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Combustion Engines
M ic h ele M a nno
D ep a rtm ento fInd u stria lE ng ineering
U niversity o fRo m e T o r Verg a ta
L a stu p d a te: O c to b er 3 0 th , 2 0 1 5
3 . A ir inta k e
Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid
E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5 .
(rig h t) J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -
H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88.
1. Method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition, SI (O tto eng ines)
b) Compression Ignition, CI (D ieseleng ines)
2. Working cycle
a ) fu llc y c le in4 p isto nstro k es (four-stroke engine, 4S)
b ) fu llc y c le in2 p isto nstro k es (two-stroke engine, 2S)
3. Fuel
g a so line, fu elo il (d iesel), na tu ra lg a s, liq u id p etro leu m g a s (L P G ), a lc o h o ls (m eth a no l, eth a no l)...
4. Air intake
a ) N a tu ra lly aspirated eng ine
b ) supercharged eng ine
c ) turbocharged eng ine
6. Application
P ro p u lsio n(a u to m o b ile, tru c k , lig h ta irc ra ft, m a rine), p o rta b le p o w er sy stem s, p o w er g enera tio n
Method of ignition
Working cycle
Four-stroke engines
th e w o rk ing c y c le ta k es fo u r p isto nstro k es, o r tw o c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio ns, a nd m o re th a nh a lfis
d ed ic a ted to ex h a u stg a s ex p u lsio n(sc a veng ing ) fro m th e c y lind er a nd to fresh m ix tu re inta k e insid e
th e c y lind er: th e w o rk ing flu id is th u s rep la c ed effic iently a tea c h c y c le.
Two-stroke engines
th e w o rk ing c y c le ta k es ju sttw o p isto nstro k es, i.e. o ne c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio n: p o w er d ensity is
th erefo re h ig h er th a nin4 S eng ines, b u tth e sc a veng ing p ro c ess is less effic ient.
C ra nk ra d iu s
P isto nstro k e
D isp la c em ent
( : nu m b er o fc y lind ers)
M inim u m c h a m b er vo lu m e
1. A ir filter 9 . C ra nk sh a ft
2. C a rb u reto r 1 0 .S u m p
1 1 .O il p u m p
3. E ng ine h ea d
1 2 .C a m sh a ft
4. E x h a u stp ip e 1 3 .P u sh ro d
5 . C y lind er b lo c k 1 4 .C o il ig nitio n
6. P isto n 1 5 .S p a rk p lu g
7 . A lterna to r 1 6.E x h a u stva lve
1 7 .Ro c k er a rm
8. C o nnec ting ro d
Im a g e so u rc e: M T Zw o rld w id e, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 3
1. E ng ine h ea d 7 . O il p u m p
2. P isto n 8. O il filter
3. C y lind er b lo c k 9 . Injec tio np u m p
4. C o nnec ting ro d 1 0 .G lo w p lu g
5 . C ra nk sh a ft 1 1 .Injec to r
6. S um p 1 2 .C a m sh a ft
Im a g es: (rig h t) c o nc ep tu a l sc h em a tic o fc o nventio na l d iesel c o m b u stio n, fro m J o h nE . D ec , A d v a n c ed c o m pressio n -ig n it io n en g in es u n d erst a n d in g t h e in -
c y lin d er pro c esses, P ro c eed ing s o fth e C o m b u stio nInstitu te, 3 2 (2 0 0 9 ) 2 7 2 7 -2 7 4 2 ; (b o tto m ) visib le fla m e im a g es a tsevera l c ra nk a ng les a t1 5 0 0 rp m , fro m
M a nc a ru so , Va g liec o , A n experim en t a lc o m pa riso n o f n -H ept a n e, RM E a n d d ieselfu elo n c o m b u st io n c h a ra c t erist ic sin a c o m pressio n ig n it io n en g in e, F u el
P ro c essing T ec h no lo g y 1 0 7 (2 0 1 3 ) 4 4 -4 9 .
