ABSTRACT

The home garden is traditionally a very important piece of land for rural households
of Sri Lanka. The home garden can be defined as a farming system which combines
different physical, social and economic functions on the area of land around the
family home.

The present study was conducted in the Nawagaththegama divisional secretariat

division of the Puttalam district of Sri Lanka to determine the impact of home
gardening and livestock on diversified dietary intake and nutritional status of people
in the area. The study sample consisted of 151 families having children below 5 years
of age. A population based cross-sectional study was carried out. An interviewer
administered, pre-tested questionnaire was used to collect information related to home
gardening and livestock status, 24hour food recall and the house hold characteristics.
Heights and weights of the children were measured using properly calibrated
equipments. Trained university students were used for administering the
questionnaire. Nutritional status was determined using WHO Anthro software and
data analysis was performed using the SPSS software.

The prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight in the group having home
garden and livestock was 23.7%, 21.8 %, 20% respectively and in the group of not
having them was 20.8% , 12.5% and 31.4% respectively. Above figures were higher
than the district prevalence of stunting (14.0%) wasting (11.7%) and underweight
(19.2%). The relationship between home gardening and livestock with nutritional
status or home gardening and livestock with dietary diversity of under five children
was not significant. Within the group doing home gardening and livestock, a marked
relationship was found between rearing both cow and chicken and the dietary
diversity. Using the secondary income gained from the home gardening and livestock,
60.8% were able to purchase other food products. However the two groups having or
not having home garden and livestock, consumption of eggs, dairy products and
vitamin A rich foods were not significantly different. The main influencing factors for
not doing home gardening and livestock were water scarcity, elephant and insect
attacks to crops, and poverty. It is recommended to find solutions to these factors in
order to improve dietary diversity and nutritional status of the people.

Keywords - Home garden, livestock, stunting, wasting, underweight, dietary diversity

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to my supervisor Prof. D.G.N.G.

Wijesinghe Associate Professor, Department of Food Science and technology, Faculty

of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya for his invaluable guidance, kind supervision

and encouragement given me to complete this project successfully.

I offer my sincere gratitude to my external supervisor Miss. Dilka Rashmi Peiris,

Nutrition specialist, World Vision Lanka, Maradana road, Colombo 08 for her

valuable comments, support and encouragement during my study.

I am grateful to Mr. Jayamini Pushpakumara, Project Coordinator- Perma Culture

program, World Vision Lanka, B.W. Shivantha Mendis, Program Coordinator-

Anamaduwa ADP, for their guidance, valuable comments and suggestions to make

the study a success. I am particularly thankful to all mobilizers in Anamaduwa ADP

for their excellent support to conduct my project successfully.

I offer sincere thanks to my colleagues who were at Faculty of Agriculture for their

help, pleasant collaboration and creation of a friendly atmosphere throughout the

study.

Finally I owe my deepest gratitude to my ever loving parents, brothers and sisters for

giving me the moral support and encouragement to accomplish this task successfully.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...........................................................................................ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................vii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................. 3

1.2.1 General Objective .......................................................................................... 3

1.2.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................ 3

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 4

2. Literature review ..................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Food insecurity in household level ....................................................................... 4

2.2 Forest lands in relation to agricultural and other land uses in 2006 ..................... 5

2.3 Kandyan Forest Gardens ...................................................................................... 5

2. 4 Home garden Development Projects Done in Sri Lanka .................................... 6

2.4.1 Homestead Development Project (HDP) ..................................................... 6

2.4.2 Family Business Garden in Agriculture (FBG) .............................................. 7

2.4.3 Model Home Garden developed by HORDI ................................................. 9

2.4.4 Ran Aswanu Mangallaya ("Golden Harvest festival") ................................ 10

2.4.5 Integrated Food Security Program- IFSP .................................................... 10

2.5 Home Gardening Status in Sri Lanka ................................................................. 11

iii
2.6 Advantages of the Development of Home Gardens ........................................... 12

2.7 Planning the Home garden ................................................................................. 13

2.7.1 Perennial vegetables .................................................................................... 14

2.7.2 Short-lived (annual) vegetables ................................................................... 14

2.7.3 Livestock ..................................................................................................... 14

2.7.4 Hedges ......................................................................................................... 15

2.8 Management of the Homestead .......................................................................... 15

2.9 Climate change focused permaculture ............................................................... 16

2.9.1 What is permaculture? ................................................................................. 16

2.9.2 Permaculture philosophy in agriculture practices........................................ 17

2.10 Permaculture project implemented by World Vision Lanka ............................ 17

2.10.1 Project goals .............................................................................................. 18

2.10.2 Beneficiaries .............................................................................................. 18

2.11 Nutritional status of under five years children ................................................. 19

2.11.1 Stunting (height-for-age) ........................................................................... 19

2.11.2 Underweight (weight-for-age) ................................................................... 20

2.11.3 Wasting (weight-for-height) ...................................................................... 21

2.12 Factors affecting nutritional status of children ................................................. 22

2.12.1 Land availability ......................................................................................... 22

2.12.2 Home gardening and rearing livestock ...................................................... 22

2.12.3 Fathers Occupation ................................................................................... 23

2.12.4 Maternal Education.................................................................................... 23

2.13 Dietary diversity and diet quality ..................................................................... 24

iv
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 25

3. Methodology ........................................................................................................... 25

3.1 Study design ....................................................................................................... 25

3.2 Location of the study .......................................................................................... 25

3.3 Sampling procedure............................................................................................ 25

3.4 Criteria for the selection of suitable households for assessment ........................ 26

3.5 Data collection.................................................................................................... 26

3.6 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 28

3.6.1 Determination of Nutritional Status ............................................................ 28

3.6.2 Determination of Individual Dietary Diversity (for children aged 6-59

months) ........................................................................................................ 28

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 31

4. Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 31

4.1 Education level ................................................................................................... 31

4.2 Main occupation and home garden status .......................................................... 33

4.3 Monthly income and home gardening status...................................................... 34

4.4 Dietary Diversity ................................................................................................ 35

4.4.1 Food consumption pattern in families not having HG and LSTK ............... 36

4.4.2 Consumption pattern in families having HG and LSTK ............................. 38

4.5 Awareness on suitable crops to grow ................................................................. 41

4.6 Knowledge on a balanced diet ........................................................................... 42

4.7 Rearing animal ................................................................................................... 44

4.7.1 Duration of rearing ...................................................................................... 44

4.7.2 Kind of animals raring ................................................................................. 45

4.7.3 Relationship between rearing animal and dietary diversity......................... 46

4.8 Nutritional Status of under five children ............................................................ 47

v
 4.8.1 Deviation from the WHO standards ............................................................ 49

4.8.2 Birth weight ................................................................................................. 49

4.9 Secondary income from the Home Garden and Livestock ................................ 50

4.10 Reasons for not doing HG and LSTK or stop continuing them ....................... 51

CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 54

5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 54

Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 55

References ................................................................................................................... 56

ANNEX ....................................................................................................................... 60

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Homestead Management ............................................................................ 16

Table 2.2: Prevalence of stunting in Sri Lanka (2009) ................................................ 20
Table 2.3: Prevalence of underweight in Sri Lanka (2009) ......................................... 21
Table 2.4: Prevalence of underweight in Sri Lanka (2009) ......................................... 21
Table 3.1: Food groups and the food items belongs to each group ............................. 29
Table 4.1: Educational level and HG and LSTK status ............................................... 32
Table 4.2: Occupation and the status of home garden and livestock ........................... 33
Table 4.3: HG and LSTK status based on income categories...................................... 35
Table 4.4: HG and LSTK status with dietary diversity ............................................... 40
Table 4.5: No. of people having awareness on suitable crops to grow ........................ 41
Table 4.6: Duration of rearing animal.......................................................................... 44
Table 4.7: Percentage of families rearing different animals ....................................... 46
Table 4.8: Relationship between dietary diversity and rearing animal ........................ 46
Table 4.9: Prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight according to HG and
LSTK status ............................................................................................... 48
Table 4.10: Relationship between birth weight and home gardening status................ 50
Table 4.11: Percentage of families having a secondary income from the HG and
LSTK ........................................................................................................ 50
Table 4.12: Reasons for not doing Home Gardening .................................................. 52
Table 4.13: Reasons for not doing Livestock .............................................................. 52

