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GnY SINCE 2001 Vol. 16, ISSuE 98, 2016

IndIas
developmentalodds Pulses Revolution 4 Indias Poverty Line 12 Mining
in India 18 BREXIT: What Next? 26 How Logical is
Interlinking of Rivers? 55 Asias Falling Water Quality 61
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 GeoGraphy and you
Vol. 16 Issue 98 september-october 2016

Agriculture crops wAter

4 Is Pulses Revolution a Possibility? 61 Asias Poor Water Quality: A
Rina MukeRji and RashMiRekha Pandit New Low
staff RePoRteR
9 Phytoliths: Aid to Bio-Sequestration
duRgesh kuMaR tRiPathi, ashutosh tRiPathi, swati
singh, d k Chauhan and n k dubey
In brIef
economy Development 2 Letters 3 Editors note 24 Exporting Indias
12 Indias Poverty Line: Changing ores and minerals 25 Term power
Perspectives 29 Fossil fuel free nations 37 Term power
rating 38 RE Tech 64 Book/Website
aMitabh kundu

inDustry
18 Challenges of Mining Expert Panel
in India
saMiksha agaRwal and lekha ChakRaboRty Prithvish Nag
Vice Chancellor,
26 BREXIT: What Next? MG Kashi Vidyapeeth,
Varanasi.
sheetal shaRMa
B Meenakumari
Chairman,
renewAble energy National Biodiversity Authority,
30 India: Topping in Renewables Chennai.
staff RePoRteR
Ajit Tyagi
Air Vice Marshal (Retd)
34 Business Model for Former DG, IMD,
Rooftop Solar in India New Delhi.

giReesh shRiMali B Sengupta

Former Member Secretary,
Central Pollution Control Board,
populAtion urbAnisAtion New Delhi.
42 Smart Cities-Framework for a Digital India Rasik Ravindra
MohaMMad suhail Former Director,
NCAOR, Goa.
climAte chAnge policy
46 Corporate Social Responsibility and Saraswati Raju
Climate Change Professor, CSRD,
RaiMi l, akosile o k and adebanwa a Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi.
Forest Sachidanand Sinha
51 Mangroves-Surviving Against all Odds Professor, CSRD,
Jawaharlal Nehru
swati Mohan saPPal and alagaPPan RaManathan
University, New Delhi.

policy Dripto Mukhopadhaya

Director,
55 How Logical is Interlinking of Rivers? Economic Research,
staff RePoRteR Nielsen, New Delhi.

GeoGraphy and you September-october 2016 1


GeoGraphy and you
editor
Sulagna Chattopadhyay
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2 September-october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
July-August 2016 issue: The GnY Special issue on ten years of
transformation of Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has come out
extremely well. The issues and achievements of the Ministry and
its autonomous organisations are presented really well. Thanks a
lot for all your efforts. Dr r Krishnan, ExEcutivE DirEctor, cEntrE for
climatE changE rEsEarch (cccr), inDian institutE of tropical mEtEorology
(iitm), punE, maharashtra, via E-mail.
For more details log on to our website www.geographyandyou.com
i reAlly liked the special issue on ten years and obtain reasonable prediction skills at
of Ministry of Earth Sciences. Dr laxman regional levels to counter such disasters.
singh rathorE, formEr DirEctor gEnEral of GnY has given out good content on the
mEtEorology (imD), via E-mail. said subject and has discussed about
the National Monsoon Mission. It was
gny highlighting the work done by MoES good to know that numerous government
in the past decade was very informative organisations are working on this Mission.
for me. The brief description about their JaishanKar prasaD, DEhraDun
projects is very easy to understand and
GnY has done a good job covering them. the fAct thAt WHO has declared ten out of
ritEsh Kumar, patna the twenty most polluted cities in the World
are in India, has shaken the country. The
While reAding the latest publication of SAFAR project is a very good way to let the
GnY, I came across the fact that the Indian general population know the seriousness
Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) of the situation. I regularly cross the head
is a Tsunami service provider to the Indian office of India Meteorological Department
Ocean rim countries. I was unaware about (IMD) and look at the SAFAR LED board
this fact and felt really proud that MoES which has been put outside for people
has set up such an elite institution. I thank to refer to. Scary as it seems, I think this
GnY for conveying such information as is the correct way to disseminate such
every Indian should know these facts about information. The article published by GnY
India. ravishanKar, Jaipur titled Air Quality and SAFAR-India is a very
well done article and many people would
find it informative. J saKharam, guJarat
DRISHTI transmissiometers being installed
at major airports to increase visibility for i Am A regulAr reAder of GnY journal
aircrafts during winters. I read the first and follow articles on life, livelihood,
detailed description of what it actually travel, environment, etc, which are very
is in Transforming Lives with Science. interesting and catchy. As, I travel to
Id like to thank GnY for spreading such different parts in India in the context of
information. panKaJ Kumar, haryana fisheries and aquaculture development,
and find various issues worth highlighting
i cAme Across the article in GnYs latest on fish-environment, fish based livelihood,
magazine titled Monsoon Mission. As tourism, fishing etc., I would like to know
India is facing critical floods and droughts the possibilities of contributing articles in
each year in different parts of the country, these subjects. Dr DEEpJoyti Baruah, sEnior
it is necessary to predict extreme events sciEntist, icar-Dcar, Bhimtal, via E-mail
Write editorial office: geography and you, 1584, b-1, vasant Kunj, new delhi-110070. letters may be edited for clarity and length. include
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 EDITORIAL
Caring for Indias elders

From L to R:

Dear Readers, Dr A S Kiran Kumar,

Chairman, Indian
Space Research
While Indias energy requirements and consumption have risen considerably Organisation (ISRO),
over the past decade, the share of fossil fuels in its energy basket has Dr Y S Chowdary,
dropped. In its place, renewables like solar and wind are beginning to drive Minister of State, Dr
Indias growth. Currently, the nation figures among the top five in the world Harsh Vardhan, Union
in both capacity utilisation and investment in renewable sources of energy. Minister, Ministry
We have, in this issue, pieced several related concerns together to bring a of Earth Sciences
composite story of the nations progress in renewable energy. Also, on the (MoES) releasing GnY
July-August, 2016 issue
environment side we have debated the role of mangroves in protecting our
in Vigyan Bhawan
coastal environment; the deterioration of our surface waters; and examined
during the foundation
the pros and cons of interlinking our rivers. Also we have outlined how India
day celebrations of
has failed to define a poverty line for itself; the latest expert committee MoES, July 27, 2016.
having thrown its hands up in surrender. Abroad, Britains exit from the
European Union may turn the tables for many. These topical issues are
deeply examined in the papers presented in GnY.
Meanwhile, in a major development, GnY was extremely fortunate to be
part of the Ministry of Earth Sciences Foundation Day celebrations that
marked their decade-long service to the nation. The event, hosted at Vigyan
Bhavan on July 27, 2016, had more than 500 eminent scientists and many
young students attending it. The photo reveals it all.
Happy Reading.

(Sulagna Chattopadhyay)

GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 3

A g r i c u lt u r e cr o p s

By Rina MukeRji and RashMiRekha Pandit

Is Pulses RevolutIon
a PossIbIlIty?
The neglect of pulses saw them being relegated to marginal lands during
the Green Revolution, even as rice and wheat production grew manifold. As
India grapples with a demand-supply gap it is time, through technological
breakthroughs, right policies and incentives to farmers to bridge this gap.

T
he widening gap between demand
and supply of pulses in India and the
resulting inflation and increasing
imports has highlighted the neglect
that these protein-rich leguminous
crops suffered for decades, especially during the
Green Revolution.
Green Revolution saw added impetus to wheat
and rice production, with more and more areas
being devoted to these crops, and pulses being
pushed into marginal lands (Ninan, et. al. 1993).
With the United Nations declaring 2016 as the
International Year of Pulses, Indias role in holistic
development of its agriculture needs bolstering.
Pulses are leguminous plants belonging to the
Fabaceae family. Each pod produces 1-12 grains
of various colours and sizes. They are the chief
source of protein for a majority of Indians and
being relatively cheaper they are often referred
to as poor mans protein. In addition to this they
fix nitrogen in their nodules, rejuvenating the soil
and helping it to regain fertility.
India is the largest producer (accounting for 25
per cent of global production), as also consumer
(27 per cent of worlds consumption) and importer
(14 per cent) of pulses in the world (Table 1). The
major varieties grown and consumed in India are
Bengal gram, pigeon peas (arhar/tur), green beans
(moong), chickpea (kabulichana), black gram
(urad), red kidney beans (rajma), black eyed peas
(lobiya), lentils (masoor), and white peas (matar).
However, despite being the largest producer

4 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu

 Fig. 1: Major pulses producing states (2012-13)

Jammu & Kashmir

Himachal Pradesh

Punjab Chandigarh
Uttarakhand
Arunachal
Haryana Pradesh
Delhi
Sikkim

Assam
Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Nagaland
Bihar
Meghalaya
Manipur

Gujarat Jharkhand Tripura

Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh West Bengal
Chhattisgarh

Odisha
Index
Maharashtra
20-35 Lakh tonnes (2010-11)
Andaman & 10-20 Lakh tonnes (2010-11)
Nicobar Islands
Andhra Pradesh Below 10 Lakh tonnes (2010-11)

Goa
Karnataka

Tamil Nadu Fig. 2: State-wise per capita consumption

Kerala of pulses

Map to scale Jammu & Kashmir

Source: Annual Report on Pulses 2013-13, IIPR 0.641

Himachal Pradesh
1.264
Punjab
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, 0.898 Uttarakhand
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra Haryana 1.020 Arunachal
are the highest pulse producing 0.751 Delhi Pradesh
1.072 0.504
states with production of 20-35 Rajasthan Sikkim
0.569 0.475
lakh tonnes followed by Andhra Uttar Pradesh Assam
0.647 Nagaland
Pradesh and Karnataka. 0.865
Bihar Meghalaya 0.409
Rest of the states produce 0.744 0.309 Manipur
0.404
less than 10 lakh tonnes of Gujarat
0.843 Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand Tripura Mizoram
pulses. Himachal Pradesh and 0.854 0.577 West Bengal
0.410 0.451
Chhattisgarh
Uttarakhand show the highest 0.794
0.488
per capita consumption of Odisha
Maharashtra
pulses, although they produce 0.610
0.975
very low quantities.
Maharashtra is the only
exception which is both a major
producer and consumer of Karnataka
pulses. Goa 0.914 Andhra Pradesh Quantity per 30 days (kg)
0.681 0.857
0.300-0.500
0.500-0.700
0.700-0.900
Tamil Nadu
0.993 0.900 and above
Kerala
0.697

Map not to scale Source: NSSO, 68th Round, 2011-12

GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 5

Table 1: Production, import and export of pulses, 2005-13 (per 1000 tonnes)

Pulses 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Production 133.9 142.0 147.6 145.7 147.0 182.4 172.10 175.20 (T)

Export 4.54 2.64 1.82 1.45 1.29 2.06 1.75 0.66 (April-September)

Import 19.64 25.04 29.45 25.8 37.64 27.80 34.96 16.74 (April-September)

Total availability 149.3 164.4 175.23 170.05 183.35 208.14 205.31 191.28 (April-September)
Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2015

Fig. 3: Area, production and productivity of pulses, 1950-2014

Production (Million hectare) Productivity (kg/hectare) Area (Million hectare)

30 25.23 1000
26.4 23.26 900
24.66 24.46
25 23.58 780 800
20.35
699 764
22.15 22.46 681 700
20
19.09 600
578 19.27
539 544 18.24 18.34
15 501 17.09 500
441 473
14.26 400
10 12.7
11.09 10.63 11.08 300
8.41
5 200
100
0 0

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

Source: Smita Mohanty, Dr. K.J. Satyasai, Feeling the Pulse-Indian Pulses Sector, NABARD,
Issue X -July-Aug 2015

Fig. 4: Shift in pulses production area from northern to southern states, 1991-2010

Southern states Northern states

3500

3000

2500
Area (1000 ha)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1991

1992

1993

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010
1994

Year
Source: A. Amarender Reddy, Enabling Pulses Revolution in India, ICRISAT, 2012.

of pulses, India is compelled to import several Indian Parliament in August 2016 (Ministry of
million tonnes every year. In fact, India imported Consumer Affairs).
45,84841 MT of pulses at the unit price of 608 USD Even otherwise, the per capita availability
per MT during 2014-15 and 57,97699 MT at 673 of pulses has declined from 61 grams per day in
USD per MT during 2015-16 to stabilize prices, 1951-56 to less than 40 grams per day, as against
as per a statement by the Minister of Consumer the WHO recommendation of 80 grams per
Affairs, Food and Public Distribution in the day (Sundaram, 2010). Against the backdrop of

6 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


malnutrition and India competing with China to
attain the title of Diabetic Capital of the World,
pulses provide the only ray of hope to decrease the
carbohydrate content in food.
In order to revitalise the pulses sector, India
needs a revolutionised mentality, with great deal
of proactive and targeted policies and incentives.
trends in the production of pulses
As per the annual report on Pulses, 2012-2013 by
Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR, 2013-
14) Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka are the top five pulses
producing states of India (Fig. 1). Gram is the most
dominant occupying 40 per cent of total produc-
tion, followed by Tur (15-20 per cent) and Urad
and Moong at around 8-10 per cent each.
Of the total area under food grain cultivation,
pulses cover only around 20 per cent. The share
of area under pulses increased from 19 million
hectares in 1950-51 to 25 million hectares in 2013-
14, amounting to a 31 per cent increase. During
2010-11, production of pulses increased from 14.7
million tonnes to 19.27 million tonnes. However,
the production thereafter stagnated till 2012-13.
The productivity increase from 1950-51 to 2013-14
was meagre-from 441 to 764 kg/ha (Fig. 3 and 4).
Priority attached to wheat and rice during the
Green Revolution resulted in the substitution of
pulses. The New Economic Policy in later years
also favoured HYV varieties of rice and wheat.
Thus the production of pulses remained more
or less stagnant, and continues to be far below
achievable productivity levels. Factors such as
lack of adequate irrigation facilities, low levels
of procurement by the government even after
declaring a minimum support price, unwilling-
ness of farmers to grow pulses due to fluctuations
in produce, and limited research and development
devoted to pulses are primarily to blame.
While the percentage of irrigated area increased
by more than 20 per cent for rice and more than 40
per cent for wheat, it increased only marginally
from 9 per cent to 16 per cent for pulses. Conse-
quently, production of pulses grew by a mere 12.2
per cent between 1962 and 2009, as compared to a
record 162.6 per cent in the case of wheat during
the same period.
While the demand for pulses has grown over
the years, supply has remained static, leading to an
india is the largest producer
as also consumer and
importer of pulses in the
world. However, despite
being the largest producer,
india continues to increase its
imports each year.
inflation in prices. India has also banned export of
all pulses, except for Kabuli Chana, since 2006, to
cater to the local demand. Pulses have also been
introduced in non-conventional areas such as the
southern states to boost production.
consumption pattern of pulses
The highest pulse producing states, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, with
yields ranging from 20-35 lakh tonnes, are not its
major consumers. The monthly consumption of
pulses per household in each of these states is less
than 0.9 kgs, with the exception of Maharashtra,
which happens to be both a high producer and
consumer state.
Per capita consumption of pulses is highest in
Himachal Pradesh (1.264) and Uttarakhand
(1.020), which are amongst the lowest producers.
On the other hand, the southern states of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are large
consumers, with monthly per capita consump-
tion ranging over 0.9 kg .
On the other side of the spectrum are the north-
eastern states of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Tripura, Manipur, Sikkim, besides West Bengal,
which show the lowest per capita consumption
ranging from 0.31 to 0.49 (Fig. 2).
reasons behind the demand-supply gap
There exists a wide gap between the demand and
supply of pulses. While the demand for pulses
in 2020 is projected at 30.9 million tonnes, the
supply is said to be only 24.9 million tonnes. The
gap of 6 million tonnes can be bridged by pushing
a growth rate of 6.51 per cent. Sadly enough the
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 7
current rate of growth is only 3.35 per cent.
Though pulses require less water than wheat or
rice, irrigation and fertile soils are necessary. In
the absence of adequate moisture at the time of
growth, crop failure or lower produce may result.
Hence, the shifting of pulses to marginal areas has
markedly affected the production of pulses.
Besides, being self pollinating plants, (except
pigeon pea), pulses have limited scope for hybridi-
sation. Neither do they respond well to fertilizers,
unlike rice and wheat. Of late, the government
has been successful in having scientists develop
improved varieties of pulses. In fact over the last
decade, seven short duration (140-160 days) high
yielding varieties of arhar namely Phule T 12,
BDN 711, PA 291, VLA-1, Pusa 2001, Pusa 2002
and CO-7 and nine short duration (60-65 days)
high yielding moong varieties namely HUM 16,
IPM 02-3, PKVAKM 4, Pusa 0672, IPM 02-14,
MH 421, SML 832, Co-8 and Shalimar Moong-2
have been released for propagation in different
states by the National Agricultural Research
System (NARS) comprising of Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutes
and State Agricultural Universities (Ministry
of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture,
cooperation and Farmers Welfare). These high-
yielding varieties, which are also suitable for
multiple cropping systems and newer niches,are
being promoted through the production of their
breeder seeds to farmers in different states. To
augment the availability of quality seeds, 100
seed hubs have also been established in 2016-17
across 22 states to promote production of pulses,
as stated by the Minister of State for Agricul-
ture and Farmers Welfare in Parliament in
August 2016.
From a farmers perspective, pulses are viewed
as a marginal crop. If a farmer has irrigation facili-
ties, he would rather grow rice or wheat since he
has assured returns in terms of produce and cash,
none of which pulses assure. Notwithstanding a
higher minimum support price since the last few
years, the government procures only 4 per cent of
the total produce. Contrast this with the 80 to 100
per cent of the wheat procured in many places.
Moreover, pulses are easily attacked by pests if
stored without splitting.
There is also an urgent need to draw the attention
of the private sector to pulses by the introduction of
8 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
innovative products. Blending of pulses with wheat
and other cereals to produce high protein foods
is under research and can be turned into a viable
option. Pulses can also be distributed through
the public distribution system (PDS) to safeguard
farmers through procurement. This could also
enable the poor to better their protein intake.
endnote
A Pulses Revolution on the lines of the Green
Revolution is the need of the hour, since pulses
too need the support and attention of the govern-
ment, farmers, and the public and private sectors.
Although some major technological and institu-
tional breakthroughs have already been affected,
losses of pulses due to faulty storage, inefficient
marketing mechanisms, and the absence of
adequate irrigation need to be avoided. The inclu-
sive growth of cereals, pulses and vegetables is the
best way to food and nutritional security.
reFerenceS
Government of India, 2014. Agricultural Statistics at a
Glance. Commodity Profile for Pulses- Jan 2016.
Indian Institute of Pulses Research - http://www.iipr.
res.in/. Annual Report on Pulses, 2012-2013
Government of India, August 2016, Ministry of Agri-
culture, Department of Agriculture, cooperation
and Farmers Welfare.
Government of India, August 2016, Ministry of
Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
National Sample Survey 68th Round. 2011-12.
Household Consumption of Various Goods and
Services in India: pp A-193-332.
Mohanty S. and K. J. Satyasai. 2015. Feeling the Pulse-
Indian Pulses Sector, NABARD Rural Pulse, Issue
X.
Ninan K. N. and H. Chandrashekhar,. 1993. Green
Revolution, Dryland Agriculture and Sustain-
ability -Insights from India, Economic and
Political Weekly .
Reddy A. A., M. C. S. Bantilan and G. Mohan. 2012.
Enabling Pulses Revolution in India- Policy Brief
no. 26 - ICRISAT.
Sundaram I. S., 2010. India needs a Pulses Revolu-
tion, Facts for You.
The authors are senior scientific writer from Kolkata and
research scholar in Delhi, respectively.
rina_mukherji@yahoo.com
A g r i c u lt u r e cr o p s
By Durgesh Kumar TripaThi, ashuTosh TripaThi,
swaTi singh, D K Chauhan anD n K Dubey
Phytoliths: Aid to
bio-sequestrAtion
Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the environment is currently a major
problem. Since nature has significantly occluded carbon by burying it into
the soil for millions of years in the form of fossil phytoliths, this can serve as a
probable method of carbon bio-sequestration.
T
he last few decades has seen a lot of
attention being focused on climate
change and the increasing level of
greenhouse gasses in the environment.
Recent studies have clearly suggested
that concentration of global carbon dioxide level
has gone up from 398.13 ppm (July 2015) to 401.72
ppm (July 2016) (ESRI/NOAA, 2016). It is imperative
that the effective technologies are used to sequester
carbon and bring down carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere.
carbon sequestration to combat
climate change
Carbon sequestration is the long-term capture and
storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon
using plants, soils, geological formations and the
ocean to mitigate global warming and climate change.
When only organisms are involved, it is termed as
terrestrial (or biological) sequestration. Atmospheric
carbon is stored within the plant organs, and then
makes its way into the soil through plant residue.
Thus, it ends up being stored deep within the soil for
a very long time.
Of all the mechanisms of carbon sequestration,
bio-sequestration is arguably one of the most effective
and low cost methods to decrease the concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (Parr et. al. 2010). Studies
suggest that wetland plants, grasslands, forest and
shrub biodiversity are one of the significant options
to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide as plants
ultimately return to the soil as plant residue (Parr and
Sullivan 2005; Fang et al. 2007). Beside plants, the role
of phytoliths in carbon sequestration is also gaining
greater interest among the scientific community
because of its potential in carbon sequestration.
What is phytolith?
Silicon is the second most abundant element in the
earths crust (28 per cent by mass). This accumulates
in the roots of plants in the form of soluble silicic acid
[Si(OH)4] and gets deposited in the roots, stems,
leaves, leaf sheaths, and inflorescence. Silica deposi-
tion pattern occurs in the cellular or intercellular
spaces of the plant tissues in the form of opal silica
bodies. These silica bodies are called phytoliths and
they protect the plant from various biotic and abiotic
stresses. They also provide an interlocking system to
give mechanical support to the stem.
Some Pteridophytes, Angiosperms (Annonaceae,
Magnoliaceae, Arecaceae, Bromeliaceae, Commel-
inaceae, Costaceae, Cyperaceae, Heliconiaceae,
Marantaceae, Musaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae and
Zingiberaceaeetc), Eudicots (Acanthaceae, Aceraceae,
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 9
Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Dilleniaceae, Moraceae,
Ulmaceae, etc.), Gymnosperms (Cupressaceae,
Pinaceae, Taxaceae, and Taxodiaceae, etc.) are known
to produce abundant phytolith (Piperno, 1988).
After death and decay of the plants, these phytoliths
are deposited in the soil and sediment as distinct,
microscopic particles of varying sizes and shapes.
Since phytoliths endure for millions of years in the
soil, they can provide solutions to the archaeological,
paleo-climatic, and palaeo-botanical problems, while
helping us understand the past history of the respec-
tive plants (ibid). They can hence, have probable and
significant use in carbon sequestration.
phytolith and carbon bio-sequestration
There are ample studies performed to test the
relevance of phytolith in carbon bio-sequestration
which suggest that plant phytoliths have great poten-
tial to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
(Parr et. al. 2009; Parr et. al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan
2011; Zuo and L 2011). The range of carbon bio-
sequestration in some major crops like millet, wheat
and sugarcane has been reported to be up to 0.04,
0.25 and 0.36 mg-e-CO2 per ha per year, respectively
(Li et al., 2013). However, occluded carbon in the
phytoliths of bamboo species have been reported to
be as much as 0.71 mg-e-CO2 per ha per year. With
bamboo forests covering an area of around 22 million
ha globally, the potential sequestration could securely
touch ~1.56107mg of atmospheric carbon dioxide
per year (ibid). In fact, bamboo plantations on suit-
able lands could result in effectively reducing global
carbon dioxide emissions by a rate equivalent to 11
per cent of the current increased carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere (Parr et al. 2010).
Phytolith occluded carbon (PhytOC) has been
recognised as one of the best and extremely stable
methods to act in the soil carbon cycle (Parr and
Sullivan 2005).
Studies clearly suggest that the phytolith produc-
tion rate can vary in keeping with environmental
conditions, genus and plant species. (Rajendiran et.
al., 2012). Plants have been categorised on the basis
of phytolith production or silica accumulation into
effective and passive accumulators (Rajendiran et. al.,
2012). Higher plants of some families such as Cyper-
aceae and wetland species of Poaceae (e.g., rice) have
been found to accumulate about 10-15 per cent while,
dry land species of Poaceae like wheat, sugarcane and
some dicotyledons have reported about 1-3 per cent.
However, most dicotyledons, especially legumes,
accumulated less than 0.5 per cent silicon (Parr and
10 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
carbon sequestering/
isolation should be promoted
by using those crops which
have potential to produce
more phytoliths.
Sullivan, 2005; Rajendiran et al., 2012).
Furthermore, grasses were found to be high
silica accumulators and generally good at occluding
carbon via the silica bio-mineralisation process. Due
to continuous and long-term phytolith formation
rates, grasslands are considered to be 5-10 times
better phytolith producer, with greater potential
for occluding carbon than grasses growing on
under forest lands (Drees et al., 1989; Rajendiran
et al., 2012).
There is a vast range in the phytolith accumula-
tion reported in various crops (Parr et. al.) Rice, for
instance, was found to accumulate about 10 per cent
of shoot dry weight, while wheat and sugarcane saw
phytolith production varying between 2.68-7.85 per
cent, and 1.3-2.6 per cent respectively (Sun et al.,
2008; Parr et al., 2009; Parr et al., 2011). Parr et al.,
reported in 2011 that in the leaf and stem material of
53 wheat (Triticum sp.) cultivars collated from the 25
countries the rate of silica accumulation and carbon
bio-sequestered ranged from 0.06 - 0.60 per cent of
dry leaf and stem biomass.
endnote
Phytolith occluded carbon is an important part of
total organic carbon pool in soil because it is greatly
resistant to decay as compared to other soil organic
carbon components. Thus, plant species that produce
high quantity of PhytOC have the potential to play
a significant role in increasing terrestrial carbon
sequestration. Plantation of high potential PhytOC
producing crops, grasses and trees in degraded crop-
lands, wetlands and forest covers can help improve
the microclimate in many regions, as also mitigate
climate change.
references
Drees L. R., L. P. Wilding, N. E. Smeck, and A.
L. Senkayi. 1989. Silica in soils: quartz and
disordered silica polymorphs. In Minerals

