. Connect the digital multimeter in reverse manner to the circuit.

Table 6
Current value = mA
Polarity =
Task 2: Measurements of AC Voltages and Currents
Objective:
Various AC voltages and currents in a simple network, fed from a variable AC/DC
power supply are to be measured by means of analogue and digital multimeters.
The determined values are to be entered in tables.
V 1 analogue multimeter
V 1 bulb, 6 V/30 mA (h2)
Task 2 (continued):
Execution:
Variable
AC/DC V
power US
supply
h2
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect bulb h2, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
3. What type of AC/DC power supply is used for this practical exercise?
Type: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. What multimeter is used to measure the voltage?

Type: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. What multimeter is used to measure the current?

Type: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Task 2 (continued):
6. In which manner are multimeter and bulb connected to measure the voltage?
in series
in parallel
7. In which manner are multimeter and bulb connected to measure the current?
in parallel
in series
8. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to AC.
9. Set multimeter (V) to 10 V AC range.
10. Switch on the power supply and adjust voltage (US) to 6 V.
11. Enter the measured value in table 1 and switch off the power supply.
Table 1
US = V
12. Set multimeter (V) to 10 V DC range.
13. Switch on the power supply and do not vary the settings.
14. Enter the measured value in table 2 and switch off the power supply.
Table 2
US = V
15. What does the multimeter indicate when it is switched to DC range?

When the multimeter is switched to DC range it indicates the:
peak value
arithmetic mean value
rms value
Task 2 (continued):
A I
Variable
AC/DC V
power US
supply
h2
Note: US = USupply.
17. Connect bulb h2, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
18. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to AC.
19. Switch on the power supply.
20. By use of digital multimeter (V) adjust the variable AC power supply step by
step to the voltages (US) as given in table 3, overleaf.
21. Measure the related currents by means of analogue multimeter (A).
22. Enter the measured values in table 3, row 2 and switch off the power supply.
Task 2 (continued):
Table 3
US 1.0 V 2.0 V 3.0 V 4.0 V 5.0 V 6.0 V
Analogue multimeter I/mA
Analogue multimeter I/mA

(reverse polarity
Digital multimeter I/mA
23. Connect analogue multimeter (A) in reverse polarity to the circuit.

25. By use of digital multimeter (V) adjust the variable AC power supply step by
step to the voltages (US) as given in table 3 and measure the related currents
by means of analogue multimeter (A).
27. Give the reason why a reverse polarity at the multimeter does not influence
measurement results.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
28. Connect digital multimeter (A) to the circuit.

30. By use of analogue multimeter (V) adjust the variable AC power supply step by
step to the voltages (US) as given in table 3 and measure the related currents
by means of digital multimeter (A).
32. Answer the following question:
What essential differences have been observed between the measurements by
analogue multimeter and digital multimeter?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
Task 3: Measurements on Variable Resistors
Objective:
The behaviour and value of a variable resistor have to be determined by means of

a multimeter. The results are to be entered in tables and diagrams.
V 1 multimeter
V 1 potentiometer 10 kW lin. (R1)
V 1 potentiometer 10 kW pos. log. (R2)
Task 3 (continued):
Execution:
R1
2. Connect multimeter (W) to resistor R1.
3. Enter the measured value in table 1.
Table 1
R1 = W
4. Adjust the movable contact of R1 and observe the reading of the multimeter.
Sketch down the observed result.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
Task 3 (continued):
R1
a W
7. Adjust the movable contact of R1 to the angles of rotation = as given in table 2

and enter the related values in row two.
Table 2
a 0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270°
R1 (b)
kΩ
R1 (a)
kΩ
Task 3 (continued):
R1
10. Adjust the movable contact of R1 to the angles of rotation = as given in the
preceding table and enter the related values in row three.
11. Transfer the values of row two and three into diagram 1, overleaf, in order to
construct graphs.
12. Describe the forms of the graphs.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
Task 3 (continued):
Diagram 1
R1
kΩ
12
11
10
0
0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° a
Task 3 (continued):
R2
15. Enter the measured value in table 3.

Table 3
R2 = W
16. Adjust the movable contact of R2 and observe the reading of the multimeter.
Sketch down the observed result.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
Task 3 (continued):
R2
a W
19. Adjust the movable contact of R2 to the angles of rotation = as given in table 4
and enter the related values in row two.
Table 4
a 0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270°
R2 (b)
kΩ
R2 (a)
kΩ
Task 3 (continued):
R2
21. Connect multimeter (W) to resistors R2.
22. Adjust the movable contact of R2 to the angles of rotation = as given in the
preceding table and enter the related values in row three.
23. Transfer the values of row two and three into diagram 2 in order to construct
graphs.
24. Describe the forms of the graphs.
...................................................................................
Task 3 (continued):
Diagram 2
R2
kΩ
12
11
10
0
0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° a
Task 4: Ascertaining of Load Diagrams
Objective:
Load diagrams are to be ascertained by means of AC measurements in

a resistor network, fed from a variable AC/DC power supply.
Furthermore calculation related to voltage, current, resistance and power

are to be carried out.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 resistor 6.8 kW (R2)
V 1 potentiometer 500 W (R3)
V 1 potentiometer 5 kW (R4)
Task 4 (continued):
Execution:
R1 = Ri
A
URi
I
R3
Variable
AC/DC V
power US URL
supply
R4
Note: US = USupply.
Dotted lines represent temporary connections.
2. Connect resistor R1, potentiometers R3, R4 and multimeter (A) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
3. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to AC and switch on the power supply.
4. Connect multimeter (V) to the power supply.
5. Adjust voltage (US) to 12 V and enter the measured value in table 1.

Table 1
US = V
Task 4 (continued):
6. Calculate the voltage values URL = f (US) given in row one of table 2 and enter
the results in row two.
Table 2
URL 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.7 0.8
US US US US US US US US US US
U RL
V
I
mA
U Ri
V
Ri
Ω
RL
Ω
RL
Ri
P RL
mW
7. Use both potentiometers to adjust voltage URL step by step to the values
as calculated in the table 2 and measure the related currents I
and voltages URi.
8. Enter the measured values in table 2, row three and four.

9. Use the measured values of URi and I to calculate resistance Ri and enter the
results in table 2, row five.
10. Use the values of URL and I to calculate load resistance RL = R3 + R4 and
enter the results in table 2, row six.
11. Use the values of Ri and RL to calculate the ratios and enter the results
in table 2, row seven.
Task 4 (continued):
12. Calculate the respective powers (PRL) of RL and enter the results
in table 2, row eight.
13. Transfer the determined values of table 2 into diagram 1 to construct the
curves URL = f (RL/Ri), I = f (RL/Ri) and PRL = f (RL/Ri).
Diagram 1
I U RL p RL
,
mA V mW
RL
Ri
15. In diagram 1 mark resistance matching by a vertical line.
16. By what ratio RL/Ri exists resistance matching?

The ratio RL/Ri is.................
Task 4 (continued):
R1 = Ri
A
URi
I
R2 R3
Variable
AC/DC V
power US URL
supply
R4
Note: US = USupply.
18. Connect resistors R1, R2, potentiometers R3, R4 and multimeter (A) to the
variable AC/DC power supply.
19. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to AC and switch on the power supply.
20. Connect multimeter (V) to the power supply.
21. Adjust voltage (US) to 12 V.
22. Adjust both potentiometers to determine minimum and maximum load

currents (Imin., Imax.).
23. Enter the measured values in table 3, overleaf.
Task 4 (continued):
Table 3
Imin. = mA Imax. = mA
24. Adjust both potentiometers so that resistance matching occurs.
25. Measure current I, voltage UR2 and URi and enter the measured values
in table 4.
Table 4
I = mA UR2 = V URi = V
26. Name the maximal power transfer of the circuit.