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Forest lands in relation to agricultural and other land uses in 2006 ........................ 5
Figure 2.2: Levels of the homestead development competition ................................................ 6
Figure 2.3: Family Business Garden Concept ............................................................................ 8
Figure 2.4: Different forms of malnutrition ............................................................................. 19
Figure 4.1: Families involved with HG and LSTK based on the educational level of the
household head....................................................................................................... 32
Figure 4.2: Families involved with HG and LSTK based on the main occupation of the
household head....................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.3: Diversified dietary intake and home garden status ................................................ 36
Figure 4.4: Percentages of least consumed food groups by families having - and not having
HG and LSTK and not having a diverse diet ......................................................... 39
Figure 4.5: Percentages of least consumed food groups by families having - and not having
HG and LSTK ........................................................................................................ 40
Figure 4.6: Awareness on suitable crops to grow .................................................................... 41
Figure 4.7: Percentage having knowledge on a balanced diet and status of the home garden. 42
Figure 4.8: Relationship with the knowledge on a balanced diet and Dietary diversity .......... 43
Figure 4.9: Duration of raring animal ...................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.10: Percentage of families rearing different animals ................................................. 46
Figure 4.11: Prevalence of Stunting, wasting and underweight according to gender and home
garden and livestock status ................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.12: Prevalence of Stunting, wasting and underweight according to home garden and
livestock status and comparison with district values ............................................ 49
Figure 4.13: Percentage of families having affordability to purchase other foods due to the
income from HG and LSTK ................................................................................. 51

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The whole world has faced to a severe food insecurity in recent times and countries

are seeking solutions for it World's population still suffer from hunger and the fear of

starvation. Therefore, many countries have growing concerns about the capacity of

agriculture to meet future food needs. In 2011, Sri Lanka's agricultural contribution to

the GDP was 13% including plantation, fisheries and forestry sectors (CIA, 2011).

The home garden is traditionally a very important piece of land for rural households

of Sri Lanka. The home garden can be defined as a farming system which combines

different physical, social and economic functions on the area of land around the

family home. Within the typical home garden, 3 areas can be identified: social areas

for meetings, children's play and gardens for display; economic areas for growing

food, medicinal plants and trees and for raising animals and fish; Physical areas for

storage, living, washing and waste disposal. It is a place for people to live in but it

also produces a variety of foods and other things for both home use and income

(FAO, 2010).

The home gardens are found in many areas of Sri Lanka specially among moderate to

poor income families. They are sometimes called backyard or kitchen gardens

because most of the time the allocated area for the cropping in home garden is at the

back of the land. These gardens have an established tradition and offer great potential

for improving household food security and alleviating micronutrient

1
deficiencies(alleviating micronutrient deficiencies is the most important part of a

home garden).

Producing many different kinds of foods in the home garden will be helpful to ensure

access to a healthy diet that contains adequate macro-and micronutrients. As the

intake of different types of food decreases with decreasing income, the home

gardening in poor and rural areas is much more helpful to make an opportunity of

taking a diversified diet. Home gardens are also becoming an increasingly important

source of income for poor households in peri-urban and urban areas.

A well-developed home garden has the potential, when access to land and water is not

a major limitation, to supply most of the non-staple foods that a family needs every

day of the year, including roots and tubers, vegetables, fruits, legumes, herbs and

spices, animals and fish. Roots and tubers are rich in energy and legumes are

important sources of protein, fat, iron and vitamins. Green leafy vegetables and

yellow- or orange-colored fruits provide essential vitamins and minerals; particularly

folate, and vitamins A, E and C. Vegetables and fruits are a vital component of a

healthy diet and should be eaten as part of every meal. Meat, chicken and fish are

good sources of protein, fat and micronutrients, particularly iron and zinc. They are

especially important in small children's diets to ensure normal growth and intellectual

development (FAO, 2010).

In Nawagaththegama area, there are some home gardening projects done by some

nongovernmental organizations like World Vision Lanka (WVL), Care international

and the government also promoting home gardening programs there. Although

number of programs has been implemented, their effect/impact have not being

2
assessed. So the main objective of this project is to assess the impact of those home

gardening and livestock programs done in Nawagaththegama area specially by WVL.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General Objective

To find out the impact of home gardening and livestock on diversified dietary intake

and nutritional status of the people in Nawagaththegama DS division.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

1. To find out what kind of crops and livestock should be more and more established

to increase the dietary diversity and nutritional status.

2. To investigate the positive effects of livestock and home gardening in improving

affordability of the family to purchase other food products.

3. To find out the factors influencing home gardening or animal rearing in the

community.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2. Literature review

2.1 Food insecurity in household level

Food insecurity is growing slowly and strongly in the world. For the families having a

low income, the concept of home gardening and livestock keeping has been a good

solution. By that kind of a development, it gives a solution to malnourished and

undernourished kids in low income families.

By 2030, the world's population is expected to be top eight billion. Although the

population grows, the decrease in the number of hungry people is very low. Reduction

of the proportion of undernourished people in the developing countries is only 3 %,

(from 20 % to 17%) during 2001-03 (FAO, 2006). FAO had estimated that there were

still 854 million undernourished people worldwide; 820 million in the developing

countries, 25 million in the transition countries and 9 million in the industrialized

countries. Governments attending the World Food Conference had declared "every

man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and

malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties" (FAO, 2006).

4
2.2 Forest lands in relation to agricultural and other land uses in 2006

Home gardens, 14.8%

Other land
uses, 21.5%
Forest plantations, 1.4%
Tea, 3.4%

Sparse
Rubber, 1.8% forests, 7.2%

Coconut,6%
Natural forests (closed
canopy), 22.4%
Other perennial
crops, 11%
Paddy, 8.8%
Other non perennial
crops, 1.5%

Source: FAO, 2009

Figure 2.1: Forest lands in relation to agricultural and other land uses in 2006

2.3 Kandyan Forest Gardens

Kandyan Gardens (KG) or Kandyan Forest Gardens (KFG) of Sri Lanka represents a

traditional system of perennial cropping which has been in practice for several

centuries. It is essentially a system of mixed cropping with a variety of economically

valuable groups of tree crops such as spices, fruits, medicinal plants and timber

species. However, these systems are usually in small homestead holdings and are

practised in a few districts, specially Kandy, Matale and Kurunegalle in the 'mid-

country' region of Sri Lanka. In the district of Kandy, this is the most predominant

cropping system and hence the name 'Kandyan Gardens' or 'Kandyan Forest Gardens'.

The mixed forest-gardening system offers a highly diversified and economically

5
viable form of land use. The Kandyan forest garden system is different from the other

home garden systems mostly in terms of the variety of plants grown. Moreover the

farmers who practice the Forest garden systems in Sri Lanka enjoy a 'relatively better'

level of living by virtue of returns from both the economic cash crops and the

subsistence products. Presumably, with improved management, the system has the

potential for increased production and better returns (Jacob and Alles, 1987).

2. 4 Home garden Development Projects Done in Sri Lanka

2.4.1 Homestead Development Project (HDP)

Homestead Development Project was launched in 2007 as the initial step of Api

Wawamu-Rata Nagamu programme. Homestead is the land area around the house

which is used to get additional income and to fulfill the nutritional and landscaping

needs of the family. This has been carried as a competition in each year. The

technological advice is given to establish home gardens according to the agro climatic

zone. Competition is held in following levels (Karunatihilake, 2009).

Divisional secretariat level

District level

Provincial level

National level
Source : (Karunatihilake, 2009).

Figure 2.2: Levels of the homestead development competition

6
2.4.2 Family Business Garden in Agriculture (FBG)

Family Business Garden (FBG) concept was practically launched on the World

Environment Day of the year 2000 in Mathugama, Sri Lanka by the Western

Province, Department of Agriculture (WPDOA). The main focus of the concept of the

FBG is to show the necessity of converting the simple form of home gardening into a

source of family nutrition supply and mental satisfaction based on the sustainable

entrepreneurship. In this context, the concept of the FBG believes that there should be

proper mix of environmental improvement aspects and commercial agricultural

aspects in the process of sustainable home garden development (Ranasinghe, 2003).

The FBG has four major aims reaching its target groups development. They are:

converting the aspect of gardening in to a theoretically-based sustainable agri-business

concept, addressing some poverty issues in gathering additional income for food

security, working with better mix of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and

making contributions for attempts of improving socio-economic-health-environment

aspects of urban communities.

FBG has five main components in relation to human-economic-ecological-technical

aspects regarding urban context. The logo of the concept shows these five strategic

components of its different shaped and sized petals. They are nutrition, technology

adoption, crop management, post-harvest technology and value addition and

landscaping and housekeeping.