in Soil Environments (eds Dixon, J. B. and
Weed, S. B.), Soil Society of America, Madison,
Wisconsin: 471552.
Dlugokencky E. and P. Tans, NOAA/ESRL,
available at www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/
trends/.
Fang J. Y., Z. D. Guo, S. L. Piao and A. P. Chen.
2007. Terrestrial vegetation carbon sinks in
China, 19812000. Sci China Ser DEarth Sci
50:13411350
Li Z., Z. Song, J. F. Parr, and H. Wang. 2013.
Occluded C in rice phytoliths: implications to
biogeochemical carbon sequestration. Plant
and soil, 370(1-2): 615-623.
Parr J. F. and L. A. Sullivan. 2005. Soil carbon
sequestration in phytoliths. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry,37(1):117-124
Parr J. F. and L. A. Sullivan. 2011. Phytolith
occluded carbon and silica variability in
wheat cultivars. Plant Soil 342:165171
Parr J. F., L. A. Sullivan, B. Chen, G. Ye, and W.
Zheng. 2010. Carbon bio-sequestration within
the phytoliths of economic bamboo species.
Global Change Biol 16:26612667
Parr J. F., L. A. Sullivan, and R.Quirk. 2009.
Sugarcane phytoliths: encapsulation and
sequestration of a long-lived carbon fraction.
Sugar Tech 11:1721
Piperno D. R.1988. Phytolith Analysis: An
Archaeological and Geological Perspective, San
Diego, Calif, USA :Academic Press
Rajendiran S., M. V. Coumar, S. Kundu, S. Ajay,
M. L. Dotaniya and A. S. Rao. 2012. Role of
phytolith occluded carbon of crop plants for
enhancing soil carbon sequestration in agro-
ecosystems. Current Science, 103(8): 911
Sun, L., L. H. Wu, T. P. Ding, and S. H. Tain.
2008. Silicon isotope fraction in rice plants,
an experimental study on rice growth under
hydroponic conditions. Plant Soil, 304: 291
300.
Zuo X. X. and H. Y. L. 2011. Carbon
sequestration within millet phytoliths from
dry-farming of crops in China. Chinese Sci
Bull 56:34513456.
Author are Scientific Officer, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad; Research Associate,
Research Scholar and Professor, Department of Botany,
University of Allahabad; Professor in Botany, Center of
Advance studies in Botany, BHU, Varanasi, respectively.
dktripathiau@gmail.com
i n Br ief
CoArse GrAins GAin Ground
Statistics reveal traditional crops affected by climate
change: coarse grains thrive.
Erratic rain affected the well irrigated states of the
northwest a lot more than the rainfed regions of eastern
India, where rice production was concerned in 2014-15.
Thus,heavily irrigated Punjab and Haryana saw a drop
in rice yield from 3953 to 3838 MT, and 3256 to 3113 MT
respectively in consecutive years. On the other hand,
rainfed West Bengal saw a drop from 2788 to 2731 MT;
Jharkhand too showed a drop from 2239 to 2210 MT in rice
yield.
Although Punjab and Haryana continue to dominate
wheat production in 2014-15, the yields however showed
a significant drop in both these states, with Punjab at 4491
MT, producing much lesser than its previous years 5017
MT. Haryana, too recorded an yield of 4574 MT of wheat,
which was much lesser than its previous years yield of
4722 MT. Warmer nights due to climate change have been
known to affect rabi crops like wheat. Delayed and shorter
winters, with untimely or no rain in northwestern India are
seen as major causes behind the shortfall of this crop.
All India yields of wheat have been reflecting this trend,
with other major wheat producing states like Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh showing a similar drop in their
yields. Thus, wheat yields in Uttar Pradesh dropped to
2561 from 3038 MT, while the yield in Rajasthan came
down to 2974 from 3082 MT, and in Gujarat to 2810 from
3252 MT the previous year.
Realising the problems, farmers in many parts of India
have been trying to adapt by opting for cultivating coarse
grains like bajra, jowar and a multitude of millet varieties. It
is interesting to note that while the area under coarse grain
cultivation in the country has actually dropped from 37.67
in 1951-52 to 24.15 MT in 2014-15, the yield has increased
to 1729 MT (compare this to 408 MT in 1951-52). This
has, incidentally been achieved with very little increase
in irrigated area, with irrigation actually dropping in recent
times from 17. 9 to 16.5 per cent from 2011-12 to 2012-13.
Even otherwise, from 1951-52 until now, the increase is just
from 7.9 to 16,5 per cent (roughly double), even as yields
have quadrupled.
The Indian government has been trying to address the
problem through its various schemes. Prominent among
these, the FASAL programme, with its operational support
through the Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre
( MNCFC), has been helping with pre-harvest multiple
production forecasts of major crops at the national/state/
district level. MNCFC is also engaged in carrying out
periodic district/sub-district level drought assessments
for 14 major agricultural states of the country. Inputs from
the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare
(AGRICOOP, 2015), Available at: http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/
Agricultural_Statistics_At_Glance-2015.pdf.
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 11
Eco n om y D E v El o p m En t

By AmitAbh Kundu

IndIas Poverty LIne:

ChangIng PersPeCtIves
Several expert committees have been constituted in the past for proposing a
conceptual framework and empirical procedure for determining the poverty line. Yet,
an acceptable methodology remains elusive for identifying the most vulnerable and
deserving segments of population for effective policy intervention.

A
fter a year and a half of work, the
16- member panel headed by Niti
Aayog Vice-Chairman has failed
to come to any decision on Indias
official poverty line. Instead, it
has recommended setting up yet another group
to do the job (Hindustan Times, September 12,
2016). The last eight years have seen three expert
committees set up to define the poverty line. But
each effort has been mired in controversy.
The magnitude of poverty and its alleviation
carries enormous importance in public policy.
Understandably, almost every government in
India in the past few decades has constituted an
expert committee for setting up the poverty line
so as to facilitate designing programmes and poli-
cies for targeted intervention. Justifiably, there
was disquiet in the present government, which
came to power with the promise of employment
generation, meeting the basic needs of housing

12 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


sanitation, health and education and ushering in
inclusive development, for not making any specific
statement on poverty line, trends and targets. The
setting up of an expert committee to determine
the poverty line, on the recommendation of the
Niti Aayog, was in response to this expectation.
Poverty at the household level is measured
based on information on income, consump-
tion expenditure, socio-economic capabilities,
physical assets, housing conditions and access
to amenities (Planning Commission (2012a) and
Alkire (2011)). Until recently, the expert groups
have generally relied on information made avail-
able by the National Sample Survey Organisation
(NSSO) for this task.
Interestingly, Planning Commission is not the
only agency in India which has computed and
released poverty estimates for use in the policy
domain and mobilisation of public opinion. Insti-
tutions such as the Ministry of Rural Development
(2009), National Commission for Enterprises in
the unorganised sector (NCEUS, 2008) and a host
of individual researchers (Deaton and Dreze 2009)
have attempted determination of the poverty line
and provided estimates on poverty. The estimates
given by them differ widely; this is reflected also
in the uncertainty and lack of definitiveness on
the part of the government. The latter responded
to public resentment on the estimates by setting
up yet another committee. All this has resulted in
a plethora of methodologies and widely varying
estimates. Consequently, it is not very clear which
of these would be used by a government depart-
ment for identification of beneficiaries at the
ground level. Given this background, establishing
an Expert Group to define poverty by the new
government was long overdue.
methods adopted by the planning
commission to estimate poverty
The expert group headed by D T Lakdawala (EGL)
proposed a methodology for determination of the
poverty line basket (PLB) of goods and services
based on certain normative calorie requirement,
using actual information of consumption expend-
iture at the national level (Planning Commission
1993). Poverty lines, defined by the EGL in terms of
per capita total consumer expenditure at 1973-74
market prices, separately for rural and urban
areas, were adjusted over time across states for
Dependency on government
facilities came down from 60
per cent in both rural and urban
areas in 1986-87, to 38 per cent
in urban India and 42 per cent in
rural areas by 2004.
changing prices, by keeping the PLB unchanged.
The consumption basket of the households which
met the minimum calorific requirement (2400
for rural and 2100 for urban areas) was taken as
the PLB. Understandably, the basket included all
non-food items of these benchmark households,
along with their food items. Households having
consumption expenditure less than that were
considered poor. Once accepted by the Planning
Commission, it became the basis for poverty
calculations and programmatic interventions by
different ministries and government departments
for over a decade.
The assumption underlying the methodology
was either the social services such as health and
education would continue to be supplied by the
state or that the amount spent by the benchmark
households in 1973-74 on these items would be
adequate. The withdrawal of the state from provi-
sioning of public services and significant increase
in private expenditure on these over the past
three decades has rendered the PLB completely
irrelevant. Non-inclusion of substantial private
expenditure on health and education in the
poverty line elicited sharp criticism from civil
society. Anchoring poverty to per capita calorie
norm alone was dismissed also because research
showed no relationship between calorie intake
and nutritional or health outcomes.
recommendations of the tendulkar
committee
The expert group headed by S D Tendulkar
(EGT) set up by the Planning Commission (2009)
proposed an alternate framework by avowedly
delinking the poverty line from normative
calorie requirement. It proposed a computational
procedure for poverty measurement, taking the
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 13
changes in the pattern of consumption, price
configurations, differences in state engagement in
provision of basic services over the past decades
and availability of these to different sections of
population into consideration.
The EGT assumed that the consumption basket
in urban areas at national level, associated with the
urban poverty figure of 27.5 in 2004-05 (as deter-
mined earlier by EGL and accepted by Planning
Commission) met the minimal needs (as there
was no major controversy around that), including
education and health-care for the poor. This was
used as the basis for computing poverty line for
rural and urban areas at state level using appro-
priate price indices. It recommended shifting
from uniform recall period for consumption
expenditure for all items to mixed recall period to
avoid recall error, since the periodicity of buying
different items (such as bread and milk on one
hand and shoes and clothing on the other) happen
to be different (Planning Commission 2009).
The use of the urban PLB for rural areas, as
proposed by EGT, resulted in a significant upward
revision of the rural poverty figure from 29 per
cent to 41.8 per cent, although urban poverty in
2004-05 remained pegged at 25.7 per cent. The
latter did not change simply because the method-
ology did not allow it to be changed.
debate and controversy
The concept of poverty, seen as manifestation
of hunger and denial of minimum biological
requirements, has earned it a special space in
human rights discourse. Delinking of poverty
line from the calorie norm resulted in loss of its
universal acceptability and poignant appeal. As a
result, a large number of activists and researchers
spoke of providing the basic necessities within
human rights framework rather than targeting
the poor (Srinivasan 2007). They pleaded for
universal coverage of one and all and argued that
a poverty alleviation scheme should not have an
entry barrier or mandatory exit provisions.
The Tendulkar Committee estimates of poverty
have come under severe attack for erring on the
lower side. It was argued that EGT adopted a
conservative approach, owing to the governments
unwillingness to allocate more funds for poverty
alleviation. Civil society appreciates scholars and
committees that give high poverty figures and
14 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
recognises them as progressive and pro-poor.
Unfortunately, such efforts to place the poverty
line at a higher level helped the middle class to get
bracketed with the poor and corner a large part
of the benefits, allotted in the name of the poor,
through their social and political linkages.
The assertion that urban poverty figure has
not changed over time has also been questioned
based on certain disturbing trends in urban areas.
It is well recognised that elitist planning in most
urban centres, particularly the large cities, has
pushed the poor to the peripheries and segmented
settlements. This has resulted in their increased
distance of daily travel, higher requirement of
calories and larger transport expenditure. The
drudgery of their work also appears to have gone
up relatively due to increased informalisation of
labour force and extendable working hours.
The EGT notes that the actual calorie intake of
those near the poverty line in urban areas is 1776,
much below the calorie norm of 2100 per capita
per day. It, however, did not see this as a problem
since the Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO 2004) has revised the norm to 1770 per
capita per day for Asian countries. This, however,
has been dismissed by researchers and civil society
as unscientific and politically motivated. There is
general agreement that the concern to ensure the
basic calorie requirement to vulnerable sections of
the society cannot be dismissed, at least for some
time to come.
The normative level of expenditure on educa-
tion and health care in rural areas, built into the
poverty line is noted to be less than the actual
private expenditure by 14 per cent. The figure
for urban areas was even higher22 per cent.
Clearly, the poverty line normative expenditure
on these, grossly underestimates the actual needs
of the people.
More importantly, self-reported morbidity
level, which has been considered for computing
normative medical expenditure, would be much
below the ailment based on medical examination.
The 60th Round of NSSO, shows that there has
been an increase in the percentage of ailing persons
by 4.5 percentage points in urban areas, against
3.3 point increase in rural areas over a period of
seven years. This is understandably because of
an increase in the awareness of people on health
issues. It would be logical to assume that the real

rate of ailment is even higher than that reported in
the 60th round and is likely to go up with greater
knowledge and modernity. The NSSO data further
suggest that the level of morbidity rises systemati-
cally with rise in consumption expenditure. The
incidence of ailments is the lowest among the STs
followed by SCs. It is the highest among the upper
caste population who report high consumption
expenditure, in both rural and urban areas. It is
thus evident that reported health care expenditure
of the benchmark households, which constitutes
the basis for validation of the normative expendi-
ture for poverty line, grossly underestimates the
actual requirement of the people.
Incidentally, only 11 per cent of the house-
holds in the highest income groups depended
on government facilities, the figure being 26 per
cent for the poorest class. Similarly, as against the
national average of 19 per cent urban households
going to government facilities, 30 per cent do
that among the scheduled tribes and 24 per cent
among the scheduled castes. The percentage of
households going to private facilities in urban
areas for treatment has gone up from 76 per cent
to 81 per cent from 1986-87 to 2004, while the
dependence on private facilities in rural areas has
remained unchanged. Furthermore, the depend-
ence on government facilities for hospitalisation
has come down from 60 per cent in both rural and
urban areas in 1986-87, to 38 per cent in urban
India and 42 per cent in rural areas by 2004. Given
these disturbing trends, one would argue that the
poverty line of the EGT would not make sense
unless there is a change in the perspective of the
government to extend medical facilities to poor
and vulnerable sections of population and reverse
the trend of their shifting from government to
private facilities.
perspective of expert group headed
by rangarajan
Owing to the academic criticisms and massive
social mobilisation against the poverty estimates of
EGT, another expert group, chaired by C. Ranga-
rajan (EGR), was appointed. The latter proposed
a significant departure from the EGT and, in a
certain sense, reverted back to the EGL perspective.
EGR recommended using separate poverty
line baskets for rural and urban areas, as opposed
to keeping the urban poverty line basket central
EGR included non-food
expenses like clothing, house
rent, conveyance and education
into poverty calculations.
However, it left a host of issues
and controversies concerning
nutrient intake unanswered.
to poverty calculations, as proposed by EGT.
Furthermore, EGR decided that the poverty line
should be anchored to certain levels of adequate
nourishment. It computed the average require-
ments of calories, proteins and fats based on the
norms of Indian Council of Medical Research,
differentiated by age, gender and activity levels
of people in rural and urban areas. A food basket
which meets the normative requirements of the
three nutrients constitutes a part of the PLB.
Interestingly, EGR decided to include certain
non-food expenses including clothing, house rent,
conveyance and education into poverty calcula-
tions. The new poverty line works out to monthly
per capita consumption expenditure of INR 972 in
rural areas and INR 1, 407 in urban areas in 2011-
12, much higher than what would be obtained as
per the EGT in this year. The poverty lines esti-
mated by the EGR, thus, work out as 19 per cent
and 41 per cent higher in rural and urban areas
compared to that of EGT. It estimated that 30.9 per
cent of the rural population and 26.4 per cent of
the urban population lived below the poverty line
in 2011-12. The all-India ratio was 29.5 per cent.
The poverty ratio was, however, noted to have
declined from 39.6 per cent in 2009-10 in rural
India and from 35.1 per cent in urban India.
EGR considered poverty to be a multi-
dimensional phenomenon but decided against
using multiple indicators for measuring poverty.
Given the inherent subjectivity involved in selec-
tion of indicators and their aggregation by giving
weight ages, it stayed with per capita consump-
tion expenditure for articulating deprivation. It,
nonetheless, proposed an alternate approach to
estimate poverty, based on the ability of house-
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 15
the EGS and EGH approaches
hinged on a three-stage
procedure for automatic
inclusion, automatic exclusion,
and scoring of the remainder
households on the basis of their
deprivations.
holds to save.
EGR, unfortunately, left a host of issues and
controversies concerning the norms of intake
for different nutrients, substitution of one for the
other and norms for non food items. unanswered.
Given the openness of the methodology, it elicited
no controversy. Nonetheless, it failed to provide a
clear road map to measure poverty.
Ground level identification of poor in
rural and urban areas
Given the difficulties of applying the method-
ologies proposed by different expert groups, as
discussed above at the field level, the government
appointed two expert groups chaired by N C
Saxena (EGS) and S R Hashim (EGH). The former
was for proposing criteria for identifying the poor
in rural areas and the latter for urban areas. The
database for their operationalisation was to be
built through the Socio Economic Caste Census
(SECC) 2011.
Taking a cue from the BPL Census method-
ology adopted in 1997, EGS proposed a three stage
procedure for (a) automatic exclusion, (b) auto-
matic inclusion and (c) scoring of the remaining
households. A household is to be excluded from
the list of the poor or deprived, if it owned: (i) a
three or four wheeled vehicle, (ii) mechanised
farm equipment, such as tractor, power tiller,
thresher or harvester and (iii) land above twice
the district average, if irrigated and three times,
if unirrigated. Furthermore, households that
had a member as (a) a government employee, (b)
earning more than INR 10,000 per month or (c)
paying income tax, are not to be considered for
inclusion in the poverty list. Correspondingly,
16 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
households with any of the following deprivations
would automatically be included in the list, such
as being : (a) primitive tribal, (b) Maha Dalit (c)
dependent on alms, (d) legally released bonded
labourers, (e) not having a shelter and (f) headed
by a child or disabled.
The remaining households are to be ranked
based on a composite deprivation score, obtained
on the basis of a set of indicators and their weight-
ages, as noted below:
SC/ST household (3 points), denotified and
most backward castes (2 points), Muslims/
OBC (1 point);
Landless agricultural households (4 points),
labourers with some land (3 points), casual
workers, artisans and fishermen (2 points);
No adult member between the ages of 16 and 59
(1 point);
A member with disability, TB, leprosy, mental
illness, AIDS (1 point);
All members above 30 years of age being illit-
erate or neo literate viz education up to class 5
(1 point).
The priorities among the households securing
identical scores in 0 to 10 scale, as presented
above, are to be determined in the following
sequence (1) SC/ST landless labourers, (2) Other
landless labourers, (3) SC/ST labourers with
some land and (4) Other agricultural labourers
with some land. The Gram Sabhas judgment is
to be given due weightage in deciding about their
inclusion.
The expert group headed by Hashim (EGH)
recommended an identical three-stage method-
ology for identification (Planning Commission
2012b). Automatic exclusion of households from
BPL list is to be based on the following criteria:
(a) possession of a house with four or more
dwelling rooms, (b) possession of any of the
following: motorised vehicle, air conditioner,
computer or laptop with internet, (c) possession
of any three of the following assets: refrigerator,
land-line telephone, washing machine and
two wheeler motorised vehicle. The remaining
households are to be screened for automatic
inclusion as per three types of vulnerabilities:
residential vulnerability: homeless or residing
in a house made of plastic/polythene or in one
room unit with walls and roof of grass, thatch,
bamboo, mud, unburnt brick or wood;
Occupational vulnerability: no household
income, having a member engaged in a vulnerable
occupation like begging/rag picking, domestic
work, sweeping or gardening and all earning
members engaged on daily basis; and,
Social vulnerability: child-headed household, no
able-bodied person in the 18-60 age group and all
earning members either disabled, chronically ill
or aged more than 65 years.
The residual households are to be assigned
scores in stage 3. They are to be considered for
inclusion as per their deprivation score. The
households with score zero are not eligible to be
in the BPL List.
The release of the SECC data in early July 2015
has, unfortunately, led to sharp reactions in
political as well as academic circles. The first line
of criticism is that bringing caste data into the
public domain was purposely delayed, as was the
Census data on religion. Although a part of the
socio-economic data has been brought into public
domain, the caste specific information has not
yet been released on grounds of inaccuracy and
inconsistency. Secondly, it has been pointed out
that, owing to public knowledge that this Census
was being conducted to identify the poor for anti-
poverty programmes, households, have purposely
reported higher levels of deprivation.
endnote
Repeated attempts at developing a methodology
to study poverty has led to the realisation that
univariate analysis or determination of poverty
based on one indicator or one poverty line would
meet with resentment and resistance from profes-
sionals, researchers and social activists who hold
that poverty has multifarious manifestations.
Given the lack of robustness in the data on
consumption and changing role of the state in
providing basic amenities, inclusion of social and
physical indicators relating to caste, quality of
housing, physical disability and the like for inclu-
sion and exclusion of households at micro level is
gaining currency. Devising a simple methodology
of scoring based on a limited number of indica-
tors, with low measurement error,therefore, is the
need of the hour.
references
Alkire, S. 2011. Country Briefing: India,
Multidimensional Poverty Index at a Glance,
Oxford Poverty and Human Development
Initiative, Oxford.
Deaton A. and J. Drze. 2009. Food and Nutrition
in India: Facts and Interpretations, Economic
and Political Weekly, 14 February.
Food and Agriculture Organisation, Statistics
Division. 2004. Minimum Dietary Energy
Requirement (kcal/person/day), Jointly
released by FAO, WHO and UNU, Rome.
Ministry of Rural Development. 2009. Report of
the Expert Group to Advise the Ministry of
Rural Development on the Methodology for
BPL Census for 11th Five Year Plan, Ministry
of Rural Development (Saxena Committee),
Government of India, New Delhi.
National Commission for Enterprises in
the Unorganised Sector. 2008. Report
on Conditions of Work and Promotion of
Livelihoods in the Unorganised Sector (Arjun
Sengupta Committee), Government of India,
New Delhi.
National Sample Survey Organisation. 2006.
Morbidity, Health Care and the Conditions of
the Aged, Government of India, New Delhi.
Planning Commission. 1993. Report of the
Expert Group on Estimation of Proportion
and Number of Poor (Lakdawala Committee),
Government of India, New Delhi.
Planning Commission. 2009. Report of the
Expert Group to Review the Methodology for
Estimation of Poverty (Tendulkar Committee),
Government of India, November.
Planning Commission. 2012a. Press Note on
Poverty Estimates 2009-10, Government of
India, New Delhi.
Planning Commission. 2012b. Report of the
Expert Group to Recommend the Detailed
Methodology for Identification of Families
Living Below Poverty Line in the Urban Areas
(Hashim Committee), Government of India,
New Delhi.
Saxena N. C. 2009. The Moving Bar of Poverty
Statistics, Business World, September 25.
Srinivasan T. N. 2007. Poverty Lines in India:
Reflections after the Patna Conference,
Economic and Political Weekly, vol 42, no 41.
Author is Professor, Institute for Human Development,
New Delhi. akundu.jnu@gmail.com
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 17
Eco n om y I n du s t ry
By SamikSha agarwal and lekha Chakraborty
Challenges
of Mining in india
India has the onerous distinction of having the highest taxation
and royalty rates for the mining sector. This mars the overall
competitive edge of mining firms.
T
he recent global macroeconomic
uncertainties including plummeting
commodity price cycles, currency
devaluation in Brazil, the cost reduc-
tion strategies of the firm, the falling
economic growth in China, the lowering capital
expenditure (CAPEX) investment on infrastruc-
ture projects have had tremendous impact on the
firm level competitiveness and the underlying
earnings before interest, depreciation, taxes and
amortization (EBIDTA) of mining firms. The
turmoil in the European Union and the Quanti-
tative Easing in USA can also affect the mining
firms in terms of financing and trade.
Despite the increasing recognition by
economists, mining executives and macro policy
makers on the impact of macroeconomic policies
on the competitiveness of mining sector, there is
hardly any systematic analysis on this issue. This
paper attempts to bridge this gap by exploring the
impact of macroeconomic policiesespecially
fiscal policy on the mining sector. The question
relevant to ask here is, whether efforts to increase
18 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
the fiscal space through additional taxes and
levies and tying up fresh auctions with royalty
is burdening the mining sector, which is already
overburdened by tax terrorism, given India
has the highest rates of mining tax in the world.
Would it augment the state exchequer in the long
run if firms are adversely affected in terms of
competitiveness and productivity?
Foreign firms, one finds, have undertaken
many strategies in the backdrop of international
macroeconomic uncertainties. While a few
firms engage in market arbitrage and quit from
non-core businesses to finance the debt burden
and enhance the underlying EBITDA, the others
benefit from short term currency devaluation in
terms of cost effectiveness. However, these are all
market-determined short term solutions.
role of fiscal policy stance
The Indian government has a major role to play
in enhancing the competitiveness of the mining
sector. Debate has been confined to the quality of
mineral endowments and the firm level perform-

