Teaching methods in archaeological

field schools

Metode de Predare pe antierele

arheologice coal

Edited by:/Editat de

Cristian Dima

Authors/Autori:

Alexandru diaconescu

Ioana oltean

Reinhard stupperich

Fritz Mitthof

Carmen ciongradi

Emilian bota
Adriana antal

cristian dima

kira lapp

corina hoff
Teaching methods
In archaeological
field schools

Metode de predare
pe antierele
arheologice coal

Edited by Cristian dima

EDITURA MEGA
CLUJ-NAPOCA, 2017
Cover illustration: Drone Photo at praetorium procuratoris diggings - C. Dima, A. Antal
Graphics: Adriana Antal
Foto: Adriana Antal, Ioana Oltean, C. Ciongradi, E. Bota, C. Dima
DTP: Cristian Dima, Adriana Antal

Financed by: European Union in Erasmus+ Programe

Proiectul a primit finanare din partea Uniunii Europene n cadrul Programului Erasmus+

Cristian Dima, 2017

ISBN 978-606-543-880-4

Editura Mega
Cluj-Napoca
e-mail: mega@edituramega.ro
www.edituramega.ro
 CONTENTS / cuprins

I. INTRODUCTION / INTRODUCERE

Foreword / CUVNT NAINTE 9

AL. DIACONESCU, AN INTRODUCTION. TEACHING FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE 21th

CENTURY /
O INTRODUCERE. PREDAREA ARHEOLOGIEI DE TEREN N SECOLUL XXI 12

II. Remote Sensing / Cercetri non-invazive

II.1. I. Oltean, Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi 25

II,2. I. Oltean, Archaeological remote sensing in Romania / Detecia arheologic

din aer n Romnia 38

II.3. I, Oltean, Archaeological fieldschools and remote sensing./ coli arheologice

i detecia 45

II.4. R. Stupperich, C. Hoff, Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica

perieghezei arheologice 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY / LITERATUR 77

III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / SPTURI ARHEOLOGICE

III.1. E. Bota, Archaeological situations / situaii arheologice 83

III.2. E. Bota, Excavation tehniques / tehnici de sptur 92

III.3. Al. Diaconescu, Recording the archaeological excavation / nregistrarea

spturii arheologice 103
III.4. C. Ciongradi, Colectiong archaeological material / Colectarea materialului
arheologic 123

III.5. C. ciongradi, Primary conservation of archaeological material / conservarea

primar a materialului arheologic 130

BIBLIOGRAPHY / LITERATUR 139

IV. Drawing and photography / Desenul i fotografia

IV.1. A. Antal, field Drawing / Desenul pe teren 143

IV.2. A. Antal, Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor 158

IV.3. A. Antal, Post-procesing drawings / post-procesarea desenelor 168

IV.4. K. Lapp, archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic 172

BIBLIOGRAPHY / LITERATUR 185

V. topographic survey and photogrametry / Msurtori topografice

i fotogrametrie

V.1. C. Dima, Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren 189

V.2. C. Dima, Photogrametry / Fotogrametrie 210

V.3. C. Dima, GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY / LITERATUR 235

VI. F. Mitthof, Epigraphy in Archaeological sites / Epigrafia pe siturile

arheologice 239

BIBLIOGRAPHY / LITERATUR 256

I. INTRODUCTION / INTRODUCERE
 FOREWORD
This is not an ordinary MANUAL, in the
sense most textbooks are. We do not have the
vanity to produce general rules, to edit standards
and procedures concerning an archaeological in-
vestigation. Starting with the middle of the 20th
century many high quality books were written on
this subject.
This handbook reflects our experience
within the ERASMUS + project: From Theory
to Practice - International Teaching in Field Ar-
chaeology in Roman Sarmizegetusa - FIT in Ar-
chaeology (contract 2015-R001-KA203-015185),
financed by European Union under the Eras-
mus+ Programme coordinated in Romania by
National Agency for Community Programmes in
the Field of Education and Vocational Training
(ANPCDEFP). The project was coordinated by
The National Museum of History of Transylvania
from Cluj-Napoca, with four European univer-
sities as partners in this enterprise: Babe-Bolyai
University at Cluj-Napoca, University of Exeter,
University of Viena and Ruprecht-Karls Univer-
sity of Heidelberg. We would like to share our ex-
perience with whoever would be interested.
9
CUVNT NAINTE
Acesta nu este un MANUAL obinuit,
n sensul n care majoritatea unor astfel de texte
sunt. Nu avem vanitatea de a produce reguli gen-
erale, de a edita standarde i proceduri privind
investigaia arheologic. ncepnd din mijlocul
secolului 20 s-au scris nenumrate cri de bun
calitate pe acest subiect.
Acest instrument de lucru reflect expe-
riena noastr n cadrul proiectului ERASMUS+:
De la Teorie la Practic coal internaional
n domeniul arheologiei la Sarmizegetusa ro-
man (FIT in Archaeology), finanat de Uni-
unea European prin programul Erasmus+ coor-
donat n Romnia de Agenia Naional pentru
Programe Comunitare n Domeniul Educaiei i
Formrii Profesionale. Proiectul a fost coordo-
nat de Muzeul Naional de Istorie a Transilvaniei
din Cluj-Napoca n partenariat cu patru univer-
siti Europene: Universitatea Babe-Bolyai din
Cluj-Napoca, Universitatea din Exeter, Universi-
tatea din Viena i Universitatea Ruprecht-Karls
din Heidelberg. Dorim s mprti experiena
noastr cu oricine ar putea s fie interesat de
aceste metode.
 The aim of this project is the creation,
adoption and promotion of a coherent model of
nonformal and informal learning, and as well the
development of cross-border competences and
of professional and transferable transversal skills
for the European students within the framework
of the archaeological field school at Sarmizege-
tusa, in order to facilitate the achievement of en-
trepreneurial awareness and practical experience
useful in student mobility within a trans-Euro-
pean professional labour market. Two of the ob-
jectives of this strategic partnership related with
this Intellectual Product was to innovate, develop
and adapt a working methodology for the teach-
ing and recognition of archaeological compe-
tences and skills of students to the field school
from 2016 and 2018 at Sarmizegetusa but also
to onsolidate the professional development and
cross-border cooperation of 10 researchers from
5 European institutions working in high educa-
tion in the field of archaeology through an inno-
vative combination of nonformal and informal
learning pattern and increase the quality of high
education in the archaeological field school from
Colonia Sarmizegetusa.
This intellectual product wants to be an
innovative approach regarding learning activities
in archaeological field schools. The structure of
this manual which consists in about 200 pages is
based on modules of learning that covers all the
modern and technological methods which are
used in archaeology all over the world. Based on
a vast experience in archaeology and in teaching
archaeology, every staff member involved in the
10
Scopul acestui proiect este conceperea,
adoptarea i promovarea unui model coerent de
nvare nonformal i informal precum i de
dezvoltare a competenelor i abilitilor trans-
versale la nivel european pentru tinerii n cadrul
antierelor arheologice coal de la Sarmizege-
tusa, pentru facilitarea dobndirii de experiene
antreprenoriale i practice utile n mobilitatea i
integrarea tinerilor pe piaa muncii. Dou din-
tre obiectivele acestui parteneriat strategic n
legtur cu acest manual sunt de a inova, dez-
volta i adapta o metodologie de lucru specific
de nvare i de recunoatere a competenelor
tinerilor preocupai de arheologie n cadrul cam-
paniilor din anul 2016 i 2017 de pe antierul ar-
heologic coal Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa
dar i de a consolida dezvoltarea profesional i
cooperarea transfrontalier a 10 cercettori i
profesori de la 5 instituii europene din domeniul
nvmntului superior n domeniul arheologie
prin combinarea inovativ a nvrii informale
i nonformale i de a crete nivelul de educaie pe
antierul arheologic de la Colonia Sarmizegetu-
sa.
Acest manual vrea s reprezinte o
abordare inovativ asupra activitilor de n-
vare pe antierele arheologice de tip coal.
Structura acestui manual care const n aproxi-
mativ 200 de pagini este bazat pe module de n-
vare care acoper toate metodele i tehnologiile
moderne care sunt folosite n arheologie peste tot
n lume. Bazndu-se pe o vast experien arheo-
logic i didactic, fiecare membru al echipei im-
plicat n proiect a acoperit un modul de nvare
FOREWORD / CUVNT NAINTE
project covered a module from the manual and
create it, test it, develop it and deliver it. Senior
Lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean from the Exeter Uni-
versity was in charge to deliver a module that
covered aspects regarding teaching methods re-
garding landscape archaeology, aerial photo, re-
mote sensing, electro-magnetic etc. Univ. Prof.
Dr. Reinhard Stupperich from Heidelberg Uni-
versity was responsible to deliver a module that
covered aspects related with the collecting data
on archaeological sites, field-walking survey, data
interpretation etc. Univ. Prof. Dr. Dr.hc. Mitthof
from Vienna University was in charge with the
module regarding epigraphy - reading ancient
inscription and digital reconstruction of them,
numismatic and was seconded by his colleague
Kira Lapp who discussed the aspects regarding
the photography on archaeological sites. Prof.
Univ. Dr. Alexandru Diaconescu from Babe-
Bolyai University was in charge with the module
that is related with the recording and identifying
archaeological contexts, development of a com-
plex sheet etc. Finaly the team from MNIT was in
charge with three modules. Dr. Carmen Ciongra-
di and Dr. Emilian Bota was in charge with the
module regarding digging methodology, archae-
ological situation interpretation, collecting and
primary conservation of the archeological arti-
facts etc. Dr. Adriana Antal delivered the mod-
ule related with the archaeological drawing on
field and drawing archaeological material, while
Drd. Cristian Dima was in charge with the mod-
ule regarding topographic mesurment in archae-
ology, photogrametry of monuments or artefact
and GIS data procesing.
11
din manual pe care l-a creat, testat i dezvoltat.
Senior Lector dr. Ioana Oltean de la Universitatea
Exeter a fost responsabil de elaborarea unui
modul care s acopere aspecte legate de metodele
de predare n domeniul arheologiei peisagistice,
fotografie aerian, teledetecie, electromagnetic
etc. Prof. Univ. Dr. Reinhard Stupperich de la
Universitatea Heidelberg a fost responsabil de a
furniza un modul care s acopere aspecte legate
de identificarea siturilor arheologice, perieghe-
za arheologic, interpretarea datelor etc. Prof.
Univ. Dr. Dr.hc. Fritz Mitthof de la Universitatea
din Viena a fost responsabil de modulul de ep-
igrafie, identificarea textelor antice i metode
de reconstrucie digital a acestora, numismat-
ic i colega sa, Kira Lapp, a discutat aspectele
legate de fotografia pe siturile arheologice. Prof.
Univ. Dr. Alexandru Diaconescu de la Universi-
tatea Babe-Bolyai a fost responsabil de modu-
lul care are legtur cu nregistrarea i identifi-
carea contextelor arheologice, elaborarea fielor
de complexe etc. n final, echipa de la MNIT a
fost responsabil cu trei module. Dr. Carmen Ci-
ongradi i Dr. Emilian Bota au fost responsabili
cu modulul de excavare a metodologiei, interp-
retarea situaiei arheologice, colectarea i conser-
varea primar a artefactelor arheologice etc. Dr.
Adriana Antal a livrat modulul legat de desenul
arheologic pe teren i ale materialelor arheo-
logice, n timp ce Drd. Cristian Dima a fost re-
sponsabil de modulul de msurtori topografice
n arheologie, fotogrametria monumentelor sau
artefactelor i procesarea datelor GIS.
 AN INTRODUCTION.
TEACHING FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY IN
THE 21th CENTURY
PROF. DR. ALEXANDRU DIACONESCU
Field archaeology is the most exciting
segment of what is generally acknowledged to
be archaio-logia, the discipline concerning ma-
terial evidence from the past. Field archaeology
involves little theory, such as analyzing and in-
terpreting past processes and artefacts. Instead,
it implies discovering ancient objects, buried
structures and ultimately lost civilizations. It is
in most parts invasive, it involves a lot of action,
and ultimately it is adventure!
However, field archaeology is no treasure
hunting, no search for hidden mysteries, and no
chase for traces of esoteric knowledge. The work
of a field archaeologist resembles more the one
of an accountable than the exciting adventures of
Indiana Jones. Recording day to days finds and
describing in detail an archaeological digging
might be boring and time consuming, but in the
end it brings the satisfaction of contributing to
12
O INTRODUCERE.
PREDAREA ARHEOLOGIEI DE TEREN N
SEC. XXI.
PROF. DR. ALEXANDRU DIACONESCU
Arheologia de teren este partea cea mai
incitant din ceea ce n general este acceptat ca
fiind arhaio-logia, disciplina care se ocup cu
urmele de natur material din trecut. Arheolo-
gia de teren implic puin teorie, cum ar fi ana-
lizarea i interpretarea proceselor din trecut sau
a evoluiei artefactelor. n schimb ea nseamn
descoperirea de noi obiecte antice, de monumente
demult ngropate i n final, de civilizaii uitate.
n cea mai mare parte ea este invaziv i implic
mult aciune, i mai mult dect att, ea nsemn
aventur!
i totui, arheologia de teren nu este nici
o vntoare de comori, nici o urmrire a unor
mistere ascunse, sau o cutare a urmelor unor
cunotine esoterice. Munca unui arheolog de
teren seamn mai mult cu cea a unui contabil,
dect cu aventurile palpitante ale lui Indiana
Jones. nregistrarea descoperirilor de zi cu zi i
An Introduction / INtroducere
the (slow and hard) progress of our knowledge of
the past. I do not know how much our first year
students identify themselves with relic hunters
such as Sidney Fox and Nigel Bailey, or with a
team solving hidden secrets and supernatural
threats, such as the Librarians. Nevertheless it is
our task to teach them how to approach an arche-
ological digging in a scientific spirit, and at the
same time we should not entirely destroy their
enthusiasm. Winning their hearts and model-
ling their thinking is the main task of summer
schools such as the one at Sarmizegetusa.
I remember that as a schoolchild I fell
upon a book, recently translated from English. It
was Lost Worlds, written at the middle of the
20th century by the American archaeologist Anne
Terry White. I will always remember the passage
about some strange people excavating beautiful
but sad ruins all over the Old and New World,
who despite the fact that sometimes they dis-
cover great treasures, never think to profit from
them to get rich, because their goals are higher.
They are called archaeologists. They are schol-
ars that can read ancient languages and recog-
nize artefacts made thousands of years ago. At
the same time they are athletic people, who travel
across mountains, deserts and jungles, in search
for ancient lost civilizations! (White, 1941, 18) I
cannot say that this early reading made me chose
later this profession (instead of firefighter, truck
driver or sculptor which I was favoring by then).
I was myself restless in my youth, eager
to discover the treasures of the past. It took me
some time before I realized that the work of the
descrierea detaliat a spturii pot fi plictisitoare
i mari consumatoare de timp, dar pn la urm
asta poate s-i aduc mulumirea de a fi contri-
buit la progresul (ncet i greoi) al cunotinelor
noastre despre trecut. Nu-mi pot da seama ci
dintre studenii notri de anul I se identific cu
nite vntori de relicve, cum ar fi Sidney Fox
i Nigel Bailey, sau cu echipa care rezolv secre-
te ascunse i ameninri supranaturale, cum ar fi
Bibliotecarii. Ori cum, sarcina noastr este s i
ghidm n direcia abordrii ntr-un spirit tiin-
ific a spturii arheologice, fr ns a le distruge
total entuziasmul. Principala sarcin a colilor de
var, cum a fost cea de la Sarmizegetusa, este s
le cucerim inimile i s le modelm gndirea.
mi amintesc c pe vremea cnd eram nc
elev mi-a ncput pe mn o carte recent tradus
din englez. Era Lumi disprute scris pe la
mijlocul sec. XX de ctre arheologul american
Anne Terry White. mi va rmne venic ntip-
rit n minte acest pasaj: Dac ne ndreptm spre
rsrit n Grecia, Asia Mic, Palestina, Egipt sau
Irak, ori spre sud, n Mexic, Guatemala i Peru,
vom gsi oameni care rscolesc ruinele frumoase
i triste. Oamenii acetia nu vneaz comori i,
n ciuda faptului c adesea descoper avuii de o
valoare uneori inestimabil, nici nu le trece prin
minte s se mbogeasc de pe urma lor, cci
scopul urmrit de ei este mult mai nalt. Ei vor
s renvie vechile civilizaii pierdute. [] Aceti
oameni se numesc arheologi. Sunt exploratorii
trecutului; sunt savani, pot citi limbi moarte i
uitate; tiu s interpreteze semne de neneles
pentru profani. [] Dar pe lng cunotinele
lor teoretice, mai este nevoie s fac dovad de
13
Alexandru diaconescu
archaeologist is similar to that of an anatomist or
a surgeon. They both inevitably destroy their ob-
ject of study, by removing tissue by tissue, or an
archaeological stratum after the other, until they
reach in the first case the skeleton, in the second,
the built-up structures archaeologists intend to
preserve for the next generations. The difference
is that all organisms are similar, but no archae-
ological site resembles the other, so that any ar-
chaeological digging is an unrepeatable experi-
ence, and thus it brings a huge responsibility for
those who perform it (Barker 1993). That is why
we must teach our students to keep a strict record
of what they excavate, and suppress their natu-
ral curiosity to go deeper and find something
spectacular, even if in the first days our activity
seems very boring.
In 1983, I had the privilege to meet Philip
Barker at Wroxeter, and even received a copy of
his book Techniques of Archaeological Excava-
tion as a gift. His work had a great impact on
my generation and I still hold a passage of his
as my professional creed: The principle of all
excavation, large or small, is to remove the su-
perimposed contexts one by one in the reversed
order from that in which they were deposited,
recording each in as much detail it is necessary
to reconstruct, in theory at last, the site context
by context, complete with its features and finds,
long after the actual process of excavation has
destroyed it. Only by doing this can we obtain
sufficient evidence to begin to understand the
evolution of the stratification of the site, let alone
interpret its periods and structures (Barker
1993, 100). (About excavation techniques and in-
14
sim practic, de brae vnjoase i de minte ve-
nic treaz (White, 1941, 18). Nu pot s afirm
c aceast lectur din copilrie m-a determinat
s-mi aleg profesia de mai trziu (n loc de cea
de pompier, camionagiu, sau sculptor, pe care le
preferam pe atunci).
n tinereea mea am fost i eu nelinitit,
dornic s descopr comorile trecutului. Mi-a luat
ceva timp s neleg c munca unui arheolog este
similar cu cea a unui anatomist sau a unui chi-
rurg. i unul i cellalt distrug inevitabil obiectul
studiului su, unul ndeprtnd esut dup esut,
cellalt un strat arheologic dup cellalt, pn
cnd ating, primul scheletul, cellalt structurile
construite pe care arheologul intenioneaz s le
pstreze pentru generaiile urmtoare. Diferena
este c toate organismele sunt similare, dar nici
un sit arheologic nu seamn cu cellalt, ceea ce
nseamn c orice sptur arheologic este o
experien irepetabil, ceea ce arunc o respon-
sabilitate imens pe umerii celor care o execut
(Barker 1993). De aceea trebuie s le inoculm
studenilor notri ideea nregistrrii foarte preci-
se a ceea ce sap i s insistm s-i reprime cu-
riozitatea i impulsul de a se adnci pentru a
gsi ceva spectaculos, chiar dac n primele zile
activitatea noastr o s le par foarte plicticoas.
n 1983 am avut privilegiul de a-l ntlni
la Wroxeter pe Philip Barker i chiar am primit
n dar de la el un exemplar din a sa Techniques
of Archaeological Excavation. Opera lui a avut
un mare impact asupra generaiei mele i pstrez
pn astzi n suflet un pasaj al su, ca pe crezul
meu profesional: Principiul absolut al oricrei
An Introduction / INtroducere

terpretation of stratigraphy see the contribution spturi, mare sau mic, este s ndeprteze con-
of dr. Emilian Bota in this volume). textele suprapuse unul dup cellalt, n sens in-
vers felului cum ele au fost aezate, nregistrnd
A half a century ago, when such ideas
toate detaliile care sunt necesare pentru a recon-
were already in vogue, there was no total station,
stitui, cel puin n teorie, situl arheologic, context
nor GPS or digital photography, and computers
dup context, s-i completeze toate caracteristi-
were simple adding machines. We used com-
cile i descoperirile materiale, pe care le avea cu
passes to orientate a plan, measuring tapes and
mult dup ce procesul de sptur s-l fi distrus.
the plumb to draw our plans, and notes were re-
Numai executnd acestea putem obine sufici-
corded on pocket books. For a photo one had to
ente date pentru a ncepe s nelegem evoluia
wait between days or even weeks to be developed
stratificrii sitului, i s interpretm singuri peri-
and printed, before knowing if it is relevant or
oadele prin care au trecut structurile sale (Bar-
not. Land survey and topography, GIS recording
ker 1993, p. 110) (Despre tehnicile de sptur i
of small finds, air photos made with the drone,
interpretare vezi contribuia lui dr. Emilian Bota
and above all 3D records of the excavation, in-
din acest volum).
cluding photogrammetry, are now at hand and
must be taught to any person aiming to become Cu o jumtate de secol n urm, cnd ast-
an archaeologist (see chapters by my younger fel de idei erau deja n vog, nu exista nici staie
colleagues, Cristian Dima and Adriana Antal). total, nici GPS sau fotografie digital, iar com-
It is obvious that in the 21th century archaeology puterele nu erau dect simple maini de socotit.
must be done in large teams, reuniting all sorts of Foloseam busola ca s ne orientm planul, rule-
specialists. ta i firul cu plumb ca s ne facem desenele, iar
observaiile erau trecute n carneele de notie.
However, besides recording with preci-
Pentru o simpl fotografie trebuia s atepi c-
sion features and finds, there are other tasks any
teva zile sau cteva sptmni pentru ca filmul s
archaeologist must fulfill. Phillip Barker always
fie developat i printat, i s afli dac poza a ieit
emphasized that our first concern during an exca-
sau nu. Msurtorile de teren cu staia total i
vation is to establish the chronological sequence
topografia pe baz de satelit, nregistrarea n sis-
of events that took place on our site. Apparently,
tem GIS a descoperirilor mrunte, pozele aeriene
it is an easy task, although in my over 35 years of
fcute cu drona, i deasupra tuturor nregistrarea
experience in working with students, I realized
3D a spturii, incluznd fotogrametria, ne sunt
that stratigraphy might look puzzling for a be-
astzi la ndemn i trebuie predate oricui vrea
ginner (the archaeological reality is more compli-
s devin un arheolog (vezi capitolele colegilor
cated that what one might teach in a classroom).
mei mai tineri, Cristian Dima i Adriana Antal).
The excavator must have patience to reach the
Este evident c arheologia secolului XXI trebuie
bottom of the ditch, and only then he can start
fcut n echipe mari, care s reuneasc tot felul
15
Alexandru diaconescu
reconstructing from down to top the chrono-
logical sequence. In the case of context sheets, I
noticed that students can fill quite easy the first
part, concerning the description of a layer or of a
cut, but discussing the functionality of a certain
archaeological entity takes more experience than
they have, and the relative chronology is quite
complicated for them. In this respect, they must
not be discouraged, because it takes many years
before one can be trusted to fill a context sheet
without assistance.
For many years, I would have described
myself as a feature archaeologist, considering the
material finds as secondary. Yet, in a first stage,
the monumental structures I was confronted
with in Roman Sarmizegetusa, encouraged me to
study architectural remains (such as Corinthian
capitals, together with Emilian Bota), sculptural
remains and epigraphic material. In the case of
the Trajanic forum this work projected a differ-
ent light from the one deriving from the simple
plan itself. A sober complex, resembling a mili-
tary building and an austere public piazza from
some modest settlement in the frontier prov-
inces of the Roman Empire, proved itself to be
a dynamic center, adorned with lavish marble
decoration, filled with all kind of statues, rep-
resenting gods, emperors, governors, and even
members of the local elite. Several building in-
scriptions made clear the function of different
parts of this complex. The over 100 inscriptions
made the Trajanic forum of Sarmizegetusa one of
the best known and understood structure of this
type. That is why epigraphy must be part of the
education of any student in classical and Roman
16
de specialiti.
Totui, dincolo de nregistrarea cu pre-
cizie a caracteristicilor sitului i a descoperirilor
materiale, mai sunt i alte sarcini pe care un ar-
heolog trebuie s le ndeplineasc. Philip Barker
sublinia mereu c principala noastr preocupare
n timpul unei spturi este de a stabili succesiu-
nea cronologic a evenimentelor care s-au pro-
dus pe situl nostru. Aparent este o sarcin uoa-
r, dei n peste 35 de ani de experien n lucrul
cu studenii, am constatat c stratigrafia poate s
par foarte ncurcat pentru un nceptor (reali-
tatea arheologic este mult mai complicat dect
ceea ce predm noi la clas). Cel ce execut o s-
ptur trebuie s aib rbdare s ating mai nti
fundul anului, i abia dup aceea poate ncepe
s reconstituie de jos n sus succesiunea cronolo-
gic. n cazul fielor de context am constatat c
studenii sunt capabili s completeze uor prima
parte, referitoare la descrierea stratului de depu-
nere sau a gropii, dar s discui funcionalitatea
unei entiti arheologice necesit mai mult ex-
perien dect au ei, iar cronologia relativ este
foarte complicat pentru un nceptor. Ei nu tre-
buie ns descurajai n aceast direcie, cci n
realitate este nevoie de muli ani pn cnd cuiva
s i se poat ncredina o astfel de sarcin, cum ar
fi completarea fiei de context fr nici un ajutor.
Timp de muli ani m-a fi descris pe mine
nsumi ca un arheolog al contextelor i structu-
rilor, care considera materialul arheologic drept
secundar. Totui, la un moment dat structurile
monumentale cu care eram confruntat n Sar-
mizegetusa roman, m-au ndemnat s studi-
An Introduction / INtroducere
provincial archaeology (see the contribution of
prof. Fritz Mitthof). It helps us understanding
the monuments we discover, in a way prehistoric
or early mediaeval archaeologists cannot afford.
I must confess another sin. As a mature
archaeologist, I still thought that studying small
finds is unproductive and time consuming (dif-
ficiles nugae, I used to call them), until I exca-
vated the shrine of Liber Pater from Apulum.
At the beginning, it was a site rich in exquisite
finds, such as marble statuettes and inscriptions.
However, the structures proved to be poor, and
after several unfortunate campaigns, some of
the members of the team started doubting this
was a cult place at all. In the last two years, we
discovered more cult pits with a lot of waste and
in the end, the specialists in pottery, glass, bone,
bronze and iron objects, along with those in pa-
leo fauna and flora, managed to build a vivid
image of the many profane and cult activities,
which took place on that site. Eventually, the
small finds saved the project, and ever since I
insist that recording of the tiniest archaeological
material, preliminary restoring and drawing (not
to mention washing coarse pottery) on the site,
must be part of primary education of any student
in archaeology. During our Sarmizegetusa proj-
ect, I was impressed by the interest our students
payed in such activities, under the guidance of
our colleague Richard Petrowski, in various ac-
tivities, from primary conservation to all kind of
processing of the small finds. His enthusiasm was
contagious! (For the treatment of small finds see
the contribution of dr. Carmen Ciongradi).
17
ez piesele arhitectonice (cum ar fi capitelurile
corintice, mpreun cu Emilian Bota), resturile
sculpturale i materialul epigrafic. n cazul foru-
lui traianic aceast munc a aruncat o lumin to-
tal diferit fa de imaginea obinut din simpla
analiz a planului. Un complex sobru, semnnd
cu o cldire militar, sau cu o pia public a unei
localiti modeste din provinciile de grani ale
Imperiului Roman, s-a dovedit a fi un centru di-
namic, dotat cu o bogat decoraie de marmur,
literalmente invadat de statui de toate felurile,
reprezentnd zei, mprai, guvernatori, i chiar
membri ai elitei locale. Mai multe inscripii de
construcie lmuresc funcionalitate diferitelor
pri ale acestui complex monumental. Cele pes-
te 100 de inscripii descoperite aici fac din forul
traianic al Sarmizegetusei unul din cele mai bine
cunoscute i nelese obiective de acest fel. Iat de
ce epigrafia trebuie s fac parte din pregtirea
fiecrui student n arheologia clasic i roman
provincial (cf. contribuia profesorului Fritz
Mitthof). Ea ne ajut s nelegem monumentele
pe care le descoperim, la un nivel pe care nici un
preistorician sau medievist nu i l-ar putea per-
mite.
Mai trebuie s mi mrturisesc un pcat.
Fiind deja un arheolog matur, nc credeam c
studiul descoperirilor mrunte este neproductiv
i un mare consumator de timp (difficiles nugae,
cum le spuneam), pn cnd nu am spat sanctu-
arul lui Liber Pater din Apulum. De la nceput s-a
dovedit a fi un sit bogat n descoperiri deosebite,
cum ar fi statuete de marmur i inscripii. Dar
structurile construite s-au dovedit srccioase
i, dup mai multe campanii nefericite, unii din-
Alexandru diaconescu
Our sophisticated methods of recording
data and of processing the archaeological ma-
terial turn to be more and more abstract, as we
use digital technology. However, we must not in-
duce our students the idea that archaeology can
be reduced to statistics and mathematic formu-
las. Behind the artefacts and the structures we
discover, we must see the people who manufac-
tured them and who used them. As sir Mortimer
Wheeler once said, the archeological excavator
is not digging up things, he is digging up people
(Wheeler, 1954, 2). What we find in archaeolog-
ical contexts is the result of the behavior, habits,
attitudes, ideas and beliefs of our predecessors.
Therefore, archaeology must keep its character
of human science. One of the best parts of this
ERASMUS + project is that it brought together
under the sign of archaeology young people from
several European nations, facilitating contacts
and exchange of experience between different
digging traditions. The disposition for dialogue,
the need to translate and explain notions, and
the transfer of ideas, was a key point in our ex-
perience. When I was contemplating our small
Babylon a passage from the French archaeolo-
gist Guy Rachet came to my mind. In the chapter
LArchologie est un humanisme intgral of his
book on the universe of archaeology, Guy Rachet
chose to give the example of the archaeology of
pre-Hellenic societies. He argued that the scholar
involved in their study must be aquatinted, be-
sides ancient Greek and Latin, to modern Greek,
French, English, German, Italian and even Turk-
ish, to be able to cover the enormous literature of
the subject. The French scholar had the nostal-
18
tre membrii colectivului au nceput s se ndo-
iasc c acesta ar fi fost mcar un lca de cult. n
ultimii doi ani am descoperit mai multe gropi ri-
tuale cu un bogat material, iar n final, specialitii
n ceramic, sticl, oase, bronz i fier, alturi de
cei n paleo-faun i flor, au reuit s reconstitu-
ie o imagine vie a numeroaselor activiti profane
sau de cult care s-au desfurat n acest sit. Pn
la urm descoperirile mrunte sunt cele care
au salvat proiectul, i de atunci ncolo insist ca
nregistrarea celor mai mici descoperiri de ma-
terial arheologic, restaurarea parial pe sit i de-
senarea (ca s nu pomenesc splarea ceramicii),
s le fie predate studenilor ca o parte elementar
a educaiei viitorului arheolog. Pe parcursul pro-
iectului Sarmizegetusa am fost impresionat de
interesul pe care studenii, sub ndrumarea cole-
gului Richard Petrovszky, l-au manifestat fa de
astfel de activiti, de la conservarea primar la
prelucrarea descoperirilor mrunte. Pasiunea i
entuziasmul su s-au dovedit de-a dreptul conta-
gioase (pentru tratamentul aplicat descoperirilor
mrunte vezi contribuia lui Carmen Ciongradi).
Metodele noastre sofisticate de nregis-
trare a datelor i de prelucrare a materialului
arheologic devin din ce n ce mai abstracte pe
msur ce folosim tehnologia digital. Totui, nu
trebuie s le inducem studenilor ideea c arheo-
logia poate fi redus la statistici i la formule ma-
tematice. n spatele artefactelor i structurilor pe
care le descoperim, noi trebuie s-i vedem pe oa-
menii care le-au fabricat i le-au folosit. Aa cum
sir Mortimer Wheeler spunea cndva: arheolo-
gul nu dezgroap obiecte, el dezgroap oameni
(Wheeler, 1954, 2). Ceea ce gsim ntr-o sptur
An Introduction / INtroducere
gia of 18th century Europe, where all intellectu-
als had to learn only one language, Latin, besides
their own. Leaving aside these assertions (which
I would not entirely reject), I agree with his con-
clusion that archaeology is neither a technique,
nor a precise discipline, but the science of hu-
manity par excellence (Rachet, 1977, 39-41).
Therefore, in the end of our enquiry, we
might afford some imagination, without falling
into sentimentalism. Related to it must be the
positive attitude towards the great public. We
own them explanations, artistic reconstructions
and even reenactments. As long as these actions
are done with good faith and under strict profes-
sional guidance, such vulgar activities should
be considered part of our duty. This is why I think
that introducing students in activities related to
the dissemination of archeological results is also
to be taken into consideration.
During the two campaigns within the
ERASMUS + project, I held several lectures on
Classical and Roman Provincial Architecture,
which were better received that the ones I regu-
larly hold at my university in Cluj. The difference
is that in Sarmizegetusa there are lot of monu-
ments at hand, which can be visited, and then
analyzed with the students. This motivates them
to attend a lecture where analogies from the rest
of the Roman Empire, and 3D reconstructions,
are presented. The amphitheater, the forum, the
Great Temple or the thermal facilities from prae-
torium procuratoris, were thus discussed in de-
tail, both on the ground and in the conference
room.
este rezultatul comportamentului, obiceiurilor,
atitudinilor, ideilor i credinelor predecesorilor
notri. De aceea arheologia trebuie s-i pstre-
ze caracterul de tiin umanistic. Unul din cele
mai bune aspecte ale acestui proiect ERASMUS
+ este c el a adus mpreun sub semnul arheolo-
giei tineri aparinnd mai multor naiuni europe-
ne, facilitnd contactele i schimbul de experien-
ntre mai multe coli de sptur arheologic.
Deschiderea spre dialog, nevoia de a traduce i
de a explica diverse noiuni, precum i schimbul
de idei, a fost punctul central a ceea ce cu toii
am trit. Vznd micul nostru Babilon mi-a ve-
nit n minte un pasaj din arheologul francez Guy
Rachet, care n capitolul LArchologie est un
humanisme intgral, din cartea sa dedicat uni-
versului arheologiei, a ales exemplul arheologiei
societilor pre-elenice. El argumenta c un cer-
cettor implicat n studierea acestor societi, tre-
buie s fie familiarizat nu numai cu greaca veche
i latina, dar i cu greaca modern, cu franceza,
engleza, germana, italiana i chiar cu turca, pen-
tru ca s fie capabil s acopere imensa literatur
asupra acestui subiect. n mod manifest savantul
francez avea nostalgia Europei secolului XVIII,
n care toi intelectualii nu aveau dect s nvee o
singur limb pe lng cea matern, limba latin.
Lsnd deoparte aceste aprecieri (pe care nu le-a
respinge n totalitate), sunt pe deplin de acord cu
concluzia lui, c arheologia nu este o tehnic i
nici o disciplin exact, ci o tiin a umanitii
par excellence (Rachet, 1977, 39-41).
De aceea la sfritul cercetrilor noastre
ne putem permite o mic efuziune de imagina-
ie, dar fr a cdea n sentimentalism. Legat de
19
Alexandru diaconescu
Besides such classical sections of our
discipline, we all agreed that students should be
introduced in fields, such as landscape archae-
ology, environmental studies, and all sorts of
noninvasive approaches of an archaeological site.
Field walking is also relevant, and can provide
numerous suggestions for reconstructing the
ancient landscape. I will not insist here on the
importance of such studies (the chapters written
above by Ioana Oltean and Prof. Supperich are
eloquent enough). I would like only to empha-
size that they always need to be confirmed by
excavations, who have the advantage to give the
stratigraphic sequence, which is essential in ar-
chaeology.
The Sarmizegetusa project also prompt-
ed me the ultimate lesson we should teach our
students: the archaeologist must be open minded
and flexible. He must adapt his theories to any
new discovery, even if it contradicts his previous
assumptions. We cannot deny our right to formu-
late hypotheses during the excavation, although
inhibiting this tendency is the best attitude of an
archaeologist who wants to stay as objective as
possible. I have remarked that all students, what-
ever English, German, Austrian or Romanian,
enjoy asking the same question several times to
their professors and supervisors. They turn up-
set when they get different answers, for instance
about how to continue an excavation, or about
what is the feature they are just going to remove.
Students turn more puzzled when the next day
they might hear a different opinion from the
same person. It takes some time before they re-
alize (I am afraid some never do) that the deep-
20
toate acestea trebuie s fie atitudinea pozitiv fa
de marele public. Le datorm explicaii, reconsti-
tuiri artistice i chiar renscenri (reenactments).
Atta vreme ct astfel de aciuni sunt desfura-
te cu bun credin i sub o strict supraveghere
de specialitate, asemenea vulgarizri trebuie
considerate parte din datoria noastr. De aceea
consider c iniierea studenilor n activiti de
diseminare a rezultatelor cercetrilor arheologice
trebuie i ea luat n considerare.
n timpul celor dou campanii de
sptur prilejuite de proiectul ERASMUS + am
susinut mai multe prelegeri de arheologie clasic
i roman provincial, care au fost mult mai bine
primite dect cele pe care le in n mod curent la
universitatea mea din Cluj. Deosebirea este c la
Sarmizegetusa sunt la ndemn numeroase mo-
numente, care pot fi vizitate i apoi analizate cu
studenii. Asta i motiveaz pentru audierea unor
prelegeri unde sunt prezentate analogiile din
restul Imperiului Roman, precum i reconstituiri
3D. Astfel, amfiteatrul, forul, Templul Mare, sau
instalaiile termale de la praetorium procurato-
ris, au putut fi discutate n detaliu, att pe teren
ct i n sala de conferine.
Dar dincolo de aceste pri clasice ale
discipline noastre, cu toii am fost de acord c
studenii trebuie s fie iniiai n domenii cum
ar fi arheologia peisajului i studiul mediului,
precum i n toate modalitile non-invazive de
cercetare a unui sit arheologic. Periegheza este de
asemenea relevant, i poate furniza sugestii im-
portante pentru reconstituirea peisajului antic.
Nu are rost s insist aici asupra importanei aces-
An Introduction / INtroducere
est wisdom of an archaeologist is to admit that
for the moment he does not have all the answers,
and probably he never will. This conclusion does
not imply that we excavate in vain, (compare this
dark wisdom with the answer of Silenus to the
question of Midas: the best thing for you would
be not to have been born). However, we must
not lose hope. When we write our final report we
should be aware of the limits of our interpreta-
tive capacity, but the important part is to record
as accurately as possible our excavation. It is the
privilege of our successors to doubt, to reinter-
pret, and even to dispute our opinions, but they
should never say that we excavated badly.
Once I have seen a strange tattoo on the
forearm of one of my students: archaeology is
my religion. No, I would say, archaeology is a
state of mind. It is a genuine combination of cu-
riosity and tenacity, of imagination and of a job
well done, a mixture of expectation and realism.
tor studii (cf. mai jos capitolele Ioanei Oltean de
la Exeter i ale profesorului Stupperich de la He-
idelberg). Aici m mulumesc s precizez c ast-
fel de studii trebuie confirmate de sptur, cci
numai ea ne poate informa asupra secvenialitii
stratigrafice, care este esenial n arheologie.
Proiectul Sarmizegetusa mi-a sugerat i
cea din urm lecie pe care ar trebui s le-o m-
prtim studenilor: arheologul trebuie s fie
un om cu mintea deschis i gndire flexibil.
El trebuie s-i adapteze teoriile la fiecare nou
descoperire, chiar dac aceasta i contrazice p-
rerile anterioare. Nu ne putem nega dreptul de a
formula ipoteze n cursul desfurrii spturii,
chiar dac nbuirea aceste tendine este cea mai
bun atitudine pe care o poate avea un arheolog,
care vrea s-i menin ct de ct obiectivitatea.
Am observat c la toi studenii, fie ei englezi,
germani, austrieci sau romni, le face o deosebit
plcere s pun aceiai ntrebare att profesori-
lor i ct i ndrumtorilor lor, n mod repetat.
Dup care sunt nemulumii c primesc rspun-
suri diferite, cum ar fi despre modalitatea de a
continua sptura, sau ce ar putea s fie entitatea
pe care tocmai o ndeprteaz. Studenii devin i
mai ncurcai cnd a doua zi afl o alt opinie de
la aceiai persoan. Le trebuie ceva timp pn s
neleag (i m tem c unii nu o fac niciodat)
c cea mai adnc nelepciune a unui arheolog
este s recunoasc c nu are toate rspunsurile la
ntrebri, i c probabil nici nu le va avea. Aceas-
t ncheiere nu nseamn c spm degeaba (a se
compara o astfel de nelepciune ntunecat cu
rspunsul lui Silen la ntrebarea lui Midas: cel
mai bun lucru pentru tine este s nu te fi nscut).
21
Alexandru diaconescu
References / Referine
Barker, Ph., Techniques of Archaeologi-
cal Excavation (third edition, fully revised), Lon-
don 1993, primul capitol: The unrepatable ex-
perience.
Rachet, G., Universul arheologiei, Bucur-
esti 1977.
Wheeler, S. M., Archaeology from the
Earth, Oxford 1954.
White, A.T., Lost Worlds. The Romance
of Archaeology, New York, 1941.
22
Totui, nu trebuie s ne pierdem sperana. Cnd
ne scriem raportul final trebuie s fim contieni
de limitele noastre interpretative, dar important
este s consemnm ct mai precis ceea ce am ex-
cavat. Este dreptul urmailor s se ndoiasc i s
reinterpreteze, chiar s conteste opiniile noastre,
dar s nu spun c nu am spat corect!
Cndva am vzut un tatuaj ciudat pe an-
tebraul unuia dintre studenii mei: archaeology
is my religion - religia mea este arheologia. A
zice c nu, arheologia este o stare de spirit. Este
o combinaie autentic de curiozitate i tenacita-
te, de imaginaie dar i de lucru bine fcut, un
amestec de speran i realism.
II. Remote Sensing / Cercetri non-invazive

1. Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheolo-

gia non-invaziv azi

2. Archaeological remote sensing in Romania /

Detecia arheologic din aer n Romnia

3. Archaeological fieldschools and remote

sensing./ coli arheologice i detecia

4. Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Di-

dactica perieghezei arheologice
 II.1. Non-invasive archaeology
today
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Colonia Sarmizegetusa is an archaeo-
logical site which has been fortunate enough
to have been identified sufficiently early on. Its
ancient buildings had sufficient rigidity to re-
sist later damage through the traditional use of
the land over much of the site or the various at-
tempts to excavate its remains or remove its ma-
terials. This makes it relatively well preserved
and, although much is covered by topsoil and
vegetation, there is still a reasonable amount of
micro-topographic variation across the site and
scattered building materials on the ground sur-
face to indicate the possible presence of buried
structures (fig 1). A topographic survey can help
put such structures on a site plan (see the land
survey report produced in May 2001 by MO-
LAS). However, extensive areas of the site, es-
pecially outside the city walls have been subject
to more aggressive ploughing which effectively
flattened the ground to the extent that one can
no longer tell whether ancient constructions
once stood there at all, other than with refer-
ence to historical maps of the site from the 18th
25
II.1. Arheologia non-invaziv azi
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Colonia Sarmizegetusa este un sit ar-
heologic suficient de norocos de a fi fost de-
scoperit destul de devreme. Cldirile sale an-
tice au fost suficient de rezistente pentru a face
fa distrugerilor ulterioare cauzate de utiliza-
rea tradiional a terenurilor sau de ncercrile
repetate de a spa vestigiile sau extrage materi-
alele sale. Aceasta face ca situl s fie relativ bine
pstrat i, dei acoperit n mare parte de pmnt
i vegetaie, variaia microtopografic exis-
tent n cadrul sitului este rezonabil, iar ma-
terialele mprtiate la suprafa indic posibila
prezen a structurilor ngropate (fig 1). O ridi-
care topografic sistematic poate ajuta la am-
plasarea acestor structuri pe un plan al sitului
(vezi raportul prospeciei realizat n mai 2001
de MOLAS). Cu toate acestea, suprafee mari
din sit, n special din afara zidurilor oraului, au
fost afectate n mod agresiv de artur, care a
nivelat efectiv pmntul n aa msur c este
aproape imposibil s spui dac n locul respec-
tiv a existat sau nu o construcie n antichitate,
altfel dect consultnd hri istorice ale sitului
datnd din secolele XVIII XIX (fig 2).
Ioana oltean

Fig. 1.: Aerial photograph of the archaeological site; note the differences in land use between
the intramural and the extramural areas (Photo: W.S. Hanson) / Fotografie aerian a sitului
arheologic; observai diferenele de utilizare a pmntului dintre zonele intramurale i
extramurale (foto: W.S. Hanson)

Fig. 2.: Fragment of the Josephinishches Landesaufnahme ... indicating in red ink ancient structures
visible across the landscape at Sarmizegetusa and towards East to Ostrov. The outline of the city wall
and that of the amphitheatre are recognisable, surrounded by dense occupation to the north, east and
south. / Fragment a Josephinishches Landesaufnahme ... indicnd cu cerneal roie structurile antice
vizibile la nivelul zonei Sarmizegetusa i ctre est spre Ostrov. Se pot recunoate contururile zidului
oraului i cel al amfiteatrului, nconjurate de locuire intens spre nord, est i sud.

26
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi
or 19th c (fig 2).
Where a site is known or suspected,
identifying and plotting carefully distribution
of artefacts or building materials through field-
walking is also possible, as ploughing over the
site removes buried artefacts from their strati-
graphic context and brings them to the ground
surface where they can be subsequently rolled
over by repeated ploughing or casually depos-
ited to the sides of the field. Nevertheless, most
preserved archaeological information across
much of Europe nowadays lies unknown under-
ground, and the big challenge for archaeologists
is to locate, investigate and preserve it. This task
becomes even bigger when features or entire
sites have been flattened by repeated ploughing
and only a few clues of buried archaeology may
be identified above ground. A good example
in this sense is the case of a circular enclosure
partially visible and recorded by aerial recon-
naissance in the Mure Valley in the vicinity of
Trtria (Alba co.) in 2000 (fig.3). Rescue in-
vestigations in 2012 ahead of the construction
of the motorway between Ortie and Sebe
have revealed nearby the presence of sunken
houses, postholes and storage pits from a larg-
er settlement of the Halstatt period, including
the only hoards of that period found in situ in
the country (http://cronica.cimec.ro/detaliu.as-
p?k=5061&d=Tartaria-Saliste-Alba-Podul-Tar-
tariei-vest/Valea-Rea-Autostrada-Orastie-Sib-
iu-lot-1-Sit-7-km-14+100%9614+540-2012).
The smaller features looked insufficiently con-
vincing from the air, but the entire area requires
further investigations.
27
Acolo unde se cunoate sau se bnuiete
existena unui sit, identificarea i cartarea atent
a distribuiei artefactelor sau materialelor de
construcie cu ajutorul perieghezei este de
asemenea posibil, deoarece ararea pmntu-
lui scoate artefactele ngropate din contextul
lor stratigrafic i le aduce la suprafa, unde
vor fi ulterior mprtiate de arturi consec-
utive sau depozitate accidental sau nu la mar-
ginea terenului. Cu toate acestea, majoritatea
siturilor arheologice pstrate din mare parte a
Europei rmn n zilele noastre necunoscute,
ngropate n pmnt, cea mai mare provocare
a arheologului fiind cea de a le localiza, inves-
tiga i pstra. Aceast sarcin devine i mai
mare atunci cnd complexe sau situri ntregi
au fost nivelate prin arturi repetate i numai
cteva indicii arheologice mai pot fi identi-
ficate la suprafa. Un bun exemplu n acest
sens este cazul unei incinte circulare, parial
vizibil i nregistrat cu ajutorul recunoate-
rii aeriene n valea Mureului n apropiere de
Trtria (jud. Alba) n 2000 (fig.3). Spturile
de salvare din 2012 realizate anterior construirii
autostrzii Ortie-Sebe au dus la identificar-
ea n apropiere a unor locuine adncite, gro-
pi de pari i gropi de provizii ale unei aezri
de mari dimensiuni din perioada Halstattu-
lui, inclusiv a singurelor tezaure ale perioadei
descoperite in situ din ntreaga ar (http://
cronica.cimec.ro/detaliu.asp?k=5061&d=Tar-
taria-Saliste-Alba-Podul-Tartariei-vest/Valea-
Rea-Autostrada-Orastie-Sibiu-lot-1-Sit-7-
km-14+100%9614+540-2012). Complexele mai
mici nu au putut fi identificate cu certitudine
Ioana oltean

Fig. 3.: Aerial photograph from June 2000 of the area of the site Podu Trtriei (A) preceding
the rescue excavation there and indicating the presence of a sub-circular enclosure (B) in its
immediate vicinity. / 3: Fotografie aerian din iunie 2000 a suprafeei sitului Podu Trtriei
(A) anterior spturilor de salvare i indicnd prezena unei incinte aproape circulare (B) n
imediata apropiere.

din aer, ns ntreaga zon necesit investigaii

The realities of modern life and tech-
nological advances require archaeologists to
be ever more systematic in their approach and
precise in their interpretation of the evidence.
Though for different reasons, this pressure is felt
nowadays not only in contractual archaeology
prior to development but also in research set-
tings when more output is expected from less
funding. This is where non-invasive methods
of archaeological prospection can help archae-
ologists (1) find new sites, (2) gain new infor-
ulterioare.
Realitile vieii moderne i descoperir-
ile tehnologice i determin pe arheologi s fie
mai sistematici n abordrile lor i mai precii
n interpretarea dovezilor arheologice. Dei din
diverse motive, aceast presiune este resimit
n zilele noastre nu numai de arheologia con-
tractual realizat anterior lucrrilor de dezvol-
tare, ci i n cadrul cercetrii unde se ateapt
mai multe rezultate cu fonduri mai puine. Aici,
metodele non-invazive ale prospeciei arheo-

28
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi
mation about known ones, (3) assist in creating
effective strategies for future action in the form
of research, preservation or rescue interven-
tion, and (4) monitor their evolution to antic-
ipate erosion or other threats. These methods
are considerably faster and less costly than ex-
cavation, though with lesser resolution than the
latter and without the ability to recover artefacts
or provide absolute chronologies for the struc-
tures identified.
A survey using remote sensing does
not bring the specialist in direct contact with
the archaeological remains. Those are instead
revealed to him/her through different inter-
mediaries (like colour or heat reflectance of
growing vegetation above, or an electric cur-
rent sent through soil) and that information
is captured by a special sensor. Depending on
the location of this sensor, the main methods
of remote sensing applied in archaeology are
either on the ground surface (ground-based
remote sensing) or above it (above-ground re-
mote sensing). The former are more commonly
known under the name of geophysical survey,
including several different technologies: resis-
tivity, magnetometry and ground-penetrating
radar and sometimes are incorrectly assumed
to be homonymous to archaeological prospec-
tion (which also includes for instance above-
ground prospection). The latter has traditional-
ly used aerial photographs taken specifically by
archaeologists or by various agencies for other
purposes (e.g. mapping, intelligence-gathering,
etc.) which inspired the traditional name of this
29
logice intervin n ajutorul arheologului prin (1)
identificarea de noi situri, (2) obinerea de in-
formaii noi despre siturile deja cunoscute, (3)
asistarea n crearea de strategii eficiente pentru
aciuni viitoare sub forma cercetrii, conservrii
i interveniilor de salvare, i (4) monitorizarea
evoluiei lor pentru a anticipa eroziunea sau alte
pericole. Aceste metode sunt considerabil mai
rapide i mai puin costisitoare dect sptura
arheologic, dei cu mai puine rezolvri com-
parativ cu primele i fr capacitatea de a recu-
pera artefactele sau furniza cronologii absolute
ale structurilor identificate.
Prospecia neinvaziv nu l aduce pe
specialist n contact direct cu vestigiile arheo-
logice. Acestea ns i se dezvluie prin diveri
intermediari (cum ar fi de exemplu culoarea ori
cldura emanata de vegetaia care crete deasu-
pra, sau un curent electric transmis prin sol),
iar aceast informaie este captat de un senzor
special. n funcie de poziia senzorului, princi-
palele metode de detecie din aer aplicate n ar-
heologie sunt fie de la suprafaa solului (detecie
de suprafa) sau deasupra acestuia (detecie
din aer). Primele metode sunt cunoscute i sub
denumirea generic de prospeciune geofizic,
incluznd mai multe tehnologii diferite: rezis-
tivitate, magnetometrie i radar de penetrare a
solului, dar sunt uneori incorect catalogate ca
fiind sinonime prospeciei arheologice (care in-
clude de de fapt i prospeciunea aerian). Cea
din urm a fcut uz n mod tradiional de fo-
tografii aeriene fcute fie special de arheologi,
fie de diferite agenii n alte scopuri (de ex. car-
Ioana oltean
archaeological sub-discipline, aerial archaeolo-
gy. However, though aerial photographs remain
even nowadays an important resource of new
information, an outcome of more recent tech-
nological advancements is that currently aerial
archaeology has diversified massively its meth-
odology and source materials and can now be
called more appropriately above-ground remote
sensing (as distinct from geophysical survey or
remote sensing applied to archaeological arte-
facts).
The basics:
As stated above, archaeological remains
extant or buried can be identified remotely in
certain conditions. Extant remains which can
of course be recognised easily on the ground
become also visible from above simply through
their ability to influence the way sunlight is cap-
tured and reflected differently and by the way
different shadows are projected. When they are
entirely buried and flattened, we rely on their
ability to influence soil colour and the growth
patterns of vegetation, the way soil or vegetation
reflect heat or humidity, or on the way these
influence electric, magnetic or radar impulses
(see fig 4).
Geophysical survey is a general term
which is usually applied today to a range of
non-invasive techniques used to locate archae-
ological features buried beneath the earths sur-
face without excavation. Specialist equipment
based on different principles is used to mea-
30
tare, culegere de informaii secrete, etc.), care au
inspirat numele tradiional al acestei sub-disci-
pline a arheologiei, arheologia aerian. Totui,
dei fotografiile aeriene rmn chiar i n zilele
noastre o surs important de noi informaii,
un rezultat al progresului tehnologic recent este
acela c arheologia aerian i-a diversificat ma-
siv metodologia i materialele surs i poate fi
denumit n mod mai potrivit detecie din aer
(distinct de prospecia geofizic sau detecia
aplicat artefactelor arheologice).
Principii fundamentale:
Aa cum s-a menionat mai sus, ves-
tigiile arheologice existente sau ngropate pot
fi identificate de la distan n anumite condiii.
Vestigiile existente care pot fi desigur uor re-
cunoscute la suprafa sunt vizible i de sus
prin simpla lor capacitate de a influena modul
n care lumina este captat i reflectat n mod
diferit sau prin felul n care proiecteaz diverse
umbre pe sol. Atunci cnd sunt complet n-
gropate i nivelate, ne bazm pe capacitatea lor
de a influena culoarea solului i pe modul de
cretere a vegetaiei deasupra lor, felul n care
solul sau vegetaia reflect cldura sau umidi-
tatea, sau modul n care acestea influeneaz
impulsurile electrice, magnetice sau radar (vezi
fig. 4).
Prospeciunea geofizic este un termen
general care se aplic de obicei unei game de
tehnici non-invazive folosite pentru localiza-
rea complexelor arheologice ngropate n sol
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi

sure variations in the physical properties of the fr ajutorul spturii arehologice. Echipament
soil and buried objects below the surface. The specializat bazat pe diferite principii este folosit
equipment records a series of value readings, pentru a msura variaiile proprietilor fizice
based on which can be identified archaeological ale solului i ale obiectelor ngropate n pmnt.

Fig. 4.: Diagram indicating the effect of buried archaeological remains on electric and magnet-
ic impulses, on bare soil and on vegetation growth. / Diagram evideniind efectul vestigiilor
arheologice ngropate asupra impulsurilor electrice i magnetice,
numai asupra solului i creterii vegetaiei.

features. Echipamentul nregistreaz o serie de

Some of the most common strategies
are the recording of electric resistivity and of
magnetic susceptibility, alongside ground-pen-
etrating radar (GPR). Depending on the type of
technology applied during the survey traces of
human activity or structures can be identified,
as they return significant anomalies in the read-
ings recorded from the surrounding soil back-
ground values. Archaeologists similarly rely
valori, pe baza crora se pot identifica complex-
ele arheologice. Cteva din cele mai obinuite
strategii sunt nregistrarea rezistivitii electrice
i susceptibilitii magnetice, alturi de radar
de penetrare a pmntului (Ground-Penetrat-
ing Radar - GPR). n funcie de tipul tehnolo-
giei aplicate pe parcursul prospeciunii, se pot
identifica diverse urme ale activitii umane
sau structuri arheologice, deoarece acestea de-

31
Ioana oltean
on the detection of contrast on a wide range of
aerial and satellite images, between areas with
archaeological remains and those without such
presence. They will use various sensors, the first
and most common being photographic (either
oblique or vertical views), but nowadays also
including spectrometres with hyperspectral ca-
pacity (e.g. CASI Compact Airborne Spectro-
graphic Imager or high-resolution commercial
satellite imagery), laser (LiDAR Light Detec-
tion and Ranging) or radar (e.g. satellite-based
SAR -Synthetic Aperture Radar) which can
amplify spectral and micro-topographic con-
trasts well above human abilities. However if no
particular contrast can be identified then no ar-
chaeological feature can be detected (see fig. 4).
For this reason it is important to use a survey
strategy that includes a number of complemen-
tary techniques which can eliminate inherent
individual detection biases.
In ground-based remote sensing the
sensor is carried mostly by the person perform-
ing the survey, though increasingly a series of
sensors are being mounted on special carts or
trailers to increase the speed and resolution of
surveys. Above-ground platforms available in-
clude kites, balloons, drones, helicopters and
light aircrafts for very-low and low altitudes,
alongside normal-sized aircrafts for medium
altitudes and satellites for high altitudes. An
increase in their altitude means that a larger
area can be covered within a single capture, but
it also necessarily affects their ability to record
detail (ground resolution). This is not always a
32
termin anomalii semnificative fa de valorile
de fundal nregistrate, ale solului nconjurtor.
Arheologii se bazeaz n mod similar pe detec-
tarea contrastului ntre zone cu vestigii arheo-
logice i cele fr o astfel de prezen pe o gam
larg de imagini aeriene i de satelit. Acestea
vor fi folosit diveri senzori, primul i cel mai
obinuit fiind cel fotografic (att pentru imagi-
ni oblice ct i verticale), ns astzi apelnd la
spectrometre cu capacitate hiperspectral (de
ex. CASI Compact Airborne Spectrographic
Imager; sau cele furniznd imagistic satelitar
comercial de mare rezoluie), laser (LiDAR
Light Detection and Ranging) sau radar (de
ex. din satelit SAR - Synthetic Aperture Ra-
dar) care pot amplifica contrastele spectrale i
micro-topografice cu mult deasupra perceptiei
umane. Cu toate acestea, dac nu se poate iden-
tifica nici un contrast aparte, nu se poate detecta
niciun complex arheologic (see fig. 4). Din acest
motiv, este important s folosim o strategie de
prospeciune care s includ mai multe tehnici
complementare i care pot elimina erori indi-
viduale inerente de detecie.
n detecia la suprafaa solului, senzo-
rii sunt purtai mai ales de persoana care real-
izeaz prospeciunea, dei din ce n ce mai mult,
o serie de senzori sunt montai pe care speciale
special sau remorci trase de vehicule pentru a
mri viteza i rezoluia prospeciunilor. Platfor-
mele disponible deasupra solului includ zmee,
baloane, drone, elicoptere i aparate de zbor
uoare pentru altitudini joase i foarte joase,
alturi de aparate de zbor de mrime normal
pentru altitudini medii i satelii pentru alti-
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi

problem, as too much detail can deter the eye
from picking up meaningful patterns, such as
in vegetation growth (essentially allowing you
to see individual plants but not the entire crop).
Therefore, when selecting the platform from a
range available one will of course need to be re-
alistic in their expectations and chose the right
one depending on the scale of their survey. For
example, kites, balloons and drones (also called
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles - UAVs) would be
employed mostly to cover one site at a time, but
all the others can be successfully employed to
tudini mari. O cretere n altitudine nseamn
c o suprafa mai mare poate fi acoperit de o
singur imagine, dei distana dintre platform
i sol afecteaz n mod necesar capacitatea lor
de a nregistra detalii (rezoluia la sol). Aceasta
nu este ntotdeauna o problem, deoarece i n
cazul contrar, prea multe detalii pot mpiedica
ochiul s identifice modele relevante n ansam-
blu, ca de exemplu n creterea vegetaiei (adic
i permit s vezi plantele individuale, ns nu i
ntreaga cultur). Prin urmare, n selecia plat-
formei ideale din gama disponibil este desigur
necesar s fii realist n ateptri i s o alegi pe
cea mai potrivit n funcie de scara prospeci-
unii. De exemplu, zmeele, baloanele i dronele
(care mai sunt denumite vehicule aeriene fr

Fig. 5.: Students performing resistivity and magnetometry surveys at Sarmizegetusa. / Studeni
realiznd prospeciuni de rezistivitate i magnetometrie la Sarmizegetusa.

investigate larger, regional landscapes.
The process of acquisition differs great-
ly. In geophysical survey, individual magnetic
or resistance value readings are collected sys-
tematically within a specific grid (e.g. 10 by 10
metres or 20 by 20 metres), carefully laid out
and geo-referenced to geographic and site-spe-
pilot - UAVs) se vor folosi n special pentru a
acoperi cte un sit odat, ns toate celelalte pot
fi folosite cu success pentru a investiga peisaje
arheologice mai mari, regionale.
Modul n care se achiziioneaz datele
difer foarte mult. n cadrul prospeciilor

33
Ioana oltean
cific coordinates. Specific software (in our case
Geoplot) is then used to download these read-
ings and convert them to a raster representation
of the area surveyed according to a value scale.
Aerial photographs can be obtained either by
taking oblique aerial photos while flying in a
helicopter or a light aircraft non-systematically
over a specific area (aerial reconnaissance) or by
accessing vertical aerial photographs systemati-
cally-collected over a specific area (usually avail-
able in non-archaeological archives of national
mapping agencies, but also some international
collections, such as those from the WWII avail-
able in Washington and Edinburgh see Han-
son and Oltean 2013). Both oblique and verti-
cal photographs require geo-referencing if used
for archaeological mapping, with oblique ones
needing additional correction of their angle.
Nowadays many countries including Romania
have opened access to nation-wide aerial cover-
ages (with Romanian orthophotos accessible at
http://geoportal.ancpi.ro/geoportal/viewer/in-
dex.html - last visited 05/09/2017). A dramatic
increase is visible currently in the use of drones
for archaeological purposes. Usually light and
underpowered, they are more manoeuvrable
and reliable than kites and balloons but cannot
reach a comparable coverage to that of helicop-
ters or light aircrafts and would require consid-
erable digital stitching of photographs to pro-
vide a coherent view over larger sites (such as
Sarmizegetusa).
Early-generation satellites initially em-
ployed photographic sensors (e.g. Corona) but
34
geofizice, nregistrarea valorilor magnetice sau
de rezisten a multiple puncte individuale sunt
adunate sistematic n cadrul unui grid spe-
cific (de ex. 10 x 10 metri sau 20 x 20 metri),
atent realizate i geo-refereniate n funcie de
coordonate geografice i specifice ale sitului.
Un software specific (n cazul nostru Geo-
plot) este apoi folosit pentru a descrca aceste
nregistrri i a le converti ntr-o reprezentare
rasterizat a suprafeei prospectate, conform
unei scri de valori. Fotografiile aeriene pot fi
obinute fie prin fotografiere oblic n timpul
zborului la bordul unui elicopter sau aparat de
zbor uor, efectuat nesistematic deasupra unei
anumite suprafee (recunoatere aerian), fie
prin accesarea unor fotografii aeriene verticale
deja adunate sistematic deasupra unei anumite
suprafee (de obicei disponbile n arhive ne-ar-
heologice ale ageniilor naionale de cartare, dar
i n cteva colecii internaionale, ca i cele ale
celui de-al doilea rzboi mondial disponibile
n Washington i Edinburgh vezi Hanson i
Oltean 2013). Att fotografiile oblice ct i cele
verticale necesit geo-refereniere dac sunt
folosite pentru cartare arheologic, cele oblice
necesitnd corecii suplimentare ale deforma-
rii cauzate de unghiului oblic. n zilele noastre,
numeroase ri, inclusiv Romnia, au permis
accesul la imagini aeriene la nivel naional (or-
tofotografiile din Romnia accesibile pe http://
geoportal.ancpi.ro/geoportal/viewer/index.
html - ultima vizionare 05/09/2017). O cretere
dramatic este vizibil recent n utilizarea dro-
nelor n scopuri arheologice. De obicei uoare
i fr prea mare putere, acestea sunt mai
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi
have since changed to spectrometres and other
imaging equipment (e.g. Synthetic Aperture Ra-
dar - SAR). Like geophysics, the resulting data-
sets also consist in a numeric values for indi-
vidual points collected from the ground which
can subsequently be displayed as raster images
based on different filters and algorythms. Sim-
ilarly, LiDAR datasets consist of a point cloud
(a set of tri-dimensionally recorded points on
the ground measured with very high accuracy
by a laser beam connected to a GPS antenna)
which can be digitally filtered (e.g. removing
vegetation canopy) and processed to provide
enhanced visualisations of the terrain, which
has been extremely successful in wooded areas.
All such datasets should be used as basis
for specialist interpretation of the potential ar-
chaeological content and mapping resulting in
site plans and area maps, in order to appropri-
ately inform and assist subsequent fieldwork or
heritage management.
35
manevrabile i mai de ncredere dect zmeele i
baloanele, ns nu pot realiza o acoperire com-
parabil cu cea a elicopterelor sau avioanelor
uoare i necesit coaserea digital consider-
abil a fotografiilor pentru a oferi o imagine co-
erent a siturilor mai extinse (ca i Sarmizegetu-
sa).
Sateliii de generaie mai veche au uti-
lizat iniial senzori fotografici (de ex. Corona),
care au fost ns nlocuii ntre timp de spec-
trometre i alte echipamente de imagistic (de
ex. SAR). Ca i n cazul geofizicii, datele rezu-
ltate constau n valori numerice ale punctelor
individuale de pe sol care ulterior sunt trans-
puse n imagini raster cu ajutorul unor filtre i
algoritmi. n mod similar, datele LiDAR con-
stau dintr-un nor de puncte (un set de puncte
nregistrate tridimensional la sol msurate cu
foarte mare acuratee de o und laser conectat
la o anten GPS) care se pot filtra digital (de ex.
nlturnd acoperirea cu vegetaie) i procesate
pentru a oferi o vizualizare tridimensional
sporit a terenului, extrem de util n cazul su-
prafeelor mpdurite.
Toate aceste date trebuie folosite ca baz
pentru interpretarea de ctre un specialist a
coninutului arheologic potenial i pentru re-
alizarea de planuri de sit i hri zonale, pentru
informarea adecvat i asisten n activitati ul-
terioare, fie ca investigaii aprofundate de teren,
fie pentru administrarea i protecia patrimoni-
ului.
Ioana oltean

Fig. 6.: Flight tracks performed over a few days of aerial reconnaissance in N Dobrogea, Roma-
nia, in July 2008, recorded with a hand-held GPS device and downloaded on computer for visu-
alization and flight analysis./ Rute aeriene realizate pe parcursul a ctorva zile de recunoatere
aerian n N Dobrogei, Romnia, n iulie 2008, nregistrate cu un instrument GPS inut n mn
i descrcate pe computer pentru vizualizare i analiz a zborului.

