RAY & WAVE OPTICS

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 Contents
1. Reflection of Light 1 - 44
1.1 What is light? 2
1.2 Sources of light 2
1.3 The electromagnetic spectrum 3
1.4 Reflection of light 4
1.5 The image 5
1.6 Perverted image 11
1.7 Spherical mirrors 12
1.8 Mirror formula 14
1.9 Magnification 15
1.10 Uses of spherical mirrors 19
1.11 Spherical aberration in mirrors 19
Review of formulae & important points 25
Exercise 1.1 - Exercise 1.6
Hints & solutions (Ex. 1.1 - Ex. 1.6)
2. Refraction and Dispersion 45-106
2.1 Introduction : refraction 46
2.2 Optical path 49
2.3 Image formation by refraction 49
2.4 Practical phenomena based
on refraction 61
2.5 Total internal reflection 61
2.6 Phenomena based on TIR 64
2.7 The prism 66
2.8 Deviation produced by prism 66
2.9 Dispersion of light 72
2.10 Dispersive power 73
2.11 Combination of prisms 74
2.12 Line, band and continuous
Spectrum 77
2.13 Rainbow 77
2.14 Scattering and blue sky 78
2.15 Colour of an object 79
Review of formulae & important points 81
Exercise 2.1 - Exercise 2.6
Hints & solutions (Ex. 2.1 - Ex. 2.6)
3. Refraction at Spherical Surface
Lenses and Photometry 107-182
3.1 Refraction at a spherical Surface 108
3.2 Principal foci 109
3.3 Magnification 109
Contents
3.4 Lenses 114
3.5. The thin lens formulas 116
3.6 Principal foci 118
3.7 Magnification 120
3.8 Least possible distance between
an object and its real image
for a convex lens 121
3.9 Deviation produced by a lens 124
3.10 Power of a lens 125
3.11 Combined focal length 125
3.12 Silvering of lenses 129
3.13 Defects of images : aberration 138
3.14 The human eye 141
3.15 Defects of vision 142
3.16 Simple microscope or magnifier 143
3.17 Compound microscope 145
3.18 Telescope 148
3.19 Photometry : an introduction 152
3.20 Luminous intensity 153
3.21 Illuminance 153
3.22 Photometer 154
Review of formulae & important points 155
Exercise 3.1 - Exercise 3.6
Hints & solutions (Ex. 3.1 - Ex. 3.6)
4. Wave Optics 183-244
4.1 Wave optics : an introduction 184
4.2 Huygens principle 184
4.3 Interference 185
4.4 Displacement of fringes 193
4.5 Fresnels biprism 194
4.6 Lloyds mirror arrangement 195
4.7 Interference in thin films 199
4.8 Diffraction 205
4.9 Fraunhoffer diffraction at Single slit 205
4.10 Diffraction grating 208
4.11 Transverse nature of light 210
4.12 Polarisation 211
4.13 Polarisation by reflection :
Brewsters law 211
4.14 Malus law 212
Review of formulae & important points 213
Exercise 4.1 - Exercise 4.6
Hints & solutions (Ex. 4.1 - Ex. 4.6)98
 Chapter 3
Refraction at Spherical Surface Lenses and Photometry
114
3.4 LENSES
Lenses play very important role in our life. They are used in microscopes,
telescopes and movie cameras etc. We have natural lenses in our eyes. A
lens consists of two refracting surfaces (at least one spherical) inclined
at some angle. In thin lens the spacing between the refracting surfaces is
negligibly small. In thick lens the spacing between the refracting surfaces
at the centre of the lens is large enough. Basically a lens is the combination
of many prisms. Thus lens can also produce deviation and dispersion
(aberration). Lenses are of two types. We shall study the special case of
thin lens in which the thickest part is thin compared to the object distance
or focal length of the lens.
Convex lens
A lens which is thicker at the middle and thinner at the edges is known as
convex or converging lens.
Concave lens
A lens which is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges is known as concave or
diverging lens.

Fig. 3.16 Note:

For convex lens R1= + ve, R2 = ve.
For concave lens R1 = ve, R2 = + ve.