ance variables (including the capital structure and
cost of production) in determining the competi-
tiveness of mining firms. However, in recent
years, there is a growing recognition of the role of
public policy-taxation regime, royalty regime and
regulations.
public policy on mining in India
The 2015 Mines and Minerals Development and
Regulation (MMDR) Ordinance suggested provi-
sions for generating a District Mineral Foundation
(DMF) (Section 9B) to address persons or area
affected by mining operations (GOI, Annual
Report, 2014-15). The Ordinance suggested that
DMF would be funded by miners operating in
mining districts through a levy in addition to
the royalties paid by miners. The Ordinance also
suggested a National Mineral Exploration Trust
(NMET) for mineral exploration, under which
the holder of the mining lease or a prospecting
license-cum-mining lease has to pay the trust
a sum equivalent to 2 per cent of the royalty. If
auctioning is the mode of resource allocation
of mining concessions, and in case, based on a
bidding methodology related to royalty, this can
further aggravate the mining taxation burden of
firms and hence its competitiveness, and in turn,
revenue augmentation. Thus, if rates of mining tax
in India are already on the higher side, additional
levies could further burden the mining sector.
Onerous mining taxation regime
Mining taxation can be defined as the payment due
to the sovereign owner (government) in exchange
for the right to extract mineral. As royalties on
minerals are related to natural resources, the fiscal
instruments on mining are controversial and
manifested itself in multivariate forms, sometimes
based on profitability, though often based on ad
valorem (value based) or the quantity of mineral
extracted. The royalty regime in India is gradually
shifting towards ad valorem from a unit based
system. However, the royalty rates are still high.
For instance, royalty rates reached 15 per cent ad
valorem for the ferrous regime. Analysing the
international mining taxation and royalty regime,
mining taxes and royalty rates in India were found
to be among the highest in the world (GOI, Indian
Minerals Yearbook, 2013).
Unit based royalty or gross royalty is when the
royalty is determined with reference to the volume
the mining royalty revenue is
a significant source of revenue
for Jharkhand, odisha and
chhattisgarh, constituting
around 10 per cent of their
revenue receipts.
of production, or is determined with reference to
gross revenues. On the other hand, ad valorem
royalty is calculated by applying a percentage rate
to the gross sale value. This is usually ex-mine
or pithead value (sale realisation) less allowable
expenditure. Net smelter return (NSR) royalty is
one of the most recurrent systems of ad valorem
royalty. Here the royalty is expressed as a percentage
of the enterprises NSR, which is generally defined
to be gross revenues, minus shipping, smelting,
refining, and marketing costs. Profit-based royalty
is where the royalty is calculated as a percentage of
gross/net profit.
Mining royalty regime varies widely between
countries and minerals. Minerals include coal,
metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.
Globally, specific royalties tend to apply to low value
high volume non-metallic minerals. In the context
of developed countries like Australia, Canada, and
USA, mining royalty is mainly profit based or ad
valorem, however, the most consistent application
of profit-based royalties are in Canada. In the
Fig. 1: Steel consumption pattern in India
Sector-wise steel consumption financial year 2014 (in per cent)
15
Others
8
Capital Goods 35
Construction
10
Pipes and
Tubes
12
20
Automobiles
Infrastructure
Source: IBEF, 2016
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 19
context of countries in Africa, Latin America, and
Asia Pacific, mining royalty is not profit-based.
On the contrary, the royalty regime is mainly ad
valorem in Africa and Latin America, while some
combination of unit-based and ad valorem royal-
ties can be seen in the Asia-Pacific countries. None
of the countries in Asia- Pacific, Africa and Latin
America has adopted a profit-based royalty to date
(Pricewaterhouse Coopers, 2012; 2014)).
It is also interesting to note that there is a correla-
tion between the royalty rate and the system of
royalty. Gross royalty rates (unit-based royalty
rates) tend to be in the 2-5 per cent range, while ad
valorem royalty rates tend to be somewhat higher,
with profit-based royalty rates higher still.
The logical reason for it may bein the case of
profit-based royalty, the government is less certain
of collecting a royalty, because the royalty base
(profit) is less predictable. The government will seek
a higher royalty rate to compensate for this risk. On
the other extreme, in the case of a gross royalty,
the government is at a lesser risk, because the costs
of mining, milling, smelting, and refining do not
affect the royalty base (revenues or production).
Therefore, the government will seek a reduced
royalty rate. Ad valorem, particularly NSR royalties
fall between gross royalties and profit-based royal-
ties on the risk and rate scale.
Mining royalty revenue is a significant source
of revenue for the Governments of Jharkhand,
Odisha and Chhattisgarh. It constitutes around 10
per cent of their revenue receipts. Indian ferrous
firms spend a huge chunk on royalty payment and
mining taxes. The ratio of mining taxes for National
Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC) is as
high as 70 per cent of its total net expenses.
Sectoral highlights
Figure 2 shows that exports have been sluggish
through the years whereas imports are on an

Fig. 2: Imports and exports of steel in India Fig. 3: Steel demand outlook in India

CAGR: 5.74 per cent

10
74.1 76.99
9 80 73.5
71
8 66.4
7 59.3
60 52.1 52.4
6
In million tonnes

5
4 40
3
2 20
1
0 0
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Imports Exports Data pertains to financial year
Source: Ministry of Steel (Various years) Source: IBEF, 2016

Fig 4: Trends in production of iron ore Fig 5: Exports and import trends of iron ore

Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore) Exports - Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore)
120000
Imports - Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore)
300000
Exports and Import trends of Iron Ore

100000

200000
80000

100000 60000

0 40000
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14(p)
Year 20000

0
Source Fig 4, 5, 6 and 7: Indian Bureau of Mines,
(p)provisional (various years) 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Year

20 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu

upward swing in the steel sector. The government
hence, needs to create a level-playing field against
unfair foreign competition. Over the years, India
has become a net importer of steel as the domestic
steel industry has lost its export competitive-
ness in recent times. Distorted global prices
and public policies have also adversely affected
competitiveness of the steel industry. In the long
run, it can impact the profitability, employment
and prospects of new investments too. Yet, the
potential demand for steel (Fig. 3) is on the rise.
The consumption pattern reveals that only 8 per
cent of steel is consumed by capital goods, while
20 per cent is absorbed by the infrastructure sector
(Fig. 1).
India ranks 4th in iron ore production. In the
recent past, high export duties imposed on iron ore
has resulted in plummeting exports. However, in
the Union Budget (2016) the government removed
export duty on low grade iron fines and lumps to
Fig 6: Trends in production of bauxite
25000
20000
Production of Bauxite
15000
10000
5000
0 coal increased to 168.388 MT in 2014-15 from
2009-10
Fig 7: Exports and import trends of bauxite
4500
4000
Exports and Import trends of Bauxite
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 distorted global prices and public
2009-10
make the domestic industry more competitive as
compared to the global market. Export duty on
iron ore fines with iron content below 58 per cent
was reduced from 10 per cent to nil. Export duty
on iron ore lumps with iron content less than 58
per cent was also brought down from 30 per cent
to nil. The production of iron ore from 2009-10 to
2013-14 is shown in the (Fig. 4).
Exports of iron ore have plummeted over the
years (Fig. 5). One major reason is the high export
duty imposed on iron ore. Exports stood at 16302
thousand tonnes in 2013-14 which was the lowest
in the past five years. Imports of iron ore are given
in Fig. 5.
Production of bauxite, meanwhile, has gone up
in recent years. It increased from 16612 thousand
tonnes in 2012-13 to 21666 thousand tonnes in
2013-14 (Fig. 6). Exports too sky-rocketed, with
the quantity of bauxite exported increasing
from 401 in 2011-12 to 3493 thousand tonnes in
2013-14 (Fig. 7).However, of late, exports have
been dwindling owing to high export duties on
bauxite. Though the export duty stands at 15 per
cent, exports remain uncompetitive.
Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore)
The total production of raw coal increased by
8.25 per cent in 2014-15. It rose from 565.765 MT
in 2013- 14 to 612.435 MT in 2014-15. Lignite
production grew by 9.00 percent from 44.271 MT
in 2013-14 to 48.257 MT in 2014-15 (Fig. 8 (a, b)).
Imports of Coking coal were to the tune of
43.715 MT in 2014-15, an 18.56 per cent over
36.872 MT in 2013-14. Imports of Non-coking
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14(p)
Year 129.985 MT in 2013-14, an increase of 29.54 per
cent. (Table 1) The imports were mainly from
Indonesia (118.22 MT) followed by Australia
(47.46 MT) and South Africa (30.73 MT).
India could not meet its own demand for coal
Exports - Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore)
Imports - Quantity (Th. tonnes) Value (Rs. Crore)
While production of bauxite has risen
considerably of late, high export duties
make exports un-competitive. In the
case of iron ore, the trend is even
starker. In the case of steel, despite
domestic demand being on the rise,
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Year policies have adversely affected
competitiveness.
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 21
Table 1: Year wise import of coal & coke to India during last ten years (quantity in million tone
and value in million rupees)

Coking coal Non-coking coal Total Coke and others coal Lignite
Year products

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

2005-06 16.891 95373 21.695 53722 38.586 149095 2.619 22186 - -

2006-07 17.877 101806 25.204 65080 43.081 166886 4.686 40211 - -

2007-08 22.029 121025 27.765 86358 49.794 207384 4.248 51231 - -

2008-09 21.080 226140 37.923 187268 59.003 413408 1.881 46051 - -

2009-10 24.690 201311 48.565 190489 73.255 391800 2.355 33311 - -

2010-11 19.484 208621 49.434 206875 68.918 415496 1.490 31204 - -

2011-12 31.801 424692 71.052 363683 102.853 788376 2.365 47585 - -

2012-13 35.557 378398 110.228 490057 145.785 868455 3.081 56919 0.0006 10

2013-14 36.872 348319 129.985 574973 166.857 923292 4.171 67995 0.0013 24

2014-15 43.715 337656 168.388 707586 212.103 1045241 3.294 43806 0.0006 17
India continues to import coal since it has limited quantities of low-ash coal. Although domestic production of raw coal
increased over the last ten years, demands has to be met by imports as the industry needs high quality low-ash coal
such as anthracite, which India does not produce at all.
Source: Ministry of Coal, 2015

in spite of sufficient domestic production, mainly policy pointers

because the supply of high quality coal (low-ash rationalise the mining tax rates: There is
coal) in the country is very limited, as compared a shift in royalty rates towards lower rates
to low quality coal. in ad-valorem across the globe and Western
Even otherwise, Indias coal exports have fallen Australia. There is an urgent need to lower or
from 2.188 MT in 2013-14 to 1.238 MT during stabilise the current rates to international best
2014-15. Coal was mainly exported to Bangladesh practices to protect international competitive-
(0.54 MT) and Nepal (0.48 MT). ness of the firms.

Fig. 8a: Trends in raw coal production Fig. 8b: Trends in Lignite production

800 14.0

700 12.0
900 9.0 60 10.0
Source Fig. 8 (a, b and c): Ministry of Coal, 2015
Production of Lignite

800 8.0 50 8.0

700 7.0 40 4.0

Growth (Per cent)
Production of Raw coal

Growth (Per cent)

600 6.0 30 6.0

500 5.0 20 4.0

400 4.0 10 2.0

300 3.0 0 0.0

200 2.0 -2.0

100 1.0 -4.0

0 0 -6.0
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13
2013-14
2014-15
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13
2013-14
2014-15

22 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu

 no upward revision of mining taxation and endnote
royalty rates: As the royalty regime is market- To overcome the challenges faced by the mining
linked, any upward revision of the royalty rates industry, India needs to encourage research
should be made keeping in mind the competi- and development, invest in skills, avoid upward
tive edge of firms. revision of taxes, strengthen infrastructure, and
Streamline bcd: In the Union Budget 2015-16, streamline basic custom duties.
there was an increase in the basic custom duties
(BCDs) on metallurgical coke from 2.5 per cent References
to 5 per cent. This can affect the sector. Government of India. 2013. Indian Minerals
Strengthen infrastructure: New policies will Yearbook 2013, State Reviews, Ministry of
be required to strengthen the infrastructure Mines, Indian Bureau of Mines.
with required technical and financial assistance. Government of India. 2015. Annual Report 2014-
The land acquisition process also needs to be 15, Ministry of Steel, Government of India.
dealt with. One way is to make better use of land Government of India. 2015. Strategic Plan for next
under public ownership. The land held by steel five years, 2011-16, Ministry of Steel.
companies is currently underutilised. Fuller Government of India. 2015. Standard Tender
utilisation of the land for maximum output is Document, Ministry of Coal, Govt. of India.
the need of the hour. Government of India. 2015. The Coal Mines
Inadequate skilled labour: According to esti- (Special Provisions) Act, 2015, Ministry of Law
mates by the Steel Sector Skill Council (which and Justice (Legislative Department).
year and name of document), the steel sector will Government of India. 2015. The Mines and
need an additional 2.4million skilled workers by Minerals (Development and Regulation)
2030 to meet its growing needs. Amendment Act, 2015, Ministry Of Law and
access to raw materials: India has manganese Justice (Legislative Department).
and chromite reserves and other raw materials Government of India. 2015. Mines and Minerals
for steel making. However, with increasing (Development and Regulation) Amendment
exports, there is a need to encourage production Bill, 2015, Controller General, Indian Bureau
through investment in low-grade ores. of Mines, Nagpur.
collaborative r&d: Adequate budget for India Brand Equity Foundation, 2016.Steel
conducting research in the mining sector. Report, January 2016, IBEF.
Pricewaterhouse Coopers. 2012. Corporate
Income Taxes, Mining Royalties and Other
Fig. 8c: Trends in Solid fossil fuel production
Mining Taxes: A Summary of Rates and Rules
in Selected Countries, Global Mining Industry
Update,June 2012.
Pricewaterhouse Coopers. 2014. Mine 2014
900 9.0
Realigning Expectations, Review of Global
800 8.0
Trends in Mining Industry, 2014.
Monthly Statistics of Mineral Production, Indian
700 7.0
Production of Solid fossil fuel

Bureau of Mines, Mining & Mineral Statistics

Growth (Per cent)

600 6.0
Division, Nagpur.
500 5.0
Provisional Coal Statistics. 2014-15, Government
400 4.0
of India, Ministry of Coal.
300 3.0
Statistical Profiles of Minerals. 2013-14, Indian
200 2.0 Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines,
100 1.0 Government of India.
0 0

The authors are Research Scholar and Associate Professor,

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2013-14

2014-15

National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New

Delhi, respectively. lekhachakraborty@gmail.com

GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 23

 I n BrIEf

exporting indias ores

and Minerals
A summary that reveals the marginal 9.4 per cent share of the minerals
and ores in the total export merchandise; the drop in recent export values;
and, the countries that import from us.

D
uring the year 2014-15, the value
of exports of ores and minerals at
INR 1,78,077 crore accounted for
9.4 per cent of the total value of all
merchandise exported from India. The
export value showed a decreasing
trend in 2014-15 after two successive increases seen
in 2012-13 and 2013-14 at INR 1,60,101 crore and INR
1,94,784 crore, respectively. The value of mineral exports
was down of 8.58 per cent in 2014-15 as compared to that
in the previous year.
Diamond continued to be the largest constituent item
with a share of 83.17 per cent in the total value of mineral
exports in 2014-15. Next in order was granite with a share
increased manifold and that of abrasive (natural) and
bauxite by more than doubled in comparison to value of
exports last year.
The value of exports of other minerals which showed
significant growth are earth clay, diatomite, gypsum,
limestone, borax, quartz and quartzite, alumina, feldspar
(natural), ochre, dolomite, building and monumental
stones, ball clay and feldspar.
The ores and minerals were exported to 205 countries
in 2014-15 as against 195 countries in 2013-14. Ninety per
cent of the total value of exports of ores and minerals was
confined to only nine countries. Out of these, exports to
only four countries accounted for 75 per cent of the total
value of exports during the year. During 2014-15 Hong

Table 1: Value of exports of ores & minerals (including re-exports), 2012-13 to 2014-15 (top ten countries)
Country 2012-13 2012-13 2013-14
Value (INR000) Per cent share in Value (INR000) Per cent share Value (INR000) Per cent share in
total value in total value total value
Hong Kong 461100681 28.8 578699949 29.71 578323112 32.48
USA 300628770 18.78 395931155 20.33 421953291 23.7
UAE 261685867 16.35 292953569 15.04 174860736 9.82
Belgium 126477802 7.9 162821785 8.36 164659511 9.25
China 134662811 8.41 142767017 7.33 90369445 5.07
Israel 63295619 3.95 80114321 4.11 72853788 4.09
Thailand 34754785 2.17 46287302 2.38 41698901 2.34
Japan 34050994 2.13 40770747 2.09 32703860 1.84
UK 18196664 1.14 16526322 0.85 19545834 1.1

of 5.52 per cent followed by alumina 1.85 and iron ore at
1.8 percent. The individual share of remaining minerals in
the total value of exports of ores and minerals from India
during the year under review was less than one per cent.
The growth in value of exports of the minerals in
2014-15 showed a mixed trend as compared to that
in the previous year. The value of exports of lead ores
and concentrate and natural gas during 2014-15 have
Kong occupies the top position in terms of value of exports
accounting for 32.48 per cent of the total mineral exports.
The USA, which contributed 23.7 per cent occupied the
second place followed by UAE , Belgium, China, Israel,
Thailand, Japan and the UK. The individual share of
remaining countrieswas less than 1 percent. Inputs from
Indian Minerals Yearbook, 2015, Ministry of Mines, Available at
http://ibm.nic.in/index.php?c=pages&m=index&id=549.

