Basic concepts of the

THEME
THEME II MusculosKeletal
System

CHAPTER OUTLINE

THE BONY SYSTEM

Division of Human skeleton

The types of bony tissue
Classes of bones

THE ARTICULAR SYSTEM

Joint stability
Classification of joints
Joints movements

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Classification
General Functions and characteristics
Microstructure of skeletal muscle
Neuromuscular components
Key Terms
Metabolic characteristic of muscle fibers
Human skeleton Musculoskeletal adaptions to weight training
Bony Tissue
Musculoskeletal alterations thorough the years
Articular System
Joints
Articular Movements
Muscular System
Skeletal Muscle
Connective Tissues
Motor Unit
Bone Density
 Theme I Objectives
After the study of this theme, the reader should be able:

To Describe
1- The two main divisions of the human skeleton.
2- The two types of bony tissue and their main differences.
3- All the main components of a typical synovial joint.
4- The classifications of joints with their characteristics.
5- All the moments that occur within each joint.
6- The classification and functions of the muscular system.
7- The main structure of a skeletal muscle fiber.
8- The musculoskeletal adaptions to Weight Training
Exercises.

To Define
1- Compact and Spongy
2- The factors that enhance joint stability
3- Monoaxial, biaxial and triaxial.
4- The types of moments admitted by each joint.
5- Voluntary and Involuntary muscles.
6- Parallel and Pennate muscles.
7- Slow Oxidative, Fastoxidative and Fast Glycolytic.

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation  International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 tribute for the rigidity and to sustain the body and to

T
THE BONY SYSTEM provide insertion points to the muscles, so that move-
ments can take place. The bones, together with the
The human skeleton is an organized group muscles and the articulations are part of the locomo-
of bones and cartilages that form and stabilize the tive apparatus.
frame of the body. It is formed by 206 bones, rigid They protect the internal organs as the brain,
and resistant pieces. lungs, etc. forming rigid cavities where they lodge, for
example the skull or the thoracic cage.
Another fundamental function is the one of
generating the sanguine cells. The bones possess a
Division to the human skeleton: part called red bony marrow, where the red globules,
white globules and plaquets take place.
We can divide to the human skeleton in two
categories: There exist three main classes of bony cells:
* The axial skeleton: their bones form the * The osteoblasts are in charge of the forma-
main axis of the body (head and trunk); tion of the bone;
* The appendicular skeleton is compound * The osteoclasts are the cells responsible
for the bones of the superior and inferior extremities for the resorption and remodeling of the bone. This
and the bones of the scapula, waist and hip (pelvis) process liberates calcium to the means and can re-
that connect the members with the axial skeleton. spond to necessities of the organism.
The bones are chemically formed by 33% of
organic matter and of approximately 66% of inorganic
matter:
* The organic p art is formed mainly by a pro-
tein, the collagen that confers them elasticity, flexibil-
Classes of bones:
ity and resistance;
* The inorganic part is formed by salts miner-
The long bones have more longitude than
als, mainly calcium and phosphate that are the cause
width, as the humerus and the femur, for example.
of the hardness and rigidity to the bony pieces.
They act as levers to produce movement in the mus-
The proportions among organic and inorganic
cular contraction. The long bones of the inferior mem-
matter vary according to the requirements of each
bers support the corporal weight. We call diaphysis to
stage of the life. The calcium contributes rigidity to
the axis or body of the bones of hollow characteristic
the bones and it also intervenes in many other or-
and epiphysis to their ends. We can distinguish in
ganic processes, such as the muscular contraction,
the diaphysis an external layer of compact bone of
transmission of nervous impulses, clotting of the
around 3 mm. of thickness and in the internal part
blood, etc.
we find a small layer of spongy bone surrounding to
the medullary cavity, the ends are particularly spongy
and expanded, in which the compact bone is thin-
The two types of bony tissue are: ner. In the medullary cavity of the diaphysis of the
long bones of an adult we find the yellow bony mar-
* The compact bone (also called cortical), of row (mainly fatty). This can become red bony marrow
great hardness and density, is located in the external again. In the epiphysis or ends, the interstices of the
part, under the periostium (membrane that recovers spongy bones are full with red bony marrow or he-
the bones); its thickness depends on the mechanical matopoietic tissue.
demands.
* The spongy bone is lighter and is also
called trabecular; he/she has spaces in which he/she
lodges the bony marrow. It is generally located in the
internal part of the body of the bones (diaphysis) and
in the ends (epiphysis) of the long bones and in the
short, planes and irregular bones.
The main functions of the bones are to con-

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation  International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness

The plane bones are, as their name indicates
it, smoothed and slightly curved as the scapula and
the bones of the skull, for example.
Short bones are, for example, the carpal
bones (wrist bones) and the tarsal bones (bones of
the ankle). They allow the movement forming con-
nection bridges. They intervene more in questions of
stability, as for example in the case of the ankle.
Irregular bones are not included in none of
the other classifications. The vertebras that form the
spine are a good example of that bone type.
Sesamoid bones are small and rounded bones
that are next to the articulations, and they have the
function of increasing the lever of the muscles. The
patela in the knee is an example of sesamoid bone.
THE ARTICULAR SYSTEM
The articulations represent connections that
exist among the diverse points and areas of surfaces
of the bones that compose the human skeleton. Al-
though the movement of the bones depends on the
activity of the inserted skeletal muscle, the move-
ment type or degree of freedom (range of motion), is
determined by the articulation or nature of the union
or connection between the bones and the form of the
articular surfaces. This characteristic of the articula-
tion is called articular mobility and is indispensable so
that a person has the physical quality of flexibility.
There are several factors that influence the ar-
ticular mobility and the most important are described
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
above:
Structural or static factors: Bone to bone contact
can alter the range of motion of a joint. This refers
to the form or configuration of the articulating bony
parts or the contact degree among those articular
surfaces.
The interference of smooth structures can
also influence the joint range of motion because the
engrossment /compression and/or degree of rigidity/
flexibility of these tissues that surround or cross the
articulations can diminish or increase the degree of a
movement. These soft structures include the muscles
and their aponeurosis, the structures of the articula-
tion and articular capsule (ligaments and tendons),
the skin and the fatty tissue.
Physiologic or dynamic factors: Factors like
the stretch reflex (regulated by a mechanism of neu-
romuscular control) can influence directly the mobility
of a joint. The mobility also depends on the phase
of the contraction that the muscles that surround the
articulation are.
The physical inactivity or immobilization, as
well as aging, all affect the mobility negatively. On
the other hand, the stretching exercises help to re-
tard the gradual loss of articular mobility and muscu-
lar elasticity that are the base of the musculoskeletal
flexibility.
The gender or the differences among sexes
influence the degree of the individuals flexibility. For
the same age, the girls and the women are more flex-
ible than the men. The compression of the outlying
nerves can also induce a flexibility problem. The ar-
ticular system counts with diverse classes of articula-
tions. Each one is characterized by a level of particu-
lar mobility. Consequently, the articulation type also
affects the flexibility of the different parts of the hu-
man body.
The precarious flexibility has negative conse-
quences for the yield in a weight training program be-
cause it limits the voluntary correction of the postural
defects and it deteriorates the technique of execu-
tion of the exercises, affecting in the efficiency of the
same ones. The lack of chronic flexibility can result
(or increase) in certain musculoskeletal conditions.
With the years, the lack of flexibility can become
permanent or irreversible, especially as the develop-
ment of arthrosis causes the calcification of the joint
surrounding tissues.
In a contrary way, the appropriate flexibility
allows the articulation to move in a safe way in differ-
ent positions and an appropriate execution technique
and posture during the exercises. This prevents le-
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
sions (muscular and ligaments) when the articulation
is taken forcibly until the end of its range of motion.
Also, a good level of flexibility helps to the efficiency
in the execution of different skills. To be able to reach
this condition a good muscular and articular stability
of the involved joints is needed.
The joint stability
The stability of the joints depends on the
strong arrangement of the bones in the articulation,
by means of which a bone is adjusted inside or around
the other one. Another source of stability comes from
a strong ligamentar disposition, with the ligaments
surrounding the articulation in enough number and
quality to be able to resist dislocating forces. Of same
importance, the muscles that surround the articula-
tion represent a very important determinant for its
stability. This is evident in those joints where weak
bony unions are presented, like in the shoulder, for
example.
The joint stability can be improved through
the exercise. At bony level thereis almost nothing to
do because in spite of the fact that exercises im-
prove many aspects of the bone like the density, for
example, most of these factors dont influence in the
stability of the articulations. But at the ligamentous
level one can improve the stability when increasing
the force of the ligaments by means of exercises, to
help to resist any dislocating force. The development
and maintenance of an appropriate stability comes
mainly from the conditioning (mainly force and elas-
ticity) of the muscles that surround the joint. This
can be reached through a program of exercises with
weights. The objective is to develop the muscular
strength, so that the muscles can effectively maintain
the integrity of the joint.
Classification of Joints
The joints can be categorized through their
functions or through their structures.
Functional categorization (according to the move-
ments that they carry out or axes that possess)
* Monoaxial: They are articulations where the
movement is carried out in a single axis. An exam-
ple is the articulation of the elbow (humeroulnar), the
one which only allows flexion and extension around a
frontal axis in the sagital plane.
* Biaxial: They allow movements in two dif-
ferent axes. For example, the wrist joint allows flexion
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
and extension movements around a front axis in the
sagital plane, and abduction and adduction around a
sagital axis in the front plane.
* Triaxial: In these types of articulations, the
movements take place in three axes. The hip joint, for
example, allows flexion and extension around a fron-
tal axis in the sagital plane, abduction and adduction
around a sagital axis in the frontal plane and rotation
around a longitudinal axis in the traverse plane.
Structural categorization (according to
the structure that they possess):
Diarthrodial (synovial joints):
General morphologic characteristics:
* Articulations with wide movement freedom:
The synovial joints or diarthrodial allow one or more
of the following movement classes: flexion and ex-
tension, abduction and adduction, lateral / medial ro-
tation and circunduction;
* They possess an articular cavity, that is a
space among the articular surfaces of the two bones
of the articulation, which allows the greater mobility of
these articulations;
* They are surrounded of an articular capsule
of fibrous cartilage (ligaments that reinforce the cap-
sule and the cartilages that cover the articular ex-
tremities of the bones);
* The articular capsule is involved with the
synovial membrane, which produces the synovial liq-
uid that lubricates the internal articular surfaces and
contributes to the nutrition of the cartilage;
* The articular surfaces are recovered with
articular cartilage, usually hyaline, but occasionally
fibrocartilageous.
Sub-classification:
* Arthrodial (irregular / plane): The articu-
lar surfaces of the participant bones are, in general,
plane or lightly curved. It allows the movements of
sliding or torsion. It doesnt possess planes neither
axes. Example includes the intercarpal and intertar-
sal articulations, the acromioclavicular and esterno-
clavicular articulations, the articulations of the verte-
bral arches.
* Amphiarthroses (slightly movable articu-
lations).
In these articulations the contiguous bony sur-
faces are either connected by broad flattened disks
of fibrocartilage, of a more or less complex structure,
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
as in the articulations between the bodies of the ver-
tebr; or are united by an interosseous ligament, as
in the inferior tibiofibular articulation. The first form is
termed a symphysis, the second a syndesmosis.
* Diarthroses (freely movable articulations).
This class includes the greater number of the joints
in the body. In a diarthrodial joint the contiguous bony
surfaces are covered with articular cartilage, and
connected by ligaments lined by synovial membrane.
The joint may be divided, completely or incompletely,
by an articular disk or meniscus, the periphery of
which is continuous with the fibrous capsule while its
free surfaces are covered by synovial membrane.
The varieties of joints in
this class have been determined by the kind of
motion permitted in each. There are two varieties
in which the movement is uniaxial, that is to say,
all movements take place around one axis. In one
form, the ginglymus, this axis is, practically speaking,
transverse; in the other, the trochoid or pivot-joint,
it is longitudinal. There are two varieties where the
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
movement is biaxial, or around two horizontal axes at
right angles to each other, or at any intervening axis
between the two. These are the condyloid and the
saddle-joint. There is one form where the movement
is polyaxial, the enarthrosis or ball-and-socket joint;
and finally there are the arthrodial or gliding joints.
Ginglymus or Hinge-joint.In this form the
articular surfaces are molded to each other in such
a manner as to permit motion only in one plane, for-
ward and backward, the extent of motion at the same
time being considerable. The direction which the dis-
tal bone takes in this motion is seldom in the same
plane as that of the axis of the proximal bone; there is
usually a certain amount of deviation from the straight
line during flexion. The articular surfaces are con-
nected together by strong collateral ligaments, which
form their chief bond of union. The best examples of
ginglymus are the interphalangeal joints and the joint
between the humerus and ulna; the knee- and ankle-
joints are less typical, as they allow a slight degree of
rotation or of side-to-side movement in certain posi-
tions of the limb.
Trochoid or Pivot-joint (articulation tro-
choidea; rotary joint).Where the movement is
limited to rotation, the joint is formed by a pivot-like
process turning within a ring, or a ring on a pivot, the
ring being formed partly of bone, partly of ligament. In
the proximal radioulnar articulation, the ring is formed
by the radial notch of the ulna and the annular liga-
ment; here, the head of the radius rotates within the
ring. In the articulation of the odontoid process of the
axis with the atlas the ring is formed in front by the
anterior arch, and behind by the transverse ligament
of the atlas; here, the ring rotates around the odon-
toid process.
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness

Condyloid Articulation (ellipsoidal articu-
lation).In this form of joint, an ovoid articular sur-
face, or condyle, is received into an elliptical cavity
in such a manner as to permit of flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, and circunduction, but no axial
rotation. The wrist-joint is an example of this form of
articulation.
Articulation by Reciprocal Reception (sell-
aris articulation; saddle-joint).In this variety the
opposing surfaces are reciprocally concavo-convex.
The movements are the same as in the preceding
form; that is to say, flexion, extension, adduction, ab-
duction, and circumduction are allowed; but no axial
rotation. The best example of this form is the car-
pometacarpal joint of the thumb.
Enarthrosis (ball-and-socket joints).
Enarthrosis is a joint in which the distal bone is ca-
pable of motion around an indefinite number of axes,
which have one common center. It is formed by the
reception of a globular head into a cup-like cavity,
hence the name ball-and-socket. Examples of this
form of articulation are found in the hip and shoul-
der.
The Kind of Movement Admitted in Joints
The movements admissible in joints may be
divided into four kinds: gliding and angular move-
ments, circumduction, and rotation. These move-
ments are often, however, more or less combined in
the various joints, so as to produce an infinite variety,
and it is seldom that only one kind of motion is found
in any particular joint.
Gliding Movement.Gliding movement is
the simplest kind of motion that can take place in a
joint, one surface gliding or moving over another with-
out any angular or rotatory movement. It is common
to all movable joints; but in some, as in most of the
articulations of the carpus and tarsus, it is the only
motion permitted. This movement is not confined to
plane surfaces, but may exist between any two con-
tiguous surfaces, of whatever form.
Angular Movement.Angular movement
occurs only between the long bones, and by it the
angle between the two bones is increased or dimin-
ished. It may take place: (1) forward and backward,
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
constituting flexion and extension; or (2) toward and
from the median plane of the body, or, in the case of
the fingers or toes, from the middle line of the hand
or foot, constituting adduction and abduction. The
strictly ginglymoid or hinge-joints admit of flexion and
extension only. Abduction and adduction, combined
with flexion and extension, are met with in the more
movable joints; as in the hip, the shoulder, the wrist,
and the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
Circumduction.Circumduction is that form
of motion which takes place between the head of a
bone and its articular cavity, when the bone is made
to circumscribe a conical space; the base of the cone
is described by the distal end of the bone, the apex is
in the articular cavity; this kind of motion is best seen
in the shoulder and hip-joints.
Rotation.Rotation is a form of movement
in which a bone moves around a central axis without
undergoing any displacement from this axis; the axis
of rotation may lie in a separate bone, as in the case
of the pivot formed by the odontoid process of the
axis vertebr around which the atlas turns; or a bone
may rotate around its own longitudinal axis, as in the
rotation of the humerus at the shoulder-joint; or the
axis of rotation may not be quite parallel to the long
axis of the bone, as in the movement of the radius
on the ulna during pronation and supination of the
hand, where it is represented by a line connecting the
center of the head of the radius above with the center
of the head of the ulna below.
Ligamentous Action of Muscles.The
movements of the different joints of a limb are com-
bined by means of the long muscles passing over
more than one joint. These, when relaxed and
stretched to their greatest extent, act as elastic liga-
ments in restraining certain movements of one joint,
except when combined with corresponding move-
ments of the otherthe latter movements being usu-
ally in the opposite direction. Thus the shortness of
the hamstring muscles prevents complete flexion of
the hip, unless the knee-joint is also flexed so as to
bring their attachments nearer together. The uses
of this arrangement are threefold: (1) It coordinates
the kinds of movements which are the most habitual
and necessary, and enables them to be performed
with the least expenditure of power. (2) It enables the
short muscles which pass over only one joint to act
upon more than one. (3) It provides the joints with
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
ligaments which, while they are of very great power in
resisting movements to an extent incompatible with
the mechanism of the joint, at the same time sponta-
neously yield when necessary.
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system comprehends around
600 muscles. The muscular cells are prepared in
elastic threads contained in packages, several of
those which together constitute a muscle. The skel-
etal muscles, together with the bones and the con-
nective tissue, give form to the body and, united by
the tendons, give movement to the bones. All the
muscles are covered by a layer of connective tissue
called aponeurosis. The terminals portions of these
tissues form a tendon. The muscles are elastic and
they work in pairs (agonistas and antagonistic).
The muscles move at the level of the articula-
tions via the contraction and relaxation of the muscles
that are inserted on them. The long bones, in particu-
lar, form a net frame of levers. The skeletal muscles
inserted on these levers contract to work them. The
nerves located in the muscles direct the movements
and the blood vessels provide the local feeding.
Classification
The muscles of the human body are clas-
sified in:
* Voluntary (skeletal or striated): Formed
for large striated cells stuck to the bony skeleton that
moves their parts. These muscles are controlled by
our will.
* Involuntary (smooth): they are in the inter-
nal organs (viscera) and walls of the blood vessels.
These muscles work automatically and they are not
controlled by autonomous nervous system.
* Heart. Their special striated structure is only
in the heart. It is also controlled by the autonomous
nervous system.
General Functions:
The basic functions of the skeletal muscles
are:
* Movements. The contractions of the skel-
etal muscles produce movements of the body like a
global unit (locomotion), as well as on their parts.
* Production of heat. The muscular activ-
ity constitutes one of the most important parts in the
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
mechanism to conserve the homeostasis of the tem-
perature.
* Posture. The continuous contraction of di-
verse skeletal muscles makes possible to maintain
the posture of the musculoskeletal system.
Characteristic of the Muscular Tissue
The muscular tissue possesses 4 fundamen-
tal properties, excitability, contractility, extensibility
and elasticity. The excitability refers to the capacity of
a muscular tissue to receive stimuli and to respond to
them. The contractility property refers to the capacity
of the muscle to shorten when it receives a stimulus
of appropriate intensity. This is the unique property
that only the muscular tissue possesses. The aver-