Fig. 7.: High-resolution Quickbird satellite image from July 2004 showing cultivated fields E of
Mangalia (Romania) in the area of the cemetery of the ancient city of Callatis in real colours
(RBG left) and infrared (right). / Imagine de rezoluie mare colectata de satelitul Quickbird n
iulie 2004 a cmpurilor cultivate la E de Mangalia (Romnia) n zona cimitirului oraului antic
Callatis n culori reale (RGB stnga) i infrarou (dreapta).

36
Non-invasive archaeology today / Arheologia non-invaziv azi

Fig. 8. : Point cloud LiDAR dataset at Sarmizegetusa Regia (top); in the buttom image the forest
canopy has been filtered to extract last return points (ground) which were used to produce a
slope analysis visualisation. / Set de puncte LiDAR la Sarmizegetusa Regia (sus); n imaginea
de jos, acopermntul pdurii a fost filtrat pentru a extrage punctele de la sol (last return) i
care au fost folosite pentru a genera o vizualizare a pantei.

37
II.2. Archaeological remote sensing
in Romania
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Probably that the first aerial survey and
photography of an archaeological site in Roma-
nia took place as early as March 1918, when Carl
Schuchhardt took aerial photographs of the Ro-
man and Late Roman frontier wall in Dobrud-
ja and used them to correct his own published
map of the wall; the photographs themselves
remained unpublished until 1954 (Crawford,
1954, 208 and plate VI). Unfortunately, this
remained the only example of its kind for a
long time. The aerial photographic survey pro-
grammes over the following decades were made
for different reasons than archaeology: military,
during the world wars and after; and civilian, for
mapping purpose. Furthermore, access to these
aerial photographic archives for archaeologists
remained limited for a long time. A start was
made in utilising them for archaeological pur-
poses most notably by AS Stefan and the Aerial
Photographic unit associated to the Archaeo-
logical Institute in Bucharest, but these attempts
were concentrating in most cases on extant and
on known archaeological sites, rather than on
those sites which are buried, flattened, and only
38
II.2. Detecia arheologic din aer
n Romnia
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Probabil c prima prospeciune aerian
i fotografiere a unui sit arheologic din Romnia
a avut loc n martie 1918, cnd Carl Schuch-
hardt a fcut fotografii aeriene a zidului fron-
tierei romane i romane trzii din Dobrogea
i le-a folosit pentru a-i corecta propria hart
publicat a zidului; fotografiile n sine au rmas
nepublicate pn n 1954 (Crawford, 1954, 208
i plaa VI). Din pcate, a rmas singurul exem-
plu de acest fel pentru mult timp. Programele
de fotografiere aeriene din urmtoarele decade
au fost realizate din motive complet diferite de
cele arheologie: militar, n timpul rzboaielor
mondiale i dup; i civile, n scopuri de cartare.
Mai mult, accesul arheologilor la aceste arhive
fotografice aeriene a rmas limitat pentru mult
timp. n scopuri arheologice au nceput s fie fo-
losite ndeosebi de ctre A.S. tefan i de depar-
tamentul de fotografii aeriene de pe lng In-
stitutul de Arheologie din Bucureti, ns aceste
ncercri s-au concentrat n cele mai multe ca-
zuri pe siturile existente sau cunoscute, dect
asupra acelora ngropate, nivelate, i vizibile nu-
mai din aer ca i urme n vegetaie. ntregul pro-
Archaeological remote sensing in Romania / Detecia arheologic din aer n
Romnia
become visible from the air as crop marks. The
whole process has been constrained by legal dif-
ficulties, lack of financial resources and a short-
age of specialists experienced in the archaeo-
logical interpretation of aerial photographs (see
Braasch 2002; Oltean 2002; Hanson and Oltean
2002; Hanson and Oltean 2003).
Until the 1990s, Central and Eastern
Europe was thought not to be sufficiently re-
sponsive to archaeologically-relevant crop mark
formation because of the heavily alluvial topsoil
that covers the arable regions, combined with a
less contrasting deeper geological background
(Bradford 1957, 15 and 23). Moreover, the rec-
ognition of crop marks would have been more
difficult from archive vertical imagery. Apart
from the variable quality of the photographs
and of their scale, such photographic coverages
are likely to be of more limited archaeological
value because the images were obtained origi-
nally for purposes other than archaeology and
the very specific conditions necessary to record
many archaeological features may not have
been in force. There have been a few attempts
to make use of aerial photographic informa-
tion in archaeological studies and in the occa-
sional publication of sites, but without a clearly
structured method of approach. Unfortunately,
in all of these cases the information available
was insufficiently exploited because of limited
training, expertise or technology available to
these pioneers. A group of cartographers from
the Romanian cartographic institute of Bucha-
rest published short articles utilising principles
39
ces a fost ngreunat de dificulti juridice, lipsa
resurselor financiare i un deficit de specialiti
experimentai n interpretarea fotgrafiilor ae-
riene (vezi Braasch 2002; Oltean 2002; Hanson
i Oltean 2002; Hanson i Oltean 2003).
Pn n anii 90, Europa central i de est
a fost considerat insuficient de receptiv la for-
marea de urme n vegetaie relevante din punct
de vedere arheologic, datorit solurilor aluviale
extinse care acoper regiunile arabile, combinat
cu un fundal mai puin contrastant din punct
de vedere geologic (Bradford 1957, 15 and 23).
Mai mult, recunoaterea urmelor n vegetaie
ar fi fost mult mai dificil folosind fotografii
aeriene verticale de arhiva. Independent de
calitatea variabil a fotografiilor i de scara lor,
astfel de acoperiri fotografice pot avea o valoare
arheologic limitat, deoarece imaginile au fost
obinute iniial n scopuri altele dect arheologia
iar condiiile specifice favorabile documentrii
complexelor arheologice nu au fost neaprat n-
deplinite. Au fost cteva ncercri de a folosi in-
formaia din fotografiile aeriene n studii de ar-
heologie i n publicarea ocazional a siturilor,
fr ns o metod de abordare clar structurat.
Din pcate, n toate aceste cazuri informaia di-
sponibil a fost insuficient exploatat datorit
pregtirii, cunotinelor sau tehnologiei lim-
itate disponibil acestor pioneri. Un grup de
cartografi de la Institutul Romn de Cartografie
din Bucureti a publicat articole scurte folosind
principiile foto-interpretrii pentru a identifica
posibile situri la Snislu (Satu Mare) i Dersida
(Slaj) n nord-vestul Romniei, sau la Sarighi-
Ioana oltean
of photo-interpretation to identify possible ar-
chaeological sites at Sanislau (Satu Mare) and
Dersida (Salaj) in north-western Romania,
or at Sarighiol de Deal, Satu Nou and Isaccea
along the Danube in the south-eastern Roma-
nia, where they attempt to provide interpreta-
tion and mapping of the archaeological features,
though their archaeological and even photo-
graphic interpretation of the vertical images is
not always correct. Nevertheless, their effort is
still of value because of the attempt to identify
previously unknown archaeological sites and, in
some cases, produce interpretations of features
in the form of maps (Oltean 2007, 13).
In her study of the Roman defences of
Dacia, I. Bogdan-Ctniciu published some ex-
amples of extant military enclosures visible on
existing archive vertical photographs (1981).
Unfortunately, the quality of the reproductions
and in some cases of the original photographs is
so poor that the reader must rely on the descrip-
tions provided by the author. Other archaeolo-
gists have used aerial photographs sporadically
to illustrate lectures, publications of sites, or mu-
seum exhibitions. Such aerial photographs from
the early 1980s have also entered the collections
of the site museum at Sarmizegetusa Others
have undertaken occasional limited flights pho-
tographing known sites from the air for illus-
tration purpose, such as A. Stefan in various
locations, or E. Pescaru, in Hunedoara county
- the latter using a helicopter as an aerial plat-
form. Less fortunate enthusiasts, such as V. Br-
bu were constrained by lack of funds to make
40
ol de Deal, Satu Nou i Isaccea pe Dunre n
sud-estul Romniei, n care ncearc s inter-
preteze i s carteze complexele arheologice,
dei interpretarea lor arheologic i cteodat
chiar i fotografic a imaginilor verticale nu este
ntodeauna corect. Cu toate acestea, efortul
lor este valoros pentru c ncearc s identifice
situri arheologice necunoscute anterior i, n
anumite cazuri, s interpreteze complexele sub
form de hri (Oltean 2007, 13).
n studiul ei despre sistemul defensiv al
Daciei, I. Bogdan-Ctniciu a publicat cteva
exemple de incinte militare existente vizibile n
fotografii verticale arhivate (1981). Din pcate,
calitatea reproducerilor i n anumite cazuri a
fotografiilor e att de slab nct cititorul trebuie
s se bazeze pe descrierile oferite de autor. Ali
arheologi au folosit sporadic fotografii aeriene
pentru a-i susine comunicrile, pentru publi-
caii sau n expoziii muzeale. Astfel de fotografii
aeriene de la nceputul anilor 80 au intrat i n
colecia muzeului sitului de la Sarmizegetusa.
Alii au zburat ocazional i limitat fotografiind
siturile cunoscute din aer n scopuri ilustrative,
ca i A. tefan n locaii variate, sau E. Pescaru,
n judeul Hunedoara cel din urm folosind
un elicopter ca platforma aerian. Ali entuzia-
ti mai puin norocoi, ca i V. Brbu au fost
constrni de lipsa fondurilor s fotografieze
folosind zmee ca platforme aeriene, de data
aceasta ns pentru a detecta de asemenea urme
arheologice n vegetaie, cu un anumit succes n
special n identificarea templului lui Liber Pa-
ter de la Apulum (informaie A. Diaconescu).
Archaeological remote sensing in Romania / Detecia arheologic din aer n
Romnia
photographs using kites as aerial platforms, this
time to also detect archaeological crop marks,
with some success especially for the identifi-
cation of the temple of Liber Pater at Apulum
(information Dr. A. Diaconescu). Unfortunate-
ly, due to restrictions on civilian air traffic in
force during the communist years, the inability
to fund aerial reconnaissance programmes, and
the lack of relevant equipment, experience and
expertise to undertake such work, these efforts
were no more than sporadic.
More systematic research programmes
started in 1998 when until 2004 the Universi-
ty of Glasgow conducted The later prehistoric
and Roman landscape of Western Transylvania
project (Leverhulme Trust; British Academy),
a program of systematic aerial reconnaissance
in the South-Western Transylvania, particular-
ly mid-Mures River valley and ara Haegului,
which also generated the first research-focused
aerial photographs of Sarmizegetusa and its
hinterland. It was undertaken by W.S. Han-
son (University of Glasgow) and the author, in
co-operation primarily with the National Mu-
seum of Transylvania in Cluj, the Museum of
Dacian and Roman Civilizations in Deva and
the University of Alba Iulia. The purpose of the
project was to establish the parameters for the
application of archaeological aerial reconnais-
sance in the different environmental, soil and
agricultural conditions pertaining in Romania
and to increase understanding of the history
and development of the landscape of western
Transylvania, particularly from later prehistory
41
Din pcate, datorit restriciilor cu privire la
traficul aerian civil n vigoare n anii comunis-
mului, incapacitii de a finana programe de
recunoatere aerian i lipsei echipamentului
relevant, experienei i expertizei de a desfura
o astfel de munc, aceste eforturi au fost doar
sporadice.
Programe de cercetare mai sistematice
au fost iniiate n 1998, cnd pn n 2004, Uni-
versitatea din Glasgow a implementat proiect-
ul Peisajul preistoric trziu i roman din vestul
Transilvaniei (Leverhulme Trust; British Acade-
my), un program de recunoatere aerian siste-
matic n sud-vestul Transilvaniei, n special
pe valea Mureului de mijloc i ara Haegului,
care a generat de asemenea primele fotografii
aeriene pe baz de cercetare ale Sarmizegetusei
i teritoriului aferent acesteia. Acesta a fost reali-
zat de W.S. Hanson (Universitatea din Glasgow)
i de autoare, n cooperare cu Muzeul Naional
de Istorie al Transilvaniei din Cluj, Muzeul Civ-
ilizaiei Dacice i Romane din Deva i Univer-
sitatea din Alba Iulia. Scopul proiectului a fost
stabilirea parametrilor de aplicare a recunoate-
rii arheologice aeriene n condiii de mediu, sol
i agricultur diferite specifice Romniei i de
a mbunti cunoaterea istoriei i dezvoltrii
peisajului din vestul Transilvaniei, n special din
perioada preistoric trzie pn n cea post-ro-
man. O resurs online (https://hansonaerial-
photography.locloud.pl/) asigur accesul liber
la rezultatele acestui proiect. Aceast cercetare
s-a extins considerabil spaial i metodologic n
sudul Dobrogei, acoperind peste 4.500 kilometri
Ioana oltean
to the immediate post-Roman period. An on-
line resource (https://hansonaerialphotography.
locloud.pl/) secures open access to the out-
comes of this project. This research expanded
considerably spatially and methodologically in
Southern Dobrogea, covering over 4,500 square
kilometres by aerial reconnaissance (in inter-
mittent seasons between 2005 and 2015), early
20th c. archival imagery (WWII aerial photo-
graphs and Cold War Corona satellite imagery)
and high-resolution satellite imagery (archival
and specially acquired). The result is the first
large archaeological landscape of Romania and
the lower Danube mapped in detail. In paral-
lel, the same team provided specialist assistance
to a number of other projects, most notably
resulting in aerial reconnaissance in 2008 in
N Dobrogea and in 2009 along the Alutanus/
Transalutanus limes (under the STRATEG pro-
gramme), and in 2011 in the Arad and Timi
counties exploring the landscape of large pre-
historic enclosed sites like Corneti and Snta-
na, with the further discovery among other, of
the site at Vriau (in collaboration with the re-
search team at Corneti). In parallel other teams
have undertaken their own activity including
Z. Visy along the Eastern Dacian limes and Z.
Czailik across Transilvania or the National In-
stitute for Heritage in Bucharest (former cIMeC
most notably reconstructing the archaeological
landscape of the Mostitea Valley).
By contrast ground-based prospection
using various geophysical methods or terrestrial
laser scanning has been somewhat slower in de-
42
ptrai prin recunoatere aerian (n sezoane in-
termitente ntre 2005 i 2015), imagini de arhiv
timpurii de secol XX (fotografii aeriene a celui
de-a doilea rzboi mondial i rzboiului rece,
imagistica satelitar Corona) i imagistic satel-
itar de mare rezoluie (de archiv sau obinut
n mod special). Rezultatul este primul peisaj
arheologic de mari dimensiuni al Romniei i
de pe cursul inferior al Dunrii cartate n deta-
liu. n paralel, aceeai echip a oferit asisten
specializat i altor proiecte, rezultnd ndeo-
sebi n recunoaterea aerian din 2008 n nor-
dul Dobrogei i n 2009 de-a lungul limesului
Alutanus/Transalutanus (n cadrul programului
STRATEG), i n 2011 n judeele Arad i Timis
explornd peisajele siturile preistorice nchise
ca i Corneti i Sntana, cu descoperirea, prin-
tre altele, a sitului de la Vriau (n colaborare
cu echipa de cercetare de la Corneti). n para-
lel, alte echipe i-au desfurat activitatea pro-
prie, ca de exemplu Z. Visy de-alungul limesului
din estul Daciei, Z. Czailik n Transilvania si C.
Miu pentru Institutul Naional al Patrimoniului
din Bucureti (anterior cIMeC, reconstituind
ndeosebi peisagul arheologic al vii Mostitea).
Prin comparaie, detectia prin diverse metode
geofizice a fost oarecum mai nceat n dezvol-
tare n Romnia. E.F. Scurtu a nceput devreme
s o aplice extensiv obinnd rezultate mixte n-
cepnd cu sfritul anilor 90 n mai multe situri
arheologice incluznd printre altele Porolissum,
Cigmu, Histria, Dinogeia, Tropaeum Traiani,
Romula, Alburnus Maior, Orgame, Halmyris,
Ulmetum etc. Studii ulterioare folosind magne-
tometria, rezistivitatea sau radarul cu penetrare
Archaeological remote sensing in Romania / Detecia arheologic din aer n
Romnia
velopment in Romania. EF Scurtu has made an
early start with extensive application of resistiv-
ity and magnetometry with mixed results since
the late 1990s at a number of archaeological sites
including among others Porolissum, Cigmu,
Histria, Dinogetia, Tropaeum Traiani, Romula,
Alburnus Maior, Orgame, Halmyris, Ulmetum
etc. Further studies employing magnetometry,
resistivity or ground penetrating radar (GPR)
mostly in combination and of variable extent
have since exploded, targeting some of these
and other sites, including those by V.A. Lzres-
cu and collaborators at Porolissum, Lazuri and
Suceag, by A. Popa at Brecu, by F. Marcu and
G. Cupcea at Agrij-Almau, Boroneu Mare,
Olteni and Sutor, by Scheiblecker at Orgame,
C. Alexandrescu and C. Gugl at Troesmis, K.
Lockyear at Apulum, eua and Noviodunum
or by Frnculeasa and David at Sfrleanca/
Malaieti to name but a few. At Sarmizegetusa
itself the first tests of resistivity and magnetom-
etry were first performed in 2014 over a couple
of very limited areas both intra muros and extra
muros, under the supervision of the author, as
part of the University of Exeter student field-
work training on site. These were followed by a
separate survey by the Italian National Research
Council, Rome - Institute for Technologies Ap-
plied to Cultural Heritage (ITABC) and finally
more survey and training was performed for
the scope of the Erasmus + FIT in archaeology
programme in 2017 again led by University of
Exeter. In all these cases the aim was to gather
more information about archaeological remains
present in sites already known, in most cases for
43
n sol (GPR) majoritatea combinate sau n m-
suri variable au explodat de atunci, intind cte-
va dintre acestea i alte situri, inclusiv cele ale
lui V.A.Lzrescu i colaboratorii la Porolissum,
Lazuri i Suceag, A. Popa la Brecu, F. Marcu i
G. Cupcea la Agrij-Almau, Boroneu Mare, Ol-
teni i Sutor, Scheiblecker la Orgame, C. Alex-
andrescu i C. Gugl la Troesmis, K. Lockyear la
Apulum, eua i Noviodunum, sau Frnculea-
sa i David la Sfrleanca/Mlieti doar pentru
a numi cteva. La Sarmizegetusa, primele teste
de rezitivitate i magnetometrie au fost pentru
prima dat realizate n 2014 n cteva zone foar-
te limitate att intra muros ct i extra muros,
supervizate de autoare, ca parte a programului
Universitii Exeter de instruire a studenilor
n practic arheologic. Acestea au fost urmate
de o prospeciune separat de ctre Consiliul
Naional de Cercetare Italian din Roma Insti-
tutul pentru Tehnologii Aplicate Patrimoniului
Cultural (ITABC) i n sfrit, alte prospeciuni
i instruiri realizate n cadrul programului Eras-
mus + FIT in archaeology n 2017, condus din
nou de Universitatea din Exeter. n toate aceste
cazuri, scopul a fost de a aduna informaii de-
spre vestigiile arheologice prezente n situri deja
cunoscute, n majoritatea cazurilor de secole, i
nu de a descoperi noi situri.
O evoluie recent binevenit este di-
versificarea tehnologiilor aplicate n arheologia
romneasc, datorat disponibilitii mai mari a
tehnologiilor i ehipamentelor n Romnia sau
proiectelor desfurate n Romnia. Aceasta a
dus la dezvoltarea n numeroase cazuri a unor
Ioana oltean
centuries rather than to discover new sites.
A welcome noted development is the diversi-
fying of technologies applied to Romanian ar-
chaeology, following the wider availability of
technologies and equipment in Romania or to
Romanian-based projects. This led to the de-
velopment in numerous cases of integrated
methodological frameworks involving a vari-
ety of ground-based and above-ground remote
sensing techniques. A further positive devel-
opment is the current regular participation of
the growing Romanian archaeological remote
sensing community to top international events
and initiatives, most recently between 2010-
2015 in the EU-funded Archaeolandscapes Eu-
rope (ARCLAND) project (http://www.arcland.
eu/) and the recent archaeological application
of LiDAR (e.g. 2011 Sarmizegetusa Regia; 2012
Porolissum, etc.). Finally, the wider application
of drone technology in archaeology (though so
far mostly for illustrative purposes, including
surveys at Sarmizegetusa in 2014 and 2016) will
probably expand considerably the availability of
above-ground imagery and surveys for archae-
ologists.
44
cadre metodologice integrate care au implicat
o varietate de tehnici de detecie la suprafa
i din aer. O alt evoluie pozitiv este acum
participarea regulat a comunitii arheolog-
ice de detecie din Romnia la evenimente i
iniative internaionale de vrf, cel mai recent
ntre 2010-2015 la proiectul cu finanare euro-
pean Archaeolandscapes Europe (ARCLAND)
(http://www.arcland.eu/), sau recenta aplicaie
a tehnologiei LiDAR n arheologie (de ex. 2011
Sarmizegetusa Regia; 2012 Porolissum, etc.). n
final, aplicarea pe scar mai larg a tehnologiei
dronelor n arheologie (dei pn n prezent n
scopuri ilustrative, incluznd prospeciuni la
Sarmizegetusa n 2014 i 2016) va extinde prob-
abil n mod considerabil disponilitatea imagis-
ticii aeriene i prospeciunilor pentru arheologi.
II.3. Archaeological fieldschools
and remote sensing.
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Non-invasive archaeology had a major
role in the development of the archaeological
knowledge and practice over the last century, as
the single most important method of site dis-
covery and monitoring, and as the most effi-
cient tool of study and reconstruction of archae-
ological landscapes. Yet, across Europe there
are many archaeology practitioners who simply
equate archaeology with excavation. In these
conditions, the role of education in non-inva-
sive archaeology should be to create on the one
hand practitioner specialists involved in the
creation of data (images, maps, etc), and on the
other hand aware consumers/beneficiaries able
to identify broadly the methodology they need
to apply and recruit the appropriate specialist
to fulfil the task. The latter category can include
not only professional field archaeologists, heri-
tage protection practitioners or museum cura-
tors, but also interested wider public.
Geophysical surveys are often attached
to archaeological fieldschools either as part of
preparations or even as part of the package of
45
II.3. coli arheologice i detecia
Senior lecturer Dr. Ioana Oltean
Arheologia non-invaziv a jucat un rol
major n dezvoltarea cunotinelor arheologice
i a practicii arheologice pe parcursul ultimu-
lui secol, drept singura i cea mai important
metod de descoperire i monitorizare a situ-
rilor, i ca cel mai eficient instrument de studiu
i reconstituire a peisajelor arheologice. Totui,
n ntreaga Europ exist muli arheologi care
echivaleaz pur i simplu arheologia cu sptu-
ra arheologic. n aceste condiii, rolul educaiei
n arheologia non-invaziv trebuie s fie acela
de a crea pe de-o parte practicani specializai
implicai n crearea de date (imagini, hri,
etc), i pe de alta, de consumatori/beneficiari
cunosctori, capabili s identifice n linii mari
metodologia pe care trebuie s o aplice i s re-
cruteze specialistul potrivit pentru a ndeplini
sarcina. Ultima categorie poate include nu nu-
mai arheologi de teren profesioniti, specialiti
n protecia patrimoniului sau curatori muzeali,
dar i publicul larg interesat.
Prospeciile geofizice sunt deseori
ataate colilor de arheologie de teren fie ca parte
a pregtirilor sau chiar ca parte a pachetului de
Ioana oltean

skills to be developed during the fieldschool
itself as a parallel activity to excavation. Both
types have been employed at Sarmizegetusa in
2017 with an initial survey over 5 separate ar-
eas in April, followed by training surveys in-
volving students participating in the fieldschool
over the most appropriate areas identified ear-
lier. The April survey resulted in a basic report
which was effectively used as part of teaching
materials during the fieldschool. Moreover, re-
peating the coverage over the same areas as part
of the fieldschool training sessions but at a high-
er ground resolution than the initial survey pre-
sented additional opportunity for students to
compare the results and appreciate the benefits
aptitudini care trebuie dezvoltate pe parcursul
colii propriu-zise, ca o activitate paralel sp-
turii. Ambele tipuri au fost folosite la Sarmize-
getusa n 2017, ncepnd cu prospecia iniial a
5 suprafee n aprilie, urmat de prospeciuni de
instruire a studenilor la coala n cele mai po-
trivite suprafee identificate anterior. Prospeci-
unea din aprilie a avut drept rezultat un raport
care a fost eficient folosit ca parte a materialelor
de predare pe durata colii. Mai mult, repetar-
ea acoperirii pe aceleai suprafee ca parte a
sesiunilor de instruire a colii de teren ns la
o rezoluie mai mare dect n cadrul prospeci-
unii iniiale a oferit posibiliatea studenilor de
a compara rezultatele i de a aprecia beneficiile
rezoluiei mai detaliate asupra vizibilitii arhe-
ologice i interpretrii rezultatelor.

Fig. 9. : General map of the magnetometry survey (marked in red) at Sarmizegetusa, Roma-
nia. (J. Godfrey)/ Hart general a prospeciei magnetometrice (marcat cu rou)
la Sarmizegetusa, Romnia (J. Godfrey).

46
Archaeological fieldschools and remote sensing./ coli arheologice i
detecia
of increased ground resolution to archaeologi-
cal visibility and interpretation of results.
In contrast, the provision of any train-
ing in above-ground remote sensing in regu-
lar archaeological fieldschools is considerably
less common. Though occasional dedicated
short training schools alongside postgraduate
degrees and Continuous Professional Devel-
opment qualifications make a contribution to-
wards such training, by far the formal teaching
in aerial archaeology tends to be undertaken in
the classroom, with some universities including
Exeter and Vienna having dedicated modules
to this subject. The Exeter module for example
covers topics like the history of aerial archaeol-
ogy; imagery types and acquisition (e.g. oblique
aerial photographs; vertical aerial photographs;
satellite imagery); identification of archaeologi-
cal sites from the air, site morphology and clas-
sifications; mapping, etc. In 11 weeks students
achieve basic competence in identifying archae-
ological features on various types of aerial pho-
tographs, use of stereoscopes, specific software,
conventional or digital maps and in the creation
of site plans based on aerial photographic inter-
pretation. Alongside these they gain a clear un-
derstanding of the role of aerial photographs in
archaeological work (prospection, monitoring
and protection; landscape studies), are aware
of the advantages and disadvantages of various
types of imagery (oblique and vertical photo-
graphs; satellite imagery); and learn to utilise
adequately the specific terminology.
47
n comparaie, instruirea n detecia din
aer n colile arheologice de teren obinuite este
de departe mai puin comun. Dei unele coli
de instruire ocazional de scurt durat, pro-
grame postacademice i calificrile de dezvol-
tare profesional continu contribuie la aceast
instruire, de departe educaia formal n arhe-
ologia aerian tinde s fie realizat n sala de
curs, cu anumite universiti printre care Exeter
i Viena avnd cursuri speciale pe acest sub-
iect. Cursul de la Exeter, de exemplu, acoper
subiecte ca istoria arheologiei aeriene; tipuri de
imagistic i obinere (de ex. fotografiile aeriene
oblice; fotografii aeriene verticale; imagistic
satelitar); identificarea siturilor arheologice
din aer, morfologia siturilor i clasificri; car-
tare etc. n 11 sptmni, studenii obin com-
petene de baz n identificarea complexelor ar-
heologice n diverse tipuri de fotografii aeriene,
folosirea stereoscopurilor, softwarelor speciale,
hrilor convenionale sau digitale i n crearea
de planuri ale siturilor pe baza interpretrilor
fotografiilor aeriene. Pe lng acestea, ei obin o
nelegere clar a rolului fotografiilor aeriene n
munca arheologic (prospecie, monitorizare i
protecie; studii ale peisajului), devin contieni
de avantajele i dezavantajele diverselor tipuri
de imagistic; i nva s foloseasc terminolo-
gia specific adecvat.
Cu toate acestea, pe teren, abordarea
pregtirii sistematice este rareori posibil. coli-
le de teren ofer un cadru temporal semnificativ
redus, cu access la computere i software n cel
mai bun caz limitat, i cu concentrare tradiion-
Ioana oltean
In the field however such a systemat-
ic training approach is seldom possible. Field
schools offer a significantly reduced time frame,
with at best limited provision of computers and
specific software, and with a traditional em-
phasis on skills other than those which can be
acquired in a classroom environment. On the
other hand, however, being in the field offers
an important immersive learning experience
which should not be overlooked. The students
have the unique possibility to combine the pho-
tographic evidence with personal experience
from the ground in order to:
a. Better understand the process of photo
reading and interpretation of visible features
b. Learn the differences in how archaeolo-
gy is visible from the air and on the ground
c. Identify the scale of objects which may
be visible from different altitudes
d. Check the validity of desk-based inter-
pretations by collecting ground truthing evi-
dence
e. Assess the relative reliability of control
points on air photos and on the ground
f. Increased appreciation of the particu-
larities of local vegetation cover, and of the gen-
eral topographic and landscape setting, etc.
A basic level of practical training will
focus on the reading of aerial photographs of
the site. A variety of printed aerial photographs
could be used for this purpose. Oblique and
vertical views of the same known objective
would enable students to understand how the
angle of the photography can distort features;
how to recognise on photographs familiar el-
48
al pe dezvoltarea de abiliti altele dect cele
care se pot obine n sli de studiu. Pe de alt
parte, totui, munca de teren ofer posibilitatea
unei experiene de nvare captivant care nu
trebuie trecut cu vederea. Studenii au posibili-
tatea unic de a combina informaia fotografic
cu experiena personal de la sol pentru:
a. mai buna nelegere a procesului de
citire a fotografiilor i interpretrii complex-
elor vizible
b. nelegerea diferenelor ntre modul n
care arheologia e vizibl din aer i de la sol
c. aprecierea scrii obiectelor ce pot fi
vizibile de la diferite altitudini
d. verificarea valabilitii interpretrilor de
birou prin dovezi aditionale la sol
e. evaluarea corectitudinii relative a punc-
telor de control pe fotografiile aeriene prin ob-
servatie la sol
f. aprecierea superioar a particular-
itilor acoperirii de vegetaie local, a cadrului
topografic general etc.
Un nivel de baz de pregtire practic
se va concentra pe citirea fotografiilor ae-
riene ale sitului. n acest scop, se poate folosi
o varietate de fotografii aeriene. Vederile oblice
i verticale ale aceluiai obiectiv cunoscut vor
permite studenilor s neleag cum unghiul
fotografiei poate distorsiona complexele; cum
s recunoasc n fotografii elemente familiare
ale peisajului vizibil modern; cum altitudinea
afecteaz vizibilitatea suprafeei i scara com-
plexelor. Cea din urm poate fi evideniat i
mai mult prin compararea fotografiei aeriene
verticale cu aceai zon n imagini oferite de
Archaeological fieldschools and remote sensing./ coli arheologice i
detecia
ements of the modern, visible landscape; how
altitude affects ground visibility and scale of fea-
tures. The latter can also be further evidenced
by comparing a vertical aerial photograph with
same-area satellite image (figs 5-6). A further
step, depending on time and access availability,
can involve visiting the location of possible sites
recorded on aerial photographs to identify any
diagnostic artefacts which may relate to its pres-
ence.
49
satelii (fig. 5-6). Pasul urmtor, n funcie de
disponibilitile de timp i acces, poate implica
vizitarea locaiilor posibilelor situri documen-
tate de fotografiile aeriene pentru a identifica
orice artefacte care se pot lega de prezena lor.
Fig. 10.: Oblique aerial photo-
graph of the northern extra-
mural sector at Sarmizegetusa
obtained through aerial recon-
naissance in July 2000 (above;
WS Hanson and I Oltean) and
part of the same area from an
UAV in 2014 (A Gonciar). One
can note the differences in the
direction and angle of photogra-
phy, as well as extent of area cov-
ered and ground resolution.
Fotografie aeriana oblic a sec-
torului nordic extramural la
Sarmizegetusa obinut prin re-
cunoatere aerian efectuat n
iulie 2000 (sus; W.S. Hanson i
I. Oltean) i parte a aceleai su-
prafee dintr-un UAV n 2014
(A. Gonciar). Se pot observa dif-
erenele n direcia i unghiul fo-
tografiilor, ct i n dimensiunea
suprafeei acoperite i rezoluia
la sol.
Ioana oltean

Fig. 11. : Vertical aerial photograph from the late 1970s or early 1980s, possibly in spring, of the north-
ern extramural sector (above) and the same area on high resolution satellite imagery in 20 July 2012.
Note the stage of excavation at the time and the presence of cropmarks indicating possible buried
structures on the aerial photograph; also, the state of the same area in 2012. /
Fotografie aerian vertical de la sfritul anilor 70 sau nceputul anilor 80, posibil primvara, a
sectorului nordic extramural (sus) i aceei suprafa pe imaginile de mare rezoluie satelitar din 20
iulie 2012. Observai stadiul spturii la momenul respectiv i prezena urmelor n vegetaie indicnd
posibile structuri ngropate pe fotografia aerian; de asemenea, stadiul aceleiai suprafee n 2012.

50
Archaeological fieldschools and remote sensing./ coli arheologice i
detecia

Fig. 12. : Digitally-enhanced oblique aerial photographs at Sarmizegetusa revealing through crop-
marks buried features in the proximity of excavated objectives in the N extramural area. / Fotografii
aeriene oblice mbuntite digital la Sarmizegetusa artnd prin urme n vegetaie complexe ngropate
n apropiere de obiectivele spate n nordul zonei extramurale.

51
Ioana oltean

Tehnologia modern sub forma dispozitivelor

Modern technology in form of portable devic-
es (e.g. smartphones, tablets, etc) can also help
not only by taking printed photographs into the
field but also by combining that element with
the ability to geo-locate position, record person-
al movement through the landscape pictured.
portabile (de ex. telefoane smart, tablete, etc)
poate fi de ajutor nu numai prin transportar-
ea fotografiilor n teren, ci i prin combinarea
acestui element cu posibilitatea de determinare
a poziiei, nregistrrii micrii personale a uti-
lizatorului in cadrul peisajului fotografiat.

Fig. 13. : Introducing smart technology in fieldschool remote sensing teach-

ing./ Introducerea tehnologiei smart n predarea deteciei din aer n cadrul
colilor de teren.

52
 II. 4. Didactics of Archaeological
Field Walking
Prof. Univ. Dr. Reinhard Stupperich
Dr. Corina Hoff
Field walking and survey are often used
synonymously in archaeology, but sometimes the
words are used with different meanings, without
a generally accepted differentiation of definition.
Field walking seems to be the more general
term, which is used in a broader sense and which
can cover also simpler methods, whereas survey
seems to be imply the more technical and inten-
sive sides of field walking, but there is no general
agreement about this. In theory a didactic con-
cept of teaching to students would embrace an
enormous amount of time which is not available
in teaching excavations. So any development of
a curriculum for field walking and survey in ar-
chaeology will be more or less exemplary, as we
cannot teach each of the methods one by one in
a short time. There has to be expected a certain
amount of transfer from one method to anoth-
er one. Many details will be learned later just by
doing in a practical survey. Some things can be
mentioned as useful and must be experienced
II. 4. DidacticA N PERIEGHEZA
ARHEOLOGIC
Prof. Univ. Dr. Reinhard Stupperich
Dr. Corina Hoff
Periegheza (field walking) i evaluarea
de teren (survey) sunt folosite adesea ca sinoni-
me n arheologie, dar uneori acestea sunt folosite
cu nelesuri diferite, fr a exista o difereniere
general acceptat a definiiilor. Periegheza pare
a reprezenta un termen mai general, care este fo-
losit ntr-un sens mai larg i care folosete meto-
de simple, n timp ce evaluarea de teren pare a
implica partea mai intensiv i tehnic a perie-
ghezei, dar nu exist un acord general n legtur
cu aceste dou aspecte. n teorie, un concept di-
dactic pentru nvarea studenilor ar trebui s
acopere un timp de lucru enorm care nu este su-
ficient n cadrul unor antiere arheologice. Ast-
fel, orice dezvoltare a unui curriculum pentru pe-
rieghez sau evaluare de teren va fi mai mult sau
mai puin exemplificatoare, deoarece nu se poate
preda fiecare metod n ntregime ntr-un timp
scurt. n acelai timp este de ateptat un anumit
transfer de la o metod la alta. Multe detalii vor
fi nvate mai trziu prin practicarea unor astfel
53
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
later in practice. It will be good to talk about the
geomorphology of the area in general and about
the geology of the region and its influence on
the single structures met with during the survey.
Students taking part in field walking would have
finished the basic studies so that as prerequisite
they have enough knowledge and experience to
be able to distinguish e.g. relevant types of an-
cient pottery etc., and have some ground knowl-
edge of geomorphology - something that is often
missed completely in archaeological curriculum.
In archaeology field walking is a method
to come to a closer knowledge of the area to be
explored, often used for a first impression of the
landscape structure or an overview of the possi-
bilities of finding archaeological remains. There
is a variety of types of field walking and of differ-
ent ways and methods to apply when choosing
one of the types. An archaeological survey e.g. is
one of the types of field walking used in many
cases, but in itself has a spectrum of different
methods and details. Some of the more simple
methods of field walking have been used since
long time without archaeologists thinking much
on the theory of field walking at all. With tech-
nical progress more methods have been added
to those used in earlier times of archaeological
work, without the older ones becoming useless.
The application of a method always should be
seen in correlation to its intention, to the way it
may function, the context of its application. Just
simply walking along the fields without any spe-
cial means and gear is a very old and still very ef-
ficient method of archaeological survey, just be-
cause it needs little money, time, preparation and
54
de cercetri. Unele lucruri trebuie menionate ca
folositoare i trebuie experimentate mai trziu n
practic. Este necesar spre exemplu o discuie
asupra geomorfologiei zonei n general i asupra
geologiei regiunii cercetate i influena acesteia
asupra structurilor singulare ntlnite n timpul
cercetrii. Ca o condiie prealabil, studenii care
iau parte la o perieghez ar trebui s aib fina-
lizate cursurile de baz astfel ca acetia s aib
suficiente cunotine i experien pentru a fi ca-
pabili s disting de exemplu tipurile relevante de
ceramic antic etc. i s aib cunotine de baz
asupra geomorfologiei un aspect care adesea
lipsete complet din curriculum-ul arheologic.
n domeniul arheologiei, periegheza este
o metod ce conduce spre o cunoatere mai apro-
fundat a zonei de cercetare, adesea folosit pen-
tru o prim impresie a structurii peisajului sau
o privire de ansamblu asupra posibilitilor de
a descoperi urme arheologice. Exist o varietate
de tipuri pentru perieghez i diferite mijloace i
metode de aplicare n alegerea unuia dintre tipuri.
De exemplu, evaluarea arheologic de teren (ar-
chaeological survey) reprezint tipul de perieghe-
z folosit n multe dintre cazuri, dar acesta nsui
are un spectru de metode diferite i detalii. Unele
dintre cele mai simple metode pentru perieghez
au fost folosite n trecut fr ca arheologii s se
gndeasc teoretic la ele ca la o perieghez. Oda-
t cu progresul tehnicii, mai multe metode au
fost create i adugate celor aplicate n trecut fr
ca metodele tradiionale s devin nefolositoare.
Aplicarea unei metode trebuie privit tot timpul
n corelaie cu inteniile sale, felul n care ar putea
funciona, contextul i aplicaiile sale. Doar mer-
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
equipment, and can provide a first overview in
comparatively short time. An important prereq-
uisite is that the archaeologist has some knowl-
edge and a trained eye so that he is not marred
by subjective impressions, by wrong assumptions
leading to false interpretations.
The features he can register as of interest may be-
long to different classes, e.g.:
- geological structures that can be mistaken for
men-made
- over-ground rests of anthropogen work, e.g.
walls, house ruins, terasses, worked stones etc.,
- elevations and depressions due to former settle-
ment structures,
- dry or wet places of a form that suggests anthro-
pomorphic origin (though this can be an errone-
ous impression),
- concentration of shreds and other human small
relicts in the earth.
Of these features all or normally some
defined groups will be registered and measured
so that a proper map or a GIS data base will be-
long to the results. Field walking can lead to re-
sults sufficient in themselves, or at least sufficient
for the moment. But in many cases it is just the
first thing to be done as a basis for the next work
stage. It may be the preparation before starting
a more intensive and time-using proper survey
concentrating on special areas, or before starting
just excavations concentrating on some special
spots which will be selected on the basis of the
gnd de-a lungul cmpurilor fr un scop spe-
cial anume i fr vreun echipament, reprezint
o metod veche i nc foarte eficient n studiu
arheologic, doar pentru simplu fapt c necesit
puine fonduri, timp, pregtire i echipament i
poate aduce o prim impresie ntr-un timp com-
parativ scurt. O cerin important pentru aceas-
ta este ca arheologul s aib ceva cunotine i un
ochi antrenat, astfel nct s nu se lase condus de
impresii subiective, presupuneri greite care pot
duce la interpretri false.
Carcteristicile ce pot fi nregistrate ca fi-
ind de interes pot s aparin unor clase (cate-
gorii) diferite, ca de exemplu:
- Structuri geologice care pot fi confundate
ca fiind create antropic
- Urme la nivelul suprafeei a interveniilor
antropogene, de ex. ziduri, ruine de case,
terase, piatr prelucrat etc.
- Elevaii sau adnciri datorate unor foste
structuri de aezri umane
- Locuri uscate sau umede cu o form ce
poate sugera o origine antropomorfic
(dei aceasta poate fi o impresie eronat)
- Concentraii de fragmente ceramice sau
alte artefacte aflate la suprafa
Dintre aceste caracteristici, toate sau doar
cteva grupuri definite vor fi nregistrate i msu-
rate pentru ca aceste rezultate s poat fi integra-
te ntr-o hart sau o baz de date GIS. Periegheza
poate conduce la rezultate suficiente n sine sau,
55
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
results of the field walking.
An archaeological survey is reconnais-
sance of the archaeological remains in a specific
area without excavation or sondage or even so-
called shovel-testing, i.e. without any destruction
of findings or their context. The archaeological
survey should lead to the exploration and further
investigation of the terrain to gain an overview of
its settlement history. Normally it is an approach
from the ground to the area in question, includ-
ing registering and archiving the data in as many
ways as seems useful, and also mapping, record-
ing sheets and often even collecting of all or some
special classes of finds as well as other features,
something as it belongs to the methods of field
walking. On the other hand, an archaeological
survey can take into account not only geophys-
ical methods of prospection, but also use of ae-
rial photography or airborne laser scanning and
other technical and digital means of gaining an
oversight from above.
The survey of an area does not necessarily
leads to excavations, and in many cases it may re-
main the only step in the exploration of an area.
But it may either lead to the faster selection of
a useful and promising site for excavation or on
the other hand may supplement an excavation so
that the surrounding area provides a useful im-
pression of the sites context.
The area to be examined is usually mea-
sured and divided into squares. Afterwards, the
terrain is systematically explored, according to
an accurate method applied in all parts of the
56
cel puin, la date suficiente pe moment. Dar n
multe cazuri, aceasta reprezint doar primul pas
de fcut pentru a stabili o nou etap de lucru.
Acest pas poate consta npregtirea naintea n-
ceperii unei evaluri de teren mai extinse, care
se va concentra doar pe anumite zone, sau poate
reprezenta un pas naintea de nceperea unei s-
pturi care se va concentra pe anumite zone care
vor fi selectate n baza rezultatelor perieghezei.
Evaluarea arheologic de teren sau cer-
cetarea non-invaziv (archaeological survey) re-
prezint identificarea urmelor arheologice ntr-o
zon specific fr sptur sau sondaj, adic fr
distrugerea structurilor sau a contextului acesto-
ra. Acest tip de cercetare ar trebui s conduc la
explorarea i investigarea ulterioar a terenului
cu scopul de a obine o imagine de ansamblu asu-
pra istoriei aezrii sale. n mod normal, este vor-
ba despre o abordare la sol a zonei cercetate care
include nregistrarea i arhivarea datelor n cte
mai multe modaliti posibile, precum cartogra-
fierea, completarea fielor de nregistrare i cel
mai adesea de colectarea tuturor sau doar a c-
torva clase de materiale arheologice descoperite,
la fel precum i nregistrarea altor caracteristici,
unele aparinnd metodei perieghetice. Pe de alt
parte, o cercetare non-invaziv poate reprezenta
nu doar metodele geofizice de prospectare, ci i
folosirea fotografiilor aeriene sau scanarea laser
cu aparate aeropurtate sau alte mijloace tehnice
sau digitate cu scopul obinerii unor imagini de
ansamblu de la nlime.
Cercetarea non-invaziv nu conduce ne-
aprat la sptur i n multe cazuri aceasta poa-
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
survey, the soil surface being surveyed accord-
ing to striking terrain and soil characteristics. All
finds and finding contexts are documented and
mapped to equal standard, for the measuring
normally GPS being used today. An abundance
of man-made finds can point to sites of interest,
or to ground phenomena, which appear to be due
to soil erosion or ploughing. With the collected
data, the experienced archaeologist can assess,
whether and what kind of monuments could be
found under the surface. With the aid of geo-in-
formation systems, the findings can be linked
with the topography and other features, such as
soil quality, land use and the like. Today for an
archaeological survey also geophysical meth-
ods of prospecting can be used (see geophysical
prospecting) in case environmental conditions,
such as vegetation and geomorphological forma-
tion etc. allow doing so.
Searching the ground for the purpose of
an intensive survey will require strict division of
the area so that every spot is just visited once, but
none left out (according to some predefined ra-
tio that must be accurately respected). Either a
line is formed by several persons walking a field
on fixed parallel routes that have been layed out
beforehand; or else the area must be divided into
single squares of a laid-out grid, or alternatively
into fields defined by boundaries of natural fea-
tures, and these will be given to the responsibil-
ity of one or two persons each; if the fields are
bigger they can be given to a group which will
then walk in the same manner in a line in par-
allel routes inside their field. These people will
scan their path or field and record and collect all
te rmne singurul pas n explorarea unei zone.
Dar, n acelai timp, poate conduce la o selectare
mai rapid a unui zone interesante i promi-
toare pentru sptura arheologic sau, pe de alt
parte, poate suplimenta informaiile de pe s-
ptur prin furnizarea unor impresii folositoare
despre zona nconjurtoare n legtur cu con-
textul sitului.
Pentru ca zona s fie examinat, de obi-
cei, aceasta este msurat i mprit n ptra-
te. Apoi terenul este explorat sistematic conform
unei metode precise aplicate n toate sectoarele
zonei cercetate, suprafaa fiind studiat n funcie
de caracteristicile terenului i ale solului. Toate
descoperirile i contextele de descoperire vor fi
documentate i cartografiate la standard egal,
pentru msurare astzi folosindu-se un recep-
tor GPS. O abunden de descoperiri antropice
ce pot indica situri de interes apare de multe ori
datorat eroziunii solului sau aratului. Cu datele
colectate, un arheolog experimentat poate evalua
dac i ce fel de monumente pot fi descoperite
sub o astfel de suprafa. Cu ajutorul sistemelor
geo-informaionale, descoperirile pot fi puse n
legtur cu topografia zonei sau cu alte caracte-
ristici, cum ar fi calitatea solului, utilizarea te-
renurilor i altele asemntoare. Astzi, pentru
evaluarea de teren se folosesc i metode geofizice
de prospectare (vezi capitolul de mai sus) n ca-
zul n care condiiile de mediu, precum vegetaia
i formaiunile geomorfologice etc. permit astfel
de metode.
Cercetarea la sol cu scopul unei evaluri
intensive necesit o divizare strict a zonei, astfel
57
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
man-made material in bags. This material may
have to be washed and weighed, then registered,
described, documented by GIS and archived, so
that in the end it can be used for evaluation and
final analysis. To reduce work one can leave all
or some genera of the finds in the field, but only
after measuring, weighing, recording etc. them
completely on the spot. Someone able to judge
on them should be present on the site.
Students should acquire awareness or
theoretical knowledge of the existence of several
varieties of survey methods during their studies,
even if there is no need for them to have experi-
enced all of them in practice. Here some of the
different types and methods that can be applied
to the terrain in question will be characterized
in short, and suggestions will be given, how to
teach them to the students. For most of these
there must not be firm rules, one can approach
most things in different ways and come to the
same results.
The objective of teaching students should
be considered beforehand. An important goal
will be to enable the students to analyse and rec-
ognize the advantages and disadvantages of each
method, by asking and by experiencing them.
At least they should be aware of the need to do
so. Before starting to teach the students one may
ask, what they can learn and do in the survey in
any case. After checking the methods to be used
one should think about, what the students must
be able to do, what tools they must have, what
actions and tricks for handling problems they
should know, before they start work. As for use-
58
ca fiecare loc s fie vizitat o singur dat i nici
unul s nu fie omis (conform unei metodologii
predefinite care trebuie respectat). Aceasta poa-
te consta dintr-o linie format din mai multe per-
soane care merg n zon de-a lungul unor rute
paralele fixe sau care au fost ntinse n prealabil;
sau zona cercetat poate fi mprit n ptrate
unice ale unei reele stabilite sau, alternativ, n
cmpuri definite de limitele caracteristicilor na-
turale, aceste ptrate fiind atribuite fiecare unui
responsabil sau doi, iar dac terenurile sunt mai
mari, se pot atribui unui grup care va merge n
acelai mod de-a lungul unor rute paralele n in-
teriorul ptratului. Acetia vor scana linia pe
care merg sau ptratul i vor nregistra i colec-
ta toate materialele n pungi. Acest material va
trebui splat i msurat, apoi nregistrat, descris,
documentat n GIS i arhivat, pentru ca la sfr-
it s poate fi folosit la evaluarea i analiza final.
Pentru a se reduce munca, se pot lsa toate sau
unele tipuri de descoperiri n cmp, dar numai
dup ce acestea au fost msurate, cntrite i n-
registrate. Pentru aceasta este necesar prezena
unui arheolog capabil s judece asupra acestor
aspecte.
Studenii trebuie s dobndeasc cuno-
tine teoretice i practice despre varietatea de
metode de cercetare non-invaziv n timpul stu-
diilor, chiar dac nu este nevoie ca fiecare dintre
ele s fie experimentat n practic. Aici vor fi
descrise pe scurt cteva tipuri i metode diferite
care pot fi aplicate pe terenul vizat i vor fi oferite
sugestii despre cum ar putea fi predate studeni-
lor. Pentru majoritatea dintre acestea nu ar tre-
bui s existe reguli stricte, fiind posibil ca unele
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
ful knowledge, acquaintance with the normal
pottery or other small finds etc. to be expected in
the area is important. Yet it is by no means a pre-
requisite for taking part in the survey walking. In
reality there would be one specialist for the iden-
tification of such groups of finds. But it will help
the participants of the survey to have some idea,
what time their finds may belong to.
The task for students is to analyse the or-
igin of certain structures in the open landscape:
in this way they can gain experience in practi-
cal examples and broaden their range of under-
standing what are conceivable possibilities for
the explanation of these features. An assessment
of the natural structures should belong to the
beginning of the survey, just as a general look at
the plants met in the local vegetation, both these
points belonging together, as the vegetation is
obviously in correspondence to the ground it is
growing on. In the end the students may even
learn that some plants give indications as to the
substance of the underlying ground and even
to the use of some spots and therefore to finds
to be expected there. The discussion of the geo-
morphology of the area under consideration will
help to think about the possibilities of the forma-
tion of some features, whether they are naturally
geological or anthropogenic from either ancient
or from modern times. Examples studied in the
countryside are probably the best to teach these
lectures. An excursion into the landscape for the
study of example structures and close inspection
of the formations will be most useful.
59
aspecte s fie abordate n moduri diferite i s se
ajung la aceleai rezultate.
Obiectivele predrii studenilor trebuie
stabilite n prealabil. Un scop important va fi ace-
la de a le oferi ocazia studenilor s analizeze i
s recunoasc avantajele i dezavantajele fiecrei
metode, prin ntrebri i experimentarea acesto-
ra. Cel puin, acetia ar trebui s contientizeze
necesitatea de a face o astfel de cercetare. nainte
de nceperea predrii, se poate discuta ce se poate
nva i face n cadrul oricrui tip de cercetare
non-invaziv. De asemenea, dup verificarea
metodelor ce vor fi utilizate, trebuie acordat
atenie asupra ceea ce studenii pot s fac, ce
instrumente trebuie s aib, ce aciuni i soluii
inovative pot acetia gsi pentru rezolvarea unor
probleme nainte de nceperea lucrului. n ceea
ce privete cunotinele pe care acetia ar trebui
s le aib, este de ateptat ca acetia s fie fami-
liarizai cu ceramica i cu alte artefacte. Cu toate
acestea, nu trebuie ndeplinit nici o condiie
prealabil pentru participarea la o astfel de acti-
vitate, deoarece exist un specialist pentru iden-
tificarea unor astfel de categorii de descoperiri.
Va fi ns foarte folositor dac unii dintre partici-
panii la cercetare au cunotine despre perioada
creia i aparin aceste descoperiri.
Sarcina pentru studeni va fi s analizeze
originea unor structuri anume din peisajul cer-
cetat: n acest fel, acetia pot dobndi experien
prin exemple practice i i pot lrgi orizontul de
nelegere asupra posibilitilor convingtoare
pentru explicarea acestor caracteristici. La n-
ceputul cercetrii ar trebui s fie efectuat att o
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
Carrying out a survey should be ex-
plained to the students in all details, so that they
agree with the sense of all that is done. In a nor-
mal intensive survey done for the purpose of
teaching all students should form one or more
smaller groups and walk together, under one per-
sons guidance (Fig. 1).
(a) They should walk along some obvious
features in the landscape: in this case some in-
formation about possible geological and modern
human influence on the formation of the surface
should be given beforehand, in order to help
avoid the gravest errors and misidentifications.
On the other hand a case of such misinterpre-
tation happening by chance should be discussed
methodically with the aim of helping to avoid
other such misinterpretations of a feature. But in
doing so one must avoid any slightest reproaches
against the student who proposed the wrong ex-
planation.
The course to be taken through the land-
scape should depend on the landscape structure,
i.e. on the extent to which the landscape is over-
grown or visible from the course. In open fields
one can choose a zigzag or curving path in order
to leave out as little as possible of the area. But if
the aim should be just simply to record wall re-
mains, one can reduce the density of the marched
routes.
The group should not be too big, possi-
bly up to five or six people with one person guid-
ing. Different tasks can be distributed: one or
even two students taking notes and fill recording
60
evaluare a structurilor naturale, ct i o privire
general asupra plantelor ntlnite n vegetaia
local, ambele fiind studiate mpreun, deoarece
vegetaia este evident n coresponden cu solul
pe care aceasta se dezvolt. n final, studenii pot
chiar nva faptul c unele plante ofer indicii cu
privire la substana terenului i chiar la folosirea
n trecut a acestuia i prin urmare se pot atepta
la descoperiri ntr-o astfel de zon. Discuia des-
pre geomorfologia zonei avut n vedere, va ajuta
la analizarea unor posibiliti asupra modului n
care s-au format unele structuri, indiferent dac
acestea sunt geologice naturale sau sunt antropo-
gene, fie din perioade moderne fie antice. Exem-
plele studiate n mediul rural sunt probabil cele
mai bune pentru a preda astfel de module. De
exemplu, o excursie n peisaj, studiul structuri-
lor i o analiz atent asupra formaiunilor, va fi
foarte util.
Efectuarea unei evaluri de teren trebuie
explicat studenilor n detaliu pentru a se ne-
lege sensul fiecrei activiti care va fi realizat.
n efectuarea unei cercetri intensive care are ca
scop predarea, toi studenii trebuie grupai n
unul sau mai multe grupuri mici i vor trebui s
mearg mpreun alturi de o persoan care s i
ghideze (Fig. 1).
(a) Acetia ar trebui s mearg de-a lun-
gul unor elemente evidente ale peisajului: n acest
caz, ar trebui s se ofere n prealabil informaii
asupra posibilelor influene geologice sau antro-
pice asupra formaiunilor de pe suprafa cu sco-
pul de a evita erorile i identificrile greite. Pe de
alt parte, un caz de o astfel de interpretare gre-
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice

sheets, one taking photographs and other one
taking GPS points. The output should be exam-
ined and discussed together the same day and
then archived in a data bank, a GIS, at best. The
notes and recording sheets taken during walking
should also be subjected to common discussion
afterwards. After sufficient introduction and ex-
perience in the field the group size may be re-
duced, at the utmost down to two persons; these
must be kept to continue discussion and to pres-
ent their results together.
it ntmpltor ar trebui discutat metodic cu
scopul de a contribui la evitarea altor interpretri
greite a unor elemente. Procednd astfel, trebu-
ie evitat orice mic repro mpotriva studentului
care a propus interpretarea greit.
Direcia de mers trebuie s depind de
structura peisajului, adic de msura n care pe-
isajul este vizibil de pe traseu sau este acoperit
de prea mult vegetaie. n cmpuri deschise se
pot alege trasee n zigzag sau curbe cu scopul de
a nu se omite dect o zon ct mai mic posibi-

Fig. 1. Examples of walking (a - blue) - walking in line - transect; (b - red) - walking in grid /
Exemple de perieghez (a - albastru) - n linie; (b - rou) - n interiorul unei reele de ptrate

61
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
(b) The area to be checked can be divided
according to a systematic grid, covering all the
area to be examined. Within the single fields the
groups can walk again in a line moving foreward
in close straight parallel courses from one end to
the other one.
An intensive survey is comparative-
ly time-consuming. Therefore an archaeologist
should seriously consider the need, the extent
and the degree of intensity to be applied, before
deciding to choose this method for too far-reach-
ing a purpose. This idea should be brought home
to the students during the course in order to
make them keep it in mind, when later on they
may have to take decisions on how to proceed.
Fig. 2. Colecting archaeological material /
Colectare de material arheologic
62
l. Dar dac scopul cercetrii este spre exemplu
doar identificarea zidurilor antice, se poate redu-
ce densitatea rutelor marcate.
Grupul nu ar trebui s fie prea mare, dac
este posibil s fie format din cinci sau ase per-
soane mpreun cu o persoan care s i ghideze.
Pot fi distribuite sarcini diferite: unul sau chiar
doi studeni pot lua notie i completa fiele de
nregistrare, unul poate s fotografieze, iar altul
s nregistreze puncte GPS. Rezultatele trebuie
examinate i discutate mpreun n aceeai zi i
apoi arhivate ntr-o baz de date, n GIS, n cel
mai bun caz. Notiele i fiele de nregistrare rea-
lizate n timpul cercetrii reprezint de asemenea
subiectul unor discuii comune ulterioare. Dup
introducere i experiena n teren, dimensiunea
grupului poate fi redus, pn la dou persoane
cu care se vor continua discuiile acetia fiind
pregtii pentru a prezenta rezultatele mpreun.
(b) Zona care urmeaz s fie investigat
poate fi mprit dup de o reea sistematic de
ptrate, care acoper ntreaga suprafa care ur-
meaz s fie studiat. n cadrul cmpurilor unice
ptrate, grupurile pot merge din nou ntr-o li-
nie care se deplaseaz nainte, pe trasee paralele,
drepte, de la un capt la cellalt.
O cercetare intensiv este consuma-
toare de timp. De aceea, un arheolog trebuie s
cntreasc serios nevoile, extinderea i gradul
de intensitate care va fi aplicat, nainte de a decide
s aleag o metod pentru un scop greu de atins.
Aceast idee trebuie transmis studenilor pe
parcursul modulului pentru a-i face s in cont
pe mai trziu de ea, atunci cnd vor fi nevoii s
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice

An extreme form of intensive survey ia singuri astfel de decizii dificile.

divides a comparativeley small area by strings
O metod extrem de cercetare intensi-
into small squares which then are systematical-
v const n mprirea zonei prin sfori n p-
ly searched for all surface finds visible which are
trate mici care sunt cercetate sistematic iar toa-
measured exactly and collected. This method is
te descoperirile de suprafa sunt msurate cu
extremely time- and money-consuming as all
exactitate i colectate. Aceast metod este foarte
finds have to be archived and registered exactly.
costisitoare ca timp i fonduri deoarece, desco-
So there is the danger of never finishing the re-
peririle trebuie s fie arhivate i nregistrate cu
search on the sherds etc. collected which will
o precizie mare. Astfel, apare pericolul de a nu
make the effort useless. On the other hand this
finaliza cercetarea fragmentelor ceramice colec-
method may well be used for teaching the stu-
tate ceea ce va face ca efortul s fie n zadar. Pe
dents on a small scale what the sense of an
de alt parte, aceast metod poate fi foarte bine
intensive survey is, what mistakes and dangers
folosit pentru a-i nva pe studeni la o scar
are to be considered (Fig. 2).
mic care este sensul unei cercetri intensive,
For different reasons normally the best care sunt greelile i pericolele care trebuie luate
time of the year for a survey is during late winter n considerare (Fig. 2).
and very early spring, because then the surface
Din diferite motive, n mod normal cel
will be relatively free of vegetation obliterating
mai bun timp al anului pentru o astfel de cerce-
the sight on small objects on the soil, fields may
tare este sfritul iernii sau nceputul primverii,
be ploughed and show new shreds that have come
deoarece suprafeele sunt n aceste perioade lip-
up by ploughing, and the areas will be available
site de vegetaia care ar face greu vizibile struc-
to walking without endangering crops or other
turile i artefactele de pe sol, cmpurile ar putea
plants. Unfortunately teaching excavations and
fi arate i ar putea s aduc la lumin noi frag-
other student projects in most cases take place
mente ceramice i zonele vor fi disponibile pen-
during summer time so that this advantage is not
tru cercetare fr a distruge culturile agricole.
exploited. But the advice that the early part of the
Din pcate, antierele de arheologie de tip coal
year is a good time for the purpose of field walk-
i alte proiecte studeneti se petrec cel mai mult
ing and especially for an intensive survey should
n perioada verii, iar acest avantaj al perioade-
be mentioned. In case you have the opportunity
lor de cercetare perieghetic nu este exploatat.
to decide on the time for training any sort of field
Cu toate acestea, evaluarea de teren la nceputul
walking with students, you should try to locate
anului este cea mai propice pentru perieghez i
it in the early part of the year. This experience in
n special pentru o cercetare intensiv. n cazul
the end of the winter or even in early spring will
n care exist oportunitatea de a decide asupra
help the students easily to tell the difference from
perioadei de nvare de orice fel sau doar pentru
survey work in summer or autumn time.