Fig. 3.17
The following are the terms used with the lenses:
(i) Aperture : The effective width of a lens from which refraction takes place is
called aperture. In figure LL is the aperture of the lens.
(ii) Optical centre : The centre of a lens is called its optical centre. It is denoted by
letter P. A ray of light passing through optical centre does not suffer any deviation.
(iii) Principal or optic axis : The line joining the centres of curvatures of the lens is
known as principal axis (PA).
(iv) Principal focus and focal length : A point on the principal axis at which parallel
rays of light after refraction from the lens converge or appear to diverge from it is
known as focus. It is denoted by a letter F. The distance of focal point from
optical centre is known as focal length of the lens. It is denoted by f.
Guidelines for image formation
On the basis of laws of refractions, the following rays coming from the object are usually
used for constructing ray diagram for image:
(i) A ray of light coming parallel to the principal axis; after refraction from the lens
will pass or appears to pass through focus and vice-versa.
Refraction in thin lenses. (ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens goes straight without
Fig. 3.18 deviation. This is however, is true for a thin lens because the two sides of a lens
at its centre are almost parallel only when the lens is thin.
 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 115
Image formation by convex lens

Object position Ray diagram Position and nature of image

Image at focus. Real, inverted

At
and diminished image.

Between F and 2F. Real,

Between 2F and
inverted and diminished.

At 2F. Real, inverted and same

At 2F
size of the object.

Position and nature of

Object position Ray diagram
image

Beyond 2F. Real inverted

Between 2F and F
and larger than object.

At . Real, inverted and

At F
very larger than object.

On the side of the object.

Between F and P Virtual, erect and larger than
object.
116 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Image formation by concave lens

Position and nature of

Object position Ray diagram
image

At focus. Virtual erect and

At
diminished.

Anywhere between Between P and F. Virtual,

and P erect and smaller than object.

3.5. THE THIN LENS FORMULAS

Consider a thin lens made of a material of refractive index m2 and situated in a medium of
refractive index m1 on its both sides. Let R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of the two
co-axial spherical surfaces. Suppose an object O is placed at a distance u from the
optical centre of the lens.
An image I is formed by refraction at the first surface of the lens, at a distance v from the
pole of the surface.
Then by refraction formula, we have
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
- = . ...(i)
v' u R1
The image I becomes the virtual object for the second surface of the lens, and which
forms the image I at a distance v from this surface. Then
Fig. 3.19 m1 m 2 m1 - m 2
- = . ...(ii)
v v' R2
In this case rays are going from medium of refractive index m2 to the medium of refractive
index m1. Moreover do not place the sign with R1 and R2, because they have already
signed.
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we have

m1 m1 1 1
- = ( m 2 - m1 ) -
v u R1 R2

1 1 m2 1 1
or - = m - 1 R - R
v u 1 1 2
If the lens is placed in air, then m1 = 1, and putting m2 = m, we have

1 1 1 1
- = ( m - 1) - ...(1)
v u R1 R2
 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 117

Note:
1. The equation derived will hold only for paraxial rays and for a thin lens.
2. While solving numerical problems, proper signs are to be placed for all the given
values, and no sign for unknowns.

Equation (1) is known as the thin lens formula and is usually written in the form
1 1 1.
- = ...(2)
v u f
where f is known as focal length of the lens, and is given by
1 1 1
f
= ( m - 1) - ....(3)
R
1 R2

Theabove formula is known as lens maker's formula.

1 1 1
- =
v u f

Graph of u vs. v for a lens : According to lens formula it is a hyperbola, as

shown in figure.
(a) Convex lens
Fig. 3.20
f f
u = -2 f -f - - 0 +f +2 f +
2 4
f f 2f
v= +f +2 f + -f - 0 + + +f
3 2 3

(b) Concave lens

f f
u = -2 f -f - 0 + +f +f +2 f +
2 2
-2 f f f
v= -f - - 0 +f + + -2 f -f
3 2 3

Lens with different mediums on its sides

In case when there are different mediums on both sides of the lens say m1
and m3, then we can write

m2 - m1 Fig. 3.21
m2 m1
for first surface; - = ...(iii)
v' u R1

m3 m 2 m3 - m2
and for second surface; - = . ..(iv)
v v' R2

Adding equations (iii) and (iv), we have

m3 m1 m2 - m1 m3 - m2
- = + ....(4)
v u R1 R2 Fig. 3.22
118 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.6 PRINCIPAL FOCI
There are two principal foci of any lens. These are :
(i) First principal focus : For the first focus F1, v = , u = f1. Thus by equation (4)

1 1 m 2 - m1 m3 - m2
= - +
f1 m1 R1 R2 ...(5)

Here f1 is called first focal length.

For the convex lens it will be on object side and for concave lens it will on image
side.
(ii) Second principal focus : For the second focus F2, u = , v = f2. Thus

1 1 m2 - m1 m3 - m 2
= +
f2 m3 R1 R2 ...(6)

Now from equations (5) and (6), we get

f1 m1
= - ...(7)
f2 m3
Fig. 3.23 In case when m1 = m3, f1 = f2. In this case we will simply use f as the focal length.