24 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu

Term Power
Renewable Energy
Energy is fundamental to the quality of our lives. Nowadays, we are totally dependent
on an abundant and uninterrupted supply of energy for living and working. It is a key
ingredient in all sectors of modern economies. Below are some terms that could challenge
your knowledge about energy.
1. Biomass
a. Organic material used to generate energy.
b. Agricultural waste that provides fuel.
c. Maximum possible area occupied by biological
organisms.
2. Geothermal Energy
a. Thermal Energy derived from geological deposits.
b. Energy derived from heat deep within the earth.
c. Thermal power derived in keeping with the advantage
of geographical location of a place.
3. Insolation
a. Solar radiation absorbed by living beings.
b. Solar energy radiated by the oceans and seas.
c. Solar radiation that reaches the earths surface.
4. Greenhouse Gases
a. Gases that are found in a greenhouse.
b. Gases that are released through burning of
fossil fuels.
c. Gases that destroy green particulate matter.
5. Kilowatt
a. A measure for one thousand watts of electrical
power.
b. A measure to determine the brilliance of a thousand
lights.
c. One kilogram of lights measured in terms of wattage.
6. Alternating Current
a. A current that alternates between high and low
Answers on PAge 37
voltage.
b. A current that reverses direction at regular
intervals periodically.
c. A current that alternately comes on and off.
7. Photovoltaic
a. Generation of electricity using light photons.
b. Generation of electricity using water via an
electronic process.
c. Generation of electricity directly using sunlight and
semiconducting material.
8. Ammeter
a. An instrument to measure current in a circuit.
b. An instrument to measure voltage .
c. An instrument to regulate intensity of current.
9. Transformer
a. A static machine used for transforming power
from one circuit to another without changing
frequency.
b. A static machine that transforms electrical to
mechanical energy.
c. A static machine that transforms and regulates power
in residential areas.
10. Electromagnetic Field
a. The radiant energy field produced by electrical and
magnetic forces.
b. The electrical field generated by magnets.
c. A physical field produced by electrically charged
objects.
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 25
Eco n om y I n du s t ry

By Sheetal Sharma

BREXIT: WhaT NEXT?

Xenophobia and hatred have been the prime drivers of Britains exit
from the European Union (EU). But there are latent dimensions to
the vote, which are as yet unassesed.

T
he people of Great Britain took a
historic decision on June 23, 2016.
Britain decided to leave the 28-member
European Union after being a part of it
for more than 40 years.
The referendum came in keeping with David
Camerons 2015 election promise on the Brexit
issue. The result not just shook Britain, but the
entire world community. Of course, the difference
between in favour and against was only marginal,
with 52 per cent voting in favour of leave as
against 48 per cent voting to remain(BBC, EU
Referendum Results, June 24, 2016).
Led by David Cameron, the remain camp
included several members of the Conservatives, the
opposition Labour, the Liberal Democrats, and the
pro-European Union Scottish National Party. The
remain camp was supported by German Chan-
cellor Angela Merkel, President Xi Jingping, US
President Barack Obama, and many other leaders,
including the Indian PM Narendra Modi.
The remain camp had felt that being a part of
the EU was much more in the interest of United
Kingdom (UK), than remaining apart from it.
On the contrary, the leave camp had the support
of Camerons Justice Minister Michael Gove,
former London Mayor Boris Johnson, half of all
the Conservative MPs in the British parliament,
Michael Farage of the UK Independence Party.
Leader of the right-wing French National Front
Marine Le Pen, anti-EU parties in Europe, and
the presumptive US presidential nominee Donald
Trump. Unlike any other, the issue of Brexit cut
across class and lines, age groups, generations,
ideologies, communities and even individuals
within families.
The Cameron cabinet itself was divided. London
Mayor, Sadiq Khan had admitted that even though
he may not agree with Cameron , he was with him
on the issue of Brexit. As regards David Cameron,
he had clearly stated that despite its faults and
frustrations, the United Kingdom was stronger,
safer and better off remaining a member of the
European Union. However Cameron offered to
step down after the leave supporters won the refer-
endum, notwithstanding the tiny 4 per cent margin
and announced that the process of leaving the EU
would be headed by someone else in the Conserva-
tive Party (Government of UK, May 9, 2016).
The leave campaigners had argued that EU has
changed enormously over the last four decades.
With a mammoth, slow-paced bureaucracy, the
process of decision-making is too complex. The
campaigners felt that Britain was being held back
by being a member of the EU with too many rules,
standards and procedures regarding business, as
also billions of pounds as annual membership fees.
In return, they felt, UK was getting nothing (BBC,

26 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


September 1, 2016). The leave camp especially
wanted Britain to have full control of its borders,
check immigration and cut down on the number of
people coming to the UK to live or work. Freedom
of movement has been one of the key ideas of the
EU. However in the last couple of years, with the
increasing pressure of refugees from war-torn
regions of Asia and Africa on Europe, there are
fears of unbearable stress on public services and
consumption of state services. There are also issues
of cultural differences and incompatibility that have
fuelled xenophobia, right-wing ideas ultimately
strengthening the argument in favour of Brexit.
By choosing to leave the EU, Britain has chosen
an uncertain path for itself. The decision has
already sent the pound tumbling down to its lowest
level in the last thirty years, owing to nervousness
in markets the world over. With financial markets
and economic institutions under stress, the stability
of the social fabric and political institutions are in
doubt.
Besides, the referendum is bound to encourage
right-wing political parties and groups all across
Europe and particularly in France, Italy, Austria,
Hungary, and the Netherlands. There are already
voices demanding similar referenda in other coun-
tries sceptical of the EU.
The EU has been facing problems owing to the
economic recession in the last few years. Moreover,
matters aggravated following the refugee crisis
since last summer. The member states of the union
had major disagreements over acceptance and
allocation of refugees from war-torn regions in
the Middle East. Divisions between eastern and
western European countries further widened over
these issues.
The fear of refugees from alien backgrounds
swamping Britain was cashed upon by the leave
campaigners. Xenophobia and hatred were under-
stood to rule the campaign, obfuscating logic and
fact.
However, one of the significant lessons to learn
from this referendum is that one cannot denounce
populist issues and right-wing parties by calling
them fascist or racist. The victory of right-wingers
cannot simply be termed a consequence of xeno-
phobia and hatred. There is a need for deeper
analysis to identify the causes of the failure of the
left or centre. According to Dick Pels, a renowned
sociologist, we cannot remain blind to populisms
there was a marginal
difference in the percentage
of voting for Brexit as 52 per
cent voted to leave, while
48 per cent for remain.
seductive social dimension: its defence of the
traditional welfare state (though for natives only).
This welfare chauvinism of our own people/jobs/
benefits first is disconcertingly close to the social
nationalism which is advocated by the radical left.
Pels further adds, we need to acknowledge more
systematically that a new political-cultural divide
has opened up at right angles from the traditional
socio-economic left-right opposition. This cultural
dimension has always been historically active in the
form of religious divisions, and was often success-
fully activated in order to deflect from and dampen
class conflict. In a secular age, it focuses on ethnic,
national and gender identities and hence on the
virulent issues of immigration, integration and
European political unification (Pels, Dick, 2016).
Two weeks after the decision, Theresa May took
over as PM to lead the exit process. May is expected
to negotiate with the EU and lay down the map for
the UKs relationship with the EU in the future
(Telegraph, July 14, 2016 ). She has to decide when
it would be appropriate for the British to trigger
Article 50, the official legal mechanism for leaving
the EU, which is as yet an untested procedure. For
exiting the EU, one of the options available to the
UK is to opt for the Norwegian Model and thus
have continued access to the EU common market
and carry on with economic ties. But this will not
allow Britain participate in the decision-making
process. Alternatively, it can emulate Switzerland ,
which although not a member of the EU, has close
ties with the EU through a range of agreements.
Switzerland is part of the Schengen zone, which
allows document-free travel from one European
country to another using a Schengen visa. But
whatever the UK proposes, it must get the support
from the remaining 27 other EU member-states
(BBC, September 1, 2016).
Apart from these, another major challenge
is to maintain the unity of the UK itself. (The
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 27
Guardian, July 16, 2016). Although Scotland has
already voted overwhelmingly to remain in the
EU in a referendum, there is renewed demand for
independence for Scotland. First Minister Nicola
Sturgeon has already indicated the possibility of a
second referendum in the near future (The Daily
Mail, June 24, 2016).
The issue of immigrants is a sticky point that
leave campaigners have rallied upon. Britain has
to decide about the future of lakhs of migrants
from other EU member-states currently employed
in the UK in various sectors of the economy.
Freedom of movement is the soul of the EU and
was the main issue of contention as well. Theresa
May will confront the challenge to evolve strate-
gies to reduce or contain immigration to the UK
and the fate of more than a million British citizens
employed in other member states of the EU, and
vice versa. Apart from these, there are pressing
issues pertaining to deficit reduction, negotiating
terms and conditions and restructuring trade
relations with other countries, stimulating the
economy by infusing funds in infrastructure, work
on industrial strategy, house-building, renewal of
the Trident (nuclear submarine) fleet and corporate
reforms (The Guardian, July 16, 2016 ).
After assuming office Theresa Mays immediate
focus has naturally been regional. In the last month,
she has been making the rounds and holding key
talks with various European leaders. These meet-
ings are essentially to boost UKs international
legitimacy and develop a rapport with other leaders
before Brexit negotiations start next year (The
Observe, August 8, 2016 ). Although initially the
new PM had stated that they will take some time to
push Brexit, it is reported that Theresa Mays minis-
ters are working full steam ahead to complete the
process and get Britain out of the European Union
(Hawks, 2016). Government officials have claimed
that Theresa May was keen to invoke Article 50
before the French and German elections scheduled
for 2017. The first round of the French presidential
elections is in April and Germany is set to hold its
parliamentary elections in the month of September
(The Sun, August 20, 2016). Neil Wilson, of
currency traders ETX Capital, says,Invoking
Article 50 by April would put pay to speculation
that the UK would have several years to prepare to
leave the EU. The less time the UK has to get things
in order, the greater the market fears the fallout,
28 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
The Sun, August 20, 2016.
To conclude, these are uncertain times for the
UK. The pound fell by as much as one per centits
biggest drop in two weeks, when it was announced
that Article 50 may be triggered soon. The new PM
and cabinet will have to envisage the best possible
design to minimise the impact of Brexit and
maximise British interests. For now, it is difficult
to gauge the long-term impact of Brexit, given the
many latent and manifest dimensions to it.
references
Hawks S. 2016. BREXIT A Step closer: Theresa
May could trigger Brexit in 8 months time,
officials claim. The Sun, published on 20th
August 2016. https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/
1642493/theresa-may-could-trigger-brexit-in-
8-months-time-officials-claim/. Accessed on
21 August 2016.
Pels D. 2016.What after Brexit? Let us learn from
the populists while fighting them. Social
Europe, Available at https://www.socialeurope.
eu/2016/07/brexit-let-us-learn-populists-
fighting/.
www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/
results.
https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-
speech-on-the-uks-strength-and-security-in-
the-eu-9-may-2016.
www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-32810887
https://www.socialeurope.eu/2016/07/brexit-let-
us-learn-populists-fighting/.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/14/
uk-needs-time-to-prepare-for-brexit-theresa-
may-tells-eu-leaders.
http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/
jul/16/theresa-may-one-nation-britain-
prime-minister.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/reuters/
article-3657953/Scotlands-future-EU-
minister-says-Brexit-looms.html.
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/
jul/16/trident-uk-nuclear-submarine-
deterent-renewal-parliament-vote.
http://observer.com/2016/08/british-pm-theresa-
may-faces-a-rocky-road-ahead/.
Author is Professor, Centre for European Studies, School
of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi. sheetal88@gmail.com
 I n BrIef
By STAFF REPORTER
Fossil Fuel Free Nations
Major landmarks have been achieved in renewable energy by
many nations, among which Scotland, Portugal and Costa Rica
have shown remarkable progress.
A
ll over Europe and in many countries
of South America, there is a growing
trend to meet electricity needs
through renewable power. Germany,
Europes largest economy, has seen an
eightfold increase in the production of
renewables, while countries like Scotland and Portugal
are achieving historic landmarks in the production and use
of renewable power. In South America, Costa Rica is a
pioneer in green energy; while Uruguay is not far behind.
Renewable energy was the biggest contributor to
Germanys electricity supply in 2014, with nearly 26 per
cent of the countrys power generation coming from clean
sources, according to Berlin based think tank Agora
Energiewende. Electricity output from renewables has
grown eightfold in Germany since 1990, and the latest
data further highlights the dramatic shift towards clean
energy taking place in Europes largest economy.
In Scotland, even as the Met Office issued a weather
warning with wind speeds reached 115 mph on the top
of the Cairngorms and more than 60 mph in northern
towns, with ferries and train services getting cancelled,
wind power got a big boost. High winds on August 7, 2016
boosted renewable energy output to provide 106 per cent
of Scotlands electricity needs for a day. Analysis of data
by Weather Energy showed that wind turbines in Scotland
generated power equivalent to more than cover the entire
countrys electricity needs.
Portugal has set a new renewable energy milestone
as it ran entirely on hydro, wind and solar power for
approximately 107 hours straight during the second week
of May, as per data provided by the Portuguese Renew-
able Energy Association, together with the ZERO-System
Sustainable Land Association. According to the World
Economic Forum, Portugal has been building up its clean
energy sources for the past few years.
Three years ago, the country was generating only
7.5 per cent of electricity from wind energy. In 2015, the
capacity had extended to 22 per cent. Together with other
renewable energy sources, these became the source for
almost half or about 48 per cent of the countrys energy
for 12 months. In April 2016, the UK managed a coal-free
week, using solar power to dislodge coal.
Oliver Joy of Wind Europe Trade Association considers
this a growing trend towards renewable energy use
spread across Europe. The Iberian Peninsula is a strong
reserve for wind energy and other renewable sources
across the continent.
Last year, Denmark set a world record when 42 per
cent of its electricity was harnessed from wind power. This
beat the countrys own record in 2014, when it generated
39 per cent of its energy through wind turbines.
Elsewhere in Europe, Iceland has achieved 100 per
cent renewable energy, while Norway reached 98 per
cent. Many other countries around the world are switching
to renewable energy sources, especially as the landmark
Paris climate deal is set in place.
Data from the Energy Information Administration
revealed that 16 countries have already hit 100 per cent
renewable energy production.
In South America, Uruguay uses renewable energy
to power 95 per cent of its needs , while Costa Rica is
a green energy pioneer. Costa Rica generated 100 per
cent of its electricity from renewable sources for 113 days,
and the run isnt over yet. Officials in Costa Rica reported
in 2015 that the country managed to power its grid on
100 per cent renewable sources for more than 285 days.
Iceland has achieved 100 per cent renewable energy,
while Norway reached 98 per cent. The country, which
draws clean energy from a variety of renewable sources,
still has its sights on a full year without fossil fuels. Most of
Costa Ricas renewable energy comes from hydropower,
due to its large river system and heavy tropical rainfalls.
Solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy also play
key roles. The tropical nation aims to be free from fossil
fuels in just five years. Inputs from www.theguardian.com and
www.inhabitat.com, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2016/uk-solar-
generation-tops-coal-for-whole-day-for-first-time-33220.
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 29
Eco n om y R En E wa bl E En ER gy
By Staff RepoRteR
INDIA: TOPPING IN
RENEWABLES
India figured among the top five nations, both in terms of investment
and total capacity generation of renewables in 2015, as per the
Renewables 2016 Global Status Report.
R
iding the commitments and initia-
tives by the G7 and G20 nations in
2015, and the United Nations General
Assemblys adoption of a dedicated
Sustainable Development Goal on
Sustainable Energy for All (SDG 7), besides the
commitments made by 195 countries to limit global
warming to well below 2o C at the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Changes
(UNFCCC) 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21)
in Paris, with 147 countries referring to renewable
energy, and 167 countries referring to energy effi-
ciency, renewable energy continued to register a
steady growth .
An additional 147 gigawatts (GW) of renewable
power capacity which has been the largest annual
increase ever, was recorded during the period,
while renewable heat capacity increased by around
38 gigawatts-thermal (GWth). Total production of
biofuels also rose during this period. Global invest-
ment climbed to a new record level, with renewables
outpacing fossil fuels for net investment in power
capacity additions.
Employment in the renewable energy sector
(not including large-scale hydropower) increased
in 2015 to an estimated 8.1 million jobs (direct
and indirect). Solar PV and biofuels provided the
30 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
largest numbers of renewable energy jobs, with
India, China, Brazil and the USA registering as the
leading employers .
By 2015 end, there was enough renewable
capacity in place to supply 23.7 per cent of global
electricity, with hydropower providing about 16.6
per cent. Small scale renewable systems, including
renewable-based mini-grids saw rapid expansion
in many developing countries, such as India, China
and Nepal in Asia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania
in Africa and Brazil and Guyana in Latin America.
Sector-wise, renewable energy supplied
approximately 8 per cent of the energy for heating
and cooling services worldwide in buildings and
industry, of which most was provided by biomass,
with smaller contributions from solar thermal
and geothermal energy.
transport sector
Renewable energy accounted for an estimated 4
per cent of global fuel for road transport in 2015.
Liquid biofuels continued to represent the vast
majority of the renewable energy contribution to
the transport sector.
policy landscape
Notably, a vast majority of countries worldwide

had renewable energy support policies in place by
2015 end. By 2015 end, at least 173 countries had
renewable energy targets and an estimated 146
countries had renewable energy support policies
at the national or state/provincial level. Nearly all
policies adopted in the renewable transport sector
in 2015, as in past years, were directed at road trans-
port through support for biofuels production and
use. By 2015 end, biofuel mandates were in place
in 66 countries at the national or state/provincial
level. Support has shifted increasingly towards
the promotion of advanced biofuels in new policy
development, although, globally, most policies
focus on first-generation biofuels.
biomass energy
Bioenergy production continued to increase in
2015, helping to meet rising energy demand in
some countries and contributing to environmental
objectives. However, the sector also faced a number
of challenges, in particular from low oil prices
and policy uncertainty in some markets. Bio-heat
production for buildings and industrial uses grew
slowly in 2015, with modern uses of bio-heat rising
by approximately 3 per cent from 2014 levels.
Geothermal power and heat
About 315 MW of new geothermal power capacity
came on line in 2015, bringing the global total to
13,200 MW. Turkey led the market, commanding
about half of new global capacity.
hydropower
Approximately 28 GW of new hydropower capacity
(excluding pumped storage) was commissioned
in 2015, increasing total global capacity to about
1,064 GW. Global generation rose to about 3,940
TWh, although persistent droughts continued
to adversely affect hydropower output in many
regions. Chinas domestic market continued to
contract, but the country retained the global lead by
a wide margin, adding 16 GW capacity. Significant
capacity was also added by India, besides Brazil,
Turkey, Vietnam, Malaysia, Canada, Colombia and
Lao PDR.
Ocean energy
Ocean energy capacity, mostly tidal power,
remained at about 530 MW in 2015. As in most
years, ocean energy technology deployments in
2015 were predominantly demonstration projects,
Record-low bids for large-
scale solar PV projects
were seen in tenders
from latin america to the
middle East to India.
with most activity concentrated in tidal energy
technologies, followed by wave energy conversion
devices.
Solar photovoltaics
The solar PV market was up 25 per cent over 2014 to
a record 50 GW, lifting the global total to 227 GW.
The annual market in 2015 was nearly ten times
the worlds cumulative solar PV capacity a decade
earlier. China, Japan and the USA again accounted
for the majority of capacity added, but emerging
markets on all continents contributed significantly
to global growth. China achieved 100 per cent elec-
trification, in part because of significant off-grid
solar PV installed since 2012. The industry recovery
of recent years strengthened further due to the rise
of new markets and strong global demand. Record-
low bids for large-scale solar PV projects were seen
in tenders from Latin America to the Middle East
to India.
concentrating solar thermal power (cSp)
Morocco (160 MW), South Africa (150 MW) and
the USA (110 MW) all brought new CSP facilities
online in 2015, raising total global capacity by about
10 per cent to nearly 4.8 GW.
By 2015 end, additional CSP capacity was under
construction in Morocco (350 MW), South Africa
(200 MW), Israel (121 MW), Chile (110 MW),
Saudi Arabia (100 MW), China (50 MW) and
India (25 MW), reflecting a shift from traditional
markets (Spain and the USA) to developing regions
with high direct normal irradiation (DNI) levels.
Industrial capacity continued to expand in devel-
oping regions, supported in part by local content
requirements associated with CSP procurement
programmes.
Solar thermal heating and cooling
Global capacity of glazed and unglazed solar
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 31
Table 1: Top five countries
Annual investment / net capacity additions / biofuel production in 2015
1 2 3 4 5
Investment in renewable power and fuels
(not including hydro > 50 MW) China United States Japan United Kingdom India
Investment in renewable power
and fuels per unit GDP1 Mauritania Honduras Uruguay Morocco Jamaica
Geothermal power capacity Turkey United States Mexico Kenya Germany/Japan
Hydropower capacity China Brazil Turkey India Vietnam
Solar PV capacity China Japan United States United Kingdom India
Concentrating solar thermal power
(CSP) capacity2 Morocco South Africa United States
Wind power capacity China United States Germany Brazil India
Solar water heating capacity China Turkey Brazil India United States
Biodiesel production United States Brazil Germany Argentina France
Fuel ethanol production United States Brazil China Canada Thailand

Total capacity or generation as of end-2015

Power 1 2 3 4 5
Renewable power (incl. hydro) China United States Brazil Germany Canada
Renewable power (not incl. hydro) China United States Germany Japan India
Renewable power capacity per capita
(among top 20, not including hydro3) Denmark Germany Sweden Spain Portugal
Biopower generation United States China Germany Brazil Japan
Geothermal power capacity United States Philippines Indonesia Mexico New Zealand
Hydropower capacity4 China Brazi United States Canada Russia
Hydropower generation4 China Brazil Canada United States Russia
CSP capacity Spain United States India Morocco South Africa
Solar PV capacity China Germany Japan United States Italy
Solar PV capacity per capita Germany Italy Belgium Japan Greece
Wind power capacity China United States Germany India Spain
Wind power capacity per capita Denmark Sweden Germany Ireland Spain

Heat 1 2 3 4 5
Solar water heating collector capacity5 China United States Germany Turkey Brazil
Solar water heating collector
capacity per capita5 Austria Cyprus Israel Barbados Greece
Geothermal heat capacity6 China Turkey Japan Iceland India
Geothermal heat capacity per capita6 Iceland New Zealand Hungary Turkey Japan

1 Countries considered include only those covered by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF); GDP (at purchasers prices) data for 2014 from
World Bank. BNEF data include the following: all biomass, geothermal and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW; all hydropower projects of
between 1 and 50 MW; all solar power projects, with those less than 1 MW estimated separately and referred to as small-scale projects or small
distributed capacity; all ocean energy projects; and all biofuel projects with an annual production capacity of 1 million litres or more. Small-scale
capacity data used to help calculate investment per unit of GDP cover only those countries investing 200 million USD or more.
2 Only three countries brought concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants online in 2015, which is why no countries are listed in places 4 and 5.

