GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY diameter of an atom ~ 10 -8cm

diameter of the nucleus ~ 10 -13cm

THE ATOMIC THEORY
ATOM- from Greek word atomos meaning uncuttable or
indivisible
Advocates of the particular nature of matter:
Leucippus and student Democritus, Greek (~450 BC)
Epicurus, Greek (~360 BC)
Lucretius, Roman (~56 BC)
Evidences of atoms:
Robert Boyles experiment in 1661 (led to Boyles
Law)
ANTOINE LAVOISIER experiments that led to the
Law of Conservation of Mass: the total mass of
substances before a chemical reaction is equal to the
total mass of substances after a chemical reaction.
JOSEPH-LOUIS FROUST experiments that led to the
Law of Definite Proportions: all samples of a
compound have the same composition, i.e., the same
proportions by mass of the constituent elements.
the nucleus is positively charged
the large region around the nucleus is occupied by
electrons
Some important terms:
ATOMIC NUMBER- number of protons in the nucleus
- it is the characteristic of atoms of an element that distinguish
them from atoms of other elements
MASS NUMBER - sum of the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus
A
X
Z
ISOTOPES - are atoms of the same element that contain same number
of protons but differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei, and
hence in mass number
ATOMIC MASS- the relative mass of an atom based on the standard
mass of C-12
- previously used standard masses: O-16 and H-1

Postulates of the Daltons Atomic Theory RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS- weighted average of the atomic masses
1. All matter is composed of atoms, which are indivisible. of the isotopes of the element based on their abundance
2. All the atoms of a given element are alike in weight and in all
other aspects. Subatomic particles of an Atom
3. The atoms of different elements are of different weights. Relative Actual
Mass , Cha
4. Atoms are indestructible and preserve their identities in all Particle Discovery mass, charge,
gram rge
chemical reactions. amu coulomb
Discovered
Early Models of the Atom by:
Billiard Ball Model (Structureless Atom) JJ
0.000548 -1.6x10
-held by the Greek atomists up to JOHN DALTON Electron THOMSON 9.11x10 -28 -19 -1
6
Basis: No experimental evidence, purely from intuition. Named by:
George
Prouts Model Stoney
-proposed by WILLIAM PROUT (English physician) Discovered
Basis: Atomic masses of the elements known then were by:
integral multiples of the atomic mass of hydrogen. ERNEST
Conclusion: Atoms of other elements are made of two or RUTHERFO +1.6x10
Proton 1.00728 1.673x10-24 -19 +1
more hydrogen atoms (but found that some elements will RD
contain fractions of hydrogen atoms). Named by:
Eugene
Plum Pudding Model (Raisin Bread Model) Goldstein
-proposed by JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON (English Discovered
physicist) and named
Basis: Observations from experiment with the discharge Neutron by: 1.00667 1.675x10-24 0 0
tube. JAMES
Findings: All atoms consist of an arrangement of positive CHADWICK
and negative particles. * amu (atomic mass unit)- defined by assigning a mass of 12 amu to
the isotope of carbon-12
Nuclear Model 1 amu = 1.66054 x10-24g
-proposed by ERNEST RUTHERFORD (New Zealand
physicist) Recent Models of the Atom
Basis: Observation from alpha particle scattering experiment
(done with Hans Geiger, Rutherfords assistant) Solar System Model
Findings: The mass of the atom is concentrated in a small - proposed by NIELS BOHR
volume at the center, called the nucleus. This tiny particle Basis: Quantum Theory: dual nature of light
accounts for more than 99% of the mass of the atom. Other Photoelectric effect
subsequent findings: Line spectrum of hydrogen
the size of the atom and the nucleus: Findings: The atomic spectrum of hydrogen can be explained by
assuming the electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits,
epsumalapao/09 Page 1
each designated by a quantum number n. The energy of electrons -allowed values: 0 to (n-1)
is quantized, that is the electron can only absorb or emit photons - each value of is given a letter symbol:
of energy equivalent to the energy difference between allowed 0 s (spherical)
orbits. 1 p (principal)
2 d (diffuse)
Quantum Theory 3 f (fundamental)
-proposed by Max Planck
-that energy is never emitted in continuous stream but only in 3. Magnetic QN, m
small discrete packets called quanta. - describes the ORIENTATION OF THE ORBITAL
E = h where: E = energy - allowed values: - to + including 0
h = Plancks constant
= 6.626 x10-34 J-s 4. Spin QN, m s
= frequency of light - differentiates how two electrons in the same orbital will interact
Photoelectric effect with an external magnetic field
- proposed by Albert Einstein -allowed values: + or -
- a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface
of certain metals exposed to a light of at least a certain minimum Electronic Structure of Atom
frequency ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION - the arrangement of
KE = h ho electrons in the orbital of an atom
GROUND STATE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION- lowest
Dual Nature of Light energy arrangement of electrons
-Electromagnetic radiation (light) has a particulate nature (in
addition to its being wave). Light can be viewed as a stream of EXCITED STATE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION- allowed
PHOTONS, the particles of light. Each photon carries a packet of energy arrangement other than the ground state
energy called QUANTA and this energy can be calculated using
the equation: Rules to remember when writing ground state electron
E = h configuration:
=c/ where: c = speed of light in vacuum AUFBAU PRINCIPLE- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order
= 3.0 x108 m/s of increasing energy (n + rule)
= wavelength of light
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE- no two electrons can have
Two types of Spectrum: the same set of four quantum numbers; an orbital can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons
1. Continuous- contains all wavelengths
-e.g. rainbow HUNDS RULE- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a
set of degenerate orbitals (have the same energy in the absence
2. Emission/Line/Atomic/Discontinuous- each line in an atomic of magnetic field) is where there is a maximum number of
spectrum corresponds to the wavelength of light emitted by the electrons of the same spin; consequently, every orbital in a
atom when an electron moves from one allowed orbit to another subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any orbital is
orbit of lower energy. doubly occupied and all electrons in the singly occupied orbitals
- production of fireworks and spectroscopy have the same spin.