7
 TECHNOLOGY CROP
ADOPTION
MANAGEMENT

FAMILY
NUTRITION

POST HARVEST LANDSCAPING

TECHNOLOGY AND AND
VALUE ADDITION HOUSEKEEPING

Source: (Ranasinghe, 2003)

Figure 2.3: Family Business Garden Concept

The centre petal is the prime need of the family. The dual-stalk symbolizes the ability

of approaching the concept either commercial or environment basis or combination of

both for sustainability. Knowledge is given through a variety of communication

channels mass media methods such as newspapers, magazines, posters, hand-

bulletins, stickers, hoarding at road sites, radio and television etc. Interpersonal

methods such as exhibitions, seminars, action-research sessions, workshops, training

classes, demonstration sites had been used. Individual methods such as visit to

information centers, telephone calls, letters, e-mail communication project

involvements, and thesis assignments also had been used for the programme

(Ranasinghe, 2003).

8
2.4.3 Model Home garden developed by HORDI

Substantial proportion of the world's population is migrating to urban areas. Home

gardens in the city are becoming increasingly important in providing good nutrition,

food security and even income throughout the year. Urban home gardens are located

on the ground, balconies or concrete roofs. Their productivity depends on common

factors such as the number of family members, time which can be devoted to the

garden, and the regional climate (Hein, 2007).

To help families in Sri Lanka and to establish and maintain high-output home

gardens, a model home garden was created nine years ago at the Horticulture

Research and Development Institute (HORDI) at Gannoruwa. The model garden was

created to help people increase their knowledge of gardening techniques through

viewing a visible success. During 2006, over 63,000 people from all over the country

viewed HORDl's model home garden, including large numbers of school children

(Hein, 2007).

In addition to this model garden for visitors, HORDI also offers monthly workshops

on different aspects of rural and urban home-gardening for the general public, and for

people holding positions both in government and in non-governmental public

organizations. As a gardens productivity relies on adequate fertilization and moisture,

HORDI provides workshops on efficient creation of compost from decaying garden

materials and kitchen waste. HORDI also otters information on cultivation methods

which maximize urban garden productivity, such as potted cultivation, hanging

gardens, and growing leafy vegetable 'towers'. Other areas include affordable nursery

techniques, identifying compatible crop mixtures, eco-friendly pest management

techniques, and rehabilitation of fruit trees through proper pruning. Beyond the model

9
borne garden, workshops and printed material, HORDI reaches a large number of

people through many channels. Potential beneficiaries are provided with home-

gardening seed and planting material kits, along with printed material on home-

gardening technologies. According to Hein, (2007) the model garden created in 1998

has played a vital role in boosting productivity among Sri Lanka's urban farmers.

2.4.4 Ran Aswanu Mangallaya ("Golden Harvest festival")

Under the Api Wawamu Rata Nagamu concept another homestead development

competition has been launched by the Rupavahini Cooperation with the consultancy

of the Horticulture Research and Development Institute (HORDI) Gannoruwa. The

main knowledge source for this is "Rividina Arunella" programme which is

broadcasted in the Rupavahini on Sunday morning under the guidance of the Head of

Floriculture and Home Gardening at HORDI. This competition includes four types of

homesteads namely dry zone homesteads, wet zone homesteads, school homesteads in

dry and wet zones, and large scale homesteads. Household homesteads can include

from small homesteads to 20 perches homesteads. Large scale homesteads size is 0.5

acre or above. People are encouraged to grow crops according to the agro climatic

zone. Applications are published in newspapers. The best homesteads are chosen

according to the standards with the supervision of relevant field officers. Winners had

been given certificates and prizes at the end of the competition.

2.4.5 Integrated Food Security Program- IFSP

Integrated Food Security Programme was launched in Trincomalee in l998. It was

sponsored by Republic of Germany through German Development Cooperation, and

the government of Sri Lanka. The Department of Agriculture, Department of Animal

Production and Health and Department of Education were involved in this project.

10
Main objective was to support and encourage households and village communities

who were war-affected and faced seasonal and structural food deficits. The school

garden to home garden was one of the programmes associated with IFSP. It aimed to

increase food availability and accessibility. Programme was launched in 1998/1999 in

11 schools in Trincomalee district. Later it was expanded to 44 schools. Target was

establishing 110 home gardens and producing 75,000 kg vegetables from that.

Agricultural clubs were established in the schools and they were responsible for

conducting the program. Two day residential program had been conducted in the

agriculture residential centers. Nurseries and school gardens had been established in

schools. Seedlings were sold to the households in Trincomalee (IFSP, 2000).

IFSP accomplished their goals in 2003. Significant achievements in the fields of

infrastructure, health services, local markets and improved institutional capacities

were recorded. IFSP Trincomalee has contributed to the reduction of vulnerability and

poverty. IFSP has created a learning site for many individuals and institutions and has

developed into a learning institution over the years (IFSP, 2000).

2.5 Home gardening Status in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka the percentage of families using a home garden is highest in the areas

having more rainfall. It is about 45 % in wet zone cities, 30 % in intermediate zone

cities and 20% in dry zone cities. The majority of urban home-gardening families in

Sri Lanka grow for domestic needs. In semi-urban areas and villages some products

(typically fruits like mangoes, avocadoes and rambutan) are grown for market or are

brought to market when in excess (Hein, 2007). Productivity of the homestead is

affected by the time, climate, access to space, and water in times of drought,

fertilizing the soil etc. Thousand square meters or less land area is easy to maintain as

11
home gardens. House, well or water source, fence or wall, garbage pit, toilet, crops

(flowers, leafy vegetables, yams, fruits, spices, timber plants, herbs) livestock, biogas

unit and bee-keeping are the typical items of the homestead.

Home Garden improvement can lead to environment friendly wholesome food

production in the family without the use of chemical fertilizer, and it contributes to

the steady improving of household economy. It will also reduce the waste of

vegetables and other crops during the transportation of products from farmers to

consumers.

2.6 Advantages of the Development of Home gardens

It is desirable that daily needs of our food be produced by our own due to high cost,

seasonal production with climatic changes, high prices, harmful chemicals, less taste

and quality in market vegetables and fruits. Members of the family can get well

balanced and a healthy diet easily by developing the homesteads. Maximum

utilization of the land, cleaned environment and fertile soil due to reusing of the

garbage are other benefits of the homesteads. Harvest can be taken fresh and easily at

any time without losses. Cool and beautiful environment, economical advantages and

chemical-free foods can be gained by the improved homesteads. Extra income can be

generated from the homestead development by selling extra foods, propagation of

plants, mushroom production, cattle and poultry rearing, bee-keeping, ornamental

flowers, ornamental fish and preserved food etc.

Home gardeners can spent a useful leisure time and they can save time and money

spent for going markets. Exercises and mental happiness are other benefits of home

gardening. Planting materials and seeds can be produced easily from the home

12
gardens. It is an access to landscaping of the house and the homestead development

experience can lead the people to do even a commercial cultivation in future.

2.7 Planning the Home garden

Crops can be established in the garden without a plan or with a plan. Buildings, crops,

space, shape and soil structure of the land should be considered when the home

gardens are planned. If the home garden has less space, bags, racks, cultivation towers

like components can be included.

Wines such as beans, wing beans and Katuru murunga, drumstick, and fruits can be

used for the fence. Water lodging areas are suitable for growing Kohila, Kankun,

Gotukola etc. Shady places can be used for growing ginger, pepper coffee like crops

which like shade. Two sides of the entering roads can be used for growing lettuce and

cabbage like vegetables. The interest of the family members and the nutrition should

also be considered in selecting the crops. If the space is limited, then planning the

space is useless. Perennials are more suitable to grow near to fences. Drainage and

sunshine should be well supplied to vegetables. Flowers can be grown near to the

fence to make the home garden attractive and to gather bees and other beneficial

insects to the home garden (Arachchi and Doluweera, 2003).

If water is not limited, papaya and banana may be planted as intercrops between the

young trees. If water has to be carried, it can still grow a few of these plants, because

of their high and early yield. Passion fruit may be grown on a trellis near the house,

which can be used also as a shade. There is a rich choice of annual vegetables, both

indigenous and exotic. Some greens, such as amaranth can be harvested in a matter of

weeks. They are productive and highly nutritious. Ground-covering crops (cowpea,

sweet potato, gourds) deserve a place in the home garden as well.