CI engine limitations:
heavier weight, d u e to h ig h er c o m p ressio nra tio s nec essa ry to rea c h p ressu res a nd tem p era tu res
req u ired fo r fu ela u to -ig nitio n;
lower specific power (w ith referenc e to eng ine d isp la c em ent), a nd c o nseq u ently h ig h er fo o tp rint
fo r th e sa m e p o w er, d u e to lo w er ro ta tio na lsp eed ;
CI engine advantages:
higher overall efficiency, th a nk s to h ig h er c o m p ressio nra tio s, w h ic h inS I eng ines a re lim ited in
o rd er to a vo id c o m b u stio na no m a lies (k n o c k in g );
better part-load performance, th a nk s to th e d ifferentp o w er c o ntro lsy stem (no need to th ro ttle a ir
inth e inta k e m a nifo ld : p a rtia liza tio nis o b ta ined sim p ly th ro u g h th e c o ntro lo fth e to ta la m o u nto f
fu elinjec ted );
lower quality fuel required (eventh o u g h em issio nreg u la tio ns h a ve inc rea sed m a nu fa c tu re
c o sts).
2S engine limitations:
2S engine advantages:
higher specific power: th eo retic a lly d o u b le th a n4 S eng ines, b ec a u se in2 S eng ines th ere is a
p o w er stro k e a tevery c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio n; inp ra c tic e, sp ec ific p o w er is o nly a b o u t5 0 60 %
h ig h er d u e to w o rse g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess;
H ea tinp u t:
Rejec ted h ea t:
C y c le effic ienc y :
S a b a th c y c le effic ienc y :
Id ea lc y c le effic ienc y :
Finite combustion time: th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess u su a lly la sts a tlea st5 0 c ra nk a ng le d eg rees
Heat transfer b etw eenb u rned g a ses a nd c y lind er w a lls a nd b etw eena ir a nd inta k e m a nifo ld
Pressure losses a tinta k e a nd ex h a u stva lves: inna tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines, th is m ea ns in
p a rtic u la r th a tw o rk m u stb e d o ne b y th e p isto no nth e g a s d u ring th e inta k e a nd th e ex h a u st
p ro c esses (pumping work)
T h e rea l w o rk ing c y c le is d efined a s ind ic a ted c y c le (see th e fo llo w ing slid e), so a n
indicated thermodynamic efficiency m a y b e d efined a s th e ra tio o fth e a c tu a lw o rk o u tp u ta nd th e
w o rk o u tp u to fa c o rresp o nd ing fu el/a ir c y c le:
IVC
E VO
E VC
* S ta rto fc o m b u stio n(S O C )
Indicated cycle
(p ressu re vs c y lind er vo lu m e d ia g ra m , - )
O vera llfuel conversion efficiency m u stta k e into a c c o u ntenerg y lo sses d u e to fric tio na nd w o rk
nec essa ry to d rive a c c esso ries, so itis d efined interm s o fb ra k e p o w er:
Itis th erefo re th e p ro d u c to find ic a ted fu elc o nversio neffic ienc y a nd m ec h a nic a leffic ienc y :
T h e specific fuel consumption is, b y d efinitio n, th e fu elm a ss flo w ra te th a tm u stb e b u rned inth e
eng ine to o b ta ina u nitp o w er o u tp u t: th u s, itis g ivenb y th e inverse o fth e p ro d u c to ffu elc o nversio n
effic ienc y a nd h ea ting va lu e. Itis u su a lly ex p ressed in[g /k W h ] :
Vo lu m etric effic ienc y is u sed to m ea su re th e effec tiveness o fa n eng ines ind u c tio np ro c ess, a nd is
d efined a s th e m a ss o fa ir th a teffec tively flo w s into th e inta k e sy stem d ivid ed b y th e m a ss o fa ir
th a tw o u ld fill a vo lu m e eq u a lto th e d isp la c em ent a tinleta ir c o nd itio ns (inleta ir d ensity ):
Inna tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines vo lu m etric effic ienc y is lo w er th a n1 b ec a u se o fp ressu re lo sses inth e
inta k e sy stem (d istrib u ted lo sses inth e inta k e m a nifo ld a nd c o nc entra ted lo sses inth e inta k e va lve).