63
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff

It is obvious that field walking will be less perieghez cu studenii, aceasta din urm ar tre-
effective the more the area is uneven and densely bui s fie stabilit pentru nceputul anului. Astfel,
overgrown, and that it cannot usefully be applied studentul va putea s fac diferena dintre perie-
to densely overbuilt settlement areas. Therefore ghez i cercetarea non-invaziv din timpul verii
it is best applied in well accessible and flat open sau toamnei.
areas that are not taken into any use beyond ag-
Periegheza va fi cu att mai puin eficien-
riculture. But as many sites explored are situated
t, cu ct zona de cercetare este inegal i vegeta-
in a more difficult environment, the surround-
ia este deas. Ea nu poate fi aplicat n mod folo-
ing area must be taken into consideration as well,
sitor n zone de locuire cu multe construcii. De
and the participants should first have a close look
aceea, cel mai indicat este ca studiul s fie aplicat
at it. As mentioned above geomorphological ex-
n zone accesibile i deschise care nu sunt folo-
perience should be a prerequisite for a survey. So
site dect pentru agricultur. Dar multe dintre
an introduction into geomorphology should be-
siturile explorate sunt situate ntr-un mediu difi-
long to the compulsory courses completed by the
cil, astfel nct trebuie luate n considerate zonele
participant students. Thus a lot of initial mistakes
nconjurtoare iar echipa de cercetare ar trebui
in interpretation of natural geological features
s analizeze cu atenie i acest aspect. Aa cum
can be avoided.
s-a menionat mai sus, analiza geomorfologic ar
Due to differences in wetness of the soil trebui s fie o condiie prealabil cercetrii de te-
or very slight depressions caused by structures ren, iar o introducere n geomorfologie ar trebui
remaining under the surface a lot of men-made integrat n cursurile obligatorii ale studenilor.
features that are very faint or invisible for people n acest mod, o serie de greeli iniiale de inter-
standing on the surface can still be recognizable pretare a caracteristicilor naturale geologice pot
from a greater height and therefore available to fi evitate.
direct inspection from the air. So, aerial recon-
Datorit diferenelor de umiditate a solu-
naissance and the analysis of aerial photogra-
lui sau a unor denivelri foarte uoare cauzate de
phy are an important means of archaeological
structuri rmase sub suprafa, multe structuri
prospection. Sometimes even the use of airborne
antropice ce sunt foarte slab vizibile sau invizi-
laser scanning is applied. In many cases these
bile de la sol, pot fi identificate de la o nlime
methods will not be easily available, and in stu-
mai mare i sunt astfel mai predispuse unei ana-
dent teaching too expensive, nevertheless these
lize din aer. Recunoaterea aerian sau studiul
fields should be covered as well, using examples
fotografiilor aeriene sunt mijloace importante
of aerial photography. With the help of a drone
ale prospeciei arheologice. Uneori este aplicat
one can have the same effect. Some of these fea-
i scanarea laser din aer (airborne laser scaner).
tures may even be recognizable from a close-by
n cele mai multe cazuri, astfel de metode nu sunt
hillside or even standing in the field at certain

64
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
times of the year and under special condition,
e.g. extreme dryness, the first snow setting o the
field, or even the sun shining nearly parallel to
the soil surface in the early morning. In case such
conditions are available by chance it is advisable
to use them in teaching.
As mentioned before, field walking can
be done with or without recording and collecting
archaeological surface finds. Any features, an-
cient objects, monuments and surface finds etc.
that have been found, must be measured, nor-
mally by GPS and all find spots must be mapped,
so their spatial distribution will be recorded in a
data base, in a Geographical Information System
(GIS). In case small finds are collected, identified
and processed, their distribution is recorded in a
data base, a GIS, as well, allowing to plot the finds
according to classes. This then offers the possibil-
ity to analyse the distribution and concentration
of different types of archaeological finds and sites
of human activity. It is not necessary that every
student knows how to operate a GIS, but at least
they should come to know, what a GIS is, what it
can do, and what can be done with its help and
what should be expected not to be done. There-
fore it will be useful to demonstrate that only
those find groups one has thought about regis-
tering beforehand and giving codes for, can be
tested afterwards. So when the different catego-
ries of finds are discussed in the beginning, the
students have also to be confronted with the task
of discussing a code list for the registration of
finds in the field, which must not consist of just
a few simple codes like small find, but also not
be too differentiated. Also in the beginning the
accesibile i pentru predarea pentru studeni,
sunt mult prea scumpe, dar totui aceste domenii
ar trebui acoperite, folosind exemplele de foto-
grafii aeriene. Cu ajutorul unei drone de exem-
plu, se poate obine acelai rezultat. Unele dintre
aceste caracteristici pot fi recunoscute i dintr-o
poziie dominat de pe un deal din apropiere sau
chiar aflat n suprafaa cercetat n diferite peri-
oade ale anului, n condiii speciale, de exemplu
pe secet, la prima zpad czut pe cmp sau
chiar cu soarele strlucind aproape paralel cu su-
prafaa solului n zorii zilei. n cazul n care astfel
de anse sunt disponibile, se recomand folosirea
lor n activitile de predare.
Aa cum s-a menionat mai sus, perieghe-
za poate fi realizat cu sau fr nregistrarea sau
colectarea materialelor de pe suprafa. Orice
structur, obiect antic, monument sau desco-
perire aflat la suprafa etc. care au fost gsite,
trebuie msurate, n mod normal, cu ajutorul
unui receptor GPS i toate locurile de descope-
rire trebuie cartografiate, astfel nct distribuia
spaial s poat fi nregistrat ntr-o baz de date
ntr-un Sistem Informatic Geografic (GIS). n
cazul n care artefactele mrunte sunt colectate,
identificate i prelucrate, distribuia acestora este
nregistrat de asemenea n baza de date GIS per-
mind procesarea descoperirilor pe categorii.
Aceasta ofer posibilitatea de a analiza distribuia
i concentrarea diferitelor tipuri de descoperiri
arheologice i situri cu activitate uman. Nu este
necesar ca fiecare dintre studeni s tie s lucre-
ze n GIS, dar cel puin ar trebui s cunoasc ce
reprezint acesta, ce poate face i ce poate fi fcut
cu o astfel de baz de date ntr-o astfel de cerce-
65
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
recording sheet must be also discussed. Depend-
ing on the aims of the field-walking aims and the
experience of the research team, the recording of
the archaeological evidence on the field is made
on personalised design recording sheets. Basi-
cally, on each type of recording sheets, there is
some information that cannot miss. The most
important information that cannot miss from
any recording sheet is the geographic position of
the researched area and for this should be used a
GPS receiver Other elements that cannot miss is
the place of the area, topographic details, type of
the material recorded, position in relation with
the lines or the grid and description. (Fig. 3)
Fig. 3. Photography of the finds from the
survey / Fotografia descoperirilor din
perieghez (foto: ITABC)
66
tare i ce nu poate fi realizat. Prin urmare, va fi
util o demonstraie prin care s se arate c doar
grupurile de descoperiri care au fost nregistrate
n prealabil i au fost codificate pot fi analizate
n post-procesare. Astfel, cnd diferitele categorii
de artefacte sunt discutate la nceput, studenii
trebuie s fie pui n situaia de a discuta lista de
coduri pentru nregistrarea artefactelor descope-
rite pe teren, care nu trebuie s consiste n co-
duri simple precum small find, dar nici s nu fie
foarte difereniate. De asemenea, tot la nceput,
fiele de nregistrare trebuie discutate. n funcie
de scopurile perieghezei i de experiena echipei
de cercetare, nregistrarea dovezilor arheologice
din teren este fcut n fie de nregistrare per-
sonalizate. n fond, orice tip de fi de nregis-
trare trebuie s conin o serie de informaii care
nu pot lipsi. Cea mai important informaie este
poziionarea geografic a suprafeei cercetate. Un
alt element care nu ar trebui s lipseasc de pe
fiele de nregistrare este reprezentat de specifi-
caiile legate de zon, de detalii topografice, de
tipul materialului nregistrat, de poziia n relaie
cu segmentele de linie sau carourile din grid, de
descriere etc (Fig. 3).
Periegheza reprezint un instrument util
n cercetare att pentru zone la scar mare ct i
pentru situri mai mici iar diferitele grade de in-
tensitate ale muncii pot fi aplicate corespunztor.
Cu ct mai detaliat va fi documentaia i cu ct
mai intensiv cercetarea, cu att zona acoperit va
fi mai mic n aceeai unitate de timp. De aceea,
un punct important de discutat cu studenii este
acela de a defini de la nceput care sunt obiective-
le generale i sarcinile unei cercetri planificate.
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
Field-walking is a useful tool on large-
scale areas as well as on small sites, and different
grades of intensity of work may be applied cor-
respondingly. The more detailed the documen-
tation and the more intensive the search is, the
smaller the area covered in the same time needs
will be. Therefore an important point to discuss
with the students is, that one has to define first,
what exactly the general aim and task of any sur-
vey that is planned will be. If we start with a new
area, where we want to gain general knowledge
of the monuments still to be found in situ, we will
follow a rather extensive and rapid line and pre-
fer a method of walking and documenting. First
of all we shall start with all material that is known
already or easily at disposition, such as analysis
of the geomorphology, local populations infor-
mation, already well known monuments, old ae-
rial photographs, find spots on old maps, archive
material etc. There is always a factor of subjec-
tivity in it, but for a quick start they are the best
to be done. In case you have enough time, some
of these tasks can be selected for the students to
test. If you are out in the countryside somewhere,
small groups of students might e.g. try to come
into contact with the local population and to
get information about ancient remains. But they
should be trained how to approach them and
how to put questions in order to get the appro-
priate answers. As one has to get permission for
walking the fields of private owners before start-
ing the survey, the students can combine the two
tasks.
An important preparation can be the
collection of historical information, such as old
Dac se va ncepe cu o zon nou, unde se do-
rete acumularea de cunotine generale asupra
monumentelor care pot fi descoperite in situ, se
va urma mai degrab o linie rapid i extensiv
i se va aplica de preferat o metod pereghietic
bine documentat. De la nceput se va ncepe cu
materialul care este deja cunoscut i uor accesi-
bil precum analiza geomorfologiei, informaii de
la localnici, monumente deja cunoscute, fotogra-
fii aeriene vechi, identificarea locurilor pe hri
vechi, material de arhiv etc. n acestea exist n-
totdeauna un factor de subiectivitate, dar pentru
un start rapid sunt cele mai bune lucruri de fcut.
n cazul n care exist suficient timp, unele dintre
aceste sarcini pot fi distribuite studenilor pentru
a le testa. Dac cercetarea se realizeaz undeva
ntr-o zon rural, mici grupuri de studeni pot
de exemplu intra n contact cu populaia local i
obine informaii despre urme antice. Dar ei tre-
buie pregtii asupra modului de abordare a lo-
calnicilor i asupra modului de a pune ntrebri
cu scopul de obine cele mai bune rspunsuri. De
asemenea, nainte de nceperea cercetrii trebuie
cerut i permisiunea de intra pe terenurile pri-
vate iar studenii pot combina cele dou sarcini.
O pregtire important poate consta din
colectarea informaiilor istorice, precum hri
vechi din arhive, fotografii aeriene, rapoarte asu-
pra descoperirilor din perioade mai vechi din
anticariate, descoperiri antice din muzeele locale
sau din colecii private, documentaii i informa-
ii asupra unor descoperiri pierdute. Dac este
posibil, aceste informaii ar trebui cartografiate
nainte. n cazul n care sunt disponibile imagini
aeriene vechi, studenii pot s analizeze repro-
67
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff

Fig. 4. Collecting historical informations before field-walking /

Colectarea de informaii istorice nainte de perieghez

maps from archives, aerial photographs, reports
on finds in former times by old antiquarians or
societies, old finds in local museums or private
collections, documentation and information
about lost finds. If possible this information
should be mapped beforehand. If older aerial
photographs are available, students can analyse
reproductions or better digital versions on the
computer screen in preparation of a survey. But
if there is nothing else at hand, Google maps will
provide a basic orientation as well. A look into
Google Earth or comparable programmes avail-
able in the internet may even provide more than
a first help. Besides the general forms of fields
duceri sau mai bine versiunea digital pe un
ecran de calcuator n vederea pregtirii cerce-
trii. Dar dac nimic altceva nu se afl la nde-
mn, hrile Google vor asigura de asemenea o
orientare de baz. O privire n Google Earth sau
programe asemntoare disponibile prin inter-
mediul resurselor internet pot furniza mai mult
ajutor la nceput. Pe lng formele generale ale
terenurilor, analiza trebuie ghidat spre caracte-
risticile care indic o utilizare anterioar ale aces-
tora, cu ar fi de exemplu urme de vechi granie,
strzi vechi i ci sau ziduri, pete mai ntunecate
de origine necunoscut. Comparnd fotografiile
din date diferite se vor furniza diferite catego-

68
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
etc. the concentration should be guided to fea-
tures indicating former use, such as traces of old
boundaries, old streets and paths or walls, darker
patches of unknown origin. Comparing photo-
graphs from different dates will provide different
information due to the different conditions at the
time of photographing the same site (Fig. 4).
If the general site is well known already,
e.g. through former research as the case of Co-
lonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa, and we want to get
information about certain sectors, perhaps in-
tending to consider possibilities of future small
sondages or proper excavations on the spot, we
will choose an intensive method which implies a
lot of processing of the find material afterwards
before arriving at final solutions. The material is
either counted or collected and weighed accord-
ing to each small field of the grid which should
be equal to each other, before being plotted on
a map. There are ways more in between these
extremes, e.g. the walked lines or transects and
grid fields can be measured more exact if possi-
ble with a geodesic GPS.
In case the walkers participating in an in-
tensive survey collect all material in a width of
e.g. 2 m out of 10 m distance they will cover 20
% and miss about 80 % of the surface checked.
If instead they scan about 5 m to both sides se-
lecting only chance finds and those jumping to
the eye or without collecting material at all, the
result will be much more subjective or even ar-
bitrary, but you may be sure to have covered the
complete area and not to have missed any above
ground architectural remains nor probably
69
rii de informaii datorit condiiilor diferite din
timpul fotografierii aceleai zone (Fig. 4).
Dac, n general, situl este bine cunoscut,
de exemplu prin cercetri mai vechi, aa cum este
situl Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa i se dorete
colectarea de informaii n sectoare anume, poate
cu intenia de a lua n considerare posibilitile
unor mici sondaje sau spturi corespunztoare,
se va alege o metod mai intensiv care impli-
c o post-procesare mai intens a materialului
descoperit nainte de a ajunge la soluia final.
Materialul va fi numrat sau colectat, msurat
i nregistrat n funcie de fiecare mic ptrat a
gridului, nainte de a fi procesate pe o hart. Sunt
ci de mijloc ntre aceste extreme de exemplu
mersul n linii sau transecie i terenurile din
gridul de ptrate care pot fi msurate exact dac
e posibil cu ajutorul unui GPS geodezic.
n cazul n care participanii la o evaluare
de teren intensiv colecteaz toate materialele
pe o lime de ex. 2 m din distana de 10 m vor
acoperi 20% i vor pierde aproximativ 80% din
suprafaa verificat. Dac, n schimb, acetia vor
merge la o distan de aproximativ 5 m de la
ambele pri ale limitelor gridului selectnd doar
descoperirile ntmpltoare i cele care sar n
ochi, sau fr a colecta deloc material, rezultatul
va fi mult mai subiectiv sau chiar arbitrar, dar cu
siguran se va acoperi ntreag zon i nu vor fi
ratate posibile vestigii arhitecturale existente dea-
supra solului i, probabil, nici o aezare substan-
ial. Este de recomandat s se demonstreze stu-
denilor acest aspect de ctre unele grupuri care
merg de-a lungul liniilor n condiii controlate.
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff
any substantial settlement. It is a good thing to
demonstrate to the students this effect by some
groups walking under controlled conditions. In
order to demonstrate this difference in method
you can just just choose two areas of the same
size and walk them with the same team in the two
different ways; or you test first the more extensive
and then the intensive method just in the same
well selected area. Bigger distances between the
walkers in the line will increase the differences of
the results. In view of the time-consuming effect
of the intensive method the test area should not
be chosen for fun or by chance and not too big,
and it should cover an area which is under con-
sideration anyhow.
Intensive survey is a method working
with statistics and probability calculation. One
cannot teach these things in the field, but the
students must know that working with the re-
sults of the survey may imply use of such calcu-
lations etc. Through their work with this method
students will hopefully develop a general sound
feeling for what is probable or not judging from
the material basis they have collected in the field.
It must be made clear on the other hand that a
survey area of small size cannot be very represen-
tative and does not provide the basis for sound
information on a bigger region nor can it offer
any far-reaching and altogether objective and
scientifically sound statement.
On the other hand comparing results of
intensive surveys of the same area or of the re-
sults of a survey and the outcome of excavations
has shown that it is no exact method providing
70
Pentru a demonstra aceast diferen de metod,
se pot alege doar dou zone de aceeai mrime i
aceeai echip se poate deplasa n cele dou mo-
duri diferite; sau se poate testa mai nti metoda
mai extins i apoi cea intensiv n aceeai zon
bine selectat. Cu ct sunt mai mari distanele
dintre liniile pe care studenii se vor deplasa, cu
att mai evident va fi diferena rezultatelor ob-
inute. Avnd n vedere efectele consumatoare de
timp ale metodei intensive, zona de testare nu ar
trebui s fie aleas n mod ntmpltor i nici s
fie prea mare fiind indicat s se acopere o zon
care este oricum luat n considerare.
Cercetarea non-invaziv intensiv este o
metod ce lucreaz cu statistici i calcule de pro-
babilitate. Acestea nu pot fi predate pe teren, dar
studenii trebuie s cunoasc faptul c lucrul cu
rezultatele unor astfel de cercetri implic folo-
sirea unor astfel de calcule. Prin munca lor cu
aceast metod, studenii vor dezvolta o capa-
citate de a distinge ntre ceea ce este structur
arheologic i ceea ce nu este o structur, cu aju-
torul analizei bazei materiale pe care au adunat-o
din teren. Pe de alt parte, trebuie clarificat faptul
c o zon de cercetare de dimensiuni reduse nu
poate fi foarte reprezentativ i nici nu ofer baza
pentru informaii solide despre o regiune mai
mare i nici nu poate oferi o interpretare obiecti-
v i argumentat din punct de vedere tiinific.
Pe de alt parte, compararea rezultatelor
mai multor cercetri intensive ale aceleai zone
sau a rezultatelor unor cercetri non-invazive i
rezultatele spturilor arheologice au artat c nu
exist o metod exact care s asigure predicti-
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
sure predictions, and that due to changing con-
ditions in the field, just as in aerial photography,
only repeated survey will lead to a more certain
result a more expensive method than is often
assumed. So the students can be presented with
the question of selecting the appropriate meth-
ods and a proper area and size for a survey in
accordance with pending research problems and
questions put to the landscape by the archaeolo-
gists. They also are presented with the task to find
out, which combination will probably be more
convenient and effective for a good solution. For
this purpose one can formulate the aim of the ar-
chaeological research and the specific questions
that will lead towards reaching these aims. More
helpful will be to divide the students into groups
that have to discuss an area known to them and
have to provide suggestions for selections of spe-
cific areas and precise details of the survey meth-
ods to be applied; these suggestions they should
substantiate by the presentation of reasons for
their choice including a test of feasability and
suitability of the methods as well as a cost-bene-
fit calculation. This includes also first general ob-
servations on the visibility and accessibility, the
general conditions provided by the vegetation,
the geomorphology etc. Thus they may perhaps
reach at a state of consciousness that such gener-
al considerations and their relevant observations
have to be reflected and also brought to an end
already long before the start of any actual survey.
The function and use of the GPS system
and of the GIS system applied in the landscape
should be trained by the students taking part, at
least in a general and theoretical way, so that they
bilitate precis. Datorit schimbrilor condiiilor
terenului, la fel ca n fotografia aerian, doar eva-
luri de teren repetate vor conduce la rezultate
mai sigure o metod mai costisitoare este ade-
sea de asumat. Astfel, studenilor li se poate pre-
zenta tema de a selecta cea mai bun metod i o
zon propice precum i mrimea pentru o cerce-
tare non-invaziv n concordan cu problemele
cercetrii i ntrebrile n legtur cu peisajul pe
care i le pun arheologii. De asemenea, li se poa-
te prezenta sarcina de a afla care combinaie de
metode va fi mai convenabil i mai eficient n
scopul obinerii de rezultate bune. Pentru aceas-
ta, se poate formula scopul cercetrii arheologice
i ntrebrile specifice care vor conduce la atin-
gerea acestor obiective. Ca metod de nvare
se recomand mprirea studenilor n grupuri
care s discute despre o zon cunoscut acestora,
urmnd ca ei s ofere sugestii pentru selectarea
unor zone specifice i detalii precise a metode-
lor de cercetare non-invaziv care se vor aplica;
aceste sugestii ar trebui s fie justificate printr-o
prezentare de motive pentru alegerea fcut, in-
clusiv cu un test de fezabilitate i de adecvare a
metodelor precum i un calcul cost-beneficiu.
Acestea includ, de asemenea, primele observaii
generale privind vizibilitatea i accesibilitatea,
condiiile generale oferite de vegetaie, geomor-
fologie etc. n acest fel, este posibil ca acetia s
ajung s contientizeze c astfel de consideraii
generale i observaiile lor relevante pot s fie re-
flectate i, de asemenea, s conduc la un rezultat
final cu mult timp nainte de nceperea oricrui
sondaj real.
71
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff

understand the underlying system and will get
an impression of the context leading to relevant
decisions to be taken by leaders of a field proj-
ect. Those who will have to work with GPS and
proceed GIS, must be trained on the theoretical
preconditions and knowledge and the applica-
tion of the programmes to be used, as well as on
the handling in practice, if wrong decisions, mis-
takes and waste of time are to be avoided (Fig. 5).
Funciile i utilizarea sistemului GPS i a siste-
mului GIS aplicate peisajului trebuie s fie preda-
te studenilor care iau parte la activitatea de n-
vare, cel puin ntr-un mod general i teoretic,
astfel nct acetia s neleag sistemul de baz i
s i formeze o impresie despre contextele ce pot
conduce la luarea unor decizii relevante de ctre
liderii unui proiect de cercetare de teren. Cei care
vor trebui s lucreze cu receptoare GPS i s pro-
ceseze informaiile n GIS, trebuie instruii din

Fig. 5. Spatial pottery distribution in two different survey methods at CDS - 2015
Distribuia spaial a ceramicii n dou tipuri diferite de evaluare de teren CDS - 2015
(ITABC&MNIT)

72
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice
To sum up, there will always be the need
to organize the tasks and the people in charge
otherwise there may be disorder, missing of
relevant items, quarrel or at least double work.
Therefore before starting to work, long before
any walking, there must be drawn up a method-
ical sequence of work items to be done in prepa-
ration, during field work and back home after
leaving the field, and this must be discussed with
the students in the beginning of the course. Some
of these task points are e.g.: listing of the items to
be organized and done, designing and printing of
the recording forms to fill in, for locations, finds
etc. (the importance of the accuracy and com-
pleteness of these data should be brought home
to the students), choosing numbering and codes
for the general system, for singles sites, for finds,
for measuring etc., characterizing appropriately
the general landscape and its structures, taking
and archiving photographs during field work,
taking and administering GPS location data, tak-
ing drawings, plans or sketches. All these things
should be discussed with the group of students
in the class-room so that all of them know and
approve of the methods and means chosen. Oth-
erwise the general work may be undermined,
because somebody does not understand properly
the reason for some measure or disapproves of
something and skips it without telling.
In the end the data should be processed
for publication providing the reader with all in-
formation about the site, its location and context
in the landscape, the aims and objectives as well
as the methods of the survey and the way they
could be realized during the field walking. Then
punct de vedere al cunotinelor teoretice asupra
aplicaiilor programelor care urmeaz a fi utiliza-
te, precum i asupra manipulrii n practic, pe
teren, ale acestor tehnologii. Astfel, se vor evita
deciziile greite i pierderile de timp (Fig. 5).
n concluzie, tot timpul va fi nevoie de
organizarea sarcinilor i a oamenilor responsabili
altfel pot aprea confuzii, pot lipsi elemente
relevante, conflicte sau dublarea muncii. Astfel,
nainte de nceperea activitii, cu mult nainte
de orice deplasare n teren, trebuie elaborat o
secven metodologic de lucru care s acopere
faza de pregtire, munca de teren i apoi munca
de post-procesare de dup prsirea terenului,
iar aceste aspecte trebuie discutate cu studenii la
nceputul modulului. Unele dintre sarcinile care
trebuie bifate sunt, de exemplu, lista de activiti
care trebuiesc organizate i realizate, designul i
printarea fielor de nregistrare ale zonei, desco-
peririlor etc. (importana acurateii completrii
acestor date trebuie luate bine la cunotin de
ctre studeni), alegerea numerelor i a codurilor
pentru sistemul general de nregistrare, pentru
unitile de cercetare, descoperiri, msurtori
etc., caracterizarea ct mai precis a peisajului
general i a structurilor sale, fotografierea i ar-
hivarea fotografiilor n timpul muncii pe teren,
preluarea i administrarea datelor de localizare
GPS, realizarea desenelor, planurilor i schielor.
Toate aceste aspecte trebuie discutate cu grupul
de studeni la ore astfel nct, toi s cunoasc
i s aprobe metodele i mijloacele alese. Altfel,
munca general ar putea s fie periclitat, din
cauz c cineva nu nelege corect necesitatea
unor msurtori sau nu este de accord cu ceva i
73
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff

the results, i.e. the finds and their mapping and
statistics as far as possible, their analysis and the
chronological, historical and cultural interpreta-
tion should be provided. Besides photographs of
finds and find spots there should be drawings of
relevant objects and plans, especially distribution
maps. The maps may be in a local system, better
would be the use of the relevant national geodetic
system. These things, too, the students should be
taught during the course, otherwise they will not
know what belongs to the task and what amount
of work still will have to be invested after leaving
the field.
sare acel pas fr s spun.
La sfrit, datele trebuie procesate pentru
publicare, furniznd cititorului toate informaiile
despre sit, localizarea acestuia i contextul pei-
sajului, scopul, obiectivele, metodele cercetrii
i felul n care aceste aspecte au fost interpretate
n timpul perieghezei. Urmeaz apoi rezultatele,
adic descoperirile, cartografierea i statisticile
pe ct posibil, analiza acestora i interpretarea
cronologic, istoric i cultural. n afar de fo-
tografiile descoperirilor i zonele de interes, tre-
buie s existe desene ale obiectelor relevante i
planuri, mai ales distribuia spaial a acestora.
Hrile pot fi realizate ntr-un sistem local, dar
se recomand folosirea sistemului geodezic na-
tional relevant. i aceste lucruri ar trebui predate
studenilor pe parcursul cursului, altfel nu vor
ti ce nseamn activitatea de procesare i nici ce
cantitate de lucru trebuie investit dup prsirea
terenului studiat.

74
Didactics of field-walking archaeology / Didactica perieghezei arheologice

75
Reinhard stupperich, Corina hoff

76
Bibiliography / Literatur
Bibliography/ Literatur
Alexandrescu C. G., Gugl, C., The Troesmis-Proj-
ect 2011-2015 Research Questions and Meth-
odology, in: C.-G. Alexandrescu (ed.), Troesmis -
a changing landscape. In Romans and the Others
in the Lower Danube Region in the First Century
BC Third Century AD. Proceedings of an In-
ternational Colloquium Tulcea, 7th-10th of Oc-
tober 2015, Cluj-Napoca 2015, 922.
Atkinson, R. J. C. 1953. Field archaeology (2nd
edn). London: Methuen.
Bogdan-Ctniciu, I.O.M., Evolution of the sys-
tem of defence works in Roman Dacia, BAR IS
116, Oxford 1981.
Braasch, O., Goodbye Cold War! Goodbye Bu-
reaucracy? Opening the skies to Aerial Archae-
ology in Europe. In Raczkowsky, W., Bewley, R.,
Aerial archaeology: developing future practice,
Amsterdam 2002, 19-22.
Bradford, J., Ancient landscapes: studies in field
archaeology, Bath 1957.
Crawford, O.G.S., A century of Air-Photography,
in Antiquity 28, 1954, 206-210.
Cupcea, G., Marcu, F. Geophysical Survey on
sites in Dacia. Main Features. In: Al. Simon (ed.)
Recent Studies on Past and Present I. Transyla-
nian Revue XIX, Suppl. no 5, 2010, 89-97.
Drewett P.L., Field Archaeology. An introduc-
tion, London, 1999.
Foard, G. 1980, The recovery of archaeological
information by systematic fieldwalking in Field-
walking as a method of Archaeological research,
77
DOE.
Frinculeasa, M.N., Frinculeasa, A.P., David,
C., Evaluation and archaeological potential of
geophysical investigations of the Roman fort
and baths in Northern Muntenia, Romnia,
Stud Geophys Geod 58: 289, 2010. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11200-012-1142-2
Hanson W.S., Oltean I.A., The changing Roma-
nian landscape: the importance of archival imag-
ery; in Poschluschny. A. (ed.) Sensing the Past -
New Approaches to European Landscapes, 2015,
34-5.
Hanson W.S., Oltean I.A., The Valu lui Traian: A
Roman frontier rehabilitated, J. Roman Archaeol
25, 2012, 297-318.
Hanson, W. S., Oltean, I. A., A multiperiod site
on Uroi Hill, Hunedoara: an aerial perspective,
Acta Musei Napocensis 37, 2000, 43-49.
Hanson, W. S., Oltean, I. A., Recent aerial survey
in Western Transylvania: problems and potential.
In Raczkowsky, W., Bewley, R., Aerial archaeolo-
gy: developing future practice, 2002, 109-115.
Hanson, W. S., Oltean, I. A., The identification
of Roman buildings from the air: recent discov-
eries in Western Transylvania, Archaeological
Prospection 10, 2003, 101-17
http://www.arcland.eu/
https://hansonaerialphotography.locloud.pl/
Lockyear, K., Sly, T., Popescu, A., The Noviodu-
num Archaeological Project 2000-2004: Results
and Conclusions from the Pilot Seasons. Peuce,
2007, 3-4, 121-158.
Lockyear, K.. At the edge of empires: the Nov-
iodunum project, Romania. Archaeology Inter-
national, 2002/3 (6), 21-24.
Bibiliography / Literatur
Marcu, F., The Roman fort at Romia (Dacia).
Results of the geophysical survey. Acta Musei
Napocensis 41-42/1, 2004-2005 (2007). Cluj-Na-
poca, 161-77.
Oltean, I. A., Dacia. Landscape, colonization,
Romanisation, Routledge, 2007.
Oltean, I. A., Hanson, W.S. Military vici in Ro-
man Dacia: an aerial perspective, Acta Musei Na-
pocesis, 38, 2001, 123-134.
Oltean, I. A., Rural settlement in Roman Dacia:
some considerations, in Hanson, W. S. Haynes,
I.P. (eds), Roman Dacia: The Making of a Provin-
cial Society, JRA Supplementary Series 57, 2004,
143-164
Oltean, I. A., The use of satellite imagery for the
transcription of oblique aerial photographs. In
Raczkowsky, W. and Bewley R. (eds.), Aerial ar-
chaeology: developing future practice, 2002, 224-
232.
Oltean, I.A., Abell, L.L., High-resolution satellite
imagery and the detection of buried archaeolog-
ical features in ploughed landscapes, in Lasap-
onara, R., Masini, N. (eds) Satellite Remote Sens-
ing: A New Tool for Archaeology, Springer, 2012,
291-305.
Oltean, I.A., Funerary barrows and ancient set-
tlement patterns: a quantitative approach to their
recovery and analysis, Antiquity, 335, no. 87,
2013, 202-219.
Oltean, I.A., Hanson W.S., Defining the Roman
Limes in Romania: the Contribution of Aerial
and Satellite Remote Sensing, in Vagalinski L.
(ed.) Proceedings of the 22nd International Con-
gress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria,
September 2012: 889-899.
78
Oltean, I.A., Hanson, W.S., Conquest strategy
and political discourse: new evidence for the con-
quest of Dacia from LiDAR analysis at Sarmize-
getusa Regia, J. Roman Archaeology, (2017 in
press).
Oltean, I.A., Hanson, W.S., Exploring past Ro-
manian landscapes: the application of satellite
and LiDAR imagery in Poschluschny A. (ed.)
Sensing the Past - New Approaches to European
Landscapes: 50-1, 2015.
Oltean, I.A., Hanson, W.S., Villa settlements in
Roman Transylvania, J. Roman Archaeol. 20,
2007, 113-37.
Oltean, I.A., Rdeanu, V., Hanson W.S., New dis-
coveries in the military vicus of the auxiliary fort
at Micia, in Visy, Z. (ed.) Limes XIX. Proceed-
ings of the XIXth International Congress of Ro-
man Frontier Studies, Pecs, 2005, 351-56.
Opreanu, C.H., Lzrescu, V.A., Seeing the Un-
seen. Landscape archaeology on the northern
frontier of the Roman Empire at Porolissum,
Ephemeris Napocensis, 2012, 22, 356-366.
Opreanu, C.H., Lzrescu, V.A., tefan, D., Re-
cent geophysical surveys at Porolissum, in Arhe-
ovest 1, 2013, 509-524.
Popa, A. 2015, Interdisziplinre Forschungen im
Auxiliarkastell von Brecu im sdstlichen Sie-
benbrgen, in Vagalinski, L.,(ed.) Proceedings of
the 22nd International Congress of Roman Fron-
tier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012,
2015, 829-838
Popa, A. , Gaiu, C., Coci, S., Prospeciuni geo-
magnetice n situl de epoc roman de la Livez-
ile, Revista Bistriei, 22, 2008, 101-113.
Popa, A., Cocis, S., Klein, C., Gaiu, C., Man, N.,
Bibiliography / Literatur

Geophysikalische Prospektionen in Ostsieben-

brgen. Ein Deutsch-Rmnisch-Moldauisches
Forschungsprojekt an der Ostgrenze der R-
mischen Provinz Dacia, Ephemeris Napocensis
20, 2010, 101-128
Scheiblecker, M., Geophysics in Romania: the
city of Orgame/Argamum, ISAPNews 50, 2017.
Scurtu, E.F., Imagini geofizice ale Histriei antice,
Bucureti 2009.

79
III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / SPTURI
ARHEOLOGICE

1. Archaeological situations / situaii

arheologice

2. Excavation tehniques / tehnici de sptur

3. Recording the archaeological excavation /

nregistrarea sturii arheologice

4. Colecting archaeological material /

Colectarea materialului arheologic

5. Primary conservation of archaeological

material / conservarea primar a materialului
arheologic
 III.1. Archaeological situations
Dr. Emilian Bota
The archaeological excavation is the
procedure by which the archaeologist delimits,
overtakes and records the cultural and biological
remains discovered in the ground (Carver
2015, 43). All archaeological excavations,
regardless period and culture, are formed
of layers. Therefore, the accurate approach
of the excavation supposes the stratigraphic
excavation which entails the identification of
various layers and structures and excavation
reverse to their deposition. Thus, the filling of a
pit must be excavated prior the removal of the
earth which it cuts. As well, on digging of each
layer, structure or context, the shape of it must
be fallowed. After its removal it could result an
uneven plan; this should be not removed by
any circumstances! Archaeological stratigraphy
is based on four laws, three borrowed from
geology: the law of superposition, the law of
horizontality and the law of original continuity,
the third purely archaeological, the law of the
stratigraphical succession, as defined by Harris
and Reece in 1979 (Harris, Reece 1979, 27-34;
Harris 1989, 30).
83
III.1. Situaii arheologice
Dr. Emilian Bota
Sptura arheologic este procedura
prin care arheologii delimiteaz, preiau i
nregistreaz rmiele culturale i biologice
descoperite n pmnt (Carver 2015, 43).
Toate spturile arheologice, indiferent de
perioad sau cultur, sunt formate din straturi.
De aceea, abordarea corect a spturii
presupune sparea stratigrafic care const
n identificarea diferitelor straturi i structuri
i sparea n ordinea invers a depunerii lor.
Astfel, umplutura unei gropi trebuie spat
nainte de sparea straturilor pe care ea le taie.
De asemenea, n sparea fiecrui strat, structuri
sau context, trebuie urmrit forma acestuia.
Dup ndeprtarea lui poate rezulta un plan
neuniform; acesta nu trebuie n niciun caz
ndreptat! Stratigrafia arheologic are la baz
patru legi., trei mprumutate din geologie: legea
superpoziionrii, legea orizontalitii, legea
continuitii originale i a treia pur arheologic,
legea succesiunii stratigrafice, aa cum a fost
ea definit de Harris i Reece n 1979 (Harris,
Reece 1979, 27-34; Harris 1989, 30).
Emilian Bota
The interpretation of the sites
stratification accroding to these laws, led
Harris to create a stratigraphic matrix that
bears his name. Established in 1973, the
matrix, represents the stratigraphic sequence
of the site. The matrix represents the relative
sequence of the stratification units over time
and does not serve to explain the stratigraphic
relations in a trench. By this method, one may
draw a sequence during the development of the
excavation, while by its end, the archaeologist
has the stratigraphic sequence of the site (Harris
1989, 34-36). All discovered contexts must be
transposed in a Harris matrix. There are several
possible relations between two stratigraphic
units (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 6):
A. Context 1 is later than context 2.
B. Context 1 is earlier than context 2.
C. Context 1 is contemporary with
context 2, chronology established with the aid
of artefacts or field notes.
D. Context 1 is equal to context 2. In this
case, it is the same context excavated during two
different operations.
84
Intepretarea stratificrii sitului potrivit
acestor legi l-a condus pe Harris la crearea unei
matrice stratigrafice, care i poart numele.
Creat n 1973, matricea Harris reprezint,
secvena relativ a unitilor de stratificare n
timp. Aceasta nu servete ns la explicarea
relaiilor stratigrafice dintr-o seciune. Cu
ajutorul acestei metode, se poate desena o
secven pe parcursul desfurrii spturii, iar
la sfritul ei, arheologul are stabilit secvena
stratigrafic a sitului (Harris 1989, 34-36). Toate
contextele descoperite trebuie transpuse ntr-o
matrice Harris. Exist mai multe posibile relaii
ntre dou uniti stratigrafice (Sanders, James,
Carter Johnson 2017, 6):
A. Contextul 1 este mai trziu dect
contextul 2.
B. Contextul 1 este mai timpuriu dect
contextul 2.
C. Contextul 1 este contemporan cu
contextul 2, cronologie stabilit cu ajutorul
artefactelor sau a observaiilor de pe teren.
D. Contextul 1 este egal cu contextul 2.
Este vorba n acest caz de acelai context spat
n dou operaii diferite.
Archaeological situations / Situaii arheologice
While some scholars maintain
the priority of the theoretic side of the
archaeological stratigraphy, others support that
of the field experience. According to Harris,
they must be combined, what the student learns
during the excavations must be substantiated
on stratigraphic principles. An example of a
Harris matrix see in this manual, page 117, Al.
Diaconescu.
Carver has created an alternative matrix
to the Harris matrix. He suggested that since
the archaeological sequence is given by the
archaeological layers, they must be recorded
and mapped in the order of their deposition,
however not only the layer, by also the structures
and features are recorded, so stratigraphic
charts of the site may be done (Carver 1990, 97;
Carver 2015, 50). Criticising this work method,
Harris argues the contrary, the drawings of
trench profiles not the stratigraphic sequences
provide accurate data on the relations between
the stratigraphic units. A stratigraphic sequence
is a chart of the relative time and shows all
the four dimensions of the sites stratigraphic
accumulation, not a bi-dimensional image of
the layers seen in a trench (Harris 1993, 17-
18). An important step after the Harris matrix
was represented by the use of singular context
layouts and the GIS computer system, discussed
in chapter V.3. of the manual.
Archaeological layers are very different
according to the specificities of the place and
geology, for instance, plains, hilly area, humid,
85
n timp ce unii cercettori susin
prioritatea laturii teoretice a stratigrafiei
arheologice, alii pe cea a experienei n teren.
Dup opinia lui Harris acestea trebuie mbinate,
ceea ce studentul nva la sptur trebuie s fie
fundamentat pe principii stratigrafice. Vezi un
exemplu de matrice Harris n acest manual, la
pagina 117, Al. Diaconescu.
Carver a creat o matrice alternativ la
matricea Harris. Acesta a sugerat c secvena
arheologic fiind dat de straturile arheologice,
acestea trebuie nregistrate i cartate n ordinea
depunerii lor ns nu doar straturile, ci i
structurile i caracteristicile sunt nregistrate
i astfel se pot face diagrame stratigrafice ale
sitului (Carver 1990, 97; Carver 2015, 50). n
critica adus acestei metode de lucru, Harris
este de prere c din contr, desenele profilelor
seciunii, nu secvenele stratigrafice ne dau
date exacte despre relaiile dintre unitile
stratigrafice. O secven stratigrafic este o
diagram a timpului relativ i ne arat toate cele
patru dimensiuni ale acumulrii stratigrafice a
sitului, nu o imagine bidimensional a straturilor
vzute ntr-o seciune (Harris 1993, 17-18).
Un pas important dup matricea Harris a fost
reprezentat de folosirea planurilor contextelor
singulare i a sistemului computerizat GIS,
despre care este vorba n capitolul V.3. din acest
manual.
Straturile arheologice sunt foarte
diferite, n funcie de caracteristicile locului i
geologie, ca de exemplu cmpie, teren deluros,
Emilian Bota
dry or acid. Their survival and visibility depend
on how much they were affected by later human
interference, like farming or building works.
These, called site formation processes give the
site its modern appearance and determine the
used excavation technique (Carver 2015, 43).
In Great Britain, both for layers as well as
for structures or other features is used the term
of archaeological context, while in the United
States of America that of stratigraphic unit.
A key element of the excavation is the
process of defining the stratigraphic contexts
or units. This may be either a very simple or
very complicated process, which depends on
the experience and abilities of the archaeologist
but also on the complexity of the excavation.
As well, there must be taken aware of the
disturbances appeared in an archaeological
layer and established if it is about a human
intervention or it is a gallery or hole made by an
animal or of a plant root, because this could be
easily identified by mistake as pole pits. If it is
proven that it represents a human intervention,
must be established if it is modern or antique.
Not all contexts cover the entire excavation
area, therefore they may be not typical for the
stratigraphy of the entire site. Certain context
types emerge especially in excavations like pits,
ditches, ramparts and certain features.
Let us take for instance a pit. The goal
of excavating a pit, alike that of excavating the
entire site, is to establish chronology and events.
86
umed, uscat, acid. Supravieuirea acestora
i vizibilitatea lor depind de ct de mult au
fost afectate de activiti umane ulterioare,
ca agricultura sau activitile de construcie.
Acestea, numite site formation processes dau
sitului aspectul su modern i determin tehnica
de sptur utilizat (Carver 2015, 43).
n Marea Britanie, att pentru straturi
ct i pentru structuri sau alte caracteristici se
folosete termenul de context arheologic iar n
Statele Unite ale Americii se folosete termenul
de uniti stratigrafice.
Un element fundamental al spturii l
reprezint procesul de definire al contextelor sau
unitilor stratigrafice. Acesta poate fi un proces
foarte simplu sau foarte complicat, care depinde
att de experiena i abilitile arheologului ct i
de complexitatea spturii. De asemenea trebuie
inut cont de deranjamentele aprute ntr-un
strat arheologic i stabilit dac aveam de-a face
cu o aciune uman sau este vorba despre o
galerie sau groap de animal ori cauzat de o
rdcin de plant, pentru c acestea pot fi din
greeal identificate drept gropi de stlpi. Dac
constatm c avem de-a face cu o intervenie
a omului, trebuie stabilit dac este modern
sau antic. Nu toate contextele acoper toat
suprafaa spturii, de aceea acestea pot s nu fie
tipice pentru stratigrafia ntregului sit. Anumite
tipuri de contexte apar mai des n cadrul
spturilor, ca de exemplu gropile, anurile,
valurile i alte tipuri.
Archaeological situations / Situaii arheologice
The questions which the archaeologist must
answer are when the pit was excavated, used,
abandoned and filled, how it was excavated,
which was its shape and what events occurred
during its function and how it may be related
with other pits and contexts of the site. In order
Fig. 1-2. Excavation of a fireplace previous to the Great
Temple / Sparea unei vetre dintr-o faz anterioar Tem-
to establish its chronology and its possible
phases, the pit is usually cut in two. After being
recorded, photographed and drawn, and the
discovered artefacts collected, the other side is
excavated alike (Drewett 2001, 108-109). See
for instance the excavation of a fireplace (Fig.
1-2) previous to the Great Temple in Colonia
87
S lum ca exemplu o groap. Scopul
sprii unei gropi, ca i scopul sprii ntregului
sit este de a stabili cronologia i evenimente.
ntrebrile la care arheologul trebuie s rspund
sunt, cnd a fost spat groapa, folosit,
abandonat i umplut, cum a fost spat, care
a fost forma ei i ce evenimente au avut loc n
timpul, pe durata ei de funcionare i cum poate
fi ea relaionat cu alte gropi i contexte ale
sitului. Pentru a-i stabili cronologia, groapa se
secioneaz de regul n dou. Dup ce aceasta
plului Mare - CDS 2014
a fost nregistrat, fotografiat i desenat,
iar artefactele descoperite adunate, se sap n
acelai mod i cealalt jumtate (Drewett 2001,
108-109). Vezi de exemplu sparea unei vetre de
foc (Fig. 1-2) dintr-o faz anterioar Templului
Mare de la Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa din
anul 2014 (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 148).
Emilian Bota
Dacica Sarmizegetusa in 2014 (Ciongradi et alii
2015,148).
Another archaeological situation that
appears frequently in archaeological excavations
is a defence ditch, as example, we have the
stratigraphy of the defence ditch of the Colonia
Dacica Sarmizegetusa, that we excavated in
2014-2015 (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 147-148,
464, fig. 3). In front of the Northern Gate were
initially two V-shaped defensive ditches. The
southern one (the closest to the city) has been
dug in the virgin clay, with a width of approx.
6 m and a depth of approx. 2 m. The second
ditch was identified at approx. 3,50 m north of
the first, at the northern end of the section. The
stratigraphy of the southern ditch shows: under
the topsoil (C01) there is the context numbered
here by C02, which is a levelling layer from
the beginning of the 20th century and contains
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic profile of the North Gate - CDS 2014 / Profil stratigrafic la Poarta de Nord
- CDS 2014
88
Alt situaie arheologic care apare
frecvent n spturile arheologice este un an
de aprare. S lum ca exemplu stratigrafia
anului de aprare al Coloniei Dacica
Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 3) cercetat de noi n anii
2014-2015 (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 147-148,
464, fig. 3). Prin faa porii nordice treceau
iniial dou anuri defensive n form de V.
Cel de sud (cel mai apropiat de ora) a fost spat
n lutul virgin, avea o lime de cca. 6 m i o
adncime de cca. 2 m. Cel de al doilea an, a
fost identificat la cca. 3,50 m nord de primul, n
captul nordic al seciunii. Stratigrafia anului
de sud arat n felul urmtor: sub glia actual
(C01) se afl contextul numerotat de noi aici
C02 care este un strat de nivelare de la nceputul
secolului XX i care conine pmnt, piatr,
crmizi i igle romane fragmentare. Din acest
strat provin dou monete datate la 1906 i 1913.
Archaeological situations / Situaii arheologice
soil, stone and fragmentary bricks and tiles. In
this layer were found two coins dated 1906 and
1913. Under it, there is a layer of sandy clay
the context C03 which could have partially
interrupted the defensive ditch in front of the
gate. It follows the context C04 which consists
in a layer of debris containing mainly river
boulders mixed with soil. On the bottom of the
ditch there is a layer of alluvial deposits (C05).
The chronology and the construction
phases can also be determined with the help
of the horizontal stratigraphy. An example in
this way is also the archaeological excavation
at the Northern Gate of the Colonia Dacica
Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 4-5), a research undertaken
by us between 2013 and 2014 (Ciongradi et alii
2015, 147-148, 464, fig. 1-2). In the first year
of excavation we traced a north-south section,
which was later extended (Ciongradi 2014,
123, 421, Pl. 2). In this section was discovered
the north-south main drainage channel of the
city, the defence ditches and the substructure of
the Northern Gate of the city. The stratigraphy
has shown that the channel has two phases of
construction. The first construction phase build
under Trajan is mainly made of quarry stones at
a depth of 1,60 m and weaved with a platform
built of quarry stones with mortar (context
C21), which is implanted in the ancient soil. The
northern end of the channel, which spills into
the defensive ditch, has the northern end built of
bricks. Upper part of the channel walls (second
phase) has 40-50 cm high, the walls being built
mainly with river boulders and fragments of
sandstone. Also in this phase, the Trajanic main
89
Sub el se afl un strat de lut nisipos C03, care
ar fi putut s ntrerup anul defensiv, parial,
n faa porii. Urmeaz contextul C04 care este
alctuit dintr-un strat de drmtur coninnd
n principal bolovani de ru amestecai cu
pmnt. Pe fundul anului se gsete un strat
de depuneri aluvionare (C05).
Cronologia i fazele de construcie
pot fi determinate i cu ajutorul stratigrafiei
orizontale. Acest lucru l putem exemplifica tot
cu sptura arheologic de la Poarta de Nord
a coloniei Dacica Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 4-5),
cercetare ntreprins de noi ntre anii 2013-
2014. n primul an am trasat o seciune nord-sud
(Ciongradi 2014, 123, 421, Pl. 2), care ulterior a
fost extins (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 147-148, 464,
fig. 1-2). n aceast seciune a fost descoperit
canalul magistral nord-sud al oraului, anurile
de aprare, precum i substrucia porii de nord
a oraului. Canalul are dou faze. Prima faz,
traianic, este construit cu precdere din pietre
de carier pe o adncime de 1,60 m i se ese cu o
platform construit din piatr de carier prins
cu mortar (contextul C21) care este implantat
n solul antic. Captul nordic al canalului, care
se vrsa n anul defensiv, a fost construit din
crmizi. Partea superioar a pereilor canalului
(faza a doua) are o nlime de 40-50 cm, acetia
fiind construii mai ales cu bolovani de ru i
cu buci de gresie. Tot n aceast faz, canalul
traianic a fost prelungit peste anul defensiv,
cu un canal fcut din blocuri mari de gresie. El
traverseaz oblic, pe direcia sud/vest - nord/
est, anul defensiv, care cu aceast ocazie a fost
Emilian Bota

Fig. 4-5. Horizontal stratigraphy at Northen Gate - CDS 2014

Stratigrafie orizontal la Poarta de Nord - CDS 2014

90
Archaeological situations / Situaii arheologice
channel was extended over the defensive ditch
this extension being built of large sandstone
blocks. It crosses obliquely on the direction
south/west-north-east the defensive ditch,
which on this occasion was partially obstructed
in front of the gate (See above the stratigraphy
description, Fig. 3)
The platform C21, which was partially
destroyed by the modern hole C09, represents
the first phase of construction of the Northern
Gate. In the second phase, the context C20,
which consists of a slag mixed with small
fragments of sandstone, was laid over this
platform. At a depth of 1,12 m from the topsoil
level and at a distance of 1,60 m from the
western profile of the surface from the northern
profile there is a wall with a thickness of 110
cm. The wall has a 20-40 cm thick foundation
mad of river boulders and gravel and is placed
over the substructure C21. The elevation of
the wall Z2 has a preserved high of 40 cm and
consists of large sandstone blocks. To the third
phase belongs a foundation from the wall Z1.
The foundation has at the upper part mortar
and large river boulders and is 30-40 cm from
the western profile. It is probably the third stone
phase of the west tower of the gate.
From these examples, one can see how
complex the horizontal stratigraphy can be.
Combined with the vertical one it leads to
the corect interpretation of an archaeological
situation.
91
parial obturat n dreptul porii (vezi mai sus
descrierea stratigrafic a anului, Fig. 3).
Platforma C21, care a fost distrus
parial de groapa modern C09 - reprezint
prima faz constructiv a porii de acces n
ora. n faza a doua, peste aceast platform s-a
aternut o lutuial (C20) care conine i gresie
sfrmat. La adncimea de 1,12 m de la nivelul
actual al solului i la o distan de 1,60 m de
profilul vestic al suprafeei din profilul nordic
apare un zid cu o grosime de 110 cm. Zidul are
o fundaie format din bolovani de ru i pietri
care are o grosime de 20-40 cm i este aezat
peste substrucia C21. Elevaia zidului Z2 este
alctuit din blocuri mari de gresie pstrate pe
o nlime de 40 cm. Fazei a treia i aparine
o fundaie de zid (Z1) care avea la partea
superioar mortar i era format din bolovani
mari de ru. Fundaia zidului iese 30-40 cm din
profilul de vest. Reprezint probabil faza a treia
de piatr a turnului de vest al porii.
Din aceste exemple vedem ct de
complex poate fi stratigrafia orizontal a unei
spturi, care combinat cu cea vertical duc la
interpretarea corect a unei situaii arheologice.
 III.2. Excavation techniques
Dr. Emilian Bota
The archaeological digging starts with
drawing a section. This is usually a rectangular
shape. The cutting edges are precise to mark.
Measuring and marking the section are done
either according with Pythagoras theorem, with
the aid of a leveller device or with the help of
a Total Station or of a Geodesic GPS, if such
devices are available (about using Total Station
and Geodesic GPS, see cap. V.1. in this manual).
For drawing a section with the help of Pytagoras
theorem it is needed of measuring tapes, a hand
calculator, stakes, rope and a plumb bob. Steps
to fallow (Shlhof, Sigl, Vetterling 2012, 18-20,
Abb. 2 A):
1) Set the section dimensions.
2) Measure one of the outer edges
(c) with a measuring tape and set the cutting
side with stakes; for uneven ground, measure
horizontally with the help of a plumb bob.
Attention: it is highly recommended that the
stakes, (which can be made of wood, iron,
plastic etc.) of wich the rope will be fixed, are
visible marked, eventually with reflective paint,
and the edge of the stake should be covered for
avoiding accidents.
3) To get the right angle between the
two outer edges, the fixed edges and the desired
92
III.2. Tehnici de sptur
Dr. Emilian Bota
Sptura arheologic ncepe cu trasarea
unei seciuni. Aceasta are de regul form
dreptunghiular. Laturile se marcheaz clar.
Msurarea i marcarea seciunii se poate face
cu ajutorul teoremei lui Pitagora, cu ajutorul
unei nivele sau cu ajutorul unei staii totale sau
a unui GPS geodezic, dac aceasta se afl la
dispoziia arheologilor (despre folosirea staiei
totale i a GPS-ului geodezic, vezi cap. V.1 n
acest manual). Pentru trasarea unei seciuni cu
ajutorul teoremei lui Pitagora avem nevoie de
o rulete de msurat, calculator de mn, rui,
sfoar i fir cu plumb. Paii de urmat (Shlhof,
Sigl, Vetterling 2012, 18-20, Abb. 2 A):
1). Stabilirea dimensiunilor seciunii.
2). Msurarea unei laturi (c) a seciunii
cu ruleta i fixarea ei cu rui; dac avem de-a
face cu un teren denivelat, msurtorile trebuie
s se fac orizontal, cu ajutorul firului cu plumb.
Atenie: este recomandat ca ruii (care pot fi
de lemn, din fier, plastic etc.) de care legm
sfoara s fie bine marcai, eventual scu vopsea
reflectorizant iar captul care rmne afar s
fie acoperit pentru evitarea accidentelor.
3). 1) Pentru a obine unghiul drept a
laturii exterioare fixate (c) i lungimea dorit
i cunoscut a celei de a celei de-a doua laturi
Excavation tehnique / Tehnici de sptur
and known length of the second outer edges, it
must be calculated and measured the length of
the third side of the triangle (a): eg.
a = (c +b ) = (3 m+4 m)= (9m+16m)=
2 2 2 2
= 25m= 5 m.
4) One measuring tape is applied from
the two stakes, which delimit the first side (c),
and stretched out so far that the bands cross
each other. The intersection of the cross-strip is
shifted until the length of the second edge (b)
can be read off the length of the third side of the
triangle (a = 5 m). At the intersection point a
third stake is fixed.
5) Eventually it will be repeated the 4th
step for the mirrored triangle which close the
section rectangle.
6) Control the distance between the two
fixed stakes in the operation described at above
4th and 5th step. If it corresponds with the
lengths of the first fixed side (c), the job was done
well. If there are errors all the measurements are
checked.
7) Span of the section with a cord as
optical mark.
For setting a section with the help of a
leveller device, it will be needed the next tools:
measuring tapes of 30m, leveller device, tripod,
leveller scale, stakes, rope, plumb bob. Steps
to fallow (Shlhof, Sigl, Vetterling 2012, 18-20,
Abb. 2 A):
1) Set the section dimensions.
2) Measure one of the outer edges
(b) with a measuring tape and set the cutting
side with stakes; for uneven ground, measure
horizontally with the help of a plumb bob.
3) Setting and calibrating the leveller
vertical upon one of the stakes of the fixed and
93
(b), trebuie calculat i msurat cea de a treia
latur (a): de ex:
a = (c2+b2) = (32m+42m)= (9m+16m)=
= 25m= 5 m.
4). Se pune cte o rulet de la cei doi
rui ai laturii c i se ruleaz pn ce acestea
se ntretaie. Intersecia celor dou benzi ale
ruletelor, bine ntinse, se mic pn cnd pe
o band (b) se poate citi lungimea celei de a
treia laturi a triunghiului (a = 5 m). La locul de
intersecie se bate al treilea ru.
5). Repetarea eventual pasului patru
pentru triunghiul n oglind care nchide
dreptunghiul seciunii.
6). Controlul distanei dintre cei doi
rui fixai n timpul operaiunilor descrise la
pasul patru i cinci. Dac aceasta corespunde
cu lungimea primei laturi fixate, s-a lucrat
bine. Dac se descoper erori, se verific toate
msurtorile.
7). nconjurarea seciunii cu sfoar, ca
marcaj optic.
Pentru trasarea unei seciuni cu ajutorul
nivelei, avei nevoie de urmtoarele ustensile:
rulete de 30 de m, nivel, stativ, mir, rui,
sfoar, fir cu plumb. Paii de urmat (Shlhof,
Sigl, Vetterling 2012, 20-22, Abb. 2 B):
1). Stabilirea dimensiunilor seciunii.
2). Msurarea unei laturi (b) a seciunii
cu ruleta i fixarea ei cu rui. n cazul unui
teren accidentat se folosete firul cu plumb.
3). Fixarea i calibrarea nivelei vertical
deasupra unuia dintre rui laturii fixate i
msurate mai sus (b).
4). Luarea n vizor a mirei care se
Emilian bota
measured edge (b).
4) Aiming at the leveller scale which
is placed directly on the other nail (y) of the
measured side (b). Adjust the gon ring to 0 gon.
5) Laying out a measuring tape and
positioning the leveller rod above the desired
distance of the third stake that is rough the
length of the second edge of the section (c).
6) Setting the leveller by rotating the
gon ring at 100 Gon (= 90 degree to the right)
or until 300 Gon (=-90 degree to the left).
7) Moving the leveller rod and of
the measuring tape until will be aimed the
same position of the leveller scale with the
measurement of the first stake (y). If the desired
length and the aiming of leveller correspond
it will be fixed the third stake (z); for uneven
ground measure horizontally with the help of a
plumb bob.
8) Set the leveller device on the second
stake of the fixed and measured edge (b) and
repeat the 4th to 7th steps.
9) Check the distances from the stakes
measured at 4-8 steps. If they correspond with
the length of the first fixed edge the measurement
is accurate.
10) Span of the section with a cord as
optical mark.
Depending on the aim of the research
and the nature of the site, we chose the type of
excavation to be conducted. If previous data on
the area to be investigated are unknown, we start
with small excavations, called in the specialty
literature shovel test, test pits and trenches. The
so-called shovel test has the size of a shovel
length (15x15 cm), test pits are usually 1x1 or
4x4 m, while test trenches are 1-3 m wide and
may be very long, up to 100 m (Carver 2015, 44;
94
poziioneaz direct pe cellalt ru (y) al laturii
fixate i msurate mai sus. Fixarea nivelei pe
0 Gon.
5). Desfurarea unei rulete i
poziionarea mirei la o distan aproximativ
egal cu distana apreciat ca fiind lungimea
celei de-a doua laturi a seciunii (c).
6). nvrtirea nivelei sau pn la 100
Gon (= 90 grade la dreapta) sau pn la 300
Gon (=- 90 grade la stnga).
7). Deplasarea mirei i a ruletei pn
cnd se va viza aceeai poziie a mirei, aa cum
arta la fixarea primului ru (y). Dac distan
dorit i vizarea pe nivel corespund se va fixa
ruul trei (z). n cazul unei teren accidentat se
va folosi firul cu plumb!
8). Poziionarea nivelei deasupra celui
de-al doilea ru al laturii fixate i msurate i
repetarea pailor 4-7.
9). Controlul distanei dintre ruii
msurai la paii 4-8. Dac aceasta corespunde
cu lungimea primei laturi fixate (b), s-a lucrat
bine.
10). nconjurarea seciunii cu sfoar, ca
marcaj optic.
n funcie de scopul urmrit de cercetare
i de caracterul sitului, alegem tipul de sptur
pe care l practicm. Dac nu se cunosc date
anterioare despre suprafaa pe care vrem s
o cercetm, ncepem cu spturi de mic
amploare, numite n literatura de specialitate
carou de control, caset de control i seciune
de control. Aa numitele casete de control au
mrimea unei lungimi de lopei (15x15 cm),
carourile de control sunt de regul de 1x1 sau
4x4 m iar seciunile de control sunt late de 1-3 m
i pot fi foarte lungi, de pn la 100 m (Carver
2015, 44; Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 77).
Excavation tehnique / Tehnici de sptur

Fig. 1. Excavation of a drainage ditch previous to the Great Temple of CDS 2014 / Sparea unui an
de drenaj anterior Templului Mare CDS 2014.

Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 77).

Shovel tests are practiced for instance
when we wish to excavate a V-shaped ditch,
while in order to highlight the outline following
just the trace of the ditch one does not excavate
the entire length but practice a test pit, in order
to determine its edges. In this way we did at the
excavation of a drainage ditch (Fig. 1) previous
to the Great Temple of Colonia Dacica
Sarmizegetusa in 2014 (Ciongradi et alii 2015,
148).
Casetele de control se practic, de
exemplu, atunci cnd spm un ant n form
de V, iar pentru a-i evidenia conturul nu
spm doar pe lrgimea lui ci practicm o
caset pentru a-i vedea clar marginile. Aa am
procedat noi la sparea unui an de drenaj (Fig.
1) anterior Templului mare al Coloniei Dacica
Sarmizegetusa din anul 2014 (Ciongradi et alii
2015, 148).
Seciunea de control se practic atunci
cnd arheologul nu are informaii prealabile

95
Emilian bota
Fig. 2. Excavation of a control tranching behind
Silvanus Temple - CDS 2014 / Sparea unei
seciuni de control n spatele Templului lui Sil-
vanus - CDS 2014.
The trenching is practiced when
the archaeologist does not have previous
information on the research area and wishes to
establish the areas and possible extension of a
site or surface in a site still not investigated. It is
very important in the stratigraphic interpreting
because by the end we have a long vertical
profile (Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 78). Such test
trench, 43 m by 1,5 m, was practiced by us in the
excavation of the sacred area in the northern
part of Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa behind
96
despre zona de cercetat i vrea s stabileasc
zonele i posibila extindere a unui sit sau
suprafee dintr-un sit necercetate nc. Este
foarte important n interpretarea stratigrafic
pentru c la sfrit avem un profil vertical lung
(Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 78). O asemenea
seciune de control de 43 x 1,5 m a fost practicat
de noi la sptura din zona sacr din partea
de nord a Coloniei Dacica Sarmizegetusa n
spatelele Templului lui Silvanus (Fig. 2), n anul
2014, pentru a verifica existena unor eventuale
structuri care aparineau acestui templu sau
a unor eventuale structuri din faza anterioar
templului (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 148).
De altfel, o asfel de seciune de control
cu o lungime de 100 de metri i o lime de 2
metri a fost practicat n anii 1976 n aceast
zon i de ctre echipa de arheologi de atunci
n vederea verificrii situaiei stratigrafice
(Daicoviciu, Alicu, Piso, Pop 1979, 146, pl. IV).
Spturile au dus la descoperirea Tempului lui
Silvanus i Templului Mare.
Sptura cu carouri (Wheeler 1954;
Carver 2015, 45) const dintr-o serie de carouri
de 5x5 m plasate adiacent ntr-un caroiaj cu un
martor, ntre ele de regul de 50 de cm. Aceast
metod de sptur, numit i carourile Wheeler
a fost utilizat prima dat de Sir Mortimer
Wheeler n 1920 i 1930. Scopul martorului
este de a avea stratigrafia, dar i de a se putea
deplasa i debarasa pmntul excavat din
carouri. La sfritul spturii, dup terminarea
documentaiei, aceti martori trebuie spai i
ei, pentru c pot conine informaii i artefacte.
Cu toate acestea, metoda are i dezavantaje, n
sensul c creeaz bariere artificiale n cadrul
acelorai contexte, iar un context surprins n
Excavation tehnique / Tehnici de sptur

the temple of Silvanus (Fig. 2) in 2014, in order
to check up the potential structures belonging
to this temple, or some features predating it
(Ciongradi et alii 2015, 148).
Moreover, such an evaluation trench of
100 meter lenght and 2 meter width was dug in
this area in 1976 by the team of archaeologists
active at that time, in order to check up the
stratigraphy situation (Daicoviciu, Alicu, Piso,
Pop 1979, 146, Pl. IV). It led to the discovery
of the Temple of Silvanus and of the Great
Temple.
The box excavation (Wheeler 1954;
Carver 2015, 45) consists in a series of 5x5 m
boxes placed adjacently in a grid with a balk in-
between usually of 50 de cm. This excavation
method, called also Wheeler boxes was firstly
seciune poate s nu fie coninut de martor.
n acest caz, lucrul cu fiele de context poate
lmuri situaia stratigrafic iar utilizarea acestei
metode se poate face fr probleme. Aceast
metod a fost aplicat la sparea amfiteatrului
din Sarmizegetusa din anii 1993-1995 i anume
la casetoanele dintre zidurile de sprijin (Alicu,
Popa, Bota 1994; Alicu, Popa, Bota 1995).
Sptura n suprafa este o zon
deschis continu. De regul asemenea spturi
se efectueaz n cazul siturilor preistorice, unde
n aezri avem de-a face cu gropi i urme de
bordeie. Folosirea acestei tehnici permite
obinerea unui numr mai mare de artefacte,
structuri, urme ale unor zone de activitate dect
folosind tehnica de sptur prin seciuni sau a

Fig. 3. Area excavation of a hypocaust instalation Domus - CDS 2015 / Sptur n

suprafa a instalaiei de hypocaust Domus - CDS 2015

97
Emilian bota
Fig. 4. Area excavation of a hypocaust instalation Domus - CDS 2016 / Sptur n
suprafa a instalaiei de hypocaust Domus - CDS 2016
used by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1920 and
1930. The balks aim is to provide stratigraphy,
but also for movement and removal of the earth
excavated from the boxes. By the end of the
excavation, after documentation is completed,
these balks must also be excavated as they
might also contain information and artefacts.
Nevertheless, this method has its disadvantages
as well, meaning that artificial barriers are
established within the same contexts, while a
context identified in cross-section might not be
contained by a balk. In this case, the work with
the context sheets may clear the stratigraphic
situation and the use of this method may be
done without any problems. This method
was put into practice by me too, during the
amphitheater excavations from 1993-1995, in
98
altora mai puin extinse.
Suprafaa de cercetat de regul se mparte
n suprafee rectangulare (carouri), martorii
obinui astfel se menin pn la sfritul
spturii, pentru a avea profilul stratigrafic al
sitului, dup care se demoleaz. Stratigrafia
orizontal rezultat prin tehnica de sptur n
suprafa ofer informaii cu privire la structura
sitului, factori comportamentali, tipare n
legtur cu fenomene sociale i concentrri de
artefacte. Aceste informaii sunt importante
i pentru antropologie (Hester, Shafer, Feder
2009, 80). Aceast metod de sptur se
poate folosi i n cazul unei zone urbane,
arhitecturale, de epoc greco-roman. n cazul
spturii noastre de la praetorium procuratoris
Excavation tehnique / Tehnici de sptur
the spaces (boxes) between the supporting walls
(see for instance Alicu, Popa, Bota 1994; Alicu,
Popa, Bota 1995).
Area excavation or block excavation
is a continuous open area. Commonly, such
excavations are done in the case of pre-history
sites, where in the case of the settlements we
are dealing with pits and hut traces. The use of
this technique allows the collection of a large
number of artefacts, structures, activity area
traces rather than the trenching or other less
extended excavations. The area to investigate is
usually gridded, the thus obtained balks being
maintained until the end of the excavation for
the stratigraphic profile of the site, after which
they are demolished. The resulted horizontal
stratigraphy provides information on the site
structure, behaviour factors, patterns related
to social phenomena and artefact clusters. This
Fig. 5. The tumulus at Polus-Floresti during excavation. / Imagine din timpul sprii tumului de la
Polus-Floreti.
99
din Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 3-4) s-a
folosit aceast metod pentru a cerceta ntregul
complex (Ciongradi et alii 2017, 120-124).
Sptura pe fii, folosit adesea la
sparea tumulilor este o tehnic de sptur
prin care se ncepe de la colul suprafeei i se
continu drept prin suprafa n fii, suprafeele
spate avnd de regul o lime de 1,5 m (Hester,
Shafer, Feder 2009, 79). Metoda este practicat
i la noi n ar, vezi de exemplu sparea unui
tumul din perioada timpurie-mijlocie a epocii
bronzlui de la Rahman, comuna Casimcea,
judeul Tulcea (Micu et alii 2014, 198-199).
Sptura n cruce este o tehnic de
Emilian bota
information is important also for anthropology
(Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 80). This excavation
method may be used also in the case of urban
zones, architectural, of the Greco-roman
period. We applied this excavation method
when investigating the praetorium procuratoris
of Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 3-4) and
the research of the entire complex (Ciongradi et
alii 2017, 120-124).
The strip method, often used in the
excavation of barrows, is an excavation
technique starting from the area corner and
continues straight through the area by strips,
the excavated surface being usually 1.5 m wide
Fig. 6. The tumulus completely excavated and the balks demolished / Imagine cu tumulul spat i
martorii demolai.
100
sptur prin care se sap un tumul. Acesta
este mprit n patru de ctre doi martori de
regul de 1 m lime, pentru a avea stratigrafia
tumulului (Atkinson 1953, 59; Clark 1947, 97;
Wheeler 1954, 95; Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009,
79). La sfrit, aceti martori se demonteaz
i ei. Aceast metod a fost folosit de ctre
echipa de arheologi ai Muzeului Naional de
Istorie a Transilvaniei n anul 2006 la sparea
unui tumul din epoca bronzului (Fig. 5-6),
descoperit n timpul spturilor de salvare n
vederea construirii unui complex comercial
(numit Polus) n localitatea Floreti de lng
Cluj (sptur inedit).
Excavation tehnique / Tehnici de sptur

Fig. 7. Strip method applied at Northen Gate - CDS 2015 / Metoda n fii aplicat la
Poarta de Nord - CDS 2015

(Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 79). The method

is put into practice in Romania too; see for
example the digging of an Early/Middle Bronze
Age tumulus from Rahman, cm. Casimcea, Jud.
Tulcea (Micu et alii 2014, 198-199).
Quartering; quadrant method is an
excavation technique by which which usually a
tumulus is excavated. This is divided into four
sectors by two balks, usually 1 m wide, in order
to determine the stratigraphy of the tumulus
(Atkinson 1953, 59; Clark 1947, 97; Wheeler
1954, 95; Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 79). In the
end, these balks are demolished. This method
was used by the team of the National Museum
n cele dou imagini prezentate (Fig.
5-6) se observ dezvoltarea unei spturi
arheologice de salvare, paralel cu evoluia
construciei moderne, care a iniiat-o de fapt,
situaie cu care arheologii se confrunt pe astfel
de spturi.
Sptura n fii largi se folosete atunci
cnd se dorete s se scoat la lumin suprafee
largi care conin locuine, spaii locuite sau
alte complexe (Bindford et alii 1970). La fel ca
sptura n suprafa, aceast tehnic permite
decopertarea unor suprafee mari i duce la
descoperirea mai multor artefacte i implicit la

101
Emilian bota

of Transylvania in 2006 for excavating a Bronze
Age tumulus, discovered during the rescue
excavations at the building of a comercial
complex (named Pollus) in Floresti, near Cluj-
Napoca (unpublished excavation).
In this images (Fig. 5-6) it can be observed the
development of a rescue excavation, in parallel
with the progress of the building, which in
fact initiated it, a situation met frequently by
archaeologists.
strngerea mai multor date privind acel spaiu
cultural. O astfel de metod a fost abordat de
ctre noi la sparea Porii de Nord a Coloniei
Dacica Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 7).
La nceput am trasat o seciune N-S
peste elementele de fortificaie (Ciongradi et
alii 2014, 123-124, 421, Pl. 2). Aceast seciune
a fost ulterior extins, n scopul surprinderii
ntregii structuri a Porii de Nord (Ciongradi et
alii 2015, 147-148; vezi mai sus p. 88-91).

Stripping excavation is used when it is wished to n concluzie, alegerea tehnicii de

reveal large areas that contain houses, inhabited sptur depinde att de obiectivul spturii
spaces or other complexes (Bindford et alii i de specificul sitului, ct i de rezultatele pe
1970). Alike the area excavation, this technique care arheologul dorete s le obin n urma
allows the excavation of large surfaces and leads spturii.
to the find of several artefacts and implicitly the
collection of several data on that cultural space.
Such method was approached by us when
excavating the Northern Gate of Colonia Dacica
Sarmizegetusa. At the beginning, we draw an
N-S evaluation trench across the fortification
(Ciongradi et alii 2014, 123-124, 421, Pl. 2. It
was then extended to cover the whole surface of
the North Gate (Ciongradi et alii 2015, 147-148;
see here p. 88-91).

To summarize, choosing the excavation

technique depends on the objectives of the
excavation, on the type of the site and on the
results the excavator intends to obtain.

102
 III.3. RECORDING THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION
prof. dr. Alexandru Diaconescu
The virus of context sheets.
It is unanimously accepted that the first
obligation of any archaeologist, after unveiling a
deposit or a cut, or any kind of structure, from
huts to a palaces, from a simple hearth to a so-
phisticated industrial kiln, is to record as well as
he can any archeological entity. As I already men-
tioned in the introduction, in the first years of ex-
cavation, my colleagues and me, we were using
diaries, in which we used to put down whatever
information, from date, weather and numbers of
workers, to personal impressions regarding the
stratigraphy, and the hypothesis that instantly
came to our mind. Even all sorts of anecdotes
could be read in such notebooks. Interpreting
our own remarks made during the excavation
campaign, became a tantalizing post excavation
work in winter, not to mention the notes of those
103
III.3. NREGISTRAREA SPTURII
ARHEOLOGICE
prof. dr. Alexandru Diaconescu
Virusul fielor de context.
Este unanim acceptat faptul c prima
obligaie a unui arheolog, dup ce a dezvelit un
strat de depunere sau o groap, sau orice fel de
structur, de la bordei la palat, ori de la o sim-
pl vatr i pn la un cuptor industrial complex,
este aceea de a nregistra pe ct poate el de bine
entitatea arheologic n cauz. Dup cum am
menionat deja n introducere, n primii mei ani
de sptur, eu i colegii mei, foloseam jurnale,
n care notam orice fel de informaie, de la dat
i vreme, sau numrul de muncitori, i pn la
impresiile personale privitoare la stratigrafie, sau
la ipotezele care ne treceau pe moment prin min-
te. Prin astfel de caiete puteai citi pn i tot felul
de anecdote. Cnd n toiul iernii trebuia pregtit
raportul, descifrarea sensului i interpretarea
propriilor observaii fcute n timpul campaniei
devenea o munc chinuitoare, ca s nu mai vor-
Alexandru diaconescu
colleagues, who were not present anymore.
The preferred way of excavating in the
late 1970ies was by digging narrow trenches
throughout the whole site. The archaeological
material was recorded with two coordinates:
depth measured from the topsoil and position
between two meters starting with one end of the
trench. Once excavated, the archaeologist made a
description of one or both walls of the trench, and
finally executed a drawing of them. The conclu-
sions were drawn later when the position of the
finds was confronted with the drawings. It soon
became obvious that such narrow trenches were
suited for a quick evaluation of a site (non-in-
vasive methods were not available). If the strata
were not horizontal, or the deposits were cut by
pits, several errors could emerge (for instance the
simulation from Fig. 1 and 2.).
Fig. 1. Trench cutting through oblique layers. The
finds X, Y, and Z projected on one wall and then
on the other, would fall into different strata. X in
no. 2 and 3, Y in 3 and 4, Z in 3 and 5/ Seciune
prin straturi nclinate. Piesele descoperite, X, Y, i
Z, proiectate pe un perete sau altul al anului, ar
ajunge n straturi diferite: X n nr. 2 i 3, Y n 3 i 4,
iar Z n 3 i 5.
bim despre analizarea observaiilor fcute de co-
legi care nu mai erau de fa.
Modul predilect de spare n anii 70 era
s strbai tot situl cu anuri nguste. Materialul
arheologic era nregistrat pe dou coordonate:
adncimea era msurat de la nivelul gliei, iar
poziia pe orizontal era dat n funcie de me-
trajul pornit de la unul din capetele seciunii.
Odat spat anul, arheologul fcea o descrie-
re a celor dou profile i le desena. Concluziile
erau trase mai trziu, cnd poziia descoperiri-
lor mrunte era proiectat pe desenul profilului.
Destul de curnd a devenit ns evident c astfel
de seciuni nguste erau potrivite numai pentru
o rapid evaluare a unui sit (pe vremurile acelea
nu existau nc metodele non-invazive de astzi).
Dar dac nivelele arheologice nu erau orizontale,
sau un strat de depunere era tiat de o groap,
puteau s apar o serie de confuzii (cum ar fi cele
ilustrate n simulrile de la Fig. 1 i 2)
Fig. 2. Ideal drawing
of a trench wall with
a pit descending from
layer no. 3, and cut-
ting the deposits 4, 5
and 6. Object X, found
at meter 1, instead of
being assigned to lay-
er 3 according to its
depth could as well be
attributed to layer 4,
and considered contemporary with object Y, which
actually belongs to 4/ Desen ideal al unui profil cu o
groap ce coboar din stratul nr. 3 i taie depunerile
4, 5 i 6. Un obiect X, gsit pe la metrul 1, n loc s fie
atribuit stratului 3, din cauza adncimii ar fi plasat n
stratul nr. 4, ajungnd s fie considerat contemporan
cu obiectul Y, care provine ntr-adevr din stratul 4.
104
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE
When confronted with larger complex-
es we adopted the grid system, for instance the
porta principalis dextra from the auxiliary fort at
Gilu (Isac, Diaconescu, Opreanu 1981, 85-97).
Several squares, which were dug simultaneous-
ly, being separated by baulks the archaeologist to
had a certain control of the stratigraphy, by com-
paring the four walls of the digging. The system is
good for the final discussion and conclusions at
the end of the excavation, but still many features,
which could turn up inside the square, could be
missed, even when horizontal plans were made
every 10 centimeters or so. With such excava-
tions, recording of the finds is still problematic.
The daily descriptions from the diary became
more and more confused, since it was not always
clear enough to what feature the author was re-
ferring.
In Roman Sarmizegetusa at the begin-
ning of the 1980ies the problem of recording
archaeological entities and small finds became
more acute, since the monumental structures
from there required opening large surfaces.
When meeting the first British young archae-
ologists (above all Michael Dawson), giving
numbers to each excavated feature, describing
it while removing it and decide only later what
it is, seemed to us an unnecessary pedantry. Yet,
the virus of context sheet recording progressive-
ly spread through whole Europe, and inevitably
reached Romania too.
I remember that it was in the summer of
1983, when I was excavating a building north to
the sanctuary of Aesculapius and Hygeia from
Sarmizegetusa, the so called basilica (Daicoviciu
105
Cnd ne-am vzut confruntai cu com-
plexe mai mari am adoptat sistemul n carouri,
de exemplu la porta principalis dextra a cas-
trului auxiliar de la Gilu ((Isac, Diaconescu,
Opreanu 1981, 85-97). Mai multe carouri erau
golite simultan, dar fiind separate prin martori,
arheologul putea avea un anumit control asupra
stratigrafiei, comparnd cele patru profile ale s-
pturii. Sistemul este folositor pentru discuiile
finale i concluzii, dar destule elemente care ar
fi putut s apar n interiorul caroului se pierd,
chiar dac se sap n planuri orizontale din 10
n 10 cm (sau aproximativ din 15 n 15 cm). La
astfel de spturi nregistrarea materialului arhe-
ologic rmne problematic. n plus, observaiile
zilnice din jurnalul de sptur devin cu att mai
confuze cu ct nu este ntotdeauna destul de clar
la ce strat anume face referin autorul textului.
La nceputul anilor `80 n Sarmizegetusa
roman problema nregistrrii entitilor arheo-
logice i a descoperirilor mrunte, a devenit cu
att mai stringent, cu ct aici structurile mo-
numentale cercetate necesitau deschiderea unor
suprafee extinse. Cnd i-am ntlnit pe primii
arheologi britanici (n primul rnd pe Michael
Dawson), ni s-a prut o pedanterie inutil moda-
litatea lor de lucru, cci ddeau un numr fiecrei
entiti arheologice, care era descris pe msur
ce era spat, pentru ca abia apoi s se pronune
asupra identitii sale. i totui virusul nregis-
trrii spturii pe baz de fie de context s-a rs-
pndit treptat n toat Europa i pn la urm a
afectat i Romnia.
mi amintesc c era vara anului 1983, n
timp ce spam la aa numita basilica, aflat la
Alexandru diaconescu
et alii 1993, 409-433) when I decided to give up the
old way of recording, and start giving numbers and
fill context sheets after the example of my British
colleagues. In a first day, I found a burnt layer,
obviously a violent destruction, which I identified
(according to our knowledge) to be the result of
the destructions during the Marcomanic wars, to
be more accurate the Sarmatian attack from AD
168. A few days later, the workers unveiled anoth-
er burnt deposit, which I again had to identify as
a Marcomanic (Sarmatian) destruction layer,
although it was positioned under the first. When
getting deeper, and found a third similar layer, I
understood that I have to rewrite the last-days ob-
servations, and reconsider the whole stratigraphy.
With the labels in the bags for archaeological ma-
terial, it was not so easy, because only the date of
discovery might have given a suggestion which of
the three successive Marcomanic destruction it
should be.
Changing the system meant diminishing
the number of unqualified workers recruited from
the surrounding area, in favor of trained archaeol-
ogists, or at least of students able to do more than
manual labors. In time, we had to change the exca-
vation system too, and instead of narrow trenches
and small squares excavated by horizontal layers,
we turned to removing deposits and pits one by
one in the reverse order they have been installed.
It was a small revolution, which brought a finer
stratigraphy and dating in big complexes such as
the seat of the financial governor or the forum
of Trajan from Sarmizegetusa. In 1989, when we
started excavating with the great French professor
Robert tienne, who had an extensive digging ex-
perience from Libya and Morocco, to Portugal, he
was complaining that the young French archaeol-
ogists have imposed in their country a rigid exca-
vation system based on numbers. Worth then that,
when he excavated in Conimbriga he was shocked
nord de sanctuarul lui Aesculapius i Hygeia (Dai-
coviciu et alii 1993, 409-433), cnd am decis c
trebuie renunat la vechiul mod de nregistrare i
trebuie date numere i completate fie de context,
dup modelul colegilor britanici. ntr-o bun zi
am gsit un strat de arsur, pe care l-am identi-
ficat cu distrugerea produs de atacul sarmatic
din 168 p. Chr., dup cum tiam noi pe atunci.
Cteva zile mai trziu muncitorii au dezvelit un
nou strat de arsur, pe care am numit-o n jurnal
tot arsur marcomanic, dei era poziionat
sub precedenta. Cnd, adncindu-ne i mai mult,
am dat peste un al treilea strat de arsur, similar
celor anterioare, am neles c trebuie s rescriu
observaiile din jurnal, i s reconsider ntreaga
secven stratigrafic. Din pcate, cu etichetele de
pe pungile cu material nu era att de uor, cci
trebuia identificat data pentru a putea spune cu
probabilitate din care din cele trei arsuri marco-
manice succesive provenea materialul n cauz.
Schimbarea sistemului nsemna totodat
diminuarea numrului de lucrtori localnici neca-
lificai, n favoarea unui numr sporit de persoa-
ne cu calificare arheologic, sau cel puin a unor
studeni, capabili s execute i alte operaii dect
munca manual. n timp a trebuit s ne modifi-
cm i sistemul de sptur i n locul anurilor
i micilor carouri spate pe nivele orizontale suc-
cesive, am trecut la ndeprtarea straturilor de de-
punere i la sparea gropilor una dup cealalt, n
ordinea invers felului n care s-au format. A fost
o mic revoluie, care a adus cu sine o stratigra-
fie mai rafinat i o datare mai precis a marilor
complexe arheologice, cum ar fi sediul guverna-
torului financiar sau forul lui Traian din Sar-
mizegetusa.
n 1989, pe cnd ncepusem s spm cu
marele profesor francez Rober tienne, care avea
o vast experien arheologic de la spturi n
Libia sau Maroc, i pn la cele din Portugalia,
l-am auzit plngndu-se c tinerii arheologi fran-
cezi au impus n ara lor un sistem rigid de sp-
106
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE
to see that young Portuguese archaeologists were
also contaminated by the context recording sys-
tem. The next moment he turned to the evaluation
trench we just excavated before his arrival, and
saw with horror the context numbers fixed in the
wall of the excavation. You have got the virus too,
he said, with great astonishment.
P.S. Not long after, when we found the first traces
of the Trajanic timber forum, our professor ad-
mitted without resentment that excavations made
by trawling are to be preferred to a large team of
workers operating pickaxes (tienne, Piso, Diaco-
nescu 1994, 147-164). Soon after, when we found,
under the level of the stone forum, a filling layer
with military material well dated by around 50
coins, which was to be distinguished from the oc-
cupation layer of the timber structure, which also
produced around 50 coins, he admitted that re-
cording by contexts is not only functional, but also
recommended. More puzzling was the discovery of
another deposit with military equipment, this time
placed over the first demolishing layer of the timber
forum and above the building niveau of the stone
walls, but covered by the second demolition of tim-
ber structures and the levelling with militaria.
Therefore, in the Trajanic forum there was a very
complex stratigraphy, which could easily mislead
anyone excavating in force. The recording by single
contexts saved us the confusion between the two
layers with military equipment, and allowed us
to reconstruct the complex building stages of this
monumental structure, which took us 5 years to
excavate.
Note: In fact, the deposit with military
items, was accumulated earlier then the building
of the timber forum, and was brought there later,
as a filling layer in view of the levelling for the stone
forum piazza. The deposit came from a summer
camp (castra aestiva), of a complex troop of legion-
tur, bazat pe numere. Mai ru dect att, ajuns
s sape la Conimbriga, a fost ocat s constate c
i arheologii portughezi fuseser contaminai de
sistemul fielor de context. n clipa urmtoare s-a
ntors cu faa spre sptura pe care o executasem
puin nainte de sosirea sa, i vzu cu stupoare nu-
mele de context fixate pe pereii seciunii. i pe
voi v-a atins virusul! a spus el plin de uimire.
P.S. Nu mult mai trziu, dup ce descope-
risem primele urme ale forului traianic de lemn,
profesorul nostru admitea fr nici un resenti-
ment c spturile fcute cu paclul (truela) sunt
de preferat celor executate de o mare echip de lu-
crtori narmai cu trncoape (tienne, Piso, Di-
aconescu 1994, 147-164). Puin dup aceea, cnd
am gsit sub nivelul forului de lemn un strat de um-
plutur coninnd material militar, datat cu circa
50 de monede, i care trebuia deosebit de nivelul de
locuire al forului de lemn, de unde proveneau de
asemenea circa 50 de monede, el a recunoscut c
nregistrarea pe contexte arheologice nu numai c
funcioneaz, dar este chiar recomandabil. Mai
complicat a fost descoperirea unui alt depozit de
echipament militar, de data aceasta plasat deasu-
pra primului nivel de demolare parial a forului
de lemn i peste cel de construcie a zidurilor de
piatr, dar acoperit de nivelul al doilea de demo-
lare a structurilor de lemn i de stratul cu milita-
ria. Prin urmare n forul traianic era o stratigrafie
foarte complex, care l-ar fi putut nela pe cel ce
ar fi spat n for. nregistrarea pe contexte ar-
heologice individuale ne-a ferit de confuzia dintre
dou straturi diferite, dar tot cu material militar,
i ne-a permis s reconstituim evoluia complex
a etapelor de construcia ale acestui edificiu mo-
numental, care ne-a luat cinci ani ca s-l spm.
Not: De fapt stratul cu material militar
s-a constituit naintea construirii forului de lemn,
dar a fost adus aici ulterior, ca un strat de umplere
i nivelare n vederea pavrii pieei forului de pia-
tr. Acest strat provenea de la un castru sezonier
(castra aestiva), care aparinuse unei trupe com-
107
Alexandru diaconescu
aries and auxiliaries, accommodated in tents, with
a light timber covering. The camp was destroyed
in late AD 104 or in early 105 when the Dacians
rebelled, and the second war of Trajan broke up.
After the final victory, starting with AD 108 the
Roman province was organized, and the colony of
Sarmizegetusa was founded. The first town was of
timber, but soon the Roman authorities decided to
raise public buildings of stone, using military labor
force (manus militaris). So they started building a
new forum around the first one, which was partly
demolished. The main facilities, basilica, curia and
other offices, kept on functioning in their original
places, till the stone forum was finished. During
the building period in the north-west corner of the
stone structure (above a first partial demolishing
layer of the timber forum), a forge was installed, in
which typical legionary equipment was produced
and repaired. It was abandoned when the build-
ing was completed, leaving behind many items. It
was covered by the demolishing layer of the rest of
the timber forum, which remained in use untill the
stone one was accomplished. When the works were
almost finished, the levelling layer with militaria
was brought for arranging the piazza, which was
the last element to be completed.
The principle of using context sheets for
recording an excavation is simple and efficient.
It could be also successfully applied to rescue ex-
cavations, when archaeological contexts must be
quickly removed and registered by technicians,
the archaeologist being able to decide later about
the chronological sequence of the site, and inter-
pret the function of different features. Archaeo-
logical contexts are either deposits or cuts, which
fit for a standardized recording. I prefer to de-
scribe and analyze in the old manner other enti-
plexe alctuit din legionari i auxiliari, campai
n corturi acoperite de construcii uoare de lemn.
Tabra a fost distrus la sfritul lui 104, sau la
nceputul lui 105 p. Chr., cnd dacii s-au rscu-
lat i cnd a izbucnit astfel cel de al doilea rz-
boi al lui Traian. Primul ora a fost unul de lemn,
dar curnd autoritile romane au decis s ridice
cldiri publice de piatr, folosindu-se de fora de
lucru militar (manus militaris). Astfel s-a nce-
put construirea unui for de piatr n jurul celui
de lemn, care a fost n parte demolat. Principalele
spaii utile, cum ar fi basilica i curia sau diferite
birouri, au continuat s funcioneze n vechiul lor
local, pn la darea n folosin a forului de pia-
tr. n perioada construirii, n colul nord-vestic
al structurii de piatr, peste stratul primei demo-
lri a unei pri a cldirii de lemn, a fost instaurat
un atelier de fierrie, unde era produs i reparat
echipament militar legionar. Atelierul a fost aban-
donat la terminarea cldirii de piatr, lsnd n
urm numeroase materiale i fiind acoperit de de-
molarea restului forului de lemn, care continuase
s funcioneze. Cnd totul era aproape gata, a fost
adus stratul de nivelare coninnd militaria, cu
scopul amenajrii curii forului, care a fost ultimul
sector terminat.
Sistemul de utilizare a fielor de context
pentru nregistrarea unei spturi este simplu i
eficient. El poate fi aplicat cu succes i la sptu-
rile de salvare, n cadrul crora contextele trebuie
ndeprtate rapid i nregistrate de ctre tehnicie-
nii de sptur, arheologul putnd s decid mai
trziu asupra evoluiei cronologice a sitului i s
interpreteze funcionalitatea diferitelor entiti
arheologice. Contextele sunt fie straturi de depu-
nere, fie gropi, i care se preteaz unei nregistrri
standardizate. Personal, eu prefer s descriu i s
analizez n vechiul mod celelalte entiti arheolo-
108
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE
ties, basically structures, such as walls, furnaces,
hypocaust heating installations, drainage chan-
nels and so on, which are frequent in Sarmizege-
tusa and yet each has its uniqueness.
Any context sheet must contain several
sections, such as a technical part, which identifies
the context within the excavation, then a descrip-
tion of it, and its stratigraphic relations to other
contexts and entities, plus the interpretation and
comments of the excavator. It might also contain
a sketch of the profile and plan, which enables a
quick identification of the context sheet among
other, maybe hundreds, all bearing abstract num-
bers. Many other data are also requested, such
as height of upper and lower part, existing of
drawing and photographic record, and of course,
small finds coming from that context. There is no
universal recipe, and each archaeologist is enti-
tled to improve it whenever he feels necessary.
The avatars of context sheets before the
Sarmizegetusa 2016-2017 project.
The first context sheets we used were Ro-
manian versions of the British ones (to be more
precise, in 1983 I received a model from Mar-
tin Millett, when I worked with him a couple
of days in Yorkshire, which was similar to those
used by Mike Dawson at his excavation of EM
23 from Sarmizegetusa). The context sheets from
Sarmizegetusa were designed both for deposits
and cuts, which puzzled the students and poorly
experienced young archaeologists. Particularly,
the terms expressing stratigraphic relations are
109
gice, cum ar fi zidurile, cuptoarele, instalaiile de
nclzire cu hypocaustum, canale de drenaj etc.,
care se ntlnesc n mod frecvent la Sarmizegetu-
sa, dar care i are fiecare unicitatea sa.
Orice fi de context trebuie s conin
mai multe subdiviziuni, cum ar fi partea tehnic,
unde este localizat contextul n cadrul spturii,
apoi descrierea contextului, relaiile sale stra-
tigrafice cu alte contexte sau entiti, dup care
urmeaz interpretarea i comentariile arheolo-
gului. Fia poate s conin de asemenea o schi
n profil i n plan, care ajut la identificarea rapi-
d a fiei contextului printre celelalte, poate sute,
care poart toate doar numere abstracte. Multe
alte date sunt de asemenea necesare, cum ar fi
cota de nlime a prii superioare i inferioare,
existena unor desene sau fotografii, i , bine ne-
les, materialul arheologic descoperit n contextul
respectiv. Aici nu mai exist o reet universal i
fiecare arheolog este ndrituit s mbunteasc
fia ori de cte ori consider c este cazul.
Avatarurile fiei de context nainte de
proiectul Sarmizegetusa 2016-2017.
Primele fie de context folosite n Rom-
nia erau versiuni ale celor englezeti (pentru a fi
mai precis n 1983 am primit un astfel de model
de la Martin Millet, pe cnd am lucrat cu el cteva
zile n Yorksire i care era similar cu fiele folosite
de Mike Dawson la spturile sale de la EM 23
din Sarmizegetusa). Fiele de context folosite pe
atunci la Sarmizegetusa fuseser concepute att
pentru straturi de depunere, ct i pentru gropi,
Alexandru diaconescu

different and the description involves two sepa-
rate entities, so that eventually I decided to pro-
duce specific sheets for deposits and pits.
ceea ce i deruta pe studeni i pe arheologii n-
ceptori. Mai ales termenii referitori la relaiile
stratigrafice nu sunt aceiai, iar descrierea vizea-
z dou entiti diferite, ceea ce m-a convins s
realizez dou fie separate.

Model of context sheet, face and back, with Romanian and German headers, used
in the late 1990ies at the excavation of the second forum (forum novum) from
Sarmizegetusa/ Model de fi de context, fa i spate, cu formular romn i ger-
man, folosit la sfritul anilor 90 la spturile celui de al doilea for al Sarmizege-
tusei (forum novum).

110
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE
A crucial moment was when I decided
to introduce a well-defined language in filling
of the headings regarding the description of the
context. The main problem in communicating
archaeological information is that we use com-
mon terms, which gain in time a more precise,
restricted meaning, without being redefined and
universally accepted (See in general Ramazzotti
2010). Almost 50 years ago, David L. Clarke gave
the outstanding example of the word type / typ-
ical, very dear to the archeologists, and which
could cover many realities, sometimes with al-
most an opposite meaning (Clarke 1968, 31).
It was during the Apulum project (1998-2003),
that I tested and then adapted the manual used
by Museum of London Archaeology Service to
fill the headings in the context sheets for deposits
and pits (Diaconescu, Haynes, Schfer 2001, 115-
128). The use of a controlled terminology proved
itself very efficient and Romanian and German
students, not to mention the British ones, showed
a surprising ability putting it into practice. The
method used in the first Apulum project, that of
single context planning, was derived from rescue
excavations, where people have to move quick-
ly, recording each feature when excavated. This
is efficient, but it requires well-trained personnel
and involves a lot of post excavation work, put-
ting all drawings together, and figuring the suc-
cession of phases. In the case of systematic exca-
vations, such as in the Sarmizegetusa project, we
can take more time excavating simultaneously
and exposing all entities that belong to a certain
phase. Thus the chronology of the site is easier to
establish and is more eloquent for the students.
111
Un moment crucial, a fost cel n care
m-am decis s introduc un limbaj controlat n
completarea rubricilor din fiele de context.
Principala problem de comunicare a informai-
ei arheologice este c noi ne folosim de termeni
comuni, care treptat capt un sens mai precis i
mai restrns, fr ns a fi redefinii i apoi una-
nim acceptai (A se vedea n general Ramazzotti
2010). Cu aproape 50 de ani n urm David L.
Clarke a furnizat un excepional exemplu al felu-
lui cum un cuvnt, tip / tipic, foarte drag arheo-
logilor i care poate acoperi multe realiti, poate
avea uneori sensuri diverse, opuse chiar (Clarke
1968, 31) .
n timpul desfurrii proiectului Apu-
lum (1998-2003) am testat i apoi am adaptat
ghidul de completare a fielor de context pentru
depuneri i gropi (un fel de carte tehnic, manu-
al pe englez) al lui MOLAS - Museum of Lon-
don Archaeology Service (Diaconescu, Haynes,
Schfer 2001, 115-128). Folosirea unui limbaj
controlat s-a dovedit foarte eficient, i studenii
romni i germani, pentru a nu-i mai pomeni pe
cei britanici, au artat o surprinztoare capacitate
de punere a sa n practic. Metoda folosit n pri-
mul proiect de la Apulum, cea a nregistrrii fie-
crui context n parte (inclusiv sub aspect grafic)
provenea din experiena spturilor de salvare, n
cadrul crora trebuie s te miti repede i s n-
registrezi fiecare entitate arheologic in timp ce o
sapi. Sistemul este eficient, dar necesit un perso-
nal bine pregtit i implic foarte mult munc i
prelucrare de informaie sau material dup sp-
tur. n cazul unor spturi sistematice ns, cum
este cazul proiectului Sarmizegetusa, ne putem
Alexandru diaconescu
In 2005, I produced in Romanian a
Guide concerning the digitalized recording of
archaeological excavations, which evolved in
a more practical guide for filling context sheets
(Diaconescu 2013), after testing it at Sarmizege-
tusa and Napoca (Diaconescu 2012, 125-176).
This is the guide, which was eventually used in
our recent project too.
The final result: context sheets used in the
Sarmizegetusa 2016-2017 project.
Context sheets must be filled while the
feature is removed, not later when it has vanished,
leaving a possible trace in the wall of the excava-
tion. More experienced supervisors should assist
the students, and in the end by a senior archae-
ologist must check the text. There are parts, such
as chronology and interpreting, where students
need support. I also noticed that young people
are reluctant in signing the context sheets they
filled, probably to avoid any responsibility. They
must be encouraged to put down their name, be-
cause this could be one day a proof of their con-
tribution to the excavation.
The first section of the context sheet con-
tains technical boxes, and is common for both
deposits and cuts. The context number is insert-
ed in the main compartment from the left of the
paper, then come data about its position within
the excavation. All cells but one should be com-
pleted when the record sheet is opened. The last,
which is the type of deposit (a collapsed struc-
ture, a deposition in time, an outfit, each with
112
permite mai mult timp pentru a spa n mod si-
multan suprafee largi i s dezvelim astfel entit-
ile arheologice aparinnd aceleiai faze. n acest
fel cronologia sitului este mai uor de stabilit i
devine mai elocvent pentru studeni.
n 2005 am realizat n limba romn
un Ghid de nregistrarea computerizat a
spturilor arheologice, care a evoluat apoi ntr-
un mult mai practic ghid de completare a fielor
de context (Diaconescu 2013), dup ce am testat
acest sistem la Sarmizegetusa i la Napoca (Dia-
conescu 2012, 125-176). Acesta este ghidul folo-
sit pn la urm i n cadrul proiectului nostru
actual.
Rezultatul final: fiele de context utilizate
n proiectul Sarmizegetusa 2016-2017.
Fiele de context trebuie completate pe
msur ce entitatea arheologic este ndepr-
tat, i nu mai trziu, dup ce ea a disprut, l-
snd poate o urm pe unul din profilele spturii.
ndrumtori experimentai trebuie s i ajute pe
studeni, iar n final un arheolog expert trebuie
s verifice textul. Exist pri, cum ar fi crono-
logia i interpretarea, unde studenii trebuie s
fie n mod special asistai. De altfel, am observat
c tinerii se feresc s semneze fiele de context,
pentru a evita orice responsabilitate. Totui, ei
trebuie ndemnai s i scrie numele, pentru c
asta ar putea fi dovada contribuiei lor la sptura
n cauz.
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE
several variants), or of the cut (posthole, refuse
pit, provision pit, ditch etc.), will be filled only
when the conclusions are drawn and the func-
tion of the stratum or of the pit was determined.
Description.
An accurate description is necessary in
order to deduce, the way a deposit was formed,
and to determine its function (the same goes for
cuts).
In the case of a deposit most of the entries
are obvious, although some observations might
be made over the way students react to them in
connection with the guidelines from the manual.
I noticed that they have the tendency to spend
too much time in determining the color of the
deposit, either because they lose themselves in
to many details regarding the color of the com-
ponents, or because they tend to see to many
nuances. I suggest they should be encouraged
to stick to basic colors, and forget sophisticated
overtones. Otherwise, they must not forget to de-
scribe the deposit when is still wet, and the colors
have not faded. On the contrary, to my surprise
they managed very well in determining the basic
earth, for which in the manual I have inserted a
drawing showing the three main types of earth,
clay, silt and sand, and their variants (Fig. 3).
For Romanian students it is particularly relevant
since in their language there is no colloquial term
for silt, the technical one being dust, which is
misleading. However they all enjoy carrying out
the intuitive method from the MOLAS manual
Prima seciune a fiei de context cuprin-
de rubrici de natur tehnic i ea se potrivete
att depunerilor ct i gropilor. Mai nti se in-
troduce numrul contextului n csua din stn-
ga sus i apoi se introduc datele n celelalte case-
te. Toate sunt completate de la nceput, imediat
ce fia este deschis, cu excepia uneia, care de
regul este completat la sfrit, i anume tipul
contextului (la depuneri se poate scrie: drm-
tur, depunere n timp, sau amenajare, fiecare cu
variantele sale, iar la gropi: groap de par, groap
rezidual, groap de provizii, an etc.). Caseta
se completeaz dup ce restul rubricilor din fi
au fost completate i numai dup ce au fost trase
concluziile privind funcionalitatea stratului sau
gropii n cauz.
Descrierea.
O descriere precis este necesar pentru
a putea deduce mai apoi cum s-a format stratul
n cauz i pentru a putea determina care a fost
funcionalitatea sa (ceea ce este valabil i pentru
gropi).
n cazul straturilor de depunere
majoritatea rubricilor sunt clare, dar totui
trebuie s fac unele remarci despre felul cum
reacioneaz studenii la completarea lor pe baza
indicaiilor din cartea tehnic. n primul rnd
am constatat c ei au tendina de a consuma prea
mult vreme ncercnd s determine culoarea
exact a stratului, fie c se pierd n prea multe
detalii referitoare la culoarea componentelor, sau
fiindc au tendina de a vedea tot mai multe nu-
113
Alexandru diaconescu
(Murray, Roskamps, Spence 1991, Fig. 14), which
implies checking a sample with the bare hand (if
it is sticky it should be a sort of clay, if it stains
your fingers it should be silt, if it is rough and
gritty, then it contains sand). In the end, they are
asked to make different forms in order to estab-
lish the variants, which they do very well.
Fig. 3. Graphic scheme of the three main types of
earth, clay, silt and sand, and their variants (after
V. Brbu)/ Schema grafic privind cele trei tipuri
principale de pmnturi: argil, nisip, praf, cu va-
riantele lor.
However, I noticed they meet some prob-
lems in separating components (over 10%). from
accidental inclusions. Yet, when consulting the
figure showing different percentages (Fig. 4),
they easily find the right solution, despite the fact
that the images are abstract.
ane. Cred c trebuie ndemnai s se rezume la
culorile de baz, lsnd deoparte tonurile com-
plicate. Altfel, nu trebuie s uite c stratul trebuie
descris ct timp este nc proaspt i umed, iar
culoarea nu i-a plit. Din contr, spre surprin-
derea mea am constatat c, ei se descurc bine
cnd trebuie s determine natura pmntului de
baz, pentru care n cartea tehnic am inserat n
desen care ilustreaz cele trei tipuri de principa-
le de pmnturi: argil, nisip, praf, cu variante-
le lor (Fig. 3). Mai ales pentru studenii romni
este necesar un asemenea grafic, cci n limba
romn nu exist un cuvnt special pentru tipul
de pmnt pe care geologii l numesc praf , n
limbajul comun el nsemnnd depunerile de par-
ticule minuscule din aer i nu o roc. n orice caz
tuturor studenilor le place s pun n practic
modalitatea intuitiv din manualul MOLAS
(Murray, Roskamps, Spence 1991, Fig. 14), care
implic verificarea cu mna goal (dac bucata
de pmnt este lipicioas, atunci este din catego-
ria argilelor, dac e zgrunuroas, e din categoria
nisipurilor, dac pteaz este dintre prafuri). n
continuare li se cere s modeleze diferite forme,
pentru ca s poat stabili variantele, operaie pe
care o fac foarte bine.
Pe de alt parte am constatat c unii
ntmpin probleme la distincia dintre
componentele stratului (care sunt peste 10%)
i intruziunile accidentale. Totui atunci cnd
consult figura ce ilustreaz diferitele procente
(Fig. 4), reuesc s gseasc uor soluia corect,
dei imaginile sunt abstracte.
114
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE

In the case of the description of cuts, the
main difficulty is finding the right term for the
shape in plan, the slopes, the edges, and some-
times it is better to encourage the students to
make a sketch instead of using to many words.
n cazul descrierii gropilor, am constatat
c principala dificultate apare la alegerea terme-
nului potrivit pentru forma n plan, pentru as-
pectul pantelor i al muchiilor, astfel nct une-
ori este mai bine s-i sftuim s fac o schi, mai
degrab dect s piard vremea ncercnd s ex-
plice prin cuvinte ceea ce se poate reda mai eloc-
vent prin cteva linii.

Fig. 4. Chart for estimating percentage compo-

sition or inclusions from layers (after Murray,
Roskamps, Spence 1991, Fig. 11)
Diagram pentru apreciera procentajului com-
ponentelor i intruziunilor dintr-un strat.

115
Alexandru diaconescu
Stratigraphic relationships.
In this section, I decided to introduce
an extra group of boxes in order to particularize
each relation, which can be detected in the field.
The reason is that I noticed the tendency of our
students to over fill the boxes of the stratigraph-
ic matrix. They put in the upper row all contexts
that postdate ours, and in the lower one all that
they know to be earlier, not only those that have a
direct stratigraphic connection with the context
recorded. This is why I ask them first to indicate
which context covers or is covered, or cuts, or
fills or is bounded / imbedded with ours.
Explaining to beginners the stratigraphic
relations is not easy, mostly because a complex
relationship between contexts can be analyzed
mostly at the end of an excavation season. So that
I have decided for the future to reuse a sketch I
inserted in my first guide, but then abandoned
it to make the manual easier to use. It is an ideal
situation inspired by the stratigraphy of Sarmize-
getusa. Its purpose is to show in vertical and hor-
izontal stratigraphy the possible relations and ex-
plain how the Harris matrix should be built (Fig.
5).
The Harris matrix invented in 1973 (Har-
ris 1989, Figs. 21-22) is a diagram or the graphic
result of the scenario presented above. Vertical
lines represent direct chronological succession,
while horizontal and oblique lines represent rela-
tive contemporaneity.
116
.Relaiile stratigrafice.
n aceast seciune am decis s introduc
un grup suplimentar de csue pentru a individu-
aliza fiecare tip de relaie, care poate fi observat
pe teren. Motivul este c am remarcat o tendin-
a studenilor de a completa prea multe csue
n matricea stratigrafic. Ei nscriu n rndul de
sus toate numerele contextelor despre care tiu
c sunt mai trzii, iar n rndul de jos pe toate
cele pe care le consider anterioare, fr ca s
existe de cele mai multe ori o relaie direct ntre
contextele respective i cel n cauz. De aceea am
recurs la cerina de a indica precis care context
acoper sau este acoperit de al nostru, care taie
sau umple, respectiv cu ce context se mrginete.
Nu este uor s le explici relaiile strati-
grafice unor nceptori, mai ales c raporturile
complexe dintre diferitele contexte pot fi anali-
zate cu precdere la sfritul spturii. Prin ur-
mare am decis ca pe viitor s refolosesc o schi
pe care o introdusesem n primul meu ghid, dar
pe care am abandonat-o apoi pentru a face cartea
tehnic mai uor de utilizat. Este vorba despre o
situaie ideal, inspirat din stratigrafia de la Sar-
mizegetusa. Scopul su este de a demonstra n
stratigrafie orizontal i vertical posibilele rela-
ii i de a explica cum se alctuiete matricea lui
Harris (Fig. 5).
Matricea lui Harris inventat n 1973
1973 (Harris 1989, Figs. 21-22), este o diagram
sau o rezultant grafic a scenariului prezentat
mai sus. Liniile verticale reprezint o succesiune
cronologic direct, n timp ce cele orizontale i
oblice o relativ contemporaneitate.
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE

Fig. 5. Ideal stratigraphy. The topsoil no. 1 was cut by a recent pit (2), which was succes-
sively filled by deposits 4 and then 3. Before the topsoil grew the robbing trench no. 7 was
dug. It partly destroyed wall no. 9, and was filled in time with deposit no. 8. The robbing
trench cuts the debris of the collapsed Roman building (nos. 5 and 6). Outside the wall
first the roof collapsed over the pebbles 17 (probably the outfit of a yard) and then the
stones and mortar from the wall no. 9 started falling. The situation is similar inside the
room, which was paved with opus signinum (10). The concrete floor was laid on a stone
foundation and on a levelling layer no. 12. No. 13 represents the building layer of wall 9,
which has no. 11 as foundation trench. With this starts the stone phase of the building.
No. 15 is the demolishing layer of the timber structure, which had clay floors (16). On it
lays a hearth (24). They cover the foundation trench (18) of the timber wall. From it come
the postholes (19), living a rectangular print (20) on the bottom of the foundation trench.
The postholes were filled with no. 21, which was accumulated when the timber wall was
demolished. The timber building was erected on the ancient soil (22). A posthole also cuts
this undisturbed soil, but has no clear relation with the timber structure.
Fig. 5. O stratigrafie ideal. Glia, contextul nr. 1, a fost tiat de groapa recent (2), care
a fost umplut n mod succesiv cu depunera 4 i apoi 3. nainte ca glia s se fi format, a
fost spat anul de scoatere a zidului, numerotat cu 7. anul a demolat parial zidul nr.
9 i a fost treptat umplut cu depunera nr. 8. Acest an de scoatere a tiat drmtura
cldirii romane (nr. 5 i 6). n afara cldirii, peste pietriul nr. 17 (reprezentnd probabil
amenajarea curii) au czut mai nti iglele i olanele din acoperi, dup care a nceput
s se prbueasc zidul nr. 9. Situaia este asemntoare cu ncperea interioar, care era
pavat cu opus signinum (10). Podeaua de mortar cimentat a fost aezat pe o fundaie
din bolovani de ru, care la rndul lor erau aezai peste un strat de nivelare, nr. 12. Nr.
13 reprezint stratul rezultat de la construirea zidului nr. 9, care a avut ca an de fundaie
nr. 11. Cu acesta ncepe faza de piatr a cldirii. Nr. 15 este stratul de demolare al cldirii
de lemn, care avea podelele de lemn nr. 16. Pe una din ele este aezat vatra 24. Podelele
acoper anul (18) de implantare a peretelui de lemn. De la el provin gropile de par (19),
care la baza anului au lsat o amprent rectangular (20). Gropile de pari au fost um-
plute cu nr. 21, care s-a acumulat atunci cnd parii au fost scoi. Cldirea de lemn a fost
ridicat peste humusul antic (22). O groap de par taie de asemenea solul neumblat, dar
nu i se poate preciza relaia cu cldirea de lemn.

