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Diesel engine:
Diesel engines or compression ignition engines as they are called are generally classified as two
stroke engine and four stroke engines. In diesel engine, air admitted into the cylinder is compressed,
the compression ratio being 12 to 20. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is injected. It burns and
the burning gases expand and do work on the position. The engine is directly coupled to the
generator. The gases are then exhausted from the cylinder to atmosphere.
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Fuel system:
Pump draws diesel from storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter. Day
tank supplies the daily fuel need of engine. The day tan is usually placed high so that diesel flows to
engine under gravity.
Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The fuel is
supplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.
Exhaust system:
In the exhaust system, silencer (muffler) is provided to reduce the noise.
Plant layout is simple. Hence it can be quickly installed and commissioned, while the erection
and starting of a steam power plant or hydro-plant takes a fairly long time.
Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
Location of the plant is near the load center.
The load operation is easy and requires minimum labors.
Efficiency at part loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
The plant is smaller in size than steam power plant for same capacity.
Diesel plants operate at high overall efficiency than steam.
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Disadvantages of diesel power plant:
Beginning with the working medium at state 1, it is first polytropically compressed to state 2,
then heat is added during a limited isobaric expansion, after which a polytropic expansion to the
initial volume reduces the pressure to state 4. The ideal work produced by the cycle is represented
by its area, and the mean effective pressure is its average height.
Polytropic processes 1-2 and 3-4 in the ideal cycle are isentropics with air as the fluid. Thus, for
the air standard performance, n = k = 1.4.
The ideal air standard efficiency,
1 rck 1
e 1 (1)
kr k 1 rc 1
where
QA = Qin = mcp(T3 T2)
rk = rcre
rk = compression ratio = V1/V2
rc = cut-off ratio = V3/V2
3
re = expansion ratio = V4/V3 = V1/V3
Example No. 1
An air standard Diesel cycle will be analyzed for state of the working fluid and performance. Using
the nomenclature of Figure 1, state 1 is at 0.9 kg/cm2 ab and 27 C. The volume quantity is that of a
single-cylinder engine with 25 cm bore and 38 cm stroke. It will be assumed that, after a
compression sufficient to produce 538 C, heat is added during the first 10% of the working stroke.
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Given:
State 1 is at 0.9 kg/cm2 ab and 27 C
Single-cylinder engine with 25 cm bore and 38 cm stroke.
Produce 538 C
Heat added during the first 10% of the working stroke.
Required:
Analysis of the cycle
Solution:
1
k
v T k 1 p v
Ratio of compression, rk 1 2 , 2 1
v2 T1 p1 v 2
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
T2 = 538 + 273 = 811 K
p1 = 0.9 kg/cm2 ab
k= 1.4
1
811 1.4 1
rk 12.0
300
k
p2 v1
rk k
p1 v 2
D 2L
The piston displacement = v1 v2
4
D = 25 cm = 0.25 m
L = 38 cm = 0.38 m
0.25 2 0.38
v1 v 2 0.01865 m 3
4
Clearance volume
v1 v2 rv2 v2
v1 v 2
v2
r 1
0.01865
v2 0.00170 m3
12 1
v1 v1 v2 v2
v1 0.01865 0.00170 0.02035 m3
5
v4 v1 0.02035 m3
v3 v2 10%v1 v2
v3 0.00170 0.100.01865 0.003565 m3
T3 v3 0.003565
2.097 R
T2 v2 0.00170
T3 811 2.097 1701 K
k
p4 v 3 0.003565
1.4
0.0873
p3 v 4 0.02035
p3 p2 29.2 kg cm2 ab
p4 29.20.0873 2.55 kg cm2 ab
k 1 1.4 1
T4 v 3 0.003565
0.498
T3 v 4 0.02035
T4 1701 0.498 847 K
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Ideal Thermal Efficiency
1 rck 1
e 1
kr k 1 rc 1
1 2.097 1.4 1
e 1 1.4 1
1.412 2.097 1
e 0.56 56% (answer)
3. Combustion
Here the special features of combustion as carried out in the Diesel engine cylinder are to receive
attention. However, first it appears desirable to repeat and summarize the equations pertaining to
fuel oil.