3 Per capita renewable power capacity ranking considers only those countries that place among the top 20 worldwide for total installed renewable

power capacity, not including hydropower. Several other countries including Austria, Finland, Ireland and New Zealand also have high per capita
levels of non-hydro renewable power capacity, with Iceland likely the leader among all countries. Population data are for 2014 and are from the
World Bank.
4 Country rankings for hydropower capacity and generation dier because some countries rely on hydropower for baseload supply whereas others

use it more to follow the electric load and to match peaks in demand.
5 Solar water heating collector rankings for total capacity and per capita are for year-end 2014 and are based on capacity of water (glazed and

unglazed) collectors only. Data from IEA SHC. Total capacity rankings are estimated to remain unchanged for year-end 2015.
6 Not including heat pumps.

Note: Most rankings are based on absolute amounts of investment, power generation capacity or output, or biofuels production; if done on a per
capita, national GDP or other basis, the rankings would be different for many categories (as seen with per capita rankings for renewable power, solar
PV, wind power and solar water collector capacity).

Source: ren21.net

32 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


thermal collectors rose by more than 6 per cent in
2015, despite a market slowdown due to continued
contraction of markets in China and Europe. China
accounted for about 77 per cent of newly installed
solar water heater capacity, followed by Turkey,
Brazil, India and the USA. Cumulative capacity of
water collectors reached an estimated 435 GWth
by 2015 end (with air collectors adding another 1.6
GWth), with enough capacity to provide approxi-
mately 357 TWh of heat annually.
Wind power
Wind power was the leading source of new power
generating capacity in Europe and the USA in 2015,
and the second largest in China. Globally, a record
63 GW was added for a total of about 433 GW. Non-
OECD countries were responsible for the majority
of installations, led by China, and new markets
emerged across Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Corporations and other private entities continued
turning to wind energy for reliable and low-cost
power, while many large investors were drawn by
its stable returns.
distributed renewable energy for
energy access
Positive market trends, innovative business
models, increased investment. Approximately
1.2 billion people, constituting 17 per cent of
the global population, live without electricity,
with the vast majority in the Asia-Pacific region
and sub-Saharan Africa. Distributed renew-
able energy (DRE) systems continue to play an
increasing role in providing energy services
to these populations. Advances in technology,
increased awareness of deforestation and
enhanced government support enabled the
expansion of DRE in the cooking and heating
sector in 2015. By years end, approximately
28 million households worldwide were using
clean cook stoves. DRE solar PV markets also
continued to flourish. Roughly 44 million off-
grid pico-solar products had been sold globally
by mid 2015, representing an annual market of
300 million USD. About 70 countries world-
wide either had some off-grid solar PV capacity
installed or had programmes in place to support
off- grid solar PV applications by the end of 2015.
In addition, several thousand renewables-based
mini-grids were in operation, with primary
For the first time in history,
total investment in renewable
power and fuels in developing
countries in 2015 exceeded that
in developed economies.
markets in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China,
India, Mali and Morocco. The year saw positive
market trends and increased investment, with
the emergence of innovative business models.
Investment flows
Meanwhile, global new investment in renewable
power and fuels climbed to a record 285.9 billion
USD in 2015 (not including hydropower projects).
This was a 5 per cent rise over 2014 and exceeded
the previous record (278.5 billion USD) achieved in
2011. In 2015, global investment in new renewable
power capacity, at 265.8 billion USD, was more than
double the 130 billion USD allocated to new coal-
and natural gas-fired power generation.
For the first time in history, total investment in
renewable power and fuels in developing countries
in 2015 exceeded that in developed economies.
The developing world, including China, India
and Brazil, committed a total of 156 billion USD
(up 19 per cent compared to 2014). China played
a dominant role, increasing its investment by 17
per cent to 102.9 billion USD, accounting for 36
per cent of the global total. Renewable energy
investment also increased significantly in India,
South Africa, Mexico and Chile. Other developing
countries investing more than USD 500 million in
renewables are Morocco, Uruguay, the Philippines,
Pakistan and Honduras.
The report, while commending the progress
made, has gone on to recommend some measures
to mainstream renewable. Among these are,
notably, the phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies,
strengthening political will for switching to renew-
able sources, and distributing the focus among
sectors besides power/electricity. It has also gone
on to recommend policy designs that discourage
investment in nuclear and fossil fuels, besides
focusing more on the use of renewables in the
heating/cooling and transport sectors.
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 33
Eco n om y R En E wa bl E En ER gy
By Gireesh shrimali
BUSiNESS MODEL FOR
ROOFtOp SOLaR iN iNDia
As India aims to become a global leader in rooftop solar power, a third party
financing model could help unleash the industrys significant potentialwith
the right policies and financial instruments.
I
ndia is facing a rapidly growing energy
demand, which will likely double by 2030.
In order to meet this demand, India has set
one of the most ambitious renewable energy
targets in the world100 gigawatts (GW)
of solar power by 2022 (pib.nic.in, December 15,
2015). This target is good for the Indian economy,
the climate, and the 80 million households that
currently lack access to electricity.
To put this target in perspective, the current
leader in solar power capacity, China, had a total
installed solar capacity of around 43.5 GW at the
end of 2015 (bp.com, 2015 Review)). Indias renew-
able energy target of 175 GW by 2022, comprise
100 GW of solar capacity, 60 GW of wind power,
5 GW of small hydro and 10 GW of bio-energy.
The solar capacity target includes 60 GW of
utility-scale solar power and 40 GW of rooftop
solar power. By March-end 2016, India had
installed a total capacity of 6.7 GW, with 6 GW of
utility-scale projects and 0.7 GW of rooftop solar
projects (mnre.gov.in).
While utility-scale solar power seems to be
growing in line with the 60 GW target, rooftop
solar power growth is still way behind the annual
level required to meet the 40 GW target, and needs
to accelerate quickly. In order for the rooftop solar
industry to reach 40 GW from current levels, the
industry must add around 6.5 GW of capacity annu-
ally, implying a compounded annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 94 per cent, in current annual capacity.
34 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
However, there are three key barriers to the
growth of rooftop solar power in India: high
upfront costs of installation, low availability of
debt finance, and perceived performance risk.
barriers to growth in rooftop solar
The size of a typical rooftop solar installation for
commercial and industrial customers is around
150-200 kW, costing more than INR 10 million.
Commercial and industrial consumers are
reluctant to invest such a high amount upfront,
especially for a non-core business activity. In addi-
tion, banks are reluctant to lend to rooftop solar
projects because there are high perceived risks
and limited information on the performance and
track records of rooftop solar investments. They
prefer lending to large utility-scale projects; this
has limited the availability of debt finance for the
rooftop solar sector.
Finally, because rooftop solar power is a rela-
tively new technology in India, many potential
customers are concerned with performance risk,
that is, a perception that the technology may not
perform as expected over its lifetime. Addition-
ally, since there are many new entrepreneurs in the
rooftop solar market, with no or little track record,
it has been difficult for consumers to trust them.
The potential of third party financing
In order to expand the rooftop solar industry in
India, there is a need to develop policy solutions,

innovative business models, and financial instru-
ments which can address these barriers. One
promising solution is a third party financing model.
Globally, the third party financing model for
rooftop solar power has been a significant driver of
growth in the rooftop solar industry. A new report
by Climate Policy Initiative (CPI, 2016), examines
the models potential in India, and specifically
the driving factors, challenges, and solutions to
manage those challenges.
Under a third party financing model, a rooftop
solar developer, who is the third party, installs,
owns, and operates a rooftop solar plant on a
consumers property. The consumer agrees to
purchase electricity from the developer at a speci-
fied price over a long-term contract, typically for
15 to 25 years. The success of the third party
financing model hinges on the fact that developers
are in a better position to manage the financing
challenges and performance risk of rooftop solar
power, and the model shifts these responsibilities
from the consumer to the developer.
Currently in India, the third party financing
model supports around 102 MW of rooftop solar
installations (bridgetoindia.com, May 31, 2016).
The industry believes that there is potential to
increase the total installed capacity under the
third party financing model to more than 20 GW
by 2022, more than half of the 2022 rooftop solar
power target with a similar amount of capacity
coming through the CAPEX model.
currently in India, third party
financing model supports
around 102 mw of rooftop solar
installations. The industry
believes that it can go up to 20
gw by 2022.
challenges to third party financing model
However, the third party financing model will
need to overcome certain challenges. The most
significant challenge to the third party financing
model is low access to debt finance. Since the
rooftop solar sector is new and transaction costs
are high (due to the smaller size of projects), banks
dont yet feel comfortable lending to projects.
Due to low access to debt finance, the third party
financing model has been mostly driven by equity
finance in India, which has limited potential for
scale in the way it is currently used.
Consumer credit risk is the second biggest chal-
lenge to the third party financing model. This is
caused by several factors, including low availability
of credit assessment procedures, low enforceability
of agreements, and lengthy and costly legal proc-
esses in the case of a dispute or payment default.

Fig. 1: Annual rooftop solar capacity addition needs to increase significantly in

order to meet the 40 GW target
100 GW by
Solar power generation forecast 2022 goal
(in cumulative GW)

75 GW 40 GW
Rooftop
solar
50 GW

60 GW Ground
25 GW mounted solar
0.7 GW Rooftop

6 GW Ground 20.6
94 per cent CAGR
mounted 9.9
25 GW 2.4 4.9 Annual growth
0.4 1.2
needed to meet
47 per cent CAGR 13.0 18.8 goal (in GW)
8.9
3.1 4.2 6.1

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Source: CPI Analysis

GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 35

recommendations
Policy changes and financial instruments could
address these two challenges. Government enti-
ties, industry players, financing agencies and
other stakeholders will need to work together to
implement these recommendations.
First, to increase access to debt finance for rooftop
solar power, the Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) can work with development
banks to provide a system of training to bankers in
India on how to assess rooftop solar projects, how to
process solar loans, and the dynamics of the rooftop
solar industry and associated risks. Since the main
reason for banks reluctance to lend to rooftop solar
industry is that bank officials are not well-trained in
assessing rooftop solar projects appropriately, this
is an immediate step that could help increase access
to debt finance.
Second, to reduce consumer credit risk,
DISCOMs can be made a party to the power
purchase agreements between the consumer and
third party financer, with the responsibility of
collecting monthly payments from the consumer.
In case of default, DISCOMs can terminate power
supply from the grid. As a last resort, 100 per cent
power from the rooftop solar project could be
purchased by DISCOMs at a predetermined rate.
This would comfort banks as there would be a
guaranteed purchaser.
There are also several key financial solutions
that could help address these challenges.
The India Innovation Lab for Green Finance,
a public-private initiative in India to identify
and help develop green finance instruments, is
currently assisting in the development of two
instruments which have the potential to drive
significant investment into third party financing
for rooftop solar power.
Loans for Small & Medium Enterprises
(Loans4SME), is a peer-to-peer lending platform
that could help improve access to debt financing
for the rooftop solar industry. It would create
a marketplace to catalyse debt investments by
connecting creditworthy businesses with debt
investors. The platform will first assess each
company via a credit scoring model to ensure
that the companies only take on liabilities they
can comfortably repay. Once the company
lists its credit requirements on the platform,
platform coordinators will work with both the
36 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
borrowers and lenders to structure and close
the transaction. With a 5 per cent market share
of the rooftop solar sector, Loans4SME has the
potential to finance the addition of 800 MW of
rooftop solar capacity and provide 590 million
USD in debt financing.
Rooftop solar sector private financing
facility, could increase access to debt financing
for the rooftop solar industry by structuring a
large number of small projects together so that
the aggregate deal size is large enough and of
sufficient credit quality to attract more atten-
tion from investors, especially institutional
investors. The facility would build a warehouse
line of credit that would provide loans to cred-
itworthy rooftop solar projects over a period not
exceeding 24 months. In the next phase, it would
refinance the warehouse line by issuing green
asset-backed security (ABS) bonds. The facility
could bring an additional 32.3 billion USD of
capital to the rooftop solar sector, reduce the
cost of debt by up to 3 per cent, initially adding
180 MW of capacity and then, around 500 MW
by 2022.
These policy changes and financial instruments
can together unleash the potential in Indias
rooftop solar industry and put it back on track
to achieve the governments target of 40 GW of
rooftop solar power by 2022.
references
Climate Policy Initiative, 2016. The Drivers
and Challenges of Third Party Financing for
Rooftop Solar Power in India. Retrieved from:
http://climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/
third-party-financing-rooftop-solar-power-
india.
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.
aspx?relid=133220.
http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-
economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy/
renewable-energy/solar-energy.html.
http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/
workshop-gcrt-0870616/tata.pdf.
http://www.bridgetoindia.com/blog/rooftop-solar-
market-in-india-witnessing-rapid-growth-but-
2022-target-seems-elusive.
The author is Director, Climate Policy Initiative, New
Delhi. gireesh.shrimali@CPIDelhi.org
Term Power raTing
Renewable Energy
Energy growth is directly linked to well-being and prosperity across the globe. Meeting the growing
demand for energy in a safe and environmentally responsible manner is a key challenge. Below are the
answers and explanations to help check how much you know about energy.
1 to 5 Correct - Informed
6 to 8 Correct - Knowledge bank
9 to 10 Correct - Encyclopaedia
1. Biomass
Ans. a: Organic material used to generate energy.
Biomass refers to plants or plant-based materials which
are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called
lignocellulosic biomass.
2. Geothermal Energy
Ans. b: Geothermal energy is energy derived from the
heat of the earth. Geothermal energy is thermal energy
generated and stored in the Earth. It can be found
almost anywhere.
3. Insolation
Ans. c: Insolation is the solar radiation that reaches the
earth's surface. It is measured by the amount of solar
energy received per square centimetre per minute.
Insolation affects temperature. The more the insolation,
the higher the temperature.
4. Greenhouse Gases
Ans. b: A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated as
GHG) is a gas that absorbs and emits radiation in the
thermal infrared range.. The process is the fundamental
cause of the greenhouse effect. These gases are
generally released due to the burning of fossil fuel.
5. Kilowatt
Ans. a: A measure of one thousand watts of electrical
power. One kilowatt is defined as energy consumption
of 1000 joules for 1 second.
6. Alternating Current
Ans. b: An electric current that oscillates back and
forth at regular intervals. In other words,
an electric current that periodically reverses its
direction many times, and is typically used in
power supplies.
7. Photovoltaic
Ans. c: Generation of electricity directly from
sunlight using semiconducting material. Photovoltaic
(PV) devices generate electricity directly from
sunlight via an electronic process that occurs
naturally in certain types of material, called
semiconductors.
8. Ammeter
Ans. a: A measuring instrument used to measure the
current in a circuit. An ammeter can measure a wide
range of current values because at high values only a
small portion of the current is directed through the meter
mechanism.
9. Transformer
Ans. a: A static machine used for transforming
power from one circuit to another without changing
frequency. Since there is no rotating or moving part
so transformer is a static device. A transformer
operates on AC supply and works on the principle of
mutual induction.
10. Electromagnetic Field
Ans. c: An electromagnetic field (also EM field) is a
physical field produced by electrically charged objects.
All electrically charged particles are surrounded by
electric fields. Charged particles in motion produce
magnetic fields.
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 37
 in br ief
By STAFF REPORTER
re tech
A technological round-up on advances in renewable energy in India and abroad
to tackle existing ground-level problems and usher in a new era.
IndIan ScIentIStS deSIgn a Solar tree
S
cientists at the Council of Scientific and
Industrial ResearchCentral Mechanical
Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-
CMERI) believe that the energy a solar
tree collects will be enough to power
five homes and will be more than normal
photovoltaic cells collect on rooftops. A solar tree takes
only 4 square feet of land for a 5 kw power source, as
against 400 square feet of land in a conventional layout.
The space-saving tree will make it easier to provide solar
energy to urban homes, and will also take less space for
farmers in rural India. The design facilitates placement of
solar panels at a higher level allowing for greater exposure
to the sun and hence harness 10-15 per cent more energy.
Solar trees have metal branches extending from as
new and advanced Solar cellS
U
sing a novel spectroscopic technique,
cole Polytechnique Fdrale de
Lausanne (EPFL) scientists have
made a much-needed breakthrough
in cutting-edge photovoltaics. In a
photovoltaic cell, light generates
opposite charges in the active layer. The charges must
then be separated as quickly as possible to keep them
from recombining. Positive charges are driven by a built-in
electric field to one metallic contact, while negative charges
migrate in the opposite direction to another electrode.
Using a unique ultra-fast spectroscopic technique, EPFL
scientists have now been able to track the fate of charged
pairs in an advanced type of solar cell currently under
38 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
tall, central pole at different levels Each branch holds
a flat solar panel to collect energy from the sun. The
shape of the tree makes it possible to fit more panels than
traditional systems do.
India is currently the worlds third largest producer
of greenhouse gases, and is committed to reduce its
greenhouse emissions by one-third over its 2005 levels, in
keeping with its declared target at the 2015 United Nations
Conference on Climate Change in Paris. India has set
itself a target of getting 40 per cent of its total energy
needs from renewable sources by 2030, alongside a size-
able reduction in its use of coal. However, solar energy
collectors need large areas to be set up. In this regard, a
solar tree is the ideal solution. Inputs from S N Maity, Chief
Scientist at CSIR-CMERI, DST.
intense research. The time-resolved electroabsorption
spectroscopy (TREAS) has been developed in Mosers lab
during the last three years and allows real-time measure-
ments of the separation distance of charges generated
by light in the active layer of a photovoltaic solar cell. The
technique relies on the optical probing of the effective
electric field experienced by a material. This has been
possible through better understanding of the mechanism
of light-induced charge separation in photovoltaics, as
well as the effect of morphology of the polymer fullerene
blend, which is necessary for designing efficient solar
energy converters.Inputs from Causa, M, Banerji N. 2016. The
Fate of Electron-Hole Pairs in Polymer: Fullerene Blends for Organic
Photovoltaics, Nature Communications.
FloatIng Solar panel SyStem For drought
A
n Australian startup is soon to export its
new floating solar technology to the U.S.,
to help improve the water quality and
reduce water evaporation in a severely
drought-affected Californian town. It
will be the second large-scale floating
solar plant built by the Sydney-based company, Infratech
Industries, which has successfully installed one of a four-
phase system at a water treatment plant in Jamestown in
South Australia.
The system at Jamestown, which went live last year,
generated up to 57 per cent more energy than a rooftop
solar system and also helped improve water quality
and reduce evaporation while restricting algal blooms.
The panels lie on the water body using the water to cool
themselves down. This way it can increase its efficiency
new Solar devIce IntegrateS battery to Solve Storage problem
S
unCultures SolPad solar device inte-
grates solid state batteries directly into
the solar panels themselves, offering
its users the ability to not only generate
their own clean electricity, but to also
store if for use after dark or during peak
demand times, when electricity costs are higher. The
SolPad units also incorporate an inverter, which converts
the electricity from the DC generated and stored by the
device to the AC required by most household appliances,
and includes intelligent software that communicates with
both the users and with their homes systems, allowing for
granular control over which rooms or devices will receive
the solar power.
The SolPad can be used as a single unit, which could be
placed on a patio or deck and used only when needed, or
can be strung together into a more powerful array, which
may allow more people to start going solar by purchasing
artIFIcIal leaF that turnS co2 Into Fuel
R
esearchers at the University of Illinois
at Chicago (UIC) have developed a
way to mimic the ability of plants to
convert carbon dioxide into fuel. The
artificial leaf essentially recycles carbon
dioxide, and is powered entirely by
vis-a-vis land-based solar or rooftop solar, which produces
less power when heated . Thus, using a water body to cool
the panels down can yield a constant efficiency level. In
Australia, this was the first floating solar plant.
The Jamestown system has been so successful that
Infratech has already expanded operations, and landed a
contract to build and export an even larger system to the
drought-affected town of Holtville in Southern California.
The soon-to-be-built one megawatt floating solar system,
which will be modular, will consist of 276 rafts, 3576 panels
and 12 treatment pumps, and will generate an estimated
20 per cent more power than a fixed land-based system. It
will also power the towns new water treatment facility, save
water from evaporation and reduce the local authoritys
reliance on fossil fuels and treatment chemicals. Inputs
from Infratech Industries, Australia.
one unit and then adding more over time (as opposed to
having to purchase an entire array at once). And with the
integration of energy storage and software directly in the
units, the SolPads can function as a solar microgrid during
power outages, which is something that most current solar
arrays cannot do, due to their automatic disconnection
feature (to protect utility workers from electricity flowing
from panels onto the grid during outages).
During the most expensive daytime hours, SolPad Home
will switch to stored battery power, then switch back to grid
power when rates are low. Flexgrid will also detect when
theres a power outage or blackout and safely disconnect
itself from the grid. Once off the grid, SolPad automatically
forms a personal solar micro-grid that will keep delivering
power to specific lights and appliances. Inputs from
Markham D. September 26, 2016. New solar panel integrates
battery storage, inverter, and smart software into a single unit,
treehugger.com
the sun. Real leaves use the energy from the sun and
convert carbon dioxide to sugar; the artificial leaf has the
sun convert carbon dioxide to synthetic gas, which can
then be converted to any hydrocarbon, such as gasoline.
The energy of the sun rearranges the chemical bonds of
carbon dioxide, so that the suns energy is stored in the
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 39
form of chemical bonds, which can be burned as fuel.
The ability to store the suns energy can solve a
problem the clean tech community faces with battery
storage. Technology surrounding wind turbines and
solar panels makes energy harvesting more economi-
cally viable, and large corporations are increasingly
sourcing power from wind and solar farms. But a way
to store that energyso wind and solar power can
chemIStS develop a battery For grId energy Storage
A
battery that uses safe, non-
flammable, non-toxic materials
and a pH-neutral, water-based
salt has been recently developed
by chemists at the University of
Waterloo. Professor Linda Nazar
and her colleagues from the Faculty of Science at
Waterloo have invented the battery which consists
of a water-based electrolyte, a pillared vanadium
oxide positive electrode and an inexpensive metallic
zinc negative electrode. The battery generates
electricity through a reversible process called
intercalation, where positively-charged zinc ions
are oxidised from the zinc metal negative electrode,
travel through the electrolyte and insert between
Stacked Solar cellS wIth eFFIcIent connectIng
junctIonS dIScovered
S
tacked solar cells consist of several solar
cells that are stacked atop one another
and are currently the most efficient cells
in the market, converting up to 45 per
cent of the solar energy they absorb
into electricity. But to be effective, solar
cell designers need to ensure the connecting junctions
between these stacked cells do not absorb any of the solar
energy and do not siphon off the voltage the cells produce,
wasting that energy as heat.
Researchers at North Carolina State University claim
that by inserting a very thin film of gallium arsenide into
the connecting junction of stacked cells, virtually all
voltage loss can be eliminated without blocking any of
the solar energy. This work is important as photovoltaic
40 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
be used on demandis not as readily available. The
development at UIC is a major push that can take renew-
able energy technology ahead in the near future.. The
prototype is expected to be ready in about five years and
are to be located next to power plants to recycle carbon
dioxide for fuel. Inputs from Asadi M. 2016. Nanostructured
transition metal dichalcogenide electrocatalysts for CO2 reduc-
tion in ionic liquid. ScienceMag Journal.
the layers of vanadium oxide nanosheets in the positive
electrode. This drives the flow of electrons in the external
circuit, creating an electrical current. The reverse process
occurs on charge. It provides more than 1,000 cycles with
80 per cent capacity retention and an estimated energy
density of 450 watt-hours per litre. Lithium-ion batteries
that are currently in use also operate by intercalation of
lithium ions. The bonus for manufacturers is that they can
produce this zinc battery at low cost since its fabrication
does not require special conditions such as ultra-low
humidity or the handling of flammable materials needed
for lithium ion batteries.Inputs from: Nazar L, Vajargah S. H.,
Duffort V., Adams B. D. and Kundu D. 2016. A high-capacity and
long-life aqueous rechargeable zinc battery using a metal oxide
intercalation cathode. Nature Energy.
energy companies are interested in using lenses to
concentrate solar energy, from one sun (no lens) to
4,000 suns or more. But if the solar energy is significantly
intensifiedto 70,000 suns or morethe connecting
junctions used in existing stacked cells begin losing
voltage. And the more intense the solar energy, the
more voltage is lost at junctions , thereby reducing the
conversion efficiency. This discovery means that solar
cell manufacturers can now create stacked cells that can
handle high-intensity solar energy without losing voltage
at the connecting junctions, thus potentially improving
conversion efficiency.Inputs from: Samberg J. 2016. Effect
of GaAs interfacial layer on the performance of high bandgap
tunnel junctions for multijunction solar cells. Applied
Physics Letters.
IndIa: renewable energy StatuS at a glance

R
enewable energy has been making wind (7,632.3 MW) and solar (1,267.4 MW), producing
enormous progress in the nation. the highest as compared to all the other states of India.
Several states in country have laid out In solar power, Gujarat follows Tamil Nadu closely at
proactive policies to encourage the 1,123.4 MW. In wind power, Maharashtra is way below
growth of renewable energy in their Tamil Nadu at 4,664.1 MW. Interestingly Maharashtra
states. As of July 8, 2016, Tamil Nadu leads in bio-power comprising biomass cogeneration
led the pack, with at total of 9,672.7 MW generation in and waste to energy, at 1258.5 MW. The country in total
renewable energy. Incidentally, Tamil Nadu also leads in generates 44,236.9 MW in renewable energy.