Dual Nature of Matter

-proposed by Louis de Broglie
-that all objects have wave properties
E = h = mc2 = hc /
= h / mc = h / m
Quantum Mechanical Model ( Wave Model)
-proposed by MAY PLANCK (German physicist)
Basis: Dual nature of light and matter
Findings: Electrons can be described as wave and their
energy and behavior are wave functions that are dependent on
variables known as the quantum numbers.
PERIODICITY
The Elements
-different definitions of the elements were given through time:
Ancient times: there are four elements that made up matter:
air, water, earth and fire.
1661 ROBERT BOYLE: Elements are substances which
cannot be decomposed into any number of distinct substances.
1789 LAVOISIER: Elements are the last point which analysis
is capable of reaching.

The Quantum Numbers 1914 HENRY MOSELEY: An element is composed of atoms

1. Principal QN, n which have the same number of protons.
-refers to the main energy level
- related to the SHELL Early Classifications
-allowed values: integral values, e.g. 1, 2, 3n 1817 JOHANN WOLFGANG DOBEREINER: In a triad, the
combining weight of the central member of the average of its
2. Azimuthal/Angular momentum QN, partners.
-refers to the energy sublevel/subshell
- defines the SHAPE OF THE ORBITAL

epsumalapao/09 Page 2
 1865 JOHN NEWLANDS: When elements are arranged in Group IIIA Boron Family Group VIIA Halogens
increasing atomic mass, every eighth element has similar Group IVA Carbon Family Group VIIIA Noble Gases
properties.

1869 LOTHAR MEYER: A periodic trend in properties is Trends in Atomic Properties

observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass. Property Across the period Down a group
(from left to right) (from top to
1869 DMITRI MENDELEEV: the properties of the elements bottom)
are periodic functions of their atomic weights; predicted the Atomic size Decreasing Increasing
discovery of 10 elements. First Ionization
Increasing Decreasing
Energy
MOSELEYS PERIODIC LAW: The properties of the Affinity for Increasing Decreasing
elements are functions of their atomic numbers. Electron (excludes Group (excludes Group
VIIIA) VIIIA)
Electronic Structure of the Atom and the Periodic Table Tendency to form
The properties of the elements are related to the Decreasing Increasing
Cation
arrangement of electrons in their atoms, or more specifically, to Tendency to form Increasing
the valence electron configurations of the elements. Anion (excludes Group Decreasing
VIIIA)
VALENCE ELECTRONS-are the electrons that occupy the *Electronegativity Increasing Decreasing
outermost main energy level of the atom in its ground state Reactivity with Decreasing -------
Acid
CORE ELECTRONS-are the electrons in the inner main energy
Metallic property Decreasing Increasing
levels
*atomic property is manifested only when the atom is bonded to
another atom
Elements belonging to the same group have the same number
and type of valence electrons.
ATOMIC RADIUS-average distance between the nucleus and
Elements from left to right in a period have an increasing
the outermost electron
number of valence electrons in the same main energy level.
IONIZATION ENERGY-amount of energy required to remove
an electron from an atom
The number of valence electrons of an element may be
ELECTRON AFFINITY-amount of energy released/evolved
determined from the group number. For:
when an atom gains electron/s
Group 1-12 or Group IA-VIIIA: # of valence electron = group
AFFINITY FOR ELECTRONS- the tendency of an atom to gain
number
electron/s. If there is a great tendency of an atom to gain
Group 13-18 or Group IB-VIIIB: # of valence electron = group #
electrons, the more exothermic the process would be and the
- 10
value of the electron affinity would be more negative. Note: some
electron arrangements result in deviations from the general trends
Elements with valence electrons only in the s orbital belong to
in AFE.
the s-block.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY- the ability of an atom to attract shared
electrons
Elements with valence electrons only in the p orbital belong to
the p-block.

Elements in the s-block and p-block are called the

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS.
-based on their differences in conductivity and melting point
Elements with valence electrons in the ns and (n-1)d orbitals
1. Metallic
are the d-block. These elements are also called TRANSITION
2. Ionic
ELEMENTS.
3. Covalent molecular
4. Covalent network
Elements with valence electrons in the ns2, (n-1)d1 and (n-2)f
orbitals are the f-block. These elements are also called
-based on the crystal structure
___________________________________. The upper row
1. Crystalline solid
elements are the LANTHANIDES while the lower panel is the
2. Amorphous solid
ACTINIDES.

Elements can be divided into three categories:

CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Metal
2. Nonmetal
Nature of chemical bonds
3. Metalloid/semi-metal- e.g. B, Si, Ge, As,Sb,Te,Po,At
CHEMICAL BOND-net electrostatic attractions between atoms
of the same or of different elements
Family Name
Group IA Alkali metals Group VA Nitrogen Family
COVALENT BOND- results from the attraction of the
Group IIA Alkaline earth Group VIA Chalcogens
nucleus of one atom to the electron/s of the other atom and
metal

