The Ages and Stages of Child Development

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Children go through distinct periods of development as they move from infants to young
adults. During each of these stages multiple changes in the development of the brain are
taking place. What occurs and approximately when these developments take place are
genetically determined. However, environmental circumstances and exchanges with key
individuals within that environment have significant influence on how each child benefits from
each developmental event.

Ages and Stages is a term used to broadly outline key periods in the human development
timeline. During each stage growth and development occur in the primary developmental
domains including physical, intellectual, language and social emotional. Our goal is to help
parents understand what is taking place in their childs brain and body during each period
with the hope that they will be able to provide the necessary support, encouragement,
structure and interventions to enable a child to progress through each stage as easily and
successfully as possible based on each childs unique set of traits and interests.
 Infants/Babies (0 2 years)

Raising a baby, especially for the first time, is both exciting and challenging. This is a time for
developing the bonds that will last a lifetime providing the child with the inner resources to
develop self-esteem and the ability to relate positively with others. It is also the time for
parents to begin to discover who this new person really is. Each child is unique and it is
imperative that parents learn to understand, respect, support and encourage the unique
characteristics and abilities of each child.

Download Our Ages & Stages Chart: Birth to 2 Years Old

Expert Articles on infant development and tips for parents on baby care
Baby Care on our blog
Toddlers/Preschoolers (2 5 years)

When a child takes the first step on his or her own, a new phase in development begins. At
this stage children are now free to roam around their world. It is a time for active exploration
of their environment. Language development takes major leaps which leads to learning the
names of objects of interest, the ability to ask for things and as they discover their independent
nature, yes, they develop the ability to say NO!.

During this developmental stage, a major challenge is developing what psychologists call
emotional regulation. Meltdowns are common during this period but parents can use the
bond developed during infancy to help the child learn to modulate their emotional expression
and begin to grasp the difficult concept of delay of gratification. While they instinctively seem
to be able to say NO toddlers also need help in learning how to accept No from others.

This is also a stage of rapid physical and intellectual development preparing these children for
starting school which includes interacting cooperatively with peers while at the same time
being able to compete physically and intellectually. A childs parent is in the position to be a
coach providing just the right combination of encouragement, support and guidance. Parents
also need to serve as primary teacher for the mastery of basic learning skills and encourage
active discussion and experimentation of new concepts and skills.

Download Our Ages & Stages Chart: 2 to 5 Years Old

Expert Articles on child development and tips for parenting toddlers & preschoolers
Blog posts related to toddlers & preschoolers
School Age Children (6 12 years)

Raising school age children can be awesome. Watching them try new activities, cheering them
on at athletic events and applauding their accomplishments at recitals are usually some of the
high points for most parents. However, achieving success is often preceded with frustration
and sometimes learning to accept ones weaknesses as will as celebrating and building on
strengths. When will equipped parents can be excellent coaches for their child no matter what
the endeavor.
 While toddlers and preschoolers need constant supervision, school age children become
gradually ready for more independence. However, learning to make good choices and exercise
self-discipline does not come easily for many. Parents need to impart a moral code that the
child gradually internalizes. As children struggle with these important tasks parents must be
able to provide praise and encouragement for achievement but parents must also be able to
allow them to sometimes experience the natural consequences for their behavior or provide
logical consequences to help them learn from mistakes.

Expert Articles & Blog Posts on Raising School Age Children

Blog posts related to School Age Children
Adolescents/Teenagers (13 18 years)

There is no doubt that for most families, the teen years present a challenge for both parents
and children.

Middle School is not fondly remembered by most who attend. It is often fraught with scary
body changes, bullying by peers and a new surge for independence. This leads to
passive-aggressive behavior (Ill do it in a minute), self-consciousness (What are you staring
at?) and self-doubt (Im not good at anything.) and/or over-confidence (Well, I thought I
could do that.) and of course moodiness (Leave me alone.).

High School is usually better for most. It is a time to really begin defining ones self and
realistically contemplating the future. Skill development is accelerated to prepare for college
or job training programs. Talents are perfected. Social skills are honed and relationships
take on more of a serious nature. Peer pressure is at its max and in todays teen society there
are more tempting sidetracks than ever.

During adolescence, kids need their parents more than ever. Research shows that a positive
family environment including fun family activities, open parent-child communication and the
encouragement to participate in positive extracurricular and community activities, teens are
able to navigate these years with relative ease.
Home Developmental Psychology Piaget

Jean Piaget
by Saul McLeod, updated 2015

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He
disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process
which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of
questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong
answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed
important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget (1936) described his work as genetic epistemology (i.e., the origins of thinking). Genetics is the scientific
study of where things come from (their origins). Epistemology is concerned with the basic categories of thinking,
that is to say, the framework or structural properties of intelligence.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of
grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea
of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions
include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and
a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Before Piagets work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent
thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on
which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.

It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific
behaviors.
 It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in
number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child,
develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological
maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then
experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas

(building blocks of knowledge).

2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one

stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation, and
accommodation).
3.
4. Stages of Cognitive Development:
1. sensorimotor,
2. preoperational,
3. concrete operational,
4. formal operational.

Schemas
Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not
be able to make so much use of information from your past experience or to plan future actions.
Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation
of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as:
"a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning."
In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior a way of
organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as units of knowledge, each relating to one
aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.
Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards' filed in the brain,
each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.
When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to increases in the
number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state
of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were
developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we
use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental
representations and apply them when needed.
For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of
the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an
example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from
memory and apply it to the situation.
The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how
- as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even before they have had many
opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate
reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will
suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking
schema.'
Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting
reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas.
Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:

Assimilation
Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accommodation
This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal
with a new object or situation.

Equilibration
This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a s
rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing
schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek
to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is
acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to
make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation
A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his fathers
horror, the toddler shouts Clown, clown (Siegler et al., 2003).

Example of Accommodation
In the clown incident, the boys father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though
his hair was like a clowns, he wasnt wearing a funny costume and wasnt doing silly things to make people
laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of clown and make this idea fit better to a
standard concept of clown.

Stages of Development
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's
thought:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)

2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7)
3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)
4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is determined by biological
maturation and interaction with the environment. Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual
differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later
stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages
often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 yrs)

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is
hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a
word or an object - stand for something other than itself.

Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development because it marks
the beginning of logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real
world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that
something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During this time,
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

Educational Implications
Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how
features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.
Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For example, a
review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piagets theory. The result of
this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central
to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.
'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in
children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of
children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.'
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of 'readiness' is important.
Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory
children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive
development.
According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one,
because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.
Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery learning.
The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore, teachers should encourage
the following within the classroom:

o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.

o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths."

o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn
from each other).
o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium
in the child.
o Evaluate the level of the child's development so suitable tasks can be set.
Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory of
Cognitive Development
BY PSYCHOLOGY NOTES HQ JULY 17, 2017
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who lived during the Russian
Revolution, developed a theory of development known as the Sociocultural Theory of
Cognitive Development in the early twentieth century.

As a proponent of the sociocultural perspective to development, Vygotskys sociocultural

theory gained worldwide recognition. It began to exert influence when his work was
finally translated into English in 1962 and the importance of both sociocultural
perspective of development and cross-cultural research was recognized.

Vygotskys main assertion was that children are entrenched in different sociocultural
contexts and their cognitive development is advanced through social interaction with
more skilled individuals. The Vygotsky theory of cognitive development is mainly
concerned with the more complex cognitive activities of children that are governed and
influenced by several principles. Believing that children construct knowledge actively,
Vygotskys theory is also one of those responsible for laying the groundwork for
constructivism.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD
pertaining to the learning of children. Children who are in the zone of proximal
development for a specific task can almost perform the task independently, but not quite
there yet. However, with an appropriate amount of assistance, these children can
accomplish the task successfully.

The lower limit of a childs zone of proximal development is the level of analysis and
problem-solving reached by a child without any help. The upper limit, on the other hand,
is the level of additional responsibility that a child can receive with the support of a skilled
instructor.

As children are verbally given instructions or shown how to perform certain tasks, they
organize the new information received in their existing mental schemas in order to assist
them in the ultimate goal of performing the task independently. This emphasis on the
concept of Zone of Proximal Development made by Vygotsky underscores his conviction
that social influences, particularly instruction, are of immense importance on the
cognitive development of children.

More Knowledgeable Other

Children are entrenched in a sociocultural backdrop (e.g. at home) in which social
interaction with significant adults, such as the parents, plays a crucial factor that affects
their learning. These adults need to direct and organize the learning experiences to
ensure that the children can master and internalize the learning.

According to the Vygotsky theory, any person who possesses a higher skill level than the
learner with regard to a particular task or concept is called a More Knowledgeable Other
or MKO. This person may be a teacher, parent, an older adult, a coach or even a peer.

Scaffolding
Vygotskys concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the zone of proximal
development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by More
Knowledgeable Others, usually parents or teachers, that enable the child to perform a
task until such time that the child can already perform the task independently.

Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the
course of a teaching session. The more-skilled instructor adjusts the level of guidance
needed in order to fit the students current level of performance. For novel tasks, the
instructor may utilize direct instruction. As the child gains more familiarity with the task
and becomes more skilled at it, the instructor may then provide less guidance.

Children who experience more difficulty in task performance are in need of greater
assistance and guidance from an adult. When the child has learned to complete the task
independently, the scaffolds are removed by the adult, as they are no longer needed.

A major contribution of Vygotskys theory of cognitive development is the

acknowledgement of the social component in both cognitive and psychosocial
development. Due to his proffered ideas, research attention has been shifted from the
individual onto larger interactional units such as parent and child, teacher and child, or
brother and sister.

Vygotskys theory likewise called attention to the variability of cultural realities, stating
that the development of children who are in one culture or subculture, such as middle
class Asian Americans, may be totally different from children who hail from other
societies or subcultures. It would not be fitting, therefore, to utilize the developmental
experiences of children from one culture as a norm for children from other cultures.

The Vygotsky theory of cognitive development has significant ramifications in education

and cognitive testing. Vygotsky was a strong advocate of non-standard assessment
procedures for the assessment of what and how much a child has learned and in the
formulation of approaches that could enhance the childs learning. His ideas have
effected changes in educational systems through the increased importance given to the
active role of students in their own learning process and the encouragement of
teacher-student collaboration in a reciprocal learning experience.
Home Psychodynamic Carl Jung

Carl Jung
Saul McLeod published 2014

Carl Jung was an early supporter of Freud because of their shared interest in the
unconscious. He was an active member of the the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
(formerly known as the Wednesday Psychological Society). When the
International Psychoanalytical Association formed in 1910 Jung became
president at the request of Freud.

However in 1912 while on a lecture tour of America Jung publicly criticized

Freuds theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on infantile sexuality.
The following year this led to an irrevocable split between them and Jung went
on to develop his own version of psychoanalytic theory.

Most of Jung's assumptions of his analytical psychology reflect his theoretical

differences with Freud. For example, while Jung agreed with Freud that a
persons past and childhood experiences determined future behavior, he also
believed that we are shaped by our future (aspirations) too.

Differences between Jung and Freud

Theory of the Libido

Jung (1948) disagreed with Freud regarding the role of sexuality. He believed
the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalized psychic energy.

For Jung for purpose of psychic energy was to motivate the individual in a
number of important ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and creatively. It
was also an individuals motivational source for seeking pleasure and reducing
conflict

Theory of the Unconscious

Like Freud (and Erikson) Jung regarded the psyche as made up of a number of
separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were the ego, the
personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the
thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of. The ego is largely
responsible for feelings of identity and continuity.

Like Freud, Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of the unconscious
in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the unconscious consists of
two layers.
The first layer called the personal unconscious is essentially the same as Freuds
version of the unconscious. The personal unconscious contains temporality
forgotten information and well as repressed memories. Jung (1933) outlined an
important feature of the personal unconscious called complexes. A complex is a
collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories that focus on a single
concept.

The more elements attached to the complex, the greater its influence on the
individual. Jung also believed that the personal unconscious was much nearer the
surface than Freud suggested and Jungian therapy is less concerned with
repressed childhood experiences. It is the present and the future, which in his
view was the key to both the analysis of neurosis and its treatment.

However by far the most important difference between Jung and Freud is Jungs
notion of the collective (or transpersonal) unconscious. This is his most original
and controversial contribution to personality theory. This is a level of
unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent
memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past. The form of the world into
which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image (Jung,
1953, p. 188).

According to Jung the human mind has innate characteristics imprinted on it

as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral
past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples and it is
interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared
conditioning. However more important than isolated tendencies are those
aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate
sub-systems of the personality. Jung called these ancestral memories and images
archetypes.