Fig. 1: Select states contributing to renewable

Jammu &
Kashmir power generation in India as of June 30, 2016.

Himachal
20 Pradesh
Punjab 14 2

19 Uttarakhand
84
61 Haryana
Delhi Arunachal
Pradesh

Rajasthan Sikkim

24
Uttar Pradesh Assam
2 Nagaland

74 Bihar Meghalaya
Manipur

Gujarat
21 Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand Tripura Mizoram
1 3
25 West Bengal
78
1
71 Chhattisgarh

Maharashtra Odisha
6 5
19

11
Telangana

70

Karnataka 89 Index
3 Small Hydro Power
Goa 17 24 Andhra Pradesh
8 Wind Power
29
Bio-Power
48 Solar Power
15
56
All India MW
Tamil Tamil
Nadu Nadu
Small Hydro Power 4304.27
13 1
1%

13% Wind Power 27151.40

Kerala 7 7% 1 Bio-Power 4975.91
2
3 Solar Power 7805.34
4

Map not to scale 79% Total Capacity 44236.92

79
Source: Data from Ministry of Power, August 8, 2016.

GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 41

P o P u l at i o n u r b a n i s at i o n

By MohaMMad Suhail

Smart CitieS
Framework For a
digital india
The concept of a smart city has been formulated for optimum
utilisation of resources, and particularly information and
communication technologies (ICTs) for better safety and security.
Such a city also ensures better spatial planning in an urban set-up.

T
he concept of a smart city emerged
in Europe in the early 19th century.
However, the connotation of a
smart city means something quite
different in the Indian perspective.
The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD),
Government of India, released guidelines to
make our cities city smarter a short while ago
(MoUD, 2015). According to these guidelines, a
smart city ensures a better urban experience for its
residents through integration of urban planning
systems, efficient service delivery, smart govern-
ance, energy management and conservation of
resources through information and communica-
tion technologies (ICTs), and a digital information
repository that enables attainment of various
socio-economic and development goals.
This involves the use of an efficient geographical
information system (GIS) to map, model, query,
and analyse large volumes of data within a single
database at a given location. While helping to
maintain accurate locational data of regulated
facilities, an efficient GIS encompasses a land
information system, with smart buildings, smart
water supplies, smart energy grid and smart
mobility, an environmental information system,
resource information system, network informa-
tion system, picture processing information
system, design information system, spatial data
processing system, spatial information system,
multi-purpose cadaster and AM/FM- automated
mapping and facilities management. It also
ensures an intelligent computing infrastructure
with cutting-edge cyber-physical systems and
innovation support.
concept of smart city
A smart city, in short, uses ICTs to make the best
of available social and environmental capital
to profile the competitiveness of cities (Aikins,

42 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


2012). This means using ICT to make the critical
infrastructural components and services in a
city more interactive and efficient (Ali, 2014). It
also involves the deployment and integration of
ICTs - including wireless and broadband connec-
tions, advanced analytics software and intelligent
sensors to improve the quality of life, and bring
in much needed behavioural change among
residents, businesses and the government for
sustainable growth. A simplified connotation of a
smart city is presented below in Figure 1.
For instance, smart mobility involves smarter
transport, electric vehicles and dynamic traffic
control. Similarly, smart environment would
include a greener environment achieved through
pollution control and climate change adaptation
strategies. Smart utility ensures energy efficiency,
reduction of emissions and smart metering, while
smart education would include a supportive
environment for research and knowledge. Smart
infrastructure, for instance, would be inclusive
of a smart water supply, drainage and sewerage
system, as also an excellent solid waste manage-
ment system and adequate power for smart living.
Thus, geospatial techniques would be used to
provide the compulsory inputs that can equip and
support the entire framework of the smart city.
need for smart cities in India
As with many other parts of the developing
world, India has been experiencing a rapid pace in
While population in urban
india grew and settlements
rose in number, water supply,
public transport, and solid
waste management failed to
keep pace.
urbanisation. The population in urban India grew
to reach nearly 350 million during the 1901-2011
period, and urban settlements rose from 1967 to
7935 during the same period (Fig. 2). However,
urban infrastructure failed to keep pace with this
growth. Thus, the reach of drinking water supply,
public transport, sewage and solid waste manage-
ment in the growing urban centres left much to be
desired, and abysmally low in reach.
No city has achieved 100 per cent coverage
through 24x7 water supply for all its residents.
Only 74 per cent of urban households are served
with piped water.
Only 65 of Indias 423 class I cities had formal
city-bus services in 2012.
Only 30 per cent of Indian cities have sewage
treatment facilities.
Only 32.7 per cent of Indias urban population
has access to a piped sewerage system.
Around 12.6 percent of Indias urban population

Fig. 1: Smart city model and geo-spatial framework

Integrated ITC sustainability

smart economy

Green pollution Innovative and experi-

Smart
control climate change menting sustainable
Business
adaptation living smart care
Smart Smart
Environment Living

Stability research
Smart transport electric Smart cities supportive assertive
Smart Smart
vehicle: dynamic traffic Education
Mobility
control
Intelligent
nation
Energy efficiency Smart Smart Citizen/
reduced emissions Utility Community
smart meters Smart, proactive people
Smart Smart education and research
Infrastructure Government culturally vibrant and happy

Connectivity E-gov easy access

integrated services transparent Source: Biswas, V. (2015).

GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 43

 Fig. 2: The role of GIS in smart city is required across the full spectrum of
smart components
GIS
Real time
Data
Data
analytics
Systems
Table 1: Geo-spatial framework for smart cities
(Various domains)
Natural Agriculture, Climate Change, Conservation,
Resources Environment Management, Forestry, Mining,
Ocean, Petroleum, Water Resources
Government State, Local, Resilient Communities
Architecture, Engineering and Construction
(AEC) Economic development, Facilities, Land
administration, Public Works, Surveying,
Urban and Regional Planning
Defense and Military operations, Intelligence, Installations
Intelligence and Environment, Geo-spatially enabled
enterprise
Utilities and Electric, Gas, Location base Services, Pipeline,
Communication Telecommunications, Water/waste water
Public Safety Emergencies call taking and dispatch,
Emergency disaster management, Fire rescue
and EMS Homeland National Security, Law
enforcement, Wild land fire management
Health and Public health, services,hospital and health
Services management system, Geo-medicine
Education Libraries and Museum, School, Universities
and community colleges
Businessand Insurance, Retail, Manufacturing, Real Estate,
marketing Banking, Marketing, Media
Transportation Aviation, Highway, Logistics, Railways, Ports
and Maritime, Public transit
Mapping and Aeronautical, Cartographic, Nautical,
Charting Topographic
Source: Conceptualised from various sources.
still defecates in the open.
Only 72 per cent of Indias solid waste is
collected and only 30 per cent is segregated.
Scientific treatment and disposal is generally
non-existent.
44 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
PlannInG
Relevant
Efficient
Integrated
Source: Biswas, V. (2015).
Around 24 per cent of Indias urban population
lives in slums.
Integration of GIS based planning and
monitoring in smart cities
The purpose of using GIS based planning and
monitoring is that base maps generated while
preparing the database helps in producing mean-
ingful outputs in the digital domain. Visualisation
thus achieved can directly translate into planning
of real-world policy implementation, and helps
monitoring of social indicators. This facilitates
improvement in living conditions and need-
base assessment. This is why geospatial data and
geographical information systems are essential
components of a smart city.
Nowadays, GIS serves as an important tool
to map and analyse services for citizens, the
participation of citizens in governance, open
government, transparency,and efficient and
sustainable management. A GIS based network
can provide invaluable inputs not only for plan-
ning road, sewerage and drinking water services,
but can also help manage them. For instance, a
slum development plan can be easily integrated
into a local development plan for the economy.
Recently, the government of India has launched
national urban information system (NUIS) to
develop an inventory of various resources for
urban planning and development. The various
steps to develop a smart city involves:
Preparation of a master/development/zonal plan
Inventory of land and natural resources
Design of settlement pattern
Study of slums and blighted areas
Improvement of the urban environment
Redevelopment/re-densification of towns/cities
Fig. 3: Growth of urbanisation in India

140

120 Fast urbanising India

Unprecedented managerial and policy challenge
100 Population of India : 1210.2 Million.
Level of urabanisation : 31 per cent*
80
Urban population : 377.10 Million.
Increase in urban population : 15 times
60 25 Million. (1901) to 377.10 Million (2011)
Increase no. of urban settlements : 4 times
40 1967 (1901) to 7935 (2011)

20 *Much lower than in other major developing countries, e.g.

45 per cent in China, 54 per cent in Indonesia, 78 per cent in
0 Mexico, and 87 per cent in Brazil.
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Urban Rural

Rapid pace of urbanisation in India

1971 110 Mil. 2001 290 Mil. 2011 377 Mil. 2031 600 Mil.

30 Years 10 Years 20 Years

Source: MoUD (2015).

Monitoring of land use and planning
Monitoring of land regulation and urban fringes
Transport planning and environmental assess-
ment.
The credit for being Indias first smart city goes
to Lavasa in Maharashtra. The city provides
management services, e-governance, ICT infra-
structure and value added services, including
intelligent home solutions and digital lifestyles for
city dwellers. It also offers touch-point automa-
tion, door and motion sensors, beam detectors,
and on-call transport services.
The proposed GIFT City in Gandhinagar,
Gujarat is another example of a smart city. GIFT
will have a central command centre to monitor a
city-wide information technology (IT) network
that shall manage, energy efficient cooling systems
(instead of air conditioning), high-tech waste
collection systems and respond to emergencies. IT
systems will also play an important role for online
water quality monitoring in Surat, digital build-
ings plan in Coimbatore, and GIS linked property
assessment in Kanpur, among others.
keep pace with Indias rapid urbanisation. Smart
cities, with their extensive use of ICTs spell an
attempt to overcome the shortcomings in Indian
urban planning, and can help usher in a better
quality of life for all.
references
Ali, O.B. (2014). Smart cities and Geospatial Tech-
nology: GeoSmart Cities. Oman International
Exhibition Center, Muscat.
Aikins, SK, (2012). Managing E-Government
Projects: Concepts, Issues, and Best Practices:
Concepts, Issues, and Best Practices. IGI Global
Publishing. USA.
Biswas, V; Kumar, D and Thakur, S. (2015). Efficiency
of information and communication technology
(ICT) in sustainable smart city development.
International Journal of new innovations in
engineering and technology. Vol. 3 (4), pp. 38-41.
MOUD (2015). Smart City: Mission transformation,
Mission, Statements and guidelines. Ministry of
Urban Development, government of India. New
Delhi.

endnote Author is Director, GK Landscape Modelling Pvt Ltd, New

Urban services and infrastructure have failed to Delhi. ms13153@gmail.com

GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 45

C l im at e Ch a n g e P o l i Cy

By Raimi L, akosiLe o k and adebanwa a

Corporate SoCial
reSponSibility and
Climate Change
CSR can be an effective tool for mitigating climate change. It is the duty
of corporations to redress climate change through environment-friendly
manufacturing techniques, adoption of a green, transparent policy and
environmental disclosure.

C
limate change is an environmental
challenge confronting all countries
across the globe in varying degrees
of intensity. Across Africa, Asia,
North and South America and
Europe, the adverse effects of climate change have
manifested over the years as ozone layer deple-
tion, continental global warming, shower of acid
rain, extended fires, melting ice, rise in sea level
and other extreme events which calls for urgent
actions at national and international levels.
The developed countries with large industrial
plants and manufacturing companies have expe-
rienced the threats of climate change, and their
policy-makers are working tirelessly at mitigating
the adverse effects of solid waste contamination
and carbon/gas emission from industrial plants
on people, plants and planet. However, unfor-
tunately it is the developing countries that are
most vulnerable to climate change and associated
environmental disasters as they cannot do much
to mitigate these threats because of the domestic
challenges of poverty, bad governance, terrorism,
hunger, diseases and institutional corruption.

46 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu


A number of affirmative actions and recom-
mendations that had been formulated at national
and international level to combat climate change
include eco-vigilance, conservation of the flora
and fauna, zero-tolerance for gas flaring, adop-
tion of environment friendly manufacturing
techniques, socially responsible investment (SRI)
and carbon emission reporting and disclosures.
Despite all these laudable policies, environmental
abuses engendered by industrial plants and
manufacturing companies continue unabated.
A self-regulating approach that makes manu-
facturing organisations socially responsible and
responsive to environmental issues in their oper-
ating countries/communities can be expedient
in climate change mitigation, and strengthen
existing governmental policies on climate
change. Measures taken as part of corporate social
responsibility (CSR) as a voluntary obligation for
enhancing the social, economic and environ-
mental wellness of society could actually reflect
the CSR in its true spirit.
India and cSr legislation
In India, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs notified
Section 135 and Schedule VII of the Companies
Act 2013 as well as the provisions of the Companies
(Corporate Social Responsibility Policy) Rules,
2014 with effect from April 1, 2014, under which
every company, whether private or public, with a
net worth of INR 500 crore or a turnover of INR
1,000 crore or net profit of INR 5 crore, needs to
spend at least 2 per cent of its average net profit for
the immediately preceding three financial years
on CSR activities. The CSR activities should not
be undertaken in the normal course of business
and must be with respect to any of the activities
mentioned in Schedule VII of the 2013 Act which
enumerates activities related to poverty alleviation,
education, healthcare, environmental sustain-
ability, among others. Contribution to any political
party is not considered to be a CSR activity.
This has seen many huge corporate entities
plunge overnight into CSR activities, a lot of them
dubious. Where projects related to environmental
sustainability go, it is all the more so. There are
paper manufacturing companies which plant
trees in acres of land. But these plantations are
monoculture projects, and although increasing
the green cover, can hardly qualify as environ-
Climate change mitigation
across the globe requires
a coordinated intervention
through CSR to complement
and strengthen existing
governmental policies on
climate change.
mentally sustainable. Similarly, we have many
companies financing the planting of trees like
eucalyptus or jatropha in monoculture planta-
tions. Neither of these plants are environmentally
sound investments, with eucalyptus particularly
prone to cause groundwater levels to plunge to
dangerously low levels while interfering with the
food cycle and food security in forest environ-
ments.
This is not to say that there are no environmental
initiatives to date. Bharat Petroleums Project
Boond, which involves the setting of rainwater
harvesters in rural India, Tata Powers energy
conservation and Act for Mahseer conservation
initiative for Mahseer fish, Larsen and Toubros
initiative to set up check dams in Palghar, Mahar-
ashtra, and Mahindra and Mahindras Project
Hariyali to provide a green cover in Araku Valley
have won them laurels. However, each CSR initia-
tive ought to be matched with sustainable business
practices.
CSR in India tends to focus on what is done with
profits after they are made. On the other hand,
sustainability is about factoring the social and
environmental impacts of conducting business
(Price Water House Coopers, 2013).
For instance, Vedanta thought nothing about
publicising its efforts at promoting education in
the Niyamgiri belt, even as it sought to uproot
the Dongria Kondhs from their homes, and lay
waste the forests of Niyamgiri to mine bauxite
for aluminium. Coca Colas soft drinks plant
shamelessly exploited the groundwater in Plachi-
mada, Kerala, to manufacture its colas, while
advertising its CSR initiatives for the surrounding
community. Coca Colas rainwater harvesting
initiatives to recharge overexploited groundwater
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 47

aquifers at Kaladehra in Rajasthan too, were
found to be contentious by an independent audit
by TERI (Karnani, 2012). Similarly, for all its
CSR commitments, Unilever India did not think
twice, when dumping toxic mercury at its scrap
yard from where it found its way into the waters in
Kodaikanal in the Nilgiris where it was manufac-
turing thermometers (Greenpeace, 2001).
From a policy angle, it is not enough to formu-
late a CSR policy or development programme.
The implementation process must address three
dimensions of sustainabilityeconomic, social
and environmental, often called the sustainable
development triangle.
When we talk of the climate change mitiga-
tion agenda, it must be realised that it is in the
interest of manufacturing companies to support
efforts at curbing environmental risks and
threats posed to humans, animals, plants and the
ecosystem. Unfriendly manufacturing practices
have triggered atmospheric poisoning and water
contamination causing avoidable death. Envi-
ronmentalists are hence pressurising industry
to comply with enabling laws and regulatory
requirements in their host countries, and reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Ortar,
2014). But more than activists, it is the consumers
and host communities that can play a pivotal
role in ensuring compliance of laws by errant
industrial groups. It will also ensure that there are
genuine CSR initiatives, rather than mere green
washing.
climate change mitigation: need for a
green policy
An attempt to refocus CSR as a mitigation tool
for climate change has led to the postulation of
the green theory. Green thinking raises an alarm
on the side effects of economic growth on climate
change. According to Eckersley (2010), green
theory is a novel thinking which articulates the
concern for peoples rights, justice, citizenship,
good governance and environment. In a sequel
to the emergence of green theory, nuances such as
green marketing, green products, green policies,
green consumerism emerged to convey green
lifestyles as well as warning corporations against
remaining unresponsive to climate change and
environmental degradation which have precipi-
tated crises across the globe (Wagner 2003).
48 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
Unfriendly manufacturing
practices have triggered
atmospheric poisoning and
water contamination causing
avoidable death. Consumers
can play a pivotal role in
ensuring compliance of laws.
Similarly, environmentalists and ecologists have
advocated green thinking for industrialists and
manufacturing companies to be accommodated
in the processes of production, so as to have a
sustainable positive impact on the consumer and
the environment in the long run (Szuster, 2008).
Green theory is very relevant to oil producing
regions in Nigeria, where multinational oil
companies continuously flare gases with little
regard for the environment, humans, animals,
flora and fauna (Amaeshi et al; 2006; George,
et. al., 2012).
In support of the view above, Grant (2007)
states that the threat of climate change as well as
the need for ecosystem sustainability has neces-
sitated a green policy to avert the spill over effects
of industrial gases. It is reported that corpora-
tions are voluntarily adopting a green policy in
the production and designing of environment
friendly and green compliant products (Szuster,
2008).
In pursuance of global green policy to manage
climate change, the 7th, 8th and 9th principles in
the UN Global Compact need to be enforced. The
7th principle made it mandatory for all corpora-
tions across the globe to adopt a precautionary
approach to environmental management; the
8th principle requires corporations to promote
greater environmental responsibility; and the 9th
principle expects corporations to deploy environ-
ment-friendly technologies in their operations
(UN Global Compact, 2014:6). A green policy
directed at climate change is a self-regulating
action designed by political actors to mitigate
the threat that climate change poses to the world
(Grant, 2007).
 There are several examples of green policies
across the globe. In Canada, mining corporations
have adopted green policies, to make the environ-
ment better for all (Hart, 2012). Green policies are
enforced in the mining industry through codes of
conductthe C-300 Bill; operation, maintenance
and surveillance (OMS) manual; and. the effluent
regulations (ibid). In Nigeria, the MTN telecom-
munications company has adopted a green policy
on wastes, by producing biodegradable recharge
cards as well as encouraging MTN e-charge,
which is an electronic technique of loading airtime
directly to phones and is designed to replace paper
recharge cards.
Furthermore, the developed economies have
developed an environmental reporting standard
called the Green Reporting Index; as social and
environmental indicators for measuring corpora-
tions green-compliance and responsiveness to
environmental issues (Hart, 2012). Even in the
United States, the public thinking about CSR has
changed, with investors now insisting on knowing
the extent of a firms carbon emissions to the
atmosphere as per the Carbon Disclosure Project
(Stanny, 2008).
In the developing world, it is difficult to monitor
CSR through legislation. When legislation related
to CSR was sought to be introduced in Nigeria, the
Parliament did not approve of the same. However,
voluntary action related to declaring the carbon
footprint of corporate entities is slowly becoming
the norm. Under the Indo-German Biodiversity
Programme, which is an initiative of the Indian
government and Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), several
major Indian companies owing allegiance to
the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) have
signed the India Business & Biodiversity Initiative
(IBBI) Declaration, committing themselves to
valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services,
as also the impact of business decisions on biodi-
versity. Each of the 16 companies who have signed
the declaration so far have pledged themselves to
make a public disclosure of the progress made on
the areas mentioned in the Declaration (business-
biodiversity.in; indo-germanbiodiversity.com).
endnote
Pressure groups and environmentalists can
easily leverage CSR as a tool for mitigating the
threats posed by climate change through a self-
regulating green policy followed by the corporate
sector. While, instrumental CSR is desirable,
policy makers should be wary of superficial CSR
programmes/projects branded as green because
they may often be designed for commercial
benefits, with little concern for the public or
the environment, amounting to what is termed
greenwashing (Greer and Bruno, 1996; Hart, 2012;
Sweeney, 2009). Secondly, it is best to be wary of
over-publicised green postures by manufacturing
outfits that use the media to impress the public
on being environmentally responsible (Szuster,
2008) to enhance patronage for their products
(Grant, 2007).
In truth, CSR needs to be refocused as a tool for
climate change mitigation through adoption of
green policies involving responsible production
techniques, and disclosures of carbon footprint.
Green theory can be a relevant perspective for
embedding the climate change discourse in
contemporary times.
references
Amaeshi K. M., B. C. Adi, C. Ogbechie and O. O.
Amao. 2006. Corporate Social Responsibility
in Nigeria: Western mimicry or indigenous
influences? Journal of Corporate Citizenship,
24: 83-99.
Eckersley R. 2010. Green Theory. In Dunne,
T., Kurki, M. and S.Smith, International
Relations Theories Disciplines and Diversity.
New York: Oxford University Press.
George O. J., O. L. Kuye and U. C. Onokala.
2012. Corporate Social responsibility (CSI)
a catalyst to the Niger Delta Crisis: The case
of Nigerian oil Multinational Companies
Versus the militants of Niger Delta Region of
Nigeria. Journal of management Research, 4
(2):1-11.
Grant J. 2007. The Green Marketing Manifesto.
England: Wiley & Son.
Greer J. and K. Bruno. 1996. Greenwash: The
Reality Behind Corporate Environmentalism.
Penang, Malaysia: Third World Network.
pp28-30.
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/media/press-
releases/unilever-admits-to-dumping-of-
mercury-in-indian-tourist-town.
Hart R. 2012. Green Mining or Green Washing?
Corporate Social Responsibility and the Mining
Sector in Canada. Mining Watch Canada.
GeOGraphy and yOu September - OctOber 2016 49