epsumalapao/09 Page 3
 the attraction of the nucleus of this atom to the electron/s of
the first atom.
IONIC BOND-results from the attraction between the
positive ion (cation) and the negative ion (anion)
METALLIC BOND- results from the attraction between
the cations in the lattice and the sea of delocalized
electrons
When atoms of two or more nonmetals form a bond, the resulting
substance is COVALENT in nature.
When atoms of metal and nonmetal combine, the binary
compound formed is IONIC.
Properties of a chemical bond
BOND ENERGY-amount of energy involved when a bond is
broken. It is of the same magnitude as the amount of energy
released when the bond is formed.
*HIGHER BOND ENERGY-stronger bond
BOND LENGTH-distance between the nuclei of the atoms
forming the bond
*SHORTER BOND LENGTH-stronger bond
BOND ORDER-it expresses whether a covalent bond is single,
double, triple or even in between the strength of a single and a
double bond.
The Octet Rule
The atoms of the main block elements lose, gain or
share electrons in order to acquire an octet of electrons (except
H) in their outermost energy level.
Exceptions to the Octet rule:
Incomplete octet- molecules which contain an atom with less
than an octet of electrons but has no unpaired electron.
e.g. BF3, AlCl3
Expanded octet- molecules which contain an atom with more
than eight electrons in its valence shell.
e.g. SF6, PCl5
Odd-electron species- these are molecules where one atom
contains an unpaired electron and does not fulfill the Octet rule.
Only a few molecules exist with an odd-electron situation and
many of these are free radicals which are quite reactive.
LEWIS STRUCTURE (ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE)
H and F are always the terminal atoms and can form single
bonds only.
The central atom is element which has the least
electronegativity except H.
RESONANCE STRUCTURES-are possible Lewis structures of a
molecule or a polyatomic ion but one of which is fully consistent
with the observed properties of the molecule or ion (in terms of
bond strength, length, etc.). These structures are said to
contribute to the true structure of the molecule or ion. Their
contribution to the structure varies. A structure is considered
important if it contributes more to the true structure than
others. The importance of a resonance structure may be
determined from the FORMAL CHARGES.
Formal charge = (# of valence electron in the free atom) (# of
non-bonded electrons) - (total # of bonding electron)
* The closer the formal charges on the atoms in the structure to
zero, the more important is the structure.
Determining the importance of resonance structures:
The contributing structure must be consistent with the location
of atoms in the molecule.
The structure where formal charges on atoms are close to zero is
more important.
The number of unpaired electrons must be consistent with the
magnetic property of the molecule.
Structures where atoms with like charges lie adjacent are less
important that when the opposite is true.
Structures where a negative formal charge lies on the more
electronegative atom are more important than when the reverse is
true.
Geometry of Molecule
ELECTRON PAIR GEOMETRY- the shape of a molecule (or a
polyatomic ion) is determined by repulsions of electron pairs
(stereoactive pairs) seek the orientations that result in a minimum
repulsion between them
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY- is the spatial arrangement of the
atoms comprising the molecule relative to one another
*When the shape of the molecule is described, bond length and
bond angle are important properties to consider.
*Multiple bonds are considered one stereoactive group.

Lewis symbol is consist of

1. chemical symbol of the element- which represents the # of
CORE ELECTRONS of an atom and; # of VSEP Bon
stereo # of
2. dots placed around the symbol to represent the lone R d
- bondin Geometry Ex
VALENCE ELECTRONS. pair symbo angl
active g pairs
s l e
group
2 2 0 AX2 Linear BeCl
Lewis structure- is one or a combination of Lewis symbols to 180
2
represent a single atom (neutral or charged), a molecule, or a Trigonal 120 BF3
polyatomic ion. 3 0 AX3
planar
3
2 1 AX2E V-shaped <12 SO2
Important points to remember in writing Lewis structures: 0
All valence electrons of the atoms must appear in the structure. 4 0 AX4 Tetrahedr 109. CH4
Usually, all electrons are paired. al 5
Usually, each atom requires a valence shell octet of electrons. Trigonal 107 NH3
C, N, O, F are strict followers of the Octet rule (except in odd- 4 3 1 AX3E
pyramidal
electron situations). 2 2 AX2E2 V-shaped 104. H2O
Multiple bonds may exist between atoms. 5
epsumalapao/09 Page 4
 90 PCl5 HYDROGEN BONDING- is a particularly strong dipole-dipole
Trigonal 120 force where hydrogen is covalently bound to any of the highly
5 0 AX5 bipyramid electronegative elements (N, O, and F).
al 180
Assessing the strength of IMFA
90 SF4 In comparing nonpolar molecules, since only LDF is present,
120 the larger the molar mass, the stronger the IMFA.
5 4 1 AX4E See-saw In comparing polar molecules (whose masses are relatively
180 near), the greater the polarity of the molecule, the stronger the
IMFA.
90 ClF3 In comparing a combination of polar and nonpolar molecules,
3 2 AX3E2 T-shaped 180 the following should be used:
If the molar masses of the substances being compared
2 3 AX2E3 Linear 180 XeF2 are widely different, the LDF is considered more
important than the dipole-dipole interaction in
90 determining the relative strength of the IMFA.
Octahedra If the value of the molar masses of the substances
6 0 AX6 180 SF6
l being compared are relatively near each other, the

Square 90 BrF5 presence of dipole-dipole interaction would greatly
6 5 1 AX5E pyramidal 180 contribute to the relative strength of the IMFA.

Square 90 XeF4 Physical properties that are affected by IMFA:
4 2 AX4E2 planar 180 1. Boiling point
2. Melting point
*A = central atom, X = bonding pairs, E = lone pairs 3. Surface tension
4. Viscosity
5. Heat capacity
Polarity of bonds and molecules 6. Specific heat capacity
A POLAR BOND is a covalent bond where 7. Heat of vaporization
bonding electrons are not shared equally 8. Heat of fusion
electron density distribution between the nuclei of the
bonding atoms is not uniform Phase Diagrams
electronegativities of bonding atoms are different or not -summarizes the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid,
equal liquid or gas

This results in the separation of the center of charges, and one

end of the bond is partially positive while the other end is
partially negative. The degree of separation in a bond is
expressed as its DIPOLE MOMENT.
* The HIGHER is the electronegativity difference of the atoms
forming the bond, the more polar is the bond.
A bond formed from two atoms of equal electronegativities is a
NON-POLAR BOND.
*A POLAR MOLECULE is one which has a dipole resulting
from the net effect of polar bonds in the molecule.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION (IMFA)
-these are the forces of attraction between molecules and not
within molecules
Types of IMFA
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES- is a weak and short-lived
force of attraction that exists in all molecules. This result from
nonsymmetrical electron distribution that produces a temporary
dipolar arrangement of charges called instantaneous dipole.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS- operates in polar
molecules with polar bonds. Polar molecules exhibit dipole
moment. They attract each other electrically by lining up in a
manner that the partial positive end of a molecule and the partial
negative end of another molecule are close to each other.
MOLE CONCEPT
MOLE-is the amount of substance that contains the same number
of elementary particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of C-12.
*When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be
specified. These may be atoms, molecules, formula units, ions,
electrons and other particles.
Ways of expressing mole
1. by number of particles
Use of Avogadros number: 1 mole = 6.02x1023 particles
2. by mass
Use of molar mass: this is numerically equal to the atomic
mass/atomic weight of an atom or the formula mass/formula
weight of a molecule, a compound or a polyatomic ion.
3. by volume
Use of molar volume at STP: 1 mole = 22.414 L
CHEMICAL FORMULA
CHEMICAL FORMULA-combination of symbols that indicates
the composition of a substance
EMPIRICAL FORMULA-describes the elements present and
the simple whole number ratio of the atoms of these elements
MOLECULAR FORMULA-describes the elements present and
the actual number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of