Density scales:
140
Be 130 (3)
S.G.@15.6 15.6
141.5
API 131.5 (4)
S.G.@15.6 15.6
Ignition quality:
Diesel index 0.018 API tap 0.32 API (5)
Heating value:
Qh 41130 139 .6 API kJ kg (6)
Qh 51716 8793 .8S.G. kJ kg2
(7)
QL Qh 2442 .7 9H2 (8)
Hydrogen content:
H2 26 15S.G. percent by weight (9)
where tap = aniline point in C.
Combustion in the Diesel engine cylinder begins theoretically at the instant injection starts and
continues, at constant pressure, until injection ceases. The distillate fuel used may be considered to
have an average chemical formula of C16H32 for which the ideal air quantity is found as follows:
C16H32 24O2 16CO2 16H2O
Considering the numerical prefixes to be mols, the equation of combining weights is written as
follows:
224 kg C16H32 24 32 kg O2 16 44 kg CO2 16 18 kg H2O
Since 1 kg air provides 0.232 kg O2,
24 32
Air per kg C16H32 14.8 kg
0.232 224
Early fuel cutoff is necessary to good thermal efficiency, but early cutoff is not possible with the
ideal A:F ratio of 14.8. This is due to the need for limiting maximum temperature of the cycle for
mechanical and thermal reasons, under circumstances as set forth in the following example.
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Example No. 2
The ideal maximum temperature of combustion of a fuel of 24 oAPI is calculated, on the assumption
of 427 C compression temperature and 14.8 kg air per kg fuel.
Given:
Fuel of 24 oAPI, 427 C compression temperature, 14.8 kg air per kg fuel.
Required:
Ideal maximum temperature
Solution:
Specific gravity
141.5
S.G.
131.5 API
141.5
S.G. 0.91
131.5 24
Heating value:
Qh 51,716 8793 .8S.G.2 kJ kg
Qh 51,716 8793 .80.912 44 ,434 kJ kg
QL Qh 2442 .7 9H2
QL 44 ,434 2442 .79 0.26 0.15 0.91
QL 41,719 kJ kg
During isobaric combustion, using cp = 1.00 kJ/kg.K, the sensible heat, QL, will raise the products t
degrees, according to the relation
QL wcp t
w 14.8 kg air 1 kg fuel 15.8 kg
QL 41,719
t 2640 C
wcp 15.8 1.00
Maximum temperature t3 = t2 + t = 427 + 2640 = 3067 C. Since T3/T2 = V3/V2 = rc during an isobaric
process,
T 3067 273
rc 3 4.8
T2 427 273
Not only is the calculated t3 higher than can be considered practical in the engine cylinder, it is high
enough so that thermal dissociation of the products would have prevented its attainment.
Furthermore, an R of 4.8 is large enough to impair ideal efficiency seriously. The solution is to use
A:F ratio, higher than the chemical ideal.
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T3 1650 273
rc 2.75
T2 427 273
This is compatible with good efficiency.
Q 41,719
w L 34.1 kg
c p t 1.00 1650 427
A : F ratio 34.1 1 33.1
Although this example is based on an ideal engine, the actual engine is similar.
4. Engine Performance
The rapid cyclic action in an actual engine modifies the ideal cycle of Figure (1). The diagram
corners are no longer sharp, fuel must be injected ahead of dead-center, etc. The forms of indicator
cards, which are instrument-drawn p-vs from running engines, are shown in Figure (2) for both 2-
and 4- cycle types.
A Diesel engine is used as a source of power which can utilize a relatively cheap fuel. Therefore
its power capacity and thermal efficiency are paramount consideration.