Pmax. =
Basic Electrics Royal Malaysian Air Force Oscilloscope
4.2 Oscilloscope
4.2.1 Measurements by Oscilloscope
4.2.1.1 Operating Principle

-1
An oscilloscope is capable of measuring an AC or DC voltage and
displaying the voltage in a graphical manner. The AC or DC voltage
appears as a picture on a screen which is similar to the type of screen
used in a television set. The oscilloscope contains a number of
controls which are used for adjusting the size and the number of
complete waveforms (in the case of AC) that are displayed. Most
oscilloscopes are calibrated so that the waveform presented on the
screen can be visually analyzed and its most important characteristics
can be determined.
The device has two input terminals which are used for measuring an
AC or DC voltage. These terminals must be connected in parallel with
the voltage source that is to be measured and they are generally
referred to as the vertical input terminals. The AC voltage at these
terminals is applied to an amplifier circuit which increases the ampli-
tude or magnitude of the voltage before it is applied to a device known
as cathode ray tube or CRT. The CRT is the device which graphically
displays the AC waveform being measured.
-2
The CRT contains an electron gun and two sets of deflection plates.
These components are mounted inside a large glass tube which fans
out at one end to form a screen which closely resembles the screen on
a television picture tube. The air is pumped out of the tube and the end
is sealed so that the components will operate within a vacuum. In this
respect the device is similar to an ordinary vacuum tube. The electron
gun produces a stream of electrons which are focussed into a narrow
beam and aimed at the CRT screen. When the beam strikes the
screen, it illuminates a phosphorus coating on the screen so that a
spot of light is produced. This electron beam must also flow between
the two sets of deflection plates.
The AC voltage from the vertical amplifier is applied across the vertical
deflection plates. This alternating voltage causes the plates to become
positively and negatively charged and the polarity of these charges is
continually reversed. The electrons in the beam are negative--charged

and tend to deflect towards the positive plate and away from the
negative plate, thus causing the electron beam to bend. Since the
charges on the vertical plates continually change direction, the
electron beam is deflected up and down, thus causing a vertical trace
to appear on the CRT screen.
The height of this vertical trace depends on the amplitude of the

AC voltage being measured and the amount of amplification provided
by the amplifier circuit.
If the electron beam is simply moved up and down, only a vertical line
or trace would appear on the screen. Such a display can indicate the
peak--to--peak amplitude of a waveform but still would not indicate the
exact shape of the waveform. In order to show how the waveform
varies, it is necessary to move the electron beam horizontally across
the screen. This is accomplished by a circuit known as a sweep
oscillator. This circuit generates an AC sawtooth waveform which is
then amplified by a horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal
deflection plates.
The sawtooth voltage increases at a linear rate from a negative peak

value to a positive peak value and then almost instantly changes back
to a negative value again. The positive and negative charges on the
horizontal deflection plates vary in the same manner, thus causing the
electron beam to move from left to right across the screen at a linear
rate and then immediately jump back to the left side and start over
again.
If only the sawtooth waveform is applied to the horizontal plates (no

voltage on the vertical plates), then only a horizontal trace would
appear on the screen. Such a trace should be thought of as a horizon-
tal time base upon which the vertical signal can be made to ride. The
beam simply moves from left to right in a specific period of time and
then repeats this action again and again.
When the vertical AC voltage and the horizontal sawtooth voltage are
both applied to the CRT, an AC waveform can be produced. As the
beam moves from left to right at a linear rate with respect to time, the
vertical AC voltage causes the beam to move up and down in accord-
ance with the variations in AC voltage.
If the time required for the beam to move across the screen from left to
right is equal to the time required to generate one cycle of the AC input
voltage, one cycle of the AC waveform will appear on the screen.
-3
The relationship between input AC sine wave, sawtooth wave, and

displayed waveform is further illustrated in Figure 3.
One complete cycle of the sine wave (Figure 3, detail a)) must occur in
the time required to generate one complete cycle of the sawtooth
wave (Figure 3, detail b)) in order to display one complete AC sine
wave as shown in Figure 3, detail c). In other words, the frequency
(number of cycles per second) of the input AC waveform must be
equal to the frequency of the sawtooth waveform.
Furthermore, the sine wave and sawtooth wave must begin their
cycles at the same time in order to display a sine wave that is properly
oriented as shown in Figure 3, detail c). If the two waveforms are not
properly synchronized, the displayed waveform might appear as
shown in Figure 3, detail d) or Figure 3, detail e). Although these are
complete AC cycles, they are not properly oriented.
In order to ensure that the input AC waveform and the sawtooth

waveform are properly synchronized, a synchronization by means of a
sync or a trigger circuit is included in the oscilloscope circuit.
This circuit samples the incoming AC signal and produces a control
signal which is applied to the sawtooth oscillator so that the sawtooth
begins its cycle at the proper time.
4.2.1.2 Measuring the Voltage

-4
Since the oscilloscope displays an entire AC waveform, it can be used

for determining instantaneous values as well as peak and peak--to--
peak values.
A typical oscilloscope display is shown in Figure 4, detail a).

The screen of the oscilloscope is marked with vertical and horizontal
lines which form squares. This grid pattern is commonly referred to as
a graticule. The squares are usually 1 centimetre high and
1 centimetre wide and are used in much the same way as a sheet of
graph paper. Other graticules are scaled in divisions (DIV or div).
When observing an AC waveform as shown in Figure 4, detail a), the

amplification of the vertical amplifier can be controlled so that the
vertical height of the waveform can be adjusted. Furthermore, the
vertical amplifier controls are usually calibrated so that a given input
voltage produces a specific amount of vertical deflection on the
screen. The vertical amplification is usually adjusted by a control which
is known as vertical sensitivity control or vertical attenuator control.
For example, suppose the vertical sensitivity control is set to the

10 V/cm position as shown in Figure 4, detail b). This would mean that
each cm of vertical height or deflection represents 10 V at the vertical
input terminals.
The waveform being observed in Figure 4, detail a) is 4 cm

(4 squares) high and therefore has a peak--to--peak amplitude of
4 times 10 or 40 V. The peak value of the waveform would therefore
be equal to one--half of 40 or 20 V.
In a similar manner the value at any point on the waveform can be

determined by simply referring to the squares on the graticule. Also,
the vertical sensitivity control can be set to other positions to either
increase or decrease the sensitivity of the oscilloscope. When this is
done, the squares represent other values of voltage which are either
lower or higher than 10 V.
Since the oscilloscope is capable of displaying and measuring the

overall voltage of a waveform, the device is often referred to as a
peak--to--peak measuring instrument.
Some of the less expensive oscilloscopes are not calibrated. When

using an oscilloscope of this type, it is necessary to apply a known DC
or AC voltage to the vertical terminals and adjust the vertical amplifier
for a specific amount of deflection. In other words, the oscilloscope is
calibrated with a known voltage. Then the unknown voltage may be
applied and its value can be determined.
4.2.1.3 Measuring the Period

-5
The oscilloscope may also be employed to measure the period of an

AC waveform. The period (time for 1 cycle) is determined by observing
the horizontal width of the waveform displayed on the screen.
The oscilloscope’s sawtooth oscillator can usually be adjusted so that

the electron beam moves from left to right across the screen at a
specific speed. The time necessary for the beam to move horizontally
across the screen is usually referred to as the sweep time.
The sweep time can normally be adjusted by a suitable control that is

mounted on the oscilloscope. This control usually sets the amount of
time (in seconds, milliseconds, or microseconds) required by the trace
to horizontally move a distance of 1 cm.
The oscilloscope’s sweep time control is set to the 5 ms/cm position as

shown in Figure 5, detail b). This would mean that each centimetre of
horizontal deflection represents a time interval of 5 milliseconds.
The waveform being displayed in Figure 5, detail a), is 4 cm wide