epsumalapao/09 Page 5
the substance; used in describing the atoms composing the STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO/FACTOR-conversion factor that
particle of a covalent molecular compound relates the molar amounts of the species involved in a chemical
reaction
STRUCTURAL FORMULA-describes the element present, the *The values used in the stoichiometric factor are the
actual number of atoms of each element and the order in which stoichiometric coefficients.
the atoms are bonded together in the molecule.
PERCENT YIELD-percentage of the theoretical yield of the
product that is actually obtained in a chemical reaction
Interpretation of a chemical formula
1. sucrose (C12H22O11) % Yield = actual amount of the product formed x 100
a. molecular level:_____________________________________ Theoretical amount
b.molar level: _________________________________________
LIMITING REACTANT-the reactant that is completely
2. gypsum (CaSO4) consumed in a chemical reaction, determines the amount of the
a. in terms of atoms per formula unit: product formed
__________________________________________________ EXCESS REACTANT-the reactant that is not completely
b. in terms of ions per formula unit: consumed in a chemical reaction
__________________________________________________
c. in terms of the numbers of moles of atoms per mole:
__________________________________________________ Types of Chemical Reaction
d. in terms of the number moles of ions per mole: 1. Combination: A + B AB
__________________________________________________ e.g. nonmetal oxide + water acid
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
metal oxide + water base
Percentage Composition from Formula MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the 2. Decomposition: AB A + B
percentages by weight of the elements in the compound. The e.g. metal oxide metal + O2
percentage weight of an element in a compound is equivalent to HgO Hg + O2
the number of grams of the element present in 100 grams of the metal nitrate metal nitrite + O2
compound. KNO3 KNO2 + O2
metal carbonate metal oxide + CO2
e.g. Calculate the percent composition of CsClO2 (by mass). Na2CO3 Na2O + CO2
Ans: 66.3% Cs; 17.7% Cl: 16.0% O metal bicarbonate metal carboante + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
metal oxyhalide metal halide + CO2
KClO3 KCl + CO2
CHEMICAL EQUATION-a representation of a chemical
reaction which makes use of symbols and formula to indicate the 3. Single Displacement: AB + C BC + A
reactants and the products e.g. Na + H2O NaOH + H2
The state of the substance is described by the symbols s, g, l and Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
aq to indicate solid, gas, liquid and aqueous, respectively. Al + FeCl3 Fe + AlCl3
An arrow ( ) separates the reactants from the products and is Fe + AlCl3 non-spontaneous reaction
interpreted to mean to yield or to form or to produce.
The chemical equation should follow the Law of Conservation 4. Double Displacement: AB + CD AD + CB
of Mass. It must have the same number of atoms on both sides of e.g. Neutralization reaction:
the equation. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
In balancing chemical equation, ONLY the coefficients and not Precipitation reaction:
the subscripts are changed. AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
A balanced chemical equation can be interpreted in two ways.
5. Combustion
e.g. 2H2 + O2 2H2O e.g. Al + O2 Al2O3
a. molar level:______________________________________ C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
b. molecular level:___________________________________

SOLUBILITY RULES at 25C

STOICHIOMETRY
STOICHIOMETRY-refers to the quantitative measurements
involving the amounts of the reactants used or the products
formed based on a balanced chemical equation.
STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENT-coefficients used
balancing the chemical equation
Soluble salts
All nitrates, acetates, .bicarbonates, chlorates, and
compounds containing alkali metal ions and ammonium ion
All halides except Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
in All sulfates except that of Ag+, Sr2+, Ca2+ and Pb2+
Insoluble salts
All carbonates, phosphates, chromates and sulfides except
that of alkali metal ions and ammonium ion

epsumalapao/09 Page 6
 All hydroxides except that of alkali metal ions and Ba2+
Reaction rate the rate at which the reaction proceeds to
completion
Collision Theory
In a chemical reaction, the reactant molecules must collide to
commence product formation.
Requirements for successful collision
1. proper orientation of the molecules
2. adequate energy (Energy of Activation, EA)
2. Change in the volume of the reaction vessel of a gaseous
reaction
3. Change in temperature
4. Addition of a catalyst
5. Addition of an inert gas
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
A saturated solution of an insoluble or sparingly soluble
salt is a heterogeneous equilibrium, for which the mass action
expression is written as a product of ion concentrations and hence
referred to as SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT, Ksp.

Factors affecting the rate of the reaction Prediction of Precipitation:

1. concentration of species: [ ] , faster rate Ion product > Ksp: SUPERSATD, PPTN WILL OCCUR
2. temperature: T, faster rate Ion product = Ksp: SATD, NO PPN
3. pressure: pressure, faster rate Ion product < Ksp: UNSATD, NO PPTN
4. catalyst: lowers the activation energy by finding an alternative
pathway
ACIDS AND BASES

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Acid-base theories commonly used:

Theory Definition of Definition of
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM-is a state or condition ACID BASE
characterized by the ff: ARRHENIUS H+ producer in OH- producer in
The reaction or process occurring in the system is reversible. aqueous solutions aqueous solutions
The forward and reverse processes occur at the same time. BRONSTED- H+ or proton donor H+ or proton
The opposing processes never cease to occur. LOWRY acceptor
The concentrations of the reactants and products do not change LEWIS Electron pair Electron pair donor
with time. acceptor