13
2.7.1 Perennial vegetables

The borderline between annual and perennial vegetables - a lifespan of one year - is

not very practical for the gardener. Many herbs that in the natural state may live

longer than one year, generally have a much shorter life as crop plants in gardens. The

issue is complicated because crop duration depends on the cropping system as well as

the variety and growing conditions: cassava grown as a leaf vegetable may occupy the

garden for several years, grown for the tubers it may be cleared after 9 months (or

later) (Verheij and Waaijenberg, 2008).

2.7.2 Short-lived (annual) vegetables

The PROTA Handbook about the plant resources of Tropical Africa lists nearly 100

annual vegetables and a somewhat smaller number of perennial vegetable herbs. Only

a few annual vegetable crops are suitable for the home garden. Leafy vegetables,

cover crops and legumes are three outstanding categories of vegetables. Leafy

vegetables contribute mostly to the nutrition and health, while the other two groups

also contribute to the health of the garden by minimizing the erosion and making the

soil fertile (Verheij and Waaijenberg, 2008).

2.7.3 Livestock

The combination of animals and a garden is very attractive, provided the animals do

not roam about freely. If chickens or pigs are not confined to a pen, growing herbs

and greens is virtually impossible and gardens will be limited to hardy perennial

plants. If animals are kept in a pen or stable, the manure can be used to improve the

garden soil. If a plot has been under a fodder crop for a year or two, the soil will be in

a much better condition for most of the vegetables; moreover the risk of soil-borne

diseases is reduced. If the garden can be watered a small fodder plot can contribute a

lot to feed requirements during the dry season (Verheij and Waaijenberg, 2008).

14
2.7.4 Hedges

Fences or hedges keep animals (and other intruders) out of the garden. A hedge is

generally best for long-term protection, but it takes a few years to grow to full size.

Until the hedge grows one can start with a temporary enclosure of thorny branches or

set up a fence with (live) posts linked by bamboo slats. It is a good idea to plant a

hedge inside the fence straight away, in order to provide protection in due course.

There are many plants that can be shaped into hedges. Sometimes woody vegetables,

like the cassava can form the hedge. Fodder plants such as gliricidia and coral trees

(Erythrina species) are also popular; the cuttings may be fed to animals, or can be

used as green manure or mulch (Verheij and Waaijenberg, 2008).

Four matters should be considered before taking the steps to develop the homestead.

They are the present production level of the homestead, expected production from the

homestead in the future, how to achieve those production targets from the homestead,

and types of inputs that are required for that.

2.8 Management of the Homestead

The weaknesses of present home gardens in the country include absence of intensive

cultivations, absence of crop diversification, cultivation of crops in unsuitable places

with inappropriate spaces, less production in perennials due to less cultural practices,

infertile soils and weak maintenance of the home gardens. These lands of home

gardens should be developed using management of three factors such as resource

management, crop and animal management, and time management. Integrated

management can be done for all three components.

15
Table 2.1: Homestead Management
Management Technological
Alternatives Alternatives
Resource Soil management
Management Water management
Sunshine usage
Space usage
Other

Crop/Animal Crop selection

management Crop establishment in a given volume
Using alternatives for less apace
Pest control
Crop fence
Cultivation in kitchen
Intensive vegetable cultivation

Time management Crop selection

Crop rotation and inter cropping
Nurseries and propagation
Crop maintenance and control
Re-planning and modifications
Source: Silva, 2004

2.9 Climate change focused permaculture

2.9.1 What is permaculture?

Australian scientist and author Bill Mollison is considered the worlds leading

proponent of permaculture. The following is his own definition:

"Permaculture (permanent agriculture) is the conscious design and maintenance of

agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability and resilience

of natural ecosystems. It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people

providing their food, energy, shelter and other material and non-material needs in a

sustainable way. Without permanent agriculture there is no possibility of a stable

social order (Mollison, 1998).

16
2.9.2 Permaculture philosophy in agriculture practices

In order to arrive at a logical measurement of the level of permaculture adopted in the

home gardens, a composite index was developed by taking the following six basic

agricultural practices;

i. Proportion of vegetables (leafy vegetables, vegetables, fruits) requirement

fulfilled from the home garden

ii. Production of eggs and milk

iii. Amount of compost making (kg/yr)

iv. Use of own planting material

v. Land use

vi. Cultivation of mixed crops (root crop, field crop, oil crop, legume, leafy

vegetable)

2.10 Permaculture project implemented by World Vision Lanka

The permaculture project was implemented in four ADPs supported by Australia viz,

Weeraketiya, Neluwa, Vellaweli and Paddipalai and two ADPs funded by Canada,

viz. Kiran and Navagattegama. The project provided 600 rural low-income farmers

with knowledge and skills and introduced improved agricultural technologies through

the Permaculture concept methodology and supported 150 best-practicing farmers to

develop them into model farming. The proposed project intended to tie in with the

experiences and lessons learned from previous agriculture concepts project and

extended the interventions by also including new beneficiaries and adding an

additional nutrition component. The project period was 2-4 years

The main goal of this project was to contribute to upgrade economic development,

introduction of sustainable eco-friendly agriculture mechanisms and improved

17
nutrition status of children though usage of local food, in the 6 ADPs. It would be

achieved primarily by enhancing the opportunities for 600 farmers in the target

communities to learn the application of permaculture, support and restore their

economic independence by helping their environment and surrounding nature to the

maximum.

2.10.1 Project goals

To improve livelihoods, food security and the nutritional status of selected

households through introducing permaculture philosophy and techniques.

2.10.2 Beneficiaries

The project would be carried out in six target areas of Sri Lanka: areas that have a

high dependency on rain-fed farming and few irrigation facilities available.

Increases in income and nutritious food production would directly benefit the

targeted 400 farmers and their households.

Around 8,000 community members would also benefit from the project, due

to common water sources being developed, and through improving access to

nutritious food in the community.

The target group would serve as model farmers, offering other farmers

opportunities to learn and apply successful practices.

18
2.11 Nutritional status of under-five years children

Child growth is internationally recognized as the most important indicator of the

nutritional status of the whole society. Nutritional imbalance can be measured by

under nutrition and overweight. Under nutrition can be examined by assessing the

underweight, stunting and wasting.

0.024 Million
0.2 Million (one in nine)
0.4 Million (one in (one in eighty)
five)
0.38 Million (one in five)

1.3 Million School children (one in three) are wasted or stunted

Source: The nutrition bulletin Sri Lanka, 2011

Figure 2.4: Different forms of malnutrition

2.11.1 Stunting (height-for-age)

The height-for-age values less than 2 standard deviations (SD) of the WHO child

growth standards median is mentioned as stunting. Stunting is resulted by long-term

nutritional deprivation and most commonly may result in delayed mental

development. The stunted children may show poor school performance and reduced

intellectual capacity as well.

19
Table 2.2: Prevalence of stunting in Sri Lanka (2009)

Height for age(< -2SD)

<20% 20-30% 30-39% >=40%
Jaffna, Badulla Nuwara Eliya
Anuradhapura Rathnapura
Trincomalee
Kurunegala
Colombo
Hambanthota.

Source: Jayatissa, 2010

2.11.2 Underweight (weight-for-age)

Weight for age values less than -2SD of the WHO child growth standards median is

accepted as underweight. The two measurements are very easy to take (age and

weight) so this method was the most commonly used method in the past. The

mortality risk of the children under mildly and severely underweight is high.

Weight-for-age (underweight) is a composite index of both height-for-age (stunted)

and weight- for-height (wasted). By this method it gives a mean to both acute and

chronic under-nutrition (Jayatissa, 2010).

20
Table 2.3: Prevalence of underweight in Sri Lanka (2009)
Weight for age(< -2SD)
10-19% 19-26% >35%
Jaffna Kurunegala Nuwara Eliya
Anuradhapura Badulla
Trincomalee. Rathnapura
Colombo
Hambanthota.

Source: Jayatissa, 2010

2.11.3 Wasting (weight-for-height)

Weight-for-height values less than 2SD of the WHO child growth standards median

is mentioned as wasting. Wasting can be resulted due to acute under nutrition.

Wasting represents the failure to receive adequate nutrition in the period

immediately preceding the survey and may be the result of inadequate food intake or

a recent episode of illness (diarrhoea) causing loss of weight and the onset of

malnutrition. Wasting can impair the functioning of the immune system. Wasting

can also lead to increased severity, duration, susceptibility to infectious diseases and

even increased risk of death.