117
Alexandru diaconescu
Interpretation.
This is the most complicated, and the
most important part of the context sheet. It re-
quires experience, some imagination and even
inspiration. It must be filled after the context has
been removed and it necessitates a break for the
excavator. Normally the advice of another person
is also recommended. In my opinion, the first
section requires some explanation regarding the
terms, but for the rest the important is to keep it
bright, without trying to be snappy!
The back of the context sheet.
This is a technical part which needs no
special comments. It is the task of the supervisors
to make shore that all boxes are filled. prin urmare nu necesit prea mult explicaii. Este
118
Interpretarea.
Aceasta este cea mai complicat, dar i
cea mai important parte a fiei de context. Ea
necesit experien, ceva imaginaie i chiar in-
spiraie. Ea trebuie completat dup ndeprta-
rea contextului i pentru asta este nevoie de o
pauz pentru cel care a spat-o. n mod normal
este recomandabil consultarea prerii unei alte
persoane. n opinia mea prima seciune necesit
unele precizri privind termenii, dar n rest im-
portant este ca remarcile i opiniile s fie inteli-
gente, dar nu prea sclipitoare!
Spatele fiei de context.
Aceast parte are un caracter tehnic i
treaba tehnicienilor de sptur s aib grij ca
toate rubricile s fie completate.
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE

119
Alexandru diaconescu

120
RECORDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION / NREGISTRAREA SPTURII ARHEOLOGICE

121
Alexandru diaconescu

122
 III.4 Collection of the
archaeological material
Dr. Carmen Ciongradi
1. General aspects
The entire material that surfaces subse-
quent an archaeological excavation is collected.
Because very small objects may be overlooked,
ideally, the excavated earth should be sieved and
also a metal detector, used, to check if import-
ant metal object were lost during the digging.
The most frequent material discovered in an ex-
cavation is pottery, which leads to the tendency
of failing to collect each fragment, especially if
they are very small and atypical. However, this
should never occur, excavators should give pre-
cise indication for the collection of each frag-
ment, as even a single potshard may sometime
provide as much information as a complete ves-
sel.
If research is performed in a place where
production activities were carried out, samples
must be collected from hearths, pits, drainage
channels or other production-related struc-
tures. In the event that a water drenched area is
investigated, for instance a well or canal, from
where well preserved objects are expected to
be found, especially in terms of non-ceramic
123
III.4. Colectarea materialului
arheologic
Dr. Carmen Ciongradi
1. Aspecte generale
n timpul unei spturi arheologice se
adun tot materialul care iese la iveal pe par-
cursul cercetrii. Datorit faptului c obiectele
foarte mrunte pot s nu fie observate, ide-
al ar fi ca pmntul excavat s fie cernut i, de
asemenea, s fie folosit i un detector de metale,
pentru a verifica dac nu au fost trecute cu ve-
derea n timpul spturii obiecte de metal. Cel
mai frecvent material descoperit ntr-o sptur
este ceramica, fapt care conduce la tendina de a
nu colecta chiar fiecare fragment, mai ales dac
avem de-a face cu fragmente mrunte, atipice.
Acest lucru nu trebuie s se ntmple, cei care
supravegheaz sptura trebuie s dea indicaii
precise de a se culege fiecare fragment, pentru
c, chiar un singur ciob dintr-un vas, poate da
uneori aceleai informaii ca i descoperirea va-
sului ntreg.
Dac se practic cercetri ntr-un loc
unde aveau loc procese de fabricaie, trebuie
colectate mostre i din vetre, gropi, canale de
drenaj sau alte structuri care au avut legtur cu
procesul de producie. n cazul n care se cerce-
Carmen ciongradi
artefacts, prior the excavation start, a conser-
vationist must be contacted, for indications re-
garding their collection (Riddler, Sewart 1994,
101-102). In terms of the artefacts discovered in
the topsoil or modern pits, although they may
not answer relation and dating issues, they may
provide important information on the dating of
a destruction layer like for instance a modern
pit.
2. Collection rules
All discovered materials shall be collect-
ed, with the exception of the following (MacCo-
nnoran, Riddler 1994, 103):
Shells and gastropod shells unless de-
posited in a single context, as the result of a sin-
gle action and if they exhibit no processing trac-
es. Therefore, it is recommended they be carried
to the collection area and checked there.
Building material that does not come
from an archaeological layer, except decorated,
stamped bricks, with writing traces, human or
animal prints and architectonic fragments.
Building material smaller than 50 mm,
except the tesserae, painted or decorated plaster
fragments.
Opus signinum, mortar, ash, gravel,
post-medieval tile material, unless sampling is
desired.
In the event that the excavation reveals much
building material, it all should be collected if the
scientific team decides on its later relevance for
various specialty studies.
124
teaz ntr-o zon mbibat cu ap, de exemplu o
fntn sau canal, de unde se ateapt s se de-
scopere obiecte ntr-o stare de conservare bun,
mai ales n ceea ce privete artefactele non-ce-
ramice, nainte de nceperea spturii trebuie
contactat un conservator, pentru indicaii n
ceea ce privete colectarea acestora (Riddler,
Sewart 1994, 101-102). Referitor la artefactele
descoperite n glie sau n gropi moderne, aces-
tea, dei nu pot rspunde la ntrebri privind
relaionarea i datarea lor, pot da informaii im-
portante privind datarea unui strat de distruge-
re cum este o groap modern.
2. Reguli de colectare
Se vor colecta toate materialele desco-
perite. Excepie de la aceast regul o fac (Mac-
Connoran, Riddler 1994, 103):
Scoicile i cochiliile de melci, dac nu
au fost depozitate ntr-un singur context, ca o
singur aciune i nu prezint urme de prelucra-
re. Pentru a verifica acest lucru, este indicat ca
acestea s fie transportate la locul de colectare i
verificate acolo.
Material de construcie care nu provine
din strat arheologic, cu excepia crmizilor
decorate, tampilate, cu urme de scriere, cu am-
prente umane sau animale precum i a fragmen-
telor arhitectonice. Materialul de construcie
ntreg, ca de exemplu igle i crmizi, se va col-
ecta dac aparine epocii antice.
Material de construcie mai mic de 50
mm, cu excepia tesserae-lor, fragmentelor de
Collection of the archaeological material / colectarea materialului arheologic
3. Collection methods (Riddler, Sewart 1994,
104-106)
Pit filling. In this case, collection shall
be done by hand. The pottery is bulk collected.
Bones, either worked or not worked are also
bulk collected.
Well, canals, cesspools. Collection is
carried out like above, except if they are water
drenched. Collection by metal detector is also
recommended.
Water banks. Collection by hand, by
metal detector, bulk collection.
Waste pits, ditch fillings. Collection by
hand, by metal detector.
Humus. Collection by hand, metal de-
tector test.
Mounds. Collection by hand, metal de-
tector test, bulk collection.
Floors, inhabitancy layer. Bulk collec-
tion, 3D reconstruction.
Floor layer, surface levels. Collection by
hand, by metal detector.
Artificial mounds, walls, destruction
layers. Collection by hand, by metal detector
for identifying artefacts aiding the dating, for
instance coinage.
Roads. Collection by hand, by metal de-
tector to find artefacts that may aid dating, like
for instance, coinage.
Hearths. Bulk collection.
Industrial deposits. Bulk collection of
industrial residues, for instance, slag. Use of the
metal detectors, if dealing with metal products
residues.
125
tencuial pictat sau decorat.
Opus signinum, mortar, cenu, pietri,
material tegular post-medieval, doar dac se
dorete colectarea de mostre.
n cazul n care din sptur iese mult
material de construcie, acesta se colecteaz tot,
dac colectivul tiinific hotrte relevana lui
ulterioar pentru diferite studii de specialitate.
3. Metodele de colectare n funcie de locul
descoperirii i dup straturile arheologice, sunt
urmtoarele (Riddler, Sewart 1994, 104-106):
Umplutur de groap. n acest caz col-
ectarea se face manual. Ceramica se colecteaz
total. Oasele, prelucrate i neprelucrate se colec-
teaz, de asemenea, n ntregime.
Fntn, canale, haznale. Colectarea se
face la fel ca mai sus, cu deosebirea c acestea
sunt mbibate cu ap. Este indicat colectarea i
cu detectorul de metale.
Malul apelor. Colectare manual, cu de-
tectorul de metale, colectare total.
Gropi menajere, umpluri de anuri.
Colectare manual, cu detectorul de metale.
Humus. Colectare manual, test cu de-
tectorul de metale.
Movile. Colectare manual, test cu de-
tectorul de metale, colectare total.
Podele, strat de locuire. Colectare total,
reconstituire 3D.
Stratul podelei, nivele de clcare. Colec-
tare manual, cu detectorul de metale.
Movile artificiale, ziduri, straturi de dis-
Carmen ciongradi
Grave fillings. Use of the metal detec-
tor to identify any possible hairpins, brooches,
jewellery, coffin nails or furniture. Nails cluster
may be indicative of footwear. They should be
retrieved by the conservationist. The careful re-
search of the filling to identify very small ob-
jects like for instance beads.
Coffins. The conservationist shall be
consulted.
Natural deposits. Check if it is a natural
deposit. Depth testing to check the existence of
pre-history culture layers. River deposits may
contain artefacts that stood on the surface. Met-
al detector check at 10 cm depth.
Other layers, fillings. Check of artefact
clusters, like for instance coin hoards, metal
detector check. Nail clusters may be indicative
of organic materials like footwear and wooden
structures.
Artefacts, selected upon classes, shall
be collected upon contexts, and placed in bags,
sacks, buckets or polyethylene boxes labelled
correspondingly. The label should contain the
site name, the excavation year, collection day,
location, context number and material type of
the artefact.
As shown above, the most frequent ar-
tefact type discovered in an excavation is pot-
tery. It is collected upon contexts, if identified
in large quantities is collected in buckets, cases
or sacks, and if quantity is mall, it is collected
in boxes or bags, after which it is taken to the
washing area and dried (Sanders, James, Carter
126
trugere. Colectare manual, cu detectorul de
metale pt. gsirea unor artefacte care pot ajuta
la datare, ca de ex. monede.
Drumuri. Colectare manual, cu detec-
torul de metale pt. gsirea unor artefacte care
pot ajuta la datare, ca de ex. monede.
Vetre. Colectare total.
Depozite industriale. Colectare total de
reziduri industriale, ca de ex. zgur. Utilizarea
detectorului de metale, dac avem de-a face cu
reziduri de produse metalice.
Umpluturi de morminte. Utilizarea de-
tectorului de metale pentru descoperire de posi-
bile ace de pr, fibule, obiecte de podoab, cuie
de la sicriu sau mobilier. Concentraia de cuie
pot indica faptul c provin de la pantofi. Aces-
tea ar trebui prelevate de ctre conservator. Cer-
cetarea cu grij a umpluturii pentru detectarea
obiectelor foarte mici ca de exemplu mrgele.
Sicrie. n acest caz se va consulta con-
servatorul.
Depozite naturale. Verificarea faptu-
lui dac este vorba despre un depozit natural.
Sondarea n adncime pt. a se verifica existena
straturilor de cultur preistorice. Depozitele
fluviale pot conine artefacte care au stat la su-
prafa. Verificare cu detectorul de metale n
adncime de 10 cm.
Alte straturi, umpluturi. Verificarea ex-
istenei de concentraii de artefacte, ca de exem-
plu tezaure de monede, verificare cu detectorul
de metale. Concentraia de cuie poate indica ex-
istena materialelor organice ca pantofi i struc-
turi de lemn.
Artefactele, sortate pe categorii, se col-
Collection of the archaeological material / colectarea materialului arheologic

Johnson 2017, 89). ecteaz pe contexte, se pun n pungi, saci, glei

Animal bones and shells from context
are collected together in polyethylene boxes,
taken to the collection area where they are ex-
amined for any special features, while bones
should be weighed. Artefacts resulting from
contexts interpretable as kitchens or other spe-
cial places that many be dated are collected and
sau cutii de polietilen care se eticheteaz core-
spunztor. Se consemneaz numele sitului, anul
efecturii spturii, ziua colectrii, obiectivul,
numrul contextului i tipul materialului din
care const artefactul.

Fig. 1. Brick with two children footprint, discovered during the excavations at the
praetorium procuratoris, CDS 2015. / Crmid cu amprentele labelor piciorului a
doi copii, descoperit n timpul spturilor de la Praetorium procuratoris, CDS 2015.

127
Carmen ciongradi
marked as a lot and may be given for examina-
tion to a fauna specialist (Sanders, James, Carter
Johnson 2017, 90).
Complete or fragmentary tiles, yet re-
storable, are collected, may be weighed, are
described. Small, un-restorable fragments are
checked for stamps, writing traces, human or
animal prints, sandal or decoration traces, and
only these are collected.
The small finds represent all small ob-
jects except pottery, un-worked animal bones
or shells, tiles and coinage. These are made of
metal, glass, bone. If resulting from pits or mod-
ern disturbances, they may be collected upon
material together in the same box or bag. If
coming from undisturbed archaeological layer
each artefact is collected separately in a box or
bag, topographic elevation of the specific find
place are taken, are photographed and listed in
128
Aa cum am artat mai sus, cel mai
frecvent tip de artefact descoperit ntr-o
sptur este reprezentat de ceramic. Aceasta
se colecteaz pe contexte, dac se descoper n
cantiti mari se colecteaz n glei, lzi, sau
saci iar dac cantitatea este mic, se colecteaz
n cutii sau pungi, dup care se duce la locul
unde se spal i se ntinde la uscat (Sanders,
James, Carter Johnson 2017, 89).
Oasele de animale i scoicile din contex-
te se colecteaz mpreun n cutii de polietilen,
se duc la locul de colectare unde se examineaz
dac nu au caracteristici speciale iar oasele tre-
buie cntrite. Artefactele care provin din con-
texte care pot fi intepretate ca fiind buctrii,
sau alte spaii speciale care pot fi datate se col-
ecteaz i se marcheaz ca lot i pot fi date spre
examinare unui specialist n faun (Sanders,
Fig. 2. The discovery of a
bronze applique during the
excavations at the praetori-
um procuratoris, CDS 2015.
/ Descoperirea unei aplici de
bronz n timpul spturilor
de la Praetorium procurato-
ris, CDS 2017.
Collection of the archaeological material / colectarea materialului arheologic
Fig. 3. The discovery of stamped oil lamps
during the excavations at the praetorium
procuratoris, CDS 2015. / Descoperirea unor
opaie cu tampil n timpul spturilor de la
praetorium procuratoris CDS 2016.
a table, beside the data on the label.
If coinage is found, they will be collected
separately in small polyethylene boxes, labelled
correspondingly and topographic level of the
find spot is noted, each coin receiving a number.
Architectonic or epigraphic fragments
shall be collected separately, labelled with above
data, and in the case of decorated architectonic
or epigraphic fragments topographic level shall
be noted and numbered.
James, Carter Johnson 2017, 90).
iglele ntregi sau fragmentare, dar care
se pot ntregi, se colecteaz, se pot cntri, se
descriu. Fragmentele mici, nentregibile se veri-
fic dac au ampile, urme de scriere, amprente
umane sau animale, urme de sandale sau urme
de decor i doar acestea se colecteaz.
Small finds, reprezint toate obiectele
mrunte n afar de ceramic, oase de animale
neprelucrate sau scoici, igle i monede. Acestea
sunt lucrate din metal, sticl, os. Dac provin
din gropi sau deranjamente moderne, acestea
se pot colecta pe material mpreun n aceeai
cutie sau pung. Dac provin din strat arheolog-
ic nederanjat fiecare artefact se colecteaz sepa-
rat n cutie sau pung, se i-au cotele topografice
ale locului exact al descoperirii, se fotografiaz
i se trec i ntr-un tabel, n afar de datele de pe
etichet.
n cazul descoperirii unor monede,
acestea vor fi colectate separat n cutii mici de
polietilen, se vor eticheta corespunztor i se
vor lua i cotele topografice ale locului desco-
peririi, fiecare moned primind un numr.
Fragmentele arhitectonice sau epigrafice
se vor colecta separat, li se va aplica eticheta cu
datele menionate mai sus, iar n cazul fragmen-
telor arhitectonice cu decor i a celor epigrafice
li se vor lua i cotele topografice i vor primi un
numr.
129
 III.5. Primary conservation of ar-
chaeological material
DR. Carmen Ciongradi
During an archaeological excavation,
the discovered artefacts are removed from the
environment where they stood buried. Over
time, a specific microclimate forms around
them, different than the one where they first
stood. This microclimate, if constant, acts on
the artefacts up to the moment when a balance
between the two is created, after which the pro-
cess stops. The processes to which the artefact is
subject to in the ground are chemical, physical
or biological. Impact on them depends on soil
and climatic conditions. Acting factors are wa-
ter, oxygen, soil alkalinity or acidity, salts, tem-
perature, organisms, animals and plants (Sand-
ers, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 135).
Once the archaeologist brings them to
light, the found object is suddenly removed
from this microclimate and exposed to air, thus
the damage process restarts. Most sensitive ob-
jects are those of fabrics, wood, leather, fibres
and bone. Sampled, packed and carefully de-
posited, they must reach the conservation lab
unchanged. That is why cleaning or washing the
artefact on site is not recommended, as valuable
130
III.5. conservarea primar a
materialului arheologic
DR. Carmen Ciongradi
n timpul unei spturi arheologice,
artefactele descoperite sunt scoase din mediul
unde stteau ngropate. De-a lungul timpului,
n jurul lor s-a format un microclimat specific,
diferit de cel unde stteau nainte. Acest mi-
croclimat, dac este unul constant, acioneaz
asupra artefactelor pn la momentul n care se
creeaz un echilibru ntre cele dou, dup care
procesul se oprete. Procesele la care este supus
artefactul n pmnt sunt chimice, fizice sau bi-
ologice. Impactul avut asupra lui depinde de sol
i de condiiile climatice. Factorii care pot acio-
na sunt reprezentai de ap, oxigen, alcalinitatea
sau aciditatea solului, sruri, temperatur, or-
ganisme, animale i plante (Sanders, James,
Carter Johnson 2017, 135).
Odat ce arheologul le scoate la lumin,
obiectul descoperit este scos brusc din acest mi-
croclimat i expus aerului, procesul de deteri-
orare rencepe. Cele mai sensibile obiecte sunt
cele din textile, lemn, piele, fibre i os. Prelevate,
mpachetate i depozitate cu grij, ele trebuie s
ajung la laboratorul de conservare neschim-
bate. De aceea nu este recomandat curarea
Primary conservation of archaeological material / conservarea primar a
materialului arheologic
information on its composition, function and
structure may be lost. The presence of a conser-
vationist on the archaeological site or constant
consulting of one is desirable (Sanders, James,
Carter Johnson 2017, 135-136).
Conservation is the careful manage-
ment of change is the leading idea of the Brit-
ish National Trust, which should underlie the
conservation of mobile goods. Procedures to be
completed for primary conservation may be di-
vided into three classes: stabilisation, cleaning
and repair.
Measures for primary conservation of the arte-
facts:
1. Labelling. Labels must resist the action
of physical, chemical and biological damaging
factors and the action of various solvents (Fig.
1)(Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 136).
2. Packing. Artefacts must be packed in
bags or plastic boxes together with a moisture
absorbing material like silica gel or non-ac-
id paper. Artefacts should not be wrapped, as
when unwrapped they may deteriorate. Arte-
facts identified moist, must be further preserved
moist to prevent deterioration by drying. Ideal-
ly, they should be preserved in an environment
similar to that of the find. A dry artefact should
not be soaked. If they must be preserved moist
for a long time, adding a biocide is recommend-
able, to prevent the development of microor-
ganisms (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017,
136).
131
sau splarea artefactului pe antier, astfel se pot
pierde informaii valoroase privind compoziia,
funcia i structura artefactului, la analiza lui
n laborator. Prezena unui conservator pe an-
tierul arheologic sau consultarea constant a
unui conservator este o msur de dorit (Sand-
ers, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 135-136).
Conservation is the careful management
of change este ideea conductoare a British Na-
tional Trust i este o idee de la care trebuie por-
nit n conservarea bunurilor mobile. Proceduri-
le de ndeplinit pentru conservarea primar se
mpart n trei categorii: stabilizare, curare i
reparare.
Msuri pentru conservarea primar a arte-
factelor:
1. Etichetarea. Etichetele trebuie s fie
rezistente la aciunea factorilor de degradare
fizici, chimici, deteriorrii biologice i aciunii
diferiilor solveni (Fig. 1) (Sanders, James, Car-
ter Johnson 2017, 136).
2. mpachetarea. Artefactele trebuie s fie
mpachetate n pungi sau cutii de plastic mpre-
un cu un material absorbant de umiditate cum
ar fi silicagelul sau hrtie neacid. Artefactele
nu trebuie mpachetate nfurat, pentru c la
despachetare se pot deteriora. Artefactele care
au fost descoperite umede, trebuie pstrate n
continuare umede pentru a preveni deterio-
rarea lor care intervine prin uscare. Ideal este
pstrarea lor ntr-un mediu apropiat de cel de
descoperire. Nu este indicat umezirea unui
Carmen ciongradi
3. Small artefacts. They must be carried in
boxes or bags (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson
2017, 136).
4. Large artefacts. They must be packed in
polyurethane foam, bubble foil or freshly exca-
Fig. 1. Labelling and packing of an oil lamp /
Etichetarea i mpachetarea unui opai
vation sieved soil (Sanders, James, Carter John-
son 2017, 137).
5. Stone artefacts. They must be carried in
cases, buckets, stretchers or other utensils that
allow carriage without damage to the archaeo-
logical artefact (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson
2017, 137). Stone artefacts do not require, but
rarely, special treatment. In the case of obsidian
tools for instance, they must not be washed on
132
artefact uscat. n cazul n care trebuie pstrate
umede pentru o perioad de timp, este reco-
mandat adugarea unui biocid, pentru a pre-
veni dezvoltarea de microorganisme (Sanders,
James, Carter Johnson 2017, 136).
3. Artefacte de dimensiuni mici. Acestea
trebuie transportate n cutii sau pungi (Sanders,
James, Carter Johnson 2017, 136).
4. Artefacte de dimensiuni mari. Acestea
trebuie mpachetate n spum poliuretanic, fo-
lie cu bule sau sol proaspt cernut din sptur
(Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 137).
5. Artefacte din piatr. Trebuie transpor-
tate n lzi, glei, trgi sau alte ustensile care
permit un transport fr avarierea artefactu-
lui arheologic (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson
2017, 137). Artefactele de piatr nu necesit
dect rar un tratament special. n cazul un-
eltelor de obsidian de exemplu, acestea nu tre-
buie splate pe sit, acestea trebuie mpachetate
cu grij pentru a nu li se deteriora marginile i a
se putea efectua ulterior studii pentru a identi-
fica eventuale reziduri. De asemenea pietrele de
moar nu trebuie curate pn nu se iau probe
de pe ele pentru analiz (Hester, Shafer, Feder
2009, 150). n cazul unor obiecte friabile, aces-
tea trebuie de hidratate ntr-un solvent pentru a
diminua efectele de tensionare a suprafeei de-
terminate de uscarea pietrei. Scufundarea timp
de o or ntr-o soluie de alcool, aceton sau
toluen este suficient pentru a mpiedica de hi-
dratarea iniial. Aceasta trebuie repetat pen-
Primary conservation of archaeological material / conservarea primar a
materialului arheologic
site, they must be carefully packed to avoid edge
damage and to enable later studies to identify
any possible residues. Furthermore, mill stones
must not be cleaned until samples are taken for
analysis (Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 150).
In friable objects, they must be dehy-
drated in a solvent to diminish any strain ef-
Fig. 2. In situ treatment of a sandstone block
discovered at Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa,
North Gate excavations, in 2014 by MNIT re-
storer Sabin Grapini / Tratarea in situ a unui
bloc de gresie descoperit la spturile de la
Poarta de Nord a Coloniei Dacica Sarmizege-
tusa n 2014 de ctre restauratorul MNIT Sabin
Grapini.
fects of the surface owing to stone drying. One
hour immersion in an alcohol-based solution,
acetone or toluene is enough to prevent initial
dehydrating. This must be repeated for anoth-
er hour. In the case of large artefacts, on the af-
fected surface the same solution may be applied
(Fig. 2).
133
tru nc o or. n cazul unor artefacte mari, pe
suprafaa afectat se poate aplica aceast soluie
(Fig. 2).
6. Ceramica. Dac n cazul ceramicii for-
mele de degradare au fost lente n sol, dup
scoaterea lor n mediul atmosferic acestea pot
fi violente, mai ales n primele zile i sptmni.
De aceea trebuie luate o serie de msuri imedi-
ate, fr de care degradrile pot deveni impor-
tante i chiar de nerezolvat:
- Depunerea pieselor la umbr pentru a
se feri de radiaiile solare.
- Artefactele nu trebuie s i piard total
umiditatea, n special atunci cnd sunt prezente
sruri insolubile ale acizilor slabi.
- Vasele ntregi, golite de pmnt, din care
se poate lua prob pentru analize, necesit le-
garea cu sfoar sau panglic.
- Msuri difereniate de ambalare n
funcie de starea de conservarea a fiecrei piese,
stabilirea prioritilor de restaurare.
- Pentru a mpiedica uscarea rapid, ar-
tefactele se pot depune n pungi de polietilen
care se nchid etan, n care vasele s stea n-
velite n hrtie umezit. n apa de umectare a
acesteia se poate folosi soluie de 1% tymol n
alcool etilic sau metilic.
- Evitarea ocurilor mecanice, a tension-
rii, evitarea contactelor dure i neizolate.
- Eventual efectuarea unei bi preventive
de desalinizare a artefactelor ceramice, n ap
distilat, deionizat sau demineralizat prin fi-
erbere, operaiune efectuat de conservator sau
restaurator (Creang 2007, 106).
Carmen ciongradi
6. Pottery. If for pottery, damage forms
were slow in the ground, after removal in the
atmosphere environment, they may become
violent, especially in the first days and weeks.
Therefore, a series of immediate measures must
be taken, without which damage may become
important and even permanent:
- Placing items in the shadow to avoid
sun radiation.
- Artefacts must not entirely lose humidi-
ty, especially when weak acid insoluble salts are
present.
- Complete vessels, emptied from earth,
which may not be sampled for tests, require
binding with string or ribbon.
- Differentiated packing measures de-
pending on the preservation state of each item,
setting up preservation priorities.
- For the prevention of quick drying, ar-
tefacts may be deposited in sealed polyethylene
bags, where the pots should remain wrapped in
soaked paper. The moistening water may use a
1% thymol solution in ethylic or methyl alcohol.
- Avoidance of mechanical shocks,
strains, hard, non-insulated contact.
- Possibly, to prevent desalinization of
pottery artefacts bath in distilled water, deion-
ised or demineralised by boiling, operation
carried out by the conservationist or restorer
(Creang 2007, 106).
7. Painted ceramic artefacts. They may
preserve painting traces, which, if soaked or
washed on site, may be destroyed. Hence, they
must be taken to the lab for cleaning and con-
134
7. Artefacte ceramice pictate. Acestea pot
pstra urme de pictur, care, dac le umezim
sau splm pe sit, se pot distruge. De aceea ele
trebuie duse la laborator pentru curare i con-
servare (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017,
137).
8. Sticl. Dac descoperim sticl, este in-
dicat s curm locul respectiv cu o spatul
din lemn sau cu o perie uoar. Nu este indi-
cat curarea sticlei pe sit, pentru a nu nde-
prta straturile de irizaii i n niciun caz nu se
va folosi un obiect din fier, pentru a nu zgria
suprafaa sticlei. Este de preferat lsarea ei cu
un strat de pmnt sau impuriti, pentru a se
cura ulterior de ctre profesioniti n labora-
tor(Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 137).
9. Artefacte din materiale organice. n
cazul descoperirii unor obiecte de lemn car-
bonizat n sptur, acestea nu se pot restaura
cu rezultate benefice i ca atare nu se practic.
Dac lemnul s-a pstrat n pmnt, este nece-
sar folosirea pulverizatorului de ap pentru a
menine umiditatea normal pentru asemenea
structuri. Conservarea primar n aceste cazuri
este de natur a asigura o durat de via acestor
complexe doar pn cnd arheologul i culege
datele de care are nevoie (Creang 2007, 118-
119).
Alt material organic susceptibil de a fi
descoperit n spturi este pielea. Din punct-
Primary conservation of archaeological material / conservarea primar a
materialului arheologic
servation (Sanders, James, Carter Johnson 2017,
137).
8. Glass. If glass is found, respective spot
should be cleaned with a wooden spatula or
light brush. It should not be cleaned on site, as
iridescence layers may be removed, and an iron
object should not be used by any means in order
to avoid scratching of the glass surface. Prefer-
ably, an earth or impurity layer should be pre-
served on the surface, for later cleaning by the
professionals in the lab (Sanders, James, Carter
Johnson 2017, 137).
9. Organic artefacts. If charred wooden
objects are identified in the excavation, they
cannot be restored with beneficial results and
hence the conservation it is not applicable. If
wood survived in the ground, it is necessary to
use a water pulveriser to maintain normal hu-
midity of such structures. Primary conserva-
tion in these cases ensures life duration of these
complexes only until the archaeologist collects
the necessary data (Creang 2007, 118-119).
Another organic material susceptible to be dis-
covered in the excavation is leather. From the
conservation point of view, it differs according
to the nature of the soil it remained into dry,
moist or frozen. Leather artefacts from water
or moist environments are usually bovid leath-
er, goat or sheep, vegetally tanned and black in
colour. Their preservation state is usually very
good. Just after discovery, they must be washed
several times in cold water with little disinfec-
tant (permanganate of potassium, formalde-
135
ul de vedere al conservrii, aceasta difer n
funcie de natura solului n care a stat uscat,
umed, sau ngheat. Artefactele din piele care au
stat n ap sau mediu umed sunt de obicei piei
de bovine, de capr sau de ovine, tbcite vegetal
i sunt de culoare neagr. Starea de conservare
a lor este de obicei foarte bun. Imediat dup
descoperire ele trebuie splate de cteva ori n
ap rece cu puin dezinfectant (permanganat
de potasiu, formaldehid, etc.) i introduse n
ap curat pn la tratamentul lor n laborator.
Dac au fost descoperite n ap se pot pstra n
acelai lichid n care au fost gsite n pungi de
polietilen bine nchise pn la splare. Cele
care au stat ntr-un mediu uscat au o culoare de
la maroniu la negru indiferent de culoarea lor
iniial. n funcie de natura i aciditatea solului
acestea sunt de obicei rigide i casante. Aces-
tea se introduc n ap distilat dup o splare
iniial pn se nmoaie. Dup aceasta se nde-
prteaz apa superficial i se aplic tratamentul
pentru pielea umed (Creang 2007, 121-124).
10. Metale. Obiectele de metal, n special
cele deja corodate, trebuie tratate cu cea mai
mare grij pe sptur. Dac obiectul descoperit
este rupt, prezint urme puternice de coroziune,
nu se va ncerca ndeprtarea coroziunii, pen-
tru a nu se distruge artefactul. Acestea trebuie
curate doar de personalul specializat n labo-
rator.
n cazul n care descoperim artefacte
din aur, acest metal nu corodeaz, dar celelalte
metale din aliaj, cuprul, argintul, corodeaz
Carmen ciongradi
hyde, etc.) inserted in clean water until their
treatment in the lab. If discovered in water, they
may be preserved in the same liquid where they
were found in well-sealed polyethylene bags
until washed. Those preserved in a dry envi-
ronment have a colour from brown to black
regardless their original colour. Depending on
the nature and soil acidity they are usually rigid
and brittle. They are inserted in distilled water
after initial washing for moistening. Superficial
water is removed after that and the treatment
for moist leather is applied (Creang 2007, 121-
124).
10. Metals. Metal objects, especially those
already corroded, must be treated with outmost
care in the excavation. If the discovered object is
broken, shows strong corrosion traces, the cor-
rosion shall not be removed, as the artefact may
be destroyed. They must be cleaned only by the
specialised staff in the lab.
If golden artefacts are found, this met-
al does not corrode, however the other metals
in alloy, like the copper and silver corrode, thus
gold may have the appearance of a bronze ob-
ject, if the alloy contains copper or be white, if it
has around 30% silver in composition. Further-
more, one should keep in mind that gold made
objects are fragile. Thus, the earth around them
must be cleaned carefully and only then re-
moved. If the discovered object is a golden leaf,
it must be by no means straightened by the ar-
chaeologist, but only in the museums lab. Also,
metal objects shall not be washed on site and not
136
i astfel aurul poate lua un aspect la fel ca un
obiect de bronz, dac are cupru n aliaj sau alb,
dac are n jur de 30% argint n compoziie. De
asemenea mai trebuie inut cont de faptul c
obiecte fabricate din aur sunt fragile. Astfel tre-
buie curat cu grij tot pmntul din jurul lui
i apoi cules. Dac obiectul descoperit este sub
form de foi de aur, aceasta nu trebuie n nici-
un caz ndreptat de ctre arheolog, ci doar n
laboratorul muzeului. De asemenea obiectele de
metal nu se spal pe antier i nu se lipesc. n ca-
zul descoperirii unor obiecte fragile, nainte de
a le preleva acestea vor fi fotografiate i desenate
la scar. Acestea se pot scoate cu tot cu pmn-
tul pe care stau i aezate ntr-o cutie (Sanders,
James, Carter Johnson 2017, 137-138).
Exist o diferen n conservarea arte-
factelor de metal i n funcie de mediul unde
au stat. Cele care au stat ntr-un mediu uscat
sau foarte puin umed, cum este cazul sediului
procuratorului financiar al Daciei Apulensis de
la Sarmizegetusa, se pot pune n pungi de po-
lietilen dar numai cu condiia de a se introduce
n pungi o cantitate de silicagel ca indicator de
saturaie. Silicagelul va avea ca efect scderea
umiditii la o valoare mai mic de 40% i astfel
procesul de coroziune va scdea (Creang 2007,
72). Pe lng umiditatea sczut, cnd un obiect
metalic este scos din sptur, o alt soluie de
conservare primar este folosirea materialului
neacid pentru mpachetarea lui. Ele nu trebuie
nfurate ci puse pe un pat moale de material
neacid i acoperite la fel (Hester, Shafer, Fed-
er, 2009, 152-153). n cazul obiectelor metal-
Primary conservation of archaeological material / conservarea primar a
materialului arheologic
attached. If fragile metal objects are found, pri-
or their removal they should be photographed
or drawn at scale. They may be removed with
the entire earth where they lie and boxed (Sand-
ers, James, Carter Johnson 2017, 137-138).
There is a conservation difference of
metal artefacts also depending on the environ-
ment where they stood. Those in a dry or least
moist environment, like the case of the seat of
the financial procurator of Dacia Apulensis at
Sarmizegetusa, may be placed in polyethylene
bags, but only provided that a quantity of sili-
ca gel is placed in the bag as saturation marker.
The silica gel would decrease humidity to a val-
ue smaller than 40% and the corrosion process
would slow down (Creang 2007, 72). Beside
low humidity, when a metal object is removed
from the excavation, another solution of prima-
ry conservation is the use of non-acid material
for their packing. They should not be wrapped,
but placed on a soft bed of non-acid material
and covered alike (Hester, Shafer, Feder, 2009,
152-153). In case of metal objects coming from
very humid or watery environment, they must
be inserted in deionised water, which shall be
periodically changed until taken to the lab. If
deionised water is not available, rainwater, dis-
tilled water or that resulting from clean snow
melting shall be used (Creang 2007, 72).
11. Fabrics. They may appear in charred or
fossilised fragments. Well preserved fabric ob-
jects discovered in dry caves or barren environ-
ment like south-west America, Egypt, Peru must
137
ice provenite din mediu foarte umed sau apos,
acestea trebuie introduse n ap deionizat, care
va fi schimbat periodic pn la interveniile
din laborator. n cazul n care apa deionizat
nu este disponibil, se va folosi ap de ploaie,
ap distilat sau cea de la topirea zpezii curate
(Creang 2007, 72).
11. Textile. Acestea pot aprea n fragmente
carbonizate sau fosilizate. Obiecte textile bine
ptrate descoperite n peteri uscate sau n me-
diul arid ca sud-vestul Americii, Egipt, Peru nu
trebuie splate cu ap. Trebuie ndeprtat cu gri-
j praful din jur i, scoase cu grij, cu suport de
dedesubt, cu minimum de micri iar textilele
trebuie mpachetate imediat n hrtie neacid,
pus ntr-un recipient ermetic i transportate la
laborator (Sease 1994, 91-93). n cazul desco-
peririi unor astfel de artefacte ntr-un mediu
umed, acestea necesit un tratament special din
partea unui conservator. Fragmentele de tex-
tile fosilizate de pe obiecte metalice necesit
de asemenea atenia unui conservator (Hester,
Shafer, Feder 2009, 151).
12. Os, corn, filde. Datorit structurii po-
roase, dac au stat ntr-un mediu umed, osul i
fildeul devin foarte fragile datorit srurilor i
apei. n alte medii, osul i fildeul se pot fosiliza.
n mediul umed, oseina hidrolizeaz sau se des-
compune chimic iar aspectul lor devine buretos
i structura se degradeaz. Obiectele din corn
sunt supuse acelorai procese de degradare, ca
i cele din os i filde (Creang 2007, 156-158).
De regul aceste obiecte se cur i se duc la
Carmen ciongradi

not be washed. They must be dusted around and
removed carefully, with a support below, with
minimum movement and packed immediately
in non-acid paper, placed in an air-tight recip-
ient and carried to the lab (Sease 1994, 91-93).
If such artefacts are found in a moist environ-
ment, they require special treatment made by a
conservationist. Fossilised fabric fragments on
metal objects also require the attention of a con-
servationist (Hester, Shafer, Feder 2009, 151).
laborator pentru conservare. Se pun n pungi
de plastic care nu se nchid, datorit faptului c
artefactele sunt umede. Oasele de animale se
spal cu ap curat i cu o perie moale. Dac
sunt foarte fragile, este necesar prezena unui
conservator pentru a le conserva primar (Hes-
ter, Shafer, Feder, 2009, 148-149).

12. Bone, horn, ivory. Due to the porous

structure, if preserved in a humid environment,
bone and ivory become very fragile due to salts
and water. In other environments, bone and
ivory may fossilize. In humid environments, the
ossein hydrolyzes or is chemically decomposed
and their appearance becomes spongy and the
structure is damaged. Horn objects are subject
to the same damage processes like those of bone
and ivory (Creang 2007, 156-158). Usually,
they are cleaned and taken to the lab for preser-
vation. They are put in plastic bags that are not
sealed as the artefacts are moist. Animal bones
are washed with clean water and soft brush. If
very fragile, it is necessary that a conservation-
ist preserves them primarily (Hester, Shafer,
Feder, 2009, 148-149).

138
Bibiliography / Literatur
Bibliography/ Literatur
Alicu, D., Popa, V., Bota, E., Cercetri arheo-
logice la Sarmizegetusa. Campania 1993: amfi-
teatrul, AMN 31, I, 1994, 487-521.
Alicu, D., Popa, V., Bota, E., Cercetri arheolog-
ice la Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa. Campan-
ia1994, AMN 32, I, 1995, 665-719.
Atkinson, R. J. C., Field Archaeology, 2nd Edi-
tion, Methuen, London 1953.
Bindford, L. R., Bindford, S. R., Whallon, R.,
Hardin, M. A., Archaeology and Hatchery West,
Memoir 24. Society for American Archaeology,
Washington, D. C. 1970.
Carver, M. O. H., Archaeological investigation,
Boca Raton 2009.
Carver, M., Excavation Methods, in: Carvwer,
M., Gaydarska, B., Montn-Subas, S. (ed.), Field
Archaeology from Around the World. Ideas and
Approaches, Springer, Cham, Heidelberg, New
York, Dordrecht, London 2015, 43-51.
Ciongradi, C., Diaconescu, Al., Alicu, D., Bota,
E., Voiian, V., Betean, G., Sarmizegetusa, com.
Sarmizegetusa, jud. Hunedoara, in Cronica Cer-
cetrilor Arheologice din Romnia, Campania
2013, 2014, 122-124, 421-423.
Ciongradi, C., Diaconescu, Al., Bota, E., Petro-
vszky, R., Oltean, I., Bulzan, S., Sarmizegetusa,
com. Sarmizegetusa, jud. Hunedoara, in Cronica
Cercetrilor Arheologice din Romnia, Campa-
nia 2014, 2015, 147-148, 464.
Ciongradi, C., Diaconescu, Al., Petrovszky, R.,
Bota, E., Dima, C., Antal, A., Oltean, I., Sarmize-
getusa, com. Sarmizegetusa, jud. Hunedoara, in
Cronica Cercetrilor Arheologice din Romnia,
2017, Campania 2016, 2017, 120-124.
Clark, J. G. D., Archaeology and Society,
Methuen, London 1947.
Creang, D. M., Conservarea patrimoniului ar-
heologic mobil, Suceava 2007.
Daicoviciu, H., Alicu, D., Piso, I., Pop, C., Prin-
cipalele rezultate ale spturilor din 1975-1977 la
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa i semnificaia lor,
Sargeia 14, 1979, 139-154.
Daicoviciu, H.,et alii, Spturile arheologice din
1984 de la Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, in Acta
Musei Napocensis, 26-30, 1/2, 1989-1993, 409-
433.
Diaconescu, Al., Haynes, I., Schfer, A., The Apu-
lum Project. Summary report of the 1998 and
1999 seasons, in The Impact of Rome on Settle-
ment in the Northwestern and Danube Provinces
(Altekamp, St., Schfer, A., ed.) BAR Int.Ser. 921,
Oxford 2001, 115-128.
Diaconescu, Al., Ghid pentru completarea fielor
de context archeologic. Adaptare dup fiele fo-
losite n trecut la Sarmizegetusa, ulterior la Apu-
lum (model MOLAS) i Napoca, Cluj Napoca,
2013, available on internet at: alexandrudiacon-
escu.ro/carti/
Diaconescu, Al., Excavations at Central Sotre,
Cluj-Napoca (September-December 2006) in
Acta Musei Napocensis, 49/I, 2012, 125-176.
tienne, R., Piso, I., Diaconescu, Al., Le forum en
bois de Sarmizegetusa (Roumanie), in Comptes
Rensus de lAcademie des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres, Paris, 1994, 147-164.
Harris, E. C., Principles of archaeological stra-
tigraphy, 2nd Edition, London, San Diego, New
York, Boston, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto 1989.
139
Bibiliography / Literatur
Drewett, P. L., Field Archaeology: An Introduc-
tion, University College London 2001.
Isac, I., Diaconescu, Al., Opreanu, C., Porta prin-
cipalis dextra a castrului de la Gilu, in Acta Mu-
sei Napocensis, 18, 1981, 85-97.
Harris, E. C., Brown, M. R., Brown, G. J., (ed.),
Practices of Archaeological Stratigraphy, Lon-
don, San Diego, New York, Boston, Sydney, To-
kyo, Toronto 1993.
Harris, E. C., Principios de Estratigrafia Arquue-
ologica [Priciples of Archaeological Stratigraphy,
2nd Edition], Barcelona 1991.
Harris, E. C., Principles of archaeological stratig-
raphy, Second Edition, London, San Diego, New
York, Boston, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto 1989.
Harris, E. C., Reece, R., An aid for the study of
artefacts from stratified sites. Archaeologie en
Bretagne 20-21, 1979, 27-34.
Haster, Th., Shafer, H. G., Feder, K. L., Field
Methods in Archaeology, 7rd Edition, London,
New York 2009.
MacConnoran, P., Riddler, I., General finds col-
lection policy, in: Archaeological site manual.
Museum of London Service, 3rd Edition 1994,
103.
Ramazzotti, M., Archeologia e Semiotica. Lin-
guaggi, codici, logiche e modelli, Torino, 2010.
Clarke, D.L., Analytical Archaeology, London
1968.
Micu, C., Ailinci, S. C., Mihail, F., Rainer, F. I.,
Constantinescu, M., Rahman, com. Casimcea,
jud. Tulcea, in Cronica Cercetrilor Arheologice
din Romnia. Campania 2013, 198-199).
Murray, J., Roskamps, S., Spence, C. in Archae-
ological Site Manual, Museum of London (MO-
140
LAS) 1991.
Riddler, I., Sewart, R., Finds on site Introduc-
tion, 101-102; Some further guidelines on finds
retrival methods, 104-106, in: Archaeological site
manual. Museum of London Service, 3rd Edition
1994.
Sanders, G. D. R., James, S. A., Carter Johnson,
A., Corinth Excavations Archaeological Manual,
The Digital Press at the University of North Da-
kota, 2017.
Shlhof, M., Sigl, J., Vetterling, C., Ausgrabung-
sarbeit am Schnitt, in: J. Sigl. C. Vetterling
(Hrsg.), Grabungsleitfaden, Darmstadt/Mainz
2012, 18-65.
Sease, C., A Conservation Manual for the Field
Archaeology, 3rd Edition. Archaeological Re-
search Tools 4. Institute of Archaeology, Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles 1994.
Wheeler, M., Archaeology from the Earth, Ox-
ford, 1954.
*** Archaeological site manual, Museum of Lon-
don Archaeology Service (MOLAS), 3rd edition,
London 1994.
***Archaeological Stratigraphy, 2nd Edition,
Barcelona 1991.
IV. Drawing and photography / Desenul i fotografia

1. field Drawing / desenul pe teren

2. Drawing artifacts / desenul artefactelor

3. Post-procesing drawings / post-procesarea

desenelor

4. archaeological Photography / fotografia

arheologic
 IV.1. Field Drawing
Dr. Adriana Antal
The general aim of all archaeological
illustration on field both section and plans is
to produce a graphic representation that can
be used for the purposes of understanding
and comparison of certain archaeological sit-
uations. Otherwise it must be underlined that
drawings are always interpretations and the
quality of on-site drawings does vary according
to the skill of the one who does the illustration
and the conditions they are working under. This
type of recording can be completed and verified
with back-up photographs. For this reason, all
archaeological drawings must be carefully mea-
sured and designed to reveal technical informa-
tion of use to archaeological analysis. Drawing
in the field is necessary as part of surveying,
field walking, excavation or photography. These
kinds of illustrations are also an important part
of archaeological recordings, and will be includ-
ed in journal articles and archaeological reports,
raising the quality of final publication.
In many cases and especially of rescue
archaeological excavation, field drawing is re-
placed with other techniques of graphic repre-
143
IV.1. Desenul pe teren
Dr. Adriana Antal
Scopul principal al ilustraiei arheolog-
ice, n ceea ce privete desenul pe teren, att
de planuri ct i de profile, este de a realiza o
imagine grafic care poate fi folosit pentru
nelegerea i compararea diverselor situaii ar-
heologice. Trebuie subliniat faptul c, desenul
reprezint ntotdeauna o interpretare iar cali-
tatea desenului difer n funcie de competenele
celui care l realizeaz i de condiiile n care
acesta lucreaz. Acest tip de nregistrare poate fi
completat i verificat cu fotografii. Din acest
motiv, toate desenele arheologice trebuie msu-
rate cu atenie i concepute astfel nct s ofere
informaii tehnice pentru cercetarea situaiilor
arheologice. Desenul pe teren este astfel parte
a cercetrilor de suprafa, periegeza, sptura
sau fotografia. Acest tip de ilustraie reprezint
o parte important a nregistrrilor arheologice
care va fi apoi inclus n articole i rapoarte ar-
heologice, crescnd astfel calitatea publicaiei
finale.
n multe cazuri i n special n cadrul
antierelor arheologice de salvare sau preven-
tive, desenul pe teren este nlocuit cu alte tehni-
ci de reprezentare grafic. Pentru situri mari sau
acolo unde terenul este dificil sau greu accesibil,
Adriana antal
sentation. For large sites, or where the terrain
is difficult or the site barely accessible, the best
method for a high-quality illustration could be
photogrammetry. (See chapter of photogram-
metry). Other fast method of graphic represen-
tation is to undertake a survey of archaeological
contexts using digital instruments, like Total
Stations or Geodesic GPS, to take measure-
ments of fixed points and of contour points of
archaeological complexes, which are then plot-
ted by computer. Nevertheless, if there is the
possibility and especially in case of extensive
research these modern techniques should never
replace field drawing and should be used as ad-
ditional methods.
Drawing Plans
Drawing of plans in archaeological ex-
cavation can create a scaled map of the features
excavated or present in the area of investigation,
each context being planned on a separate sheet
of tracing paper (Fig. 1).
Plan drawings are scaled more com-
monly at 1:10 or 1:20, the choice depending on
the details and features that the illustrator de-
cides to record. Planning at the large scale of
1:10 means that 1m on the ground represent 10
cm (0.1 m) on the drawing sheet and is usually
used to drawing graves because of the amount
of detail that could be captured. The more com-
mon scale for planning is 1:20, what means that
1 m on the ground represents 5 cm (0.05 m) on
the drawing sheet; this scale shows also import-
144
una din cele mai bune metode de realizare a
unei ilustraii este oferit de fotogrametrie. O
alt metod rapid de reprezentare grafic a
situaiilor arheologice, este realizarea de m-
surtori cu ajutorul unei instrumentaii digitale,
precum Staia Total sau GPS-ul geodezic, prin
msurarea unor punte fixe i a punctelor de
contur ale complexelor arheologice, care sunt
apoi procesate n softuri de specialitate. Totui,
dac este posibil i n special n cazul cerce-
trilor sistematice, aceste tehnici moderne nu
ar trebui s nlocuiasc, ci doar s completeze
desenul arheologic.
Desenul planurilor
Prin desenarea planurilor ntr-o
sptur arheologic se poate realiza o hart la
scar a contextelor arheologice cercetate, fiecare
astfel de context fiind reprezentat pe foi mili-
metrice individuale (Fig. 1).
Desenele de planuri sunt efectuate cel
mai frecvent la o scar de 1:10 sau 1:20, alegerea
fiind fcut n funcie de detaliile i trsturi-
le pe care desenatorul alege s le nregistreze.
Planul la o scar mare, de 1:10, nseamn c 1
m pe teren reprezint 10 cm (0,1 m) pe foaia de
desen i este cel mai adesea folosit pentru a dese-
na morminte, deoarece astfel se pot surprinde
o mulime de detalii. Scara cea mai des folosit
pentru planuri, este 1:20, ceea ce nseamn c
1 m pe teren reprezint 5 cm (0,05 m) pe foaia
de desen. La aceast scar se pot reprezenta,
de asemenea, detalii importante care nu pot fi
field drawing / Desenul pe teren

ant details that cannot be seen at a smaller scale
like 1:50 1m 2 cm (0.02 m). Other smaller scale
like 1: 100, 1: 500 or 1:1000 could be used to
draw plans of buildings or to have a better over-
view on the site excavation.
vzute la o scar mai mic, cum ar fi 1:50. La o
alt scar mai mic, cum ar fi cea de 1:100, 1:500
sau 1:1000, se pot realiza desene de planuri de
cldiri sau imagini de ansamblu asupra sptu-
rii de pe un sit.

Fig. 1. Plan drawings and the necessary equipment / Desen de plan cu

echipamentul necesar

145
Adriana antal

- All plans will be related to fixed points
which must remain constant throughout the ex-
cavation and measured with Total Station. This
is usually achieved by establishing a site grid be-
fore the excavation starts and then maintaining
it throughout the excavation, their position be-
ing plotted using surveying equipment. Physi-
cally the site grid may be represented in the field
by just three fixed points, accurately surveyed
and marked by pegs and placed into the ground
outside the area to be excavated (Drewett 1999,
133; Grant, Gorin, Fleming 2008, 46).
Toate planurile vor fi corelate cu puncte
fixe care trebuie s rmn constante pe par-
cursul spturilor i msurate cu Staia Total.
Acest lucru se realizeaz de obicei prin stabil-
irea unei reele nainte ca antierul s nceap
i care apoi este prezent i pe parcursul sptu-
rilor, poziia lor fiind nregistrat prin utiliza-
rea unui echipament de msurare. Din punct de
vedere fizic, reeaua sitului poate fi reprezentat
pe teren doar prin trei puncte fixe, msurate cu
precizie i marcate - fiecare prin rui plasai
n pmnt n zona din afara spturii. (Drewett
1999, 133; Grant, Gorin, Fleming 2008, 46).

Fig.2. General plan of digging from Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa, Domus 2017.
Plan drawings and the necessary equipment / Plan general al spturii de la Colonia
Dacica Sarmizegetusa, Domus 2017

146
field drawing / Desenul pe teren
Plan drawing can be undertaken by
topographic measurements, triangulation from
fixed points or by using a drawing frame. For
plans drawn at a scale of 1:20, the site should
be divided into 1m grid squares, by strings and
nails. Usually are used levelling techniques for
setting a measuring tape stretched on the grid
used like base lines, various points could be
measured by extending offsets from them. This
method involves at least two people, one to
draw and hold the end of a tape and the second
person to take measurements, although three
people can make the work easier. This method
might be time-consuming and for more details
is always better to use a drawing frame which
consists of a square (usually 1 metre) of wood
or metal strung up into 20 cm, or sometimes 10
cm, squares. After some practice, this method
of planning can be done accurately by eye rath-
er than measuring each point within the 20 cm
squares of the planning frame.
Both plans and sections should be drawn
in pencil, using a drawing board mounted with
plastic tracing film over a sheet of graph paper.
The illustrator usually uses a certain amount of
realism combined with symbols. For example,
the correct shape of the stones may be por-
trayed, but charcoal may be shown schematical-
ly. Colour coding can be used in combination
with the planning conventions, for example,
grey for stones, red for tiles and brick, brown for
wood, black for charcoal, or green for bronze
(Fig. 2). The same conventions can be used in
section drawings. (Adkins, Adkins 1989, 73).
147
Desenul unui plan poate fi realizat att
prin msurtori topografice, prin triangulaii
din puncte fixe ct i prin utilizarea unui cadru
de desen. La planurile desenate la scara de 1:20,
situl ar trebui mprit, n scopul nregistrrii,
ntr-o reea de ptrate de 1m, cu ajutorul sforii
i cuielor. De obicei, se folosesc metode de nivel-
ment pentru a instala o rulet ntins pe reeaua
de msurare folosit ca axe, diferite puncte
putnd fi apoi msurate cu o rulet de mn
de la ele. Aceast metod implic prezena a cel
puin dou persoane, una pentru a desena i a
ine ruleta i a doua pentru a face msurtori,
cu toate c prezena a trei persoane faciliteaz
mult munca. Deoarece aceast metod necesit
mult timp, pentru a aduga mai multe detalii
este mai bine s se foloseasc un cadru de desen
care const dintr-un ptrat (de obicei 1 metru)
de lemn sau metal, mprit n alte ptrate de 20
cm sau uneori de 10 cm. Dup ceva practic,
msurtorile se pot face deja din ochi, fr a mai
fi nevoie de msurtori din interiorul ptratelor
de 20 cm ale cadrului de desen.
Att planurile ct i profilele trebuie s
fie desenate n creion, folosind foaie milimet-
ric sau de calc, prinse pe o planet de desen.
Desenatorul mbin de obicei elemente redate
realist cu diverse semne convenionale. De ex-
emplu, forma corect a pietrelor poate fi reprez-
entat, pe cnd crbunii pot fi redai schematic.
Codarea culorilor poate fi utilizat n combi-
naie cu simboluri, de exemplu gri pentru pi-
etre, rou pentru igle i crmid, maro pentru
lemn, negru pentru crbune sau verde pentru
Adriana antal
Each context should be planned on
a separate sheet of tracing paper. The most
commonly produced archaeological plans are
the multiple ones, where each archaeological
context (pit, posthole, ditch, or wall) is clearly
shown in relation to other features. Consider-
ation should also be given to recording situa-
tions of archaeological contexts such as walls
or floors in relation to negative contexts such as
modern pits or contemporary rubbish deposits
that have destroyed the ancient contexts. Prob-
lems however arise on multi-period sites, where
are several construction phases or habitation,
with cases when a context cuts the other. This
requires recording each context separately by
producing single context or single-level plans.
For this kind of context like a pit, ditch or post-
hole, various conventions could be used for
drawing (Fig. 3).
For instance for planning a slope ha-
chure can be used, or short lines which indi-
cate the top of the slope with an arrow and the
length of the slope with a line. Orientation of
the slope is represented using a hachure that at
the end shows the slope bottom. For example,
the edges of a very clear break of slope are de-
picted with more flat-ended hachure, whereas
a less well-defined change in slope is depicted
with round-ended hachures (see the adjacent
standard planning convention). Within a con-
text drawing, conventions must be unitary so
they may be interpreted in the same way across
the site. Even the conventions are varying; they
should be consistent and used correctly to be
148
bronz (Fig. 2). Aceleai semne convenionale
pot fi folosite i n desenele profilelor (Adkins,
Adkins 1989,73).
Fiecare context ar trebui desenat pe foi
separate de hrtie milimetric. Planurile arhe-
ologice cele mai frecvente sunt planurile mul-
tiple, unde fiecare context arheologic (gropi de
stlp, anuri sau ziduri) este clar reprezentat n
raport i cu celelalte situaii. De asemenea, tre-
buie avut n vedere i nregistrarea situaiilor
unor contexte arheologice precum ziduri sau
podele n relaie cu contextele negative precum
gropi moderne sau gropi menajere contempo-
rane care au distrus contextele antice. Situaii
complexe apar oricum n siturile cu stratigrafii
multiple, cu mai multe secvene cronologice n
care, diverse faze de construcie sau de locuire
sunt n situaii n care una o taie pe cealalt. n
acest caz, se va nregistra fiecare context separat,
realizndu-se planuri de contexte singulare sau
de straturi unice. Pentru unele contexte cum ar
fi gropile sau anurile, pentru desen pot fi fo-
losite diverse semne convenionale (Fig. 3).
De exemplu, pentru a realiza planul
unei pante, pot fi folosite hauri sau linii scurte
care indic partea de sus a pantei cu o sgeat
iar lungimea pantei cu o linie. Linia haurii
reprezint lungimea i direcia pantei, captul
liniei indicnd partea de jos a pantei. Margi-
nile unei ntreruperi foarte clare a unei pante
sunt reprezentate cu mai multe hauri terminate
drept, pe cnd marginile unei pante mai greu
definite vor fi reprezentate prin hauri rotun-
 field drawing / Desenul pe teren

Limit of excavation measured in relation to grid, not trench

edge/ Limita poriunii de context spate (msurat de la gril,
nu de la marginea spturii).

Extent of context/ Limita contextului n cauz.

Edge of context cut away by later intrusion/ Limit a inter-

veniilor ulterioare, care taie contextul.

Edge of layer cut away obliquely/ Limit a unei intervenii

oblice, care taie stratul.
Standard planning convention / Semne conveionale

Limit uncertain within break in solid line/ Limit neclar (ne-

sigur) a contextului.
standard (after MOLAS 1994, 11-12)

Line of section, labelled on side from which drawn/ Marginea

a unei seciuni anterioare, care taie contextual.

Hachure denoting extent of slope/ Simbol al unei pante, cu in-

dicarea direciei si a ntinderii ei.

Edge of cut feature/ Limit a unei gropi de form albiat.

Vertical edge/ Limit a unei gropi cu perete vertical.

Cut feature with conspicuous change of slope/ Limit a unei

gropi cu pant schimbtoare, sus vertical, apoi oblic.

Cut feature with stepped profile/ Limit a unei gropi cu pereii

n trepte.

Cut feature with undercut edge/ Limit a unei gropi scobite.

Cut feature with undercut edge and return of slope/ Limit a

unei gropi scobite (perete cu pant invers n partea de sus,
apoi cu pant normal).

149
Adriana antal

able to interpreted properly during post-exca-
vation. (Drewett 1999, 131- 132; Wright 2011,
108; SRP 2011, 33; MOLAS 11-12).
jite (vezi semnele convenionale alturate). n
cazul fiecrui context desenat, simbolurile tre-
buie s fie utilizate unitar, astfel nct acestea s
poat fi interpretate n acelai mod pe tot situl.
Chiar dac simbolurile sunt diferite acestea ar
trebui s fie consecvente i utilizate corect pen-
tru a se putea interpreta corect i dup sptur
(Drewett 1999, 131- 132; Wright 2011, 108; SRP

Fig.3. Pit drawing using conventions (section and plan) / Desen de groap folosind
semne convenionale (seciune i plan)

150
field drawing / Desenul pe teren
Steps
1. The area that will be draw has to be
clean.
2. Set up a site grid with string and nails
(the most suitable is 1 m square), horizontality
being fixed by a spirit line-level. When the line
is horizontal, the measuring tape can be fixed
along it and secured firmly at both ends using
bulldog clips.
3. Decide on the most appropriate scale
(e.g. 1:20).
4. Mark the baseline or the edges of the
planning frame lightly on to the drawing, and
indicate the measurement gradations.
5. Draw the larger, dominant features first.
This will help you to position the smaller fea-
tures around them and may save you time.
6. With the help of two other people, start
to record features on either side of the baseline.
One person holds the tape over specific points
to be plotted using a plumb-bob, the second
reads off the measurements at the right-angle
crossings of the two tapes (or it can be used
drawing frame).
7. Note the distance along the primary
baseline tape, then note the distance along the
second tape (from the point of interest to where
it crosses the baseline) and mark this on your
scaled plan. Mark each recorded measurement
151
2011 33; MOLAS 11-12).
Etape
1. Curarea zonei care urmeaz s fie
desenat.
2. Instalarea unei reele de sfori i cuie (cel
mai potrivit este de 1m2), fixate orizontal cu
ajutorul unui boloboc sau a unei nivele. Cnd
axa este orizontal, ruleta poate fi ntins de-a
lungul acesteia i fixat la capete cu ajutorul
unor cleme.
3. Stabilirea celei mai potrivite scri ( de
ex. 1:20).
4. Se vor marca axele sau marginile cadru-
lui de desen pe foaie i se va indica metrajul.
5. La nceput se vor desena elementele mai
mari i dominante, acest fapt ajutnd desena-
torul s poziioneze elementele mai mici n ju-
rul acestora.
6. Cu ajutorul a dou persoane, se va n-
cepe nregistrarea situaiilor de ambele pri ale
axei. O persoan va ine ruleta deasupra unor
puncte stabilite s fie desenate folosind un fir cu
plumb, iar cea de-a doua va citi cotele la unghiul
drept din intersecia celor dou rulete (opional
se poate folosi un cadru pentru desen).
7. Se noteaz cota citit de pe ruleta de pe
ax iar apoi se noteaz cota de pe cea de-a doua
rulet (de la punctul msurat spre intersecia
Adriana antal

with a point. Repeat this process at regular in-
tervals. With fluid lines connect the recorded
measurements.
8. Use hachures and symbols for repre-
senting slopes or pits.
9. Colour or use conventional symbols for
representing features.
(Burke, Smith 2004, 160; Grant, Gorin, Fleming
2008, 46; SRP 2011, 44; Stewart 2013, 12).
Label:
o Site code
o Plan number
o Levels
o Drawn by (name)
o Grid points/drawing points
o Date
o Section line and number
o Title (e.g. Surface Sp4)
o Stratigraphic matrix should be complet-
ed on the drawing sheet with the context num-
ber in the central box and the context numbers
of the earlier and later in the lower and upper
boxes.
o Scale (e.g. 1:20)
o Key (if required) for any sort of symbols
or colours use for different structure e.g. brick,
mortar, burning, plaster
o North arrow
cu axa) i se va reprezenta pe planeta de desen
printr-un punct. Acest proces se va repeta n-
tr-un mod regulat, iar apoi, cu linii continue, se
vor conecta punctele msurate.
8. Se vor folosi hauri i simboluri pentru
reprezentarea pantelor i gropilor.
9. Pentru reprezentarea diverselor ele-
mente se vor folosi culori sau simboluri.
(Burke, Smith 2004, 160; Grant, Gorin, Fleming
2008, 46; SRP 2011, 44; Stewart 2013, 12).
Legenda
o Codul sitului
o Numrul planului
o Adncimile
o Numele desenatorului
o Punctele axelor
o Data
o Linia seciunii i numrul acesteia
o Numele suprafeei (ex. Suprafaa Sp4)
o Matricea stratigrafic trebuie comple-
tat pe foaia desen cu numrul complexului n
csua central i numrul contextelor din faze
timpurii sau trzii n csuele de jos sau sus.
o Scara (ex. 1:20).
o Explicaia semnelor convenionale i a
culorilor folosite pentru diferitele structuri de
ex. crmid, mortar, arsur etc.
o Sgeat pentru nord

152
field drawing / Desenul pe teren
Drawing section
A section drawing is an accurate scaled
depiction meant to represent the vertical rela-
tionship of archaeological layers, cut feature or
elevation as naturalistically and informatively
as possible (Fig. 4). This kind of drawings com-
bines common regular graph paper drawings
with measurements of all stratigraphy using a
total station; connect in this way the drawing
with the site plan or with the relevant context
plan.
Fig.4. Section drawings and the necessary equipment / Desene de profil cu echipa-
mentul necesar
153
Desenul profilelor
Un desen de profil este o reprezentare
la scar, realizat cu scopul de a ilustra ct mai
realist i informativ relaia vertical a straturilor
arheologice, ntretierile dintre complexe i dif-
erenele de nivel dintre acestea (Fig. 4). Acest
tip de desen mbin desenul obinuit pe hrtie
cu msurtorile stratigrafice realizare cu ajutor-
ul Staiei Totale. n acest fel, se va putea face o
legtur ntre planurile sitului i cele ale con-
textelor arheologice.
Adriana antal
In the same way like plans, section draw-
ings could show differences in texture, compo-
sition or colours of layers, which are difficult
cu capture in photographs. Before starting the
drawings is recommended to prepare the tar-
get area by cleaning up and improve the colour
contrast of layers with sprayed water. To prevent
the context numbers from being mixed up and
remain visible for the drawing, it is necessary to
note the presence of layers as the dig proceeds
by pinning labels to the side of the excavation
with context numbers.
Fig.5. Section drawings Domus Procuratoris - CDS 2016 / Desen profil Domus
Procuratoris - CDS2016
For easy distinction of layer boundar-
ies, the illustrator combines usually naturalistic
representation with an amount of symbols, ab-
breviations and colours used to represent par-
ticular inclusions (Fig. 5). The same convention
should be used for all drawings from a site to
be able to interpret properly during post-exca-
vation.
154
La fel ca i planurile, desenele de profile
pot indica diferene de textur, compoziie i
culoare ale straturilor, care sunt dificil de sur-
prins n fotografie. nainte de nceperea desen-
ului, se recomand pregtirea profilului prin
curare i eventual mbuntirea contras-
tului de culoare a straturilor prin stropirea cu
ap. Pentru a preveni amestecarea numerelor
de context i pentru a fi vizibile pentru desen,
este necesar nregistrarea fiecrui strat pe m-
sur naintrii n sptur punnd etichete cu
numrul contextului pe profil.
Pentru distincia clar i uoar a lim-
itelor dintre straturi, desenatorul va mbina n-
tr-un mod realist, semne convenionale i cu-
lori, folosite pentru a reprezenta incluziunile
(Fig. 5). Aceleai semne convenionale ar trebui
folosite pentru toate desenele, pentru a putea fi
interpretate corect i dup sptur.
field drawing / Desenul pe teren
The drawing technique employs all the same
basic techniques like plan drawings, this tech-
nique can be applied to any vertical surface,
whether the side of an excavated trench or the
wall of a standing structure. The horizontal da-
tum line is set up using a spirit line-level, across
the section fixed above the ground in half way
until the top of the surface. A measuring tape is
fixed across the section close to the datum line
so that horizontal measurements can be taken.
After the outline of the section was drawn, off-
set measurements can be taken above and be-
low the datum line with reference to the hori-
zontal tape. Section drawings should be made
by two people for larger sections, one to take
measurements while the second person draws,
and one for smaller sections when the illustra-
tor can take its own measures. (Drewett 1999,
130; Grant, Gorin, Fleming 2008, 46; Adkins,
Adkins 1989, 81)
Steps:
1. The area that will be drawn has to be
clean.
2. Set up a horizontal baseline (datum line)
across a suitable part of the sectioneither at
the top if it is a small section or halfway down
if it is a large section. It is important to ensure
that the line is taut and firmly secured at both
ends using nails which can be inserted into the
corners of the section.
155
Tehnica de desen folosete aceleai teh-
nici de baz precum desenul planurilor, aceasta
putnd fi aplicat pentru orice suprafa verti-
cal, indiferent dac este vorba despre profilul
unei seciuni, al unui complex sau despre el-
evaia unui zid. Axa orizontal se fixeaz folos-
ind un boloboc sau o nivel, pe limea profilu-
lui, deasupra sau la mijlocul profilului n funcie
de adncimea acestuia. O rulet se va ntinde
de-a lungul profilului aproape de ax, pentru
a se efectua msurtorile orizontale. Dup ce
marginile profilului au fost desenate, se pot face
msurtori deasupra i dedesubtul axei n relaie
cu ruleta orizontal. Desenele de profile ar tre-
bui fcute de ctre dou persoane pentru profile
mai mari, una care realizeaz msurtorile i
cealalt care deseneaz, i de ctre o persoan
pentru profilele mai mici, situaie n care cnd
desenatorul i ia singur msurtorile (Drewett
1999, 130; Grant, Gorin, Fleming 2008, 46; Ad-
kins, Adkins 1989, 81).
Etape
1. Curarea zonei care urmeaz s fie
desenat.
2. Fixarea unei axe orizontale de-a lungul
celei mai potrive pri a profilului - fie c este
deasupra n cazul unui profil mic, sau la mijloc
n cazul unui profil mai mare. Este important ca
axa s fie bine fixat la ambele capete folosind
cuie plasate n colurile seciunii.
Adriana antal
3. Use a spirit line-level to make sure that
the string is horizontal. When the line is hori-
zontal, run the measuring tape along it and se-
cure the tape firmly at both ends using bulldog
clips.
4. Draw the datum line lightly on to your
graph paper or drafting film as a horizontal line
parallel to the top of the drafting sheet.
5. Now it can be note the horizontal dis-
tances of these features along the tape and, us-
ing a metal hand tape, measure their vertical
distances above and/or below the datum line.
Also it can be use a plumb-bob to ensure that
the hand-tape is held vertically.
6. Mark each recorded measurement with
a point. Repeat this process at regular intervals.
With fluid lines connect the recorded measure-
ments.
7. Begin by drawing the gross elements,
such as the limits of the section or wall, the level
of the topsoil and the base of the trench. This
will help you to position the smaller features
around them and may save you time.
8. Draw any inclusions present and label in
the key.
(Burke, Smith 2004, 161; SRP 2011, 30; Stewart
2013, 10)
156
3. Se va folosi un boloboc sau o nivel pen-
tru trasarea unei axe orizontale. Dup ce aceas-
ta este este fixat, se va ntinde ruleta de-a lun-
gul acesteia. Ruleta va fi fixat la ambele capete
cu ajutorul unor cleme.
4. Se va desena axa uor pe foaia milimet-
ric ca o linie orizontal paralel cu liniile hr-
tiei.
5. Se vor nota distanele orizontale ale con-
textelor de-a lungul ruletei folosind o rulet de
metal, msurnd distanele verticale deasupra i
dedesubtul axei. Se poate folosi de asemenea i
un fir cu plumb pentru a se verifica dac ruleta
metalic este inut vertical.
6. Se va marca fiecare msurtoare prin-
tr-un punct. Acest proces se va repeta ntr-un
mod regulat, iar apoi cu linii continue, punctele
msurate se vor uni.
7. Se va ncepe prin desenarea elementelor
mai mari precum limitele profilului sau zidurile,
nivelul stratului vegetal i baza seciunii. Acest
fapt va ajuta desenatorul s plaseze elemente
mai mici n jurul acestora.
8. Se va desena fiecare incluziune obser-
vat i se va eticheta n legend.
(Burke, Smith 2004, 161; SRP 2011, 30; Stewart
2013, 10)
field drawing / Desenul pe teren

Legend
Label: o Codul sitului
o Site code o Orientare
o Orientation o Numrul seciunii
o Section number o Scara (ex. 1:20)
o Scale (e.g. 1:20) o Numele desenatorului
o Drawn by (name) o Data
o Date o Explicaia semnelor convenionale i
o Key (if required) for any sort of symbols culorilor folosite pentru diferitele structuri de
or colours use for different structure e.g. brick, ex. crmid, mortar, arsur etc.
mortar, burning, plaster o Numere de context
o Context numbers clearly labelled o Matricea contextelor.
o Context matrix

Equipment: Echipament

Builder's line or common string o Sfoar

Nails or ranging poles o Cuie sau rui
Measuring tapes, 10-50m metric mea- o Rulete de msurat mari (10-50 m) i
suring tapes and a metal hand-tape (3-5m). mici (3-5 m).
Compass o Busol
Gridded drawing board o Plac de desen
Graph paper, plastic tracing film o Foaie milimetric, foaie de calc
Bulldog clips o Cleme
Pencils o Creion
Eraser o Radier
Ruler and/or scale ruler o Scrar, liniar
Plumb-bob o Fir cu plumb
Spirit line-level o Boloboc.