* A system that reaches equilibrium is one that does not change

mass or energy with the surroundings.
Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
At equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and the
products expressed in moles per liter or in partial pressures of Conjugate pairs: Acid - conjugate base pair
gaseous components for (for gaseous reactions), are interrelated
by a mathematical relationship called the equilibrium law. base c.acid
+
HCl + NH3 NH4 + Cl-
The equilibrium law is expressed as the quotient of the
concentrations of the products raised to exponents numerically acid c.base
Base -conjugate acid pair
equal to their coefficients in the balanced equation to the
concentrations of the reactants similarly raised to exponents
equal to their coefficients. This coefficient is called the mass AMPHOTERIC/AMPHIPROTIC-ability to act both as an acid
action expression. and a base
The numerical value of the mass action expression is the
REACTION QUOTIENT(Q). When a system is in a state of
equilibrium, the reaction quotient is a constant value called Ionization Constants
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
*Kc vs. Kp For water,
2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Implications of K values: Kw = [H3O ] [OH ] = 1.0x10 -14 at 25C
+ -
Very large K values: EQUIL IS FAR TO THE RIGHT (PDT)
Unity K value: [PDTS] = [REACTANTS] For acids in general,
Very small K value: EQUIL IS FAR TO THE LEFT HA(aq) + H2O(l) H(aq) + A-(aq)
(REACTANT) Ka = [H3O+] [A-] / [HA]

LE CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE-If the state of equilibrium of a

system (a reaction) is disturbed, the system will react in the For bases in general,
direction that will relieve the stress and re-established the B(aq) + H2O(l) OH- (aq) + BH+ (aq)
equilibrium. Kb = [OH-] [BH+] / [B]

Factors that may disturb the equilibrium: Relationship between Ka of an acid and Kb of a conjugate base:
1. Addition or removal of reactant or product Kb / Ka = Kw = 1.0x10 -14 at 25C

epsumalapao/09 Page 7
 Hydrolysis of Salt
The pH scale HA + BOH BA + H 2O
pH = -log [H3O+] acid base salt
pOH = -log [OH-]
pH + pOH = 14 (for any aqueous solution) where B+ = conjugate acid of the base, BOH
A- = conjugate base of the acid, HA

Strengths of Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases BA B+ + A-

Acid-base ionization constant, Ki (Ka/Kb)
VERY LARGE Ka (Kb), stronger acid (base) Cations conjugate acid of weak base
Anions conjugate base of the weak acid
pKa
SMALL VALUE pKa, stonger acid Note: Conjugate acids (of a weak base) and (conjugate basis (of
weak acids) undergo hydrolysis since they are strong and can
proton affinity values compete with water.

Proton affinity is the negative of the enthalpy of proton gain. General hydrolysis reaction for a conjugate base,
The HIGHER the magnitude of proton affinity of a substance, the A- + H2O HA + OH -
stronger is its base property.
Kh = [HA] [OH-] / [A-]

Acid-base Properties of Salts General hydrolysis reaction for a conjugate acid,

CATION ANION pH of solution B+ + H2O B + H3O+
From strong base From strong acid (Cl- NEUTRAL
(Na+) ) Kh = [B] [H3O+] / [B+]
From strong base From weak acid (CN- BASIC
(K+) ) Trends: Anion hydrolysis: high Kh, HIGH pH
From weak base From strong acid ACIDIC Cation hydrolsis: high Kh, LOW pH
(NH4+) (NO3-)
From weak base From weak acid (A-) DEPENDENT
(BH+) ON THE Kh SOLUTIONS
(HYDROLYSIS - a homogeneous mixture
CONSTANT) -components: solute and solvent
OF THE IONS
Types of solutions based on the relative amount of solute
Strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4, SbF4 dissolved:
Strong bases: hydroxides of group IA and IIA 1. saturated solution
Periodic trends in acid-base strengths: 2. unsaturated solution
1. Binary acids contain hydrogen atom and anionic group 3. supersaturated solution
From left to right: INCREASING ACID STRENGTH Types of solution based on concentration:
From top to bottom: INCREASING ACID 1. dilute solution
STRENGTH 2. concentrated solution

2. Oxoacids contain hydrogen, oxygen and another element Types of solution based on physical states:
*With central atoms belonging to the same group and have the Solution Solute Solvent Example
same number of oxygen atoms: Solid aerosol Solid Gas Smoke
From top to bottom: DECREASING ACIDITY WITH Liquid Liquid Gas Cloud
DECREASING EN aerosol
*With the same number of oxygen atoms on the central atom: Carbonated
Foam Gas Liquid
From left to right: INCREASING ACIDITY drinks
Solid foam Gas Solid Styrofoam
3. Aqua acids Emulsion Liquid Liquid Mayonnaise
The strength of aqua acids generally increase with increasing Solid Liquid Solid Jellies
positive charge on the central metal ion and with decreasing emulsion
radius. Sol Solid Liquid Paint
Solid sol Solid Solid Alloy
4. Acidic and basic oxides
Elements Be, At, Ga, Ge, In, Sn, Pb have amphoteric oxides
which elements As, Sb and Bi are acidic at high oxidation states. Factors affecting solubility:
1. nature of solute and solvent
2. temperature
BUFFER-a solution that resists drastic change in its pH when 3. pressure
small amounts of OH- or H3O+ are added
Types of solute:

epsumalapao/09 Page 8
1. electrolyte Monoatomic ion: ON = charge of ion
2. non-electrolyte
3. covalent electrolyte Assessing the Strength of reducing agent (RA) and oxidizing
agent (OA)
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY a. spontaneity of the reaction
-the four properties of solution that depend only on the Cu2+ + Mg Mg2+ + Cu spontaneous
a. nature of the solvent
b. mole fraction of the solute (nonvolatile, non- The OA and RA in the reactant side of a spontaneous
electrolyte) reaction are stronger than the OA and RA in the
product side.
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering Therefore, OA: Cu2+ > Mg2+
2. Boiling Point Elevation RA: Mg > Cu
Tb = Kbm
3. Freezing Point Depression b. Standard Reduction Potential Table
Tf = Kfm (-) Ered weak OA, strong RA
4. Osmotic Pressure (+)Ered strong OA, weak RA
= cRT
Note: KF of water at 25C = 1.86 C/molal Mg2+ + 2e- Mg Ered = -2.37 v
KB of water at 25C = 0.513 C/molal Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Ered = +0.15 v