Typical maximum values are in the range 8090% for SI engines, and somewhat higher in CI
engines (b ec a u se th ere a re no th ro ttling lo sses, w h ic h inso m e m ea su re a re a lw a y s p resentinS I
eng ines evena tfu ll lo a d ).
A no b vio u sly im p o rta ntp a ra m eter fo r th e T h e energ y inp u tinto th e sy stem p er u nittim e
c o m b u stio np ro c ess is th e air/fuel ratio : c a nth u s b e ex p ressed a s:
fo r fu el-lea nm ix tu res: ,
fo r fu el-ric h m ix tu res: ,
O th er fo rm s o fh ea td issip a tio n( ):
ra d ia tio n.
Spark Igni
ti
on Engi
nes Compressi
on Igni
ti
on Engi
nes
20 30% 28 40%
16 33% 15 37%
30 50% 24 40%
4 20% 4 12%
(b ec a u se a nd ).
O vera llfu elc o nversio neffic ienc y [%]
Intake Valve
Intake valve opens (IVO) before TDC ino rd er to h a ve th e va lve c o m p letely o p enw h enth e
ind u c tio nstro k e b eg ins, so a s to m a x im ize a ir ind u c tio ninto th e c y lind er.
Intake valve close (IVC) after BDC ino rd er to ta k e a d va nta g e o fk inetic energ y o fex h a u stg a ses in
th e inta k e m a nifo ld , so a s to a c h ieve a g o o d a ir ind u c tio n, th a nk s to inertia leffec ts, evena fter B D C .
Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(rig h t) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
Exhaust Valve
Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC) after TDC ino rd er to ta k e a d va nta g e o fth e inertia o fth e ex h a u st
g a ses, w h ic h d ra w evenm o re fresh a ir into th e c y lind er th a nk s to th e overlap period (tim e w h ile
inta k e a nd ex h a u stva lve a re sim u lta neo u sly o p en).
Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO) before BDC so a s to d isc h a rg e initia lly th e b u rned g a ses d u e to th e
p ressu re d ifferenc e b etw eenth e c y lind er a nd th e ex h a u stsy stem (blowdown); a fter B D C th e
c y lind er is sc a veng ed b y th e p isto na s itm o ves to w a rd T D C (displacement p ro c ess).
A d va nc ed E VO a llo w s to red u c e p u m p ing w o rk (p ressu re d ec rea ses inth e c y lind er) b u tita lso
red u c es th e p o w er stro k e, so a no p tim u m va lu e ex ists a s a c o m p ro m ise b etw eenth ese effec ts.
Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(rig h t) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
w ith : fra c tio no ffu eleva p o ra ted ; enth a lp y o fva p o riza tio n.
F o r iso o c ta ne, a t , ; fo r a lc o h o ls, g iventh eir la rg e
enth a lp y o fva p o riza tio n, th e effec tc a nb e q u ite la rg e (
fo r m eth a no l) a nd c o m p ensa te fo r th e red u c tio nina ir p a rtia lp ressu re.
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 Refrig era nttem p era tu re [K ]
P ressu re [M P a ]
TD C BDC
C y lind er vo lu m e
[rp m ]
Late Intake Valve Closing (LIVC)
A s th e d ifferenc e b etw eenB D C a nd inta k e va lve
c lo sing inc rea ses, th e vo lu m etric effic ienc y vs
eng ine sp eed c u rve sh ifts to w a rd s h ig h er ro ta tio na l
IVC p o int
sp eed s. W ith fix ed va lve tim ing , th is a lso m ea ns (d eg rees a fter B D C )
P ressu re o sc illa tio ns inc rea se vo lu m etric effic ienc y w h enth e inta k e
sy stem s na tu ra l freq u enc y is tw ic e th e ro ta tio na l sp eed : .
T h erefo re, g iventh e g eo m etry o fth e inta k e sy stem , th e ro ta tio na l
sp eed th a tm a x im izes vo lu m etric effic ienc y is:
Vo lu m etric effic ienc y ra tio
Reflec ted
W h enth e inta k e va lve o p ens, a ra refa c tio nw a ve w a ve
P ressu re [M P a ]
Ifth e reflec ted w a ve rea c h es th e inta k e va lve inth e
sec o nd h a lfo fth e ind u c tio np h a se (a b o u t9 0 a fter T D C ),
p ressu re a tth e va lve inc rea ses ju sta s th e inta k e stro k e is
a lm o stc o m p lete, a id ing th e ind u c tio np ro c ess.