157
 IV.2. Drawing artefacts
Dr. Adriana Antal
Achieving good archaeological illustra-
tions consists in discovering general principles
as well as the conventions specific to each type
of different material / artefact. It incorporates an
understanding of the parts of an artefact with
the ability to make a correct and aesthetic inter-
pretation of the object itself. It is always better
to have in publications more images of an arte-
fact because no description can sum up all the
features and components sufficiently detailed
for the mind to reconstruct the object entirely.
On the other hand, a drawing is almost always
more informative than a photograph because
conveys information about the shape, size, ma-
terial, method of manufacture or thickness of
the walls.
Different materials and textures are
conventionally represented by combinations of
slightly different lines and broken lines, hatches
and points of varying densities. The direction of
lighting and method of projection is always con-
stant, and the illustration can usually be classed
somewhere between an artist's and a scientist's
presentation of the facts (Collet 2012, 3; Griffits,
Jenner, Wilson 1990, 1-4).
158
IV.2. Desenul artefactelor
Dr. Adriana Antal
Realizarea unei bune ilustraii arheo-
logice const n stabilirea att a unor principii
generale precum ct i a unor standarde speci-
fice fiecrui tip de material / artefact n parte.
Aceasta implic o nelegere a prilor compo-
nente ale unui artefact, cu abilitatea de a face o
interpretare corect i estetic a obiectului n
sine. Este ntotdeauna mai bine ca n publicaii
s apar mai multe imagini ale unui artefact,
deoarece nici o descriere nu poate s rezume
toate caracteristicile i componentele acestuia
suficient de detaliat pentru ca mintea s recon-
struiasc obiectul n ntregime. Pe de alt parte,
un desen conine ntotdeauna mai multe in-
formaii dect o fotografie, deoarece transmite
detalii despre forma, dimensiunea, materialul,
metoda de producere sau grosimea pereilor.
Diferitele materialele i texturi se reprez-
int convenional prin combinaii uor diferite
de linii continue i ntrerupte, de hauri i de
puncte cu densiti variate. Direcia de ilumin-
are i metoda de proiecie este ntotdeauna con-
stant, iar ilustraia poate fi de obicei clasificat
undeva ntre prezentarea unui artist i a unui
om de tiin (Collet 2012, 3; Griffits, Jenner,
Wilson 1990, 1-4).
Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor
General principles
In order to achieve a correct archaeolog-
ical drawing of an artefact, it is necessary to fol-
low some general notions that are related to the
primary study of the object, the determination
of the scale at which it will be rendered, the ori-
entation, the correct position, or the concepts of
light on the drawing.
In this regard, before drawing any ar-
tefact, it must be carefully studied so one can
decide what is important to include or miss out
from the drawing itself. Before putting the pen-
cil on paper, it is important to decide the scale
most appropriate for rendering the object. Gen-
erally, small personal items and items of cloth-
ing, e.g. brooches, buckles, combs, pins, but-
tons, beads, bracelets, etc., are drawn at a scale
of 2: 1 and then reduced to real size making sure
that any decoration can be clearly described.
Tools, knives, vessels, weapons, etc., are usually
drawn at a scale of 1: 1 and then reduced to a
scale of 1: 2. It is important to decide the main
view of the artefact that will be drawn. Where
possible, the front, back, top, bottom and sides
should be determined in accordance with the
correct orientation of the artefact. The vertical
axis of the object can then be aligned parallel
with the page. In some cases, it is sufficient to il-
lustrate two sides of the object, the front and the
backside or the section. For cases where hatch-
ing is used, the object is always illustrated with
the light coming from the top left corner of the
page, even when this has to be imagined (Grif-
159
Principii generale
Pentru a realiza corect desenul arheo-
logic al unui artefact, trebuie urmate unele noi-
uni generale, care in n mare parte de o studiere
primar a obiectului, de determinarea scrii la
care va fi redat, de orientarea, poziia corect a
acestuia sau de noiunile legate de redarea lu-
minii pe desen.
n acest sens, nainte de a ncepe desena-
rea oricrui artefact, acesta trebuie studiat
atent pentru a se putea decide ce este import-
ant s cuprind sau ce poate s lipseasc din
desenul propriu-zis. nainte de a pune creionul
pe hrtie, este important alegerea scrii ce-
lei mai potrivite pentru redarea obiectului. n
general, obiectele personale mrunte i acceso-
riile de mbrcminte, de ex. fibule, catarame,
piepteni, pini, butoane, mrgele, brri etc.
sunt desenate la scara de 2:1 i reduse apoi la
mrimea real, asigurndu-se c orice decor
poate fi clar descris. Uneltele, cuitele, vasele,
armele etc. sunt de obicei desenate la o scar de
1:1 i reduse apoi la scara de 1:2. Este important
s se stabileasc principala latur a artefactului
care va fi desenat. Acolo unde este posibil, tre-
buie determinat partea frontal, spatele, partea
de sus, fundul i laturile n acord cu orientarea
corect a artefactului. Axa vertical a obiectu-
lui poate fi apoi aliniat paralel cu cea a paginii.
n unele cazuri, este suficient ilustrarea a dou
laturi ale obiectului, partea din fa i lateralul
sau seciunea. Pentru cazurile n care se folosesc
hauri, obiectul este ntotdeauna ilustrat cu lu-
Adriana antal

fits, Jenner, Wilson 1990, 7-11). mina venind din colul din stnga sus al paginii,
iar dac acest lucru nu este posibil n realiate, el
trebuie imaginat (Griffits, Jenner, Wilson 1990,
7-11).

Fig.1. Drawing archaeological finds and the necessary equipment / Desenul arte-
factelor arheologice i echipamentul necesar.

160
Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor
Tools and equipment (Fig. 1)
1. Drawing board
2. Fine tissue, tracing and graph paper
3. Callipers, dividers
4. Profile gauge
5. Ruler, architect triangle
6. Radius chart
7. Mechanical pencil (0.5 and 0.3mm) and
eraser
8. Graphite flake
Pottery drawing
The most common artefact type for ar-
chaeologists specialised on most periods of time
is ceramics. Pottery drawing is often thought of
as the easiest form of archaeological illustration,
has some rules that can be applied to the draw-
ing of many other types of pieces. In this regard,
after a vessel or potsherd has been properly ex-
cavated, photographed, cleaned, analysed, and
restored if necessary, it is time to draw a profile
of the piece.
Methods
There are various methods of drawing
pottery, methods that are usually simple when
the vessels are complete and more complicated
when we are dealing with shards. The concept
of the pottery profile is to present both an exte-
rior view and a section of the piece. For publi-
cations, it has become standard practice to illus-
trate pottery with an elevation on the right-hand
161
Ustensile i echipament (Fig. 1)
1. Planet de desen
2. Foaie subire, de calc i milimetric
3. ubler, divizor
4. Pieptn profilator
5. Liniar, echer
6. Diagrama razelor
7. Creion mecanic (0.5 i 0.3 mm) i
radier
8. Fulgi de grafit.
Desen ceramic
Cel mai comun artefact pentru arhe-
ologii specializai pe diferite epoci este ceram-
ica. Desenul de ceramic, considerat drept cea
mai uoar form de ilustrare arheologic, are
unele reguli care pot fi aplicate la desenul mul-
tor alte tipuri de piese. Astfel, dup ce un vas sau
un fragment ceramic a fost scos din pmnt n
mod corespunztor, fotografiat, curat, analizat
i restaurat, acesta urmeaz a fi desenat.
Metode
Exist diferite metode de a desena ce-
ramic, metode care sunt n mod obinuit
simple atunci cnd vasele sunt ntregi i mai
complicate atunci cnd avem de-a face cu frag-
mente. Conceptul ilustrrii ceramicii este acela
de a prezenta att o vedere exterioar, ct i o
seciune a piesei. Pentru publicaii, s-a stan-
dardizat prezentarea nlimii vasului n dreapta
iar a seciunii acestuia n partea stng, ilustrat
Adriana antal
side and a section in solid black hatch on the
left. Therefore, the exterior decoration is shown
on the right side of a central dividing line and
any inner feature on the left. In the case of an
irregular pattern, the elevation can be extended
beyond the centre line or the decorative motif
drawn separately. Always the full diameter of
the vessel should be shown, but if several ves-
sels of similar type are shown, after showing one
complete vessel, only the sections can be drawn
for the rest, with the indication that diameters
appear in the text. All vessels should be drawn
full size (1:1) and reproduced at 1:4 or some-
times 1:3, although there may be exceptions for
very large or very small vessels, or where very
complex decoration is present. Very large ves-
sels may be drawn at a reduced scale in the first
instance and have a final reduction greater than
a quarter from the whole vessel (Dobie, Evans
2010, 9-15; Griffits, Jenner, Wilson 1990, 56).
Decorated samian and stamps on mor-
taria and amphorae are usually reduced by
one-half, but other potters stamps should be
full size. Complete vessels are rarely found and
when fragments are drawn there is no need to
show the edge of the break unless it cuts across
an irregular decorative pattern. A hypothetical
restoration of the section may be shown by a
single dotted line, but this is not normally nec-
essary. In colour descriptions that are often dif-
ficult, it is better to use a simpler and standard-
ized terminology using colour systems such as
Munsell.
162
cu negru plin sau n hauri. Prin urmare, de-
corul exterior este prezentat n partea dreapt a
unei linii centrale de divizare, iar orice caracter-
istic interioar a artefactului se va reprezenta
n partea stng. n cazul unui model sau decor
neregulat, reprezentarea vasului n nlime, din
partea dreapt, poate fi extins dincolo de linia
central; de asemena, motivul decorativ al aces-
tuia poate fi desenat separat. Diametrul complet
al vasului ar trebui ilustrat tot timpul, ns, dac
sunt ilustrate mai multe vase de acelai tip, dup
ce se arat un vas complet, se pot desena doar
seciunile pentru restul, cu meniunea c diame-
trele apar indicate n text. Toate vasele ar trebui
desenate la dimensiunea lor complet (1:1) i
reproduse la scara de 1:4 sau uneori 1:3, dei pot
exista excepii pentru vasele foarte mari, foarte
mici sau n cazul celor cu decor foarte complex.
Vasele foarte mari pot fi desenate ntr-o prim
faz la o scar redus, cu o reducere final mai
mare de un sfert din ntregul vasului (Steiner,
Allason-Jones 2005; Dobie, Evans 2010, 9-15;
Griffits, Jenner, Wilson 1990, 56).
Terra sigillata decorat i tampilele de
pe mortaria i amforele sunt, de obicei, reduse
la jumtate, dar tampilele altor vase ar trebui
s fie redate la dimensiunea complet. Doar
rareori se descoper vase complete iar atunci
cnd se deseneaz fragmentele, nu este nevoie
s se ilustreze marginea sprturii dect dac
aceasta taie un model decorativ neregulat. O
restaurare ipotetic a seciunii poate fi prezen-
tat printr-o singur linie punctat, dar acest lu-
cru nu este n mod normal necesar. n descrier-
Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor
Although pottery drawing is often
thought of as the easiest form of archaeological
illustration and that it can be learnt by almost
anyone, to make an accurate drawing by begin-
ners, before you have formed your own style it
is advisable to work following the next steps:
1. Measure the outer diameter of the rim
if present and/or base. This is most easily done
with a rim-scale (radius chart). Place the shard
with the rim upside down on the scale in its
proper plane, until no light passes under the
rim. Then move the rim across the scale until
its outer curve coincides exactly with one of the
curves on the scale. With irregular or handmade
pots this can sometimes be a matter of best fit
rather than an exact match. It is important to
judge the diameter correctly; because the angle
Fig.2. Using a radius chart. / Utilizarea diagr-
amei razelor
163
ile culorilor, care sunt adesea dificil de ncadrat,
este mai bine s se foloseasc o terminologie ct
mai simpl i standardizat folosind sisteme de
culori cum ar fi sistemul Munsell.
Dei desenul de ceramic este adeseori
considerat a fi cea mai uoar form de ilus-
traie arheologic i poate fi nvat de ctre
aproape oricine, pentru a se realiza un desen
corect de ctre un nceptor, nainte de a avea
format propriul stil, este recomandabil s se ur-
meze urmtorii pai:
1. Msurai diametrul exterior al buzei
dac exist i / sau baza. Acest lucru se real-
izeaz cel mai uor cu o diagram a razelor.
Aezai fragmentul cu buza n jos pe diagram
n poziia ei corespunztoare, pn cnd lumina
nu mai trece sub ea. Apoi mutai buza pe dia-
gram pn cnd curba sa exterioar coincide
exact cu una dintre curbele de pe scal. n cazul
vaselor neregulate sau lucrate cu mna, acest lu-
cru poate fi uneori doar o chestiune de bun po-
trivire, dect o msur exact. Este important s
aflm diametrul corect deoarece, dac unghiul
este interpretat greit, ntreaga form a vasului
poate fi interpretat greit (Fig. 2).
2. Cea mai bun hrtie pentru desenul
obiectelor este de obicei foia de calc, prins
peste o foaie milimetric. Astfel, hrtia grafic
poate fi reutilizat iar liniile nu trebuie ndepr-
tate atunci cnd desenele sunt scanate n Adobe
Illustrator i trase n tu, dar grila este nc acolo
pentru a ajuta n procesul desenrii.
Adriana antal
is misjudged the whole form of the pot can be
misinterpreted (Fig. 2).
2. The best paper for finds drawing is usu-
ally a tracing paper, taped down over a sheet of
graph paper. In this way the graph paper can be
reused, and the lines do not have to be removed
when the drawings are scanned into Adobe Il-
lustrator and inked, but the grid is still there to
help with the drawing process.
Fig. 3. Pottery drawing sketch / Schema unui
desen ceramic
3. Draw a horizontal line equal in length
to the vessel diameter, aligned parallel with the
edge of the page (Fig. 3).
4. While the shard is still in position on the
rim-scale, measure the height of the piece at its
164
3. Desenai o linie orizontal, egal n lun-
gime cu diametrul vasului, aliniat paralel cu
marginea paginii (Fig. 3).
4. n timp ce fragmentul este nc n poziie
pe diagrama razelor, cu ajutorul echerului m-
surai nlimea piesei la cel mai nalt punct. De
obicei, aceasta se msoar de la buz la baz
prin centrul piesei. Desenai aceast linie per-
pendicular n mijlocul liniei deja trase pentru
buz.
Fig. 4. Drawing the pot profile by offsetting
from set square. / Desenul profilului utiliznd
un echer
5. Profilul exterior al fragmentului poate fi
msurat n diferite moduri, cum ar fi poziion-
area vasului cu partea buzei pe o bucat de lemn,
trasnd conturul cu un echer (Fig. 4). Este ns
mai corect utilizarea combinat a echerului cu
Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor

tallest point. Usually, this is from the rim to the pieptenul profilator. Mai nti, inei fragmentul
base through the centre of the piece. Draw this cu buza n jos n poziia sa corect, plasai apoi
line perpendicular down in the middle of the echerul vertical pe suprafaa exterioar, ca n
line already drawn for the rim. metoda utilizat pentru msurarea nlimii va-
sului. Cu un al doilea echer sau liniar, msurai
5. The outer profile of the shard can be distana pn la marginea vertical, naintnd
measured in various ways, such as by position- cu cte un centimetru, i transcriei punctele
ing the pot on its side with its rim against a block apoi pe hrtia de calc. Pentru detaliile rotunde
of wood and tracing the outline with an archi- ale vasului, utilizai un pieptn profilator (Fig.
tect triangle (Fig. 4). It is more accurate to use 5).
a combination of set squares and profile gauges.
First, holding the shard rim-down in its correct
attitude, place a vertical set square against the
outer surface, as in the method used for mea-
suring the height above. With a second square,
or dividers, measure how far from this vertical
edge, in one centimetre increments, and tran-
scribe the points on the tracing paper. Then, for
the detail of the curve of the pot, use a profile
gauge (Fig. 5).

6. To finish the other half of the profile, if

the piece is symmetrical, you must draw a mir-
ror image of the piece next to the half already
drawn, by direct tracing if squared paper is be-
ing used.
7. Complete the section on the left-hand
side by drawing the internal profile of the ves-
sel. This can be done accurately by measuring
the thickness of the shard every one centimetre
and at any particularly identifiable points with
callipers, and transferring the measurements to
the drawing. The internal profile of the vessel
is usually filled in black or with hatches, in this
Fig. 5. Using a profile gauge to produce an ac-
curate profile curve. / Utilizarea unui piaptn
pentru a desena corect profilul.
6. Pentru a termina cealalt jumtate a
profilului, dac piesa este simetric, trebuie
desenat imaginea n oglind a jumtii deja
trasate, prin trasare direct, n cazul n care se
folosete hrtie milimetric.

165
Adriana antal
way internal details are shown on the left-hand
side of the drawing, external ones on the right-
hand side.
8. In the upper left corner of the tracing
paper next to the drawing, write any informa-
tion you have about the shard (site code, con-
text number, type code, drawing number, etc.).
At the same time it is often convenient to write
down the description of the fabric and other
features considered necessary. This may be done
in preliminary form as the drawing proceeds,
but the final report usually cannot be complet-
ed until the drawings have been mounted and
numbered. In this way the vessels should be de-
scribed for example in this order:
a. Class or type of vessel.
b. Details of form and condition where signifi-
cant.
c. Fabric
d. Decoration.
e. Diameters of vessels drawn only in section
(Webster 1976, 30-34; Orton, Tyers, Vince 1993,
89-93; Collet 2012, 6-12).
For drawing embossed decorated shard,
like terra sigillata, stamped ceramics, or render-
ing manufacturer stamps, to get a perfect scale,
drawings copied directly with your finger and
graphite (rubbings) are better to make. For get-
ting details precisely, use a fine matt tissue paper
large enough to wrap the shard around it and
start to rub flake of graphite using your thumb
and nail (Fig. 6). For the accuracy of the details,
you can copy the rubbings on the tracing paper
166
7. Se completeaz seciunea din partea
stng prin desenarea profilului interior al va-
sului. Acest lucru se poate face cu precizie prin
msurarea grosimii fragmentului la fiecare cen-
timetru i la fiecare punct mai particular iden-
tificabil cu ublerul, transfernd apoi msurto-
rile pe desen. Profilul interior al vasului este
de obicei umplut cu negru sau cu hauri, astfel
nct detaliile interne apar pe partea stng a
desenului, iar cele exterioare pe partea dreapt.
8. n colul din stnga sus al hrtiei de calc,
lng desen, se scrie orice informaie despre
vasul sau fragmentul ceramic (codul sitului,
numrul contextului, codul tipului de material,
numrul desenului etc.). De asemenea este util
s se noteze descrierea materialului i a altor
caracteristici considerate necesare. Acest lucru
se poate face n form preliminar, n timpul
desenului, ns raportul final nu poate fi final-
izat pn cnd desenele nu au fost montate i
numerotate. n acest fel, vasele ar trebui descrise
de exemplu, n aceast ordine:
a. Categoria sau tipul vasului
b. Detalii semnificative privind forma i
starea de conservare
c. Materialul
d. Decorul
e. Diametrul vasului desenat doar n seci-
une (Webster 1976, 30-34; Orton, Tyers, Vince
1993, 89-93; Collet 2012, 6-12).
Pentru desenul vaselor decorate cu
modele n relief, precum terra sigillata, ceram-
ica tampilat, sau pentru redarea tampilelor
Drawing artefacts / desenul artefactelor
Fig. 6. Rubbings of an oil lamp stamp and a ter-
ra sigillata potsherd / Desen cu grafit al unei
tampile de la un opai i un fragment de terra
sigillata.
in the right place (Griffits, Jenner, Wilson 1990,
83- 88; Webster, Bird, Jones 2014, 15-20; Wild
2014, 8).
For terra sigillata type vessels draw-
ings use classification of forms made by H.
Dragendorff (1895), J. Dchelette (1904), R.
Knorr (1919), H. Walters (1908). For a great-
er variety of the less common forms, the best
source of information remains F. Oswald and
T.D. Pryce (1920). For complete or in order to
identify scenes use catalogue of figure type like
J. Dchelette (1904) or F. Oswald (1937).
167
de productor, pentru a obine o scar perfect,
este mai bine s se efectueze desene cu degetul
i grafitul. Pentru a obine detalii exacte, se uti-
lizeaz o hrtie mat subire, suficient de mare
pentru a nfura fragmentul n jurul el, dup
care se freac fulgii de grafit folosind deget-
ul mare i unghia (Fig. 6). Pentru precizia de-
taliilor, aceste modele se pot copia pe hrtia de
calc n locul lor potrivit (Griffits, Jenner, Wilson
1990,83- 88; Webster, Bird, Jones 2014, 15-20;
Wild 2014, 8).
Pentru desenul vaselor de tip terra sigil-
lata se vor folosi tipologiile de forme realizate de
H. Dragendorff (1895), J. Dchelette (1904), R.
Knorr (1919) i H. Walters (1908). Pentru o mai
mare varietate a formelor mai puin obinuite,
cea mai bun surs de informaii rmne F. Os-
wald i T.D. Pryce (1920). Pentru completarea
sau identificarea scenelor, se pot folosi cataloage
de figuri precum J. Dchelette (1904) sau F. Os-
wald (1937).
 IV.3. POSTPROCESING DRAWING
DR. ADRIANA ANTAL
Because archaeological illustrations
such as maps, site plans, section drawings or
illustrations of artefacts can make an enor-
mous difference to the final publication of
the research results, it is important to provide
good-quality drawings. There are several ways
that drawings should be prepared for incorpo-
ration into the final publication, which might
fall into three broad categories inked pages,
digitally drawings or a combination of the two
in which hand-inked drawings are scanned and
processed in several computer graphic software
(Fig. 1). Lately, it is unnecessary to make an
ink version of the drawings, being directly pro-
cessed on computer, because of the new scan-
ners high capacity for image processing.
An inked drawing is actually a tracing of
the original pencil drawing. All types of draw-
ings should be drawn in ink to their original
sizes that were drawn. For the size required in
publications, for pottery for example, usual-
ly on a 1: 4 scale, it can be reduced after it is
already inked, avoiding distortions and keep-
ing details better. When inking drawings, you
should use high-quality technical instruments,
168
IV.3. POST-PROCESAREA DESENULUI
DR. ADRIANA ANTAL
Deoarece ilustraia arheologic precum
hrile, desenele de planuri, seciuni sau ilustra-
rea artefactelor poate face o diferen semnifi-
cativ n publicarea final a rezultatelor cerce-
trii, este foarte important s fie folosite desene
de bun calitate. Exist mai multe metode prin
care desenul este pregtit pentru integrarea sa
n publicaie, care pot fi cuprinse n trei catego-
rii de baz desenul n tu, desenul digital sau
o combinaie ntre cele dou, n care desenele n
tu de mn sunt scanate i prelucrate n diverse
programe de grafic pe computer (Fig. 1). n ul-
tima vreme, nu mai este necesar prelucrarea n
tu a ilustraiei, acestea fiind direct procesate pe
computer datorit capacitii mari de procesare
a imaginii ale scannerelor moderne.
Un desen n tu este de fapt conturarea
desenelor originale n creion. Toate tipurile de
ilustraii ar trebui desenate n tu la mrimea
original la care au fost desenate. Pentru mrim-
ile cerute n publicaii, de exemplu pentru ce-
ramic o scar de 1:4, reducerea se va face dup
ce desenul a fost tras n tu, evitnd astfel dis-
torsiunile i pstrnd mai bine detaliile. Cnd se
deseneaz n tu, trebuie folosite instrumente de
Postprocesing drawing / Postprocesarea desenului
as high-quality tracing paper, pens, such as
Rotring Isograph or Castell Rapidograph pens
filled with professional ink. In order to achieve
a good version, practice is needed, because per-
manently damage of the drawing film surface
can be made easily, not being so simple to han-
dle as pencils.
Fig. 1. Image processed in Adobe Illustrator of
an oil lamp made originally in pencil / Imaginea
prelucrat n Adobe Illustrator al unui desen de
opai realizat iniial n creion
In order to proceed with computer
drawings, the inked or the pencil version must
be first scanned. This does not require a very
high-resolution scan; a 300dpi greyscale jpeg
will be adequate, as the scan is deleted after
tracing. Instead of free-hand drawing, digital
technology allows more flexibility in terms of
editing. For instance, if the same drawings need
to be presented at different scales for a variety
of different publications, it may be easily done
digitally. There are many computer programs
which can be used for digitizing, to produce
high-quality professional illustrations, vector
169
desen tehnic de bun calitate, precum foaie de
calc translucid, stilouri Rotring Isograph sau
Castell Rapidofraph i tu profesional. Pentru
ajunge la o versiune bun a desenului, este nev-
oie de o practic ndelungat deoarece, distru-
gerea permanent a foii de calc poate fi fcut
uor, folosirea de astfel de stilouri Isograph fiind
una mai dificil.
Pentru a ncepe redesenarea pe com-
puter, trebuie mai nti scanat versiunea n tu
sau n creion. Aceast operaiune nu necesit
o scanare de mare rezoluie, o rezoluie de 300
dpi JPEG va fi suficient, deoarece versiunea
scanat se va terge oricum dup digitizarea
imaginii. n afara desenului realizat manual,
tehnologia digital ofer o mai mare flexibil-
itate n ceea ce privete editarea. De exemplu,
n cazul n care aceleai desene trebuie reprez-
entate la scri diferite pentru diverse publicaii,
n mediu digital aceasta se poate realiza foarte
uor. Sunt mai multe programe pe computer
care pot fi utilizate pentru digitizare, pentru
a folosi ilustraii de nalt calitate, vectorizate
din desenul din creion sau tu iniial. n ultima
vreme, imaginile pot fi procesate folosind pro-
grame comerciale precum Adobe Photoshop,
Adobe Illustrator, Corel Photo Paint, programe
rentabile ca i pre i care sunt i portabile. Ex-
ist de asemenea i programe de desen vecto-
rial gratuite precum Inkscape care are o serie
de opiuni i poate nlocui excelent Adobe Il-
lustrator. Digitizarea desenelor poate fi realizat
i direct n QGIS (vezi capitolul Postprocesarea
datelor topografice V.3.). n acest sens, se poate
Adriana antal
graphics, from the initial pencil or inked draw-
ings. Lately, images can be processed using
commercially available software such as Adobe
Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator and Corel Photo
Paint, which are cost-effective and highly por-
table. There are also free vector graphics draw-
ing programs like Inkscape, which has a great
feature set and is an excellent replacement for
Adobe Illustrator, or digitized drawings may be
done also directly in QGIS (see the Post Pro-
cessing Topographic Data chapter V.3.). Also, a
Graphics tablet may be used for illustrating in
software packages, most illustrators finding it
more intuitive than using a mouse.
Of all the above-mentioned programs,
the most often used seems to be Adobe Illustra-
tor, which is easy to use and allows a lot of flex-
ibility in processing archaeological illustrations.
The followings section covers a small guide to
use this program (Collett 2012, 13- 28; Burke,
Smith 2004, 126, 157).
Steps for Adobe Illustrator:
1. Scan the final illustration (pencilled or
inked version) at 300dpi greyscale or colour
jpeg.
2. Open a new drawing and place the im-
age on a layer, see that the image is set in the
correct position (Fig. 2).
3. Turn the scan layer into a template layer.
4. Make a new layer and lock the first one
with the initial illustration (Fig. 4).
5. Start to draw on a new layer, tracing
over the already existing lines from your initial
170
utiliza i o tablet grafic alturi de programele
menionate, cei mai muli desenatori gsindu-le
mult mai intuitive dect folosirea unui mouse.
Dintre programele menionate, cel mai
utilizat pare s fie Adobe Illustrator care este
uor de folosit i permite o mare flexibilitate
n procesarea ilustraiilor arheologice. n seci-
unea de mai jos sunt enumerai civa pai pen-
tru utilizarea acestui program (Collett 2012,13-
28; Burke, Smith 2004, 126, 157).
Pai pentru utilizarea programului Adobe Illus-
trator:
1. Se scaneaz ilustraia final (n tu sau
n creion), la o rezoluie de 300 dpi greyscale sau
colorat.
2. Se va deschide un nou desen i se va fixa
imaginea ntr-un strat, iar imaginea va fi setat
n poziia ei corect (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. A new layer for the scanned drawing has
been created and made into a template / Adugar-
ea unui nou strat la desenul scanat i transformar-
ea acestuia ntr-un ablon
Postprocesing drawing / Postprocesarea desenului
illustration, using the Pen tool (Fig. 3) (e.g. line
thicknesses 0.75pt or 1pt).
Fig. 3. Setting the thickness of the stroke line
for tracing / Setarea grosimii liniei pentru
desen
6. Decoration can be drawn using a selec-
tion of brushes.
7. After the general lines were outlined,
they can be filled with different colours or grey-
scale patterns.
8. Numbers, scales and other details
should then be added.
9. When the picture is finished, uncheck
Toggles visibility for the initial drawings, in this
way just the new one remains.
10. The image can be exported in various
types of files such JPEG or PNG and TIFF for-
mat to save layers.
171
3. Se va schimba stratul scanat ntr-un
strat ablon.
4. Se va crea un nou strat i se va bloca
primul care conine ilustraia iniial (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Locking the layer containing the origi-
nal illustration / Blocarea stratului care conine
ilustraia iniial
5. Se ncepe desenul pe noul strat ur-
mrind liniile existente din ilustraia iniial
folosind instrumentul Pen (Fig. 3) (de ex. gro-
simea liniei variaz 0.75pt sau 1pt).
6. Decorul poate fi desenat folosind o se-
lecie de pensule (Brushes).
7. Dup ce liniile generale sunt trasate,
acestea pot fi umplute cu diverse culori sau cu
modele n tonuri de gri.
8. Pot fi adugate numere, scri i alte de-
talii.
9. Dup ce imaginea este finalizat, se va
debifa vizualizarea Toggles a desenului iniial;
n acest fel va rmne afiat doar cel nou.
10. Imaginea poate fi exportat n diverse
tipuri de fiiere precum JPEG sau PNG i n for-
mat TIFF pentru a salva straturile.
 IV.4. Archaeological Photography
Kira Lapp
Besides digital surveying and the writ-
ten record, photography is the most import-
ant tool for documentation at an excavation.
Since the development of digital photography,
photographical documentation has become an
easy and cheap method. Nonetheless, in order
to save time and effort, each picture should be
planned carefully.
At an excavation, photography is ap-
plied for different purposes: from details within
a layer (e.g. artefacts in situ) to the layer itself
and stratigraphical relationships between two
features (e.g. between two walls or a wall and a
floor level). Moreover, photography is also used
for documenting the daily excavation work.
Finally, documenting the surroundings of the
excavation area and especially the surrounding
landscape and local topography is an important
application that should not be neglected.
In most cases photography is used for
the documentation of individual layers and
features. After removing the most recent, that
is the uppermost layer, the next layer must be
172
IV.4. Fotografia arheologic
Kira Lapp
Pe lng nregistrrile digitale topogra-
fice i consemnrile scrise, fotografia joac un
rol important n documentarea unei spturi
arheologice. ncepnd cu dezvoltarea fotogra-
fiei digitale, documentaia fotografic a devenit
o metod uoar i ieftin. Totui, n scopul de a
salva timp i efort, orice fotografie trebuie plan-
ificat cu atenie.
n cadrul unei spturi, fotografierea
este folosit n diferite scopuri: de la detalii din-
tr-un strat (ex. artefacte in situ) la stratul arhe-
ologic nsui sau relaii stratigrafice ntre dou
sau mai multe elemente (de ex. ntre dou zidu-
ri sau dintre un zid i un nivel de podea etc.).
Mai mult, fotografierea este de asemenea folos-
it pentru documentarea zilnic a spturii ar-
heologice. n sfrit, documentarea fotografic
a zonei n care are loc cercetarea i n special
a mediului nconjurtor i al topografiei locale
reprezint un element care nu trebuie neglijat.
n cele mai multe cazuri, fotografierea
este folosit pentru documentarea straturilor
i contextelor individuale. Dup ndeprtar-
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic
documented taking special care to record its sit-
uation and appearance. This includes its shape,
size, surface texture and colour. A thus docu-
mented layer can also help as aide-mmoire
for the excavator for the later processing work.
Therefore, the photographic documentation
follows the written documentation and the
measuring of each layer.
The size of the feature determines wheth-
er it needs to be individually photographed or
can be left as part of a wider cross section image.
Overall site photographs should be done regu-
larly. However, these records require a long time
to prepare and prudent coordination and there-
fore need to be planned carefully. The removal
and cleaning of layers should be completed si-
multaneously to avoid delays. After the stratig-
raphy of the uncovered layers has been clarified,
the photographical record can be done.
For photographs covering an assembly
of several structures or the whole excavation
site, it is useful to take the pictures from a high-
er viewpoint, for example by using a stepladder.
Vertical images can be taken directly above us-
ing a photo crane or, as it is common practice
nowadays, by a UAV or drone (Fig. 1). These
vertical photographs can be rectified by photo-
grammetry and further processed (cf. chapter
photogrammetry).
173
ea celui mai recent strat arheologic, stratul af-
lat cel mai sus (humusul actual), urmtorul
context arheologic (strat sau complex) trebuie
documentat cu atenie cu scopul de a nregistra
situaia i aspectul acestuia. Aceasta include for-
ma, dimensiunile, textura i culoarea suprafeei
etc. Un astfel de context documentat fotografic
poate ajuta ca aide-mmoire pentru arheolog
n munca de procesare. Astfel, documentaia
fotografic urmeaz documentaiei scrise i a
msurtorilor fiecrui context.
Dimensiunile i trsturile contextului
determin dac acesta trebuie fotografiat in-
dividual sau poate fi ncadrat ca parte a unei
imagini de ansamblu a seciunii sau a suprafeei
de cercetat. Fotografii generale de ansamblu ale
sitului i suprafeei de cercetat trebuie efectuate
n mod regulat. Cu toate acestea, aceste nreg-
istrri necesit mult timp pentru pregtirea i
coordonarea lor i, prin urmare, trebuie s fie
planificate cu atenie. ndeprtarea i curarea
straturilor arheologice trebuie realizate simultan
pentru a evita ntrzierile. Dup ce stratigrafia
straturilor descoperite a fost clarificat, se poate
face i nregistrarea fotografic.
Pentru fotografiile care acoper un ans-
amblu alctuit din mai multe contexte i struc-
turi sau care cuprinde ntreaga zon de cerce-
tare, este util preluarea imaginilor dintr-un
punct aflat la nlime, de exemplu prin utiliza-
rea unei scri. Imaginile verticale pot fi realiza-
te direct deasupra suprafeei folosind o macara
foto sau, aa cum se obinuiete astzi, cu aju-
kira lapp

Fig. 1. Picture taken with a drone, CDS 2016, Domus /

Imagine realizat cu ajutorul unei drone, CDS 2016

torul unui UAV sau a unei drone (Fig. 1).

Equipment
Technology advances fast, therefore it
does not seem prudent to recommend any spe-
cific type of camera, as this would soon be out-
dated. Digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras
with a zoom lens are the standard at modern
excavations. Additionally, a photo board (pref-
erably with attachable letters made of plastic), a
Aceste fotografii verticale pot fi rectificate prin
fotogrametrie i prelucrate ulterior (vezi capi-
tolul Fotogrametrie).
Echipament
Tehnologia avanseaz rapid, prin ur-
mare nu este prudent s recomandm un an-
umit tip de camer, deoarece acest lucru ar fi

174
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic

weatherproofed north arrow (in adequate size
and made of varnished wood, plastic or metal)
and ranging rods (painted alternatively either
red and white or black and white in sections of
20 to 50 cm) are needed for photographic docu-
mentation (Fig. 2).
n curnd depit. Camerele digitale SLR (sin-
gle-lens reflex) cu lentile zoom sunt parte din
echipamentul standard la spturile moderne.
n plus, o plac fotografic (de preferin cu
litere ataabile din plastic), o sgeat de nord
(cu dimensiuni adecvate i din lemn lcuit,
plastic sau metal) i scal de msur/mir (vo-
psite alternativ fie n rou i alb sau negru i alb
n seciuni 20 pn la 50 cm) sunt parte din in-
strumentarul standard pentru documentaia fo-
tografic (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Equipment required for archaeological photography / Echipament necesar pentru realizarea
fotografiilor arheologice

175
kira lapp
Preparation
The optimum moment for the photo-
graphic documentation is after having removed
the most recent stratum and having uncovered
the new layers. In some cases a photograph can
be taken immediately after excavating the new
features, if the earth has been removed carefully
by a trowel following one direction. Brushing or
cleaning the surface of the layer with a broom
should be avoided. This will blur or smear the
layer boundaries reducing the clarity of their
appearance. This is especially the case for soft
and fine-grained surfaces, for example clay,
which respond better to careful scraping with
a trowel. The use of a broom should be restrict-
ed to cleaning walls only, and if better tools like
vacuum cleaners are available these should be
preferred. If electricity is available at the exca-
vation site, the whole surface that is going to be
photographed should be cleaned with a special
wet-and-dry vacuum cleaner. This device is best
suited to remove loose earth and thus helps
clarify the boundaries of each layer.
On every picture there should be a pho-
to board, showing the name of the excavation,
the sector, the numbers of the uncovered fea-
tures and the date, all to make the layers and
structures clearly identifiable. A simple black-
board and chalk is sufficient, but a board with
attachable plastic letters is weather-resistant and
more visible when photographed. Next to the
board a correctly oriented north arrow should
be placed. Before taking the picture it should be
176
Pregtire
Momentul optim pentru documentar-
ea fotografic este dup ndeprtarea celui mai
recent strat i descoperirea unui context nou.
n unele cazuri, fotografierea poate fi realizat
imediat dup sparea unui context nou, dac
pmntul a fost ndeprtat cu grij cu ajutorul
unui paclu sau a unei rachete urmrind o sin-
gur direcie. Perierea sau curarea suprafeei
contextului arheologic cu ajutorul unei mturi
sau perii ar trebui evitat. Acest lucru va bloca
sau scdea vizibilitatea asupra limitelor stratului
reducnd claritatea aspectului lor. Acest lucru
este valabil n special pentru suprafeele moi i
fine, de exemplu argila, care rspund mai bine
la o rzuire atent cu un paclu sau rachet.
Utilizarea unei mturi ar trebui s se limiteze
doar la curarea pereilor i zidurilor, iar dac
sunt disponibile instrumente mai bune, cum ar
fi aspiratoarele, acestea ar trebui s fie prefera-
te. Dac pe sptur dispunem de posibilitatea
racordrii la reeaua de curent electric, ntrea-
ga suprafa ce urmeaz a fi fotografiat trebuie
curat cu un aspirator special umed i uscat.
Acest dispozitiv este cel mai potrivit pentru a
ndeprta pmntul spat ajutnd astfel la clar-
ificarea limitelor fiecrui strat.
Pe fiecare imagine trebuie s existe un
tabl foto, care s indice numele sitului/obiec-
tivului, sectorul, numerele contextelor desco-
perite i anul , aceasta pentru a face ca stratu-
rile i structurile s poat fi identificate n mod
clar. O tabl simpl i cret este suficient, dar
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic
checked that board and arrow do not conceal
important features.
Additionally, ranging rods/scales can
serve as benchmarks. Usually two of them are
placed in one corner, parallel to the longitudi-
nal and transverse edge of the picture, or, when
taking photographs of sections, one is put verti-
cally in one corner of the section and the other
one horizontally at the lower edge.
It may help to dampen the earth with
a water sprayer before taking a photograph to
enhance the colour differences. Water should
be sprayed gently but quickly to avoid the earth
drying and the surface looking stained or spot-
ted.
Is it suitable to change the settings for pho-
tographical documentation and how many
changes are allowed? As a general rule it can be
said that as long as the readability of features is
enhanced without distorting them, using such
measurements is reasonable. Nonetheless, all
methods used should be recorded. Other mea-
surements, such as the marking or outlining of
layers on the surface with the point of a trowel,
should be rejected.
Before pressing the shutter release it is
preferable to quickly check if all the tools are
removed from the area, no footprints are visi-
ble, the horizon is going to be shot horizontally
and the boundaries of the sector are straight in
relation to the photo detail. Overlooked tools
or wheelbarrows as well as heaps of earth give
177
o plac cu litere de plastic ataabile este rezis-
tent la intemperii i mai vizibil atunci cnd
este fotografiat. Lng plac trebuie plasat o
sgeat nord orientat corect. nainte de a face
fotografierea, trebuie s verificai dac tabla i
sgeata nu ascund caracteristici importante ale
contextului arheologic.
n plus, scalele/mirele pot servi drept
repere pentru dimensiuni. De obicei, dou
dintre ele sunt plasate ntr-un col paralel cu
marginea longitudinal i transversal a imag-
inii sau, atunci cnd fotografiai seciuni, una
este aezat vertical ntr-un col al seciunii i
cealalt pe orizontal la marginea inferioar.
Eventuala stropire a pmntului cu un pulver-
izator de ap nainte de fotografiere sporete
vizibilitatea diferenelor de culoare. Apa trebuie
pulverizat uor, dar rapid pentru a se evita us-
carea pmntului.
Este potrivit s modificai setrile pen-
tru documentaia fotografic dar cte modi-
ficri sunt permise? Ca regul general, se poate
spune c atta timp ct lizibilitatea caracteris-
ticilor este mbuntit fr a le distorsiona,
utilizarea unor astfel de modificri este rezon-
abil. Cu toate acestea, trebuie nregistrate toate
metodele utilizate. Trebuie evitate alte msuri
cum ar fi marcarea sau conturul straturilor pe
suprafa cu vrful paclului.
nainte de apsarea butonului de de-
clanare, este preferabil s verificai rapid dac
toate uneltele sunt ndeprtate din zon i nu
kira lapp
not only an untidy impression, but also attract
the attention of the viewer. All these flaws can
be corrected during the post-processing, yet it
saves time and effort to keep an eye on these
things every time a picture is taken.
Lighting
At outdoor excavations photography is
dependent on natural lighting and the corre-
sponding weather conditions. Blue skies and
sunshine offer the worst conditions for photo-
graphic documentation. Strong sunlight causes
deep shadows and strong light contrasts, which
result in features that are harder to identify. This
is especially the case for deep trenches and ris-
ing structures such as walls.
For site photography, particularly of
larger areas, the best lighting is daylight with a
thin covering of cloud. This reduces light shad-
ows and helps highlight the colours of any fea-
tures present.
In some regions, these slightly over-
cast weather conditions are rarely encountered.
When photographing close-ups of details or
smaller areas during strong sunlight, a large
cloth made of white linen can be of help. By
stretching this sheet in front of the sun, it is pos-
sible to cast shadows on the area that is to be
photographed.
Ideally, general photography in these
regions should be taken in the early morning
or the evening if this is compatible with the
178
sunt vizibile urme sau amprente. Orizontul va
fi fotografiat orizontal, limitele sectorului fiind
drepte n raport cu detaliile fotografiei. Uneltele
sau roabele la vedere, precum i grmezile de
pmnt dau nu numai o impresie neplcut,
ci i atrage atenia spectatorului. Toate aceste
deficiene pot fi corectate n timpul post-pro-
cesri, ns se economisete timp i efort dac
se acord atenie acestor detalii de fiecare dat
cnd este fcut o fotografie.
Iluminat
La spturile n aer liber fotografiatul
depinde de iluminatul natural i de condiiile
meteorologice corespunztoare. Cerul albastru
i soarele ofer cele mai nefavorabile condiii
pentru documentaia fotografic. Lumina put-
ernic a soarelui provoac umbre profunde i
contraste puternice ale luminii, care au ca rezu-
ltat caracteristici mai greu de identificat. Acest
lucru este valabil n special pentru seciunile
adnci i structurile n cretere, cum ar fi pereii.
Pentru fotografiile de pe sit, n special n zonele
mai mari, cel mai bun iluminat este reprezentat
de lumina zilei, soarele fiind acoperit uor de
nori. Acest lucru reduce umbrele luminoase i
ajut la evidenierea culorilor oricror caracter-
istici existente.
n unele regiuni, aceste condiii mete-
orologice sunt rareori ntlnite. Atunci cnd
efectuai fotografii de detaliu sau zone mai mici
pe o vreme cu soare puternic, v putei ajuta
de o pnz de ln alb . Prin ntinderea acestei
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic
working process. During these hours, the light
is subdued and soft, and under the long-wave
range of the light spectrum (especially orange
and red) the colours of the surfaces will look
clearer. This is especially the case in the morn-
ing when the overnight moisture enhances the
colours of the features, which is thus a very suit-
able time for photographic recording.
The photography of objects in situ
The photography of artefacts in their in
situ location serves as documentation of the po-
sition and condition of this object in relation to
the feature it belongs to. For small objects, there
are appropriate scales with centimetre sections
that are placed next to the artefact as size com-
parison on the photograph (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Photo of a vessel in situ, CDS 2016, Domus / Fotografia unui vas in situ,
CDS 2016, Domus
179
pnze este posibil proiectarea umbrei pe zona
care urmeaz s fie fotografiat.
n mod ideal, fotografierea general
din aceste regiuni ar trebui realizat dimineaa
devreme sau seara, dac acest fapt este compat-
ibil cu procesul de lucru. n timpul acestor ore,
lumina este subtil i moale, iar sub gamele de
culori lungi ale spectrului de lumin (n spe-
cial portocaliu i rou) culorile suprafeelor vor
prea mai clare. Acest lucru este valabil mai
ales dimineaa cnd umiditatea de peste noapte
mbuntete culorile caracteristicilor, ceea ce
reprezint un moment foarte potrivit pentru n-
registrarea fotografic.
kira lapp
Inscriptions that have been uncovered
during the excavation or that may be immov-
able on-site should be recorded with an angle
of light of between 15 to 45, depending on
the conservation status of the letters. The light
source, if artificial, should be thrown on the let-
ters from above, causing shadows on the hori-
zontal bars. It may be necessary to test different
settings in order to obtain the best result in each
individual case.
Extraordinary objects can be record-
ed after their removal separately with a scale
against a monochrome background, made of
grey or white cardboard, before they are handed
over to the conservator for further processing
(Fig. 4).
Fig.4. Small find photo recording, CDS 2017, Domus /
nregistrare fotografic obiect special, CDS 2017, Domus
180
Fotografierea obiectelor in situ
Fotografierea artefactelor n locul lor de
descoperire, in situ, servete ca documentare a
poziiei i condiiei acestui obiect n raport cu
contextul din care face parte. Pentru obiectele
mici, exist scale adecvate, cu seciuni centi-
metrice, care sunt plasate lng artefact, com-
parativ cu dimensiunea fotografiei (Fig. 3).
Inscripiile care au fost descoperite n
timpul spturii sau care pot fi imobilizate la
faa locului trebuie nregistrate cu un unghi de
lumin ntre 15 i 45 , n funcie de starea de
conservare a literelor. Sursa de lumin, dac
este artificial, ar trebui s cad pe litere de
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic
On this occasion, the final recording af-
ter the restoration for the publication of the ex-
cavation report shall not be discussed in detail.
These final photographs are usually taken by
professional photographers in a photo studio,
using at least two artificial light sources against
a monochrome background (generally in white
or grey, to soften the shadows).
Documentation
It is advisable to assign a consecutive
number to the photographs. Especially for pe-
rennial excavations, a scheme as YY00001 is an
adequate system. Additionally, at the excavation
a photo list or photo book should be written,
comprising the assigned numbers and the pho-
tographed features.
As with all digital documentation, it is
essential to save the data on a daily basis. For
this an external hard drive or an external server
can be used, on which the photographs should
be stored every evening after the excavation.
Post-processing
In contrast to analogue photography, a
digital camera offers the ability to immediately
check the photo on the display and to correct
the settings and retake the picture. Whenever
it is not possible to ameliorate the situation or
setting on site (e.g. the light exposure), digital
photographs enable a quick post-processing by
various image processing programs. The aim of
181
sus sau din lateral, provocnd umbre pe barele
orizontale. Este posibil s fie necesar testarea
diferitelor setri pentru a obine cele mai bune
rezultate n fiecare caz n parte.
Obiectele extraordinare pot fi nreg-
istrate separat, cu o scal pe un fundal mono-
crom, din carton gri sau alb, nainte de a fi
predate conservatorului pentru prelucrare ulte-
rioar (Fig. 4).
nregistrarea fotografic final dup
restaurare pentru publicarea raportului de
sptur nu va fi discutat aici n detaliu. Aceste
fotografii finale sunt de obicei realizate de fo-
tografi profesioniti ntr-un studio foto, folos-
ind cel puin dou surse de lumin artificial pe
fundal monocrom (n general alb sau gri, pent-
ru a atenua umbrele).
Documentaie
Este recomandabil s se atribuie fo-
tografiilor un numr consecutiv. n special pen-
tru spturile sistematice, o schem ca YY00001
reprezint un sistem adecvat. n plus, la sptur
ar trebui s fie scris o list de fotografii sau un
foto-book, cuprinznd numerele atribuite i
contextele fotografiate.
Ca i n cazul tuturor documentelor dig-
itale, este esenial s salvai datele zilnic. Pentru
aceasta, poate fi folosit un hard disk extern sau
un server extern, pe care fotografiile ar trebui
s fie stocate n fiecare sear dup terminarea
kira lapp
post-processing is to improve the readability
without distorting the image.
Besides professional programs that are
subjected to a fee, e.g. Photoshop, there are free
options that are similar to the proprietary soft-
ware. A good example is the free software GIMP
that is used as comparison to Photoshop here-
inafter.
Usual corrections are restricted to
brightness and contrast as well as to the dom-
inating colours. Generally speaking, an un-
derexposed picture is to be preferred to an
overexposed one. Using the tool Brightness /
Contrast, a photo that is too dark can easily be
brightened up, whereas overexposure cannot be
corrected satisfyingly.
The tools that are needed most, are to
be found in Photoshop (PS) selecting Image
and then Adjustments and, in GIMP, selecting
Colours. The tool Color Balance (PS) and
Colour Balance (GIMP), respectively, emends
possible colour faults of the photography, for
example a blue tint when taken at midday with
strong sunlight, or a red tint when taken in the
early morning or in the evening.
The tool Brightness / Contrast helps
to brighten up pictures that are too dark and to
increase or decrease the contrast. Better suited
for this is the tool Levels (PS) which allows
adjusting the shadows, midtones and highlights
separately and thereby a finer configuration of
182
spturii.
Post-procesare
Spre deosebire de fotografierea ana-
logic, o camer digital ofer posibilitatea de
a verifica imediat fotografia pe ecran i de a
corecta setrile i de a relua fotografia. Ori de
cte ori nu este posibil ameliorarea situaiei sau
a setrilor la faa locului (de ex. expunerea la lu-
min), fotografiile digitale permit o post-proce-
sare rapid prin diverse programe de procesare
a imaginilor. Scopul post-procesrii este de a
mbunti lizibilitatea fr a distorsiona imag-
inea.
Pe lng programele profesionale care
sunt supuse unei taxe, de ex. Photoshop, ex-
ist i opiuni gratuite care sunt similare cu
programele pltite. Un bun exemplu este soft-
ware-ul liber GIMP care este folosit comparativ
cu Photoshop n continuare.
Coreciile obinuite sunt limitate la
luminozitate i contrast, precum i la culo-
rile dominante. n general, trebuie preferat o
imagine subexpus fa de cea supraexpus. Cu
ajutorul instrumentului Luminozitate / Con-
trast, o fotografie prea ntunecat poate fi uor
luminat, n timp ce supraexpunerea nu poate fi
corectat n mod satisfctor.
Instrumentele care sunt necesare cel
mai adesea, se gsesc n Photoshop (PS) se-
lectnd Image i apoi Adjustments i, n GIMP,
archaeological Photography / fotografia arheologic
the brightness.
The most important tool for post-pro-
cessing of archaeological photographs is
Curves (PS and GIMP). By adding dots to the
diagram, the curve is changing and so are the
colours, the brightness and the contrast of the
picture. Photoshops Auto command usually
produces good results. But, after a short train-
ing period, it is also possible to manually en-
hance pictures quickly and easily. Concerning
photographs without major flaws, in most cases
a gentle S-curve turns out to be perfect with re-
gard to brightness and contrast. This is because
the dark parts get darkened, the bright parts
brightened and the contrast increases.
Misplaced dots can be selected and, with
the mouse button pressed, removed by dragging
them over the upper (PS) or lateral (GIMP)
edge of the diagram.
To save the picture as JPEG (with low
compression without layers and alpha channels
(transparencies)) or as TIFF (without compres-
sion with layers and alpha channels), Photo-
shops Save As command has to be selected,
whereas in GIMP the picture has to be saved by
choosing the command Export As.
183
selectnd Colors. Instrumentul Color Balance
(PS) i, respectiv, Color Balance (GIMP) corec-
teaz posibile discrepane de culoare ale fo-
tografiei, de exemplu o nuan albastr atunci
cnd este fotografiat la amiaz cu lumin put-
ernic a soarelui sau o nuan roie fotografiat
dimineaa sau seara.
Instrumentul Brightness / Contrast
ajut la luminarea imaginilor prea ntunecate i
la mrirea sau micorarea contrastului. Mai po-
trivit pentru acest lucru este instrumentul Lev-
els (PS), care permite reglarea separat a um-
brelor, tonurilor i luminozitii i, prin urmare,
o configuraie mai fin a luminozitii.
Cel mai important instrument pentru
post-procesarea fotografiilor arheologice este
Curves (PS i GIMP). Prin adugarea de puncte
n diagram, curba se schimb, la fel i culorile,
luminozitatea i contrastul imaginii. Comanda
Auto a Photoshop-ului produce, de obicei, re-
zultate bune. Dar, dup o perioad scurt de an-
trenament, este posibil i mbuntirea manu-
al a imaginilor rapid i uor. n ceea ce privete
fotografiile fr deficiene majore, n majori-
tatea cazurilor o curb uoar S se dovedete a
fi perfect n ceea ce privete luminozitatea i
contrastul. Acest lucru se datoreaz faptului c
prile ntunecate se ntunec, prile strluci-
toare lumineaz iar contrastul crete.
Punctele dispuse pot fi selectate i, cu bu-
tonul mouse-ului apsat, sunt ndeprtate prin
tragerea acestora peste marginea superioar
(PS) sau lateral (GIMP) a diagramei.
kira lapp

Pentru a salva imaginea ca JPEG (cu compresie

redus fr straturi i canale alfa (transparente)
sau ca TIFF (fr compresie cu straturi i canale
alfa), trebuie selectat comanda Photoshop Save
As, n timp ce n GIMP imaginea poate fi salvat
prin alegerea comenzii Export As.