Archetypes
Archetypes (Jung, 1947) are images and thoughts which have universal
meanings across cultures which may show up I dreams, literature, art or
religion.

Jung believes symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they
have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race. For Jung, our
primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing
present behavior. Jung claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but
paid special attention to four.

The persona (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals
our real self and Jung describes it as the conformity archetype. This is the
public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we
really are (like an actor).

Another archetype is the anima/animus. The anima/animus is the mirror

image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and
the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests attitudes and behavior of
the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman
contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype) and the psyche of a man
contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype).

Next is the shadow. This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in
Freud). It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. In line with
evolutionary theory it may be that Jungs archetypes reflect predispositions that
once had survival value.

Finally there is the self which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung
the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to
self-actualisation) and in this respect Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the
direction of a more humanist orientation.

That was certainly Jungs belief and in his book The Undiscovered Self he
argued that many of the problems of modern life are caused by mans
progressive alienation from his instinctual foundation. One aspect of this is his
views on the significance of the anima and the animus.

Jung argues that these archetypes are products of the collective experience of
men and women living together. However in modern Western civilization men
are discouraged from living their feminine side and women from expressing
masculine tendencies. For Jung the result was that the full psychological
development both sexes was undermined.

Together with the prevailing patriarchal culture of Western civilization this has
led to the devaluation of feminine qualities altogether and the predominance of
the persona (the mask) has elevated insincerity to a way of life which goes
unquestioned by millions in their everyday life.

Critical Evaluation
Jungs ideas have not been as popular as Freuds. This might be because he did
not write from the layman and as such his ideas were not a greatly disseminated
as Freuds. It may also be because his ideas were a little more mystical and
obscure, and less clearly explained.

On the whole modern psychology has not viewed Jungs theory of archetypes
kindly. Ernest Jones (Freuds biographer) tells that Jung descended into a
pseudo-philosophy out of which he never emerged and to many his ideas look
more like New Age mystical speculation than a scientific contribution to
psychology.

However, whilst Jungs research into ancient myths and legends, his interest in
astrology and fascination with Eastern religion can be seen in that light it is also
worth remembering that the images he was writing about have, as a matter of
historical fact, exerted an enduring hold on the human mind.
Furthermore Jung himself argues that the constant recurrence of symbols from
mythology in personal therapy and in the fantasies of psychotics support the
idea of an innate collective cultural residue. In line with evolutionary theory it
may be that Jungs archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival
value.

However, Jungs work has also contributed to mainstream psychology in at least

one significant respect. He was the first to distinguish the two major attitudes or
orientations of personality extroversion and introversion. He also identified
four basic functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting) which in a
cross-classification yield eight pure personality types.

Psychologists like Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell have subsequently built
upon this. As well as being a cultural icon for generations of psychology
undergraduates Jung therefore put forward ideas which were important to the
development of modern personality theory.

The Freudian Theory of Personality

 Sigmund Freud is considered to be the father of psychiatry. Among his many accomplishments is, arguably, the most
far-reaching personality schema in psychology: the Freudian theory of personality. It has been the focus of many additions,
modifications, and various interpretations given to its core points. Despite many reincarnations, Freuds theory is criticized by
many (e.g. for its perceived sexism) and it remains the focus of hot discussions on its relevance today.

Etymology

Freud was a one of a kind thinker. There can be little question that he was influenced by earlier thinking regarding the human
mind, especially the idea of there being activity within the mind at a conscious and unconscious level yet his approach to
these topics was largely conceptual. His theoretical thoughts were as original as they were unique. It is a testament to Freuds
mind to know that whether you agree, disagree, or are ambivalent about his theory, it remains as a theoretical cornerstone in
his field of expertise.

Definition

Human Personality: The adult personality emerges as a composite of early childhood experiences, based on how these
experiences are consciously and unconsciously processed within human developmental stages, and how these experiences
shape the personality.

Not every person completes the necessary tasks of every developmental stage. When they dont, the results can be a mental
condition requiring psychoanalysis to achieve proper functioning.

Stages of Development

Believing that most human suffering is determined during childhood development, Freud placed emphasis on the five stages
of psychosexual development. As a child passes through these stages unresolved conflicts between physical drives and
social expectation may arise.

These stages are:

Oral (0 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. If not satisfactorily met there is the likelihood of developing
negative oral habits or behaviors.
Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to developing healthy toilet training habits.
 Phallic (3 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the sexual attraction boys and girls have
toward a parent of the opposite gender.
Latency (5 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual feelings for the opposite sex.
Genital (12 adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are integrated into the mind allowing for the onset of
healthy sexual feelings and behaviors.
It is during these stages of development that the experiences are filtered through the three levels of the human mind. It is from
these structures and the inherent conflicts that arise in the mind that personality is shaped. According to Freud while there is
an interdependence among these three levels, each level also serves a purpose in personality development. Within this
theory the ability of a person to resolve internal conflicts at specific stages of their development determines future coping and
functioning ability as a fully-mature adult.

Super ego

Each stage is processed through Freuds concept of the human mind as a three tier system consisting of the superego, the
ego, and the id. The super ego functions at a conscious level. It serves as a type of screening center for what is going on. It is
at this level that society and parental guidance is weighed against personal pleasure and gain as directed by ones id.
Obviously, this puts in motion situations ripe for conflict.

Ego

Much like a judge in a trial, once experiences are processed through the superego and the id they fall into the ego to mediate
a satisfactory outcome. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of
psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual
functioning, and memory.

Id

The egocentric center of the human universe, Freud believed that within this one level, the id is constantly fighting to have our
way in everything we undertake.

Critique

So where does this leave us? In the words of Jim Morrison in a song he wrote for the Doors I want the world and I want it
NOW! seems to be on the tip of many persons lips. It could have been entitled Ode to the Id.

There are many mental illnesses that place the id in the forefront decision making. In particular, there are those whose lives
are lived on a totally narcissistic level. Then there are those with anti-social personalities, psychotic like illnesses, and more.
In the world of Freud, it is the neurotic person that is most affected by the principles of his theory.

As a result Freud laid out his plan for treatment: psychoanalysis. The treatment has been in use for many years with many
adaptations given to it. On the plus side, psychoanalysis do present a client with the structure and time to resolve neurotic
issues. On the negative side there is always expressed concern over the cost. Being that it does take time for psychoanalysis
to be effective there is an associated cost that can be prohibitive.
Self Concept
Saul McLeod published 2008

The term self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks
about, evaluates or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a
concept of oneself.