(4 squares). In other words, one complete cycle occupies 4 cm of the
trace. Therefore, the period of the waveform (time for 1 cycle) is equal
to 4 times 5 or 20 ms.
The sweep time control can be set to various positions so that the
oscilloscope can be used for measuring waveforms that have very
long and very short periods. In many cases it is desirable to display
only one cycle of the waveform. However, the oscilloscope is capable
of displaying any number of complete AC cycles on its screen.
When a number of cycles are displayed on the screen, it is important

to remember that it is only necessary to determine the time for one
cycle in order to determine the period of the waveform.
This is done by adjusting the sweep time control so that the time
required to produce one complete sweep of the trace across the
screen is equal to the time required to produce any given number
of input AC cycles.
In other words, if 4 cycles of the input AC cycle occur during the time
necessary to generate one cycle of the sawtooth waveform (produced
by the sweep generator), then 4 cycles of the input waveform will be
displayed.
4.2.1.4 Measuring the Frequency
The frequency of an AC waveform can be determined by first measur-

ing its period and then calculating the frequency. As explained previ-
ously, the frequency of an AC waveform (in hertz) is equal to 1 divided
by the period (in seconds) and is expressed mathematically as:
f = 1
T
=5
For example, the waveform in Figure 5, detail a) has a period (T) of
20 ms (0.02 s). This waveform would have a frequency (f) of:
f = 1
T
f = 1 = 50 Hz
0.02 s
The frequency would therefore be equal to 50 Hz (50 c/s).
There are also some other ways in which the oscilloscope can be
employed to measure frequency without the necessity of first deter-
mining the period. However, these techniques are somewhat more
complex and will not be covered at this time.
4.2.1.5 Measuring the Phase Difference
In electric and electronic circuits it is often necessary to compare two

AC waveforms of the same frequency and to determine if the two
waveforms coincide, i.e. occur at the same time. In many cases, two
AC waveforms within the same circuit are displaced in time or by a
given number of degrees.
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency pass through
corresponding points in a circle at the same time they are ’in phase’.
If they pass through the corresponding points in the circle at different
instants of time they are ’leading’ or ’lagging’ by a certain phase angle
or time.
-6
As shown in Figure 6, i 1 is leading i 2 by F radians or i 2 is lagging i 1 by
F radians. Thus, i 1 reaches its maximum value F radians before i 2.
Therefore i 1 leads i 2 by a phase angle of F, or i 2 is lagging i 1 by a
phase angle of F.
The instantaneous values can be determined by use of the following

equations:
i 1 = I sin w t
i 2 = I sin (w t -- F)
Measuring by Means of a Dual--Channel Oscilloscope

-7
In order to examine different signals or measure phase difference
between two waveforms a dual--channel or dual--beam oscilloscope
has to be used. This measuring equipment is able to display two
signals at the same time on the CRT and was developed for the
industrial and service use. It has a built--in component tester in order
to test semiconductors and other components inside and outside the
circuit used especially in service.
Note: The built--in component tester is not described within this Lesson.
The operating principle of a dual--channel oscilloscope is identical to

that of the oscilloscope described before. The only difference is that
the dual--channel oscilloscope is fitted with two Y--amplifiers and two
pairs of vertical deflection plates.
The front of the oscilloscope is divided into three main components:

V screen with built--in component tester
V time base (X--amplifier)
V Y--amplifier (two channels).
The screen is divided into ten divisions at the X--axis and eight
divisions at the Y--axis, where one division is approximately 1 cm.
Each division is divided into five sub--divisions. The screen provides an
anti--parallax sight of the image.
The component tester is located below the screen. Additionally a

reference voltage supply is fitted on the front below the screen.
This reference voltage ensures the calibration of the Y--amplifier.
The time base component presents:

V the X--position of the trace
V trigger possibilities
V different deflection times from 200 ms/div to 0.5 ms/div.
-8
The third component of the oscilloscope front includes the two Y--am-
plifiers for measuring the magnitude. The oscilloscope provides two
different modes of operation, which are:
V single--beam operation
V dual--beam operation.
The operating mode is selected by the single--dual--beam select

switch. In the single--beam mode it is possible to use either channel I
or channel II as single channel for measurements selected by the
channel select switch. Often channel I is designated as channel A and
channel II as channel B.
In the dual--beam mode it is possible to switch the trigger to either

channel I or channel II by means of the channel select switch.
The signal of the selected channel is used as reference voltage for
trigger purposes of the oscilloscope. If there is no signal on the
selected channel the figure measured with the other channel will not
be fixed.
Because this oscilloscope is not fitted with a dual--beam cathode ray

tube the dual beam is generated electronically by switching the single
beam in two modes:
V alternated mode
V chopped mode.
One of these modes is selected by the alternated/chopped switch and

the single--dual--beam switch.
In the alternated mode the second trace is initiated after the first trace
has finished a complete crossing of the screen. This mode is
employed for measuring high frequencies.
In the chopped mode the beam is continuously switched via a high

frequency square wave signal while the beam is crossing the screen.
The chopped mode is used for measuring low frequencies.
Additionally the oscilloscope provides an add or subtract function. The

signal of the two channels can be added or subtracted depending on
the position of the invert switches and the alternate/chopped switch in
order to get a combined signal of the two channels.
Controls of the Y--Amplifier (Magnitude)

-9
The oscilloscope is fitted with two identical Y--amplifier units, one per
channel. Each channel has its own inputs and controls:
V Y--position
V attenuator (V/DIV)
V input terminal
V input signal condition (AC/DC/Ground).
The trace depending on the Y--position is controlled by the Y--position

potentiometer which can shift it to the X--axis.
The invert switch (only channel II), when depressed inverts the input
signal of channel II by means of a phase shift of 180°.
The attenuator is split into two controls. One control is variable in the
limits from 1 to 2.5 (multiplier of the second control) via a calibrated
position. The second control is a switch with ten calibrated positions
from 5 mV/div to 5 V/div. Via these two controls the sensitivity of the
Y--amplifier is controlled.
The input condition switch selects the input signal of the Y--amplifier
either:
V direct to the amplifier (DC coupling) or
V via capacitor (AC coupling) or
V to ground.
In the DC position the DC and the AC signal levels are measured.
In the AC position the DC level is filtered by the capacitor and thus

only the AC level of the signal can be measured.
In the ground position the amplifier is connected to the ground poten-

tial. This position is used for calibration purposes, e.g. for setting the
trace depending on the Y-- and X--positions by means of the X-- and
Y--shift potentiometers.
Controls of the Time Base

- 10
The time base part of the oscilloscope includes the following controls:
V power On/Off switch
-- switches the mains power on or off, visible at power control
lamp
V intensity
-- controls the intensity of the trace (brightness)
V focus
-- the focus potentiometer controls the focus of the trace
V external trigger select
-- switches between external and internal trigger sources
V trigger select
-- two trigger select switches select one of the internal trigger
modes, e.g. AC, DC, RF, LF, µ mode or the special modes
for television (TV horizontal, TV vertical, TV OFF)
V attenuator with three parts:
-- a turnable switch selecting one of 18 calibrated positions
from 0.5 ms to 200 ms
-- a push/pull switch which expands the trace times 10
-- a variable potentiometer which includes one calibrated posi-
tion
-- the potentiometer expands the trace variable in the range
from 1 to 2.5 times
V X--position
-- the X--position potentiometer controls the X--position of chan-
nel I trace and channel II trace.
Example of Measuring Procedure
The phase difference between two voltages UR and UC in a simple

network as shown in the following is to be determined by means of a
dual--beam oscilloscope.
I
Scope
YI
R 1 kW UR
YII
Function
generator
U
C 10 mF UC
B 0843
Conditions:
V input frequency: 50 Hz
V input voltage: 6 Vpp
V resistor: 1 kΩ
V capacitor: 10 mF.
Execution:
1. Switch on the oscilloscope.
2. Release buttons +/--, EXT and X--Y.
3. Press ADD and DUAL buttons.
4. Press CH I/II TRIG I/II button.
5. Press INV CH II button.
6. Set AC DC GD selectors to AC.
7. Set TV SEP selector to OFF.
8. Set TRIG to AC.
9. Set AT/NORM selector to AT.
10. Set Y--I and Y--II attenuators to 1 V/DIV.
11. Set X attenuator to 5 ms/DIV.
12. Adjust Y--I and Y--II POS potentiometers in order to obtain two
traces on the screen with a distance of one division between
them.
13. Adjust X--POS control so that the two traces on the screen are
centred in X direction.
14. Adjust intensity and focus control to sufficient level.
15. Adjust Y--I and Y--II POS potentiometers in order to have coinci-
dence of the two traces centred in the middle on the screen in
horizontal direction.
16. Switch on the function generator and adjust the output frequency
to 50 Hz and the output voltage to 6 Vpp.
17. Connect oscilloscope and function generator to the circuit and ob-
serve the screen.
The image on the screen shows the two sinusoidal waves UR and UC
with a phase difference of π/2 or 90_.
Φ = p/2 or 90_
UR
UC
B 0844