C ra nk sh a fta ng le [d eg ]
Inth is c a se th e inta k e sy stem is sa id to b e t u n ed .
b ) T u rb o c h a rg ing
d ) T w o -sta g e tu rb o c h a rg ing
C C o m p resso r
E E ng ine
I Interc o o ler
T T u rb ine
Im a g e so u rc e:
(rig h t) R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1
(left) P .W .W etzel, J .P .T ru d ea u , N ew su perc h a rg er fo r d o w n sized E n g in es, M T Zw o rld w id e, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 3
A d ia b a tic ex p a nsio n
p ressu re
TD C BDC
Vo lu m e
A rea 2 -3 -4 -5 rep resents th e energ y rela ted to a sp o nta neo u s d isc h a rg e ina tm o sp h ere, a nd itis th e
m a x im u m energ y th a tc o u ld th eo retic a lly b e ex tra c ted fro m th e ex h a u stg a ses ina nid ea lim p u lse
la y o u t(w h ere ea c h c y lind er is d irec tly c o nnec ted to th e tu rb ine inlet)
Ina c o nsta ntp ressu re sy stem , ea c h c y lind er d isc h a rg es to a nex h a u stm a nifo ld th a tis la rg e eno u g h
to d a m p enp ressu re o sc illa tio ns; k inetic energ y is th enlo stw h ile ex h a u stg a ses ex p a nd to p ressu re
(2 -3 p ro c ess), w ith a n inc rea se into ta lenth a lp y a nd tem p era tu re
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6
F o r p o sitive d isp la c em entc o m p resso rs, p ressu re ra tio is a lm o stind ep end ento n th e eng ines
ro ta tio na lsp eed : th erefo re, g o o d p erfo rm a nc es c a nb e a c h ieved evena tlo w ro ta tio na lsp eed s a nd
w h ena c c elera ting fro m lo w sp eed s.
T h e tu rb o c h a rg er o nth e o th er h a nd p ro vid es inc rea sing p ressu re ra tio s a s th e eng ine sp eed
inc rea ses: inletp ressu re m a y b e eith er insu ffic ienta tlo w sp eed s o r to o h ig h a th ig h sp eed s.
to tu rb o la g .
T h e m ec h a nic a lly d rivenc o m p resso r h a s a fa ster resp o nse
b ec a u se its ro ta tio na lsp eed is d irec tly c o u p led to th e eng ines sp eed .
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1 T im e [s]
T h e d eg ree o fsu p erc h a rg ing inS I eng ines is m a inly lim ited b y th e k no c k : su p erc h a rg ing red u c es
ig nitio nd ela y w h ic h inc rea ses th e k no c k ing tend enc y .
B efo re th e a d vento fd irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, tu rb o c h a rg ing req u ired a d ec rea se o fth e
c o m p ressio nra tio ino rd er to red u c e th e risk o fk no c k ing -> h ig h er sp ec ific fu elc o nsu m p tio n.
W ith th e a d vento fd irec tinjec tio nsy stem s a nd th e a va ila b ility o fb etter fu els (h ig h er o c ta ne
nu m b ers), tu rb o c h a rg ing c o u ld b e m o re ea sily a d o p ted , b ec a u se fu elva p o riza tio n, to g eth er w ith a
w id e u se o fc h a rg e c o o ling , a llo w s to a vo id th e need to red u c e c o m p ressio nra tio s.
S inc e inC I eng ines th ere is no risk o fk no c k ing , su p erc h a rg ing is lim ited o nly b y th e m a x im u m
p erm issib le m ec h a nic a la nd th erm a llo a d s. Ind eed , su p erc h a rg ing h a s evena p o sitive influ enc e o n
th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess.
T h erefo re, tu rb o c h a rg ing is ex tensively u sed inC I eng ines, a nd itm a k es th eir p erfo rm a nc e rea c h
th e sa m e levelo fna tu ra lly a sp ira ted S I eng ines.