Fig. 3.24

Note:
1. In case, if t is the thickness of the lens at the centre, then we can solve the
problem in two steps :

m2 m1 m2 - m1
- = ...(i)
v ' -u + R1

Fig. 3.25
m1 m2 m1 - m 2
and - = ...(ii)
v ( v '- t ) - R2

On solving (i) and (ii), we can get v.

2. If distances of the object and the image are measured from first and second focus
respectively, then x1 x2 = f1 f2.
This known as Newtons formula.
Fig. 3.26
 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 119
More about focal length
According to our sign conventions;

For convex lens,

R1 = + R, R2 = R;
1
( m - 1)
1 1
\ = -
f R -R

R
or f = 2 ( m - 1) .
For concave lens,
R1 = R, R2 = + R. Fig. 3.27

1
( m - 1)
1 1
\ = -
f -R +R

R
or f = - .
2 ( m - 1)
Thus the focal length of convex lens is positive and that of concave is negative.

Note: Fig. 3.28

In case when parallel ray are not parallel to principal axis, they intersect at a point
which is not on the axis. Plane through this point is called focal plane.

Fig. 3.29
 Chapter 4
Wave Optics
185
4.3 INTERFERENCE
When two or more coherent waves superimpose, the resultant intensity in the region of
superposition is different from the intensity of individual waves. This modification in
the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference.
Young's double slit experiment (YDSE)
Thomas Young in 1801 devised an ingenious method of producing coherent sources. In
this method a single wavefront is divided into two; these two split wavefronts act as if
they originated from two sources having a constant phase relationship and therefore,
when they were allowed to interfere, a stationary interference pattern was obtained. In
the experiment light from a source S fell on a cardboard which contained two pinholes
(or slits) S1 and S2 which were very close to one another. The spherical waves originating
from S1 and S2 were coherent and so beautiful interference fringes or bands were obtained
on the screen.

Fig. 4.4. Young's double slits arrangement.

Coherent sources
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same frequency
and having constant phase difference (may be zero). It means the two sources must emit
waves of the same wavelength. In practice it is not possible to have two independent
sources which are coherent and so for practical purposes, two virtual sources formed
from a single source can act as coherent sources. Youngs double slits arrangement,
Fresnels biprism method, Llyods mirror arrangement are the methods of producing two
coherent sources from a single source.

Note:
1. Two independent laser sources of equal wavelengths can be coherent.
Because they can maintained the constant phase difference for long time.
2. Two ordinary sources can not maintain the constant phase difference so
they can not be coherent and hence will not interfere.

Analytical treatment of interference

Consider a monochromatic source of light S emitting light waves of wavelength l and
two narrow slits S1 and S2. S1 and S2 are separated a distance d and equidistance from
S. S1 and S2 then becomes two virtual coherent sources of light waves. Let f is the phase
difference between the two waves reaching at point P. The equation of wave for any
fixed position (say screen at x = 0) can be written as : y = a sin (wtkx), where x = 0 and
so, we get y = a sin wt. Thus for two coherent waves, we can write
186 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
y 1 = a1 sin wt
and y 2 = a2 sin (wt + f).
By principle of superposition, we have
y = y1 + y2
= a1 sin wt + a2 sin ( wt + f )

= a1 sin wt + a2 [sin wt cos f + cos wt sin f]

= ( a1 + a2 cos f ) sin wt + a2 sin f cos wt

Substituting a1 + a2 cos f = R cos q ...(i)
and a2 sin f = R sinq, we get ...(ii)
y = R cos q sin wt + R sin q cos wt

or y = R sin ( wt + q) . ...(1)
This shows that the resultant wave at any point P is simple harmonic of amplitude R.
The amplitude R can be obtained as : Squaring equations (i) and (ii), we have
R2 = a12 + a2 2 + 2a1a2 cos f . ...(2)
As intensity I of wave is proportional to square of the amplitude, and so
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos f . ...(3)
Also dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get
a2 sin f
tan q = . ...(4)
a1 + a2 cos f

Fig. 4.5
In Young's interference experiment, incident monochromatic light is diffracted by slit
So, which then acts as a point source of light that emits semicircular wavefronts. As
that light reaches screen B, it is diffracted by slits S1 and S2, which then act as two
point sources of light. The light waves traveling from slits S1 and S2 overlap and
undergo interference, forming an interference pattern of maxima and minima on viewing
screen C.
 WAVE OPTICS 187
Depending on the phase difference f between the two waves, the intensity of resulting
wave may be minimum or maximum. Accordingly there are two types of interference.
These are :
(i) Constructive interference (bright point)
The intensity I will be maximum, when
cosf = + 1,
or f = 2pn, n = 0, 1, 2,.....
l
As path difference Dx = f;
2p
\ Dx = nl
2
Now I max = Rmax = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2

or 2
I max = Rmax = ( a1 + a2 ) 2 . ...(5)
(ii) Destructive interference (dark point)
The intensity I will be minimum, when
cosf = 1
or f = ( 2n - 1) p, n = 1, 2, 3,...