Electron gun Vertical Horizontal Electron beam
deflection plates deflection plates
Vertical
Basic Electrics
input
For training purposes only

Basic Measurement
Vertical
amplifier
Rev. 0 Issued 01
Dec 06
Sync
circuit Cathode Waveform
ray tube displayed
(CRT) on screen
Sweep Horizontal
A 0703 A
oscillator amplifier
Horizontal input
Figure 1 Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope

4.2.1 - OT - 1
Oscilloscope

Fluorescent screen
N 3099 A
Intensifier coating
Insulating band
Evacuated glass tube
Cathode Ray Tube

Conductive coating
Deflection system
Figure 2
Electron gun
Base contact pins
Base
a) +
0
--
b) +
0
--
c)
d)
e)
A 0701 A
Figure 3 Input and Saw--Tooth Waveform
a) Graticule
(1 centimetre squares)
40 V
peak--to--peak
b)
VOLTS/CM
10 20
1 50
.1 100
A 0700 A
VERTICAL
SENSITIVITY
Figure 4 Measuring the Voltage
a) 20 milliseconds
b) TIME/CM
5 1
2 2
1 5
A 0699 A
SWEEP
TIME
Figure 5 Measuring the Period
i 1 = I max ⋅ sin ω t
+ Φ
U max
i 2 = I max ⋅ sin(ω t − Φ)
3π∕2 2π ω t
π∕2 π
U max
B 0234
--
Φ
Figure 6 Sine Waves out of Phase
POWER X–Y TV TIME/DIV AT/NORM
Basic Electrics
SEP.
OFF 1 .5 .2 .1
TV/ 2 50
Basic Measurement
X–POS. H 5 20 LEVEL
TV/V 10 10
20 5
50 2
INTENS. 100 1
TRIG. 200 .5
HOLD AC TRIG. INP.
ms ms

FOCUS OFF DC
RF +/ – ALT CAL EXT
LF
Dec 06
Y–POS. I VOLT/DIV VOLT/DIV Y–POS. II
.2 .1 .2 .1
.5 50
CAL CAL .5 50
1 20 1 20
AC AC
GD DC DC GD
2 10 2 10
5 5 5 5
V mV V mV
INPUT VERT. MODE INPUT
X–MAGN COMPONENT INV
CAL CH I/II DUAL ADD
0.2V
2V Y Y
x10 MAG TRIG I/II CHOP MAG CH II
TESTER
B 0502
Figure 7 View of a Dual–Beam Oscilloscope

4.2.1 - OT - 7
Oscilloscope

Basic Electrics

Basic Measurement
Rev. 0 Issued 01
Y–POS. I Y–POS. II
VOLT/DIV VOLT/DIV
Dec 06
.2 .1 .2 .1
CAL CAL
.5 50 .5 50
1 20 1 20
AC AC
GD DC DC GD
Invert
2 10 2 10
channel II
5 5 5 5
V mV V mV
CH I/II DUAL ADD INV
Y Y
MAG TRIGI/II CHOP MAG CH II
B 0505
Channel select Single/dual Alternated/chopped

switch beam select select
Figure 8 Mode Select of the Oscilloscope

4.2.1 - OT - 8
Oscilloscope

Basic Electrics

Basic Measurement
Y–position
Y–position
Rev. 0 Issued 01
Y–POS. I Y–POS. II
VOLT/DIV VOLT/DIV
Attenuator
Attenuator .2 .1 .2 .1
Dec 06
CAL CAL
.5 50 .5 50
AC/DC 1 20 1 20
AC AC AC/DC
ground GD DC DC GD ground
select 2 10 2 10
select
5 5 5 5
V mV V mV
Input CH I/II DUAL ADD INV
Input
channel I channel II
Y Y
MAG TRIGI/II CHOP MAG CH II
B 0506
Ground Invert channel II
Figure 9 Controls of the Y–Amplifier

4.2.1 - OT - 9
Oscilloscope

Basic Electrics
Basic Measurement
Trigger Automatic/manual
select trigger select

TV
POWER X–Y TIME/DIV. AT/NORM
SEP.
Power On/Off
Dec 06
OFF
TV/H 1 .5 .2 .1
2 50
TV/V
X–POS. 5 20 LEVEL
10 10
Power control lamp 20 5
50 2
INTENS. 100 1
TRIG.
Intensity 200 .5
HOLD AC
ms ms TRIG. INP.
FOCUS DC
OFF
RF
X–position LF CAL
+/ – ALT EXT
B 0507
Focus
Variable Trigger Attenuator External

hold select trigger select
Figure 10 Controls of the X–Amplifier (Time Base)

4.2.1 - OT - 10
Oscilloscope

Task 1: Measurements of AC Voltages
Objective:
Various AC voltages in a simple network, fed from a function generator are to be

measured by means of an oscilloscope. The determined values are to be entered
in tables.
Calculations of peak--to--peak voltages, peak voltages, rms values, period and

angular velocity are to be carried out, too.
V 1 function generator
V 1 multimeter
V 1 oscilloscope
Task 1 (continued):
Execution:
R1
UR1pp
Scope
Y
Function
generator US V
USpp
UR2pp
R2
Note: US = USupply
2. Connect multimeter (V), resistors R1 and R2 to the function generator.
3. Switch on the oscilloscope and the function generator.
4. Set the output waveform of the function generator to sinusoidal and adjust the
output frequency of the function generator to 100 Hz.
5. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit and adjust the output voltage (US) of the
function generator to 1 V.
6. Enter the value of (US) in table 1, overleaf.
Task 1 (continued):
Table 1
US = V
7. What value is indicated on the multimeter?
average value
peak--to--peak value
rms value
8. Connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, in order to measure the supply

voltage USpp.
9. Adjust the oscilloscope so that at least two periods are displayed and transfer
the waveform, AC/DC and X/Y settings into graticule 1, overleaf.
10. By means of the displayed waveform determine peak--to--peak voltage USpp

and peak voltage USp.
USpp =
USp =
11. What relationship exists between peak--to--peak voltage USpp and

peak voltage USp?
USp =
USpp =
12. By means of the determined voltages USpp and USp calculate

the rms values.
US =
US =
Task 1 (continued):
Graticule 1
x= y=
13. By means of the waveform shown in graticule 1 and X deflection factor

determine period T.
Note: n = numbers of divisions
TA = X ⋅ n =
14. By means of the adjusted generator frequency calculate period T.

T =
15. By means of the adjusted generator frequency calculate angular velocity w.

w =
w =
w =
Task 1 (continued):
16. Check the settings of the function generator (f = 100 Hz, US = 1 V).
17. Connect the oscilloscope to the circuit in order to measure the voltage across
resistor R1 and adjust the oscilloscope so that the displayed waveform starts
positive going at zero.
18. Set oscilloscope to the given X and Y deflection factors.
19. Transfer the voltage UR1pp into graticule 2.