Table 2.4: Prevalence of underweight in Sri Lanka (2009)

Weight for height (<-2SD)

9-14% >=15%
Jaffna, Hambanthota. Colombo
Anuradhapura
Trincomalee.
Kurunegala, Rathnapura
Badulla, Nuwara Eliya

Source: Jayatissa 2010

21
2.12 Factors affecting nutritional status of children

2.12.1 Land availability

Land ownership is linked with wealth. Since the most widespread cause of rural

poverty appears to be the unequal distribution of land, there is a general tendency for

nutrition planners to recommend redistribution of land (land reform) as a means of

alleviating malnutrition. In light of this emphasis on land reform, it is critical to

determine whether sufficient evidence exists to justify such a strategy. The land

ownership and amount of land are critical determinants of nutritional status in

developing countries (Melville, 1976).

2.12.2 Home gardening and rearing livestock

Production of yellow and dark-green leafy vegetables at the household level may

provide economically deprived households with direct access to provitamin Arich

foods. Vitamin A deficiency continues to be a major health problem in developing

countries and has far-reaching consequences on growth, development, and health,

especially in children. The dietary intakes of economically and socially deprived

communities in developing countries usually consist of plant-based staple foods, and

fruit, vegetables, and animal products are seldom consumed. Strategies focusing on

food diversification aim to increase the production and availability of, access to, and

subsequent consumption of foods that are rich in vitamin A and provitamin A

carotenoids (Faber et al., 2002).

Animal products provide one-sixth of human food energy and more than one-third

of the protein on a global basis. Much of this comes from the conversion of human-

inedible materials to high quality human food. Animal agriculture makes many

additional contributions to human well-being, including fiber, draught power and

22
transportation, and nutrient-recycling functions important to the efficiency and

sustainability of food production systems. Projections for the future indicate large

increases in per capita demand for animal food products, mostly in developing

countries. There is strong evidence that increasing foods of animal origin in diets of

young children with currently low levels of these foods leads to marked

improvement in both physical and mental development (Bradford, 1999).

Livestock-related development projects are required to be efficient and

economically sustainable, but also diversified, clean, of high biological added value,

and integrated in a healthy, dynamic and renewed agricultural and environmental

context. The need for a more multidisciplinary systemic research and wider choice

of subjects is strongly recommended (Boyazoglu, 1998).

2.12.3 Fathers Occupation

There is a relationship between father's occupation and nutritional status of young

children. That is, the prevalence of malnourished children is greatest in landless

agricultural workers, intermediate in small-scale farmers and least in merchants and

skilled workers. There is a tendency for the children of skilled workers and

merchants to have the lowest prevalence of moderate malnutrition (Verde et al.,

1976).

2.12.4 Maternal Education

In early studies of child welfare, maternal education was commonly regarded as an

indicator of socioeconomic status (SES) or it was incorporated into a composite

indicator for SES. But later it was demonstrated that mother's education was a

stronger determinant of child survivorship than other characteristics more closely

related to household economics. Since then, a number of studies have supported this

23
finding, showing that the magnitude and significance of the effect of maternal

education can exceed the income effect.

On the other hand, some studies have shown inconsistent effects too. According to

Bairagi and Solon it was found that education had a positive effect in the richer

segment of their study populations and it had no effect in the poorer segments. Later

it was showed that in a sample divided into four income groups, only the status of

the children in the intermediate groups improved with maternal education; no

benefit was apparent in the poorest or the wealthiest quartiles (Reed et al., 1996).

2.13 Dietary diversity and diet quality

An essential element to food-based approaches involves dietary diversification or

consumption of a wide variety of foods across nutritionally distinct food groups.

Increasing dietary diversity is associated with increased household food access as

well as individual probability of adequate micronutrient intake. Dietary diversity is

measured as the number of individual food items or food groups consumed over a

given reference period (Kennedy et al., 2007).

A large body of epidemiologic data shows that diet quality follows a socioeconomic

gradient. Whereas higher-quality diets are associated with greater affluence, energy-

dense diets that are nutrient-poor are preferentially consumed by persons of lower

socioeconomic status (SES) and of more limited economic means. As this review

demonstrates, whole grains, lean meats, fish, low-fat dairy products, and fresh

vegetables and fruit are more likely to be consumed by groups of higher SES. In

contrast, the consumption of refined grains and added fats has been associated with

lower SES. Although micronutrient intake and, hence, diet quality are affected by

SES, little evidence indicates that SES affects either total energy intakes or the

macronutrient composition of the diet (Darmon and Drewnowski, 2008).

24
 CHAPTER THREE

3. Methodology

3.1 Study design

A cross-sectional household survey was carried out through an interviewer-

administered questionnaire. Separate questionnaires were prepared to the two

groups: group1-families doing the home gardening and group; 2-families not doing

home gardening. The study was carried out during the period 9th July to 7th August,

2012.

3.2 Location of the study

The study was conducted in Nawagaththegama Ds division in the Puttalam district.

The districts of Kurunegala and Puttalam constitute North Western Province

(Wayamba). The climate of Wayamba is tropical, with a marked dry season, and

temperatures averaging between 20 C in January to 25C in March. The south of

the province is wetter, with almost 2000 mm of annual rainfall per year, but the

north of the province is one of the driest regions in Sri Lanka, averaging under 1100

mm of rain in parts. In Puttalam District, there are 7 DS Divisions and

Nawgaththegamua is one of them.

Nawagaththegama is completely a rural area; in 2009 it had a 100% rural population

of 14057. The land area is 163 hec. and the population density was 86.2.

3.3 Sampling procedure

Seventeen out of 19 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GNDs) belonging to

Nawagaththegama area were selected. From the families matched with the selection

criteria, 80% were selected from each GND. So finally, 151 families were selected

for the survey (79 families doing home gardening and livestock, 72 families are not)

25
which contained 659 months old children. Each household was visited. If there was

reliable information of the non-availability of household member at the time of

visiting, the household was revisited in order to collect the data.

3.4 Criteria for the selection of suitable households for assessment

All of the following requirements were considered to be fulfilled.

Both the sample and the control should be in more or less equal economic and social

status. (household income, occupation, salary etc.)

1. In the family, there should be a child between 06-59 months.

2. The home gardening and the livestock rearing should have practiced at least for

1year.

3. There should be at least 3 categories of crops grown in the home garden and

should rear at least 1 type of livestock among the following categories and types.

Categories of crops Types of livestock

Leafy vegetables Chicken

Legumes Cow

Tuber crops Goat

Fruit crops Swine

3.5 Data collection

Mother/care giver of each household was interviewed using an interviewer-

administered questionnaire and data were collected. The birth weights were taken

from the Child Health and Development Record (CHDR) card. Anthropometric

measurements were taken for selected category of children. The heights lengths and

weights were measured using Seca 206 mechanical height measuring tape, Seca 210

26
mechanical length measuring mat and Salter 914 digital weighing scale respectively.

when the child was not at home or he is not in a condition to take the measurements,

(if he/she was sick) then his measured weights and heights of the nearest month

were taken.

Except the details of the area and the interviewer, the questionnaire included

following categories (Annex 1).

1. Household characteristics (educational level, nationality, religion, main

occupation, monthly income of the household head and number of members

in the household).

2. For the families who are not doing home gardening and livestock, the

reasons for not doing were asked by dividing the possible reasons in to

several categories.

3. For the families who were involved with home gardening and livestock: the

place of doing; the duration; reasons for the failures; type of crops grown and

animals reared and the secondary income from the home gardening and

livestock were inquired.

4. Expenditure of the family for both food and non-food items.

5. Kind of help gained from WVL and programs participated under WVL.

6. Twenty four hour Food Recall of the child.

7. Anthropometric measurements of the child (6-59 months old).

27
3.6 Data Analysis

SPSS version 16.0 was used for statistical analysis. WHO Anthro software was used

to calculate the weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height for children

based on the height and weight measurements, using WHO standards as the

reference value.

Less than -2SD of weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height were

considered as underweight, stunting and wasting respectively. The figures therefore

represent moderate and severe under nutrition for each category.

3.6.1 Determination of Nutritional Status

Differences in the proportions of wasting, stunting, and underweight among boys

and girls and among the families are doing and not-doing the home gardens and

livestock were tested with the chi-square test using SPSS software.