Baumeister (1999) provides the following self concept definition:

"The individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's

attributes and who and what the self is".
Self Concept is an important term for both social psychology and
humanism. Lewis (1990) suggests that development of a concept of self has
two aspects:

(1) The Existential Self

This is 'the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-concept; the

sense of being separate and distinct from others and the awareness
of the constancy of the self' (Bee, 1992).
The child realizes that they exist as a separate entity from others and that
they continue to exist over time and space.

According to Lewis awareness of the existential self begins as young as two to

three months old and arises in part due to the relation the child has with the
world. For example, the child smiles and someone smiles back, or the child
touches a mobile and sees it move.

(2) The Categorical Self

Having realized that he or she exists as a separate experiencing being, the
child next becomes aware that he or she is also an object in the world.

Just as other objects including people have properties that can be experienced
(big, small, red, smooth and so on) so the child is becoming aware of him or
her self as an object which can be experienced and which has properties.

The self too can be put into categories such as age, gender, size or skill. Two of
the first categories to be applied are age ( am 3 ? and gender ( am
a girl ?.

In early childhood. the categories children apply to themselves are very

concrete (e.g. hair color, height and favorite things). Later, self-description
also begins to include reference to internal psychological traits, comparative
evaluations and to how others see them.

Carl Rogers (1959) believes that the self concept has three different
components:

The view you have of yourself (self image)

How much value you place on yourself (self esteem or self-worth)
What you wish you were really like (ideal self)

Self Image
(what you see in yourself)
This does not necessarily have to reflect reality. Indeed a person with
anorexia who is thin may have a self image in which the person believes they
are fat. A person's self image is affected by many factors, such as parental
influences, friends, the media etc.

Kuhn (1960) investigated the self-image by using The Twenty Statements

Test.

He asked people to answer the question 'Who am I?' in 20 different ways. He

found that the responses could be divided into two major groups. These were
social roles (external or objective aspects of oneself such as son, teacher,
friend) and personality traits (internal or affective aspects of oneself such
as gregarious, impatient, humorous).

The list of answers to the question ho Am I??probably include examples

of each of the following four types of responses:

1) Physical Description: I tall, have blue eyes...etc.

2) Social Roles: We are all social beings whose behavior is shaped to

some extent by the roles we play. Such roles as student, housewife, or
member of the football team not only help others to recognize us but
also help us to know what is expected of us in various situations.

3) Personal Traits: These are a third dimension of our self-descriptions.

impulsive...I generous...I tend to worry a lot ?..etc.
 4) Existential Statements (abstract ones): These can range from "I
a child of the universe" to "I a human being" to "I a
spiritual being"...etc.

Typically young people describe themselves more in terms of personal traits,

whereas older people feel defined to a greater extent by their social roles.

Self Esteem and Self Worth

(the extent to which you value yourself)

Self esteem refers to the extent to which we like accept or approve of

ourselves or how much we value ourselves. Self esteem always involves a
degree of evaluation and we may have either a positive or a negative view of
ourselves.

HIGH SELF ESTEEM i.e. we have a positive view of ourselves. This tends to
lead to

Confidence in our own abilities

Self acceptance
Not worrying about what others think
Optimism

LOW SELF ESTEEM i.e. we have a negative view of ourselves. This tends to
lead to

Lack of confidence
Want to be/look like someone else
Always worrying what others might think
Pessimism
There are several ways of measuring self-esteem. For example, Harrill Self
Esteem Inventory is a questionnaire comprising 15 statements about a
range of interest. Another example is the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT), which is a neutral cartoon given to the participant who then has to
devise a story about what's going on.

Morse and Gergen (1970) showed that in uncertain or anxiety arousing

situations our self-esteem may change rapidly. Participants were waiting for
a job interview in a waiting room. They were sat with another candidate (a
confederate of the experimenter) in one of two conditions:

A) Mr. Clean - dressed in smart suit, carrying a briefcase opened to

reveal a slide rule and books.

B) Mr. Dirty - dressed in an old T-shirt and jeans, slouched over a

cheap sex novel.
Self-esteem of participants with Mr. Dirty increased whilst those with Mr.
Clean decreased! No mention made of how this affected subjects
?performance in interview. Level of self-esteem affects performance at
numerous tasks though (Coopersmith, 1967) so could expect Mr. Dirty
subjects to perform better than Mr. Clean.

Even though self-esteem might fluctuate, there are times when we continue
to believe good things about ourselves even when evidence to the contrary
exists. This is known as the perseverance effect.

Miller and Ross (1975) showed that people who believed they had socially
desirable characteristics continued in this belief even when the experimenters
tried to get them to believe the opposite. Does the same thing happen with
bad things if we have low self-esteem? Maybe not, perhaps with very low
self-esteem all we believe about ourselves might be bad.

Argyle (2008) believes there are 4 major factors that influence self esteem.
 1) THE REACTION OF OTHERS. If people admire us, flatter us, seek
out our company, listen attentively and agree with us we tend to
develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us, neglect us, tell us things
about ourselves that we don want to hear we develop a negative
self-image.

2) COMPARISON WITH OTHERS. If the people we compare ourselves

with (our reference group) appear to be more successful, happier, richer,
better looking than ourselves we tend to develop a negative self image
BUT if they are less successful than us our image will be positive.

3) SOCIAL ROLES. Some social roles carry prestige e.g. doctor, airline
pilot, TV. presenter, premiership footballer and this promotes
self-esteem. Other roles carry stigma. E.g. prisoner, mental hospital
patient, refuse collector or unemployed person.

4) IDENTIFICATION. Roles aren just ut there.?They also

become part of our personality i.e. we identity with the positions we
occupy, the roles we play and the groups we belong to.

But just as important as all these factors, are the influence of our parents!
(See Coopersmith research.)

Ideal Self
(what you'd like to be)

If there is a mismatch between how you see yourself (e.g. your self image) and
what you like to be (e.g. your ideal self ) then this is likely to affect how
much you value yourself.
Therefore, there is an intimate relationship between self-image, ego-ideal
and self-esteem. Humanistic psychologists study this using the Q-Sort
Method.

A person ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in
life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a
person ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.

Where a person ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very
similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever does a total state of
congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence. The
development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard.
Roger believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must
be in a state of congruence.