E x h a u stg a s
F resh a ir
E ng ine
Bypass valve
Air/fuel ratio
T h e m etering sy stem m u stp ro vid e th e
a p p ro p ria te q u a ntity o ffu el, so a s to o b ta inth e
req u ired a ir/fu elra tio fo r every o p era ting p o int.
Ric h m ix tu re L ea nm ix tu re
S p ec ific p o w er o u tp u t[k W /d m 3 ]
S p ec ific fu elc o nsu m p tio n[g /M J ]
Mixture homogeneity
O vera llfu elc o nversio neffic ienc y [%]
1 . A ir filter
2 . C a rb u reto r
3 . T h ro ttle va lve
4 . Inta k e m a nifo ld
5 . F u elta nk
6. F u elfilter
7 .C a m
8. D ia p h ra g m p u m p
F u nd a m enta lc o m p o nents:
Throttle valve
Itc o ntro ls a ir flo w ra te, a nd a s a c o nseq u enc e
p o w er o u tp u t, a c ting o nvo lu m etric effic ienc y .
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6
Itis d iffic u ltto c o ntro l p rec isely th e req u ired better control on air/fuel ratio, b o th interm s o f
air/fuel ratio ind ifferento p era ting c o nd itio ns p rec isio na nd rep ea ta b ility , ina llo p era ting
c o nd itio ns; more uniform distribution among
Pressure loss ina sp ira tio n
cylinders; c o nseq u ently , p o sitive influ enc e o n:
Itis d iffic u ltto c o ntro l its o p era tio nintransient sp ec ific fu el c o nsu m p tio n
conditions, d u e to th e inertia o fth e fu el m a ss p erfo rm a nc e
p o llu ta ntem issio ns
S ig nific a ntvariation of specific fuel
consumption w ith lo a d , p a rtic u la rly p ro no u nc ed better transient operation, b ec a u se o flo w er flu id
inc a se o ffreq u enttra nsiento p era ting c o nd itio ns vo lu m es inth e sy stem (lo w er flu id inertia )
Direct injection (DI): fu elis d irec tly injec ted insid e th e c y lind er
Control of injectors
Mechanical injection: a neng ine-d rivenp u m p p ressu rizes th e fu el a nd m eters th e injec ted vo lu m e
b y m ea ns o fa na u to m a tic m ec h a nic a linjec to r
Electronic injection: a nelec tro m a g netic fu elinjec to r is u sed ; m etering a nd c o ntro lo finjec tio na re
b esto w ed u p o nth e E C U
Multipoint port injection: a fu elinjec to r is u sed fo r ea c h c y lind er; fu el is injec ted into th e inta k e
p o rto fea c h c y lind er
1 . Injec to r
1 . F ilter
2 . E lec tric w ire
2 . Inta k e m a nifo ld 3 . W ind ing
4 . W ind ing a rm a tu re
3 . Inta k e va lve 5 . N eed le va lve
6. N eed le tip
7 . F u elp ip e
8. T ig h tening ring
9 . S ea lring
1 0 .S ea lring
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1
M etering a c c u ra c y 2 m g /inj
H D E V5 H D E V4 .1
Installation complexity
D irec tinjec tio nreq u ires th a tth e injec to r b e m o u nted d irec tly o nto p o fth e c y lind er, w h ere sp a rk p lu g
a nd inta k e a nd ex h a u stva lves a re p la c ed to o .
Evaporative cooling
Inind irec tinjec tio ns sy stem s, fu elva p o riza tio nta k es p la c e inth e inta k e m a nifo ld a nd itsu b tra c ts
h ea tfro m th e m a nifo ld w a lls a nd fro m th e inta k e va lve; ind irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, o nth e c o ntra ry ,
fu elva p o riza tio nta k es p la c e insid e th e c y lind er, so th a titc o o ls th e ind u c ed a ir, w ith a d o u b le
b enefit:
h ig h er d ensity -> h ig h er vo lu m etric effic ienc y : to rq u e o u tp u tinc rea ses b y a p p ro x im a tely 5 6%;
lo w er tem p era tu re -> lo w er risk o fd eto na tio n(k no c k ing ) -> c o m p ressio nra tio c a nb e inc rea sed
(b y a p p ro x . 2 0 %) -> sig nific a ntim p ro vem ents ineffic ienc y a nd fu elc o nsu m p tio na re p o ssib le.