Graticule 2
AC/DC x = 0.2 ms/div y = 0.5 V/div
20. Connect the oscilloscope to the circuit in order to measure the voltage across
resistor R2 and adjust the oscilloscope so that the displayed waveform starts
positive going at zero.
21. Set oscilloscope to the given X and Y deflection factors.
22. Transfer the voltage UR2pp into graticule 3, overleaf.
Task 1 (continued):
Graticule 3
23. By means of the waveforms of graticules 2 and 3 construct supply

voltage USpp (USpp = UR1pp + UR2pp).
24. Transfer this waveform into graticule 4, overleaf.
25. Switch off the function generator and the oscilloscope.
Task 1 (continued):
Graticule 4
26. By means of the waveforms of graticules 2 and 3 determine the voltages

UR1pp, UR2pp, UR1pp + UR2pp, UR1p, UR2p, UR1p + UR2p, UR1, UR2 and UR1 + UR2.
Enter the results in table 2.
Table 2
UR1pp = V UR1p = V UR1 = V
UR2pp = V UR2p = V UR2 = V
UR1pp + UR2pp = V UR1p + UR2p = V UR1 + UR2 = V
27. What coherence exists between measured voltage US (table 1) and calculated
voltage US (position 12)?
The values are:
not identical
approximately identical
Task 2: Examination of an R--C Circuit (1)
Objective:
The response of an R--C circuit is to be examined by the use of an oscilloscope at

different rectangular input frequencies, whereby the value of the input voltage is
continuous constant. The measurements include comparison between input and
output voltages as well. The circuit is supplied by a function generator.
The ascertained values are to be entered in the respective graticules or tables.
V 1 oscilloscope (dual--beam)
V 1 resistor 1 kW, 1 W (R1)
V 1 capacitor 0.1 mF (C1)
Task 2 (continued):
Execution:
C1
R1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect resistor R1, capacitor C1 and the oscilloscope to the function gener-
ator.
4. At the function generator, set waveform selector to rectangular and set fre-
quency control to 1 kHz.
5. Adjust the output voltage (USpp) to 6 Vpp and set mark--to--space ratio = 1:1.
6. Transfer the curve displayed on the oscilloscope into graticule 1, overleaf.
Task 2 (continued):
Graticule 1
AC/DC x = 0.2 ms/div y = 1 V/div
7. Enter the value of USpp and the period time (T) in table 1.
Table 1
USpp = V
T = ms
8. Calculate the frequency of USpp, enter the result in table 2 and switch off the
equipment.
Table 2
f = kHz
Task 2 (continued):
C1
R1
Function Scope
generator US
USpp YA
YB
Note: US = USupply.
10. Connect the oscilloscope as shown in the circuit diagram and switch on the
measurement equipment.
11. Transfer the curves displayed on the oscilloscope (YA and YB) into graticule 2,
overleaf.
Task 2 (continued):
Graticule 2
UYApp
UYBpp
12. Enter the values of UYApp, UYBpp and the related period times (T) in table 3.
Table 3
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
TAB = ms
13. Calculate the frequency of UYABpp, enter the result in table 4 and switch off the
equipment.
Table 4
f = kHz
Task 2 (continued):
C1
R1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
ator.
Task 2 (continued):
Graticule 3
Table 5
USpp = V
T = ms
equipment.
Table 6
f = kHz
Task 2 (continued):
C1
R1
Function Scope
generator US
USpp YA
YB
Note: US = USupply.
overleaf.
Task 2 (continued):
Graticule 4
UYApp
UYBpp
Table 7
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
TAB = ms
equipment.
Table 8
f = kHz
For training purposes only ev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved.
Task 2 (continued):
27. Compare waveform UYB 1 kHz and UYB 2 kHz, describe the difference and give a
mathematical solution.
Task 3: Examination of an R--C Circuit (2)
Objective:
The response of an R--C circuit is to be examined by the use of an oscilloscope at

different rectangular input frequencies, whereby the value of the input voltage is
continuous constant. The measurements include comparison between input and
output voltages as well. The circuit is supplied by a function generator.
V 1 resistor 1 kW, 1 W (R1)
V 1 capacitor 0.1 mF (C1)
Task 3 (continued):
Execution:
R1
C1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
ator.
Task 3 (continued):
Graticule 1
Table 1
USpp = V
T = ms
equipment.
Table 2
f = kHz
Task 3 (continued):
R1
C1
Function Scope
generator US
USpp YA
YB
Note: US = USupply.
overleaf.
Task 3 (continued):
Graticule 2
UYApp
UYBpp
Table 3
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
TAB = ms
equipment.
Table 4
f = kHz
Task 3 (continued):
R1
C1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
ator.
Task 3 (continued):
Graticule 3
Table 5
USpp = V
T = ms
equipment.
Table 6
f = kHz
Task 3 (continued):
C1
R1
Function Scope
generator US
USpp YA
YB
Note: US = USupply.
overleaf.
Task 3 (continued):
Graticule 4
UYApp
UYBpp
Table 7
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
TAB = ms
equipment.
Table 8
f = kHz
Task 3 (continued):
27. Compare waveform UYB 1 kHz and UYB 2 kHz, describe the difference and give a
mathematical solution.
Basic Electrics Royal Malaysian Air Force Function Generator
4.3 Function Generator
4.3.1 Function and Signal Generators
4.3.1.1 General
In order to analyse electronic circuits, predetermined electronic signals

of different waveforms and characteristics often have to be supplied to
the circuits. Function -- and signal generators are used for this pur-
pose.
4.3.1.2 Function Generator

-1
Figure 1 shows a function generator.
Function generators supply AC signal voltages of different wave

shapes, such as sinusoidal, square--wave and triangle--shaped
voltages.
These signal voltages are applied to electronic devices and circuits for
functional test procedures. Since function generators supply AC signal
voltages of various amplitudes, wave shapes and frequencies, they
are some of the most important test devices used in electronics.
-2
Figure 2 shows the simplified block diagram of a function generator.
A basic generator provides square--wave--shaped signals to an

amplifier and a so--called ’triangle’ network. The ’triangle’ network
converts the applied square--wave--shaped signal to a corresponding
triangle--shaped signal.
The ’triangle’ network provides the following amplifier and a ’sinusoi-

dal’ network with the triangle--shaped signal, which is converted to a
corresponding sinusoidal signal by the network.
Each of the three different signals, derived from the basic square--
wave shaped signal, is amplified by a separate amplifier and then
applied to the wave--shape selector.
The selector provides the amplitude attenuator with the selected

signal. The attenuator controls the value of the desired signal ampli-
tude, which is applied to the output amplifier, the latter being used
as an interface between function generator circuits and test circuits.
4.3.1.3 Signal Generator
Types of Generated Signal
Many different kinds of sinusoidal signals, at both audio and radio

frequencies, are required at various times in an instrumentation
system. In most cases, the particular signal required by the instrument
is internally generated by a self--contained oscillator.
The oscillator circuit commonly appears in a fixed--frequency form as,

for example, when it provides a 1,000 Hz excitation signal for an
AC bridge. In other cases, the self--contained oscillator appears in the
form of a variable--frequency arrangement for covering measurements
over a wide range of frequencies from a few hundred kHz into the
MHz range.
In contrast to the self--contained oscillators that generate only the

specific signals required by the instrument in question, the class of
generators that are available as separate instruments to provide
signals for general test purposes are usually designated as signal
generators.
These AF and RF generators are designed to provide extensive and

continuous coverage over as wide a range of frequency as practical.
The type of signal provided by the signal generator may be assumed

to be a continuous sine wave signal, unless the generator is specifi-
cally called a square wave or a pulse generator. In RF signal gener-
ators, additional provision is generally made to modulate the conti-
nuous--wave (CW) signal to provide a modulated RF signal (MCW).
-3
The frequency ranges covered by signal generators often overlap
the strict definition limits of the frequency bands. It is useful, however,
to retain the terminology which defines the frequency--band limits.
In the discussions that follow, it will be seen that the frequency

coverage of a particular signal generator will often encompass more
than just a single one of the arbitrary bands given in the table.
There is also a difference in how wide a frequency range can be

expected to be covered by instruments of the same designation, but in
a different price class within that designation.
Audio--Frequency Signal Generator

-4
The less expensive service--type of AF generator, for example,
commonly covers from 20 Hz to 200 kHz, which is far beyond the
AF range.
In more advanced laboratory types of AF generators the frequency

range extends quite a bit further, as illustrated by the model in
Figure 4.
The model is a wide--range oscillator, generating both sine and square

waves, and covers a range of 10 Hz up to 1 MHz.
The output voltage can be adjusted from 0 V to 6 V for sine waves and
from 60 mV to 6 V for square waves.
Variable--Frequency Audio--Frequency Oscillator
A variable--frequency audio--frequency oscillator for general--purpose

use in the laboratory should cover at least the full range of audibility
(roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz) and preferably a bit beyond and should also
have a fairly constant pure sine wave output over the entire frequency
range.
It is not practical to do this with the simple, single amplifier LC circuit,

for a variety of reasons -- an obvious one being that the variable LC
values required become quite cumbersome at the lower frequencies.
For the laboratory type of variable--frequency AF generators, two

circuit types in extensive use are the beat frequency type and the
RC feedback oscillator type.
Beat Frequency Oscillator