age muscular fiber can shorten until approximately
half of its rest longitude. The extensibility is the ca-
pacity of the skeletal muscle to be loosened. The
muscle can be stretched until it acquires a longitude
that represents half of its normal length at rest. The
elasticity represents the ability of the muscle to return
to its length or original form of rest after experiencing
contraction or elongation.
The skeletal muscles are stuck to the bones
by means of their connective tissues. The connec-
tive tissues extend beyond the muscular belly in
the form of a tendon or an aponeurosis. Most of
the skeletal muscles cross an articulation, and they
link to the two bones that participate. When a muscle
contracts it exercises the same force on the two un-
ions trying to move one toward the other one.
There is considerable variation in the arrange-
ment of the fibers of certain muscles with reference
to the tendons to which they are attached. In some
muscles the fibers are parallel and run directly from
their origin to their insertion. A modification of these
is found in the fusiform muscles, in which the fibers
are not quite parallel, but slightly curved, so that the
muscle tapers at either end; in their actions, however,
they resemble the quadrilateral muscles. Secondly,
in other muscles the fibers are convergent; arising by
a broad origin, they converge to a narrow or pointed
insertion. This arrangement of fibers is found in the
triangular musclese. g., the Temporalis. In some
muscles, which otherwise would belong to the quad-
rilateral or triangular type, the origin and insertion are
not in the same plane, but the plane of the line of ori-
gin intersects that of the line of insertion; such is the
case in the Pectineus. Thirdly, in some muscles (e.
g., the Peronei) the fibers are oblique and converge,
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
like the plumes of a quill pen, to one side of a ten-
don which runs the entire length of the muscle; such
muscles are termed unipennate. A modification of
this condition is found where oblique fibers converge
to both sides of a central tendon; these are called
bipennate, and an example is afforded in the Rectus
femoris. Finally, there are muscles in which the fib-
ers are arranged in curved bundles in one or more
planes, as in the Sphincters. The arrangement of the
fibers is of considerable importance in respect to the
relative strength and range of movement of the mus-
cle. Those muscles where the fibers are long and few
in number have great range, but diminished strength;
where, on the other hand, the fibers are short and
more numerous, there is great power, but lessened
range.
The names applied to the various muscles
have been derived: (1) from their situation, as the
Tibialis, Radialis, Ulnaris, Peroneus; (2) from their
direction, as the Rectus abdominis, Obliqui capitis,
Transversus abdominis; (3) from their uses, as Flex-
ors, Extensors, Abductors, etc.; (4) from their shape,
as the Deltoids, Rhomboids; (5) from the number of
their divisions, as the Biceps and Triceps; (6) from
their points of attachment, as the Esternocleidomas-
toideo.
In the description of a muscle, the term origin is meant
to imply its more fixed or central attachment; and the
term insertion the movable point on which the force
of the muscle is applied; but the origin is absolute-
ly fixed in only a small number of muscles, such as
those of the face which are attached by one extremity
to immovable bones, and by the other to the movable
integument; in the greater number, the muscle can be
made to act from either extremity.
In the dissection of the muscles, attention
should be directed to the exact origin, insertion, and
actions of each, and to its more important relations
with surrounding parts. While accurate knowledge of
the points of attachment of the muscles is of great im-
portance in the determination of their actions, it is not
to be regarded as conclusive. The action of the mus-
cle deduced from its attachments, or even by pulling
on it in the dead subject, is not necessarily its action
in the living. By pulling, for example, on the Brachio-
radialis in the cadaver the hand may be slightly supi-
nated when in the prone position and slightly pronated
when in the supine position, but there is no evidence
that these actions are performed by the muscle dur-
ing life. It is impossible for an individual to throw into
action any one muscle; in other words, movements,
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
not muscles, are represented in the central nervous
system. To carry out a movement a definite combina-
tion of muscles is called into play, and the individual
has no power either to leave out a muscle from this
combination or to add one to it. One (or more) muscle
of the combination is the chief moving force; when
this muscle passes over more than one joint other
muscles (synergic muscles) come into play to inhibit
the movements not required; a third set of muscles
(fixation muscles) fix the limbi. e., in the case of the
limb-movementsand also prevent disturbances of
the equilibrium of the body generally. As an exam-
ple, the movement of the closing of the fist may be
considered: (1) the prime movers are the Flexor digi-
torium, Flexor pollicis longus, and the small muscles
of the thumb; (2) the synergic muscles are the Exten-
sors carpi, which prevent flexion of the wrist; while
(3) the fixation muscles are the Biceps and Triceps
brachii, which steady the elbow and shoulder. A fur-
ther point which must be borne in mind in considering
the actions of muscles is that in certain positions a
movement can be effected by gravity, and in such a
case the muscles acting are the antagonists of those
which might be supposed to be in action. Thus in flex-
ing the trunk when no resistance is interposed the
Sacrospinales contract to regulate the action of grav-
ity, and the Rectus abdominis are relaxed.
Microstructure of the Skeletal Muscle
The skeletal muscle is composed of fibers
(cells) long and cylindrical of 10 to 100 microns of
diameter and up to 6 cm of long. These fibers are
surrounded by a membrane that receives the name
of sarcolemma. Inside the sarcolemma is the cyto-
plasm of the fiber, well-known as sarcoplasma. The
sarcoplasma contains multiple nuclei placed in the
periphery and myofibrils (long filaments that contains
each musculoskeletal fiber, which represent the con-
tractile elements of the skeletal muscles) parallel and
fixed in longitudinal direction. When the myofibrils are
tinted, bands or traverse grooves are observed that
give to the whole fiber a striated aspect. With the
electronic microscope it can demonstrate himself that
the myofibrils is composed of miofilaments prepared
in longitudinal sense. There are two types of these
filaments, that is: thick and thin. The thin filaments
are composed of a protein called actin. For the other
side, the thick filaments consist of another protein,
the myosin. The segments created by each two disks
Z are given the name of sarcomere. The skeletal
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
muscle also possesses other substances, such as
creatine phosphate, ATP, glucose and diverse inor-
ganic ions, including calcium (Ca+ +), phosphate, so-
dium (Na+), and potassium (K+). The fibers or cells