Indirect Direct
injection injection
[c m 3 ] 3498 3498
10,7 12,2
[b a r] 45 200
[k W ] 200 215
T [rp m ] 60 0 0 64 0 0
[b a r] 1 1 ,4 1 1 ,5
[k W /l] 5 7 ,2 61 ,5
[N m ] 35 0 3 65
[b a r] 1 2 ,6 1 3 ,1
[N m /l] 1 0 0 ,0 1 0 4 ,3
n[rp m ]
[g /k W h ] 240 235
m ec h a nic a lstresses
Ro ta tio na lsp eed n rp m
th erm a lstresses
H ig h p ressu re H ig h p ressu re
fu elinlet fu elinlet
S o leno id S o leno id
a c tu a to r a c tu a to r
T w o -w a y va lve T w o -w a y va lve
Injec to r va lve Injec to r va lve
o p en c lo sed
C u rso r 1 1 E u ro VI eng ine series, u sed fo r c o m m erc ia l tru c k p ro p u lsio n (F P T Ind u stria l)
T h is c h a rtsh o w s th e p erfo rm a nc e m a p o fa
na tu ra lly a sp ira ted 4 S S I eng ine
(d isp la c em ent2 5 2 5 c m 3 ).
E ng ine c h a ra c teristic s:
T u rb o c h a rg ed
D isp la c em ent
th e tu rb o c h a rg er c h a ra c teristic s;
n [rpm]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Y ea r 2001 2006 2002 2002 2005 2006 2007
[c m 3 ] 1998 15 98 17 96 17 96 1390 17 98 297 9
D esig nc h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e o fso m e S I 4 S su p erc h a rg ed eng ines fo r a u to m o tive a p p lic a tio ns, b u iltb y E u ro p ea n c o m p a nies fro m 2 0 0 1 to 2 0 0 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Y ea r 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2006
[c m 3 ] 3900 1995 2148 3936 2 4 60 2 9 67 2497 1991 1493 2993 2 9 87 4134 3996
2 2 2 2
T u rb o c h a rg ing T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o , T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o
in // in // series in //
CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR
Injec tio n CR
I g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. III g en. III g en. III g en.
18 17 18 1 7 ,3 18 1 7 ,1 17 18 18 1 6,5 18 1 6,5 17
[b a r] 135 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0
u p to
n. o finjec tio ns 1 p ilo t 2 p ilo t 2 p ilo t > 1 2 p ilo t 2 p ilo t 2+ 1+ 2 5
5
D esig nc h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e o fso m e C I 4 S tu rb o c h a rg ed eng ines fo r a u to m o tive a p p lic a tio ns, b u iltb y E u ro p ea n c o m p a nies fro m 1 9 9 9 to 2 0 0 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F u el G a so line G a so line G a so line G a so line G a so line LP G D iesel D iesel D iesel D iesel
[c m 3 ] 1 3 68 1 3 68 1 3 68 1 3 68 17 42 1 3 68 15 98 195 6 195 6 195 6
T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o ,
T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , inter- inter- inter-
T u rb o c h a rg ing inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- c o o ler, c o o ler, c o o ler,
c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler va r. va r. va r.
g eo m . g eo m . g eo m .
S o u rc e: h ttp ://w w w .a lfa ro m eo .it/it/D o c u m ents/sc h ed e-tec nic h e/G iu lietta S c h ed a T ec nic a -C o nsu m iP resta zio niE m issio ni.p d f(la stretrieved D ec em b er 2 0 1 3 ).
Full-load performance map: see Direct vs. Indirect injection systems Full-load performance map: see Performance map of a SI engine
bmep bmep
Rotati
onalspeed [rpm]
Rotati
onalspeed [rpm]
2. Load requiring torque output increasing as the square of the rotational speed ):
th e eng ine is th u s m a tc h ed to a flu id m a c h ine su c h a s c o m p resso rs, p u m p s, a ero na u tic a lo r
m a rine p ro p ellers, etc .