-5
The beat frequency type is the less commonly used of the two types of
variable AF oscillators. It is mostly used when it is desired to cover a
very large frequency range with a single dial rotation (without the need
for switching bands). This is accomplished by the use of two oscillating
circuits, as shown in Figure 5.
One of the oscillating circuits generates a fixed frequency and the

other a variable frequency. The outputs of each of these circuits are
fed to a mixer to produce a difference frequency. Thus, if the fixed
frequency were 100 kHz, the variable--frequency circuit could easily be
varied through a range of 100 to 120 kHz by the rotation of the
frequency dial. This dial would then be marked 0 -- 20 kHz for the
difference frequency, to constitute the AF output.
RC Feedback Oscillator (Wien Bridge)

-6
The most commonly used circuit for the generation of variable

AF signals in the laboratory is a two--transistor RC arrangement, in
which positive feedback from the collector of the second transistor is
supplied to the base of the first transistor to cause oscillation.
The feedback network of resistors and capacitors is arranged in a

frequency--sensitive Wien--bridge circuit, so that continuous variation
of the oscillator frequency is obtained by varying either the resistance
or the capacity elements. The principle of the Wien--bridge arrange-
ment is shown in simple form in Figure 6, detail a).
The output voltage from the second stage of the two--stage amplifier is
fed back to the base of the first stage as a feedback voltage Uf.
The portion of the output that is fed back (Uf/UO) will vary in magnitude
and phase with frequency, in accordance with the graph of Figure 6,
detail b).
At a frequency fr, when the product R1 C1 equals the product R2 C2,

the magnitude is at a peak, and the phase angle is zero, indicating
maximum positive feedback.
Since at all other frequencies the phase of the feedback voltage is

not zero and the magnitude of the feedback is less than maximum,
the circuit oscillates at the frequency equivalent to resonance fr.
When (as is usually done) R1 = R2 and C1 = C2, the equivalent

resonant frequency fr is obtained from the relation f r = 1 .
2 π RC
It can be seen from this relation that the circuit oscillates at the
frequency fr where 1 = X c = R, that is, when the capacitive
2π fr ⋅ C
reactance Xc equals the resistance R.
For example, when R = 200 kW, and C = 2,000 pF (0.002 mF), the
resonant frequency is 400 cycles, at which time Xc = 1/2 pfC, where
each equals 200 kW.
The circuit lends itself very well to decade switching of frequency

ranges and is therefore the most commonly used circuit in commercial
wide--range audio--frequency oscillators.
Radio--Frequency Signal Generator
In the category of RF signal generators, many models are required to

cover the wide expanse in frequency range from 30 kHz to 3,000 MHz,
in combination with specific requirements for modulating the RF signal
and often additional requirements for an output closely calibrated in
amplitude as well as in frequency.
In order to emphasize the distinction between the many models

available in the RF field, the discussion will centre around a service--
type RF signal generator, commonly employed for testing communica-
tion receivers.
Service--Type Radio Frequency Signal Generator

-7
A representative model of the service--type RF signal generator is

illustrated in Figure 7. It is suitable as:
V AM/FM generator
V sweep generator
V frequency counter.
AM/FM Generator
The modulation of the RF signal is either amplitude modulated or

frequency modulated and is performed by an internal AF generator or
an external signal source.
The actual output frequency is indicated by a 41/2 digit display.
The RF signal, in ten ranges, provides continuous coverage on

fundamentals from 100 kHz to 120 MHz as follows:
Range Coverage
1 100 kHz -- 210 kHz
2 210 kHz -- 410 kHz
3 410 kHz -- 1.0 Mhz
4 1.0 MHz -- 2.1 MHz
5 2.1 MHz -- 4.6 MHz
6 4.6 MHz -- 10.0 MHz
7 10.0 MHz -- 21.0 MHz
8 21.0 MHz -- 46.0 MHz
9 46.0 MHz -- 86.0 MHz
10 86.0 MHz -- 120 MHz
Sweep Generator
In order to perform alignment or adjustment of communication equip-

ment, the sweep generator operates at five sweep ranges. These are:
V 460 kHz (395 kHz -- 535 kHz)
V 5.5 MHz (4.45 MHz -- 7.25 MHz)
V 10.7 MHz (9.6 MHz -- 12.4 MHz)
V 38.9 MHz (30.5 MHz -- 44.5 MHz)
V 100 MHz (83 MHz -- 125 MHz)
The sweep frequency, either saw--tooth or triangular waveform, can be

adjusted between 5 Hz to 50 Hz.
Frequency Counter
The integrated frequency counter is quartz--stabilized and allows

frequency measurements up to 200 MHz.

Basic Electrics

Basic Measurement
Function generator 0.1 Hz – 2 MHz
FREQUENCY Hz WAVE FORM ATTENUATION
Rev. 0 Issued 01
x.1 x1 x10 x100 x1k x10k x100k DC 10dB 20dB 30dB
Dec 06
START FREQ
FREQ OFFSET SWEEP PERIOD s CHECK IN STDBY
AMPLITUDE
SWEEP
OFF
STDBY TRIG 600W

–5% +5% DUTY 3Vpp 30Vpp
HOLD RESET CONT CYCLE 50W
DC OFFSET
POWER SWEEP INPUT PERIOD PUSH FOR ZERO DUTY CYCLE OUTPUT
ON
OFF
x0.5 x1 –10V +10V 10% 90%
A 0803 A
Figure 1 View of a Function Generator

Function Generator
4.3.1 - OT - 1

Square wave
generator
Triangular Sinusoidal
network network
Triangular Sinusoidal Square wave

amplifier amplifier amplifier
A 0804 A
Waveform
selector
Output Output
amplifier
Amplitude
attenuator
Figure 2 Simplified Block Diagram of a Function

Generator
Abbreviation Band Approximate range
AF Audio frequencies 20 Hz -- 20 kHz
RF Radio frequencies Generally above 30 kHz
VLF Very low frequencies 15 kHz -- 100 kHz
LF Low frequencies 100 kHz -- 500 kHz
BDCST Broadcast frequencies 0.5 MHz -- 1.5 MHz
VIDEO Video frequencies DC -- 5 MHz
HF High frequencies 1.5 MHz -- 30 MHz
VHF Very high frequencies 30 MHz -- 300 MHz
UHF Ultra high frequencies 300 MHz -- 3 GHz
MICROWAVE Microwave frequencies Beyond 3 GHz or shorter

than 100 mm A 1268 A
Figure 3 Frequency Band Limits
B 4031
OUTPUT
6 ON/OFF
AMPLITUDE
Audio Frequency Generator

V
2
0.5
Ueff
100
50
mV
MHz
kHz
20
80 100 120
1
1.0
0.8
0.6
60
0.5
50
Figure 4
10 Hz – 100 MHz
MHz
0.4
40
1
0.3
100
30
0.2
kHz
20
10
AF GENERATOR
0.15
15
FREQUENCY
1
10
0.1
100
Hz
HZ
10
(to loudspeaker)
Block Diagram of Beat Frequency Oscillator

Output
AF amplifier
A 1725 A
(100 kHz to 120 kHz)
Difference frequency
(0 Hz to 20 kHz)
frequency
oscillator
Variable
Mixer
Fixed frequency
Figure 5
(100 kHz)
Frequency dial
oscillator
a) Circuit diagram
Uf
US
C1
R7 R9 R11
R1 R5 C4 C5
C3 T1 T2
RL1
C2 R2
R6 R8 R10 R12 RL2 UO
b) Graph of positive feedback
Magnitude Uf/UO Phase Uf/UO

+90°
Magnitude
0°
Phase
--90°
fr
B 4023
Frequency
Figure 6 RC--Type AF Signal Generator
RF SIGNAL GENERATOR
Basic Electrics
COARSE FREQUENCY FINE FREQUENCY