Michael Argyle (2008) says there are four major factors which influence its
development:

The ways in which others (particularly significant others) react to us.

How we think we compare to others
Our social roles
 CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability in reading. Kids with dyslexia have trouble reading
accurately and fluently. They may also have trouble with reading comprehension, spelling and
writing.

Raising a child with dyslexia is a journey. As you move through it, youll gain a lot of knowledge about your
childs challenges with readingand about the many ways you can help her succeed at school and in life.

This overview can answer many of your basic questions. It can also lead you to more in-depth information
about this common learning issue.

If youre concerned your child may have dyslexia, here are some steps you can take. And if youve just
gotten a dyslexia diagnosis or school identification, learn what you can do next.

Snapshot: What Dyslexia Is

Dyslexia is a lifelong condition that makes it difficult for people to read. Its the most common learning issue,
although its not clear what percentage of kids have it. Some experts believe the number is between 5 and
10 percent. Others say as many as 17 percent of people show signs of reading issues. The reason for the
wide range is that experts may define dyslexia in different ways.

Dyslexia is mainly a problem with reading accurately and fluently. Kids with dyslexia may have trouble
answering questions about something theyve read. But when its read to them, they may have no difficulty
at all.

Dyslexia can create difficulty with other skills, however. These include:

Reading comprehension

Spelling

Writing

Math
 Meet Elijah, a high school science
whiz with dyslexia.
People sometimes believe dyslexia is a visual issue. They think of it as kids reversing letters or writing
backwards. But dyslexia is not a problem with visionor with seeing letters in the wrong direction.

Its important to know that while dyslexia impacts learning, its not a problem of intelligence. Kids with this
issue are just as smart as their peers. Many people have struggled with dyslexia and gone on to have
successful careers. That includes a long list of actors, entrepreneurs and elected officials.

If your child has dyslexia, she wont outgrow it. But there are supports, teaching approaches and strategies
to help her overcome her challenges.

Dive Deeper

Try a unique simulation to see dyslexia through your childs eyes.

Get answers to common questions about dyslexia.

Explore a collection of dyslexia success stories.

Back to the top

Dyslexia Signs and Symptoms

Dyslexia impacts people in varying degrees, so symptoms may differ from one child to another. Generally,
symptoms show up as problems with accuracy and fluency in reading and spelling. But in some kids,
dyslexia can impact writing, math and language, too.

A key sign of dyslexia in kids is trouble decoding words. This is the ability to match letters to sounds and
then use that skill to read words accurately and fluently.

One reason kids have difficulty decoding is that they often struggle with a more basic language skill called
phonemic awareness. This is the ability to recognize individual sounds in words. Trouble with this skill can
show up as early as preschool. Read about how phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and
phonics are related.
 Hear what a doctor discovered
through his daughters dyslexia.
In some kids, dyslexia isnt picked up until later on, when they have trouble with more complex skills. These
may include grammar, reading comprehension, reading fluency, sentence structure and more in-depth
writing.

One potential sign of dyslexia is when kids avoid reading, both out loud and to themselves. Kids may even
get anxious or frustrated when reading. This can happen even after theyve mastered the basics of reading.

Signs of dyslexia can look different at different ages. Here are some examples of signs of dyslexia:

Preschool

Has trouble recognizing whether two words rhyme

Struggles with taking away the beginning sound from a word

Struggles with learning new words

Has trouble recognizing letters and matching them to sounds

See more signs of dyslexia in preschool.

Grade School

Has trouble taking away the middle sound from a word or blending several sounds to make a word

Often cant recognize common sight words

Quickly forgets how to spell many of the words she studies

Gets tripped up by word problems in math

See more signs of dyslexia in grade school. Watch videos to see what reading fluency can look like
in kindergarten and in grade 1, grade 2, grade 3, grade 4, and grade 5.
 Middle School

Makes many spelling errors

Frequently has to re-read sentences and passages

Reads at a lower academic level than how she speaks

See more signs of dyslexia in middle school.

High School

Often skips over small words when reading aloud

Doesnt read at the expected grade level

Strongly prefers multiple-choice questions over fill-in-the-blank or short answer.

See more signs of dyslexia in high school.

Dyslexia doesnt just affect learning. It can impact everyday skills and activities, as well. These include social
interaction, memory and dealing with stress.

Dive Deeper

Hear an expert explain how to choose books for kids with reading issues.

Explore books to help young kids practice rhyming.

Get strategies for building phonological awareness in your child.

 Special Education Teachers: A Guide for
Parents

By Amanda Morin

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 At a Glance

The role of special education teachers varies from school to school and from student to student.

Special education teachers and general education teachers work together in several ways.

They may run special education classrooms or co-teach in the general classroom.
If your child has an IEP, you may wonder what the special education teacher does that the
general education teacher doesnt do. Will the special education teacher work with your child
one-on-one? Is he the person you can call when you have questions about your childs IEP?

A special education teacher can serve many different roles. That role varies from school to
school and from student to student. Heres what you need to know about special education
teachers.

Special Education Training

The training a special education teacher gets differs from state to state. It can even vary
among school districts in the same state.

Most special education teachers have the same training that general education teachers have.
But they also complete added coursework. These extra courses vary, based on the specialty
a teacher pursues.

For example, some teachers want to teach kids with more than one disability. Their
coursework will be different than that of teachers who want to teach kids with specific learning
disabilities.

For more information about the different special education certification requirements in your
state, check your your states Department of Education website.

How Special Education Teachers Work With General

Education Teachers

The special education teacher often consults with general education teachers. Hes a
resource they can turn to learn more about a students learning and attention issues. He can
help explain the impact those issues may have on how the student learns.

Another thing he may do is observe students in the classroom. He may also do informal
educational assessments. That way he can see how things are going and think about
what accommodations can be made.

The special education teacher also helps figure out how to implement those accommodations.
He helps to create and track the data for behavior intervention and classroom management
plans. And he may also help general education teachers modify lesson plans.
How Special Education Teachers Work With Students

How a teacher works with students depends on the students needs and the way a school is
set up.

In some districts, for instance, teachers run special education classrooms. Two common
examples of these are:

Resource Room. Students come for instruction in certain subjects, such as math or reading.

Self-contained classrooms. Students with similar learning needs spend the majority of their day in this
type of room. Most kids with learning and attention issues arent in self-contained classrooms. They spend
the majority of their day in the general education classroom.