3.6.2 Determination of Individual Dietary Diversity (for children aged 6-59

months)

Foods given to children were grouped in to 8 food groups as described by the Food

and Nutrition Technical Assistant Project (FANTA) 2006. The food groups were as

follows:

28
Table 3.1: Food groups and the food items belongs to each group
Food group Food items
Grains roots and Bread, rice, noodles, or other foods made from grains,
tubers white potatoes, white yams, manioc, cassava, or any
other foods made from roots. Thriposa, Samaphosa &
any other cereals

Legumes and nuts Any foods made from beans, peas, lentils, or nuts

Vitamin A rich fruits Pumpkin, carrots, or sweet potatoes that are yellow or
and vegetables orange inside. Ripe mangoes, papayas, or (any other
locally available vitamin A-rich fruits).

Other fruits and Any dark green leafy vegetables any other fruits or
vegetables vegetables and fruits and vegetables not considered as
a Vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables

Dairy products Milk/ Cheese, yogurt, or other milk products.

Eggs

Meat, poultry, fish Fresh or dried fish or shellfish. Any meat, such as
and shellfish beef, pork, lamb, goat, chicken. Liver, kidney, heart
or other organ meats.

Food cooked with Any oil, fats, or butter, or foods made with any of
fat/oil these.

Adopted from: Swindale, 2006

The Individual Dietary Diversity Score (IDDS) was derived for each child by adding

1 point for each of the 8 food groups consumed within the 24 hours preceding the

survey (Swindale, 2006). The children who have scored 4 or more than 4 were

considered as the children having a diversified dietary intake. Likewise, the children

who have scored less than 4 were considered as the children not having a diversified

dietary intake.

29
Other basic relationships, which are listed below were analyzed using SPSS

software (by cross tabulation and frequency analysis).

1. Percentage of families on the knowledge on suitable crops to grow in

home garden and knowledge on a balanced diet.

2. Percentages of families according to socioeconomic information of the

house hold.

3. Percentage of families helped by the WVL.

4. Prevalence of low birth weight, and mean birth weight among children

born in the 5 years preceding the survey, by background characteristics

5. Details of animal rearing by the people who are doing home gardening

and livestock

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. Result and Discussion

4.1 Education level

There was only a 5.3% having home gardening (HG) and livestock (LSTK) in no

schooling to grade 5 category while 16.7% were not having HG and LSTK in that

group. But when educational status goes up to grade 5-10, then the percentage of

having HG and LSTK has increased by 23.6%. But, the percentage of not doing has

increased only by 16.6% .When educational level goes up to A/L or O/L, then the

percentage of doing HG and LSTK has increased considerably. Percentage of having

HG and Livestock in that group was 65.8% while the percentage of not having was

only 48.6%. There was only one family with degree/diploma level of education and

he was not doing HG and LSTK (Table 4.1).

When people are very poor in education then they are more rarely identifying the

importance of HG and LSTK. But when educational level increase to some level as

grade 5-10, then some of them may know the importance and they get involved in

cultivations. When people are more educated (O/L and A/L) and when they dont

have proper jobs to do, then they involve in HG and LSTK very well than others

because they have the knowledge on different attributes and they know the

importance of cropping than others. It is difficult to predict anything about the

people had higher education, because there was only one family with a house hold

head who was having a degree and they were not doing HG and LSTK. Some time

they might not have time to spend on HG and LSTK.

31
Table 4.1: Educational level and HG and LSTK status
Having HG and Not having HG
Educational level LSTK and LSTK

No. % No. %

Degree/diploma 0 0 1 1.4
A/L / O/L 50 65.8 35 48.6
Grade 5-10 22 28.9 24 33.3

No schooling - grade 5 4 5.3 12 16.7

70.00

58.82%
60.00

50.00 47.83%
Percentage(%)

40.00

30.00 25%

20.00

10.00

0.00
A/L / O/L Grade 5-10 No schooling -
grade 5
Educational level

Figure 4.1: Families involved with HG and LSTK based on the educational level of
the household head

32
4.2 Main occupation and home garden status

When consider about the occupation of the families having HG and LSTK, about

68% of them were farmers. Most of the others had an occupation which was creating

more time for them to work in HG. There was 7.6% working as laborers, so when

they do not have work, they can work in home garden. The people who were

involved in other jobs as mason and carpenter, could work in home garden when

they were free (Carpenters were most of the time doing their job at home). There

was no one doing the jobs in management level or abroad (Table 4.2).

When the group not having HG and LSTK are concerned, it showed that most of

them were also farmers (58.3%). There were more than 10% of families doing

management level jobs and working in foreign countries. Also an 18.1% of families

were doing jobs as carpenters, masons or garment industry.

There was no marked difference between the occupation and the status of HG and

LSTK.

Table 4.2: Occupation and the status of home garden and livestock
Not having HG and
Main occupation Having HG and LSTK LSTK
No. % No. %
None 0 0 1 1.4
Labor 6 7.6 4 5.5
Self employment 0 0 3 4.2
Farming 53 67.9 42 58.3
Transport 3 3.8 1 1.4
Management level 0 0 5 6.9
Carpenter, mason, Garment 16 20.5 13 18.1
Working abroad 0 0 3 4.2

33
Seventy five percent of the transport sector was having HG and LSTK. More than
55% of the farmers, laborers and peoples doing other jobs were having HG and
LSTK (Figure 4.2).

80.0
75.0
70.0
60.0 55.8
60.0 55.2
Percentage

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
Labour Farming Transport Carpenter, mason, Garment

Main occupation

Figure 4.2: Families involved with HG and LSTK based on the main occupation of
the household head

4.3 Monthly income and home gardening status

Based on monthly income of the family households were categorized in to 3 groups

as very low income (Rs.5000-8000) low income (Rs.8000-18000) and moderate

income (Rs.18000-25000). Seventy one families of the assessed were having a very

low income and 53% of them were belonging to the category of not having home

garden and 47% of them were belonging to the category of having home garden. But

when income level come to low category, the percentage of having HG and LSTK

has increased to 56.6% and percentage of not having HG and LSTK has decreased

to 43.4%. In the moderate income category 86.8% people were not having HG and

LSTK and only 13.2% were having HG and LSTK (Table 4.3).

34
People in very low income level may not have enough equipment and money to buy

other things. So that may be the reason for not practicing HG and LSTK by most of

them. They need to be guided and helped by someone. When the income level

approach low category, people have more engaged in HG and LSTK as they have

some money and most of them have enough time too for doing things in the HG. But

when income level increases to moderate level, people have not much engaged in

HG and LSTK as they have good salary/income to purchase what they need easily

from the market, they may not have time to do work in HG too.

Table 4.3: HG and LSTK status based on income categories

Monthly household income

Very low Low Moderate
Percentage of families doing HG and
47% 56.6% 13.2%
LSTK
Percentage of families not doing HG
53% 43.4% 86.8%
and LSTK

4.4 Dietary Diversity

Dietary Diversity is based on the premise that more diverse diets are more likely to

provide adequate levels of a range of nutrients. Actually there were several

guidelines to assess the dietary diversity. In this survey, only the children between 6-

59 months were assessed. So the guidelines in Food and Nutrition Technical

Assistance Project (FANTA) were used for the assessment.

From the families having HG, 86.1% had a diversified dietary intake while only

13.9% had a dietary intake which is not diverse. From the families not doing home

garden, 81.9% had a diversified diet while others (18.1%) were not (Figure 4.3).

35
 100.0
86.1
90.0
81.9
80.0

70.0
Percentage of families

60.0

50.0
Diverse diet
40.0
Not diverse diet
30.0
18.1
20.0
13.9
10.0

0.0
Doing home gardens Not doing
Home gardening status

Figure 4.3: Diversified dietary intake and home garden status

4.4.1 Food consumption pattern in families not having HG and LSTK

4.4.1.1 Most consumed food groups

Almost all the families of this category were consuming rice and other grains, tubers

and roots. Most of the families were consuming fruits and vegetables which were

rich in vitamin A and foods cooked with oil.

36
4.4.1.2 Least consumed food groups

The least consumed food groups by the families who were not doing the HG and

LSTK and not having a diverse diet (vulnerable group) were:

1. Dairy products;

2. Eggs;

3. Meat, fish , shellfish and

4. Vitamin A rich foods.

At the same time the families having a diverse diet were also missing the food

groups like eggs and vitamin A rich foods. When the whole group is considered, the

missing food groups were eggs and vitamin A rich foods. Most of the missed foods /

food groups represented the animal based foods. About 100% of the families not

having HG and LSTK were Sinhala Buddhists so it would be very important to

make them inspired to rear animals like cow and chicken which are not generally

reared for meat by households. Then they can consume eggs and milk more and it

will make their diet more diverse. At the same time, the fruits like papaya, mango

and crops like pumpkin, carrot and other fruits and vegetables which are yellow

inside can be distributed among them to cultivate.