184
Bibiliography / Literatur
Bibliography/ Literatur
Adkins, L., Adkins, R., Archaeological Illustra-
tion, Cambridge 1989.
Burke, H., Smith, C., The archaeologists Field
Handbook, Crows Nest 2004.
Chn, A., Foliot, Ph., Rveillac,G., La pratique
de la photographie en archologie, Aix-en-
Provence 1999.
Collett, L., An introduction to drawing archaeo-
logical pottery, Reading 2012.
Dchelette, J., Les Vases Cramiques Orns de la
Gaule Romaine, Paris 1904.
Dobie, J., Evans, C., Archaeology & Illustrators.
A history of the ancient monuments drawing of-
fice. Archaeological graphics report, Portsmouth
2010.
Dorrell, P., Photography in Archaeology and
Conservation, Cambridge Manuals in Archaeol-
ogy, Cambridge 1989.
Dragendorff, H., Terra Sigillata, in Bonner Jahr-
bcher 96, 1895, 18-155.
Drewett, P. L., Field Archaeology. An introduc-
tion, London 1999.
Grant, J., Gorin, S., Fleming, N., The archaeolo-
gy coursebook. An introduction to themes, sites,
methods and skills, London, New York 2008.
Griffits, N., Jenner A., Wilson C., Drawing ar-
chaeological finds. A handbook, London 1990.
Knorr R., Tpfer und Fabriken verzierter Ter-
ra-Sigillata des Ersten Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart
1919.
Orton, C., Tyers P., Vince A., Pottery in archaeol-
ogy, Cambridge 1993.
Oswald, F., Index of figure types on terra sigillata,
Liverpool 1937.
Oswald, F., Pryce, T.D., Terra Sigillata, London
1920.
Roskams, St., Excavation, Cambridge Manuals in
Archaeology, Cambridge 2001.
Steiner, M., Allason-Jones, L., Approaches to ar-
chaeological illustration: a handbook, York 2005.
Stewart, G., Archaeological recording practices.
Guidelines for archaeological excavation and re-
cording techniques, Hexham 2013.
Walters, H., Catalogue of the Roman Pottery in
the British Museum, London 1908.
Webster, G., Third edition romano-british coarse
pottery: a students guide, CBA Research report
No 6, London 1976, 30- 34.
Webster, P., Bird J., Jones V., How to take rub-
bings, in E. Biddulph (Ed.), Illustrating samian
ware, 2014, 15-20.
Wild, F., The history and importance of illus-
trating samian, in E. Biddulph (Ed.), Illustrating
samian ware, 2014, 5-10, 2014.
Wright, H. E., Seeing triple. Archaeology, field
drawing and the semantic web, PhD Thesis, York
2011.
*** Archaeological site manual, Museum of Lon-
don Archaeology Service (MOLAS), 3rd edition,
London 1994.
***A practical guide to recording archaeological
sites, The Royal Commission on the Ancient and
Historical Monuments of Scotland, Scotlands
Rural Past (PRS), Edinburg 2011.
185
V. topographic survey and photogrametry /
Msurtori topografice i fotogrametrie

1. Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori

topografice pe teren

2. Photogrametry / Fotogrametrie

3. GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date

n GIS
 V.1. Topography Survey on Field
CRISTIAN DIMA
Total Station
In Archaeology the Total Station (TS) is
a very important tool with several applications
in archaeological research. The level of accuracy
of this kind of instrument is very high, given in
angle measurement units. With the help of Total
Station there can be recording the evolution of
the archaeological excavation, being able to re-
place or to help the archaeological drawing. The
advantage of drawing the archaeological context
with the help of TS is the recording directly of
the context contours in digital milieu. With the
help of Topographic Station there can be done
precise measurements of the landscapes, being
able to make relation with the archaeological
context. Also, with the help of Total Station
there can be done architectural measurements,
grids for remote sensing measurement etc.
Before beginning the topographic sur-
vey the station have to be calibrated and lev-
elled. The height of the station has to be mea-
sured from the reference point of the station
till the eyes measurement unit. In the software
available on the station there is the possibility to
do fine calibration of the station.
189
V.1. msurtori topografice pe teren
cristian dima
Staia Total
n arheologie Staia Total (ST) reprez-
int un instrument foarte important cu o gam
larg de aplicaii folosite n cercetarea arheolog-
ic. Nivelul de precizie al acestui instrument este
milimetric, reprezentat prin uniti de msur
ale unghiului. Cu ajutorul ST se poate nregis-
tra evoluia unei cercetri arheologice, acest in-
strument putnd nlocui sau completa desenul
arheologic. Avantajul desenului cu ST a con-
textelor arheologice l reprezint nregistrarea
direct a acestuia n mediul digital. Cu ajutorul
ST se pot realiza msurtori precise ale medi-
ului nconjurtor, astfel realizndu-se relaii cu
situl arheologic. De asemenea, prin intermedi-
ul acestui instrument, se pot realiza msurtori
arhitecturale sau realiza reele (griduri) pentru
cercetri non-invazive i invazive.
nainte de a ncepe msurtorile
topografice staia trebuie s fie orizontalizat i
calibrat. nlimea staiei trebuie msurat de
la punctul de referin a staiei pn la nivelul
msurtorii optice. n programul disponibil al
acestui instrument exist posibilitatea de a face
calibrri fine ale staiei.
Cristian Dima
After station calibration the station will
pop-up a menu that has 6 icons. The first one is
Q-Survey which could be used to quickly start
measurement if the station is already set-up. The
second icon is called Programs when opened oth-
er icons pop-us divided in 3 pages. As learning
method it will be presented here just the sections
needed for basic archaeology measurement.
190
Dup ce aceasta este calibrat prin
apsarea butonului de continuare (F4) program-
ul va afia ase icoane. Prima dintre acestea este
Q-Survey, care poate fi folosit pentru a ncepe
rapid msurtoarea n cazul n care staia este
deja setat. Urmtoarea icoan se numete Pro-
grams, iar cnd aceasta va fi selectat se vor afia
o serie de alte icoane mprite pe trei pagini. Ca
i metod de nvare vor fi prezentate aici doar
seciunile de baz necesare n cadrul msurto-
rilor arheologice.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
Station Setup
Depending on the information that is
available the station setup can be done using
several methods. The first method is Resection,
a case in which the place where the user sets the
Total Station (TS) is unknown, but there are two
or more known points with their coordinates.
These known points are measured with the TS
and computed the station and orientation. Oth-
er method is Resection Helmert which is a sim-
ilar method but the computing is done using
Helmert Trafo, a transformation method used
in geodesy to produce distortion-free trans-
formations from one known point to another.
Local Resection is applied when the station set-
ting point is unknown and it is measured any
two points to determine origin and north/east
axis of a local system. Orientation with angle it
is used to connect with other station point. The
user will aim at a target to set the orientation of
a known station. Orientation with Coordinates
is the method where are know the coordinates
of the point where the station will be set and the
user measure other one more known points to
191
Setarea Staiei
n funcie de informaiile disponibile,
setrile staiei se pot realiza printr-o serie de
metode. Prima dintre ele este Resection, caz n
care locul n care este amplasat ST este necu-
noscut, dar exist dou sau mai multe puncte
cunoscute cu coordonatele lor. Aceste puncte
cunoscute, sunt msurate cu ST calculndu-se
astfel poziia i orientarea staiei. O alt metod
este Resection Helmert care este o metod sim-
ilar unde calculul se va face folosind Helmert
Trafo, o metod de transformare folosit n
geodezie pentru a reduce erorile de la un punct
la altul. Metoda Local Resection este aplicat
atunci cnd punctul unde este plasat staia este
necunoscut; astfel se vor msura dou puncte
alese aleatoriu pentru a determina axa Nord Est
al unui sistem local. Orientation with Angle este
o metod folosit pentru conectarea staiei cu
un alt punct folosit anterior ca staie. Utiliza-
torul va msura punctul pentru a seta orientar-
ea n funcie de punctul anterior de amplasare
al staiei. Orientation with Coordinates este o
Cristian Dima
compute orientation and height. Another meth-
od is H-Trans where the station is known and it
is measured one or more points to compute the
height for the station. As a learning method it
will be detailed described the resection meth-
od that is a method used at Colonia Dacica
Sarmizegetusa. After selecting the method the
name of the station have to be inserted press-
ing one of the letter/number key and the select-
ing numbers or letters to name the station. The
height (hi) will be the distance measured from
the ground point of the station till the level of
eyes showed on the instrument. After pressing
Continue (F3) the user will have to enter the
targets points. If in the job or in other jobs of the
station are already introduced the fixed points
that will be the target points for station setup,
they could be entered after Point ID name or
could be found pressing on the list (F1), but else
the coordinates of the points will be introduced
manually selecting ENH (F2). For Praetorium
Procuratoris excavation site two known points
were established and measured using the geo-
desic GPS/DGPS, named R1 and R2 with the
coordinates R1 (Easting 327292.448, Northing
448492.312 and Height 500.484) and R2 (East-
192
metod n cadrul creia se cunosc coordonatele
punctului unde staia este plasat msurndu-se
nc unul sau mai multe puncte cunoscute iar
apoi se va calcula orientarea i nlimea staiei.
O ultim metod H-Trans, se utilizeaz atun-
ci cnd punctul unde este plasat staia este
cunoscut i se vor msura mai multe puncte
pentru a calcula nlimea staiei folosindu-se
transformarea de tip Helmert. Ca i metod de
nvare se va descrie n detaliu metoda Resec-
tion care este folosit pe situl de la Colonia Da-
cica Sarmizegetusa. Dup selectarea metodei,
numele staiei trebuie introdus selectndu-se
oricare tast numeric sau alfabetic. nlimea
(hi) staiei va fi distana msurat de la punct-
ul de baz a staiei pn la nivelul msurtorii
optice. Dup selectarea tastei Continue (F3)
utilizatorul va trebui s introduc punctele
cunoscute (Target Points). Dac n fiierul de
lucru (Job) sau n alte fiiere ale staiei au fost
deja introduse punctele fixe care vor fi punctele
int pentru setarea staiei, ele pot fi introduse
dup ID (Point ID) sau pot fi gsite selectnd
List (F1), altfel coordonatele punctelor vor fi
introduse manual selectnd ENH (F2). Pentru
sptura de la Praetorium Procuratoris, dou
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
ing 327331.655, Northing 448530.183 Height
500.282). After inserting the Point ID (PtID) R1
and the coordinates the user will press contin-
ue and will measure with the TS the point. In
the measurement the user has to insert the hr,
which is the height of the prism used for mea-
surement and after the point is spotted in the
lens the user will press the measurement key
(Meas F1). After the measurement is done
the TS will show a menu that comprise sever-
al options and there will be selected Measure
more points (F1) option. In the same way will
be manually introduced R2 point and measured
and in the menu will be selected the Compute
(F4) option. The TS will show the coordinates
193
puncte au fost stabilite aleatoriu i msurate
folosind GPS-ul geodezic/ DGPS. Aceste punc-
te au fost numite convenional R1 i R2 avnd
coordonatele pentru R1 (Easting 327292.449,
Northing 448492.312, Height 500.484) i R2
(Easting 327331.655, Northing 448530.183,
Height 500.282). Dup introducerea Point ID
R1 i a coordonatelor acestuia utilizatorul va se-
lecta Continue (F4) i va msura cu ST punctul.
n timpul msurrii utilizatorul va trebui s in-
troduc hr, care reprezint nlimea prismei fo-
losit pentru msurare iar dup ce punctul este
gsit prin lentil, se va apsa tasta de msurare
(Meas-F1). Dup ce este realizat msurarea,
ST va afia un meniu care cuprinde mai multe
Cristian Dima
computed for the station and the user will have
to select Set and the station will be setup and
ready for survey.
Survey
The second option of the Programs
section is Survey that will actually start the
topographic survey. In the first phase the user
should set a job or create a new one. This action
can be done selecting F1 Set Job and find the
wanted job from the list or pressing New (F1)
for creating a new job. In this case the user will
choose a name for the job, will enter the name
of the operator/user and if necessary some re-
marks about the job that he wants to do. Press-
ing Continue (F4) the new job will be set. De-
pending on what is wished to be measured the
user will establish a methodology of recording.
It is important that the measured point should
be taking following a well-established path in
order to make easier the post-processing op-
eration. If already exist an ortophotoplan or a
georeferenced map of the site, other reference
194
opiuni dintre care va fi selectat opiunea Mea-
sure more points (F1). n acelai mod se intro-
duc coordonatele punctului R2 acesta urmnd a
fi msurat, iar la afiarea meniului se va selecta
opiunea Compute (F4). Programul va afia co-
ordonatele calculate pentru staie, utilizatorul
va selecta opiunea Set i staia va fi setat i
pregtit pentru msurtori.
Msurtori
A doua opiune din meniul Programs
este Survey, prin care se va ncepe msurarea
topografic. n prima faz utilizatorul va trebui
s seteze un fiier de lucru sau s creeze unul
nou. Aceast aciune se poate realiza prin se-
lectarea opiunii F1-Set Job i gsirea fiierului
de lucru dorit din list sau selectarea New (F1)
pentru a se crea un fiier nou de lucru. n acest
caz utilizatorul va alege un nume pentru fiierul
de lucru apoi va introduce numele utilizatorului
iar dac este necesar cteva note despre msu-
rarea pe care vrea s o realizeze. Selectnd Cont
(F4), noul fiier de lucru va fi setat. n funcie
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
point could be measured in order to verify
and correct the survey. For example if the user
wants to measure the corner of a digging sur-
face the path will be starting from one corner
and going round, marking each point with a
PointID (C1,C2,C3 etc.). The measurement of
each point will be done in the same way as the
reference fixed points were measured. It will be
inserted the Point ID, height of the prism and
optional a different code for the point and se-
lecting the Measure (Meas - F1) key. It is im-
portant to know that when selecting Measure
key the point is stored in the job. Pressing Store
key (F3) without measurement will not record
anything. Also, if in the survey is not need to
store a point and only the measurement of the
point, the user can press Dist (F2) which will
measure the point but will not store it and for
storage will be needed to press Store (F3) key.
Stakeout
195
de ceea ce dorete a fi msurat utilizatorul i va
stabili o metodologie de nregistrare. Este foarte
important ca punctele msurate s fie nregis-
trate urmrind o cale bine stabilit n scopul de
a face mai uoare operaiile de postprocesare.
Dac exist un ortofotoplan sau o hart georef-
ereniat a sitului pot fi msurate i alte puncte
de orientare, cu scopul de a verifica i a corecta
cercetarea. De exemplu dac operatorul vrea s
msoare colurile unei suprafee spate, se va
ncepe de la un punct de start i se va msura
fiecare col mergnd circular marcndu-se fie-
care punct cu un Point ID. Msurarea punctelor
se va face n acelai mod n care au fost m-
surate punctele fixe. Se va introduce Point ID,
nlimea prismei, opional diverse coduri pen-
tru punct i se va selecta Measure (Meas-F1).
Este important s se tie c prin selectarea tastei
Measure, punctul va fi nregistrat n fiierul de
lucru. Selectarea opiunii Store (F3) fr msu-
rare nu va nregistra nimic. De asemenea dac
nu este necesar nregistrarea punctului ci doar
msurarea acestuia, utilizatorul poate selecta
opiunea Dist (F2) care va msura punctul dar
Cristian Dima
In several cases a previous measured
point has to be found in the ground. For exam-
ple the points used for setting the drawing axes
a campaign before and the drawing have to be
completed with a new feature discovered in ac-
tual campaign. In order to place the same axes
the same points have to be found. Stakeout is an
easy method that can be done using the TS that
requires only having the points stored in the
station job files. Selecting Stakeout and starting
the operation (F4) will pop-up a feature where
the Point ID of has to be found. After the per-
son with the prism goes to a near location, that
location one will be measured and the TS will
provide information in relation with the search
point. He will direct the person with the prism
to go left or right, to the back or to the front.
196
nu l va nregistra n fiierul de lucru, acesta
putnd fi totui nregistrat n caz de nevoie prin
selectarea opiunii Store (F3).
Stakeout
De multe ori un punct msurat ante-
rior trebuie regsit pe teren. De exemplu att
punctele folosite pentru setarea axei de desen
din campaniile anterioare ct i desenul tre-
buie completat cu un nou context descoperit n
campania actual. Pentru a aeza acelai ax este
necesar regsirea fostelor puncte de ax. Stake-
out reprezint o metod uoar care prin folo-
sirea ST este necesar doar existena punctelor
nregistrate ntr-un fiier de lucru al staiei. Se-
lectarea funciei Stakeout i nceperea operaiei
(F4) are ca urmare afiarea funciei prin care
punctul poate fi gsit dup ID-ul su. Dup ce
persoana cu prisma merge ntr-un loc apropiat
sau nu de punctul cutat se va msura poziia
acestuia iar staia va oferi informaii despre
punctul cutat i va direciona persoana spre
dreapta sau stnga n fa sau n spate.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
Ref. Line
Other operation which a student has
to learn is the Reference Line tool. Selecting or
measuring two points, the user can have a refer-
ence line that could be used to set a grid or stake
out and check points referred to the line. For ex-
ample, the user could measure a wall line and
could check the relation of the wall with other
archaeological complex in the digging. This tool
could be also used to set a grid of several units
for remote sensing operation or for drawing,
but also to create a grid of the excavation area,
setting the limits of excavation.
In the Programs menu there also other
tools that are more likely used in construction,
architecture etc. and not so much in archaeolo-
gy and we will not go in further details in this
learning module.
Other option from the Main Menu
Manage menu. This menu is basically for man-
agement of the files of the TS. The first icon is
for selection and to view the jobs created in that
197
Ref. Line (Linie de Referin)
O alt operaie pe care un student tre-
buie s o cunoasc este opiunea Ref. Line. Prin
selectarea sau msurarea a dou puncte utiliza-
torul poate avea o linie de referin care poate fi
folosit pentru realizarea unui grid sau la nreg-
istrarea punctelor n legtur cu aceast linie.
De exemplu utilizatorul poate s msoare linia
unui zid i poate verifica relaia acestuia cu alte
complexe arheologice din sptur. Prin acest
instrument se poate realiza o reea de ptrate
drept uniti folosite att n cercetarea non-in-
vaziv sau pentru desen ct i pentru stabilirea
marginilor unei spturi.
n meniul Programs exist i o alt se-
rie de instrumente folosite mai ales n topogra-
fie, construcii, arhitectur etc. i mai puin n
topografia arheologic. Din acest motiv nu vor
fi oferite mai multe detalii n acest capitol.
O alt opiune din meniul principal este
opiunea Manage. Acest meniu este folosit pen-
tru managementul fiierelor aflate pe ST. Prima
Cristian Dima
TS, being able to list the jobs, to create a new
job, to continue with the job listed, to delete a
job or to edit a job. Fix-points option is used
to view the fixed points recorded by the station.
The fixed points will be stored in a different file
then the one with measured points which can
be viewed in the third icon Meas.Data (mea-
sured data). Selecting a measured point in the
first page the operator can view the job in which
the point was measured, the point ID, the height
of the prism and when the point was measured
with date and time. Selecting the page key (first
black key in the top) the operator will see the
second page where will be visible the measure-
ment details of the point in connection with
the station the horizontal and vertical angle
and the slope distance and also the height of the
point. In the next page the operator will see the
absolute geographic coordinates, with northing,
easting and elevation from the sea level. In the
last page operator can see the instruments of
measurement and the settings.
198
icoan are rolul de a selecta i vizualiza fiiere de
lucru create n programul staiei. Este posibil
i listarea acestor fiiere, de a crea unul nou, de
a continua n fiierul de lucru selectat anterior,
sau de a terge sau edita un fiier. Opiunea Fix
Points este folosit pentru vizualizarea coordo-
natelor fixe nregistrate n staie. Aceste puncte
fixe sunt nregistrate ntr-un fiier diferit fa de
cel n care sunt nregistrate punctele msurate,
acestea din urm putnd fi vizualizate selectnd
a treia opiune, Meas.Data. Selectnd aceast
opiune n prima pagin, operatorul poate
vizualiza fiierul de lucru n care acest punct
a fost msurat, ID-ul acestui punct, nlimea
prismei precum i data i ora la care acesta a fost
msurat. Selectnd opiunea de paginaie (pri-
ma tast neagr de sus) operatorul va vizualiza
cea de-a doua pagin, cu detaliile msurtorii
punctului n relaie cu staia unghiul orizontal
i vertical precum i distana pantei i elevaia
sau adncimea punctului. n pagina urmtoare
operatorul va putea vizualiza coordonatele ab-
solute geografice cu nord, est i elevaie de la
nivelul mrii. n ultima pagin se pot vizualiza
instrumentele de msur i setrile staiei.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
The 4-th icon in the Main Menu is re-
served for Data Transfer. Different types of files
can be exported or imported from or to the TS
using an USB-Stick or a PC connection. The op-
erator has the possibility to export all jobs from
the TS, only measured data from a specific job
or from all jobs, only fixed points from a specif-
ic job or all jobs or measured data and fix-points
from a specific job or all jobs. The type formats
of the files that can be exported from the TS are
Xml, Ascii (.txt files), DXF, GSI or IDEX, the
user being able to establish also the specifica-
tion of the file. The other two icons from the
Main Menu are related with Settings of the sta-
tion and Tools, related information about this
option could be found in references reading.
Limitation of Total Station
- 2 people for the measurement
- Heavy equipment and long time for set-
ting and calibration.
- Need to change position and re-setup
199
A patra icoan din meniul principal este
Data Transfer. Diferite tipuri de fiiere pot fi ex-
portate sau importate din ST prin folosirea unui
stick USB sau o conexiune la PC. Operatorul
va avea posibilitatea s exporte toate fiierele
de lucru din staie, doar punctele msurate
dintr-un fiier de lucru specific sau din toate
fiierele, doar punctele fixe dintr-un fiier sau
din toate fiierele sau ca ultim opiune punc-
tele msurate i punctele fixe dintr-un fiier de
lucru sau din toate fiierele. Tipurile de format
ale fiierelor care pot fi importate sau exportate
din ST sunt Xml, Ascii (fiiere txt), DXF, GSI
sau IDEX, utilizatorul avnd posibilitatea s
stabileasc i anumite specificaii ale fiierelor.
Celelalte dou icoane din meniul principal au
legtur cu setrile staiei i instrumentele aces-
teia (Settings i Tools), mai multe informaii de-
spre aceste meniuri pot fi gsite n bibliografia
indicat.
Limitrile ST
- dou persoane pentru msurtori.
Cristian Dima
the station when there is no visibility
- Difficult to geo-reference a measure-
ment without known points.
Advantage of Total Station
- Good level of accuracy (millimetre)
- Better precision then GPS
- Various number of application for re-
search
200
- Echipament greu i o durat de timp
lung pentru setare i calibrare.
- Nevoia de a schimba poziia i de a re-
seta i recalibra staia atunci cnd nu exist
vizibilitate.
- Dificultatea georeferenierii msurtorii
fr cunoaterea unor puncte de referin.
Avantajele ST
- Nivel bun de precizie (milimetric).
- O precizie mult mai bun dect GPS-ul.
- Un numr variat de aplicaii pentru cer-
cetare.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS)
is a system that locates a position with the help
of satellites developed by US in the time of
Cold War. After the conflagration was finished
the system became available to public. GPS is
formed from three subsystems composed by
a 32 satellite constellation, control systems of
US and millions of individual receivers used
by common users. With an equipment usually
named GPS receiver, is received the radio signal
send by visible satellites from the measurement
area. The GPS is at the same time a GNSS sys-
tem Global Navigation Satellite System. Other
GNSS are GLONASS (rusian) and GALILEO
(european).
With the help of a GPS receiver a lots
of application can be executed in archaeologi-
cal field, on excavation or inside a site. The GPS
receiver could be used for orientation on a map,
measuring points of an archaeological surface,
grid or context, creating a grid for a non-inva-
sive survey or invasive excavation, also creating
a grid for plan drawing. The GPS could be used
for re-finding measured points that were previ-
ous stored (for ex. An area that was measured
for a magnetometer survey needs a new survey
using georadar. In this case, for accuracy it is
important to use the same grids). Also this re-
ceiver could be used for recording points with
geographic coordinates, distance or area mea-
surement, altimetry profile etc.
201
GPS
Sistemul de poziionare global (Global
Positioning System GPS) reprezint un sistem
care localizeaz o poziie cu ajutorul sateliilor,
dezvoltat de Statele Unite n timpul Rzboiului
Rece. Dup rzboi, sistemul a devenit disponibil
pentru public.
GPS-ul este format din trei subsisteme
care se compun dintr-o constelaie de 32 de
satelii, un sistem controlat de SUA i milioane
de receptoare individuale folosite de utilizatori
comuni. Cu un echipament numit uzual recep-
tor GPS, se recepioneaz un semnal radio trim-
is de sateliii vizibili din zona de msurare. GPS
este n acelai timp un sistem GNSS- sistemul
Global de Navigaie prin Satelit. Alte GNSS sunt
sistemele GLONASS (rusesc) si GALILEO (eu-
ropean).
Cu ajutorul unui receptor GPS se pot
efectua o serie larg de aplicaii n arheologia de
teren, pe sptur sau n interiorul unui sit. Re-
ceptorul GPS, poate fi folosit pentru orientarea
pe o hart, msurarea punctelor unei suprafee
arheologice, ale unui grid sau context, n scop-
ul crerii unui grid pentru cercetarea non-in-
vaziv sau pentru sptur i de asemenea n
scopul crerii unui grid pentru desenul planu-
rilor arheologice. GPS-ul poate fi folosit pentru
regsirea punctelor msurate anterior (de ex. o
zon care a fost msurat pentru o cercetare de
magnetometrie trebuie s fie din nou msurat
folosind georadarul. n acest caz pentru preci-
Cristian Dima
There are different types of GPS receivers
and the main characteristic of them is the accu-
racy level on determine the space position and
the capacity to eliminate the signal errors. This
level of accuracy is strongly connected with the
software associated with the GPS receiver and
of course the costs of acquisition. For archae-
ology works it is necessary to know the level of
precision of each one. One of the GPS receiver
(for car of hand-held), are receivers orientated
on navigation function and field orientation and
the accuracy that varies from -/+ 15 m to -/+ 3
m. This kind of instrument is relatively cheap
and could be used for several activities based on
orientation, navigation and the delimitation of
a site. A more accurate instrument that is used
at Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa site is the GPS
for geodesic works. This instrument is a GPS re-
ceiver that uses software that corrects the errors
using differential GPS (DGPS) and gives a level
of accuracy on centimetres and even millime-
tres. The cost for this kind of instrumentation
is bigger of course, but it has the possibility to
record and measure data in real time by send-
ing the results using a radio connection (Blue-
tooth), mobile communication(GSM,GPRS) or
using internet, the technology named DGPS
differential GPS or RTK Real Time Kinemat-
ic. Supplementary correction in real time can be
received from positioning systems that includes
geostationary satellites but also ground fixed
stations, available for free such as EGNOS or for
Romania ROMPOS.
202
zie este important folosirea aceluiai grid). De
asemenea receptorul GPS poate fi folosit pentru
msurarea coordonatelor geografice, msurarea
distanelor sau suprafeelor, realizarea profilelor
altimetrice etc.
Exist mai multe tipuri de receptoare
GPS principala caracteristic a acestora este
reprezentat de nivelul de precizie n determin-
area poziiei spaiale i de capacitatea de a elim-
ina erorile. Acest nivel de precizie este strns
legat de programele asociate cu receptoarele
GPS i desigur de costurile de achiziie. Pentru
munca arheologic este necesar cunoaterea
nivelului de precizie al fiecruia. Unele dintre
receptoarele GPS, pentru main sau de mn,
sunt orientate pe funcii de navigaie i orien-
tare n teren iar nivelul de precizie variaz de la
-/+15 m la -/+3m. Acest tip de instrument este
relativ ieftin i poate fi folosit pentru diverse ac-
tiviti care au la baz orientarea, navigarea i
delimitarea unui sit. Un instrument cu o preci-
zie mult mai mare folosit i pe situl de la Colo-
nia Dacica Sarmizegetusa este GPS-ul folosit n
lucrrile de geodezie. Acest instrument este un
receptor GPS care folosete un soft ce corecte-
az erorile folosind GPS-ul diferenial (DGPS)
i ofer un grad de precizie de centimetri i
chiar milimetri. Costurile acestui echipament
sunt mari, ns el ofer posibilitatea nregis-
trrii i msurrii de date n timp real prin tri-
miterea rezultatelor folosind o conexiune radio
(Bluetooth), comunicaii mobile (GSM, GPRS)
sau internetul, aceast tehnologie fiind numit
DGPS (GPS-diferenial) sau RTK (Real Time
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
The instrumentation using DGPS/RTK
for Sarmizegetusa is composed from a South
S82V geodesic GPS receiver with one of the
most updated GNSS technology that permits
the reception of GPS signals but also GLON-
ASS, SBAS and future GALILEO and COMPAS.
The controller of this station is a Windows tab-
let with Carlson SurvPC software installed on it.
Even there are many differences be-
tween software installed on the controller the
principles are basically the same and here will
be presented the learning tools needed on field
for students. The instrumentation is easy to use
for everybody for lots of application that are
needed on excavation site or for other archaeo-
logical surveys.
203
Kinematic). Corecii suplimentare n timp real
pot fi obinute de la sistemele de poziionare
care includ satelii geostaionari dar i de la
staiile fixe disponibile gratuit precum EGNOS
sau pentru Romnia ROMPOS.
Instrumentaia DGPS/RTK folosit
pentru Sarmizegetusa se compune dintr-un
receptor GPS geodezic South S82V cu cea mai
nou tehnologie GNSS care permite recepia
semnalului GPS dar i a GLONASS, SBAS i a
viitorului GALILEO. Carnetul de teren al aces-
tei staii este o tablet Windows care ruleaz cu
programul Carlson SurvPC.
Chiar dac exist multe diferene ntre
softurile instalate pe carnetele de teren, prin-
cipiile de baz sunt aceleai, n acest capitol
fiind prezentate uneltele de lucru necesare pe
Cristian Dima
Setting a Job
The Carlson SurvPC software has a
friendly interface easy and accessible. When the
user starts the program, from the beginning he
has to select new/existing job or continue the
last job. Selecting New/Existing Job the opera-
tor can name the new job as he wants in a file
.crd, after selecting the folder where he wants to
save the job. Selecting the green button the job
is set and the user have to do the settings of his
204
teren. Instrumentaia este uor de utilizat pen-
tru toat lumea, avnd o serie de aplicaii care
sunt necesare n timpul spturii sau pentru
cercetri arheologice non-invazive.
Setarea unui fiier de lucru
Programul Carlson SurvPC vine cu o
interfa prietenoas, uoar i accesibil. Cnd
utilizatorul pornete aplicaia de la nceput el
trebuie sa selecteze un fiier de lucru existent,
s creeze un nou fiier sau s continue ultimul.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
new job, mainly related with the units for dis-
tance Metric or Feet, units for angles Degrees or
Gons but also the projection system and again
select the green button.
The upper Main Menu is composed by
several tools File, Equip, Survey, CoGo and
Road. The File Menu gives to the operator the
possibility to select the job or to change settings
for the job, to see the points stored in the job
with the absolute coordinates, to change and set
Raw Data, to add a code list to the job, transfer
data, import and export files created with the
software, write a note and finaly the Exit button.
205
Selectnd New/Existing Job, operatorul poate
denumi noul fiier de tip .crd dup selectarea
directorului unde vrea s salveze operaiunea.
Selectnd butonul verde fiierul de lucru este
setat i utilizatorul va trebui s opereze setrile
pentru noul fiier, n special n legtur cu
unitile pentru distan, unitile pentru unghi
dar i sistemul de proiecie dup care s apese
din nou butonul verde.
Meniul principal de sus se compune din
mai multe unelte File, Equip, Survey, CoGo i
Road. Meniul File ofer operatorului posibili-
tatea s selecteze fiierul de lucru sau s schim-
be setrile acesteia, s vad punctele nregistrate
n fiier cu coordonatele absolute s schimbe i
s seteze Raw Data, s adauge o list de coduri
fiierelor, s transfere datele, s importe sau s
exporte fiiere create cu acest program, s scrie
o not i n final butonul de Exit.
Cristian Dima
From the Equip the user can set at with
type of device the software will connect, in our
case GPS Rover and can do different settings or
add peripherals. In GPS Rover can by chose the
type of receiver used by the operator, in our case
South S82V, methods of communication (Inter-
net), antenna etc.
The most important for the archaeology
part is the Survey menu. First option is to store
points and the activity will be done very easy,
placing the instrument on the point that the
user want to measure and selecting S. The point
will be stored and will be showed on the screen.
The tolerances for an accurate measurement will
be done automatically from the settings of the
GPS rover using Differential GPS. From the fac-
tory settings the software has set for horizontal
measurement 0.030 m tolerance, and for Verti-
cal measurement 0.060 m tolerance.
206
Din Meniul Equip, utilizatorul poate se-
lecta tipul de instrument la care se va conec-
ta carnetul de teren GPS Rover putnd reali-
za diverse setri sau aduga i echipamente
periferice. n Meniul GPS Rover se poate alege
tipul de receptor folosit de operator, n cazul
nostru South S82V, metodele de comunicaie
(internet), antena etc.
Cel mai important pentru partea de
arheologie este meniul Survey. Prima opiune
a acestuia este nregistrarea de puncte ceea ce
se realizeaz foarte uor prin aezarea GPS n
punctul pe care utilizatorul vrea s l msoare
i selectarea butonului S. Punctul va fi nreg-
istrat i va fi afiat pe ecran. Tolerana pentru
precizia msurrii va fi realizat automat din
setrile GPS Rover folosind GPS Diferenial.
Din setrile de fabric, programul are setate tol-
erana pentru msurri orizontale de 0,030 m
iar pentru msurrile verticale 0,060 m.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren
The next tool available in the Survey
Menu is Stake Points, which is a function sim-
ilar with the Stakeout tool from the Total Sta-
tion. The possibility of having real time data
makes this operation easier on a GPS Rover
than the TS. The operator will select from the
job the Point ID of the point he want to stake,
or introduce the coordinates of the point man-
207
Urmtoarele instrumente disponibile n
meniul Survey sunt Stake Points care reprezint
o funcie similar cu instrumentul Stakeout al
ST. Posibilitatea de a avea date n timp real face
aceast operaie mai uor de utilizat. Operatorul
va selecta din fiierul de lucru ID-ul punctului
pe care vrea s l urmreasc sau s introduc
coordonatele acestuia manual. Dup selectarea
Cristian Dima
ually. After selecting green button, the software
will give an image of the operator position and
a line to the staked point. Also direction will be
given following cardinal coordinates or angles,
depending how the stake is set. Then the user
will know what distance has to go to South or
North, or what distance he has to go to East or
West. When the operator will be near the point
on the screen the user will see a round target.
Other option important for archaeolo-
gy is Stake Line/Arc which is the same tool as
Reference Line/Arc from the TS. With the help
of this tool the operator could establish a line
formed from two points and to create grids or
reference to the line. The advantage of having
real time imagines but also coordinates and dis-
tances will make this job faster and easier. In
CoGo and Road menu other important tools
can be used for different calculation or transfor-
mations.
208
butonului verde programul va afia poziia op-
eratorului i o linie directoare ctre punctul ur-
mrit. Direcia va fi dat urmrind coordonatele
cardinale sau unghiurile n funcie de cum este
setat opiunea. Utilizatorul va ti ce distan
va avea de deplasat spre Sud sau Nord, Est sau
Vest. Cnd operatorul se va apropia de punctul
cutat pe ecran se va afia o int rotund.
O alt opiune important pentru arhe-
ologie este Stake Line/Arc care este un instru-
ment similar cu Reference Line/Arc al ST. Cu
ajutorul acestui instrument operatorul poate
s defineasc o linie format din dou punc-
te i s creeze un grid sau s se referenieze la
aceast linie. Avantajele unei imagini n timp
real a suprafeei cercetate va face aceast munc
mai rapid i mai uoar. n Meniurile CoGo i
Road pot fi folosite i alte instrumente pentru
diverse calcule i transformri.
Topography Survey on Field / Msurtori topografice pe teren

Limitation of GPS Rovers Limitrile receptoarelor GPS

- Level of accuracy depending on acquisi-
tion cost
- Low cost GPS cannot be used for sys-
tematic research
- Level of accuracy in forest areas, bad
GSM signal areas, crowded building areas etc.
Advantage of GPS Rovers
- One single operator
- Real time measurement
- Speed in measurement
- The possibility to see and correct the
measurement
- nivel de precizie n funcie de costurile
de achiziie.
- receptoarele ieftine nu pot fi folosite n
cercetarea sistematic.
- nivel de acuratee slab sau absent n
zonele mpdurite, zone cu semnal GSM slab,
zone cu cldiri sau aglomerate.
Avantajele receptoarelor GPS
- un singur operator.
- msurare n timp real.
- viteza msurrii.
- posibilitatea de a vedea i corecta m-
surtorile.

209

V.2. Photogrametry
CRISTIAN DIMA
Photogrammetry is related with the
recording, measurement and photographic
tridimensional representation of a complex,
building, landscape etc. In archaeology pho-
togrammetry can be applied in the excavation
site with the purpose of recording data, for each
phase of the digging process if possible in order
to create ortophotoplans that can be correlated
with GIS archive. Photogrammetric acquisition
of the landscape or the archaeological objective
has a large utility nowadays not only for superi-
or armament of acquisition and post-process-
ing the data but also by the possibility given by
the method of reconstruction 3d models of the
objective, for example a layer that was removed
in the archaeological excavation can be easily
reconstructed using this method. For Sarmize-
getusa, with the help of our colleagues from
Institute of Applied Technologies to Cultural
Heritage from Rome was tested a methodology
of collecting data developed by Emanuel Deme-
trescu (Extended Matrix Demetrescu 2017).
Preparatory work for the photogram-
metric work is the creation of a topographic
210
V.2. Fotogrametria
CRISTIAN DIMA
Fotogrametria reprezint o tehnic de
nregistrare, msurare i reprezentare tridimi-
nesional a unui complex, a unei cldiri, a unui
peisaj etc. n arheologie fotogrametria poate fi
aplicat n timpul spturii arheologice pentru
nregistrarea de date, fiecare faz din procesul
de spare fiind documentat prin crearea unor
ortofotoplanuri care pot fi corelate cu baza de
date GIS. Achiziia fotogrametric a peisajului
sau a obiectivelor arheologice are o larg utili-
tate astzi nu doar pentru metoda de colectare
i post-procesare a datelor dar i pentru posibil-
itile oferite de metod de a realiza modele 3D
ale obiectivului. De exemplu, un strat docu-
mentat i ndeprtat arheologic poate oricnd
s fie reconstruit folosind aceast metod. Pen-
tru Sarmizegetusa, cu ajutorul colegilor de la
Institutul pentru Tehnologii Aplicate Bunurilor
Culturale din Roma am testat o nou metodolo-
gie de colectare a datelor dezvoltat de Emanuel
Demetrescu (Extended Matrix Demetrescu
2017).
Munca de pregtire pentru fotograme-
trie const n crearea i dezvoltarea unei reele
Photogrametrty / Fotogrametrie
network including a series of survey nails and
photogrammetric targets distributed evenly on
the structures and gathered with a laser Leica
total station and GPS Rover creating an abso-
lute coordinate system. A good photogramme-
try model is based on two types of photographic
acquisition: a terrestrial one, recommended to
do with a DSLR camera, with the aim of ob-
taining high resolution models and the aerial
survey of the site intended to collect data both
for territorial scale (UAV Phantom 2) and high
resolution architectonic scale (S-1000 UAV).
The photographic sampling is an es-
sential feature and the quality of the post-pro-
cessed 3D models depends mainly on the photo
shooting campaign as well as on the accuracy of
the topographic survey. The photos have to be
taken at regular intervals, from different angles
and with an overlap between pairs of pictures
always higher than 70% in order to sample the
most of the affected area. The acquisitions have
to be performed in the best possible light con-
dition according to season e.g. during diffuse
light conditions (cloudy day), or in the absence
of cast shadows, then concentrating the acqui-
sition in the central hours of day. In the cases
where is encountered exposure or white balance
issues the use of photographic RAW formats
allows a post-processing work for adjustment
through the open source software Darktable:
this solution can make possible a homogeneous
result and good quality for texture building and
parameterization of 3D models.
211
topografice pentru o refereniere geospaial a
zonei de lucru, ce include plasarea unor punc-
te de control i a unor inte fotogrametrice dis-
tribuite egal n obiectivul studiat i msurate cu
o staie total Leica i un receptor GPS n scopul
crerii unui sistem de coordonate absolute. Un
bun model fotogrametric se bazeaz pe dou
tipuri de achiziie fotogrametric: achiziie fo-
tografic terestr, recomandat s fie realizat cu
o camer DSLR, cu scopul de a obine modele
3D de mare rezoluie, iar cel de-al doilea tip
este studiul i cercetarea aerian a sitului cu
scopul de a colecta informaii ale teritoriului la
scar (prin folosirea unui aparat de zbor de tip
Dron Phantom 2 sau Walkerra) la care poate fi
adugat dac este posibil i o rezoluie arhitec-
tural la scar de mare rezoluie (prin folosirea
unui aparat de zbor S-1000 UAV).
Prelevarea probelor fotografice pe teren
reprezint o caracteristic esenial a calitii
modelelor 3D post-procesate i care depinde
att de activitatea de fotogrametrie ct i de acu-
rateea documentaiei topografice. Fotografiile
trebuie realizate la un interval regulat, din di-
verse unghiuri cu o suprapunere ntre perechile
de fotografii ntotdeauna mai mare de 70% cu
scopul de a preleva ct mai mult din zona cer-
cetat. Prelevarea fotografiilor se va face n cele
mai bune condiii de lumin, n funcie de se-
zon i anume n condiii de lumin difuz (timp
noros) sau n absena umbrelor, achiziia con-
centrndu-se n orele centrale ale zilei. n cazul
n care expunerea sau white balance reprezint o
problem se poate interveni n faza de post-pro-
Cristian Dima
The aerial survey could be carried with
a quadcopter and a GoPro camera, or for exam-
ple in the case of Sarmizegetusa were used to
two systems, a quadcopter Dji Phantom 2 with
GoPro Hero4 and an octocopter assembled on
top of a Dji S-1000 framework equipped with
a Canon 6D on an universal gimbal (brushless.
com). If there is the possibility that the drone
is equipped with remotely controlled gimbal, it
will have the possibility to take photos at differ-
ent angles (from 90 to 45 degree) allowing the
archaeological contexts to be easily surveyed.
The entire dataset of images has to be divided
by smaller groups corresponding to individ-
ual monuments or context with the purpose
of making the post-processing work easier. In
post-processing work the photos will be im-
ported within the Agisoft PhotoScan or SFVi-
Fig.1. Photo alignment in Agisoft / Alinierea fotografiilor n Agisoft
212
cesare pe formatul RAW (semi-automat) unde
se pot realiza anumite ajustri folosind un soft-
ware de tip open-source (Darktable), aceast
soluie fcnd posibil un rezultat omogen i de
bun calitate pentru construirea texturilor de
calitate a modelelor 3D.
Campania de fotografii aeriene poate
fi realizat prin folosirea unei drone i a unei
camere de tip GoPro, sau spre exemplu la
Sarmizegetusa au fost folosite dou sisteme
tehnologice, o dron cu patru elice de tip quad-
copter Dji Phantom 2 dotat cu o camer fo-
tografic GoPro Hero4 i o dron cu opt elice
de tip octocopter Dji S-1000, realizat n lab-
oratorul ITABC echipat cu o camer DSLR
Canon 6D pe un Gimbal universal (brushless.
com). Dac este posibil aparatul de zbor poate
Photogrametrty / Fotogrametrie
Fig. 2. Building Dense Point Cloud / Construirea Norului de Puncte Dese
sual, the last one being open-source, both being
are image matching software which perform
the alignment of the pictures and create the
photogram-metric model (Fig. 1). In order to
provide a geo-referenced alignment, targets will
be used as control points. Once obtained the
alignment and checked the residual error, dense
clouds and then the triangulated polygon mesh
have to be calculated (Fig. 2). The dense cloud
will be treated with special software (Geomagic
and CloudCompare) in order to correct small
errors due to matching problems or sub-sam-
ples (duplicate vertices, uneven density, etc ..).
The mesh reconstruction can be performed
at the highest level of detail and subsequently
could be reshaped (closing holes, elimination
of non-manifold edges, etc.). The polygon mesh
finally can be optimized with the use of spe-
213
fi echipat cu un Gimbal teleghidat, care permite
realizarea fotografiilor la diferite unghiuri (de la
90 pn la 45 de grade) permind ca nregistra-
rea contextelor arheologice i studierea lor s fie
uor de realizat. ntregul set de date i de imag-
ini trebuiesc mprite n grupuri ce corespund
cu numele individual al monumentelor studi-
ate. n cadrul post-procesrii fotografiile vor
fi importate n programul Agisoft PhotoScan
sau SFVisual, ultimul fiind un program open-
source (Fig. 1). Acestea sunt softuri performan-
te de potrivire a imaginilor, pentru alinierea
fotografiilor n funcie de pixeli repetitivi i de
creare a unui model fotogrametric. n scopul de
a oferi o aliniere georefereniat, intele plasate
pe teren vor fi folosite drept puncte de control.
Odat realizat acest proces i obinut alinierea
i dup ce au fost eliminate erorile reziduale,
Cristian Dima
cial filters which allow reducing the number of
polygons retaining the level of detail of the parts
with more complex geometry and architectural
details.
Additional optimizations of the model
could be performed on the textured model in
Blender 3D software, where it is possible to fix
several texture issues (Fig. 3).
In case of Sarmizegetusa project the re-
sult was an extensive 3D model able to be used
to make derivative archaeological and archi-
tectural documentation (orthorectified photos,
color corrected images, plans and sections) and
to make 3D content for the virtual representa-
tion and simulation of the ancient landscape
(Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. From Mesh to Mesh with texture / De la model Mesh la Texturare
214
se va calcula i dezvolta norul de puncte dese
(dense point cloud) i poligoanele triangulate
ale imaginii (mesh) (Fig. 2). Norul de puncte
dense va fi mai apoi procesat cu alte dou sof-
turi speciale (Geomagic i Cloud Compare) cu
scopul de a corecta micile erori datorate unor
probleme de potrivire a pixelilor sau sub-ean-
tioane (noduri duplicate, densitate inegal etc.).
Reconstruirea modelului poate fi realizat la
nivel mare de detaliu i sub-secvenial remod-
elat (umplerea spaiilor goale, eliminarea mar-
ginilor non-multiple etc.). Modelul poligonal
va fi n sfrit optimizat prin utilizarea unor
filtre speciale care reduc numrul de poligoane,
pstrnd totodat nivelul maxim de detaliu, mai
ales n unele pri cu o geometrie mai complex
i detalii arhitecturale importante.
Optimizri suplimentare ale modelului texturat
se pot face i cu software-ul Blender 3D, acolo
unde este posibil s se lucreze pe mai multe as-
pecte ce privesc textura modelului (Fig. 3).
Photogrametrty / Fotogrametrie

n cazul proiectului Sarmizegetusa rezultatul a

fost un model 3D extins ce poate fi folosit pen-
tru a realiza o documentaie arheologic i ar-
hitectural (fotografii ortorectificate, imagini cu
corecii de color, planuri i seciuni) dar i pen-
tru a face un coninut 3D pentru reprezentri
virtuale i simulri ale peisajului din antichitate
(Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Sp4 Surface 3D Model - CDS 2017 - Suprafaa Sp4 - Modelul 3D - CDS
2017

215
 V.3. GIS post-procesing data
Cristian Dima
Loading survey data in Software appli-
cation
Loading and processing data from topo-
graphic survey can be realised inside a series
of software application and GIS database soft-
ware. In archaeology, the topographic data are
processed in GIS database; along with other sets
of elements (drawings, maps, plans etc.) most
common GIS software are ArcGIS, QGis or
Global Mapper. The Topographic Survey is im-
portant also for georeferencing the above men-
tion sets of elements.
GIS in Archaeology
In archaeological studies, the term of
GIS appeared frequently since the `80s, even if
already in the `70s scientific studies, computer
applications, statistic and cartographic applica-
tions, related with GIS technologies, had been
conducted in the archaeological field.
There is no perfect or accepted defini-
tion for GIS, neither for its appliances or for its
structure, but it often involves computerized
216
V.3. Post-procesarea de date
n GIS
Cristian dima
ncrcarea datelor topografice n apli-
caii software
ncrcarea i procesarea datelor obinute
din msurtorile topografice se poate realiza fo-
losind mai multe programe i baze de date GIS.
n arheologie, datele topografice sunt prelucrate
n baze de date GIS mpreun cu alte seturi de
elemente (desene, hri, planuri etc.), cele mai
utilizate fiind ArcGis, QGis sau Global Mapper.
Msurtorile topografice sunt de asemenea im-
portante pentru posibilitatea georeferenierii
unor elemente ca cele de mai sus.
GIS n arheologie
n studiile de arheologie, termenul de
GIS (Geographical Information System) apare
frecvent ncepnd din anii 80 chiar dac din anii
70 studiile tiinifice au folosit aplicaiile com-
puterizate, aplicaiile statistice i cartografice n
domeniul arheologiei care sunt n legtur cu
tehnologiile GIS.
Nu exist o definiie perfect i accep-
tat n general nici pentru GIS, nici pentru apli-
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
hardware and software in which digital spatial
data can be collected using GPS units, stored
and managed in a geo-database, and processed,
analyzed, and visualized using software with au-
tomated statistical formulas. GIS is more like-
ly a concept that contains a set of subsystems
divided in data sets, software and algorithms,
analyses and results. In archaeology, it is gen-
erally accepted that geographic information
systems are simply spatially referenced data-
basespoints or areas on a map having a direct
link to a particular record in a database. One of
the things that makes the GIS application ideal
for managing archaeological data is the capacity
of managing multi-layer and multi-scale georef-
erenced geographic data. Briefly, GIS represents
any informatics software or system specialised
in managing and analysing of data organised in
a database. The layers can include such features
as contours, hydrology, roads, soil types, veg-
etation types, archaeological sites. One of the
most important features of a GIS is the ability to
construct new data layers from those already as-
sociated with maps. Additional data type could
include drawing on field, aerial photograph, re-
mote-sensing surveys etc. Mainly GIS includes
any type of information with or added spatial
component: maps or scanned plans (drawings,
situation plans, topographic plans etc), topo-
graphic or geophysics surveys realised with dif-
ferent type of instruments: Total Station, GPS
rover, Magnetometer, Geo-radar etc.
When constructing a GIS database for
research, it is important to build a model of the
217
caiile sau structura sa, dar aceasta implic de
obicei capacitile hardware i software n care
datele spaiale digitale pot fi colectate cu ajutor-
ul receptoarelor GPS, nregistrate i gestionate
ntr-o baz de date geografic, apoi procesate,
analizate i vizualizate folosind programe cu
formule statistice automate. GIS este mai de-
grab un concept ce conine la rndul su un set
de subsisteme mprite n seturi de date, soft-
ware i algoritmi, analize i rezultate.
n arheologie, este general acceptat fap-
tul c sistemul informaional geografic GIS,
reprezint simple baze de date refereniate
spaial puncte i zone plasate pe o hart cu o
legtur direct pentru o nregistrare particu-
lar ntr-o baz de date. Pe scurt, GIS reprezint
orice sistem sau software informatic specializat
n gestionarea i analiza datelor organizate n-
tr-o baz de date. Unul dintre lucrurile care face
ca GIS s fie o aplicaie ideal pentru gestionar-
ea datelor arheologice, este capacitatea acestu-
ia de a organiza datele pe multistraturi i de a
aeza datele geografice georefereniate la diferite
scri. Straturile pot include caracteristici pre-
cum contururi, reele hidrografice, drumuri, ti-
puri de sol, de vegetaie, situri arheologice. Una
dintre trsturile cele mai importante ale GIS
este capacitatea de a construi straturi noi folos-
ind informaii deja asociate cu hri. Tipurile de
date adiionale pot include desene arheologice
de pe teren, fotografii aeriene i rezultatele cer-
cetrilor non-invazive. n principal, GIS include
orice tip de informaie cu component spaial
iniial sau adugat: hri sau planuri scanate
Cristian dima
kinds of data that are expected to be of impor-
tance to the analysis (Fig. 1). This kind of model
should have for the first step the Data Acquisi-
tion or Collecting Data that could be developed
after a certain matrix or methodology. This kind
of data could be acquired on the field (topo-
graphic survey, remote-sensing survey, draw-
ings, aerial photography or photogrammetry
etc.) or collected from online internet sources
(DEM, LIDAR, Ortophotoplans, Topographic
plans etc.). The second step in creating a GIS
model is to develop and organise a Data Base in
an informatics system as a GIS Data Base Soft-
ware (ArcGis, QGis) and to create and develop
new data layers using digitising tools for draw-
ings, maps etc. Further, depending on the re-
search direction follow analyses of the data sets
that could comprise spatial analyses and sta-
tistics, geostatistical analyses, network analyse
etc.). In the third step follows the archaeological
interpretation of the results from the analyses
and in the final step the dissemination and pre-
sentation of the results and interpretation that
can comprise visualisation of statistics, maps,
scientific reports or paper, 3D models etc.
218
(desene, planuri de situaii, planuri topografice
etc.), msurtori topografice sau geofizice reali-
zate cu diferite tipuri de instrumente: ST, recep-
tor GPS, Magnetometru, Geo-radar etc.
Cnd se va realiza o baz de date GIS
pentru cercetare, este important s se constru-
iasc un model al tipurilor de date care sunt
importante pentru analiz (Fig. 1). Acest tip de
model ar trebui s aib ca prin pas, achiziion-
area i colectarea de date care pot fi dezvoltate
urmrind o anumit metodologie. Acest tip de
date poate fi obinut pe teren prin msurtori
topografice, msurtori non-invazive, desene,
fotografii aeriene sau fotogrametrie etc. sau
colectnd sursele online (DEM, LIDAR, Orto-
photoplans, planuri topografice etc.). Al doilea
pas pentru crearea unui model GIS este dez-
voltarea i organizarea bazei de date n sisteme
informatice precum aplicaiile baze de date GIS
(ArcGIS, QGis) precum i crearea i dezvoltarea
de noi date folosind instrumentele de digitizare
pentru desene, hri etc. Mai departe, n funcie
de direcia de cercetare, urmeaz analiza setu-
rilor de date care poate fi compus din analize
spaiale i statistici, analize geostatistice i an-
alize de reele. n cel de al treilea pas, urmeaz
interpretarea arheologic a rezultatelor din ana-
lize i ca un ultim pas, diseminarea i prezentar-
ea rezultatelor i a interpretrilor care cuprind
vizualizarea statisticilor, a hrilor, realizarea
articolelor sau rapoartelor tiinifice, realizarea
de modele 3D, de expoziii virtuale etc.
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS

Fig. 1 Building a GIS database model / Crearea unui model de baz de date GIS

219
Cristian dima
QGIS in Archaeology
QGis software, due to its free availabil-
ity, is one of the most used software also in
Sarmizegetusa. Basically, this application has
similar features as ArcGis, being able to create
layers, georeference a map or an image, to make
geographic analysis, drawings, add labels etc. A
training manual can be found on the develop-
ers website, many other plugins being devel-
oped constantly.
Depending on format the user down-
loaded data from Total Station or GPS, there
are several ways to load survey data inside the
software. Must common types of files that are
downloaded from this instruments are *.txt ,
*.cvs, *.dxf , *.dwg . Except *.dwg files, which
must be transformed in *.dxf inside other pro-
grams, all the other files are compatible with
QGis. There are differences between the formats
of *.txt or *.cvs files that can be downloaded
from Total Station and from DGPS, depending
on the settings from the tool software, all of this
differences being able to be loaded in the Qgis
application with small adjustments.
For example a *.txt file from Total Sta-
tion could have for a point the coordinates
looking something like A,327327.4620,44840
0.7390,503.6540,,,,,,,,, the delimitation being a
comma that shows the point description (A),
220
QGIS n arheologie
Aplicaia QGis, datorit faptului c este
disponibil n mod gratuit, este una dintre cele
mai utilizate baze de date GIS, ea fiind folos-
it i la Sarmizegetusa. Programul are o serie
de elemente i funcii asemntoare n mare cu
cea ce ofer ArcGis. n program, utilizatorul are
posibilitatea s creeze layere, s georeferenieze
hri sau imagini, s creeze desene, s realizeze
analize spaiale sau geografice etc. Un manual al
utilizatorului se gsete pe website-ul dezvolta-
torilor, multe alte plug-inuri fiind n timp dez-
voltate pentru diverse necesiti.
n funcie de formatul pe care opera-
torul a descrcat datele din ST sau GPS, exist
mai multe posibiliti de a ncrca datele m-
surate n program. Cele mai comune tipuri de
fiiere care sunt descrcate din aceste instru-
mente sunt *.txt, *.cvs, *.dxf, *.dwg. Exceptnd
fiierele *.dvg care trebuie transformate n *.dxf,
n cadrul altor programe, toate celelalte tipuri
de fiiere sunt compatibile cu QGis. De aseme-
nea, exist diverse formate ale fiierelor *.txt
sau *.cvs care sunt descrcate de pe ST sau GPS
n funcie de setrile din programul instrumen-
tului, toate aceste diferene putnd fi ncrcare
n aplicaia QGis cu mici ajustri.
De exemplu, un fiier .txt din ST poate
avea coordonatele pentru un punct de for-
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
Easting (327327.4620), Northing (448400.7390)
and elevation from the sea level (503.6540). The
format from GPS of a *.txt file could look like 1
448400.7390 327327.4620 503.6540 A,
where the TAB is the separator and 1 is Point ID,
Northing is the first coordinate (448400.7390)
, Easting the second (327327.4620), Elevation
(503.6540) and Description (A) (Fig. 2).
The first phase of the loading survey
data into QGis Application is to set which are
the heads of the table, because neither GPS
nor Total Station will do that. Depending on
the file, the coordinates of the point could be
with comma, TAB, Space so there is need to in-
sert the heads of the table according to that. If
the table will have point coordinates separated
with comma then the heads of the table should
be separated with comma (Description, East,
North, Z), but if the coordinates will be separat-
Fig. 2. Different types of coordinate
files / Diverse tipuri de fiiere de
coordonate
221
ma A,327327.4620,448400.7390,503.6540,,,
,,,,,, delimitrile fiind reprezentate prin vir-
gul i reprezint descrierea punctului A, Est
(327327.4620), Nord (448400.7390) i elevaia
de la nivelul mrii (503, 6540). Un format al
unui fiier .txt descrcat din receptorul GPS
poate arta ns ca 1 448400.7390 327327.4620
503.6540 A, unde TAB este separatorul i 1
reprezint ID-ul punctului, Nordul este prima
coordonat (448400, 7390), Estul este cea de a
doua (32327, 4620), elevaia (503, 6540) i de-
scrierea (A) (Fig. 2).
Prima faz n ncrcarea datelor n apli-
caia QGIS, este stabilirea capetelor de tabel,
deoarece nici GPS nici ST nu le face. n funcie
de fiier, coordonatele punctelor pot fi separate
cu virgul, TAB, SPACE, astfel capetele de tabel
trebuie s fie introduse urmrind regula fiieru-
lui. Dac tabelul va avea coordonatele punctelor
separate cu virgul, atunci capetele de tabel tre-
buie separate i ele cu virgul (Descriere, Est,
Cristian dima

ed with TAB then the heads of the table will be Nord, Z), dar dac coordonatele sunt separate
separated with TAB (ID North East Z cu TAB atunci i capetele de tabel trebuie sep-
Description). arate cu TAB (ID Nord Est Z
Descriere).

Fig. 3. Loading survey data in Qgis / ncrcarea datelor topografice n QGis

222
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
Next step is to add a Delimited Text Lay-
er from the Main Menu: Layer ->AddLayer ->
Add Delimited Text Layer and to browse the
surveyed file (Fig. 3).
On the opened window, there are possi-
bilities to name the layer and set the delimiters
from the file (Comma, TAB, Space) (Fig. 4). If
the coordinates of the points are separated with
comma then the user could choose the CVS for-
mat, but if there are other delimiters, then the
user will choose Custom Delimiters and select
which is appropriate. Make sure that X Field is
East and Y Field is North. Representation of the
Fig. 4. Settings of the coordinates file/ Setrile fiierului de coordonate
geographic points it is made following x and y
axes, where x axis is horizontal (oriented East-
West), while y axis is vertical (oriented North-
South)
223
Urmtorul pas este adugarea din me-
niul principal a unui strat de tip Delimited Text
Layer: Layer -> Add Layer -> Add Delimited
Text Layer i cutarea fiierului dorit (Fig. 3).
n fereastra nou deschis, exist posibil-
itatea de a denumi noul strat creat, setarea de-
limitatoarelor n funcie de fiier (virgul, TAB,
Space) (Fig. 4). Dac coordonatele punctelor
din fiier sunt separate cu virgul, utilizatorul
poate alege formatul .cvs, dar dac sunt folos-
ii ali delimitatori, atunci utilizatorul va selec-
ta Custom Delimiters i va selecta ceea ce se
potrivete. Utilizatorul trebuie s se asigure c
coordonata Est este n cmpul X iar coordona-
ta Nord n cmpul Y. Reprezentarea punctelor
geografice este fcut urmrind axele X i Y,
unde axa X este orizontal (orientare Est-vest)
iar axa Y este vertical (orientare Nord-sud).
Cristian dima
The layer will be set and the coordinate
points will appear in the work field. The lay-
er panel will usually be on the left side of the
screen and could be accessed and placed from
the Main Menu -> View -> Panels -> Layer Pan-
el. The name of the added layer will appear in
Fig. 5. Layer Proprieties Settings / Setrile proprietiilor stratului
the layer panel and with double click or right
click, the user can see and modify the propri-
eties of the layer (name, style, labels etc.) (Fig.
5).
Drawing Sections and Plans using Sur-
vey Data.
Drawing Sections and Plans on field is
mostly time consuming, while large plans usu-
ally requires at least 3 people to draw and mea-
sure points. Much time is lost with setting the
224
Astfel, fiierul va fi setat iar punctele vor
fi afiate n spaiul de lucru. Panoul straturilor se
regsete de obicei n partea stng a ecranului
i poate fi accesat i plasat din meniul principal
Main Menu -> View -> Panels -> Layer Pane.
Numele stratului adugat va aprea n panoul
straturilor i prin dublu click sau click dreapta,
utilizatorul poate vedea sau modifica propri-
etile stratului (nume, stil, etichete etc.) (Fig.
5).
Desenarea profilelor i a planurilor fo-
losind datele msurate.
Desenul seciunilor i a planurilor pe
teren sunt de obicei consumatoare de timp iar
pentru planuri mari, de obicei este nevoie de cel
puin trei persoane pentru a desena i msura
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
grids and taking correct points for drawing. Of
course, drawing on field is more informative be-
cause of the quantity of the information visible
on the site and the interpretation that an archae-
ologist may give to the drawing. In some cases,
especially on rescue archaeological excavations,
where there is insufficient manpower and time
to do a drawing of archaeological plans or sec-
tions, the drawing of the contour of archaeolog-
ical complexes using topographic survey points
can be a solution for collecting more accurate
data than a simple picture. In some cases, when
there is enough time for topographic survey
and drawing, the data set can be used in parallel
for corrections, the advantage of collecting data
using topographic instrumentation for the con-
tour of the archaeological contexts and com-
plexes being important as the data collected will
be recorded digitally, with tridimensional coor-
dinates, easy to georeference the context. The
results of photogrammetric applications add to
this. QGis offers some plugins (Digitising Tools,
beePen, Freehand editing) to do digitised draw-
ing of sections or plans using the survey data on
field, and making a drawing in a file layer shape.
The accuracy level of the drawing using Survey
Data depends on the time invested in the data
collection on field, a larger number of point
clouds providing a more accurate drawing (Fig.
6). Also, it will be important that processing this
data is done by the same person or at least using
a photography of the context. The processing of
drawing and digitised survey data in Qgis will
be done in a Shapefile layer, which is a vector
type recognised by most GIS applications. In
225
puncte. Mult timp de pierde de asemenea cu
fixarea axelor i cu nregistrarea corect a punc-
telor. Desigur, desenul pe teren este mai infor-
mativ datorit cantitii de informaii care sunt
vizibile pe sit, precum i datorit interpret-
rii arheologului. n multe cazuri, n special pe
spturile arheologice de salvare i preventive,
unde nu sunt suficieni oameni i timp pentru
realizarea desenului arheologic al planurilor
i al seciunilor, desenul conturilor complex-
elor arheologice prin folosirea msurtorilor
topografice poate reprezenta o soluie pentru n-
registrarea datelor mult mai precis dect simp-
la fotografiere. Atunci cnd exist timp suficient
pentru msurtori topografice i pentru desen,
seturile de date pot fi folosite n paralel pent-
ru a face anumite corecturi. Avantajul colect-
rii datelor folosind instrumentaia topografic
pentru conturul contextelor i al complexelor
arheologice este important deoarece, datele
vor fi nregistrate n mediul digital cu coordo-
nate tridimensionale uurnd astfel georef-
erenierea contextului. Adiional la acestea, pot
fi adugate rezultate aplicaiilor fotogrametrice.
QGis ofer cteva aplicaii extra (plugins) pre-
cum Digitising Tools, BeePan, Freehand edit-
ing pentru digitizarea desenelor, seciunilor i
planurilor folosind datele msurate pe teren i
crearea unui desen digital ntr-un strat de tip
Shape File. Nivelul de precizie al desenului cu
ajutorul datelor msurate depinde de timpul n-
vestit n colectarea datelor pe teren; un numr
mai mare de nor de puncte va avea ca efect un
desen mai precis (Fig. 6). Totodat, este foarte
important ca procesarea datelor s fie fcut de
Cristian dima

fact, Shapefile is a vector type which comprise
a set of files (*.shp with the geometry of the
layer defined by points with coordinates; *.dbf
database of attributes; *.shx the index file of
the database; *.prj which is connected with the
projection system of the layer). Vector type data
are graphic elements that could be zoomed to
infinite and may be represented by points, lines
or polygons (closed lines). Their main charac-
teristic is that those are permanently defined
by a set of geographical coordinates and have a
clear position in space. A point is characterised
by a unique pair of coordinates and eventually
an elevation, a line contains infinity of points
but it is defined by point coordinates and it has
a length while a polygon is a closed line and it
has an area and a perimeter.
aceeai persoan, sau s existe cel puin o fo-
tografie a contextului. Procesul de desenare i
digitalizare a datelor msurate se va realiza n-
tr-un strat de tip Shape File care este de tip vec-
tor recunoscut de majoritatea aplicaiilor GIS.
De fapt Shape File este un vector care cuprinde
un set de fiiere (*.shp cu geometria stratului
definit din puncte cu coordonate; *.dbf baza
de date cu atribute; *.shx fiierul de indexare
n baza de date; *.prj care este n legtur cu
sistemul de proiecie al stratului). Datele de tip
vector sunt elemente grafice care pot fi mrite
la infinit i pot fi reprezentate prin puncte, linii
sau poligoane (linii nchise). Principala lor car-
acteristic este acea c acestea sunt permanent
definite printr-un set de coordonate geografice
i au o poziie clar n spaiu. Un punct este car-
acterizat printr-o pereche unic de coordonate

Fig. 6. QGis image of the point clouds used for drawing hypocaust system from Sarmizege-
tusa / Imagine din QGis a norului de puncte folosit pentru desenarea sistemului de hypo-
caust de la Sarmizegetusa

226
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
Example:
After loading the Delimited Text Layer
with survey data collected on field in a work file
designated especially for drawing by using sur-
vey data, the user will create a new Shapefile lay-
er from the Main Menu -> Layer -> Create Lay-
er -> New Shapefile Layer, or using the shortcut
Ctrl+Shift+N. On the opened window the user
will choose the type of the shape file (Point,
Line, Polygon), which in this case will be Poly-
gon, the projection system which for Romania
is Stereo70 and if needed, fields for each poly-
gon, for instance the name of the archaeolog-
ical complex. In this layer properties the style,
labels, colours etc. may be set. If there are need-
ed more structures to be drawn, it is also possi-
ble to create more layers. To start drawing, the
user should be on the layer and choose toggle
editing button from the menu. In this way the
user can choose different types of editing tools
and start connecting points from the survey.
An easier method of drawing, if possible, is to
take aerial photos of the plan with the help of a
drone, to create a georeferenced ortophotoplan
using photogrametry and place it in QGis, in a
raster type file and draw after it using a graphic
table and freehand plugin. The same technique
could be applied for georeferenced drawings to
do digitised drawing (Fig. 7).
227
i eventual o elevaie, n timp ce o linie conine
o infinitate de puncte dar este definit prin co-
ordonatele punctelor i are o lungime, n timp
ce un poligon reprezint o linie nchis i are o
suprafa i un perimetru.
Exemplu:
Dup ncrcarea fiierului .txt (delim-
ited text layer), ce conine datele colectate pe
teren ntr-un fiier de lucru special creat pentru
desen , utilizatorul va crea un nou strat de tip
Shape File din meniul principal Main Menu ->
Layer -> Create Layer -> New Shapefile Layer
sau va folosi scurttura CTRL +SHIFT+N. n
fereastra nou deschis, utilizatorul va alege tipul
de fiier (Punct, Linie, Poligon), n cazul nostru
va fi Poligon, sistemul de proiecie care pent-
ru Romnia este Stereo70 i dac este necesar,
cmpuri pentru denumirea fiecrui poligon,
de exemplu numele unui complex arheologic.
n proprietile acestui strat, pot fi setate stilu-
rile stratului, etichetele i culorile. Dac sunt
mai multe structuri care vor fi desenate, ex-
ist posibilitatea realizrii mai multor straturi.
Pentru a ncepe desenarea, utilizatorul trebuie
s selecteze stratul n care vrea s deseneze i
s apese pe butonul toggle editing din meniul
de mai sus. n acest mod, utilizatorul poate s
aleag diferite instrumente de editare i poate s
nceap s conecteze punctele din msurtori.
O metod mai uoar de desen, acolo unde este
posibil, este fotografia aerian a planului, cu
ajutorul unei drone, crearea unui ortofotoplan
georefereniat folosind fotogrametria, plasarea
Cristian dima

Archaeological drawing of hy-

pocaust system from CDS /
Desenul arheologic al intalaiei
de hypocaust de la CDS

Digitised version of drawing us-

ing Inkscape / Varianta digitiza-
t a desenului n Inkscape

Digitised version in QGis

conecting dots / Varianta digiti-
zat n QGis prin unirea punc-
telor

Digitised version in QGis using

FreeHand tool on the georefer-
enced drawing / Versiunea dig-
itizat n QGis folosind instru-
mentul FreeHand pe desenul
georefereniat.