Special education teachers may also co-teach in the general education classroom. They help
all students, but especially kids who need extra support. That goes for kids who are and arent
identified with learning and attention issues.

Here are some other common ways a special education teacher can work with students:

Working in the classroom to provide support in the general education setting.

Providing pull out services in small groups or one-on-one.

Keeping track of progress toward IEP goals.

In some rural school districts, there may not be a special education teacher in the building
full-time. Sometimes teachers are itinerant, meaning they work in more than one school.

In that case, there are often paraprofessionals who will support your childs learning. (Theyre
sometimes known as aides.) They follow a special education teachers lesson plan and work
under the teachers supervision.

Partnering With Special Education Teachers

Most special education teachers will have training in how to teach specific subjects to learners
with different needs. That includes everything from reading to science to math. They may also
learn how to plan lessons using Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and assistive
technology.
 But teacher-preparation programs dont all include training in things like specific reading
programs for struggling readers. That may be something a teacher has to learn at
professional development training. If youre not sure about the training your childs teacher
has, its OK to ask. Having an open dialogue is key to building a strong partnership.

As you learn more about the teacher, be sure to share information about your child, too. Talk
about strengths and weakness, as well as strategies that work at home. You can even share
a 3x3 card to help teachers get to know your child. Find out how well your childs supports
and services are working. And ask what you can do at home to help your child.

ADHD in Children
Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms and Getting Help

Its normal for children to occasionally forget their homework, daydream during class, act without thinking,
or get fidgety at the dinner table. But inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity are also signs of attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD). ADHD can lead to problems at home and school and affect
your childs ability to learn and get along with others. The first step to addressing the problem and getting
your child the help he or she needs is to learn to recognize the signs and symptoms of ADHD.

What is ADHD or ADD?

We all know kids who cant sit still, who never seem to listen, who dont follow instructions no matter how
clearly you present them, or who blurt out inappropriate comments at inappropriate times. Sometimes these
children are labeled as troublemakers, or criticized for being lazy and undisciplined. However, they may
have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), formerly known as attention deficit disorder, or ADD.
ADHD makes it difficult for people to inhibit their spontaneous responsesresponses that can involve
everything from movement to speech to attentiveness.

Is it normal kid behavior or is it ADHD?

The signs and symptoms of ADHD typically appear before the age of seven. However, it can be difficult to
distinguish between attention deficit disorder and normal kid behavior.
If you spot just a few signs, or the symptoms appear only in some situations, its probably not ADHD. On
the other hand, if your child shows a number of ADHD signs and symptoms that are present across all
situationsat home, at school, and at playits time to take a closer look.
Once you understand the issues your child is struggling with, such as forgetfulness or difficulty paying
attention in school, you can work together to find creative solutions and capitalize on strengths.
Myths & Facts about Attention Deficit Disorder

Myth: All kids with ADHD are hyperactive.

Fact: Some children with ADHD are hyperactive, but many others with attention problems are not. Children with AD
inattentive, but not overly active, may appear to be spacey and unmotivated.

Myth: Kids with ADHD can never pay attention.

Fact: Children with ADHD are often able to concentrate on activities they enjoy. But no matter how hard they try, th
maintaining focus when the task at hand is boring or repetitive.

Myth: Kids with ADHD could behave better if they wanted to.
Fact: Children with ADHD may do their best to be good, but still be unable to sit still, stay quiet, or pay attention. T
disobedient, but that doesnt mean theyre acting out on purpose.

Myth: Kids will eventually grow out of ADHD.

Fact: ADHD often continues into adulthood, so dont wait for your child to outgrow the problem. Treatment can hel
learn to manage and minimize the symptoms.

Myth: Medication is the best treatment option for ADHD.

Fact: Medication is often prescribed for attention deficit disorder, but it might not be the best option for your child. E
treatment for ADHD also includes education, behavior therapy, support at home and school, exercise, and proper nut

The primary characteristics of ADHD

When many people think of attention deficit disorder, they picture an out-of-control kid in constant motion,
bouncing off the walls and disrupting everyone around. But this is not the only possible picture.
Some children with ADHD are hyperactive, while others sit quietlywith their attention miles away. Some
put too much focus on a task and have trouble shifting it to something else. Others are only mildly
inattentive, but overly impulsive.

The three primary characteristics of ADHD

The three primary characteristics of ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The signs and
symptoms a child with attention deficit disorder has depends on which characteristics predominate.

Which one of these children may have ADHD?

1. The hyperactive boy who talks nonstop and cant sit still.

2. The quiet dreamer who sits at her desk and stares off into space.

3. Both A and B

The correct answer is C.

Children with ADHD may be:

Inattentive, but not hyperactive or impulsive.

Hyperactive and impulsive, but able to pay attention.

Inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive (the most common form of ADHD).

Children who only have inattentive symptoms of ADHD are often overlooked, since theyre not disruptive.
However, the symptoms of inattention have consequences: getting in hot water with parents and teachers for
not following directions; underperforming in school; or clashing with other kids over not playing by the
rules.

Spotting ADHD at different ages

Because we expect very young children to be easily distractible and hyperactive, its the impulsive
behaviorsthe dangerous climb, the blurted insultthat often stand out in preschoolers with ADHD.
By age four or five, though, most children have learned how to pay attention to others, to sit quietly when
instructed to, and not to say everything that pops into their heads. So by the time children reach school age,
those with ADHD stand out in all three behaviors: inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Inattentiveness signs and symptoms of ADHD

It isnt that children with ADHD cant pay attention: when theyre doing things they enjoy or hearing about
topics in which theyre interested, they have no trouble focusing and staying on task. But when the task is
repetitive or boring, they quickly tune out.
Staying on track is another common problem. Children with ADHD often bounce from task to task without
completing any of them, or skip necessary steps in procedures. Organizing their schoolwork and their time is
harder for them than it is for most children.
Kids with ADHD also have trouble concentrating if there are things going on around them; they usually
need a calm, quiet environment in order to stay focused.

Symptoms of inattention in children:

1. Has trouble staying focused; is easily distracted or gets bored with a task before its completed
2. Appears not to listen when spoken to
3. Has difficulty remembering things and following instructions; doesnt pay attention to details or makes careless
mistakes
4. Has trouble staying organized, planning ahead, and finishing projects
5. Frequently loses or misplaces homework, books, toys, or other items

Hyperactivity signs and symptoms of ADHD

The most obvious sign of ADHD is hyperactivity. While many children are naturally quite active, kids with
hyperactive symptoms of attention deficit disorder are always moving.
They may try to do several things at once, bouncing around from one activity to the next. Even when forced
to sit still which can be very difficult for them their foot is tapping, their leg is shaking, or their fingers are
drumming.