As this is the group which was not having HG and LSTK, they can be encouraged to

rear animals first as they missed most of the animal based foods. After that it will be

possible to increase their dietary diversity and then can be encouraged and guided to

develop their HGs too.

37
4.4.2 Consumption pattern in families having HG and LSTK

4.4.2.1 Most consumed foods

As in the control group, most consumed foods were the foods consisting of grains,

tuber, roots (including rice also) and other fruits and vegetables. But the amount

consumed of Foods cooked with fat and oil was slightly lower than the control

group.

4.4.2.2 Least consumed food groups

The least consumed food groups by the families who were not doing the HG and

LSTK and not having a diverse diet (vulnerable group) are:

1. Dairy products;

2. Eggs;

3. Meat, fish , shellfish and

4. Vitamin A rich foods.

The foods belong to eggs and dairy products are 100% missed by the families not

having a diverse diet. The families having a diverse diet also were missing it in

considerable rates. The consumption of meat, fish like foods also missed by 90.9%

in the families not having a diverse diet but that kind of foods has not caused a big

problem for the other families. Vitamin A rich foods have been missed by both sub

groups having a diverse diet or not in considerable rates.

Therefore the families having HG and LSTK should me more encouraged to rear

animals or buy more animal based foods from their secondary income from the HG

(or from their income). The problems that they were facing when rearing animals

should be solved. Most of the families have lost their chicken because of catching by

38
their own dogs by breaking in to the cages. That problem can be solved by

constructing suitable/standard cages for their birds.

Not doing HG and LSTK

Foods cooked with fat 0% Doing HG and LSTK

and oil 63.6%

Meat,poultry,fish and 92.3%

shelfish 90.9%

100%
Eggs
100%

100%
Food groups

Dairy products
100%

Other fruits,vegetables 0%
and leafy vegetables 54.5%

92.3%
Vit. A rich foods
81.8%

38.5%
Legumes and nuts
63.6%

0%
Grains,roots and tubers
0%

0% 50% 100% 150%

Percentage of families.

Figure 4.4: Percentages of least consumed food groups by families having - and not
having HG and LSTK and not having a diverse diet

39
 Not doing HG and
12.5% LSTK
Foods cooked with fat and oil
24.1% Doing HG and LSTK
.
36.1%
Meat,poultry,fish and shelfish
30.4%
Food groups

84.7%
Eggs
72.2%

52.8%
Dairy products
54.4%

Other fruits,vegetables and leafy 16.7%

veg. 11.4%

77.8%
Vit. A rich foods
57.0%

34.7%
Legumes and nuts
30.4%

0%
Grains,roots and tubers
0%

0% 50% 100%

Percentage of families

Figure 4.5: Percentages of least consumed food groups by families having - and not
having HG and LSTK

Table 4.4: HG and LSTK status with dietary diversity

HG and LSTK status Diverse diet Total P value

Doing 68 79 0.488

Not doing 59 72

40
By Chi square test, the resulted p values are higher than 0.05. So the null hypothesis

is accepted. Therefore home gardening and livestock dont have a significant impact

on diversified dietary intake of the people in Nawagaththegama area.

4.5 Awareness on suitable crops to grow

When consider both groups together about the awareness on suitable crops to grow,

97.3% knew which crops should be established in the home garden. Only 5 families

(2.7%) did not have an idea. Among those who had no idea on crops, 76.4% of them

were not doing home gardening. From the families having the knowledge, nearly

50% were doing home garden and 50% not doing (Figure 4.6).

Table 4.5: No. of people having awareness on suitable crops to grow

Awareness on suitable No. of families doing HG No. of families not doing HG

crops to grow. and LSTK. and LSTK.

yes 78 69
No 1 4

76.4%
Percentage of families.

50.7% 49.3%

Have the knowledge on

23.6% which crops to grow
Not have the knowledge
on which crops to grow.

Having HG and LSTK Not having HG and

LSTK

Home gardening status

Figure 4.6: Awareness on suitable crops to grow

41
Actually most of the people know which crops to grow in their home garden and

from the very few number of not having that knowledge, most of them belong to the

category of not doing home garden and livestock.

4.6 Knowledge on a balanced diet

When considered the 78 families who were practicing the HG and LSTK, 91% of

them were having a proper knowledge on a balanced diet. Of the families who were

not practicing HG and LSTK, 79.2% were having a proper knowledge on a balanced

diet (Figure 4.7).

91%

79.2%
Percentage of families

Have a proper
knowledge on a
balanced diet
20.8%
Don't have a proper
knowledge on a
9% balanced diet

Having HG and LSTK. Not having a HG and

LSTK.
Home gardening status

Figure 4.7: Percentage having knowledge on a balanced diet and status of the home
garden

There was a difference on the knowledge of a balanced diet of the people having the

HG and LSTK and not. So if their knowledge is improved about a balanced diet,

42
those people may make an effort on starting a HG and others would improve their

existing HG. Nine percent of the families who were having HG and LSTK would

have to be educated on a balanced diet. They would then try to grow crops with a

variety and would buy from the market what is being missed by the HG and LSTK.

Two out of the 11 families who were having HG and LSTK and not having a diverse

diet, didnt know what is a balanced diet while only 5 families from rest of the 67

families in the same group didnt know about the balanced diet (Figure 4.8).

Do not have
Have a diverse diet
knowledge on a
(59)
balanced diet (14)
Families not doing
HG and LSTK 23.7%
(72)
Do not have
Do not have
knowledge on a
diverse diet (13)
balanced diet (1)

7.7%
Whole
families
(150)
Do not have
Have a diverse
knowledge on a
diet (67)
balanced diet (5)
Families Doing
HG and LSTK 7.5%
(78)
Do not have
Do not have
knowledge on a
diverse diet (11)
balanced diet (2)

18.2%

Figure 4.8: Relationship with the knowledge on a balanced diet and Dietary
diversity

43
4.7 Rearing animal

Rearing animals was a major part of the home gardening. When chicken like birds

were reared, it covered most of the egg requirement of the family. Sometimes

rearing broilers was also being practiced by people. The milk requirement of the

family could be obtained by rearing a cow. But the problem they had was

affordability. If they were helped by any organization like WVL, most of them

would be willing to rear animals.

4.7.1 Duration of rearing

Most of the families have reared animal from 1-3.5 years (54.4%). While only 8.9%

have started rearing animal from 6 months to 1year. There were 15.2 % rearing

animal from a long time (more than 5 years) (Figure 4.9).

Table 4.6: Duration of rearing animal

Duration No. of families
From 1 -3.5 years 43
From 3.5-5 years 17
More than 5 years 12
From 6months - 1year 7

8.9%
From 1 -3.5 years
54.4%
15.2%
From 3.5-5 years

More than 5 years

21.5% From 6months -

1year

Figure 4.9: Duration of raring animal

44
4.7.2 Kind of animals raring

Different kinds of animal can be reared combined with home garden. Rearing

chicken was the most commonly practiced. When rearing chicken, strong cages are

needed to their birds for two main reasons.

1. They can damage to crops when came out in an unexpected time. (When the

owner is not aware)

2. To protect them from dogs and other wild animals.

Most of the families in Nawagaththegama area were rearing chicken (82.3%). That

was mainly because of the easiness and their old experience of rearing chicken. By

rearing chicken, it covered their egg requirement to a greater extent. In addition they

were capable of selling the eggs too. Next to chicken was rearing cow. Forty four

percent of the families were rearing cow, milking and even selling the milk and

having a good income. Rearing cow was not a new experience to Sri Lankans. From

a long time they have been rearing cow for milking and draught purpose as a part of

the culture. But now most of them were donated with improved breeds and those

animals give a higher milk yield.

Other animals were not being reared to a larger extent and only 8.9% of the families

were rearing goat. A considerable number of families were rearing both cow and

chicken together. Rearing both animal groups would have a positive effect on their

dietary diversity (Table 4.7).

45
Table 4.7: Percentage of families rearing different animals

Animal or animal group No. of families Percentage

Chicken (only) 65 82.3

Cow (only) 35 44.3
Goat (only) 7 8.9
Swine (only) 2 2.5
Bee (only) 2 2.5
Buffalo (only) 1 1.3
Both chicken and cow 26 32.9

90
Percentage of families

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Chicken Cow Goat Swine Bee Buffalo Both
Kind of animal chicken
and cow

Figure 4.10: Percentage of families rearing different animals

4.7.3 Relationship between rearing animal and dietary diversity

When examined about the dietary diversity of the families who are rearing both

chicken and cow, it showed a marked difference with other families (Table 4.8).