India Business and Biodiversity Initiative,
supported by the Indo-German Biodiversity
Programme under the project- Incentives for
Sustainable Management of Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services, ( ISBM). Available at
www. businessbiodiversity.in, & www.indo-
germanbiodiversity.com for details.
Ortar L. 2014. Climate Change and CSR:
Can Voluntarism Pay? The College of law
and Business,Israel,Konrad-Adenauer-
stiftung,Isreal,pp.1-28.
Pricewaterhouse Coopers Handbook on
Corporate Social Responsibility in India, Pwc/
CII, 2013, https://www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/
publications/2013/handbook-on-corporate-
social-responsibility-in-india.pdf.
Karnani A. 2012. Corporate Social Responsibility
does not avert the tragedy of the Commons,
-Case Study: Coca Cola India, Working
Paper, Ross School of Business, University of
Michigan. Available at: https://deepblue.lib.
umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/90509/1
173?sequence=1.
Stanny E. and K. Ely. 2008. Corporate
environmental disclosures about the effects of
climate change.Corporate Social Responsibility
and Environmental Management,15(6): 338-
348.
Sweeney L. 2009. A Study of Current Practice of
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and an
Examination of the Relationship between CSR
and Financial Performance Using Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM).Doctoral Thesis.
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin.
Szuster D. 2008. Green Marketing -A Case Study
Of British Airways. Dissertation On Culture,
Communication And Globalisation, Aalborg
University.
UN Global Compact. 2014. Corporate
Sustainability in The World Economy. UN
Global Compact Office, United Nations,
New York. Available at: http://www.
unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/8.1/
GC_brochure_FINAL.pdf.
Wagner A. S. 2003. Understanding Green
Consumer Behaviour: A Qualitative
Cognitive Approach, Routledge.
Author is Senior Lecturer, Centre for Entrepreneurship
Development, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, Nigeria.
p11039237@myemail.dmu.ac.uk
50 September - OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu
i n BR ief
emiSSion SCenario: 2040
Energy consumption has always been at the center
of the climate change debate. Emission mapping by
experts reveal that world energy-related CO2 emissions
will increase from 32.3 billion MT in 2012 to 35.6 billion
MT in 2020 and to 43.2 billion MT in 2040, as many
countries such as India continue to rely on coal to meet
A
burgeoning energy demand.
recent Climate Central report brought
to light that the earth has permanently
passed a symbolic carbon dioxide
threshold of 400 parts-per-million (ppm)
in September 2016, never to return
below. Much of the growth in emissions
is attributable to developing nations outside the Organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
In fact, as per the EIA, the non-OECD emissions in 2040
will total to 29.4 billion MT, or about 51 per cent higher than
the 2012 level. In comparison, OECD emissions would
total 13.8 billion MT in 2040, or about 8 per cent higher
than the 2012 level (Fig. 1).
The 21st Conference of Parties in Paris (COP21,
November 30 through December 12, 2015), have seen
many countries submitting individual emissions reduction
goals, or Intended Nationally Determined Contribu-
tions (INDCs), under the United Nations Framework
Fig. 1: OECD and non-OECD energy-related carbon
dioxide emissions, 1990-2040 (Billion metric tons)
History 2012 Projections
30
25
Non-OECD
20
15
OECD
10
5
0
1990 2000 2012 2020 2030 2040
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). However,
the uncertainty about the process of implementation of
policies and the will to meet stated goals looms large. In
addition, beyond energy-related CO2, other gases (e.g.,
methane) and sources (e.g., deforestation) that contribute
to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions could have signifi-
cant effects on national or regional shares of total global
GHG emissions and the achievement of INDCs. Inputs
from the US Energy Information Administration (May 11, 2016),
Available at: https://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/emissions.cfm.
C l im at e Ch a n g e F o r e s t

By Swati Mohan Sappal and alagappan RaManathan

Mangroves-surviving
against all odds
Mangroves are critically important wetlands in view of the variety of ecosystem
functions they perform. Yet, they are witnessing widespread destruction, much
to the peril of coastal communities. A better understanding of their role is of
utmost importance for designing future management strategies.

M
angroves are highly specialised
ecosystems characterised by
salt-resistant plants thriving
in the intertidal areas along
sheltered coasts and estuaries
in tropical and sub-tropical regions. They are
commonly found in the latitudes between 24N
and 38S and cover up to 75 per cent of coast-
lines worldwide. Mangroves, often termed as
the tropical rainforests of the sea, are the second
highest source of primary production next to
rainforests and have a substantial impact on the
global carbon budget (Dittmar et.al., 2006). These
forests are capable of fixing and storing significant
amounts of carbon under extreme conditionsa
point of growing interest. Yet, there remains little
realisation of their importance, hence accounting
for their destruction in the name of urbanisation
and development.
Mangrove forests occupy less than 1 per cent
of tropical forested areas, and yet account for
approximately 3 per cent of the global carbon
sequestration by tropical forests (Bhomia et. al.,
2016). They function as carbon sinks, removing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing
it in the form of plant biomass and soil organic
matter. Some recent studies claim that mangrove
management may provide an attractive low-
cost alternative to reduce atmospheric carbon
dioxide. There is, hence, considerable impetus in
developing mangrove conservation projects.
Besides this, mangroves also provide a variety
of other ecological functions. They are a habitat for
diverse aquatic life and act as an intricate part of
the food web. Mangroves comprise nurseries and
feeding grounds for fish, shrimps, crabs, and house
a variety of endangered and rare species such as the
Royal Bengal Tiger and the estuarine crocodile.
ecological functions of mangroves
Mangrove forests act as the first line of defence
in protecting shorelines from cyclones and their

GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 51

 some recent studies claim
associated impacts (Kathiresan and Rajendran, that mangrove management
2005). They act as a barrier to slow down the
ingress of water from storm surges and tsunamis, may provide an attractive
by interfering with incoming waves and reducing
their height and speed as they move inland low-cost alternative to reduce
(Mazda et. al., 2006). They also serve as an impor-
tant source of livelihood for coastal populations, atmospheric carbon dioxide.
providing several direct and indirect benefits.
They are a good source of medicine, honey, sugar,
vinegar, alcohol, fuel and local beverages. In addi-
tion, they are harvested for products like timber
for construction, poles for fish traps, wood pulp breathe in waterlogged conditions, and stilt roots
for paper manufacture and wood chip production. that help gather mechanical support by spreading
Mangrove ecosystems can easily endure adverse out for firm anchorage under hostile wind and
environmental conditions. Prolonged water- intertidal conditions.
logging, anaerobic environment, harsh intertidal
currents, strong winds, and high salinity have mangroves in India
seen mangroves evolve through adaptations such Indias mangrove cover accounts for 3 per cent
as salt glands that can excrete excess salts and filter of the worlds mangrove vegetation and is spread
fresh water from salt water, roots that enable them over 4740 sq km along the Indian coastline. The

Fig. 1: Mangrove distribution and state-wise restoration initiatives in India.

Mangrove restoration
project (ReMAG) was
implemented by the State
Forest Department along
Gujarat Sundarban
with Gujarat ecology
Commission (GeC)
during 2002-2007 with
financial support from the MSSRF launched a major programme in
India Canada environ- Mahanadi 1996 for restoration of mangrove wetlands
ment Facility (ICeF) . of the east coast of India, with financial
support under the India Canada environ-
ment Facility (ICeF) and in collaboration
with the Ministry of environment and
Krishna Godavari Forests and State Forest Departments.
Ratnagiri
Goa Andaman and
Nicobar Islands

A 4-year pioneer project at Pichavaram

started in 1992 for the conservation and
rehabilitation of mangroves. It was led by
Tamil Nadu
M S Swaminathan Research Foundation
(MSSRF) and supported by Canadian
Cauvery International Development Agency (CIDA).
Deltaic By the time the project ended, in May 1996,
it had developed an effective technique to
Map not to scale
restore mangrove degradation.
Source: Iwww.fao.org/docrep/x8080e/x8080e07.htm

52 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you

gently sloping eastern coast of India is compara-
tively rich in mangroves as compared to the
steeply sloping western counterpart (Fig. 1). West
Bengal is home to the worlds largest mangrove
patchthe Sundarban, having a total mangrove
cover of 2,106 sq km, accounting for 44.4 per cent,
the highest in the country. It is followed by Gujarat
which has about 1,107 sq km and the union terri-
tory of Andaman and Nicobar which has 617 sq
km under mangroves (FSI, 2015).
However, anthropogenic pressures and
frequent natural calamities have degraded
Indias precious mangrove cover. Discharge from
industries along our coastline and consequent
discharge of domestic and industrial sewage have
also adversely affected these ecosystems.
Tropical storms and cyclones common to the
Bay of Bengal have caused massive destruction to
mangroves in Pichavaram (Cauvery) and Bhitar-
kanika (Mahanadi). An obvious environmental
impact of these natural disasters is the physical
damage to the forest cover. However, significant
modifications of the water and soil properties
have also been documented. For instance, a study
by Ranjan et. al. in 2008 on the Pichavaram
mangroves highlighted the incidence of increased
metal levels and a possible risk of heavy metal
pollution due to the backwash or receding storm
water from the hinterlands after the 2004 Indian
Ocean Tsunami.
Increased urbanisation is another important
cause of rapid degradation of mangroves. A study
by Cho et. al. in 2004, found that even though no
significant increase in agriculture was observed
around the Pichavaram mangroves during past
decades (1970-1996), change in land use patterns
with the increase in aquaculture ponds has
increased the stress on the mangrove ecosystem,
especially since the 1990s. In fact, there were no
aquaculture ponds in the area around the 70s. In
1984, aquaculture ponds covered 3.99 sq km and
by 1996, the coverage had nearly doubled to 6.99
sq km.
Another stark example of the impact of urbani-
sation can be seen in the reclamation and linking
of the original seven islands that made Mumbai, by
the destruction of mangroves (Kathiresan,2005).
In the Sundarban, large tracts of mangrove
forests were documented to be destroyed between
the 1770s, and the 1990s, which saw the conversion
of forest land into farms and human habitat. The
rising sea level and increased salinity has severely
impacted mangrove vegetation in the Sundarban
and Pichavaram (Gopal and Chauhan,2006).
Studies have shown that the increasing water
salinity is altering the species abundance and
structure of the mangrove ecosystems herein. The
loss of Heritiera and Nypa species in most parts of
the Sundarban has been well documented (Badve
and Sakurkar, 2003). In Pichavaram, freshwater-
loving mangrove species are being gradually
replaced by the salt-loving species like Avicennia
and Suaeda (Ranjan et. al., 2015).
mangrove conservation initiatives
It is clear that there is a vital need for systematic
conservation efforts to sustainably manage
the sensitive ecosystem. The Government of
India has already initiated several such efforts
in the past. The Environment Protection Act
(1986) is a crucial piece of legislation for the
conservation and management of mangrove
ecosystems, and earmarks a coastal regulation
zone (CRZ), wherein all industrial activities such
as the discharge of untreated effluents and sewage,
deforestation, dumping of waste, land conversion
are restricted to protect the coastal environment.
Since its inception in 1991, several amendments
have been made to the CRZ keeping in mind the
sustainable use and management of mangroves.
Besides this, there have been various attempts
towards mangrove restoration through peoples
participation in mangrove management. The M
S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF)
has initiated several projects in Pichavaram since
1992 to conserve mangroves by developing and
demonstrating an effective mangrove restoration
technique, which could be replicated in all other
Indian mangrove ecosystems. This four year
MSSRF project (1993-1996) revealed that grazing,
land use changes, and reduced fresh water flow
were not the only causes of degradation. Instead,
it found, coupe felling was the main cause. Coupe
felling laid barren large swathes of mangrove
wetland to sunlight leading to evaporation of
soil water. As a result, soil in the coupe-felled
area shrunk, changing the flat topography into a
trough. This made this barren area prone to the
piling up of tidal water, thus increasing soil salinity
to a level which can prove fatal to mangrove
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 53
even though there was
no significant increase
in agriculture around the
Pichavaram mangroves, a rise
in aquaculture increased the
stress on mangroves, especially
since the 1990s.
survival (MSSRF, 2002).
In order to overcome this problem, a fish bone/
canal method for mangrove re-plantation and
restoration was developed. Degraded/barren
patches were restored by ensuring free flow of
tidal water in and out of the degraded area during
high tide and low tide by digging canals and
linking them to the nearby natural creeks. These
man-made canals also facilitated flooding of the
degraded area with less saline or near-freshwater
during the monsoon season. Successful regenera-
tion of mangrove species was thus achieved.
Following the successful demonstration of
this restoration technique in Pichavaram, similar
efforts were later undertaken in mangroves in
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal under
a joint mangrove management plan. From the
early 1990s till the 2000s, the work of the MSSRF
and other government and non-government
organisations, has led to an upsurge of national
and international interest in conservation and
management of mangroves. These efforts have
helped in a net increase of 112 sq km of mangrove
forests, as assessed by the Forest Survey of India in
2015 indicating that we have learnt well from our
mistakes and experiences. In fact, the statistics
provides us with a benchmark for further conser-
vation activity.
endnote
Mangroves are not only important but also crucial
for the protection and survival of our coastal
areas. Even if the benefits of mangroves as forests
be ignored, their role as a bulwark against extreme
54 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
coastal events triggered by climate change is
reason enough for conserving them.
references
Badve R. M. and C. V. Sakurkar. 2003. On the
disappearance of palm genus Nypa from the
west coast with its present status in the Indian
subcontinent, Current Science, 85: 1407-1409.
Bhomia R. K., R. A. MacKenzie, D. Murdiyarso,
S. D. Sasmito and J. Purbopuspito. 2016.
Impacts of Land Use on Indian Mangrove
Forest Carbon Stocks: Implications for
Conservation and Management, Ecological
Applications. doi:10.1890/15-2143.
Dittmar T., N. Hertkorn, G. Kattner and R.
Lara. 2006. Mangroves, major source of
dissolved organic carbon to the oceans. Global
Biogeochemical Cycle, 20:1-7.
Forest Survey of India, 2015. Report of the
National Forest Commission. Ministry of
Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India.
Gopal B. and M. Chauhan. 2006. Biodiversity and
its conservation in the Sunderban Mangrove.
Aquatic Ecosystem Science,68:388-354.
Kathiresan K. 2005. Distribution of mangroves.
International Training Course on Coastal
biodiversity in Mangrove Ecosystem- Course
Manual (p. 410). Paringipettai, India.
Mazda Y., M. Magi, Y. Ikeda and T. Kurokawa.
2006. Wave reduction in a mangrove forest
dominated by Sonneratia sp. Wetlands Ecology
and Management, 14: 365378.
MSSRF Report. 2002. The Mangrove Decade and
Beyond Activities, Lessons and Challenges in
Mangrove Conservation and Management,
1990-2001.
Ranjan R., A. Ramanathan and G. Singh. 2008.
Evaluation of geochemical impact of tsunami
on Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem,
southeast coast of India. Environmental
Geology, 55: 687-697.
Ranjan R. K., J. Routh, J. V. Klump and A. L.
Ramanathan. 2015. Sediment biomarker
profiles trace organic matter input in the
Pichavaram mangrove complex, southeastern
India. Marine Chemistry, 171: 44-57.
Authors are Research Scholar and Professor respectively,
at School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi. swati.sappal@gmail.com
C l im at e Ch a n g e P o l i Cy

By Staff RepoRteR

How logical is
interlinking of rivers?
The idea is being mooted to save vast tracts of land from annual floods,
besides diverting waters to parched regions. However, experts question the
assumption of surplus water in any basin. Instead of grandiose schemes,
simple methods to conserve every drop may help solve the problem.

T
he idea of inter-linking Indian rivers
is nothing new. Originally mooted
by Sir Arthur Cotton during the days
of the British Raj, to transfer excess
water from perennial Himalayan
rivers to the rain-fed peninsular rivers , the scheme
was revisited by Dr K L Rao, the then minister
for power and irrigation in the cabinet of Indira
Gandhi, in 1972 (Mehta, 2013). Cottons prime
concern was for an inland navigational network,
while Raos was for irrigation and power (Shiva
and Jalees, 2003).
Rao put forward the Ganga-Cauvery link for
the creation of a National Water Grid (Rao 1975);
furthered by Captain Dinshaw Dastur in 1977
under his Garland Canal scheme, wherein the
Himalayan waters would be fed in to the penin-
sular parts of the country by means of pipelines.
Although both the proposals were rejected due
to the costs involved, and lack of technological
feasibility, the interest in the scheme persisted.
The then-Ministry of Irrigation (the Ministry
of Water Resources, MoWR) conceived a plan for
National Perspectives for Water Development
in August 1980 (MoWR, 1980).This paved the
way for the establishment of the National Water
Development Agency (NWDA) in 1982 to work
out basin-wise surpluses and deficits and explore
possibilities of storage, links and transfers. The
NWDA identified 30 river links, which would
connect every major river in the Indian mainland,
and prepared a feasibility report on six of these.
Thereafter, the Supreme Court asked the Indian
government to complete all planning required
to launch the project by 2006 and directed inter-
basin transfers to be completed in the next 10 years
or so.
The current Interlinking of River (ILR)
programme is based on the National Perspective
Plan (NPP) (MoWR 1980) to minimise regional

GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 55


water imbalances and to optimally utilise avail-
able water resources by transferring water from
water surplus to water deficient regions by inter-
linking rivers.
Faced with recurrent droughts in south-
western and central India owing to climate
change and an increasingly truant monsoon,
the government is now seriously mulling over
the scheme. In an August, 2016 exchange in
Parliament, the present Indian government is
considering the ILR as an essential for addressing
the twin problems of water scarcity and flooding
in the country. The ILR programme has there-
fore, been taken up on a high priority. Minister
of State for Water Resources, River Development
and Ganga Rejuvenation, Dr Sanjeev Kumar
Balyan, has identified 30 links (16 under penin-
sular component and 14 under the Himalayan
component) for preparation of feasibility reports.
After survey and investigations feasibility reports
of 14 links under the peninsular component and
two links in the Himalayan components have
been prepared in 2016.
The National River Linking Project (NRLP),
comprising 30 river links and more than 3000
storages to distribute 174 billion cubic meters
(BCM) of water through a canal network of
about 14900 km will connect 37 Himalayan and
peninsular rivers. The projected costas per
National Perspective Plan (NPP, April, 2016)
(Task Force Report-Base year 2002) was revealed
as INR 1,85,000 Crore for the peninsular and
INR 3,75,000 Crore for the Himalayan compo-
nent, totalling to INR 5,60,000 Crore (PIB, 2016).
The detailed project reports (DPRs) of Ken-
Betwa Phase I & II, Daman-Ganga-Pinjal,
Par-Tapi-Narmada have been prepared and
shared with the States. Pre-feasibility reports of
36 intra-state link proposals out of 46 have also
been completed. These DPRs are at various stages
of approval. The in-principle approval of the
Standing Committee of the National Wild Life
Board has been received for the Ken-BetwaLink
Project and it will serve as a model link project
of ILR programme. Of special relevance to the
drought prone areas of Bundelkhand region in
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, this Link is
envisaged to benefit thousands.
The estimated cost of the Ken-Betwa Link
Project Phase-I and Phase-II are about INR
56 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
the nRlP proposes to build
30 river links and more than
3000 storages to connect 37
himalayan and Peninsular rivers
and to transfer 174 BCm
of water through a canal
network of about 14900 km.
18057.08 Crore (2015-16 price level) and about
INR 2282.94 Crore (2012-13 price level) respec-
tively. The estimated cost of Damanganga-Pinjal
Link Project is about INR 3008 Crore (2015-16
price level), while that of Par-Tapi-Narmada Link
project is INR 9279 Crore (at 2014-15 price level).
The NRLP envisages to:
provide additional irrigation to 35 million ha
of crop area and water supply to domestic and
industrial sectors;
add 34 GW of hydro-power potential to the
national grid;
mitigate floods in eastern India; and
facilitate various other economic activities
such as internal navigation, fisheries, ground-
water recharge, and environmental flow of
water-scarce rivers.
The NRLP when completed, will increase
Indias utilisable water resources by 25 per cent,
and reduce the inequality of water resource
endowments in different regions. The increased
capacity will address the issue of increasing
Indias per capita storage.
The NRLP has three major donor river
basins, the Brahmaputra in the Himalayan
component, and the Mahanadi and Godavari
in the peninsular component. The proposed
quantities of water transfer from Brahmaputra to
Ganga, Ganga to Subarnarekha, and then from
Subarnarekha to Mahanadi, however, are not
available yet (Amarasinghe, 2012).
The pros and the cons
The discourse in favour of the NRLP argues that
the project will lead to equitable distribution
of water throughout the country. Yearly, India
receives about 4000 billion cubic metres (BCM)
of water through precipitation. Because of high
rates of evaporation, only about 1900 BCM of
water, comprising both surface and ground
waters, is considered available as Indias annual
renewable resource. Due to further geographic
limitations, about 1300 BCM of water only can
be used. Although the average annual water
availability in the country is adequate, it is
skewed. Indias population grew in the last 50
years from about 0.4 to 1.0 billion and is likely
to stabilise at about 1.5 billion in 2060. Amongst
river basins, annual water availability per capita
is highest at about 18,400 cum in Brahmaputra
which is the least developed yet vast basin, as
compared to Sabarmati basin, which is a highly
developed but relatively much smaller basin with
only 300 cum per capita availability, depending
upon inter-basin water transfer from the Mahi
and Narmada rivers. The water availability per
capita within basins such as Sabarmati will fall
further with population growth, increasing its
dependence on inter-basin water transfer more
than ever before (Thatte, 2007).
Assessing the impact of this massive project
on the economy, the National Council of Applied
Economic Research (NCAER), in a study had
estimated several other advantages. Link canals,
for instance, have the potential to generate
hydroelectricity, the potential of which during
summer is low. Once canals and reservoirs are in
place and enough water is stored in reservoirs, it
can be used to generate hydro electricity.
The Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga (MSTG)
link in the eastern/north-eastern region, for
instance, is envisaged to generate 28,994.5 MW
of power. Even if 4,193 MW of power is accounted
for running the project, the net power generated
would amount to 24,801.5 MW.
In the short-run, the direct impact of increased
investment in the construction sector for building
the infrastructure involved in interlinking the
rivers would amount to INR 10,000 Crore. This
would result in a 3.80 per cent value-addition in
favour of the construction sector.
Similarly, due to forward and backward link-
ages, the value added for sectors like cement
would increase by 2.46 per cent, structural clay
products by 2.37 per cent and basic metal and
metal products by 0.65 per cent. With increased
income in the economy, there would be increased
demand for more goods and services and hence,
all sectors of the economy would experience
growth. It is estimated that the incremental value
generated in the economy would be INR 17,424
Crore (0.91 per cent) through INR 10,000 Crore
of additional investment in construction. Direct
employment in the construction sector would
grow by 22.74 per cent. Cement and electricity,
gas and water supply would, of course, experi-
ence higher growth of employment than the
construction sector. Hence, total employment
in economy would increase by nearly 4 per cent
(NCAER, 2008).
Those in favour of the interlinking of rivers
often allude to the uneven distribution of Indias
water resources. As much as 32 per cent of the
countrys water resources flow down the Brah-
maputra and Barak rivers, while another 28 per
cent flows through the Ganga (Patil et.al., 2006).
Floods are a recurring feature of these rivers
every monsoon, resulting in huge losses to life
and property. The interlinking of rivers is being
seen as the best solution to repeated flooding of
Himalayan rivers in the Indo-Gangetic plains,
and the erratic water availability in peninsular
India. Many see it as the ideal solution to the
overuse of groundwater reserves in many parts
of north-western India. Officially, several advan-
tages are being seen in the project, particularly:
Creating the potential to increase agricultural
production by an additional 100 per cent over
the next five years;
Avoiding loss of crops owing to extreme
droughts and floods, particularly in the north-
eastern and northern states;
Improving inland navigation with the help of
the canals that will have to be built as part of
the project; and,
Preventing massive amounts of water from
the Himalayan rivers, particularly during the
monsoon months from flowing into the sea.
However, social scientists and environmental-
ists remain opposed to the interlinking of rivers,
for a variety of reasons. For one, this massive
exercise will involve 30 different links, where
600 canals will need to be built, involving the
shifting and (hence) rehabilitation of around
3.5-5.5 million people across many states, most
of whom are tribals and farmers (Mohan, 2005).
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 57
This cannot be an easy task, and shall be rife researchers claim, will spell disaster. It may also
with tensions and several social repercussions. mean increased seismicity, and other resultant
Also they point out that interlinking will mean disasters.
interfering with nature; the river waters flowing The very issue of surplus surface water in the
into the seas and oceans are an inherent part of donor basinsthe basis of the interlinking of
the natural cycle. If we try stopping this flow, rivers and transferring from surplus river basins