Therefore, OA: Cu2+ > Mg2+

QUANTITATIVE EXPRESSION OF CONCENTRATION RA: Mg > Cu
MASS OF COMPONENT/
Percent by mass MASS OF SPLE(OR Balancing redox reactions:
(% by mass or weight) MIXTURE) X 100 1. by change in the ON method
2. half-reaction method
MASS OF
Percent weight per volume COMPONENT/VOLUME OF
(%w/v) SPLE (OR MIXTURE) X 100
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Mg/L or mg/kg -deals with the conversion of chemical energy into electrical
Parts per million (ppm) energy and vice versa
Moles solute/ L soln GALVANIC/VOLTAIC CELL-generates electricity through a
Molarity (M) spontaneous redox reaction
Moles solute/ kg solvent
Molality (m) ELECTROLYTIC CELL-utilizes electrical energy to produce a
# of equivalents/ L soln chemical change
*Normality (N)
Moles component i/ total
Mole fraction moles Difference between a galvanic cell and an electroltytic cell
Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell
* In acid-base reactions, an equivalent in the amount of substance Energy CHEMICAL -> ELCTRICAL ->
that reacts with or liberates 1 mole of hydrogen ion. conversion ELECTRICAL CHEMICAL
* In redox reactions, an equivalent in the amount of substance Polarity of <+>
that reacts with or liberates 1 mole of electron. anode <->
Polarity of <-> <+>
cathode
REDOX REACTIONS Electron ANODE ->CATODE ANODE-> CATHODE
-a type of chemical reaction which involve the transfer of flow
electron/s from one substance to another CATHODE CATHODE
Cation flow
OXIDATION-the half reaction that involves loss of electrons ANODE ANODE
Anion flow
REDUCTION-the half reaction that involves the gain of electron Cell <+> <->
potential
OA-the reactant which oxidizes the other reactant; the reagent Spontaneity SPONTANEOUS NON-SPONTANEOUS
which undergoes reduction or that which gains electrons of the
reaction
RA- the reactant which reduces the other reactant; the reagent
which undergoes oxidation or that which losses electrons Cell diagram or cell notation:
Cu Cu2+ (0.02M) Ag+ (0.02M) Ag

Oxidation number (ON) the number of charges the atom would ELCTROLYSIS- the use of electricity for non-spontaneous
have in a molecule if electrons were transferred completely reduction or oxidation of substance
Elemental state: ON = 0
epsumalapao/09 Page 9
 1 Faraday (F) = 96485.3365 C/mol e- RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDE -an atom with unstable nucleus that
spontaneously emits radiation

THERMOCHEMISTRY RADIOACTIVE DECAY -process where in a radioactive

-the study of heat changes and heat transfers accompanying nuclide is transformed into a nuclide of another element as a
chemical changes result of emission of radiation
ENERGY- capacity to do work
1 Joule (J) = 1 kg-m2/s2
Types of emitted particles
SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER- amount of heat that can raise the Particles Symbol Charge
temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius; 4.18 Alpha particle or
J/g-degC Helium particle

WORK-force acting through a distance Beta particle

SPECIFIC HEAT-amount of heat required to raise the Positron

temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius Proton or
Hydrogen nucleus
HEAT OF REACTION-amount of energy, in the form of heat,
involved in a reaction, at constant temperature when the entire Gamma rays
energy change for the reaction involves heat
Endothermic reactions Neutron
Exothermic reactions * Radiation can be measured and detected by: Geiger
counter/Geiger-Muller counter, closed chamber, scintillation
CALORIMETRY-the measurement of heat changes in a process; counter and dosimeter.
makes use of the knowledge of the thermal properties of the
device and the system undergoing change Ways of measuring radiation:
dps-number of nuclear disintegration per second
Types: SI units: Becquerel (Bq); Curie (Ci)
1. bomb calorimeter 1 Bq = 1 disintegration or nuclear transformation/sec
2. coffee-cup calorimeter 1 Ci = 3.7x1010 Bq; equivalent to rate of
disintegration of 1.0 g radium
Some notes when using thermochemical equations:
The stoichiometic coefficients continue to refer to the number rad/rd = radiation absorbed dose
of moles of each substance. The enthalpy change given is specific 1 rd = 10-5 J/g
to the number of moles indicated in the balance equation.
The given enthalpy change is also specific for the states of the gray = 1 J/kg absorbing material
substances indicated in the equation. Hence, the physical states of 1 Gy = 100 rd
the reactants and products must be indicated.
When the equation is reversed, the magnitude of the change in rem-radiation equivalent for man
enthalpy remains the same but its sign is reversed. -dose in rad multiply by conversion factor reflecting type of
If the equation is multiplied by a factor of n, the change in radiation
enthalpy changes by the same factor. Enthalpy change is for alpha radiation: 1 Gy = 20 x rad
directly proportional to the amounts of substances in the
system.
The enthalpy of a substance increase with temperature and the Important names:
enthalpy change for a reaction also depends on the temperature at Antoine Henri Becquerel (French physicist)
which the reaction happens. -accidentally discovered radioactivity in uranium
Marie and Pierre Curie (Polish chemist and physicist and
Determination of enthalpy change French)
From known enthalpies of reactions -discovered polonium and radium
HESSS LAW-When reactants are converted to products, the Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (German physicist)
change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in -discovered x-rays
one step or in a series of steps.
From standard enthalpies of formation and reaction
Radiation can be measured and detected by:
Geiger counter/ Geiger-Muller counter
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY -measures electrical conductivity of gaseous ions
produced
RADIOACTIVITY -the radiation emitted spontaneously from the
nucleus of an unstable nuclide Closed chamber
-visualizes tracks of particles of radiation
NUCLIDE -an atom of an element that has a specific number of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus Scintillation counter

epsumalapao/09 Page 10
 -measures the collision between emitted particles on a HALF-LIFE-the time required for one-half of any given quantity
special surface of aradioactive substance to undergo decay; constant for every
radioactive isotope
Dosimeter Formula: t1/2 = (ln 2) / k
-measures total quantity of radiation received by a
surface, some uses photographic plates ln (No/N) = kt

Application of isotopes: PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Structural determination
2. Metabolic tracers 1. How much phosphorus is contained in 5.00 g of the compound
3. Tracer analysis in medicine to locate tumors or unusual growth CaCO33 Ca3(PO4)2? ANS: 0.900 g P
4. Neutron activation analysis to determine concentrations of
some element in a substance 2. How many molecules of H2 are present in 7.5 g of H2? How
5. Isotope dilution analysis to determine concentration of a many atoms of H? ANS: 2.2x1021 H2 molecules; 4.4x1024 H
component of a mixture atoms
6. Measuring small volumes
3. Calculate the number of atoms in 300 g of CaCO3?
Three isotopes of hydrogen:
1. Protium- has 1 electron, 1 proton and no neutron 4. What mass of CuO will be required to furnish 200 kg copper?
2. Deuterium- has 1 electron, 1 proton and 1 neutron ANS: 250 kg
3. Tritium- has 1 electron, 1 proton and 2 neutrons
5. How many kilograms of metallic sodium and of liquid chlorine
Nuclear reactions can be obtained from 100 metric tons of salt? ANS: 393 kg Na
and 607 kg Cl
Alpha particle decay
6. How many moles of oxygen are there in each of the following?
Beta particle decay a. 0.17 mol O2 ANS: 0.34 mol O
b. 6.02x1024 molecules CO ANS: 10.0 mols O
Gamma ray emission c. 1.0 mol BaS2O84H2O ANS: 12 mols
d. 20.0 g O2 ANS: 1.26 mol O
Positron emission e. 1.6 g CO2 ANS: 0.073 mol O
f. 1.0 mol Ba(NO3) H2O ANS: 7.0 mol O
Neutron emission
Electron capture or K- 7. How many moles of Ba and Cl are contained in 107.0 g of
capture Ba(ClO3)2H2O? How many molecules of water of hydration are
in the same amount? ANS: 0.332 mol Ba and 0.664 mol Cl;
Nuclear stability 2.00x1023 molecules H2O
Nuclei that contain 2, 8, 0,50 ,82, or 126 protons or
neutrons are more stable than nuclei that dont possess 8. Calculate the percent composition of Ca(HCO3)2 (by mass).
these numbers. ANS: 24.7% Ca, 1.2% H, 14.8% C, 69.3% O
Nuclei with even numners of both protons and neutrons
9. A 10.00 g sample of a crude ore contains 2.80 g of HgS. What
are generally more stable than those with odd number
is the percentage of mercury in the pure compound? In the ore?
of these particles.
ANS: 86.21% in the pure compound; 24.1% in the ore
All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers
higher than 183 are radioactive. All isotopes of
10. A sample of pure compound contains 2.04 g sodium,
Technitium and Promethium are radioactive.
2.665x1022 atoms of carbon and 0.132 mol of oxygen. Find the
empirical formula?
Nuclear binding energy
ANS: Na2CO3
-the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component
protons and neutrons
11. An oxide of arsenic was analyzed and found to contain
75.74% As. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
Mass defect
ANS: As2O3
-the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the
masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons
12. A 1.367 g sample of an organic compound was combusted in
a stream of air to yield 3.002 g CO2 and 1.640 g H2O. If the
Nuclear Reactors
original compound contained only C, H and O, what is the
1. Light water
empirical formula of the sample?
2. Heavy water
ANS: C3H8O
3. Breeder
13. A saturated hydrocarbon contains 82.66% carbon. What are
Rates of radioactive decay
the empirical formula and the molecular formula of the
The rate of decay, dN/dt, of a radioactive material is
compound?
directly proportional to the amount of material present, N.