Table 4.8: Relationship between dietary diversity and rearing animal

Rearing cow Dietary diversity

and chicken Diverse Not diverse
No. % No. %
Yes 25 96.2 1 3.8
No 43 81.1 10 18.9

46
Therefore it is clear that most successful method to diversify a diet is to establish

more livestock in the homesteads.

4.8 Nutritional Status of under five children

Prevalence of wasting and stunting and underweight was 21.8 %, 23.7% and 20% in

the families involved in HG and LSTK and 12.5% , 20.8% and 31.4% in the

families not involved in HG and LSTK .There was no difference in the type or level

of under nutrition between those who were having HG and LSTK and not having

HG and LSTK (Figure 4.11).

Regarding the gender, it showed a marked difference within the group of not having

HG and LSTK. In that group, female showed a higher percentage of stunting,

wasting and underweight than the male. It showed that the males were more cared

than the females.

45.0 40.9
40.0
Percentage of people

35.0 31.6
28.9 30.0
30.0 26.7 25.9
23.7 22.5
25.0
20.0 18.7
20.0 17.8
Wastting
15.0
8.9 Stunting
10.0
Underweight
5.0
0.0
Male(%) Female(%) Male(%) Female(%)

Having HG and LSTK Not having HG and LSTK

Category

Figure 4.11: Prevalence of Stunting, wasting and underweight according to gender

and home garden and livestock status

47
Table 4.9: Prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight according to HG and
LSTK status
Having HG and LSTK Not having HG and P
Category (%) LSTK (%) value

Wasting 21.8 12.5 0.223

Stunting 23.7 20.8 0.133

Underweight 20 31.4 0.5

By Chi square test, the resulted p values were higher than 0.05 for each nutritional

category. So the null hypothesis is accepted and can conclude that the home

gardening and livestock dont have a significant impact on nutritional status of

people in Nawagaththegama area (Table 4.9).

The reasons behind this result may be that most of the home gardens are seasonal in

Nawagaththegama area because of the drought. So a continuous nutritious diet could

not be supplied by a home garden. The effect of home gardening and livestock on

nutritional status and dietary diversity of children below 5 years old was influenced

by the mid-day meal program conducted by the preschools.

48
 35
31.4
30

Percentage of families
23.7
25 21.8
20.8 20 19.2
20 Having HG and LSTK
(%)
12.5 14
15 11.7 Not having HG and
10 LSTK(%)
Puttalam (2006/07)
5

0
Wasting Stunting Underweight
Nutritional condition

Figure 4.12: Prevalence of Stunting, wasting and underweight according to home

garden and livestock status and comparison with district values

Actually the resulted figures show that the nutritional status of the children in the

Nawagaththegama were poor than the status of the whole Putalam district (Figure

4.12). As Nawagaththegama is a rural area in the Puttalam district, it may not

represent the values similar to the mean values for Puttalam district. The nutritional

status of a rural area is normally poor than other areas. So the resulted values are

justifiable.

4.8.1 Deviation from the WHO standards

When compared the nutritional status with the WHO standards, it showed a negative

deviation for all 3 nutritional parameters, (height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-

for-height) for both groups doing and not doing HG and LSTK.

4.8.2 Birth weight

In the families doing HG and LSTK, 82.3 % were having a normal birth weight and

17.8% were having low birth weight. But in the families not having HG and LSTK,

they were having better birth weight values. The prevalence of low birth weight was
49
low (12.5%) among them (Table 4.10). Although the birth weights should have a

relationship with HG and LSTK status by affecting to the nutritional status of the

pregnant mothers, such a relationship was not observed in the study.

Table 4.10: Relationship between birth weight and home gardening status
Families doing HG and Families not doing HG and
LSTK LSTK

Birth weight Number Percentage Number Percentage

Normal Birth weight 65 82.3% 63 87.5%

Low Birth weight 14 17.7% 9 12.5%

4.9 Secondary income from the Home Garden and Livestock

Seventy nine families were assessed and 50 of them (63.3%) were having a

secondary income from their HG and LSTK (Table 4.11). From that 50 families, 48

(96%) were using a portion of their secondary income to purchase other food

products while 2 of 50 families (4%) were not using the secondary income to buy

foods.

Table 4.11: Percentage of families having a secondary income from the HG and
LSTK
Income status No. of families Percentage
Have a secondary income 50 63.3
Don't have a secondary income 29 36.8

If considered the total affordability of the families to purchase other food products

(due to the HG and LSTK that they are rearing) from 79 families, only 60.8%

families were having that potential and 39.2% families were not having any

affordability on the purchase of food items (Figure 4.13).

50
 70.0
60.8
60.0

Percentage of families
50.0
39.2
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Yes No
Affordability to purchase other foods
Figure 4.13: Percentage of families having affordability to purchase other foods due
to the income from HG and LSTK

According to the results, from the families having a secondary income from the HG

and LSTK, 96% were using a portion of that income to buy foods. So they should be

encouraged to buy the kind of foods that they do not have in their HG and most of

the time they are vitamin A rich foods and animal based foods.

There were 36.8% families who were not having any kind of a secondary income

from their HG and LSTK. So they should be guided to grow crops and rear animals

well in their already established garden. Then they would have secondary income

from it and that income may be used to purchase the foods belong to most-lacking

food groups as well.

4.10 Reasons for not doing HG and LSTK or stop continuing them

Nawagaththegama is a rural area surrounded by number of lakes. Most of the people

are farmers, because most of them belong to same culture. But due to some reasons,

they have stopped cropping and even HG and LSTK rearing has been stopped. Most

of them said that they didnt have enough water for cultivations and rearing animals

(both groups; who were having HG and LSTK and not; had this problem.)
51
Table 4.12: Reasons for not doing Home Gardening
Reason for not doing. No. of families Percentage (%)

Land is not enough 15 20.8

Water is not enough 66 91.7

No one to work 14 19.4

No equipment 9 12.5

Animal attacks 27 37.5

Insect damages 37 51.4

Fungal diseases 25 34.7

Rat damages 10 13.9

No money to buy things 41 56.9

From the people who didnt practice HG and LSTK, 91.7% said that they didnt

have enough water. Fifty one percent has stopped home gardening because the

insect damages were high (for a home garden people rarely practice chemicals to

control pests). Another reason was that they were poor and they couldnt buy seeds

and equipment (Table 4.12).

Table 4.13: Reasons for not doing Livestock

Reason for not doing. No. of families Percentage (%)

Water is not enough to rear animals 32 44.4

No one to work in land. 13 18.1

Knowledge is not enough. 12 16.7

No money to buy animals and medicines. 40 55.6

52
The main reason for not rearing livestock was poverty. Fifty six percent of the

families were not rearing the animals, because they didnt have money to buy

animals, medicines and to maintain. For 44.4% of the families didnt have enough

water (Table 4.13). They were hardly finding water for their own needs too.

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. Conclusions

There is no significant impact of home gardening and livestock on nutritional status

and the diversified dietary intake of people in Nawagaththegama area.

Eggs, dairy products and vitamin A rich foods are not consumed in large

proportions.

From the people practicing in home gardening and livestock, 60.8% of them were

having an affordability to purchase other food products using the secondary income

they gained from the home gardening and livestock.

For the families not doing home gardening and livestock, the main prohibiting

factors were water scarcity, animal attacks and poverty.

54
 Recommendations

Following recommendations can be made to solve the 3 major problem identified in

the study-

1. Poverty

-Improve the provision of animals, building materials and seeds etc.

-Provision of animal feed with low cost.

2. Water scarcity

-Improve the construction of wells and rain water harvesting tanks.

(Only the small Wells are sponsored by WVL. Some people dig larger

Wells which can supply water to number of surrounding families. But

WVL is not donating larger Well rings. So it will be a very good

solution to provide those larger rings if it is possible to do so)

3. Animal attacks

i. Elephant attacks

Government has to complete the construction of electric fences.

ii. Insect damages

Should follow integrated pest management practices because in home

gardens, using chemicals is useless due to high cost and other

reasons.

iii. Other animal attacks to poultry

Should construct strong cages according to standards (a program has

to be conducted to improve their knowledge on building standard

cages.)
55
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ANNEX

60