l
Also Dx = ( 2n - 1)
2
2
Now I min = Rmin = a12 + a22 - 2a1a2

or 2
I min = Rmin = ( a1 - a2 ) 2 ...(6)

Thus
I max Rmax
= 2 =
( a1 + a2 ) 2 . ...(7)
I min Rmin ( a1 - a2 ) 2

Special cases : When two identical waves interfere,

a1 = a2 = a
\ I max = 4a2 and Imin = 0.

Also I = a 2 + a 2 + 2 aa cos f

= 2a 2 (1 + cos f )

f
= 2a 2 2 cos 2
2
f
= 4a 2 cos 2
2
f
or I = I max cos 2 . ...(8)
2
Intensity distribution
It has been obtained that intensity at bright points is 4a2 and at dark points is zero.
According to law of conservation of energy, the energy of the intefering waves as a
whole remains constant. Thus the energy from points of minimum intensity transfers to Fig. 4.6
188 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
the points of maximum intensity. The intensity variation with phase difference is shown
in fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7
Fringe width
Consider two sources S1 and S2 emitting monochromatic light of wavelength l. The
separation between them is d. The interference fringes are obtained on a screen placed
at a distance D from the sources. The fringes are of equal width and alternatively bright
and dark. The centre to centre distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes
is called fringe width b.
Consicer a point P on the screen at a distance yn from the centre of the screen O. The
angular position of the point P is q from the centre of the sources (see fig. 4.8).

The path difference between the waves on arriving at point P, is S2P S1P, which is
equal to Dx. From the figure Dx = d sinq. For small q, we can write sin q ; tan q. Thus
Dx ; d tanq.
yn
From the triangle SOP, tan q = ,
D

d yn
\ Dx = (i)
D
(i) Bright fringes
There will be bright fringe at P, when Dx = nl. Thus path difference
dyn
= nl
D
 WAVE OPTICS 189

n Dl
or yn = ; n = 0, 1, 2, ...... ...(9)
d
Equation (9) represents the position of nth bright fringe. The (n 1)th fringe will
be at a distance
Dl
yn -1 = ( n - 1)
d
\ Fringe width b = yn - yn-1
n Dl Dl
= - ( n - 1)
d d

Dl
or b = . ...(10)
d
(ii) Dark fringes
l
There will be dark fringe at P, when Dx = (2n1) . Thus
2
d yn l
= ( 2n - 1)
D 2
( 2n - 1) Dl
or yn = ; n =1, 2, ... ...(11)
2 d
Equation (11) represents the position of nth dark fringe. The (n1)th fringe will be
at a distance
2 ( n - 1) - 1 Dl
yn -1 =
2 d
\ Fringe width b = y n y n1

2n - 1 Dl 2 ( n - 1) - 1 Dl
= 2 d - 2

d

Dl
or b = .
d
It shows that the fringe width is equal for bright and dark fringe.

Note:
The maximum path difference Dxmax = d, when sinq = 1. If n are the number of

d
brights fringes on one side of the central bright, then d = nl or n = . Thus
l
total number of fringes that can be on the screen are = 2 n + 1, including central
central fringe.
Angular fringe width
Sometime it is required to represent fringe width in terms of angle subtended at the
centre of the sources. If a is the angular fringe width, then
b
a =
D
Fig. 4.9
190 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS

Dl / d
=
D
l
or a = radian.
d
Special case : If YDSE is performed in water, and observer is in air, then fringe width
D l water
b water = .
d

l air
As lwater = ,
mw

1 D l air bair
b water = = m .
\ mw d w

Important points :
1. In YDSE, the central fringe is bright, and all the bright fringes are of same intensity.
Colour of bright fringes are of the colour of incident light.
2. If slits are of equal size, the intensity of all the dark frings are zero.
3. If slits are of unequal size, then the intensity of dark fringe is not zero.
4. All the fringes are of equal width.
5. If sources have random phase difference, then there will be no interference. The
intensity at any point will be I = a2 + a2 = 2a2.
6. If white light is used in the experiment, then the central fringe will be white, and
other fringes are overlapped colour fringes.
Condition of obserable interference
1. The sources must be coherent.
2. The separation between the slits should be small (order of mm), so that size of
fringe is large enough to observe.
3. The amplitudes of interfering waves are equal or nearly equal, otherwise the
intensities of bright and dark fringes are not differentiable.