of the skeletal muscles also possess a system of in-
tracellular tubules, well-known as the sarcoplasmatic
reticulum and the system of the traverse tubules (T
tubules). The sarcoplasmatic reticulum usually lacks
ribosome and it is intimately associated with the my-
ofibrils. The T tubules communicate with the extrace-
lular liquid of the fiber and with the sarcoplasmatic
reticulum by means of lateral sacks. This way a road
exists for the free movement of organic and inorganic
substances, an important fact for the muscular con-
traction.
Connective tissues
Striated or voluntary muscle is composed of
bundles of fibers each enclosed in a delicate web
called the perimysium in contradistinction to the
sheath of areolar tissue which invests the entire mus-
cle, the epimysium. The bundles are termed fascicule;
they are prismatic in shape, of different sizes in differ-
ent muscles, and are for the most part placed paral-
lel to one another, though they have a tendency to
converge toward their tendinous attachments. Each
fasciculus is made up of a strand of fibers, which also
run parallel with each other, and are separated from
one another by a delicate connective tissue derived
from the perimysium and termed endomysium. This
does not form the sheath of the fibers, but serves to
support the blood vessels and nerves ramifying be-
tween them.
A muscular fiber may be said to consist of
a soft contractile substance, enclosed in a tubular
sheath named by Bowman the sarcolemma. The fib-
ers are cylindrical or prismatic in shape, and are of no
great length, not exceeding, as a rule, 40 mm. Their
breadth varies in man from 0.01 to 0.1 mm. As a rule,
the fibers do not divide or anastomose; but occasion-
ally, especially in the tongue and facial muscles, they
may be seen to divide into several branches. In the
substance of the muscle, the fibers end by tapering
extremities which are joined to the ends of other fib-
ers by the sarcolemma. At the tendinous end of the
muscle the sarcolemma appears to blend with a small
bundle of fibers, into which the tendon becomes sub-
divided, while the muscular substance ends abruptly
and can be readily made to retract from the point of
junction. The areolar tissue between the fibers ap-
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
pears to be prolonged more or less into the tendon,
so as to form a kind of sheath around the tendon bun-
dles for a longer or shorter distance. When muscular
fibers are attached to skin or mucous membranes,
their fibers become continuous with those of the are-
olar tissue.
The sarcolemma, or tubular sheath of the
fiber, is a transparent, elastic, and apparently homo-
geneous membrane of considerable toughness, so
that it sometimes remains entire when the included
substance is ruptured.
Upon examination of a voluntary muscular
fiber by transmitted light, it is found to be marked
by alternate light and dark bands or striation, which
passes transversely across the fiber. When examined
by polarized light the dark bands are found to be dou-
bly refracting (anisotropic), while the clear stripes are
singly refracting (isotropic). The dark and light bands
are of nearly equal breadth, and alternate with great
regularity; they vary in breadth from about 1 to 2. If
the surface be carefully focussed, rows of granules
will be detected at the points of junction of the dark
and light bands, and very fine longitudinal lines may
be seen running through the dark bands and joining
these granules together. By treating the specimen
with certain reagents (e. g., chloride of gold) fine
lines may be seen running transversely between the
granules and uniting them together. This appearance
is believed to be due to a reticulum or network of in-
terstitial substance lying between the contractile por-
tions of the muscle. The longitudinal striation gives
the fiber the appearance of being made up of a bun-
dle of fibrils which have been termed sarcostyles or
muscle columns, and if the fiber be hardened in al-
cohol, it can be broken up longitudinally and the sar-
costyles separated from each other. The reticulum,
with its longitudinal and transverse meshes, is called
sarcoplasm.
A sarcostyle may be said to be made up of
successive portions, each of which is termed a sar-
comere. The sarcomere is situated between two
membranes of Krause and consists of (1) a central
dark part, which forms a portion of the dark band of
the whole fiber, and is named a sarcous element.
This sarcous element really consists of two parts, su-
perimposed one on the top of the other, and when the
fiber is stretched these two parts become separated
from each other at the line of Hensen. A). (2) On ei-
ther side of this central dark portion is a clear layer,
most visible when the fiber is extended; this is situ-
ated between the dark center and the membrane of
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
Krause, and when the sarcomeres are joined togeth-
er to form the sarcostyle, constitutes the light band of
the striated muscular fiber.
The capillaries of striped muscle are very
abundant, and form a sort of rectangular network, the
branches of which run longitudinally in the endomy-
sium between the muscular fibers, and are joined at
short intervals by transverse anastomosing branch-
es. In the red muscles of the rabbit dilatations occur
on the transverse branches of the capillary network.
The larger vascular channels, arteries and veins, are
found only in the perimysium, between the muscular
fascicule. Nerves are profusely distributed to striped
muscle.
Parallel vs. Pennate Muscles
It is obvious that the muscle fibers do not all run in
the direction of the muscle. For instance, the exter-
nal obliques cause longitudinal movement, yet the
muscle fibers are angled. There are two basic types
of muscles that exert their forces in different ways.
There are parallel muscles whose fibers are paral-
lel with the force applies and there are pinnate mus-
cles that are angled with respect to the movement
desired. Parallel muscles are easy to understand be-
cause they move in the same direction as you want
a structure to move. Pinnate muscles, on the other
hand move at an angle to movement Again, you can
break a force into vectors that sit at 90, so part of
the force that you are providing moves to the side
and is cancelled out by movement on the other side.
By angling the muscle fibers, you can fit more muscle
fibers into a given space, effectively increasing your
cross-sectional area without increasing mass. Pin-
nate muscles are stronger than parallel muscles, but
they do less work (work = force times distance). So,
pinnate muscles are better for moving heavy loads
over a short distance slowly and parallel muscles are
better for moving lighter loads over long distances
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
quickly. Several familiar muscles are pinnate includ-
ing the obliques, the rectus femoris, subscapularis,
the gastrocnemius, and the soleus. The example
shown is of a bipennate muscle, but muscles may
also be unipennate (half of what is shown) or multi-
pennate (having multiple sections).
Muscle Length vs. Width
One of the considerations in muscle action is
how long and how thick the muscle is. Well, though it
seems absolutely wrong, the length of the muscle is