Fig. 7. Different methods of digitising archaeological drawings / Diverse metode de digitizare a

desenului arheologic

228
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
Georeferencing
Maps, Aerial Photography, Geophysical
Survey, Drawing etc. which are raster type files,
could be georeferenced and loaded into the GIS
database if it is possible to correlate known or
recognised elements from raster with sets of
known coordinates. Raster files are in fact im-
age files formed from a square cells network
(pixels) with associated number value. In the
case of scanned images, aerial photography etc.
numeric value is represented by colour bits, but
there are also raster images, whose square value
is the elevation data (DEM). The cells from the
network are arranged in a fix number of rows
and columns, and by georeferencig the image,
the cells have a correspondent in real world.
A raster image cannot be zoomed beyond the
resolution limit of pixels. Georeferencing a ras-
ter implies to establish the position of a raster
in space, integrating it in a geographic or pro-
jected coordinate system and bringing it to
corresponding scale. Majority of GIS software
application offer the feature of georeferencing
and exporting the result with the spatial infor-
mation associated, and in this way, imported in
other application in the right position. The geo-
referenced images are saved usually in *.GeoTiff
format or *.ecw.
Georeferencing a drawing made on field
usually needs to be related with the drawing
axes. For larger plans, it is enough to have the
coordinates of the corners of the researched ar-
chaeological area. The georeferenced drawing
229
lui n aplicaia QGIS ntr-un fiier de tip ras-
ter, i desenarea dup acesta folosind o tablet
grafic i extensia Free Hand. Aceeai tehnic
poate fi aplicat pentru desenele care pot fi geo-
refereniate n scopul realizrii desenului digital
(Fig. 7).
Georeferenierea
Hri, fotografii aeriene, cercetri
geofizice, desene etc. fiiere de tip raster pot fi
georefereniate i ncrcate ntr-o baz de date
GIS, dac exist posibilitatea de a corela ele-
mente cunoscute sau recunoscute din imagine
cu un set de coordonate cunoscute. Fiierele
raster sunt de fapt fiiere imagine formate din-
tr-o reea de celule pstrate (pixeli) cu o valoare
numeric asociat. n cazul imaginilor scanate,
a fotografiilor aeriene etc. valoarea numeric
este reprezentat de bii de culoare, dar exist
i imagini raster a cror ptrate au valoarea el-
evaiei (DEM). Celulele dintr-o reea sunt aran-
jate n numr fix de coloane i rnduri i prin
georefenierea imaginii, celulele vor avea un co-
respondent n lumea real. O imagine raster nu
poate fi mrit mai mult dect limita de rezoluie
a pixelilor. Georeferenierea unui raster implic
stabilirea poziiei rasterului n spaiu, integrarea
acestuia ntr-un sistem de coordonate geograf-
ic sau proiectat i aducerea acestuia la o scar
corespunztoare. Majoritatea aplicaiilor GIS
ofer posibilitatea georeferenierii imaginilor i
exportarea rezultatelor cu informaiile spaiale
asociate, putnd fi astfel importate i n alte
aplicaii n poziia lor corect. Imaginile georef-
Cristian dima
could be then easily digitised in a vector layer
(Shapefile) in QGis.
An aerial photography or an ortopho-
toplan made using photogrammetry on field
could be georeferenced, using when taking
shots, different types of targets visible in the
photography and topographically measured
on field. For the aerial photography or maps
acquired from different sources, there can be
spotted other orientation elements visible in the
photography or map and correlated in the field,
such as buildings, roads etc.
In QGis georeferencig a raster could be
done inserting the coordinates of the established
points from raster manually or from the canvas
if the text delimited layer with survey points is
already loaded. For georeferencig the user will
select from Main Menu ->Raster ->Georefer-
encer ->Georeferencer. If this option is missing,
then from the Main Menu -> Plugins -> Man-
age and Install Plugins will be added Georefer-
encer GDAL and installed. Also there are others
georeferencing plugins that could be installed.
After the georeferencing window is opened, the
user should prepare transformation settings and
raster proprieties from the Main Menu. Options
from this are various, but for georeferencing im-
ages, maps or drawings, for transformation type
the Helmert or Projected computation may be
used, the resampling method being Linear and
the projection system selected for Romania is
Dealul Piscului 1970 Stereo 70. There must
be set also the output raster folder, its name
230
ereniate sunt salvate de obicei n format *.Geo-
Tiff sau *.ecw.
Georeferenierea unui desen realizat
pe teren se face de obicei n legtur cu axa de
desen. Pentru planuri mai mari, este suficient
s existe nregistrate coordonatele colurilor
suprafeei cercetate arheologic. Desenul ast-
fel georefereniat poate fi uor digitizat ntr-un
strat vector Shape File n aplicaia QGIS.
O fotografie aerian sau un ortofotoplan
realizat utiliznd fotogrametria pe teren, poate
fi georefereniat prin folosirea n momentul fo-
tografierii a diferitelor tipuri de inte vizibile
n fotografie care sunt msurate topograf-
ic pe teren. Pentru fotografii aeriene sau hri
achiziionate din diverse surse, pot fi gsite alte
elemente de orientare care sunt vizibile pe aces-
tea i pot fi corelate cu cele din teren, cum ar fi
cldiri, drumuri etc.
n QGIS, georeferenierea unui raster
poate fi realizat prin introducerea coordo-
natelor punctelor din fiierul raster, manual sau
din spaiul de lucru dac fiierul .txt cu coordo-
natele msurate este ncrcat n program. Pentru
georefereniere, utilizatorul va selecta din meni-
ul principal > Raster -> Georeferencer -> Geo-
referencer. Dac aceast opiune lipsete, atunci
se va instala din extensii astfel: Main Menu ->
Plu gins -> Manage and Install Plugins, se va
cuta extensia Georeferencer GDAL i se va in-
stala. De asemenea, exist i alte extensii pentru
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
and compression (LWZ recommended). Raster
proprieties could be modified just after loading
the raster, which the user can do from the Main
Menu -> File -> Open Raster or with shortcut
Ctrl+O or just pressing the icon for raster. Af-
ter the raster is loaded in the window the user
could load the points from a specific file or se-
lect them manually from the picture.
In the example there is an orthophoto-
plan made by photogrammetry, in the picture
being visible 13 topographic measured targets.
These targets are used not only for georeferenc-
ing the raster but also for recalibration in photo-
Fig. 8. Georeferencing a aerial image / Georeferenierea unei imagini aeriene
grammetry software so is not necessary to geo-
reference all the targets (Fig. 8). For Helmert,
only 2 georeferenced points are sufficient, while
the Projected Type requires 4 points. To be
more accurate, the user can use as many points
they believe necessary. The targets are labelled
231
georefereniere care pot fi instalate. Dup ce s-a
deschis fereastra de georefereniere, utilizator-
ul va pregti setrile de transformare i propri-
etile raster-ului din meniul principal al fere-
strei. Opiunile pentru aceste setri sunt variate,
iar pentru georeferenierea unei imagini, hri
sau desen, se folosete pentru tipul de transfor-
mare calculul Helmert sau Proiectat iar metoda
pentru reeantionare (reseampling method) se
alege liniar. Sistemul de proiecie selectat pentru
Romnia este Dealul Piscului 1990 Stereo70.
De asemenea, trebuie setat directorul n care va
fi salvat fiierul georefereniat, numele acestu-
ia i tipul de comprimare (recomandat LWZ).
Proprietile raster-ului pot fi modificate doar
dup ncrcarea imaginii de ctre utilizator, care
se poate face prin selectarea din meniul prin-
cipal Main Menu -> File -> Open Raster sau
prin scurttura CTRL+0 sau doar prin apsarea
Cristian dima

with numbers, namely the coordinate descrip-
tion or ID, being easy to identify. After selecting
a target, the user has the possibility to insert the
coordinates manually or from map canvas (Fig.
9).
icoanei raster. Dup ncrcarea acestuia n fere-
astr, utilizatorul poate ncrca puncte dintr-un
fiier specific sau selecta manual din imagine.

Fig. 9. Inserting the coordinates from the map canvas / Inserarea coordonatelor din
spaiul de lucru

232
GIS post-procesing data / Post-procesarea de date n GIS
With the same method there could be
georeferenced old maps if there are some ele-
ments to relay with. Many GIS applications
provide the possibility to import from the ap-
plication already georeferenced maps available
on several web portals (Fig. 10). As well, from
different sites there can be downloaded georef-
erenced maps, satellite images, Lidar files, eleva-
tion raster (DEM) etc. If possible, there can be
made large ortophotoplans using a drone and
the photogrammetry technique. In QGis there
can be downloaded several plugins that offer
georeferenced maps, topographic maps or satel-
lite maps. In Romania there are available differ-
ent cartographic materials of great interest for
the archaeological research, which can be found
on the geo-spatial.org website.
Fig. 10. Example of an imported map from BING in QGis / Exemplu unei hri
satelitare importate din BING n programul QGis
233
De exemplu, n cazul n care avem un or-
tofotoplan realizat prin fotogrametrie, n imag-
ine fiind vizibile 13 inte msurate topografic,
aceste inte nu sunt folosite doar pentru georef-
erenierea imaginii, ci i pentru recalibrarea n
programele de fotogrametrie, nefiind necesar
georeferenierea tuturor acestor inte (Fig. 8).
Pentru calculul de tip Helmert sunt suficiente
doar dou puncte georefereniate, iar pentru
tipul proiectat de calcul sunt necesare patru
puncte. Pentru a fi ct mai precis, utilizatorul
poate folosi cte puncte crede c sunt necesare.
intele sunt etichetate cu numere care reprez-
int descrierea coordonatei sau ID-ul punctelor,
fiind uor de identificat. Dup selectarea unei
inte, utilizatorul va putea introduce coordo-
natele acelui punct manual sau din spaiul de
Cristian dima

lucru (Fig. 9).

Cu aceeai metod, se pot georeferenia

i hri vechi, dac exist elemente suficiente
pentru a putea fi relaionate. Multe aplicaii GIS
ofer posibilitatea de a importa direct din apli-
caie hri georefereniate care sunt disponibile
pe o serie larg de portale web (Fig. 10). Tot
odat diferite site-uri ofer posibilitatea de a
descrca hri georefereniate, hri din satelit,
fiiere LIDAR, fiiere raster cu elevaie (DEM)
etc. Dac exist posibilitatea, se pot realiza i or-
tofotoplanuri pe zone extinse prin tehnica foto-
grametriei. n aplicaia QGIS pot fi descrcate o
serie de extensii care ofer hri georefereniate,
topografice sau satelitare. Pentru Romnia sunt
disponibile diverse materiale cartografice de
mare interes pentru cercetarea arheologic care
pot fi gsite pe site-ul www.geo-spatial.org.

234
Bibiliography / Literatur
Bibliography/ Literatur
Alvez, C., Modeling Prehistoric Paths in Bronze
Age Northeast England, A Thesis Presented to
the Faculty of the USC Graduate School Univer-
sity of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree Master of
Science (Geographic Information Science and
Technology), 2016.
Antal, A., Bota, E., Ciongradi C., Dima C., d`An-
nibale E., Demetrescu E., Fanini B., Ferdani, A
complete workflow from the data colection on
the field to depolyment of a Virtual Museum: the
case of Virtual Sarmizegetusa, EUROGRAPH-
ICS Workshop on Graphics and Cultural Heri-
tage (2016)C. E. Catalano and L. De Luca (Edi-
tors).
Arias, V., Application of GIS and Spatial Data
Modeling to Archaeology: A Case Study in the
American Southwest in: Anthropology Theses &
Dissertations. Paper 5, 2013.
Carafa, P., Teaching and Researching with the
GIS: an archaeological story, Journal of Research
and Didactics in Geography (J-READING), 1, 2,
June, 2013, p. 73-83.
Demetrescu, E., Fanini B., A white-box frame-
work to oversee archaeological virtual recon-
structions in spaceand time: methods and tools,
Preprint submitted to Journal of Archaeological
Science: Reports, 2017.
Demetrescu, E., Archaeological Stratigraphy as a
formallanguage for virtual reconstruction. The-
235
ory and practice, Journal of Archaeological Sci-
ence 57, 2015, p. 4255.
Maschner, Herbert D.G., Geographic Informa-
tion Systems in Archaeology, in; New Methods,
Old Problems: Geographic Information Systems
in Modern Archaeological Research, edited by
Herbert D. G. Maschner. Center for Archaeolog-
ical Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 23, p.
1-21.
Scianna, A. Villa, B., Gis applications in archae-
ology, in: Archeologia e Calcolatori, no. 22, 2011,
p. 337-363.
tefan, M.M., tefan D., Cavruc V., ArheGIS : ar-
heologie digital i spaial : manual teoretic i
exemple de aplicare, Brila, 2012.
Volkmann, A., Archaeological Information Sys-
tems (AIS) for Digital Cultural Heritage Manage-
ment: Identifying Prehistoric Iron Age and Early
Middle Ages Settlement Dynamics in the Lower
Oder Region, Preprint 2016 Sektion fr Slaw-
ische Archologie beim 8. Deutschen Archol-
ogieKongress 2014 in Berlin. Beitrge zur Ur
und Frhgeschichte Europas.
Internet sources:
http://docs.qgis.org/2.14/en/docs/training_
manual/index.html
https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/
https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
VI. Epigraphy in Archaeological sites / Epigrafia pe
siturile arheologice
THE ANCIENT CULTURE OF WRITING / CULTU-
RA ANTIC A SCRISULUI

Inscription supports and writing techniques

/ Supori de inscripii i tehnici de scriere

DOCUMENTING / DOCUMENTAREA

ANALYSIS / ANALIZA

TOOLS / INSTRUMENTE

COINS / MONEDE
 VI. Epigraphy in archaeological
sites
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Fritz Mitthof
The Ancient culture of writing
Ubiquitous inscriptions of most varied
kinds on enduring supports like stone or
bronze were in the Greco-Roman Antiquity
fundamental to public life. Especially the
towns, provided in multiple ways space for
inscription-based communication between the
rulers, the ruling apparatus, the elites and the
lower class: firstly in the Agora, respectively
the Forum, the central market and place for
public proclamations as well as for honouring
remarkable figures, then in public buildings,
temples, cult places and private houses of the
notables, embellished with building inscriptions,
dedications or honorific inscriptions, as well in
the cemeteries stretching from city gates along
the access roads and which housed numerous
funerary monuments, and lastly, the graffiti and
dipinti, short messages of all imaginable sorts
scratched with the stylus or painted with the
brush, abundant on buildings and monuments.
This enormous mass of texts, whose authors
came from all social classes and whose recipient
circle varied depending on the content, context
239
VI. Epigrafia pe siturile
arheologice
Prof. Univ. Dr. Dr. h.c. Fritz Mitthof
Cultura antic a scrisului
Omniprezena inscripiilor de cele mai
felurite tipuri pe supori durabili precum piatra
sau bronzul a fost, n antichitatea greco-roman,
o component fundamental a vieii publice.
Cu deosebire oraele ofereau, n multiple feluri,
spaiu pentru o comunicare bazat pe inscripii
ntre stpnitori, aparatul de stpnire, elite i
pturile inferioare: nti n Agora respectiv n
Forum, piaa central i locul proclamaiilor
publice precum i al cinstirii personalitilor
ieite din comun, apoi n cldirile publice, temple,
locuri de cult i casele private ale notabilitilor,
care erau mpodobite cu inscripii legate de
construcie, dedicare sau omagiere, precum i n
necropolele care se ntindeau dinaintea porilor
oraului de-a lungul drumurilor de acces i care
adposteau nenumrate monumente funerare
fcnd cu totul abstracie, n cele din urm,
de graffiti i dipinti, scurte mesaje aparinnd
tuturor genurilor imaginabile scrijelite cu
griflul (stilus) sau pictate cu pensula, cu care
erau nesate construciile i monumentele.
Aceast mas enorm de texte, ale cror autori
Fritz Mitthof
and accessibility of respective inscription, led
to constant dialog between the various groups
of the society. Inscriptions thus developed
in Antiquity towards a milieu by excellence
beneficial to political-social discourses on
topics like ruling legitimacy, definition and
hierarchy of social groups, function and self-
representation of the elites, the culture of
memory or identity. Beside this monumental
form of the written culture, which aimed at an
as broad and sustainable as possible interaction,
there existed another, designed for the purposed
of administration, legal and business life, as
well as the domestic-private environment,
mainly served by materials bearing less durable
inscriptions like the papyri or wooden tablets,
using also the cursive (Fig. 1).
The remains of these two culture fields
of the Antiquity, surviving and made available
by the research, do not surely, give an accurate
image of the effective relations of the time,
since the materials that served in Antiquity as
writing supports were exposed in very different
ways to natural decomposition or purposeful
destruction, like for instance the organic
materials as the papyri or wood by decay, metal
by melting or marble by firing for lime making;
wall coatings, which served as support for graffiti
and dipinti, survived in only extremely rare
cases, if we consider for instance Pompeii. Views
are also distorted by factors like for instance the
very different intensity of on top-later buildings,
on one hand, and the archaeological research
of the Ancient settlements, on the other.
240
reprezentau toate pturile sociale i al cror cerc
de destinatari varia n funcie de coninutul,
contextul i accesibilitatea respectivei inscripii,
determina un dialog constant ntre diversele
grupuri ale societii. Inscripiile s-au dezvoltat,
astfel, n Antichitate, ctre un mediu prin
excelen propice discursurilor politico-sociale
privitor la teme precum legitimarea stpnirii,
definirea i ierarhizarea grupurilor sociale,
funcia i reprezentarea de sine a elitelor,
cultura memoriei sau identitatea. Pe lng
aceast form monumental a culturii scrise,
care urmrea o interaciune pe ct posibil de
larg i sustenabil, a mai existat nc una
care era dedicat scopurilor administraiei,
ale vieii juridice i afacerilor, precum i sferei
casnic-private i care se servea cu precdere
de materiale purttoare de inscripii mai puin
durabile precum papirusul sau tbliele de lemn,
folosind prin aceasta i tipuri de scris cursive
(Fig. 1).
Rmiele acestor dou domenii ale
culturii scrise a Antichitii, care s-au pstrat i
care au fost fcute disponibile prin intermediul
cercetrii nu ne ofer, desigur, o imagine exact
a raporturilor efective ale vremii, dat fiind c
materialele care serveau n Antichitate ca suport
al scrisului au fost expuse n feluri foarte diferite
descompunerii naturale sau distrugerilor
intenionate, aa de exemplu materialele
organice precum papirusul i lemnul prin
putrezire, metalul prin topire sau marmura prin
ardere n scopul obinerii varului; tencuiala
pereilor, care servea drept suport pentru graffiti
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
Nevertheless, in their capacity as primary and
authentic evidence, they allow insight in the life
of the ancient world, first and foremost, in those
fields where the other sources barely provide
information or not at all. In overview, namely
subsequent to the combination and comparison
of all individual data, inscriptions record key
information, and not only the number, but also
their importance for the research of the ancient
world grows constantly year after year. A special
importance here has the incorporation of
identified inscriptions in the detailed analysis
and overall appreciation of the archaeological
sites.
Fig. 1. Wax tablet (replica) and stylus Sarmize-
getusa Museum/ Tbl cerat (replic) i stilus
Muzeul Sarmizegetusa
Inscription supports and writing
techniques
In the Greco-Roman Antiquity various
writing supports and writing techniques were
used in varied contexts. Stone and metal were
241
i dipinti, s-a pstrat doar n cazuri extrem de
rare, dac ne gndim de exemplu la Pompei.
Imaginea asupra acestora este distorsionat i
prin factori precum intensitatea foarte diferit
a supraconstruciilor de mai trziu, pe de o
parte, i de cercetarea arheologic a aezrilor
antice, pe de alt parte. Totui, inscripiile, n
calitatea lor de mrturii primare i autentice,
ne permit o introspecie n lumea vieii antice,
i aici nainte de toate n acele domenii, despre
care celelalte izvoare abia ne ofer sau nu ofer
deloc informaii. Privit ntr-o perspectiv
de ansamblu, adic n urma combinrii i
comparaiei tuturor datelor individuale, din
inscripii se pot obine informaii fundamentale,
i nu numai numrul, ci i nsemntatea
acestora pentru cercetarea lumii antice crete
constant de la an la an. O nsemntate deosebit
are aici integrarea inscripiilor gsite n analiza
de detaliu i aprecierea de ansamblu a siturilor
arheologice.
Supori de inscripii i tehnici de scriere
n antichitatea greco-roman erau n uz
diferii supori de nscrisuri i tehnici de scriere,
n contexte variate. Pentru nsemnri permanente
erau preferate n primul rnd piatra i metalul.
Piatra (mai ales marmura, calcarul i gresia)
era folosit cu deosebire pentru monumente
publice i private de toate felurile, bronzul cu
deosebire pentru comunicri publice de natur
juridic (legi, statute, diplome militare etc.),
aurul, argintul i plumbul fiind folosite mai ales
n contexte cultice. Forme deosebite constituie
Fritz Mitthof
firstly chosen for the permanent records. The
stone (especially the marble, limestone and
sandstone) was especially used for public and
private monuments of all sorts, while the bronze
mainly for legal public communications (laws,
statutes, military diplomas etc.), golden, silver
and lead being especially used in cult contexts.
Special forms are represented by mosaic and
rock inscriptions.
For ephemeral records (diplomas, legal
documents, administrative documents, letters,
accounting, but also literature etc.) were used
instead temporary inscription supports like the
papyri, wood (partially in the form of waxed
tablets / tabulae ceratae) and parchment. The
cheapest writing materials for quick notes were
the potshards, inscribed with scratched letters
or ink.
The third large group of the written
culture of the Antiquity are deemed the
common use objects (vessels, tools, water pipes,
tiles etc.), collectively and generically termed
in the research as the instrumentum, usually
bearing very short inscriptions. Such texts
fulfilled various functions: they gave indications
regarding the holder, the producer respectively
the production course, buyer, content, weight,
or customs tax, yet also contained greetings
addressed to the user etc. Text-inscribed clay
objects may be divided into prior or after firing
texts (ante cocturam / post cocturam). Also, texts
scratched or painted on house walls (graffiti and
dipinti) were very spread.
242
inscripiile n mozaicuri i n stnc.
Pentru nsemnri efemere (diplome,
documente juridice, documente administrative,
scrisori, contabilitate, dar i literatur etc.) au
fost folosite n schimb supori vremelnici de
inscripii precum papirusul, lemnul (parial
n forma tblielor cerate / tabulae ceratae) i
pergamentul. Materialul cel mai ieftin de scris,
pentru notie rapide, erau cioburile vaselor de
lut sparte, care au fost inscripionate cu litere
scrijelite sau cu cerneal.
Ca o a treia mare grup a culturii scrise
a antichitii sunt considerate obiectele de uz
cotidian (vase, unelte, evi de ap, igle etc.),
denumite n mod colectiv i generic n cercetare
ca instrumentum, i care erau deseori prevzute
cu inscripii de regul foarte scurte. Asemenea
texte ndeplineau diferite funcii: ddeau
indicaii cu privire la deintor, la productor
respectiv la decursul produciei, cumprtor,
la coninut, greutate, sau cu privire la vmuire,
dar conineau i saluturi adresate utilizatorului
etc. La obiectele din lut inscripionate trebuie
s facem deosebire ntre textele care au fost
inscripionate nainte sau dup ardere (ante
cocturam / post cocturam). De asemenea, textele
scrijelite i pictate pe pereii caselor (graffiti i
dipinti) erau foarte rspndite.
n Antichitate au existat trei tehnici
de scris fundamentale: cu ajutorul unei trestii
ascuite (calamus) i cerneal pe un papirus,
ostrakon sau lemn, cu un griflu din metal
(stilus) pentru scrijelit nscrisuri pe lemn
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
In Antiquity there existed three
fundamental writing techniques: by a sharp
reed (calamus) and ink on a papyrus, ostrakon
or wood, with a metal pen (stilus) for scratching
documents on wood, respectively wax tablets
(namely, wooden tablets with a sunken
inscription field filled with wax; the wax layer
could be used several times by heating and
smoothening), but also the building walls in
the form of graffiti, as well as by brush and (in
most cases) red paint for dipinti on vessels,
house walls etc. The wooden and metal tablets
might have been stacked on several rows and
provided with a binding (codex); in their use as
legal documents, such codices were bound in
two or three layers (diptych and triptych) by a
string or wire and later sealed. Most epigraphic
documents bear singular texts; there are though
also serial texts, usually stamped.
The processing of these text-primary
sources, directly conveyed, is divided in
contemporary research into two disciplines,
namely epigraphy and papyrology. Simplified,
epigraphy deals with texts imprinted on stone
or scratched on metal, engraved or punched
(this also means texts were written in capitals);
papyrology though, deals with those texts
written in ink, using the cursive. The common
field of the two disciplines are those texts
written in wood and clay; papyrology deals
with materials from Egypt and its neighbouring
areas, while epigraphy with those coming from
other parts of the Greco-Roman world. In this
entirely schematic division of the concerns it
243
respectiv tblie cerate (adic tblie de lemn
avnd un cmp inscriptibil adncit i umplut
cu cear; stratul de cear se putea folosi de mai
multe ori prin nclzire i netezire a acestuia),
dar i pe pereii cldirilor n form de graffiti,
precum i cu pensula i (n cele mai multe
cazuri) culoarea roie pentru dipinti pe vase,
pereii caselor etc. Tbliele din lemn i metal
puteau fi stivuite unele peste celelalte n mai
multe rnduri i prevzute cu o legtur (codex);
n utilizarea acestora ca documente juridice,
asemenea codice erau legate n dou sau trei
straturi (diptice i triptice) cu ajutorul unei sfori
sau cu o srm i pecetluite ulterior. n cazul
majoritii documentelor epigrafice este vorba
de texte singulare; exist ns i texte n serie,
acestea fiind de regul executate cu o tampil.
Prelucrarea acestor texte-izvoare
primare, transmise direct, se mparte n
cercetarea contemporan pe dou discipline,
i anume epigrafia i papirologia. Privind
simplificat, epigrafia se ocup de texte care sunt
gravate n piatr sau scrijelite n metal, gravate
sau punctate (aceasta nseamn totodat i c
este vorba de texte cu litere capitale); papirologia
ns se ocup de acele texte care au fost scrise
cu cerneal, folosindu-se scrisul cursiv.
Domeniul comun al celor dou discipline sunt
acele texte care sunt scrise pe lemn i n lut;
aici, papirologia se preocup de materialele
din Egipt i din zonele limitrofe ale acestuia,
epigrafia ns de cele provenind din alte pri
ale lumii greco-romane. n aceast mprire
ntrutotul schematic a preocuprilor se poate
Fritz Mitthof
may be clearly recognized that the division of
the two disciplines is not justified in the field,
but developed along the history of science,
representing a modern convention.
The beginnings of epigraphy go back
to the period of pre-modern humanism; over
the 19th century, it developed into a science,
being institutionalised with universities and
academies. It traditionally investigates sources
in the form of Greek and Latin inscriptions
from within the entire the Greco-Roman
world, comprising the Mediterranean space
and its vicinity, from the British Isles, the
Iberian Peninsula and Morocco in the west
through the Rhine bank and the Danube to the
Euphrates and Nile in the east. In the recent
years, research has increasingly focused also on
epigraphic cultures in regional languages and
writing systems. Here it is worth mentioning
especially in the west, the Etruscan language
and the Vetero-Italian languages beside their
specific writing systems, like the Celt, Iberian
or the Punic, in the east instead, the Egyptian
languages and writing systems, Semitic, those of
Asia Minor or Iranian.
Epigraphic evidence also represents
the connection between the text and the
writing support, mutually interacting in their
effect on the observer. Precisely in the case of
inscriptions on monuments, vessels or tools,
such interaction, purposefully initiated by
the author or which results from the specific
function of the object, is of special relevance.
244
recunoate n mod clar faptul c separarea
celor dou discipline nu i are justificarea n
domeniu ci s-a dezvoltat de-a lungul istoriei
tiinei, reprezentnd o convenie modern.
nceputurile epigrafiei ajung pn n
epoca umanismului premodern; n decursul
secolului al XIX-lea, aceasta s-a dezvoltat
nspre o tiin, fiind instituionalizat n
cadrul universitilor i academiilor. Aceasta
cerceteaz, n mod tradiional, sursele n
form de inscripie n limbile greac i latin
de pe ntregul teritoriu al lumii greco-romane,
care cuprindea spaiul mediteranean i zonele
nvecinate ale acestuia, de la Insulele Britanice,
Peninsula Iberic i Maroc n vest prin malul
Rinului i Dunre pn la Eufrat i Nil n est. n
ultimii ani, cercetarea se apleac tot mai mult
i ctre culturile epigrafice n limbi i sisteme
de scriere regionale. Aici ar fi de amintit, n
mod deosebit, n vest limba etrusc i limbile
vetero-italiene alturi de sistemele lor de scriere
specifice, precum i celta, ibera sau punica, n
est n schimb limbile i sistemele de scriere
egiptean, semitic, cele din Asia Mic sau cele
iraniene.
Mrturiile epigrafice constituie totodat
i o legtur dintre text i suportul de scris, care
interacioneaz reciproc n efectul lor asupra
observatorului. Tocmai n cazul inscripiilor
pe monumente, vase sau unelte, aceast
interaciune, iniiat n mod intenionat de
ctre autor sau care rezult din funcia specific
a obiectului, este de o relevan deosebit. Acest
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
This is especially valid when the text is
accompanied by image messages. An epigraphic
evidence is perceived and adequately analysed
by the modern man, who processes it when all
relevant levels of understanding (archaeological
context, material size, function, image and text
language) are considered concurrently. Non-
textual aspects of the epigraphic evidence were
often neglected by previous research, regarded
for a long time only as texts; only recently
the paradigm has changed, occurring, last
but not least, based on the fact that today, the
image material is no longer accessible only by
publications, but first and foremost via internet
underpinned databases, in a much more easy
way than prior the digital revolution.
Documenting
In order to document the epigraphic
evidence (understood as a unit between the
text and its support), rescued subsequent
an archaeological excavation, four steps are
essentially needed. Firstly, the object must be
described in detail and accurately in terms of
material, shape, size and preservation state
(surviving parts, missing parts). Then, its shape
must be preserved. For this, three methods
are available, which are elementary for the
subsequent scientific processing regardless the
place of occurrence, namely: drawing, copying
and photographing. All three methods render
though the monument only as perspective and
mutually complete one with the other.
245
lucru este valabil mai ales atunci cnd textul
este nsoit de mesaje n form de imagini. O
mrturie epigrafic este perceput i analizat
n mod adecvat de ctre omul modern care o
prelucreaz doar atunci cnd toate nivelurile
relevante ale nelegerii (contextul arheologic,
dimensiunea material, funcia, limbajul
imaginii i al textului) sunt luate n considerare
concomitent. Aspectele netextuale ale
mrturiilor epigrafice au fost deseori neglijate
n cercetrile mai vechi iar aceste mrturii au
fost privite mult vreme doar ca texte; doar n
ultimii ani a avut loc o schimbare de paradigm,
petrecut nu n ultimul rnd pe baza faptului c
n ziua de astzi materialul n form de imagini
nu mai este accesibil doar prin publicaiile
tiprite, ci nainte de toate i pe calea bazelor
de date care au ca fundament internetul, ntr-
un mod mult mai facil dect era nainte de
revoluia digital.
Documentarea
Pentru documentarea unei mrturii
epigrafice (neleas ca o unitate dintre text i
suportul acestuia) care a fost salvat n urma
unei spturi arheologice, sunt necesari, n
mod esenial, patru pai. nti, obiectul trebuie
descris detaliat i precis cu privire la material,
forma sa exterioar, dimensiuni i starea de
pstrare (care pri s-au pstrat, care lipsesc).
Apoi, trebuie reinut forma acestuia. Pentru
aceasta ne stau la dispoziie trei metode care
sunt de o nsemntate elementar pentru
prelucrarea tiinific mai trzie indiferent
Fritz Mitthof
The drawing provides a first
interpretation as image via the observer-modern
drawer. Copying, the making of a mould,
provides the detailed and lasting reproduction
of the inscription field life size and also serves
as an important form for long archiving of
the object here one must consider that until
nowadays, one of the greatest issues of epigraphy
is the fact that already known inscriptions
are damaged, respectively destroyed and may
even be lost entirely. In the end, in the case of
photographing, daylight conditions may be
used (mainly incident light), as well as artificial
light (Fig. 2). To these add novel technical
procedures, which imply considerable logistical
and financial effort, yet whose use is far-reaching.
Here count the Reflectance Transformation
Fig. 2. Inscription fragment, North Gate, CDS
2014/ Fragment inscripie, Poarta de Nord,
CDS 2014.
246
de locul unde va avea loc aceasta, i anume:
desenarea, replicarea i fotografierea. Toate
cele trei metode redau ns monumentul doar
ca perspectiv i se completeaz reciproc unele
cu celelalte. Desenul ofer o prim interpretare
ca imagine prin intermediul observatorului-
desenatorului modern. Replicarea, realizarea
unui mulaj, ofer o reproducere detaliat i
de durat a cmpului inscripiei n mrime
natural i servete totodat ca o form
important pentru arhivarea pe o durat lung
a obiectului aici trebuie s ne gndim c pn
n zilele noastre, una dintre marile probleme ale
epigrafiei o constituie faptul c inscripii deja
cunoscute sunt avariate respectiv distruse i pot
chiar disprea cu totul.
n fine, n cazul fotografierii, sunt de
folosit att condiiile de lumin din timpul
zilei (cu precdere lumina incident), precum
i lumina artificial (Fig. 2). La aceasta se
adaug procedeele tehnice noi, care implic
un efort logistic i financiar deosebit, ns a
cror utilizare este de perspectiv. Aici putem
numi Reflectance Transformation Imaging
(RTI) precum i scanarea cu laser 3D. Prima
procedur este potrivit pentru mrturiile care
sunt greu lizibile datorit influenei elementelor
naturii sau a distrugerii cmpului inscripionat,
iar a doua se poate folosi pentru reproducerea
inscripiilor care datorit spaiului restrns se
pot fotografia doar cu dificultate; este ns de
ajutor n reconstituirea inscripiilor disprute, i
aceasta este posibil i numai pe baza mulajelor
existente.
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
Imaging (RTI) as well as the 3D laser scanning.
The first procedure is suitable for barely visible
evidence because the natural elements or the
destruction of the inscribed field, while the
second may be used for the reproduction of
inscriptions, which owing to the reduced space
may be photographed with difficulty; it is
though helpful in the reconstruction of missing
inscriptions, and it is possible also only based
on existent mouldings.
The cleaning of the objects and applied
restoration measures must be carried out with
outmost care. In general, the motto less is
more is valid. Metal objects require special
care; this is valid also for coins (see below).
The upper metal layer may be still soft owing
to ground deposition and may be easily
affected. Mechanical abrasion and cleaning
may possibly result in the detachment of the
superficial, oxidised layer. Bronze and lead
objects cannot be stored in plastic, but only
in non-acid paper, to avoid triggering any
chemical processes. All objects of the sort must
be delivered as soon as possible to the restorers,
for preparation. Their classification (and
this is again valid also for coins) must occur
only afterwards. To this effect, it is otherwise
important to underline that written evidence
is not often recognised immediately as such
during the excavation campaigns (especially
when discussing ink inscriptions); this must be
considered for instance when cleaning various
object types like potshards.
247
n currea obiectelor i aplicarea
msurilor de restaurare trebuie procedat pe ct
posibil ct mai precaut. n general, aici este
valabil deviza mai puin este mai mult. O
pruden deosebit necesit obiectele metalice;
acest lucru este valabil i n cazul monedelor
(vezi mai jos). Stratul superior al metalului poate
fi nc moale din cauza depozitrii n pmnt
i poate fi uor afectat n acest fel. Abraziunea
mecanic i curirea determin, eventual,
desprinderea stratului superficial, oxidat. n
afar de aceasta, piesele din bronz i plumb
nu pot fi depozitate n plastic, ci doar n hrtie
neacid, pentru a nu declana procese chimice.
Toate obiectele de acest fel trebuie predate ct
de repede posibil restauratorilor, pentru a le
prepara. Clasificarea acestora (i acest lucru
este iari valabil i pentru monede) trebuie s
aib loc doar dup aceea. n aceast relaie este
de altfel important de subliniat, c mrturiile
scrise nu sunt ntotdeauna recunoscute imediat
ca atare n timpul campaniilor de spturi (mai
ales cnd este vorba despre inscripii efectuate cu
cerneal); acest lucru trebuie luat n considerare
de exemplu la curirea diferitelor tipuri de
obiecte gsite precum cioburile de ceramic.
La identificarea unei mrturii epigrafice
n timpul unei spturi trebuie de altfel luat
n considerare cu deosebire dac acel obiect
se afl n locul su original din Antichitate (in
situ), sau dac acesta fusese mutat deja atunci.
n primul caz trebuie clarificat crui monument
respectiv crui context de construcie i aparine
Fritz Mitthof
When identifying epigraphic evidence
during an excavation, one must also take into
account especially if that object stands in its
original place like in Antiquity (in situ), or if it
had been already moved as early as Antiquity.
In the first case, one must clarify to which
monument, respectively to which building
context the inscription belongs, and in the
second, if the inscription was used secondarily
or included in a building (spolia), and if so, to
which monument or building it belonged, or
if it was part of a planned location occurring
at the same time, or of a deposition of several
objects (deposit).
Analysis
The documenting of the epigraphic
evidence is followed by the second phase, its
analysis, and the publication in the end. The
analysis develops over nine steps: firstly, the text
is described (ordering/layout, letter sizes, type
and appearance of the inscribed field, extension
of any possible lost elements of the text), then
transcribed, namely on one hand, in the form
of a diplomatic transcription, rendering the
text as it appears on the support, on the other
hand in the form of a readable text, where the
lost or abbreviated elements are completed, the
mistakes of the ancient author are pointed out
and the marking of the places where reading is
uncertain, respectively if there are only partially
248
inscripia, iar n al doilea, dac inscripia a fost
folosit n mod secundar sau inclus ntr-o
construcie (spolie), i dac da, crui monument
sau construcie i-a aparinut aceasta, sau dac
eventual aceasta a fost parte a unei plasri
planificate i efectuate n acelai timp, sau a unei
depuneri de mai mult obiecte (depozit).
Analiza
Documentrii mrturiei epigrafice i se
altur ca o a doua faz analiza acesteia, care are n
cele din urm ca efect editarea. Analiza decurge
n nou pai: nti se realizeaz o descriere a
textului (ordonarea/layout-ul acestuia, mrimea
literelor, felul i aparena cmpului inscripionat,
ntinderea eventualelor elemente pierdute ale
textului), apoi o transcriere, i anume pe de o
parte n forma unei transcrieri diplomatice,
care red textul exact aa cum acesta apare pe
suport, pe de alta n forma unui text lecturabil,
n care elementele pierdute ori abreviate sunt
completate, sunt indicate greelile autorului
antic, de asemenea fiind marcate i locurile n
care exist o nesiguran n citire respectiv exist
litere pstrate numai parial. Pentru explicaii
se va alctui un aparat critic. La transcrierea
textului va fi folosit aa-numitul sistem al
parantezelor de la Leiden, care indic semnele
diacritice care i gsesc aplicabilitate aici.
Paii urmtori care succed cuprind
traducerea ntr-o limb modern, stabilirea
tipului de text, identificarea de paralele ntre
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
preserved letters. For explanation a critical
apparatus shall be drafted. When transcribing
the text, the so-called Leiden system of brackets
shall be used, indicating applicable diacritics.
The following steps include the
translation into a modern language,
establishment of the text type, identification
of parallels between the text, monument and
image of the writing, analysis of the writing
image, a linguistic comment (especially in the
case of orthographic and syntactic deviations
from standard language), historical framing
and lastly, the dating. The publication should
contain all these elements.
Fig.3. Stamped tile fragment, Domus, CDS
2017/ Fragment igl tampilat, Domus, CDS
2017.
249
text, monument i imaginea scrisului, analizarea
imaginii scrisului, un comentariu din punct de
vedere lingvistic (mai ales n cazul divagrilor
ortografice i sintactice de la limba standard),
ncadrarea istoric i n cele din urm datarea.
Editarea va trebui s cuprind toate aceste
elemente.
Cele mai multe inscripii se pot ncadra
cel puin ntr-una dintre urmtoarele categorii:
inscripii votive, inscripii funerare, inscripii
onorifice, inscripii de construcii, documente
publice (legi, statute, decrete, diplome militare
etc.) i mici nscrisuri (care au de regul o
motivaie economic i apar astfel ntr-un
numr mai mare sau sunt chiar executate n
serie, precum inscripiile i tampilele pe vasele
destinate transportului de mrfuri, etichete
care au fost ataate mrfurilor etc.) (Fig. 3). La
acestea trebuie luat n considerare faptul c o
inscripie individual poate aparine la fel de
bine mai multor categorii; astfel exist texte,
care sunt deopotriv legate de o construcie,
fiind totodat i votive dar i onorifice la
adresa unui stpnitor. Din punct de vedere
al formei exterioare, n domeniul inscripiilor
monumentale domin plcile, stelele, bazele
statuilor i altarele. n mod fundamental ns,
aa cum am mai amintit, inscripiile pot fi
aplicate pe orice fel de element arhitectonic sau
obiect mobil.
Datarea mrturiilor epigrafice este de
regul dificil, dat fiind c acestea nu conin, n
mod obinuit, indicaii exacte privitor la dat.
Fritz Mitthof
Most inscriptions may be framed at
least in one of these classes: votive inscriptions,
funerary inscriptions, honorific inscriptions,
building inscriptions, public records (laws,
statutes, decrees, military diplomas etc.) and
small documents (regularly economically
grounded and thus emerging in more or less
numbers or are even serial, like inscriptions and
stamps on vessels designed for goods transport,
labels attached to the merchandise etc.) (Fig. 3).
Further, one must consider that an individual
inscription may belong as well to several
classes; thus, there are texts which are related to
a building, being both votive and honorific to
the address of a certain ruler. From the point
of view of the exterior shape, in the field of the
monumental inscriptions plates, stelae, statue
bases and altars dominate. Fundamentally
though, as previously mentioned, inscriptions
may be applied on any kind of architectonic
element or mobile object.
The dating of the epigraphic evidence
is usually difficult since it does not regularly
contain accurate indication on date. Essential
are the external clues (archaeological context,
monument type, writing image), as well as the
intrinsic indications (linguistic specificities,
terminology, inclusion of information on
real goods or events etc.). In numerous
cases though, it is impossible to make an
accurate chronological determination; many
inscriptions may be dated with a one century
or half century precision, others even within a
250
Eseniale sunt aici indiciile exterioare (contextul
arheologic, tipul monumentului, scrierea),
precum i indiciile intrinseci (specificiti
lingvistice, terminologia, includerea de
informaii privind bunuri reale ori evenimente
etc.). n numeroase cazuri ns nu este posibil
o delimitare cronologic exact; foarte multe
inscripii pot fi datate doar cu o precizie de un
secol sau de o jumtate de secol, altele chiar n
cadrul unui cadru de timp mai larg. Presupusa
calitate a inscripiei trebuie s fie luat n
considerare ca indiciu n stabilirea momentului
realizrii doar n mod limitat; percepia estetic
modern nu ofer un criteriu valabil din punct
de vedere tiinific, i n toate timpurile au
existat att inscripii executate cu grij i migal
ct i altele scrise neglijent i simplist.
n analizarea inscripiilor ne stau la
dispoziie o serie de discipline speciale (tiine
auxiliare), care se sprijin preponderent sau
doar n prile lor eseniale pe izvoarele n
form de inscripii; astfel este de exemplu
tiina nscrisurilor istorice (paleografia), tiina
numelor (onomastica), tiina persoanelor
(prosopografia), tiina dimensiunilor i a
greutilor (metrologia) sau cronologia istoric.
Instrumente
Inscripiile se public n trei forme: n
corpusuri (un corpus adun toate inscripiile
ntr-una sau mai multe limbi dintr-o anumit
regiune sau perioad de timp sau n legtur cu
o anumit tem), n colecii tematice precum
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
broader time span. The supposed quality of
the inscription is limited in the establishment of
the time of occurrence; modern aesthetic views
do not provide a scientifically valid criterion,
while both carefully and skilled and coarse and
simplistic inscriptions existed in all periods.
To the inscription analysis contribute a
series of special disciplines (auxiliary sciences),
grounded mainly or only in their essential part
on inscription sources; these are for instance the
science of historical documents (palaeography),
the science of names (onomastics), the science
of persons (prosopography), the science of
sizes and weights (metrology) or historical
chronology.
Tools
Inscriptions are published in three forms:
in corpuses (a corpus gathers all inscriptions in
one or several languages from a certain region
or time or in connection with a certain topic),
in the theme collections as well as in dispersed
publications in specialty journals and volumes.
These editions include, beside the sources
discovered in the recent past (19th 21st
centuries), inscriptions whose original was lost,
yet which are described in Middle Age works
and those of the early Modern period conveyed
by manuscript. Large corpus projects are for
instance Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
(CIL) or Inscriptiones Graecae (IG). A selective
important collection is for instance Inscriptiones
Latinae Selectae (ILS). Dispersed publications
are composed, based on the publishing year, of
251
i n publicaii dispersate n reviste i volume
de specialitate. n aceste ediii sunt incluse,
alturi de izvoarele descoperite n trecutul
recent (secolele XIX-XXI), i inscripii al cror
original s-a pierdut dar care sunt descrise n
operele Evului Mediu i ale epocii moderne
timpurii transmise prin manuscris. Marile
proiecte de corpusuri sunt de exemplu Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) sau Inscriptiones
Graecae (IG). O colecie selectiv important
este de pild Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (ILS).
Publicaii dispersate sunt alctuite, conform
anului apariiei, n LAnne pigraphique (AE)
pentru inscripii latine i n Supplementum
Epigraphicum Graecum (SEG) pentru inscripii
greceti. Inscripiile se citeaz, n msura n care
este posibil, n mod exclusiv sub o cot precum
CIL, IG etc., alturi de numrul respectiv al
volumului i ediiei. Toate ediiile importante de
inscripii, precum i literatura privind cercetrile
i modurile corespunztoare de citare se afl
cuprinse n Guide de lpigraphiste (vezi http://
www.antiquite.ens.fr/ressources/publications-
aux-p-e-n-s/guide-de-l-epigraphiste/).
1
Pentru editarea inscripiilor nou gsite
exist ntre timp numeroase instrumente
de lucru bazate pe internet, care prezint
textul i ilustraiile, coninnd i metadate
pentru descrierea formal a monumentului
i referitoare la locul identificrii i pstrrii,
dar chiar i parial traduceri i referiri la
literatura de specialitate aferent. Graie acestor
mijloace ajuttoare este posibil astzi o cutare
1
Fritz Mitthof
LAnne pigraphique (AE) for Latin inscriptions
and Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum
(SEG) for Greek inscriptions. Inscriptions are
quoted, to the extent possible, exclusively under
a quote like CIL, IG etc., beside respective
number of the tome and edition. All important
inscription editions, as well as literature on the
research and corresponding quoting systems
are in Guide de lpigraphiste (see http://www.
antiquite.ens.fr/ressources/publications-aux-p-e-
n-s/guide-de-l-epigraphiste/).
For editing recently identified
inscriptions there are numerous internet-based
working tools, which present the text and
illustrations, containing also metadata for the
formal description of the monument and the
place of identification and preservation, but even
also partially translations and references to the
related specialty literature. Grace to these aiding
means today it is possible to systematically
search parallels from various views. We shall
mention a few examples: a quick search for
complete texts of the Greek inscriptions is
possible in the database PHI Searchable Greek
Inscriptions: http://epigraphy.packhum.org/
inscriptions/. The same database provides for
the Latin inscriptions the epigraphic database
Clauss-Slaby: http://www.manfredclauss.de/.
Other databases, thematically or regionally
limited, providing instead more detailed
information are those like Epigraphic Database
Roma (EDR): http://www.edr-edr.it/Italiano/
index_it.php (Latin inscriptions on the Italian
Peninsula, Sardinia and Sicily), or Epigraphic
252
sistematic a unor paralele dintre diferitele
puncte de vedere. n continuare, vom numi doar
unele exemple: o cutare rapid pe textul complet
pentru inscripiile greceti este posibil n baza
de date PHI Searchable Greek Inscriptions: http://
epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/. Aceeai
baz de date ne ofer, pentru inscripiile latine,
baza epigrafic de date Clauss-Slaby: http://www.
manfredclauss.de/. Alte baze de date, limitate
tematic ori regional, oferind n schimb mai
multe informaii de detaliu, sunt cele precum
Epigraphic Database Roma (EDR): http://www.
edr-edr.it/Italiano/index_it.php (inscripii latine
de pe Peninsula Italian, Sardinia i Sicilia),
sau Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (EDH):
http://edh-www.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/home
(inscripii latine din provinciile romane). Un
format deosebit, care reunete ntr-un mod
exemplar monumentul i inscripia antic, este
oferit de banca de date pentru imagini Ubi Erat
Lupa: http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org/about.php,
avnd accentul pe Europa Central i de Sud
aproximativ pn la anul 500 d. Chr.
Monedele
Monedele se aseamn mrturiilor
epigrafice, dat fiind c sunt purttoare de mesaje
n form de text i imagini. Acestea sunt ns
executate ntotdeauna n serie i sunt gsite n
cursul spturilor ntr-un numr semnificativ
mai mare dect inscripiile. Valoarea acestora
ca izvoare primare const n faptul c ne ofer,
pe de o parte, date valoroase privind istoria
monetar i economic a Antichitii (tipuri de
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie
Database Heidelberg (EDH): http://edh-www.
adw.uni-heidelberg.de/home (Latin inscriptions
form the Roman provinces). A special format,
reuniting exemplarily the ancient monument
and inscription is provided by the databank
for images Ubi Erat Lupa: http://www.ubi-erat-
lupa.org/about.php, with emphasis on Central
and Southern Europe until AD 500.
Coins
Coins resemble the epigraphic evidence
as they are message bearers in the form of texts
and images. They are though always serial items
and are discovered during the excavations in
a significantly larger number compared to
inscriptions. Their value as primary sources
consists in the fact they provide on one hand,
valuable data on the coinage and economic
history of the Antiquity (coin types, nominal
system, coin metal and precious metal content,
mints, issues of the individual series via stamp
analysis etc.), beside the fact that, on the other
hand, they provide information on the rulers
that minted them, therefore regarding the
political unit ordering their minting, as well as
their self-ideological representation. Moreover,
coins have a special significance in the
archaeological excavations, as they represent a
possible dating means of the excavation layers
and other identified elements. However, one
must act very cautiously, as coins provide always
a terminus post quem, and in only rare cases an
accurate date. In the documenting of coin finds
one must necessarily clarify if the coin was
253
monede, sistemul nominal, metalul monedei
i coninutul de metal preios, circulaia
monedelor, monetriile, emisiunile seriilor
individuale prin intermediul analizei tanelor
etc.), alturi de faptul c, pe de alt parte, ne
ofer informaii privind stpnii care le-au
btut, deci referitor la formaiunea politic care
a comandat baterea acestora, precum i despre
reprezentarea ideologic de sine a acestora.
Totodat, monedele au o semnificaie deosebit
n spturile arheologice, dat fiind c reprezint
un posibil mijloc de datare a straturilor
arheologice i a altor elemente identificate. Aici
ns trebuie acionat cu mare precauie, fiindc
monedele ne ofer ntotdeauna un terminus
post quem, i doar n cazuri rare o dat exact.
La documentarea descoperirilor numismatice
trebuie clarificat neaprat dac moneda a fost
plasat intenionat sau dac a fost doar pierdut
de ctre deintorul ei din Antichitate, dac este
vorba despre un lot dispersat sau de un tezaur
(n distincia dintre acestea dou, esenial
este ntrebarea dac este vorba de o pies
individual sau de mai multe plasate n acelai
timp n acelai loc). Tezaurele, prin datarea
tipului de moned avnd data cea mai trzie
(moned de ncheiere) cuprins n acestea, sunt
un indiciu indirect important pentru istoria
politic. ns i aceast posibil legtur dintre
depozitarea monedelor i un eveniment de criz
trebuie privit totdeauna critic; indicatorul
decisiv nu const n circumstanele n sine ale
depozitrii acestora, fiindc aceast practic era
n general uzual n societile premoderne, ci
n omisiunea recuperrii acestora, din care se
Fritz Mitthof
purposefully placed or only lost by its holder
from Antiquity, if it is a dispersed lot or a hoard
(in the distinction among the two, the question
whether it is an individual piece or several
pieces placed concurrently in the same spot).
The hoards, via the dating of the coin type of
latest date (ending coin) are important indirect
evidence on the political history. Nonetheless,
this possible relation between the deposit of the
coins and a crisis event must always be regarded
critically; the decisive indicator does not consist
in the proper circumstances of their deposit, as
this practice was in general usual in pre-modern
societies, but in the omission of their recovery,
which may infer that respective person could
no longer reach the deposit place.
The scientific valuation of the
numismatic finds yielded by the archaeological
excavations shall use for comparison, beside
those resulting from other professional
campaigns or scientifically undocumented finds,
also those housed in collections often existing
for hundreds of years; to these add those pieces
circulating in the international coin trade. And
the science of the coins (numismatics) has a
tradition going back to the Humanism. Thus,
the relevant literature stretches from the 16th
century until the 21st century. Among the
modern working tools, internet-based, we may
count the following: a comprehensive database
with links to other databases, geographical
information and definition of the terms is
http://nomisma.org/; beside this database of
the numismatic images Eichsttt: http://www.
254
poate concluziona c persoana respectiv nu a
mai putut ajunge la locul depozitrii.
Pentru valorificarea tiinific a
descoperirilor numismatice din cadrul
spturilor arheologice se vor folosi pentru
comparaie, alturi de acele piese care provin din
alte campanii profesionale sau din descoperiri
nedocumentate tiinific, i acelea care sunt
depozitate n coleciile care exist deseori de
sute de ani; la acestea se adaug acele piese care
circul n comerul internaional cu monede. i
tiina monedelor (numismatica) are o tradiie
care ajunge pn n epoca umanismului.
Astfel, i literatura relevant se ntinde de la
secolul al XVI-lea pn n secolul XXI. Printre
instrumentele de lucru moderne, bazate pe
internet, putem enumera cteva exemple: o
baz de date cuprinztoare cu link-uri ctre alte
baze de date, informaii geografice i definiii ale
termenilor este http://nomisma.org/; alturi de
aceasta baz de date a imaginilor numismatice
Eichsttt: http://www.nbeonline.de/; Coin
hoards of the Roman Republic (CHRR): http://
numismatics.org/chrr/ (descoperiri de tezaure
din vremea Republicii Romane); apoi Roman
Provincial Coinage Online: http://rpc.ashmus.
ox.ac.uk/ (serii de monede regionale i locale
ale provinciilor romane); Sylloge Nummorum
Graecorum: htpp://www.sylloge-nummorum-
graecorum.org/ (Monede ale lumii greceti aflate
n colecii publice i n proprietate privat);
Corpus Nummorum Thracorum (CNT): http://
www.corpus-nummorum.eu (monede antice din
Tracia); i n cele din urm CoinArchives: http://
www.coinarchives.com/, n care sunt catalogate
Epigraphy in archaeology / Epigrafia n arheologie

nbeonline.de/; Coin hoards of the Roman piesele care sunt oferite la licitaiile comerului
Republic (CHRR): http://numismatics.org/chrr/ cu monede.
(Roman Republican hoard find); then Roman
Provincial Coinage Online: http://rpc.ashmus.
ox.ac.uk/ (regional and local coin series of
the Roman provinces); Sylloge Nummorum
Graecorum: htpp://www.sylloge-nummorum-
graecorum.org/ (coins of the Greek world in
public collections and private property); Corpus
Nummorum Thracorum (CNT): http://www.
corpus-nummorum.eu (ancient coins from
Thracia); and lastly, Coin Archives: http://www.
coinarchives.com/, which catalogues the pieces
offered for coin trade auctions.

255
Bibiliography / Literatur

org/inscriptions/
Ubi Erat Lupa: http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org/
Bibliography/ Literatur about.php.

Baze de date numismatice on-line:

Literatur
Eichsttt: http://www.nbeonline.de/
General: CoinArchives: http://www.coinarchives.com/
Coin hoards of the Roman Republic: http://nu-
Guide de lpigraphiste. Vezi http://www.antiq- mismatics.org/chrr/
uite.ens.fr/ressources/publications-aux-p-e-n-s/ Corpus Nummorum Thracorum: http://www.
guide-de-l-epigraphiste/ corpus-nummorum.eu
http://nomisma.org/
Corpusuri: Roman Provincial Coinage Online: http://rpc.
ashmus.ox.ac.uk/
L`Ane pigraphique. Paris. Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum: htpp://www.
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin 1863-. sylloge-nummorum-graecorum.org/
Inscriptiones Graecae. Consilio et auctoritate
Academiae Scientiarum Berolinensis et Brander-
burgensis editae, vol. I-XII.
Inscriptiones latinae selectae, Ed. H. Dessau,
I-III, Berlin 1892-1916.
SEG - Supplementul Epigraphicum Graecum,
Leiden, 1 1923-.
Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, Am-
sterdam 1923-.

Baze de date epigrafice on-line:

Clauss-Slaby: http://www.manfredclauss.de/
Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: http://edh-
www.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/home
Epigraphic Database Roma: http://www.edr-edr.
it/Italiano/index_it.php
Greek Inscriptions: http://epigraphy.packhum.

256