epsumalapao/09 Page 11
14. Calculate the required number of moles of Ca(HCO3)2 to
prepare 2.50 moles of CO2 according to the equation:
Ca(HCO3)2 + HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
ANS: 1.25 mol
15. Caustic soda, NaOH, can be prepared commercially by the
reaction of sodium carbonate with slaked lime, Ca(OH)2,. How
many g of NaOH by treating 1.00 kg of sodium carbonate can be
produced?
ANS: 755 g NaOH
16. A 0.800 mol sample of Cu2S is roasted in excess oxygen to
yield copper metal and sulfur dioxide. Calculate the mass copper
metal formed. The reaction involved is: Cu2S + O2 Cu + SO2
17. Calculate the mass in grams of calcium chloride needed to
react with excess silver nitrate to produce 6.60 g silver chloride.
ANS: 2.541 g
18. How much KClO3 must be heated to obtain 2.50 g oxygen?
ANS: 6.35 g
19. Calculate the mass of carbon tetrachloride that can be
produced from the reaction of 10.0 g carbon with 100.0 g
chlorine. Determine the mass of excess reactant left unreacted.
ANS: 108 g CCl4; 1.54 g C unreacted
20. How much potassium chloride is produced from the reaction
of 2.00 g K and 3.00 g Cl2? ANS: 3.81 g KCl
21. In the Mond process for purifying nickel, the volatile nickel
carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, is produced by the reaction: Ni + CO
Ni(CO)4
How much CO is used up in volatilizing 2.00 kg nickel? If nickel
is 50% converted, how much CO is used up? ANS: 3.82 kg CO;
1.9 kg CO
22. A mixture of 1.00 ton CS2 and 2.00 tons Cl2 is passed through
a hot reaction tube where the reaction: CS2 + Cl2 CCl4 + S2Cl2
takes place.
a. How much CCl4 can be made by complete reaction of the
limiting material? ANS:
1.45 tons
b. Which starting material is in excess and how much of it
remains unreacted? ANS:
0.286 ton
c. If a trial process would yield 1.254 tons of CCl 4, what is the
percent yield? ANS:
86.5%
23. Aspirin, C9H8O4, the medicine for headaches, is produced by
the reaction of salicylic acid, C7H6O3, and acetic anhydride,
C4H6O3. Another product of the synthesis of aspirin is acetic acid,
CH3COOH. In a laboratory, 2.00 g of salicylic acid was mixed
with 2.50 g acetic anhydride in one liter of water, and then
allowed to react in the presence of phosphoric acid, which acts as
catalyst. The aspirin that was produced and purified weighs 0.500
g. What is the percent yield of aspirin?
ANS: 19.16%
24. Calculate the amount of lime that can be prepared by heating
200 kg of limestone that is 90% calcium carbonate? If the
limestone is 80% converted to quicklime, how many kilograms of
CaO were produced?
ANS: 107 kg; 85.27 kg
epsumalapao/09
25. How many kilograms of H2SO4 can be prepared from 3.00 kg
of cuprite, Cu2S, if each atom of S in Cu2S is converted into one
molecule of H2SO4? ANS: 1.85 kg H2SO4
26. For the reaction: Ba(OH)2 + HClO3 Ba(ClO3)2 +H2O
Calculate the number of moles of water formed when 0.10 mole
Ba(OH)2 is treated with 0.250 mol HClO3. ANS: 0.200 mol H2O
27. What is the percent free SO3 in an oleum (considered as a
solution of SO3 in H2SO4) that is labeled 109% H2SO4? Such
designation refers to the total mass of pure H2SO4. 109 g that
would be present after dilution of 100 g of the oleum when all
free SO3 would combine with water to form H2SO4. ANS: 40%
SO3 in the oleum
28. It is found that 0.080 g of PbSO4 will dissolve in 2.0 liters of
water to form a saturated solution. What is the solubility product
constant of PbSO4? ANS: 9.6x10-4
29. The solubility of MgF2 in water is 0.0012 mol/L. What is the
solubility product constant for MgF2? ANS: 6.912x10-9
30. The solubility product constant for AgCl is 1.7x10 -10.
Calculate the mass of AgCl that would be dissolved in 250.0 mL
of water.
ANS: 4.68x10-4 g
31. Calculate the solubility (mol/L) of CaF2 (Ksp = 3.4x10-11) in:
a. pure water ANS: 2.04x10-4 mol/L
b. 0.10 M NaF(aq) ANS: 3.4x10-9 mol/L
c. 0.10M CaCl2(aq) ANS: 9.22x10-6 mol/L
32. Should a precipitate of PbCl2 form when 50.0 mL of 0.10 M
Pb(NO3)2 solution is added to 100.0 mL of 0.05 M NaCl
solution? (Ksp of PbCl2 = 1.3x10-5) ANS:
precipitate will form
33. The solubility product constants of Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3 are
1.8x10-15 and 6.0x10-38, respectively. Which of these two
hydroxides is least soluble (in terms of molar solubility)? ANS:
Fe(OH)3 is least soluble
34. An aqueous solution is prepared by dissolving 1.0x10-8 mole
of MgCO3 in 2.0 L of water. How many moles of the soluble salt
MgCl2 can be added to the solution before MgCO3 (Ksp=1.0x10-
15) begins to precipitate? ANS: 3.9x10 -7 mol
35. A solution is saturated at 20C by shaking an excess of PbCl2
in pure water. A 100.0 mL sample of clear solution is drawn off
and evaporated leaving a residue of 990.5 mg of PbCl2. Calculate
the molar solubility of the salt and its Ksp. ANS: 0.0356 M;
1.80x10-4
36. Calculate the hydronium ion concentration of a solution
containing 0.200 mol of CH3COOH in 1.00 L of solution (Ka=
1.80x10-5). What is the percent ionization of the acid? ANS:
1.9x10-3 M; 0.949%
37. What is the OH- concentration of a 0.20 M solution of NH3?
(Kb= 1.8x10-5) ANS: 1.9x10-3M
38. Calculate the percent ionization of 1.00 M solution of
hydrocyanic acid, HCN. (Ka= 6.2x10-10) ANS: 0.0025%
39. Calculate the pH of a solution containing 0.10 M H3BO3 and
0.118 M NaH2BO3. (Ka= 7.3x10-10) ANS: 9.39
Page 12
40. What is the pH of a solution that is 0.0100 M HCN and
0.0200 M NaCN? (Ka= 6.2x10-10) ANS: 9.51
41. Calculate the extent of hydrolysis in a 0.01000 M solution of
NH4Cl. (Kb= 1.8x10-5). ANS: 0.024%
53. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for the
reaction below if at equilibrium there are 5.0 mol N2, 7.0 mol O2
and 0.10 mol NO2 in a 1.5 L vessel at a certain temperature?
ANS: 6.18x10-5

42. Calculate the pH of the following salts:

a. 0.30 M NaF solution (Ka for HF = 7.2x10-4) ANS: 8.31
b. 0.50 M NH3CH3Br solution (Kb for CH3NH2 = 4.38x10-4)
ANS: 5.47

43. How many faradays of electricity are required to electrolyze 1

mol of CuCl2 to copper metal and chlorine gas?

44. Calculate the mass of copper that can be deposited by the

passage of 10.0 A for 20.0 minutes through a solution of copper
(II) sulfate?
ANS: 3.95 g

45. What is the average current if 100 g nickel is deposited from

a nickel (II) solution in 3 hours and 20 minutes? ANS: 27.4 A

46. 18F was found to undergo 90% radioactive decay in 366 min.
What is its the computed half-life from this observation? ANS:
110 min

47. Given 2.00 kg of uranium-238 (half-life = 4.50x109 years).

The ultimate decay product in this series is lead-206. What
weight of lead -206 is produced in 3.00x109 years? ANS: 0.74 kg

48. An atomic battery for pocket watches has been developed

which uses beta particles from 147Pm as the primary energy
source. The half-life of 147Pm is 2.62 years. How long would it
take for the rate of beta emission in the battery to be reduced to
10% of its initial value? ANS: 8.7 years

49. Identify the IMFA present in each compound

a. CHCl3
b. Xe
c. HF
d. NH3
e. BF3

50. Assessing strength of IMFA (use <, > or =)

a. H2O _____ H2S
b. C2H10 ______ (CH3)2CO
c. Ne ______ Ar
d. Cl2 ______ I2
e. CH3CH2OH _______ H3C-O-CH3

51. At 25C, K = 0.90 for the reaction:

H2O(g) + Cl2O(g) 2HOCl(g)
Calculate the concentration of all species at equilibrium for each
of the following cases:
a. 1.0 g H2O and 2.0 g Cl2O in 1.0 L flask
b. 10 mol pure HOCl in 2.0 L flask

52. At a partial temperature, Kp = 2.50 for the reaction:

SO2(g) + NO2(g) SO3(g) + NO(g)
a. A container initially contains SO2 and NO2, each 1.00 atm
partial pressure. Calculate the equilibrium partial pressures of the
gases.
b. If all four gases had an initial partial pressure of 1.00 atm,
calculate the equilibrium partial pressures of the gases.

epsumalapao/09 Page 13