Symptoms of hyperactivity in children:

 1. Constantly fidgets and squirms
2. Has difficulty sitting still, playing quietly, or relaxing
3. Moves around constantly, often runs or climbs inappropriately
4. Talks excessively
5. May have a quick temper or short fuse

Impulsive signs and symptoms of ADHD

The impulsivity of children with ADHD can cause problems with self-control. Because they censor
themselves less than other kids do, theyll interrupt conversations, invade other peoples space, ask
irrelevant questions in class, make tactless observations, and ask overly personal questions.
Instructions like Be patient and Just wait a little while are twice as hard for children with ADHD to
follow as they are for other youngsters.
Children with impulsive signs and symptoms of ADHD also tend to be moody and to overreact emotionally.
As a result, others may start to view the child as disrespectful, weird, or needy.

Symptoms of impulsivity in children:

1. Acts without thinking

2. Guesses, rather than taking time to solve a problem or blurts out answers in class without waiting to be called on or
hear the whole question
3. Intrudes on other peoples conversations or games
4. Often interrupts others; says the wrong thing at the wrong time
5. Inability to keep powerful emotions in check, resulting in angry outbursts or temper tantrums

Is it really ADHD?
Just because a child has symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, or hyperactivity does not mean that he or she
has ADHD. Certain medical conditions, psychological disorders, and stressful life events can cause
symptoms that look like ADHD.
Before an accurate diagnosis of ADHD can be made, it is important that you see a mental health
professional to explore and rule out the following possibilities:
Learning disabilities or problems with reading, writing, motor skills, or language.
Major life events or traumatic experiences (e.g. a recent move, death of a loved one, bullying, divorce).
Psychological disorders including anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder.
Behavioral disorders such as conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder.
Medical conditions, including thyroid problems, neurological conditions, epilepsy, and sleep disorders.

Positive effects of ADHD in children

In addition to the challenges, there are also positive traits associated with people who have attention deficit
disorder:
Creativity Children who have ADHD can be marvelously creative and imaginative. The child who
daydreams and has ten different thoughts at once can become a master problem-solver, a fountain of ideas,
or an inventive artist. Children with ADHD may be easily distracted, but sometimes they notice what others
dont see.
Flexibility Because children with ADHD consider a lot of options at once, they dont become set on one
alternative early on and are more open to different ideas.
Enthusiasm and spontaneity Children with ADHD are rarely boring! Theyre interested in a lot of
different things and have lively personalities. In short, if theyre not exasperating you (and sometimes even
when they are), theyre a lot of fun to be with.
Energy and drive When kids with ADHD are motivated, they work or play hard and strive to succeed. It
actually may be difficult to distract them from a task that interests them, especially if the activity is
interactive or hands-on.
Keep in mind, too, that ADHD has nothing to do with intelligence or talent. Many children with ADHD are
intellectually or artistically gifted.

Helping a child with ADHD

Whether or not your childs symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are due to ADHD, they
can cause many problems if left untreated. Children who cant focus and control themselves may struggle in
school, get into frequent trouble, and find it hard to get along with others or make friends. These frustrations
and difficulties can lead to low self-esteem as well as friction and stress for the whole family.
But treatment can make a dramatic difference in your childs symptoms. With the right support, your child
can get on track for success in all areas of life.

Dont wait to get help for your child

If your child struggles with symptoms that look like ADHD, dont wait to seek professional help. You can
treat your childs symptoms of hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity without having a diagnosis
of attention deficit disorder.
Options to start with include getting your child into therapy, implementing a better diet and exercise plan,
and modifying the home environment to minimize distractions.
If you do receive a diagnosis of ADHD, you can then work with your childs doctor, therapist, and school to
make a personalized treatment plan that meets his or her specific needs. Effective treatment for childhood
ADHD involves behavioral therapy, parent education and training, social support, and assistance at school.
Medication may also be used, however, it should never be the sole attention deficit disorder treatment.

Parenting tips for children with ADHD

If your child is hyperactive, inattentive, or impulsive, it may take a lot of energy to get him or her to listen,
finish a task, or sit still. The constant monitoring can be frustrating and exhausting. Sometimes you may feel
like your child is running the show. But there are steps you can take to regain control of the situation, while
simultaneously helping your child make the most of his or her abilities.
While attention deficit disorder is not caused by bad parenting, there are effective parenting strategies that
can go a long way to correct problem behaviors.
Children with ADHD need structure, consistency, clear communication, and rewards and consequences for
their behavior. They also need lots of love, support, and encouragement.
There are many things parents can do to reduce the signs and symptoms of ADHD without sacrificing the
natural energy, playfulness, and sense of wonder unique in every child.
Take care of yourself so youre better able to care for your child. Eat right, exercise, get enough sleep,
find ways to reduce stress, and seek face-to-face support from family and friends as well as your childs
doctor and teachers.
Establish structure and stick to it. Help your child stay focused and organized by following daily routines,
simplifying your childs schedule, and keeping your child busy with healthy activities.
Set clear expectations. Make the rules of behavior simple and explain what will happen when they are
obeyed or brokenand follow through each time with a reward or a consequence.
Encourage exercise and sleep. Physical activity improves concentration and promotes brain growth.
Importantly for children with ADHD, it also leads to better sleep, which in turn can reduce the symptoms of
ADHD.
Help your child eat right. To manage symptoms of ADHD, schedule regular healthy meals or
snacks every three hours and cut back on junk and sugary food.
Teach your child how to make friends. Help him or her become a better listener, learn to
read peoples faces and body language, and interact more smoothly with others.

School tips for children with ADHD

ADHD, obviously, gets in the way of learning. You cant absorb information or get your work done if
youre running around the classroom or zoning out on what youre supposed to be reading or listening to.
Think of what the school setting requires children to do: Sit still. Listen quietly. Pay attention. Follow
instructions. Concentrate. These are the very things kids with ADHD have a hard time doingnot because
they arent willing, but because their brains wont let them.
But that doesnt mean kids with ADHD cant succeed at school. There are many things both parents and
teachers can do to help children with ADHD thrive in the classroom. It starts with evaluating each childs
individual weaknesses and strengths, then coming up with creative strategies for helping the child focus,
stay on task, and learn to his or her full capability.
What Is Autism?