Basic Measurement
MHz
POWER MARK I MARK II RF GENERATOR DEFLECTION RF AMPLITUDE

COARSE FREQUENCY FINE COARSE FREQUENCY FINE SWEEP AMPLITUDE
Rev. 0 Issued 01
Dec 06
INPUT OUTPUT RF OUTPUT
IN/OUTPUT
MODULATION FREQUENCY RANGE MODE

B 4032
Figure 7 RF Signal Generator

Function Generator
4.3.1 - OT - 7

Task 1: Measurements in a Resistor Series Circuit
Objective:

in tables.
Furthermore calculations of peak--to--peak voltages, peak voltages, rms values,

total power and total resistance are to be carried out.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 oscilloscope
Task 1 (continued):
Execution:
I UR1
R1 UR1pp V
Scope
Y
V R2 UR2 V
Function UR2pp
generator Scope
US Y
USpp
R3 UR3 V
UR3pp
R4 UR4 V
UR4pp
Note: US = USupply
2. Connect multimeter (A), resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 to the function generator.
4. Set the output waveform of the function generator to sinusoidal and adjust the
output frequency of the function generator to 100 Hz.
5. Connect multimeter (V) to the function generator and adjust the output
voltage (US) 6 V.
6. Enter the value of (US) in table 1, overleaf.
7. From multimeter (A) enter the indicated current (I) in table 1, too.
8. Remove the multimeter (V) and connect the oscilloscope to the function
generator.
Task 1 (continued):
Table 1
rms value (by multimeter) peak--to--peak value (by oscilloscope)
US = V USpp = V
UR1 = V UR1pp = V
UR2 = V UR2pp = V
UR3 = V UR3pp = V
UR4 = V UR4pp = V
I = mA ----------------------------------------
9. Adjust the oscilloscope so that at least two periods are displayed and transfer
the waveform, AC/DC and X/Y settings into graticule 1.
Graticule 1
x= y=
Task 1 (continued):
10. By means of the displayed waveform determine peak--to--peak voltage USpp
and peak voltage USp.
11. By means of the determined voltages USpp and USp calculate the rms values.
12. Connect multimeter (V) one after the other across resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4
and enter the related values of UR1, UR2, UR3 and UR4 in table 1.
13. Connect the oscilloscope alternately across resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4.
14. Enter the related values of UR1pp, UR2pp, UR3pp and UR4pp in table 1.
16. Calculate total voltage Utotal = US by means of the partial voltages, entered
in table 1.
17. Calculate total resistance Rtotal by means of current and partial voltages
of table 1.
18. Calculate total power Ptotal and partial power PR1, PR2, PR3 and PR4 by means
of current and partial voltages of table 1.
Task 2: Measurements on Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Objective:
Various AC voltages and currents in a simple capacitor network, fed from a

function generator are to be measured by means of multimeters. The determined
values are to be entered in tables.
In addition, calculations of the capacitances and capacitive reactances are to be

carried out.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 capacitor 1 mF (C1)
V 1 capacitor 150 nF (C2)
Task 2 (continued):
Execution:
Function UC1
generator C1 C2 C3
V US V UC2
UC3
Note: US = USupply
2. Connect multimeter (A) and capacitors C1 to the function generator.
3. Connect multimeter (V) to the function generator.
4. Set the output waveform of the function generator to sinusoidal.
5. Switch on the function generator and adjust:
V the output voltage US to 6 V
V the output frequency f to 100 Hz.
6. Connect multimeter (V) across capacitor C1.
Task 2 (continued):
7. Measure the voltage UC1 and current IC1 and enter the measured values
in table 1.
Table 1
UC1 = V
IC1 = mA
8. Use the above measurements to calculate the capacitive reactance XC1

of capacitor C1.
XC1 =
9. Use the value of the capacitive reactance XC1 to calculate the capacitance of
capacitor C1.
C1 =
10. Disconnect capacitor C1 and connect capacitor C2.
11. Measure voltage UC2 and current IC2. Enter the measured values in table 2.
Table 2
UC2 = V
IC2 = mA
of capacitor C2.
XC2 =
13. Use the value of the capacitive reactance XC2 to calculate the capacitance
of capacitor C2.
C2 =
14. Disconnect capacitor C2 and connect capacitor C3. Measure voltage UC3 and
current IC3 and enter the measured values in table 3, overleaf.
Task 2 (continued):
Table 3
UC3 = V
IC3 = mA
of capacitor C3.
XC3 =
16. Use the value of the capacitive reactance XC3 to calculate the capacitance of
capacitor C3.
C3 =
17. Connect capacitors C1 and C2 in parallel (CP1) and measure voltage UCP1 and
current ICP1.
18. Transfer the values in table 4.

Table 4
UCP1 = V
ICP1 = mA
19. Use the above measurements to calculate the capacitive reactance XCP1
of capacitor CP1.
XCP1 =
20. Use the value of the capacitive reactance XCP1 to calculate the capacitance of
capacitor CP1.
CP1 =
21. Connect capacitors C1, C2 and C3 in parallel (CP2) and measure voltage UCP2
and current ICP2.
22. Transfer the values in table 5, overleaf.
23. Switch off the function generator.
Task 2 (continued):
Table 5
UCP2 = V
ICP2 = mA
24. Use the measurements of table 5 to calculate the capacitive reactance XCP2
of capacitor CP2.
XCP2 =
25. Use the value of the capacitive reactance XCP2 to calculate the capacitance
of capacitor CP2.
CP2 =
26. Use the nominal values of capacitors C1 and C2 to calculate the capacitance
of CP1 (C1//C2).
CP1 =
27. Use the nominal values of capacitors C1, C2 and C3 to calculate the capaci-
tance of CP2 (C1//C2//C3).
CP2 =
28. Use the nominal values of capacitors C1, C2 and C3 to calculate the following
capacitive reactances:
XC1 =
XC2 =
XC3 =
XCP1 =
XCP2 =
29. Transfer the following measured and nominal/calculated values of:
V capacitors C1, C2, C3, CP1 and CP2
V capacitive reactances XC1, XC2 and XC3

in table 6, overleaf and compare the entries.
Task 2 (continued):
Table 6
Measured value Nominal/calculated value
C1
XC1
C2
XC2
C3
XC3
CP1
CP2
30. Answer the following questions:

Can Ohm’s law be used for calculating the capacitive resistance?
no
yes
By which capacitor is the total capacitance influenced by mostly?
C1
C2
C3
By which capacitor is the total capacitive resistance influenced by mostly?
C1
C2
C3
Task 3: Dependency on Frequency of Inductive

Reactance
Objective:
The dependency on frequency of inductive reactance in an AC circuit fed from a

function generator is to be examined by means of measurements. The determined
values are to be entered in tables.
Furthermore calculation related to inductive reactance are to be carried out.
V 1 inductor 120 mH (L1)
Task 3 (continued):
Execution:
Ipp Scope
R1
YA
UR1pp YB
Function
generator
V USpp
UL1pp
UL2pp
UL3pp
L1 L2 L3
Note: US = USupply.
! For the following measurements function generator and oscilloscope

have to be ungrounded.
2. By means of the multimeter measure ohmic resistance RL of the three induc-

tors and enter the results in table 1.
Table 1
RL1 = W RL2 = W RL3 = W
3. Connect resistor R1 and inductor L1 to the function generator.
4. Connect oscilloscope to circuit.
Task 3 (continued):
5. Set the output wave form of the function generator to sinusoidal.
6. Switch on the generator and oscilloscope.
7. By means of the mulimeter, adjust output voltage USpp to 20 V.

8. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in the table 2 and
measure the related voltages UR1pp and UL1pp.
9. Enter the measured values in table 2.
Table 2
L1 = 120 mH
f 1 2.5 5 7.5 10
kHz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U L1pp
V
X L1
kΩ
X L1
kΩ
10. Use the above measurements to calculate currents Ipp and inductive reac-
tances XL1 of inductor L1 and enter the results in table 2, rows four and six.
For these calculations have DC resistance of the inductor = 0 W.
11. Calculate the inductive reactances of L1 by means of the nominal formula and
enter the result in table 2, row seven.
12. Disconnect inductor L1 and connect inductor L2.
13. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in table 3, overleaf,
and measure the related voltages UR1pp and UL2pp.
Task 3 (continued):
Table 3
L2 = 47 mH
f 1 2.5 5 7.5 10
kHz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U L2pp
V
X L2
kΩ
X L2
kΩ
tances XL2 of inductor L2.
16. Enter the results in table 3, rows four and six. For these calculations have DC
resistance of the inductor = 0 W.
18. Disconnect inductor L2 and connect inductor L3.
19. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in table 4, overleaf.
20. Measure the related voltages UR1pp and UL3pp.
Task 3 (continued):
Table 4
L3 = 10 mH
f 1 2.5 5 7.5 10
kHz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U L3pp
V
X L3
kΩ
X L3
kΩ
tances XL3 of inductor L3.
23. Enter the results in table 4, rows four and six. For these calculations have DC
resistance of the inductor = 0 W.
25. Transfer the determined values of the inductive reactances XL1, XL2 and XL3
into diagram 1, overleaf, to construct the curves XL1 = f (f), XL2 = f (f)
and XL3 = f (f).
26. Name the curves, axis X and Y and its indices.
Task 3 (continued):
Diagram 1
27. How are the determined curves designated?
linear function
sinusoidal function
quadratic function
square root function
hyperbolic function
Task 3 (continued):
28. By means of the curves in diagram 1, determine the inductive reactances XL1,
XL2 and XL3 at frequency f = 8 kHz.
Table 5
XL1 = kW XL2 = kW XL3 = kW
29. Transfer the values in table 5.
30. Calculate the related inductances L1, L2 and L3.
31. Calculate the total inductance Ltotal for L1//L2//L3 (nominal values)
32. Calculate the total inductive reactance XLtotal for L1//L2//L3 (nominal values) at
frequency f = 10 kHz.
Task 4: Dependency on the Frequency of Capacitive

Reactance
Objective:

in tables.
Furthermore calculations related to currents and capacitive reactances are to be

carried out.
V 1 resistor 10 kW (R1)
V 1 capacitor 1 mF (C1)
Task 4 (continued):
Execution:
Ipp Scope
R1
YA
UR1pp YB
Function
generator
V USpp
UC1pp
UC2pp
UC3pp
C1 C2 C3
Note: USpp = USupply

Note: For the following measurements function generator and oscilloscope

have to be ungrounded.
2. Connect resistor R1 and capacitor C1 to the function generator. Connect

oscilloscope to the circuit.
3. Set the output waveform of the function generator to sinusoidal.
4. Switch on the generator and oscilloscope. By means of the digital multimeter,

adjust the output voltage USpp to 10 V.
5. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in table 1,

measure the related voltages UR1pp and UC1pp and enter the measured values
in table 1, overleaf.
Task 4 (continued):
Table 1
C1 = 1 mF
f 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1k

Hz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U C1pp
V
X C1
kΩ
X C1
kΩ
6. Use the above measurements to calculate currents Ipp and capacitive reac-
tances XC1 of capacitor C1 and enter the results in table 1, rows four and six.
7. Calculate the capacitive reactances of C1 by means of the nominal formula

and enter the results in table 1, row seven.
9. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in table 2 and measure
the related voltages UR1pp and UC2pp.
10. Enter the measured values in table 2, overleaf.
Task 4 (continued):
Table 2
C2 = 470 nF
f 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1k

Hz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U C2pp
V
X C2
kΩ
X C2
kΩ

14. Adjust the frequency control to the frequencies given in table 3, overleaf.
15. Measure the related voltages UR1pp and UC3pp and enter the measured values
in table 3.
Task 4 (continued):
Table 3
C3 = 150 nF
f 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1k

Hz
U R1pp
mV
I pp
mA
U C3pp
V
X C3
kΩ
X C3
kΩ

18. Transfer the determined values of the capacitive reactances XC1, XC2 and XC3
into diagram 1, overleaf.
19. Construct the curves XC1 = f (f), XC2 = f (f) and XC3 = f (f).
20. State the curves, axes X and Y and their indices.
Task 4 (continued):
Diagram 1
21. How are the determined curves designated?
linear function
sinusoidal function
quadratic function
square root function
hyperbolic function
Task 5: Examination of a Rectifier Circuit
Objective:
The response of a simple rectifier circuit is to be examined by the use of an

oscilloscope. The measurements include comparison between input and output
voltages as well. The circuit is supplied by a function generator.
V 1 silicon diode (e.g. 1N4001)
Task 5 (continued):
Execution:
D1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect diode D1 and the oscilloscope to the function generator. Switch on the
3. At the function generator, set waveform selector to sinusoidal, set frequency

control to 50 Hz.
4. Adjust the output voltage (USpp) to 10 Vpp.
Task 5 (continued):
Graticule 1
AC/DC x = 5 ms/div y = 2 V/div
Table 1
USpp = V
T = ms
equipment.
Table 2
f = Hz
Task 5 (continued):
D1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
overleaf.
Task 5 (continued):
Graticule 2
UYApp
UYBpp
11. Enter the values of UYApp, UYBpp in table 3.

Table 3
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
12. Describe the waveform UYB.
13. Switch off the equipment.
Task 5 (continued):
D1
Scope
Function YA
generator US
USpp YB
Note: US = USupply.
overleaf.
Task 5 (continued):
Graticule 3
UYApp
UYBpp
17. Enter the values of UYApp, UYBpp in table 4.

Table 4
UYApp = V
UYBpp = V
18. Describe the waveform UYB.
19. Switch off the equipment.

Basic Measurement

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Basic Measurement

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INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

This training note is intended for training purposes

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

4 Basic Measurement Techniques

4.1.1 Measurements by Multimeters

4.1.1.1 General Introduction

Analogue and digital multimeters are the most frequently used

4.1.1.2 Construction and Operating Principle of a Moving--Coil Meter

The heart of the moving--coil meter is the measuring element. The

A horseshoe magnet produces the stationary magnetic field. In order

The moving coil, pointer, and counterweights rotate around

A conductor is deflected at a right angle to a stationary magnetic field

The amount of torque produced by this tiny ’motor’ is proportional to

With a pure moving--coil meter only DC measurements are possible.

4.1.1.3 Measuring of DC Quantities using a Moving--Coil Meter

The measuring elements are basically current meters (ammeters), i.e.

Each measuring element has a certain current rating. This is the

Rules for using an ammeter:

The basic measuring element can be used for measuring voltage as

That is, the measuring element could be employed to measure

Rules for using a voltmeter:

The operating principle of an ohmmeter is to force a current to flow

Resistor R1 limits the current through the meter to a safe level.

Rules for using an ohmmeter:

A variety of AC meters are used for measuring alternating current and

Rectifier--Type, Moving--Coil Meter

The moving--coil may be used for measuring AC current if the AC is

A variety of rectifier--type, moving--coil meters are available which are

A stationary coil is used in this meter which surrounds a moving iron

The thermocouple meter basically consists of a thermocouple and a

4.1.1.5 Types of Multimeter

Generally, the voltmeter, current meter, and ohmmeter are combined

First, it is much easier to carry a single instrument than it is to carry

When used as a voltmeter, S2 must be placed in the VOLTS position

All of the meters discussed up to this point are classified as electrical

Generally, the electronic meter is used in the same way as the

The digital multimeter is one of the most versatile measuring instru-

In order to obtain a clear and proper reading the instrument is provided

The instrument can be used to perform the following measurements:

The polarity of DC voltages and DC currents is automatically indicated.

Direct Voltage Measurements

In order to measure DC voltage the following actions are necessary:

Direct Current Measurements

In order to measure direct current the following actions are necessary:

Alternating Voltage Measurements

In order to measure alternating voltages the following actions are

Alternating Current Measurements

In order to measure alternating currents the following actions are

In order to measure resistance the following actions are necessary:

The following laboratory exercises are to be carried out in parallel to the

Figure 1 Permanent Magnet, Moving Coil

Figure 2 Permanent Magnet

Moving aluminium frame

Figure 3 Moving Coil

Signal spring Right

Figure 4 Pointer Assembly

Pole piece Pole piece

Current out Current in

Figure 5 Motor Action of Moving Coil

Current measuring in the electric circuit

Figure 6 Current Measuring