not very important to the strength that it can produce.
Muscles work on the basis of their cross-sectional
area, not on their length. Length may be important for
things like fatigue, but it is not important for strength.
Muscles of equal cross sectional area, but of differ-
ent lengths produce the same force. You can think
of it this way, you will still have the same number of
muscle fibers, just if the muscle is longer, there will
be more cells making up each fiber. They can only
contract so far, no strength is added by making the
fibers longer. If, however, you add more muscle fib-
ers and make the muscle wider, there will be more
fibers to exert a force and the force will be strong-
er. When people lift weights, their muscles dont get
longer, they get thicker. Of course there are skeletal
constraints in this, but even if the muscles got longer,
they would provide no more force.
Clearly we do have some long muscles.
When long muscles contract, they contract further
10 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
than short muscles. This causes a larger and faster
movement. So, force may be the same, but speed of
contraction and distance of contraction are greater. place. Nevertheless, when few muscular fibers are
This is why you dont see runners with short legs.
I may be able to develop muscles as large and as
strong as a runner, but I could never win because my
muscles cannot move as quickly and cannot move as
far, so I would always be slower.
Neuromuscular Components
Innervations of each Muscular Fiber
The muscular fibers are stimulated by motor
neurons that are in contact with the medial portion of
the fiber.
Motor Unit
It represents a single nerve or motor neuron
that innervates a group of muscular fibers. The con-
trol of production of muscular force is made through
the recruitment of the motor units within the muscle.
Sequence of Events: Stimulated Motor Neuron.
The following steps happen when the muscular
fiber is stimulated to produce the muscular contrac-
tion:
* Nervous impulse arrives to the terminal ax-
ons;
* Motor neuron secret acetylcholine ((ACh)
that is a neurotransmitter that is stored in some vesi-
cles inside the synaptic button of the motor neuron)
that passes for the synaptic channel toward the sar-
colemma of the muscular fiber;
* ACh notices fixes on receptors within the
sarcolemma.
* It generates action potential in muscular fib-
er.
* It liberates calcium ions (Ca++) via Tubules
from the sarcoplasmatic reticulum toward the sarco-
lemma;
* Ca++ unites with troponin on the actin fila-
ment;
* Myosin heads (crossed bridge) adhere to
active points in the actin filament;
* Both filaments slip one along the other one,
repeating this action until it happens the reduction of
the sarcomere and of the muscle in general.
Recruitment of the muscular fibers
The force or tension generated by the mus-
cle depends on the number of fibers innervated or
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
activated by the motor unit. When more muscular
fibers are activated a bigger muscular force can take
activated a smaller muscular force is generated. Giv-
en any intensity, the nervous system doesnt activate
100% of the available fibers. This physiologic pro-
tector mechanism helps to prevent musculoskeletal
lesions.
Mobilization order and selective recruitment of
the muscular fibers
In general terms the Slow twitch fibers are the
first ones recruited; they are followed by the recruit-
ment of Fast twitch fibers. However, the selective
recruitment of the fibers of ST and FT will depend on
the level of force demanded by the muscle and the
degree of exhaustion of the metabolic fuels, such as
the muscular glycogen, the free fatty acids and the
amino acids.
All the fibers of a motor unit are activated si-
multaneously. The different types of muscular fibers
are recruited by phases.
The all of none
This law postulates that a motor neuron or
muscular fiber responds completely with its force or
doesnt respond to a stimulus. This implies that a
minimum intensity exists (threshold) of stimulation for
the innervated muscle fiber. If the stimulation is infe-
rior to the threshold, the contraction of the innervated
fibers doesnt happen. On the other side, if the stimu-
lus of the motor neuron is same or on the threshold,
then it happens the contraction of the innervated fib-
ers.
Nomenclature for the Classification of the Mus-
cular Fibers
To the present three types of systems exist to
classify the fibers of the musculoskeletal system. The
system 1 classifies the fibers according to its contrac-
tile capacity: of slow contraction or ST (slow-twitch)
and of fast contraction or FT (fast-twitch). The fibers
FT are sub classified in type a (or FTa), type b (or
FTb) and Type c (or FTc). The system 2, classifies
the fibers (ST) as Type I and the fibers (FT) as Type
IIa, IIb and IIc. The system 3 classifies the types of
fibers being based on the speed of contraction of the
fibers and in the main way of energy production. The
ST fibers are called SO (Slow Oxidatives), the FTa
fibers or FOG (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic) and the FTb
fibers are called FG (Fast Glycolytic).
11 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
Metabolic Characteristics
ST Fibers. They are characterized by a high
aerobic tolerance. This is due to the fact that they
possess a high oxidative capacity and muscular tol-
erance. The biggest efficiency in the production of
ATP grants to the fibers of ST a better oxidative ca-
pacity that those of FT. On the other hand, the high
oxidative capacity induces a bigger aerobic produc-
tion of ATP in these fibers, so that they can continue
active for a prolonged period of time.
FT Fibers. They are characterized by a high
anaerobic or glycolytic capacity possessing a smaller
efficiency in the production of the ATP. Their high
glycolytic capacity allows to develop a high produc-
tion of force. Contrary to the ST fibers, the FT fibers
are characterized by a bigger fatigability. This is due
to their reduced production of ATP and the conse-
quent accumulation of intramuscular lactate.
Distribution of the two main types of fibers in
the human body
The distribution of the CL and ST fibers in the
skeletal muscle depend on the muscle type. In the
superior and inferior extremities, for example, there
are similar compositions of CL and ST fibers. Also,
the distribution of the fiber types can vary with the
gender, the function of the muscle and genetic fac-
tors, among other factors.
Musculoskeletal Adaptation to Weight Train-
ing
The adaptations and implications of the
weight training for the health are very dynamic and
variable for each individual. So that the adaptations
are durable, it is necessary to have a systematic ad-
ministration of an enough stimulus, continued by the
individuals adaptation, and then the introduction of a
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
new, progressively bigger stimulus. Much of the suc-
cess of the program is attributable to the effective-
ness of the prescription of the exercise, the manipu-
lation of the progression of the stimulus, the variation
in the design of the program and the individualization
of the same one. The most relevant adaptations of
the musculoskeletal system are described bellow:
Adaptations of the muscular fibers