Inth is c a se th e eng ine sp eed a td esig no p era ting c o nd itio ns sh o u ld b e a s c lo se a s p o ssib le to th e
o p tim a lo ne fo r th e ex terna llo a d , ino rd er to red u c e th e size o fth e g ea rb o x , o r ifp o ssib le a vo id
a lto g eth er its u se. F o r la rg e m a rine 2 S C I eng ines, eng ine sp eed h a s evenb eenred u c ed d o w nto
1 2 s-1 , so a s to c o u p le d irec tly th e eng ine to th e p ro p eller.
3. Load requiring a wide range of operating conditions, both in terms of speed and torque.
Itis fo r ex a m p le th e c a se o fg ro u nd p ro p u lsio n.
Operation mode
Performance data Unit 1 2 3 4
Heat Rate
ac c. to ISO 3046, w ithout p umps, kJ/kWh 7,305 7,350 7,430 7,560
mec h. Power out put , +5% toleranc e
S o u rc e: ex tra c tfro m T h e la rg est rec ip-b a sed po w er pla n t sw o rld w id e, M o d ern P o w er S y stem s, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 5 , p p . 1 2 -1 5 .
---
-
---
Ino rd er to a p p ro x im a te th e id ea lc h a ra c teristic a s m u c h a s
p o ssib le, a gear shift (a nd a c lu tc h ) is need ed ino rd er to
c h a ng e th e sp eed ra tio b etw eeneng ine sh a fta nd w h eels:
th e p lo to nth e rig h tsh o w s th e u se o fa d isc o ntinu o u s fo u r-
sp eed g ea rb o x
Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5
2. grading resistance ( )
3. aerodynamic drag ( )
4. acceleration ( )
Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5
S o u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5
Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5
O u tflo w o fH C
fro m c revic es;
D ep o sits so m e H C O il la y ers
a b so rb H C b u rns d eso rb H C
P isto n
U nb u rned m ix tu re E ntra inm ento f sc ra p es H C
fo rc ed into H C fro m w a ll into o ffw a lls
c revic es b u lk g a s
C O M P RE S S IO N C O M B U S T IO N EXHAUST
E X P A N S IO N
C a rb o nm o no x id e C O [%]
N itro g eno x id es [p p m a s N O ]
o x y g enc o ntent: m a x im u m em issio ns a re U nb u rned
h y d ro c a rb o ns
U nb u rned h y d ro c a rb o ns [p p m a s C 1 ]
CO 2 [%] 9 ,5 1 0 ,5 1 2 ,5 9 ,5
C O [%] 2 ,0 2 ,0 0 ,4 2 ,0
A ll m a inp o llu ta nts a re em itted insig nific a ntq u a ntities ina ll o p era ting m o d es.
T h erefo re, a p o llu ta ntc o ntro lsy stem th a tc a no p era te a tth e sa m e tim e o nC O , H C , N O x is need ed .
1 . a ir inta k e; 2 . elec tro nic c o ntro l u nit; 3 . o x y g en senso r; 4 . th ree-w a y c a ta ly tic c o nverter; 5 . silenc er;
6.p o llu ta ntinlet; 7 . h o ney c o m b c era m ic m o no lith ; 8. rea c to r c a sing ; 9 . ex h a u stg a s o u tlet; 1 0 . sc h em a tic o fth e c a ta ly sis p ro c ess
E x h a u st
gas
Im a g e so u rc e:
G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 (to p )
J .B . H ey w o o d , Interna l C o m b u stio n E ng ine F u nd a m enta ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88 (b o tto m )
CO 2 [%] 1 ,0 * 1 1 ,0 7 ,0 --
C O [%] 0 ,4 0 ,2 0 ,0 4 --
c lea ns th e filter b y m ea ns o fa n a d h o c , lo c a l
c o m b u stio np ro c ess, w h ic h c a nb e a c tiva ted b y
3 rd step :
d ifferentm ea ns, su c h a s a na u x ilia ry b u rner, o r a la te fla m e
p ro p a g a tio n
injec tio no ffu el(p o st-injec tio ninm u ltijet sy stem s).
C lea n filter
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6