Fig. 1: Proposed links on various

Himalayan and Peninsula rivers of India

5 Gomti

12
6 Ganga Dibang
Yamuna
4 Teesta Subansiri
Lohit
Chambal Ghaghara 2
Kameng
3 Gandak Brahmaputra
rahmaputra
Luni Kosi Dhansiri
Betwa
24 Ken
Sabarmati 8 1 Surma
Son 9
7 13
25 Damodar
10
Kasai
Mahi Narmada
26
11 Subarnarekha
Tapi Wainganga
Mahanadi Brahmani
27
Penganga
Godavari
Indravati 1 Manas Sankosh Teesta Ganga
15 2 Kosi Ghaghra
Sabar 3 Gandak Ganga
16 18 4 Ghagra Yamuna
5 Sarda Yamuna
17 Krishna 6 Yamuna rajasthan
Krishna
7 rajasthan Sabarmati
28 20 8 Chunar Sore Barrage
WC Dra
DraINaGe
INaGe 21 9 Some Dam Southern tributaries of Ganga
SYST
SYSTeM
STeM
ST 10 Ganga Damodar Subarnarekha
11 Subarnarekha Mahanadi
19 Pennar
12 Kosi Mechi
29 22 13 Farrakka Sunderban
Palar
Cauvery 14 Jogighopa Teesta Farakka
15 Mahanadi Godavari
There are 37 Ponniyar 16 Godavari Krishna
river 17 Godavari Krishna
proposed links of
23 Interliking 18 Godavari Krishna
Himalayan and 30 19 Krishna Pennar
Vaigai
Peninsula rivers 20 Krishna Pennar
Vaippar 21 Krishna Pennar
of which 30 are 22 Pennar Cauvery
Map not to Scale
presented here. 23 Cauvery Gundar
24 Ken Betwa
25 Parbati Kalisindh Chambal
26 Par Tapi Narmada
27 Damanganga Pinjal
28 Bedti Varada
29 Netravari Hemavati
30 Pamba achankovil Vaippar

58 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you


to water-de ficient regions, is being questioned in
the NRLP discourses. Environmentalists opine
that no river basin is water surplus. Viewed from
a holistic perspective there is no surplus water in
a river basin, because every drop performs some
ecological service all the time.
Ken-betwa link
The Ken-Betwa link, for instance, has drawn a
lot of flak from various quarters. According to
Himanshu Thakkar, of South Asian Network of
Dams, Rivers & People (SANDRP), there is no
basis to believe that of the Ken and Betwa rivers,
one is surplus and the other deficit. Besides, he
pointed out to GnY that the Ken-Betwa link and
the Daodhan dam will affect the PTR in three
ways, it will inundate 4,600 hectares, cut off some
other some other parts will be lost to construc-
tion.
Thakkars reservations were recently
confirmed by the National Board of Wildlife (
NBWL) Standing Committee Report on the Ken
Betwa Link Project , which has been submitted
to the Ministry of Environment & Forests.
According to the Report, the submergence of 7.2
lakh trees and 90 square km of the Panna Tiger
Reserve would mean an irreversible loss of
breeding sites for wild animals and specialized
habitats. Emphasizing on several other species
such as the sloth bear, leopard, rusty spotted cat,
hyena, sambhar, chital, four-horned antelope
and chinkara , the Committee has noted the
importance of the Ken river and its tributaries
for the Tiger Reserve. The gorges, caves, and
rock crevices of the Ken river basin, it has noted,
are normally occupied by wild mammals for
breeding and resting, especially during summer.
Loss of breeding sites will be irreversible after
submergence of these critical and specialised
habitats, specifically in the major submergence
zone (Indian Express, September 28, 2016).
While the government has been talking of
transporting water from the Ken basin to Betwa
using a 230 km canal, irrigating farmland along
the way in drought-prone Bundelkhand, local
activists question the logic of building weirs and
dams in a region that has already too many of
them. Instead, they advocate catching the rain-
drop where it falls to recharge the groundwater,
and improving soil fertility ( Scroll, May 2016).
the very issue of surplus
surface water in the donor
basinsthe basis of the
interlinking of rivers and
transferring from surplus river
basins to water-deficient
regions, is being questioned.
other concerns
What holds true for Bundelkhand and the Ken-
Betwa link, applies to the other regions to be
covered under this massive river interlinking
project. There are also concerns regarding the
humongous financial investment involved in the
project. The Assam state president of the ruling
Bharatiya Janata Party already expressed his
doubts about the effectiveness of river interlinking
in controlling Assams twin problems of flooding
and erosion. (TOI, August 3, 2016)
Private investment in the project is seen as never
to benefit the poor and marginalised. Cheaper
alternatives like rainwater harvesting, and effi-
cient use of water resources are being mooted by
many as far more feasible alternatives.
There are bound to be tensions with neigh-
bouring countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Pakistan, who are dependent on the Himalayan
rivers, and share them. Bangladesh, particularly, is
downstream, and is dependent on the Himalayan
rivers for 85 per cent of its water requirements.
Every dam and structure built in India can have
repercussions for Bangladesh. In fact, of the two
links mooted in Assamthe Manas-Sankosh,
Teesta-Ganga ( MSTG) and the Jogighopa -Teesta-
Farakka ( JTF), the latter one had to be dropped
due to the adverse impact it could have on Bangla-
desh. (TOI, August 3, 2016) Similarly, inter-basin
transfers in India can affect water availability in
Pakistan too.
community led initiatives-the better
alternative
Given the financial costs, logistics, and difficulties
in rehabilitating the huge numbers of people who
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 59
will have to be resettled, there certainly seems a
lot of sense in favour of opting for smaller, man-
ageable schemes spearheaded by communities.
There are several such initiatives that one can
learn from in Bundelkhand, as also the states of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra. A good
example is the Daarche Paani (doorstep water)
initiative seen in the Konkan region of the
Western Ghats in Maharashtra, where commu-
nities maintain an intricate system of tanks and
channels that supply water all through the year,
including the difficult months of April, May,
and June, with strict rules that prevent cutting
down of trees (Parineeta Dandekar, India
Water Portal, January 21, 2011).
Locally managed weirs, rainwater harvesters,
tanks, and bunds built by communities who
know their terrain can be cheaper and far
more acceptable than grandiose schemes that
are difficult to give shape to. Inland waterways
and canals connected to major ports, which
the government has in mind can certainly
trigger economic growth; but will play havoc
on the ecology, the food chain, biodiversity and
fisheries. The marginalisation of coastal and
inland fisheries is a major concern over the last
decade. River interlinking can spell the death-
knell of whatever is available of our fish species,
besides destroying the livelihoods of thousands
engaged in this industry. The question is, will it
all be worth it?
endnote
Locallymanaged weirs, rainwater harvesters,
tanks, and bunds built by can be far cheaper and
more acceptable than grandiose schemes that
are difficult to give shape to. They can trigger
much-needed economic growth, without
harming fragile ecosystems or biodiversity.
references
Amarasinghe U. 2012. Highlight- the National
River Linking Project of India-Some
contentious issues. Available at: www.iwmi.
org/iwmi-tata/apm2012.
Dandekar P. 2011.Sustainable water
management initiatives Konkan
under threat. Available at http://www.
indiawaterportal.org/articles/sustainable-
water-management-initiatives-konkan-
60 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
under-threat-report.
India Today 19 February 2010. http://indiatoday.
intoday.in/story/Rahuls+river+link+can+sink+ti
ger+reserve/1/84731.html.
Mehta D. and N. Mehta 2013. Interlinking of rivers
in India: Issues and challenges.Geo-Eco Marina,
19:137-143.
Mohan D. and S. Sarkar 2005. River interlinking and
rainwater harvesting: A comparison in Indian
perspective.International Rainwater Catchment
Systems Association (IRCSA), Warwick (UK),
Undated. Available at http://eng.warwick.ac.uk/
ircsa/pdf/12th/3/Mohan-D.pdf.
NCAER. 2008. Economic Impact of Interlinking of
Rivers programme, Revised Final Report. New
Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic
Research.
Patil U. S., D. S. Patil and M. S. Ranadive. 2006. State
of Art Report on Interlinking of rivers in India.
BharatiyaVidyapeeth: University, Pune.
Rao K. L. 1975. Indias Water Wealth: Its Assessment,
Uses, and Projections. Orient Longman.
Available at: http://www.newindianexpress.
com/nation/7-lakh-trees-90-sqkm-of-Panna-
Tiger-Reserve-may-submerge-in-Ken-Betwa-
project/2016/09/25/article3629488.ece
Sarkar S. May, 2016. Why linking rivers will not
save Bundelkhand.India Climate Dialogue,
www.scroll.in. Available at http://scroll.in/
article/807703/why-linking-rivers-will-not-save-
bundelkhand.
Sethi N. June, 2016. Linking Ken, Betwa to hurt
ecosystem, says government report.Business
Standard. Available at http://www.business-
standard.com/article/economy-policy/linking-
ken-betwa-to-hurt-ecosystem-says-govt-
report-116062201009_1.html.
www.nwda.gov.in/index2.asp?slid=1088&sublinkid=
14&langid=1.
Shiva V. and Jalees K. 2003. The Impact of the River
Linking Project. Water Sovereignty Series.
NFSTE/Navdauya, New Delhi, 2003.
Thatte C. D. 2007. Inter-basin water transfer for
augmentation of water resources in India- A
review of needs, plans, status and prospects,
International Journal of Water Resources, 23 (4):
1-15.
Times of India, August 3, 2016. http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/river-linking/
articleshow/53515954.cms.
C l im at e Ch a n g e Wat er
By Staff RepoRteR
ASIAS POOR WAteR
QuAlIty: A NeW lOW
Pathogen and organic pollution due to the respective discharge of untreated
wastewater and organic compounds are now a serious threat across rivers in
Asia, Africa and Latin America, says UNEP.
A
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) pre-study - A
Snapshot of the Worlds Water
Quality: Towards a global assess-
ment has found that water pollution
has risen across three continents-Asia, Africa and
Latin America, putting hundreds of millions of
people at risk.
The WWQA pre-study, conducted in 2013-
2015, was initiated by the UN-Water Thematic
Priority Area on Water Quality and led by the
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) with several regional partners.
Population growth, increased economic
activity, the expansion and intensification of
agriculture, and an increase in the amount of
untreated sewage discharged into rivers and
lakes are the main reasons behind the troubling
rise in surface water pollution in Asia, Africa and
Latin America. The rise in the pollution of surface
waters threatens to damage vital sources of food
and harm the continents economies. By making
access to quality water even more difficult,
water pollution also threatens to breed further
inequality, hitting the most vulnerable women,
children and the poor the hardest.
Noting that the increasing amount of waste-
water being dumped into our surface waters as
deeply troubling, the report has called on all
nations to come together to combat this growing
menace.
According to the Report, pathogen and organic
pollution rose in more than 50 per cent of river
stretches from 1990-2010 in all three continents,
while salinity pollution has risen in nearly one
third, the UNEP states.
pathogen pollution
Severe pathogen pollution, the rise of which is
largely down to the expansion of sewer systems
that discharge untreated wastewater into surface
waters, is estimated to affect around a quarter of
Latin American river stretches, around 10 to 25
per cent of African river stretches and up to one-
half of Asian river stretches.
In some countries, more than 90 per cent of
the population relies on surface waters as their
source of drinking water. These waters, which are
also used to prepare food, to irrigate crops and for
recreation, pose a major threat to human health
when contaminated.
About 3.4 million people die each year from
GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 61
diseases associated with pathogens in water,
like cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, polio,
ascariasis (roundworm infection) and diarrhoeal
diseases. Many of these diseases are due to the
presence of human waste in water.
UN Environment estimates that up to 25 million
people are at risk of infection from these diseases in
Latin America, up to 164 million in Africa and up
to 134 million in Asia. The solution is not only to
build more sewers but to treat wastewater.
organic pollution
Severe organic pollution, which is caused
when large amounts of decomposable organic
compounds are released into water bodies, now
affects around one out of every seven kilometres
of all river stretches in Latin America, Africa
and Asia. This type of pollution can lead to the
complete deoxygenation of water bodies, posing
a major threat to freshwater fisheries that provide
humans with the sixth most important source
of animal protein and, in developing countries,
employ 21 million fishermen and create 38.5
million related jobs.
Salinity
Severe and moderate salinity pollution already
affects around one-tenth of all river stretches in
Latin America, Africa and Asia. High salinity
levels, which occur when humans dump salty
wastewater from mines, irrigation systems and
homes into rivers and lakes, make it even harder
for the worlds poorest farmers to irrigate their
crops. Salinity pollution has increased between
1990 and 2010 in almost one-third of all rivers in
the three continents.
eutrophication
Agriculture has intensified and expanded as the
world seeks to meet the growing food demands of
a booming population. This has led to an increase
in the amount of phosphorus from fertilisers and
pesticides that pollute waterbodies. The resulting
eutrophication can lead to a boom in nuisance
plants and algal blooms, as well as changes in
ecosystem structure and fish species.
More than half of the total phosphorus loads
in 23 out of 25 major lakes worldwide are from
human sources inorganic fertiliser, livestock
waste, human sewage. Most of the major lakes in
Latin America and Africa now have higher levels
of phosphorus than in 1990.
62 September - october 2016 GeoGraphy and you
approximately, 80 litres of
sewage is generated per person
in urban areas and 50 litres
sewage in rural regions.
India-case study of the Godavari basin
In the case of India, commenting on the Godavari
basin and the pollution levels, the pre-study has
noted that the river-the 2nd longest in India with
the 3rd largest basin, and a catchment area of
312,812 km of agricultural land and forests, suffers
due to severe organic pollution. Low average
annual rainfall has severely affected the discharge
in this river, which has four important tributaries-
the Manjira, Pranhita, Indravati and the Sabari.
The population density in the basin ranges from
2550 persons/sqkm to 5001,000 persons/sqkm.
More than 441 towns, 58,072 settlements and 33
cities are located in the basin. Around 75 per cent
of the total population of 60.57 million in the basin
are rural, with the other 25 per cent in urban areas.
Using data from several monitoring stations
along the river, it notes that the water quality of
the Godavari does not meet the required criteria
for Class A - Drinking Water Source without
conventional treatment but after disinfection,
including for the parameter biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). Figure 2 summarises the long
term trend of BOD from several monitoring
stations in the river (UNEP Report). While there
Fig. 1: The Godavari Basin extends across the
States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh.
Maharashtra
48.65 per cent
Andhra Pradesh
23.40 per cent
Karnataka
1.41 per cent
Odisha Madhya Pradesh
5.67 per cent
Chhattisgarh
10.17 per cent
10.69 per cent
Fig. 2: Water quality (BOD) trend between 2002 to 2011 in the Godavari River (CPCB India, 2011)

Minimum Maximum
90
80 78
Biochemical oxygen demand (mg/l)

70
60 60
53
50
40
36 37
32
30
20 20 26
20 20

10 6.4 6.5 5.3

3.8 4.1 4.6 3.6 4.2 4.5 4.3
0.5 1.7 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0.3 0
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Source: www.unep.org/publications/

is a variation in the peaks, mean BOD levels are pollution, the Report calls for better water
more or less constant. monitoring, especially in developing countries
The Report has blamed discharge of untreated to understand the scale of the challenge and to
and partially treated sewage from cities as one of identify key hotspots. Once in-depth assess-
the principal reasons for non-compliance of water ments have been done there are a large number
standards. The sources of water pollution as per of new and old methods, it notes, that can help
the report are- to reduce the pollution at source, treat polluted
domestic sewage water before it enters water-bodies, recycle
industrial effluent, wastewater for irrigation and protect ecosys-
agricultural non-point sources. tems by, for example, restoring wetlands to
In the absence of any effluent advisory, assuming remove pollutants from urban or agricultural
the generation of approximately 80 litres of sewage run-off.
per person in urban areas and approximately 50 In the case of the Godavari, noting the
litres sewage in rural regions, the report assumes inadequacy of the water quality index (WQI)
the volume of raw sewage entering Godavari used by the Central Pollution Control Board,
as approximately 3,000 million litres per day. the report recommends the location impor-
Further assuming an average BOD concentration tance index( LII) that was developed for use. It
of 200 mg/litres and an average treatment capacity recommends using the data from the existing
of 40 per cent, the total BOD load is estimated at monitoring stations to identify pollution-
219,000 t/yr. This corresponds to an average BOD related stress in the waters. Recommending
intensity of 409 kg/km/day of river length. Noting the setting up of automated monitoring in
the high number of sugar and distillery units in the worstpolluted stretches, it notes the need
Andhra Pradesh (which is situated in the lower for comprehensive impact assessment which
Godavari basin), as also the pulp and fertiliser goes beyond the assessment of in-stream
companies which are large consumers of water, the water quality to cover the entire river basin
report blames these for the deterioration in water ecosystem. In short, the report calls for a
quality from Nashik and Nanded in Maharashtra holistic impact assessment, using parameters
to Bastar in Chhattisgarh and Burgampahad in such as water use (domestic, industrial agricul-
Andhra Pradesh, as cited by the Central Pollution tural) non-point pollution loads, agricultural
Control Board. yield, public health indicators,groundwater
quality, ground water levels, biodiversity,top
Solutions to the water quality challenge soil contamination and climate change related
Pointing out that there is still time to tackle water vulnerability.

GeoGraphy and you September - october 2016 63

 Quantification of climate
Website Variability, adaptation
and mitigation
new tool can calculate for agricultural
renewable energy output Sustainability
anywhere in the world By: ahmed, mukhtar, Stockle,
www.renewables.ninja claudio O. (eds.)
Renewables.ninja is a tool cover: Hardcover
that makes predicting ISbn: 978-3-319-32057-1
renewable output easier for pages: 437
both academics and industry. publisher: Springer International
The creators, from Imperial Publishing
College London and ETH price: 232.21USD

Zurich, have already used it to
estimate current Europe-wide
solar and wind output.
They found wind farms
Europe have an average
capacity factor of just around
24 per cent. This number is
a factor of how much wind is
available to each turbine.
new tool can calculate
renewable energy output
anywhere in the world
www.nsfgrace.net
Visitors to Keweenaw National
Historical Park will soon be
able to use the Keweenaw
Time Traveler, an online atlas,
to find out where any local
resident from the last 100 years
lived, worked and attended
school or religious activities.
The National Science
Foundation Innovative
Technology Experiences for
Students and Teachers (NSF
ITEST) funded G.R.A.C.E.
Project (GIS Resources
and Applications for Career
Education project) is designed
to provides an opportunity
to learn to use and apply GIS
skills and technology in real
world situations. The GRACE
Project High School GIS
Interns prepare for a six week,
20 hours/week, by successfully
completing eight different
ESRI Virtual Campus Courses
for a total of 41 hours of online
course work.
t
his book is a
comprehensive volume
dealing with climate change
impacts on agriculture, and
mitigation tools. Aimed to
serve as a guide to redesign
agricultural management
and cropping systems, the
book enumerates techniques
such as the use of bio-energy
crops, fertilizer and manure
management, conservation
tillage, crop rotation, cropping
intensity, irrigation, erosion
control, management of drained
wetlands, residue management,
climate change
and environment:
concepts and
Strategies to
mitigate Impacts
by: Devesh Sharma
and K.C. Sharma
cover: Hardcover
ISbn: 9789385516375
pages: 190 publisher: New India
Publishing Agency
price: 27.44 USD
towards nearly
Zero energy: urban
Settings in the
mediterranean
climate
by: Annarita
Ferrante
cover: Paperback
ISbn: 9780081007358
pages: 292 publisher:
Butterworth-Heinemann
price: 127.50 USD
biochar and biotechnology.
The book looks at the
management of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions
using-
Crop models as decision
support tools QTL analysis
Crop water productivity, and
Silvopastoral systems
The book also looks at the
impact of climate change on
wheat-based cropping systems
in South Asia, Phosphorus
dynamics under a changing
climate, and the role of
bioinformatics.
migration and
agriculture:
mobility and
change in the
mediterranean area
by: Alessandra
Corrado, Carlos de Castro,
Domenico Perrotta
cover: Hardcover
ISbn: 9781138962231
pages: 346
publisher: Routledge
price: 106.06 USD
Future Sustainable
ecosystems:
complexity, risk,
and uncertainty
by: Nathaniel
Kenneth Newlands
cover: Hardcover
ISbn: 9781466582569
pages: 389 pages
publisher: Routledge
price: 74.44 USD

64 September-OctOber 2016 GeOGraphy and yOu

RNI No. DELENG/2001/5002