The increase of size of the muscle refers as
hypertrophy. The swelling that one feels after a
single sequence of the exercise refers as transitory
hypertrophy. This short term effect is attributable to
the accumulation of fluids, on the sanguine plasma,
in the intracellular and interstitial spaces of the mus-
cle. In contrast, the chronic hypertrophy refers to
the increase of size of the muscle associated to the
long term training with weights. The increases in the
area of traverse section of the fibers of the muscle
extend from 20% until 45% in most of the studies.
The hypertrophy of the muscular fiber has been dem-
onstrated to need more than 16 trainings to produce
effects and significant adaptations. Also, the muscu-
lar fibers of fast contraction (FT glycolytic) have the
potential of demonstrating bigger increases of size in
comparison with that of slow contraction (Oxidatives
or ST).
It is generally believed that the number of the
fibers of the muscle that we have is established at
birth and it remains fixed through the rest of the life.
Therefore, the adaptations of the hypertrophy con-
sidered with the training with weights are a net profit
of the sub-cellular changes inside the muscle that in-
clude: more quantity and thicker protein filaments of
actin and myosin, more myofibrils (that incorporate
the filaments of actin and myosin), more sarcoplasm
(the liquid of the muscular cell), and commendable
increases in the connective tissue that surrounds the
muscular fibers. Any evidence of divisions of the mus-
cular fiber (designated hyperplasia), like it has been
described in the animal studies is, at the moment,
not very conclusive in investigations with humans,
but conceivable being possible.
Adaptations of the force to the training with
weights
The increases in muscular force during the in-
itial periods of a weight training program dont associ-
12 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
ate to the changes in the area of traverse section The
changes in the force evidenced in the first weeks of
the training with weights are more associated to the
adaptations of the nerves that develop more efficient
nervous roads along the route toward the muscle and
to the better recruitment in the motor units within the
muscles.
The long term changes in force are attributable more
probably to the hypertrophy of the fibers or of the
muscular group. The range of the increase of the
force is absolutely variable among individuals and it
can extend starting from 7% until 45%. It should be
observed that the results of the force appear to be
specific of the speed. The specificity of the speed
characterizes the probability that the biggest increas-
es in the force happen near the speed trained in the
exercise.
Adaptations of the bony tissue to the training
with weights
In answer to the overloading of the bone, created by
muscular contractions or other methods of mechani-
cal forces, the bone begins a process that implies the
production of protein molecules that are deposited in
the spaces among the bony cells. This leads to the
creation of a womb of the bone that ultimately is min-
eralized as calcium phosphates, being that the bone
acquires its rigid structure. This new formation of the
bone happens mainly in the external surface of the
bone, the periostium.
Activities that stimulate growth of the bone
need to include progressive overload, variation of the
load, and the specificity of the overload. The specifi-
city of the load refers to the exercises that put a load
directly in certain region of the skeleton.
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
With osteoporosis, the places of the fractures
that are more desolated are in the axial skeleton (the
spine and the hip).
The progressive overload is necessary so the
bone and the connective tissue associate dont ex-
ceed the critical level that would place them in risk.
The programs to increase the growth of the bone
should be structural in nature, including exercises
like the squats, for example that directs the forces
through the axial skeleton and allow the use of bigger
loads. The magnitude required to produce an effec-
tive stimulus for the bone to be remodeled appears to
be between 1 and 10 RM.
Adaptations of the body composition for the
training with weights
The weight training program can increase
the muscle mass and diminish the percentage of the
body fat. One of the exceptional advantages of the
exercise with weights, related with the weight loss, is
the positive impact of increasing the energy expendi-
ture during the session of the exercise and during
the recovery, and in maintaining or increasing the
muscle mass while it encourages the loss of corporal
fat. It is more probable that the composition of the
body is affected and controlled by programs of weight
training that use bigger muscular groups and a bigger
total volume. An impressive fact to highlight with the
training with weights is that the energy expenditure
that follow the trainings with higher total volumes ap-
pear to be high, compared to other exercise forms,
and this way, it contributes more to the objectives of
the fat loss.
13 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
Adaptations of the heart frequency to the training Increased body fatness along with increased ab-
with weights dominal obesity is thought to be directly linked to
the greatly increased incidence of type 2 diabe-
The heart frequency rises immediately after tes among the elderly.
an exercise and it is affected by the quantity of resist-
Sarcopenia is a direct cause of the age-
ance, number of repetitions and the muscular mass
related decrease in muscle strength. Reduced
implied in the contraction. In terms of chronic adap-
tations, it appears to have a reduction in the heart muscle strength in the elderly is a major cause
frequency related to the training with weights that it of their increased prevalence of disability. With
is considered beneficial. The long term adaptations advancing age and the very low activity levels
observed in scientific investigations vary from any seen in the very old, muscle strength and power
change until a decrease of 11% in the heart rhythm. are critical components of walking ability. The
That can explain be explained by the differences in high prevalence of falls among the institutional-
intensity, volume, rest among series, the use of small ized elderly may be a consequence of their lower
against bigger muscular mass, duration of the study muscle strength.
and the level of the aptitude of the individuals. The following figures describe some other
Adaptations of the size of the heart to weight train-
age related changes in musculoskeletal system
ing
throughout the years.
The studies in athletes adapted by the strength
training demonstrated that there is an increase in the
thickness of the left ventricular wall and in the ab-
solute mass of the left ventricular wall (denominated
concentric hypertrophy), in contrast with the increase
of the volume of the left ventricular compartment (de-
nominated eccentric hypertrophy) seen in the indi-
viduals trained with aerobic exercises. The degree
to which the changes in the size of the heart, through
the training with weights, can affect heart volume,
ejection volume and the effectiveness of the heart is
ignored at the moment.