Autism is a complex neurobehavioral condition that includes

impairments in social interaction and developmental language and
communication skills combined with rigid, repetitive behaviors.
Because of the range of symptoms, this condition is now
called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It covers a large spectrum of
symptoms, skills, and levels of impairment. ASD ranges in severity
from a handicap that somewhat limits an otherwise normal life to a
devastating disability that may require institutional care.

Children with autism have trouble communicating. They have

trouble understanding what other people think and feel. This makes
it very hard for them to express themselves either with words or
through gestures, facial expressions, and touch.

A child with ASD who is very sensitive may be greatly troubled --

sometimes even pained -- by sounds, touches, smells, or sights that
seem normal to others.
What does it mean to be a struggling learner or slow learner?

A slow learner is not a diagnostic category, it is a term people use to describe a student who
has the ability to learn necessary academic skills, but at rate and depth below average same
age peers. In order to grasp new concepts, a slow learner needs more time, more repetition,
and often more resources from teachers to be successful. Reasoning skills are typically delayed,
which makes new concepts difficult to learn. A slow learner has traditionally been identified as
anyone with a Full Scale IQ one standard deviation below the mean but not as low as two
standard deviations below the mean. If a cognitive assessment (IQ test) has a mean (average) of
100, we expect most students will fall within one standard deviation of 100. That means that
most students have an IQ of 85 to 115. Those who fall two standard deviations below the
mean are often identified as having an Intellectual Disability (IQ below 70). A slow learner does
not meet criteria for an Intellectual Disability(previously called mental retardation). However,
she learns slower than average students and will need additional help to succeed.

What are some of the educational challenges for struggling or slow learners?

Typically, a slow learner has difficulty with higher order thinking or reasoning skills. This
suggests that it will be more challenging to learn new concepts. New skills need to be based
upon already mastered concepts. This can be difficult when the majority of the class has
already mastered a concept and is moving on, while the slow learner needs more time. This
can lead to gaps in knowledge and basic skills. The more gaps in a content area, the more
challenging it is for anyone to learn new concepts. Its also important to recognize that these
students are typically keenly aware they are struggling and self confidence can be an issue.
They are prone to anxiety, low self image, and eventually may be quick to give up. They often
feel stupid and start hating school. They spend all day doing something that is difficult for
them, it can be very draining. Finding other activities that the student can be successful in is
very important. There should be emphasis on strengths as well.

If these students struggle so much, why do are they often not eligible for Special Education?

Special Education services are provided for students who have a disability. Slow learners
typically do not have a disability, even though they need extra support. Cognitive abilities are
too high for these learners to be considered for an Intellectual Disability. However, the abilities
are usually too low to be considered for a Learning Disability. Consider that a learning
disability consists of discrepancies between average abilities and below average academics,
coupled with a processing deficit. Schools often look for a discrepancy between a students
ability and where they are performing. Slow learners tend to perform at their ability level,
which is below average. To the disappointment of many, slow learners often do not receive
special education services. See A Parents Guide to Special Education Testing for more
information about testing. Although a student does not receive special education services, a
student will require additional help, support, and accommodations through regular education!!
Parents need to advocate for their child to be included in programs that schools already
provide. Ineligible for SPED Services might answer more questions on this topic.

What are some classroom recommendations?

Repetition, repetition, repetition. You might feel like you are saying the same thing over
and over, but it helps make a concept more concrete.
Encourage other activities in which the child can experience success and keep them
connected.
Differentiated Instruction
Tutoring- This helps fill in gaps in basic skills and it helps a student stay caught up.
Teach study skills to help a student become more efficient in studying
Teach the most important concepts and leave out some of the less important details.
Peer tutoring
Daily reading
. Maintain an organized classroom and limit distractions. For students with special needs, maintaining a
healthy balance of structure and unstructured processes is important. For example, on each students desk,
have a place for everything that is clearly labeled (use words or colors, for instance). Also consider using
checklists and help students keep their notebooks organized; teach them how to do so on their own, but also
check at the end of each day and offer suggestions for keeping it more organized. On the unstructured side of
things, allow students with special needs to change their work area while completing homework or studying
and assign tasks that involve moving around the room. For students with special needs and learning
disabilities, hearing instructions or following directions can be made difficult if there are too many
distractions. Schedule breaks throughout the day and seat students with special needs in an area of the
classroom that limits distractions; for example, do not sit these children by a window, in front of an open
door, or by the air conditioner, as people walking by or additional noises might be too distracting.
. Use music and voice inflection. When transitioning to an activity, use a short song to finish up one task
and move to another. Many of us have sung the clean up while cleaning up before the next activity; use a
similar approach in the classroom. Students with special needs might also respond well to varied voice
inflection and tone, so use a mixture of loud, soft, and whisper sounds. Using proper pronunciation and
sometimes slightly exaggerating proper speech will help a child model the same principles.
. Break down instructions into smaller, manageable tasks. Students with special needs often have
difficulty understanding long-winded or several instructions at once. For children with learning disabilities, it
is best to use simple, concrete sentences. You might have to break down a step into a few smaller steps to
ensure your students with special needs understand what you are asking. You might even want to put the
directions both in print and saying them verbally. Ask your students with special needs to repeat the
directions and ask them to demonstrate that they understand. Do not give further instructions until a
student has completed the previous task.
. Use multi-sensory strategies. As all children learn in different ways, it is important to make every
lesson as multi-sensory as possible. Students with learning disabilities might have difficulty in one area, while
they might excel in another. For example, use both visual and auditory cues. Create opportunities for tactile
experiences. You might need to use physical cues, such as a light touch, when a student might get distracted
or inattentive. Get creative with your lesson plans, and students with special needs will appreciate the
opportunity to use their imaginations or try something new; use a balance of structure and familiar lessons
with original content.
. Give students with special needs opportunities for success. Children with learning disabilities often feel
like they do not succeed in certain areas, but structuring lessons that lead to successful results is a way to keep
them motivated. Provide immediate reinforcement for accomplishments, be consistent with rules and
discipline, correct errors and reward students when they make these corrections themselves, explain
behavioral expectations, and teach and demonstrate appropriate behaviors rather than just expecting
students with special needs to pick them up.
While these suggestions are ideal for classroom settings, parents of students with special needs can also
implement these principles. Helping children with learning disabilities both in and out of the classroom is the
best way to help your students with special needs achieve success.