The developed cylinder power is the indicated horsepower, abbreviated, ihp. After engine
friction and accessory power needs have been satisfied, the net power available at the engine shaft
is the brake horsepower, bhp, so called because it can be (but nowadays seldom is) measured by a
brake dynamometer. Indicated power is difficult to measure directly on small Diesels with great
accuracy, because the volume of indicator lead through the cylinder head appreciably lowers the
normal compression ratio. Also, the cylinder heads of small-bore high-speed engines have special
chambers, valves, and other equipment, leaving little or no space available for indicator lead. Since
none of these difficulties exists with the large stationary Diesel, indicator openings are provided as
standard equipment.
A hypothetical pressure, known as brake mean effective pressure, bmep, can be employed to
show the magnitude of mean effective pressure. The true pressure, pmep, is higher on account of
engine friction losses.
pmep LAN p
ihp hp (10)
33,000
2WrN
bhp hp (11)
33,000
9
bhp 33,000
bmep lb ft 2 (12)
LAN p
in which
pmep = Indicated mep, lb per sqft
L = Piston stroke, ft
A = Piston face area, sqft
Np = Number of power strokes per min (N for two-cycle and N/2 for four-cycle)
N = Rotative speed, rpm
W = Net dynamometer force, lb
r = Dynamometer arm length, ft
As is true of all prime movers, there are a number of efficiency expressions applying to Diesels.
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio, bhp/ihp.
Example No. 3
A 6-cylinder Diesel engine on dynamometer test was found to use 84 lb of fuel, having Qh = 19,351
Btu/lb, in a one-hour test at steady load. The brake thermal efficiency and the brake mep will be
determined from the following test data and measurements. Cylinder is 8.5 in x 10.5 in 4-cycle type.
Speed, 600 rpm. Dynamometer torque, 1809 lb-ft.
Given:
10
2WrN
bhp hp
33,000
2 1809600
bhp 206.7 hp
33,000
Brake thermal efficiency:
2545
Brake thermal efficiency, tb
w bQ
84
wb 0.4064 lb per bhp hr
206.7
2545
Brake thermal efficiency, tb 0.324 or 32.4%
0.4064 19,351
Brake mep:
bhp 33,000
bmep lb ft 2
LAN p
D2
A no. of cylinders
4
N
Np for 4 cycles
2
206.7 33,000
bmep 10,991 lb ft 2
600
0.875 0.70832 6
4 2
10,991
bmep 76.33 psi
144
5. Heat Balance
The energy supplied to I.C. engines in the form of Qh of the fuel input is generally broken down into
the following items for heat-balance purposes.
a. Useful work, the actual net shaft output.
b. Cooling. Heat absorbed by water jackets. Sometimes this is not separable from some of the
friction and exhaust loss due to merging streams of water that cool cylinders, exhaust manifolds,
and lube oil heat exchangers. A wct type of loss.
c. Exhaust gas loss. Heat carried off as sensible and latent heat in the products of combustion.
Sensible heat is wct loss; latent heat is of the form 2442.7 x 9H2 (in kJ/kg units).
d. Mechanical friction. Crankshaft and connecting rod bearings, piston, etc. Usually taken to
include energy supplied to engine-mounted auxiliaries such as pump, governor.
e. Radiation and unaccounted-for. Heat radiated from engine and incomplete combustion loss due
to presence of fuel in exhaust gas.
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TYPICAL FULL-LOAD HEAT BALANCES (%) (Based on Qh)
Otto Cycle, Spark Ignition Diesel Cycle, Compression
Ignition
Useful work 25 34
Cooling 30 30
Exhaust 37 26
Friction, radiation, and 8 10
unaccounted
Input; heating value of fuel 100 100
Item d and e are not often separable nor measurable. They are usually combined, then the balance
is made by subtracting Items a, b, and c from the heat of the fuel and considering the difference to
be Item d and e.
END
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