Musculoskeletal alterations through the

years

Advancing age is associated with a remark-

able number of changes in body composition. Reduc-
tions in lean body mass result primarily from losses
in skeletal muscle mass. This age-related loss in
muscle mass has been termed sarcopenia. Loss in
muscle mass accounts for the age-associated de-
creases in basal metabolic rate, muscle strength, and
activity levels, which in turn are the causes of the
decreased energy requirements of the elderly,
In sedentary individuals the main determinant of
energy expenditure is fat-free mass, which de-
clines by about 15% between the third and eighth
decade of life. It also appears that declining ca-
loric needs are not matched by an appropriate
decline in caloric intake, ultimately resulting in an
increased body-fat content with advancing age.

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 14 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 15 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 16 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 17 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 18 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 STUDY QUESTIONS

1- What are the bones that are part of the axial skeleton?

2- What are the bones that are part of the appendicular skeleton?

3- List and define the components of muscle fiber.

4- What are the basic characteristics of slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibers?

5- Describe the components of a typical synovial joint.

6- List the main alterations of the musculoskeletal system throughout the years.

7- Define the sequence of events that happens to produce a muscle contraction.

8- What are the variables that may affect joint stability?

9 Differentiate Osteoblasts from Osteoclasts regarding their functions.

10- Describe the two types of bony tissue.

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 19 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness