F I LT R AT I O N

Design and
operation
of high-rate filters
Practical observations improve the design
and operation of filtration systems.

W
Susumu Kawamura

hen designing a filtration

system, a design engineer can specify certain param-
eters: type of filter; number of filters; size, type, and
thickness of the filter bed; filtration rate and filter
control system; filter washing system; type of filter
underdrain; available head loss; filter-to-waste
(rewash); and the potential for future conversion of
the regular filter media to granular activated carbon
(GAC). Moreover, certain hydraulic principles and
more general principles
of physics must be ap-
Filtration is the fundamental system in a water treatment process plied if design and opera-
train that removes suspended solids, including microorganisms tion problems are to be
such as Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, and parasite eggs. To avoided. (This article does
constrain costs, the design of any filter should be simple, reliable, not discuss the theory of
proven, easy to build, and easy to operate; and it should require filter design and hy-
the minimum capital, operation, and maintenance costs while draulics, which are de-
providing maximum operational flexibility. A robust filter design scribed in several refer-
should be based on knowledge, experience, and user feedback. ence books.16)
This article provides practical guidance on the design of high-rate
filtration systems. For executive summary,
see page 182.

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 77
 pretreatment and quality of
FIGURE 1 Performance of filters with four L/d ratios at 7 gpm/sq ft (17.5 m/h) filter influent; and site topog-
raphy. Only the first three are
discussed in this article.
0.70
Conditions at the plant site,
such as climate, the availabil-
0.60 ity of qualified plant operators,
and how the plant is financed
0.50
are perhaps the most impor-
tant determinants of filter type.
If a private contractor provides
Turbidityntu

0.40 designbuildoperate services,

Filter 2 (L/d = 615)
the filter installed typically is
0.30 a proprietary filter of an equip-
Filter 1 (L/d = 790) ment manufacturer that is
under the umbrella of the
0.20
financing institution. Propri-
etary filters supplied by equip-
Filter 3 (L/d = 930)
0.10 ment manufacturers are gen-
erally used by small plants (< 3
0.05
Filter 4 (L/d = 1,100) mgd [0.011 X 106 m3/d]) be-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cause they are cost-effective,
Timehours after start allow more rapid design and
SourceGreeley and Hansen, Pilot Filter Test, report for South Water Treatment construction, and are easy to
Plant (1995) operate and maintain.
Number of filters. The
number and size of each filter
are closely related to site con-
figuration and the size of the
water treatment plant. At
TABLE 1 Physical characteristics of filter beds least four filters are recom-
mended for midsized plants
Total Depth
Filter Bed in. (mm) Type and Size of Media
(1030 mgd [0.0380.11 X
106 m3/d]); small plants pro-
Dual-media 30 (750) 20 in. (500 mm) of anthracite cessing < 10 mgd (0.038 X
Effective size = 1.0 mm,
uniformity coefficient = 1.4 106 m3/d) may use two filters
10 in. (25 mm) of sand if financing is limited. If a
Effective size = 0.55 mm, plant has few filters, then the
uniformity coefficient = 1.4
Trimedia 33 (825) 18 in. (450 mm) of anthracite filtration rate among the
Effective size = 1.0 mm, remaining filters substantially
uniformity coefficient = 1.5
12 in. (300 mm) of sand
increases whenever one or
Effective size = 0.55 mm, two of the filters is placed off
uniformity coefficient = 1.5 line for washing or repair.
3 in. (75 mm) of garnet
Effective size = 0.30 mm, The author recommends
uniformity coefficient = 1.5 the following formula as a
Coarse deep guide in determining the
monomedia 72 (1,800) 72 in. (1,800 mm) of anthracite
Effective size = 1.4 mm, required number of filters
uniformity coefficient = 1.4 based on plant capacity. It is
Dual coarse deep bed 72 (1,800) 60 in. (1,500 mm) of anthracite
Effective size = 1.4 mm,
based on the analysis of about
uniformity coefficient = 1.4 80 treatment plants designed
12 in. (300 mm) of sand after 1970 in the range 1600
Effective size = 0.73 mm,
uniformity coefficient = 1.4 mgd (0.0042.3 X 106 m3/d).

N = 1.2 Q0.5

Filters in which N is the total number of filters and Q is the

Type of filter. The first decision, type of filter, is
commonly dictated by seven conditions: local con-
ditions; type and amount of funding and capital; treat-
ment plant size; design requirements established by
local regulatory agencies; raw water quality; type of
design flow rate of the plant in mgd.
If a self-backwashing filter* is to be used, then
each module should have fouror preferably six
*Greenleaf filter, Infilco Degremont Inc., Richmond, Va.

78 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
If backwash waste is to be recycled,
it should be held in a waste holding
tank that can retain the waste of at
least two washings and preferably
three or four.

filters even in a small plant. Oth-

erwise, during periods of low
plant flow, the system may not
be able to produce the volume
of backwash water required to
wash one filter unless supple-
mental water is pumped into the
effluent channel.
Size. Maximum filter size is
dictated by three things: the need
to provide uniform flow distribu-
tion of backwash water through-
out the entire filter bed; the eco-
nomically justifiable size of the
filter backwashing system,
pumps, and blowers; and the cost
of the waste-wash handling facilities. In general, the obtained from pilot filter studies performed during
practical maximum size of an individual filter bed is winter through summer conditions, and the L/d
about 1,000 sq ft (90 m2), provided that the plant is ratioa simple parameter that is a reliable and proven
not exceptionally large. However, a filter may be indicator.
designed as two filter beds sharing a central gullet so L/d ratio. Pilot studies should be conducted for
that one filter can have up to 2,500 sq ft (225 m2) of at least six months to yield reliable data, but their
filter bed area for extremely large plants. Filters may cost may exceed a clients budget. Thus, the L/d ratio,
be designed to wash only
one side-cell at a time, thus
reducing the size of the
washing system but requir-
ing twice as much time to
wash the entire filter bed at
once. Therefore, the filter
may be inoperable for al-
most 1 h during washing.
G enerally, a standard dual-media or coarse
deep bed may be used for high-rate
filters.

Filter media in which L is the bed depth in millimetres and d is the

Basic gravity filters are composed of granular
media of a certain size and depth. Sand, anthracite
coal, and garnet (or ilmenite) are most widely used.
Filter beds may be designed as monomedia, dual
media, trimedia, or mixed media. The proper media
and the size and depth of the filter bed will help max-
imize filter efficiency.
Composition. In addition to the granular media
listed previously, pumice or synthetic materials are
also used provided there is no measurable leaching of
these materials from the media, no significant attri-
tion, and the cost is reasonable. For example, pom-
pon-shaped synthetic fiber balls of about 1 in. (25
mm) in diameter are used in filters such as the Ishi-
gaki filter developed during the early 1980s in Japan
and in the recently marketed fuzzy filter of the
United States. The filtration rate of these types of fil-
ters has been reported to be as high as 20 gpm/sq ft
(50 m/h).
Depth. Two basic kinds of information are used to
select the proper depth and size of filter bed: results
effective size of the media in millimetres, may be
used instead. It is based on more than 200 pilot stud-
ies and the performance data of many operational
filters. The value of the L/d ratio should be > 1,000 in
rapid sand filters and standard dual-media filter beds,
> 1,250 in regular trimedia filter beds, > 1,300 in
most coarse deep beds in which d is 1.21.4 mm and
L is 1.82 m, and > 1,500 in most coarse deep beds in
which d is  1.5 mm.
When the diameter of the media exceeds 1.5 mm,
the space between the grains becomes large com-
pared with the void space in regular filter beds. The
void space triples when the diameter of the grain is
doubled. Thus, the L/d ratio should be used as an
estimate only when the media is > 1.5-mm diameter.
In recent years, filters have been designed to pro-
duce a filtered water turbidity  0.1 ntu. In dual-
media, multimedia, and coarse deep-bed filters, this
low turbidity is achieved by preloading a small
amount of polymer as a filter aid. Nonionic, high-
molecular-weight polymers are generally used at a

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 79
 flocculation). Filtration rates
FIGURE 2 Performance of filters using 1.2-mm anthracite media at three bed
were 6, 9, and 12 gpm/sq ft
depths
(15, 22.5, and 30 m/h). Fil-
Case 1 ter runs were terminated
Unit filter run volume Particle removal when either the head loss
Unit Filter Run Volumegal/sq ft

12,000 500 2 2.5

Unit Filter Run Volumem /m reached 10 ft (3 m) or the
3

9,500 400 2.0 effluent turbidity exceeded

0.1 ntu (Figure 3).
7,000 300 1.5 The unit filter run volume
(UFRV), expressed as gal/sq ft
4,500 1.0
200 (m3/m2), is a product of the
2,000
filter run length and the fil-
100 0.5
tration rate. In this case, the
0 0 0.0 goal of UFRV is 9,820 gal/sq
L/d L/d L/d L/d L/d L/d L/d L/d L/d
1,250 1,875 2,500 1,250 1,875 2,500 1,250 1,875 2,500 ft (400 m3/m2) because this is
Filtration rate = 15 m/h Filtration rate = 22.5 m/h Filtration rate = 30 m/h the condition attained by one
(6 gpm/sq ft) (9 gpm/sq ft) (12 gpm/sq ft) filter wash per day conducted
Initial conditionsalum dose = 2 mg/L, cationic polymer = 0.75 mg/L, GT = 54,000; unit at a filter rate of about 7
3 2
filter run volume goal400 m /m (9,820 gal/sq ft); log particle removal goal2.0 log gpm/sq ft (17.5 m/h).
When the diameter of the
SourcePilot study, Symore Water Treatment Plant (1997) media remained constant at
1.2 mm, a deeper filter bed
was more advantageous be-
cause it produced a higher L/d
typical dosage of 1525 g/L. If a filter aid is not ratio. Under the tested conditions, an L/d ratio of
used, then the L/d ratio will need to be increased by 2,500 achieved the desired UFRV at filter rates up to
a minimum of 20 percent. Additional increase in L/d 9 gpm/sq ft (22.5 m/h). It was assumed that the fil-
is not cost-effective because of the deeper filter struc- ter bed may be either monomedia or dual-media with
ture, the higher initial head loss, and a longer filter the same L/d ratio. This assumption was confirmed
washing time that does not appreciably improve fil- using either 2 or 4 mg/L of alum with cationic poly-
ter performance. mer (Figure 3). The results not only confirmed the
When GAC is used as the adsorption media, the assumption but also demonstrated that placing a sand
depth of the filter bed is governed by the required layer (a barrier) at the bottom of the filter bed
empty bed contact time (EBCT), and the L/d ratio is improved filter performance even if the total bed
not a design indicator. However, when a GAC bed depth of the dual-media filter was shorter than that
must accomplish both filtration and adsorption, both of the monomedia filter. In this experiment a high
the EBCT and the L/d criteria should be used to ratio of cationic polymer to alum as coagulant
determine the depth of the filter bed. improved overall filter efficiency.
Pilot studies. For exam-
ple, consider the relation

A
between filtered water tur-
bidity and the L/d ratio of a
filter bed at 7 gpm/sq ft nalyses of core samples taken
(17.5 m/h) (Figure 1).
These data are based on a from the filter bed provide substantial
pilot study for a conven- information about the condition
tional treatment process.7
An L/d ratio > 1,000 of the filter.
strongly affected filter per-
formance, and the quality
of filtered water improved. However, further increases Settling velocity. In dual and trimedia filter beds,
in filtration rate have correlated with higher L/d and the size of the media must be carefully matched to
distinctly better filter performance. provide similar settling velocities. The size of the
Next, consider the results of a pilot study con- grains and the specific gravity of each layer greatly
ducted for a direct filtration process of lake water determine the effectiveness of filter backwashing
on the northwest coast of Canada (Figures 2 and 3). because of the potential loss of filter media or the
Each filter run was to be longer than 24 h, and there heavy accumulation of floc or sludge in the mixed-
was to be no more than one filter wash a day. The media zone. An inappropriate combination of media
coagulants were alum and two types of cationic poly- will allow only a limited portion of the filter bed to be
mers, and after optimization tests, mixing conditions adequately cleaned; the rest of the bed will either
were set as Gt = 54,000 (Gt represents the degree of remain dirty, or a large portion of the media will be

80 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
washed away at a specific
FIGURE 3 Performance of three filters with different bed design
backwash rate. Figure 4 illus-
trates the accumulation of a Case 2
large amount of floc or sludge Unit filter run volume Particle removal

Unit Filter Run Volumegal/sq ft

in the anthracite and sand 14,500 600 3.0

2
Unit Filter Run Volumem /m
mixed zone despite air-scour-

3
12,000 500 2.5
ing backwash of the filter at
this lime-softening process 9,500 400 2.0
plant. To ensure that two
7,000 300 1.5
types of filter media grains
have the same settling veloc- 4,500 200 1.0
ity, the following relationship
2,000 100 0.5
should exist:
0 0 0.0
Alum Alum Alum Alum Alum Alum
d1 2  2 mg/L 4 mg/L 2 mg/L 4 mg/L 2 mg/L 4 mg/L
 
0.667
 = 
d2 1  Dual Media/Shallow Dual Media/Deep Fine Monomedia
Sand Layer Sand Layer 3,000 mm,
2,700 mm, 1.4 mm; 1,800 mm, 1.4 mm; 1.2 mm L/d = 2,500
300 mm, 0.7 mm 900 mm, 0.7 mm
in which d1 and d2 are grains L/d = 2,350 L/d = 2,500
of two media with specific Initial conditionsGT = 54,000; filtration rate = 15 m/h (6 gpm/sq ft); cationic
gravities of 1 and 2, and  is polymer2.5 mg/L at 2 mg/L alum; 1.6 mg/L at 4 mg/L alum; unit filter run volume
3 2
the density of water with a goal400 m /m (9,820 gal/sq ft); log particle removal goal2.0 log
specific gravity of 1.0.
SourcePilot study, Symore Water Treatment Plant (1997)
The size relationship
among the three kinds of me-
dia in trimedia may also be
determined by the formula. Because anthracite coal specific types of filters and filter beds when one fil-
absorbs water and thus increases its density by many ter is off line. Most states restrict the maximum rate
percentage points, the density of anthracite coal media of regular rapid sand filters to 3 gpm/sq ft (7.5 m/h)
should be measured after 24 h of soaking (to simulate and of dual-media filters to 45 gpm/sq ft (1012.5
working conditions). To minimize intermixing of the m/h). The West Coast restricts the maximum rate of
two or three layers, the size of each successive layer, dual-media and coarse deep filters to 6 gpm/sq ft
from top to bottom, should be 57 percent larger (15 m/h). Higher rates may be allowed if the design
than the size calculated by the equation. engineer presents an extensive filter pilot study that
Uniformity coefficient. The uniformity coeffi- justifies those rates to the satisfaction of a reviewing
cient (uc) of granular media should be specified. authority. For example, dual-media filters have run
Smaller uc values result in slightly better filtrate at 8 gpm/sq ft (20 m/h) and as high as 13 gpm/sq ft
quality and longer filter run lengths (i.e., better fil- (32.5 m/h) in plants fitted with a 6-ft-deep coarse
ter performance), and, in the case of dual media or (effective size, 1.4 mm) deep bed monomedia fil-
trimedia beds, a smaller mixed-media zone after flu- ter. In these cases, the higher rates were justified
idization backwash. Based on proven filter perfor- by extensive pilot studies using raw water of good
mance of numerous operational treatment plants, quality from protected sources that was pretreated
a uc of < 1.40 and preferably 1.30 should be speci- with ozone.
fied in the design of any filter bed. Contrary to popular belief, the quality of filtered
Grain shape. The shape of grains in the filter media water produced by high-rate filters is not substantially
may affect filtration. Angular grains usually perform affected by filtration rates up to 10 gpm/sq ft (25 m/h)
better than do rounded or worn grains when poly- provided that the water is properly pretreated. Sus-
mer is not used as a filter aid, because of the larger pended colloids in raw water should be coagulated by
porosity ratio and possibly the availability of more a combination of metallic coagulant and a small
adsorption sites on each angular grain. This phenom- amount of polymer as a filter aid, and the excess sus-
enon has been observed since the 1940s. Yet, few of pended solids should be removed during pretreatment.
todays filtration plants detect any notable increase in However, the rate at which head loss develops during
filtered water turbidity because of worn-out filter higher filtration rates is quite dramatic.
media, provided that polymer is fed as a filtration aid. Generally speaking, either a standard dual-media
The physical characteristics of standard dual- or coarse deep bed may be used for high-rate filters.
media, trimedia, and typical coarse deep filter beds are Yet, when the water temperature falls below about
given in Table 1. 45oF (8oC), filtered water quality deteriorates and fil-
ter run length decreases in both high-rate and rapid
Filtration sand filters that use regular alum pretreatment. Many
Rates. In the United States, all state regulatory case histories have shown that under these condi-
agencies restrict the maximum filtration rates of tions it is difficult for filters to produce < 0.2-ntu fil-

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 81
 A self-backwashing filter,*
FIGURE 4 Floc retention on 100 mL of filter media
developed in the mid-1970s, is
a reliable constant-flow-type
0 0 control scheme. This system

sand Anthracite coal

eliminates the need for back-
5 125 wash headers, valves, pumps,

Depth Below Surface of Bedmm

Depth Below Surface of Bedin.

Before filter wash

and an elevated washwater
10 250 storage tank. Yet the filter sys-
Coal and

tem does have drawbacks: the

15 375 backwash rate is not changed
as easily as it is in regular fil-
20 500 ters, there is no filter-to-waste
system on standard designs,
Sand

After air-scouring wash

25 625 the filter structure is about 4 ft
(1.2 m) deeper than in ordi-
30 750 nary filters, and influent water
cascades > 6.5 ft (2 m) into
35 875 the filter cells during the early
0 200 300 400 500 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 10,000 stages of the filtration cycle.
Turbidityntu Thus, it is recommended that
a small amount of polymer be
continuously added to the fil-
TABLE 2 Characteristics of surface backwash systems ter influent to strengthen the
alum floc. The Metropolitan
Flow Rate Driving Pressure Lateral Spacing Water District of Southern
Type gpm/sq ft (m/min) psi (kPa) ft (m)
California uses a self-back-
Fixed nozzles 34 (0.120.16) 2025 (140170) About 3 (0.9) washing filter in two of its five
Rotating arm 0.50.7 (0.020.03) 70100 (480690) Maximum diameter 14 (4.3) treatment plants; the total
production rate of these plants
is 1,080 mgd (4 X 106 m3/d).

tered water. One practical solution is to use ferric iron Filter washing
coagulant with cationic polymer as coagulants. Ferric and underdrains
floc forms several times as fast as alum floc in cold Filter wash systems. Filter wash systems fall
water sources, and the polymer physically strengthens into two basic types: fluidized bed backwash with or
the floc. Substituting polymerized aluminum chlo- without surface wash and air-scour with or without
ride for alum may reduce this problem during the low-rate backwash (Table 2).
winter. Even with modifications to the coagulant, the Fluidized-bed backwash. The surface-wash sys-
recommended cold-weather safe filtration rate for tem has been widely used in the United States since
high-rate filters under a normal conventional process the early 1950s and has been effective when properly
is generally around 6 gpm/sq ft (15 m/h). designed and operated. However, many case histories
Control of rates. Filtration rates may be con- of treatment plants operating during the past 50 years
trolled by constant-rate or by declining-rate schemes. demonstrate that backwash alone does not maintain
The current standard is constant-rate filtration; it is granular filter beds in a reasonably clean condition,
a proven method that pro-
vides better operational

P
control of the filters, has
proven performance, is bet-
ter able to meet the criteria roper filter design alone will not yield
set by regulatory agencies,
and is overwhelmingly good filtered water.
favored by plant operators.
The declining-rate filtration
system 810 is simple in its design and operation even when optimal backwash rates were used. An
because of the lack of a flow-modulating system. auxiliary scouring system is necessary whenever coag-
However, it delivers the highest filtration rate at the ulants are used in the pretreatment process.
beginning of the filtration cycle even when a flow- Both of the surface-wash systems (Baylis-type
restricting device such as an orifice plate is fitted in fixed-nozzle11 and rotating-arm with jet nozzles) are
the effluent pipe, and it allows plant operators little effective to depths of 4 ft (1.2 m) (Table 2). Never-
operational control. Thus, few modern filtration theless, the fixed-nozzle system is preferred because
plants use this system. of the lack of moving parts and because, unlike the

82 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
rotating-arm system, it re-
FIGURE 5 Movement of media during air-scouring
mains effective even when the
filter bed has lost several
inches (0.150.2 m) of filter
media. Moreover, rotating-
arm systems may still leave Expanded bed level Boil
filter beds dirty because of
clogged jet nozzles, slow or
nonrotating arms, and im-

150250 mm
Boiling zone

(610 in.)
proper distance between the
nozzles and the filter bed. The
water jet angle is only 15 o
below the horizontal and in
most cases the arm is only

Slow downward motion between nozzles

about 2 in. (5 cm) above the

Downward movement
Ascending air
bed. In contrast, a fixed-noz- bubbles with

Fast upward motion above nozzles

zle system uses a water jet of mushroom
about 25 fps (7.5 m/s) at an shape
Convection of Medium

angle of 2735o and thus can

Upward movement
scour more than half the
depth of regular filter beds.
Air-scour. Air-scour effec-
tively cleans some filter beds.
However, air-scouring filter
wash systems vigorously agi-
tate (and thus clean) only the
top 610 in. (0.150.25 m) of
the filter bed. This surface
boiling may make it seem that
the entire filter bed is violently
agitated. However, some mud Air
Strainer
balls that have fallen below nozzle
the boiling zone will remain Sludge
deposit
unbroken. Plenum
Water
Mushroom-shaped bub-
bles of compressed air ema-
nating from the bottom
strainer nozzles in an under-
drain will slowly rise to the
surface almost directly above
each nozzle. The bubbles will persist until near the top run time before backwash, then it is worthwhile to
of the bed. The higher the air-scouring rate, the more consider a surface wash system in conjunction with
direct the vertical rise (i.e., the bubbles will not spread an air-scouring system that has strainer nozzles in
out sideways). Between the upwelling streams of the underdrain. Applying a surface wash and then
bubbles, bed media is pulled down (in accordance air-scour will break up the top 8 in. (20 cm) or so of
with the mass balance law). This behavior is more compacted media.
distinct when a slow backwash is applied with com- An air-scouring system complicates not only the
pressed air (Figure 5). design and construction of the filter but also filter oper-
The two types of air-scouring are sequential and ations, as air blowers, air piping, and air and back-
concurrent. Both perform well when the systems are wash sequence control are required. Air-scour requires
properly designed and operated (Figure 6). In Europe, twice as much filter-washing time as the surface-wash
sequential air-scouring or air-scouring without back- system. Furthermore, air-scouring systems appear to
wash typically is used. In the United States concurrent have a higher incidence of catastrophic underdrain
air-scouring is more common (68 gpm/sq ft [1520 upsets because of the explosive nature of compressed
m/h] of slow backwash and compressed air). Pilot air. A standpipe should be placed in the backwash
filter studies and core sampling of a few filters that use pipeline as a pressure relief measure for an air-scour-
air-scouring wash systems confirm the increased accu- ing wash system. Its size need be only 25 percent of the
mulation of sludge deposited in the lower portion of size of the backwash pipe, and its height is normally 6
the filter bed.12 ft (1.8 m) above the top slab of the filter structure.
If operational practices allow > 7 ft (2.1 m) of
head loss to build up or more than two days of filter *Greenleaf filter, Infilco Degremont Inc., Richmond, Va.

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 83
 Monitoring by operators.
FIGURE 6 Recommended filter-washing sequence
Consistent observation by the
plant operating staff is a key
ARecommended surface and backwash sequence component of a properly
functioning system. The plant
0 1 2 3 4 Surface washingmin
Surface wash operator must regularly
Concurrent observe the filter bed, espe-
wash Backwashmin cially its top, during the filtra-
Backwash
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 tion cycle and backwashing.
Large cracks on the top of the
1. Draw down water level to about 4 in. (100 mm) above the bed
before surface wash starts. bed or a channel along the
2. Longer concurrent wash will result in greater loss of medium. sidewalls are signs of a dirty
filter bed. Boiling of the media
BNormal concurrent air and water air-scouring wash for common
filter bed during backwashing may be a
20 sign of gravel bed and under-
18 drain failure; if the top of the
Watergpm/sq ft

16 40
filter bed contains concave
Aircfm/sq ft

Air purge washing (optional)

Waterm/h
14

Airm/h
12 Pause spots, then underdrain failure
10 (optional) has most likely occurred. Noz-
8 20 zles of the surface-wash sys-
6
4 Slow backwash tem commonly become
60
2 Air scour clogged with media. Any
0 0 0 unusual phenomenon must
0 5 10 15
Washing Durationmin
be recorded in a log so that
adjustments or repairs can be
1. Draw down water level to about 4 in. (100 mm) above the bed. made.
2. The first slow backwash must be stopped before the water Wash troughs. The re-
level rises to 6 in. (150 mm) below the top waste weir. quired number of troughs and
3. Backwash in rinsing stage requires about 18 gpm/sq ft (45 m/h)
to purge air in a coarse-medium bed as well as restratification the top elevation above the
of dual-media bed. filter bed can be controver-
sial. For example, some Euro-
pean-designed filters do not
include wash troughs with an
air-scouring system. The
Underdrains. The filter underdrain system design criteria for wash troughs in the United States
depends on the type of filter-wash system. If air- was first delineated in Water Treatment Plant Design
scouring is incorporated into the filter design, then the Manuals of Engineering Practice.13 The Ten States Stan-
filter underdrain system is almost always limited to dards, 14 first published in 1953 and revised several
the proprietary strainer nozzles with a false bottom or times since, lists the parameters recommended for
a plastic block system for
air-scouring wash. In con-

C
trast, several proven types
of filter underdrains are
available for use with a sur-
face-wash system with
onsistent observation by the plant
backwash. operating staff is a key to good filtered
The most important
characteristics of filter water.
underdrain systems for
either surface-wash or air-scouring systems are that features such as the top elevation of the trough in
the system has proven satisfactory, has an adequate relation to the top of the filter bed and spacing of
anchor system, and is manufactured by a company the troughs.
that practices good quality control. Moreover, con- Two types of wash troughs are commonly used:
struction of the underdrain system should be super- those with a wide, shallow cross section and a
vised by an experienced construction supervisor. A nearly flat bottom, and those with narrow, deep
plenum type of underdrain system should be set in a cross sections that have a U-shaped or V-shaped
monolithically cast reinforced-concrete false floor. bottom. Troughs with wide cross sections produce
Avoid the use of precast elements that must be bolted higher upflow velocity when the backwash flow
onto pedestals, especially for air-scouring, because exceeds the elevation of the trough bottom.
after several decades of use the cement grout will fail Troughs with narrow cross sections have greater
and massive amounts of air will leak around the blocks. structural integrity that permits their fabrication

84 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
from thinner materials such
FIGURE 7 Filter backwash rate at water temperature of 20oC (68oF)
as fiberglass.
Sequential air-scour. Un-
4.0 Specific gravity of mineral variety
like common fluidized back- 30 1.2
wash systems, sequential air-
scouring systems do not use 4.0 1.70 1.70
wash troughs across the filter
1.65
bed. Rather, a single overflow 25 1.0
wall along a central gullet and 1.55
4.1
a single V-shaped trough along 2.65
the side wall opposite the 40
1. 5
wash-waste overflow wall n 1.3

Backwash Rategpm/sq ft
20 o 0.8
b

Backwash Ratem/min
2.60 r
provide the surface-sweeping ca

d
ed

San
et
function. The width of each at

Garn
iv

al
t

co
filter cell must be limited (to c
ra 1.5
5

te
about 1314 ft [44.5 m]) for 15 la 0.6

ci
nu s i n

ra
ra re

th
the wash-waste to be effec- G ti c

An
he
tively removed. The distance y nt
S
between the top of the over- 0.4
10
flow wall and the top of the
filter bed is about 1 ft (0.3 m)
in most French designs; this
feature enables the total filter 5 0.2
box to be much shallower
than in filters with sequential
washing.
Concurrent air-scour. Con- 0 0
current air-scouring filters 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
have wash troughs arranged 60 percent weight grain size calculated as effective size times uniformity coefficient
in a fashion similar to troughs
in historical filter designs, SourceKawamura, S. Integrated Design of Water Treatment Facilities. John Wiley &
Sons, New York
except for trough elevation.
The top of the wash troughs
should be about 6 ft (1.8 m)
above the top of the bed because roughly 8 gpm/sq cell from the influentwash-waste gullet should be
ft (0.33 m/min) of slow backwash is applied for about carefully fixed. With respect to regular high-rate fil-
5 min in conjunction with compressed air. The air- ters, the top of the forebay wall should be higher
scouring wash should begin with a water level of than the lip of the wash troughs and ideally higher
about 4 in. (100 mm) above the bed in a filter cell. than the high-water level in the filter cell. In many
Because the water above the bed during air-scouring high-rate filters in which the top of the gullet wall is
contains a large number of grains of media, it should level with the wash troughs, filter media migrate
not be overflowed into the wash troughs. Thus, a because the filter influent is unevenly distributed.
distance of 6 ft (1.8 m) is essential. The elevation of existing wash troughs needs to be
Troughless filters. In common high-rate filters assessed if the filter is renovated. In rapid sand fil-
that use dual-media or trimedia beds and surface ters, the top of the wash troughs is located 2430 in.
wash, the top of the wash troughs is generally (600750 mm) above the bed. In most cases, the
located about 4 ft (1.2 m) above the bed, and the troughs are manufactured of reinforced concrete. If
troughs are spaced 810 ft (2.43 m) on center. Yet the bed is converted to either dual media or trimedia,
the total number of troughs may be reduced with- a large amount of anthracite media will be lost.
out harming the effective washing of filters. The city Although relocating all wash troughs is costly, adding
of Sacramento, Calif., evaluated troughless filters at baffles around the troughs is one relatively inexpen-
one of its two filtration plants (100 mgd [0.38 X 106 sive solution. A hydraulic model study can help
m3/d]) designed in 1961. All existing wash troughs determine an effective arrangement of baffles. Spe-
were removed from one of the 16 filters in 1992. cially designed baffles installed on both sides of each
After several years of continuous operation, the trough could reduce loss of GAC media by 70 percent
troughless filter was determined to be in a condi- even when a backwash rate of 21 gpm/sq ft (52 m/h)
tion comparable to that of filter beds fitted with is used.16
wash troughs, provided that the washing time was
roughly 20 percent longer.15 Backwash rate
Elevation of forebay wall and troughs. The ele- The proper backwash rate should be based on the
vation of the forebay wall that separates the filter grain size of the filter media, its specific gravity, and

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 85
FIGURE 8 Turbidity of filtered water at beginning of filter run
in which t is the temperature in o C,
v b t is the backwash rate at temperature
t, vb 20 is the backwash rate at 20oC, and
is the water viscocity in centipoise at
0.5 temperature t. Figure 7 applies only to a
Plant A
0.4
Filter 5 (after 12-min surface wash) media with a uc  1.5 and only if flu-
0.3
idization of the filter bed is required (flu-
0.2
idization air-scouring filter wash). A
0.1 backwash rate of at least 18 gpm/sq ft
0.0 (45 m/h) is necessary to purge air bubbles
0 5 10 15 20
Timemin
trapped in coarse deep filter beds after
air-scouring.
0.5
Plant A Some treatment plant operators cal-
0.4
Filter 5 (after 6-min surface wash) culate the appropriate backwash rate as
0.3
that which provides 50 percent filter bed
0.2
expansion during backwash. During the
0.1
late 1950s Baylis and others11,17 empha-
0.0 sized that 50 percent sand expansion
0 5 10 15 20
Timemin should be achieved for rapid sand filters.
0.5 This requirement is justified when the
0.4
Plant A sand bed is composed of small grains
Filter 1 (air-scour wash) (effective size = 0.400.45 mm), but few
0.3
0.2 filters were fitted with auxiliary scouring
0.1 (surface wash) systems during the late
1950s. The preferred expansion rate for
Turbidityntu

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 high-rate filters during backwash with
Timemin surface wash is about 37 percent for a
Plant B
typical sand bed with a porosity ratio of
0.5
Filter 15 (air-scour wash) 0.45; the expansion rate for an
0.4
0.3 anthracite bed with a porosity ratio of
0.2 0.50 is about 25 percent. These figures
0.1 are based on operational data of a pro-
0.0 totype filter and the equation for optimal
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 expansion rate,
Timemin

1.0
Plant C (0.1)0.22 f
0.8 Optimal expansion rate = 
0.6
Filter 11 (surface wash) 1 (0.1)0.22
0.4 0.6 f
0.2 = 
0.4
0.0
0 10 20 30 40
Timemin in which f is the porosity ratio.
1.0
Plant C
0.8
0.6
Filter 12 (surface wash) Filter-to-waste
0.4
A filter-to-waste system diverts infe-
rior filtered water to the waste line. Infe-
0.2
rior filtered water may be generated not
0.0
0 10 20
only under abnormal conditions but also
at the beginning of the filtration cycle
Timemin
under normal conditions.
Inferior filtered water. Turbidity
breakthrough that leads to inferior fil-
tered water is commonly observed when
pretreatment is inadequate and filter beds
the high and low water temperature of the region are unripened. Inferior filter water may be produced
(Figure 7). The adjustment of backwash water for under these abnormal conditions: (1) new unripened
water temperature can be calculated using the fol- filter mediathe bed cannot effectively capture sus-
lowing equation: pended solids because it has not been properly con-
ditioned by a small amount of polymer fed as a fil-
vb t = vb 20 X t t/3 tration aid or by the deposition of the correct quantity

86 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
of appropriately charged floc on the filter
FIGURE 9 Filter-to-waste flowsheet
media; (2) after disturbance of the filter
bed, such as the repair or modification
of the gravel bed or underdrain system; 0.3 m air gap above the water surface
(3) accidental initiation of surface wash or (no cross-connection)
air-scouring during the filtration cycle;
(4) liquefaction of the filter beds as the Influent channel
result of strong earthquakes; or (5) a
wrong coagulant dosage. Although
almost all filters are equipped with a To washwater
drain pipe, it is too small to divert filtered holding tank
water flow to the waste line. Sampling tap for
particulate counter
Polymer. The US Environmental Pro- Filters
tection Agency (USEPA) turbidity goal Turbidimeter

for filtered water is now 0.1 ntu. The

departments of health of some states, Flow meter
including California, set a more stringent
guideline by advocating the wasting of
filtered water with turbidity > 0.25 ntu.
The California Department of Health Ser- Filter-to-waste
P pump(s)
vices endorses slow starting of filters after
M M M M
filter washing to circumvent initial tur-
bidity breakthrough.
USEPA and a few states allow the
addition of coagulant or polymer to the Clearwell
backwash water as an alternative to filter-
to-waste. This practice is intended to con-
dition the filter bed before the filtration
cycle begins. Unfortunately, it is not
always successful. Floc formation and Special features:
sludge deposition in the clearwells have 1. No additional capacity is needed for washwater holding tank(s).
been reported when this alternative was 2. Slow filter starting can be achieved (3 4 5 gpm/sq ft [7.5 10
12.5 m/h].
used. Despite the drawbacks, polymer is 3. Filter-to-waste rate can be matched to actual seasonal filtration rate.
commonly added as a coagulant because 4. Instrumentation and control can be simplified.
it is a cheaper method of meeting regu- 5. Turbidimeter in the recycle line can determine the filter-to-waste time.
6. Filtered water of questionable quality can be discharged to waste line.
latory requirements. Polymer may be
added at the influent of the filter at the
beginning of the filtration cycle rather
than to the backwash water. A number of
treatment plants have successfully adopted this prac- operated have consistently produced filtered water
tice. A substantial initial turbidity breakthrough is of < 0.1 ntu and fewer than 50 particulates/mL,
unusual in well-ripened filter beds. Examples of ini- despite an average influent turbidity of 36 ntu.
tial turbidity breakthrough patterns are shown in The Aqueduct Filtration Plant of Los Angeles and
Figure 8. the Utah Valley Water Treatment Plant both have
Each new filter should be fitted with a filter-to- direct filtration processes and have successfully
waste piping system to manage initial turbidity break- treated raw water turbidity spikes as high as 3050
through under normalor abnormalplant condi- ntu lasting two to three weeks. (To do so, the filter
tions. Among the several ways to manage filter- was washed every 46 h.)
to-waste, the system depicted in Figure 9 should be The turbidity of the filter influent and removal of
considered. protozoan cysts are determined by a treatment plants
site and the treatment processes. To achieve an appro-
Miscellaneous issues priate influent may require a high degree of clarifica-
Turbidity of filter influent. One of the most tion before filtration. Under certain conditions, ade-
controversial issues in pretreatment is the turbid- quate filtration may follow proper coagulation
ity of the filter influent. Some regulatory agencies flocculation, thus eliminating the need for sedimen-
advocate that filter influent turbidity should be < 2 tation before filtration. If the filter requires an influ-
ntu or even < 1 ntu. Certain treatment plants ent turbidity of < 1 ntu to consistently produce good
require < 0.5 ntu settled water turbidity to pro- filtered water, then the filter is not functioning prop-
duce filtered water with < 0.1 ntu. Conversely, erlyeither coagulation of suspended solids in raw
direct filtration plants that do not have a sedi- water is insufficient, or filter beds are inadequately
mentation process but that are well designed and conditioned, or both.

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 87
 one filter. The choice of ele-
FIGURE 10 Range of filter bed cleanliness
vated tank or direct pump
wash is influenced by the site
Very clean bed topography, the size of each
Not well ripened filter bed, aesthetics, and local
Clean bed conditions such as winter
Partially
ripened Reasonably temperature.
clean
Ripened
Backwashing filters by
direct pumping has the
Dirty bed
Well ripened Dirty bed
advantage of easy backwash
with mud rate control without the
balls Provide an effective auxiliary
Well
scouring in addition to backwash need for a holding tank or
ripened
Very dirty bed a long backwash main line.
Many mud balls However, this system re-
Extremely dirty bed quires a large-capacity
Needs to be replaced pump, a high-power motor,
10 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400 500 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
and a large storage well.
Floc Deposition on 100 mL of Filter Media After Filter Washntu
There is also the potential
to violate the required dis-
infection time if the clear-
well is not large enough.
Water depth above filter bed. Air-binding may Backwash recycles. The practice of recycling
be minimized with proper design. To obtain reason- backwash waste means that organic constituents may
ably long filter runs in water of regular filter depth, be returned to the raw water if the waste is not clar-
the water depth above the filter bed must be at least ified. Although wash-waste is commonly clarified in
8 ft (2.4 m). The rule of thumb is to specify a water lagoons, this practice does not remove algae, Crypto-
depth equal to or higher than the available head loss sporidium oocysts,18,19 organic compounds that impart
for filtration, which is usually 8 ft (2.4 m). However, bad taste and odor, or precursors of disinfection by-
most patented automatic backwash filters commonly products. Sludge from sedimentation tanks should
allow a water depth of only 1 ft (0.3 m) or less. On the never be mixed with backwash waste because the
other hand, pressure filters generally provide a ter- sludge contains large amounts of undesirable sub-
minal head loss of > 30 ft (9.3 m). Thus, the water stances such as heavy metals and other materials that
depth or driving water pressure is a function of design degrade the quality of finished water.
specifications. If backwash waste is to be recycled, then it should
The decision to wash filters should not be solely be held in a waste holding tank that can retain the
based on a fixed level of head loss during the filter waste of at least two washings and preferably three or
run. Turbidity breakthrough and the concentration of four. A shortage of holding capacity prohibits filter
particulates per unit volume (i.e., 50/mL) for a cer- backwashing and thus becomes a bottleneck in the
tain size range (i.e., 210 m) should be used to entire water treatment process. A cylindrical tank
determine the end of the filtration cycle. with a tangential inflow concentrates sludge and
Filter piping. The most important design issue for washed-out filter media on center because of a
filter piping in the pipe gallery is simplicity and cyclone effect, and thus a sludge scraper can be elim-
accessibility to all control systems, including valve inated. The stored water is then pumped into a reac-
actuators. Moreover, the main backwash pipe must torclarifier located at a higher elevation than the
be located below the water level of the filter cell head of the plant, and the waste is treated at a
and preferably below the top of the wash troughs to reduced and constant rate (no greater than 10 percent
avoid entraining air in the backwash pipe through of the plant flow rate). The clarified and disinfected
leaky backwash valves. Entrained air can disturb water may now be recycled to the head of the plant
the gravel bed and upset the filter underdrain. Air by gravity. The concentrated sludge in the clarifier is
entrainment may be minimized or even eliminated then discharged to the sludge-handling system at
if a master backwash control valve is placed fixed intervals.
upstream of the filter banks. When the wash valve Filter control and instrumentation. A control
is opened slowly, allowing a flow of only about 8 and instrumentation system should help the plant
gpm/sq ft (20 m/h) for a period of 30 s1 min, the air operator observe filter washing and investigate any
in the backwash main will purge every time a filter unusual behavior in a filter. The essential items to
is backwashed. A self-backwash filter has the sim- control and record are filtration rate; head loss across
plest filter piping design. the bed; backwash rate and duration; auxiliary scour-
Filter backwash mode. Filters may be back- ing rate and duration; and filtered water quality. Con-
washed either by an elevated backwash tank or by trol and instrumentation for these items should be
direct pumping; self-backwash filters use filter efflu- provided at each filter and in the central control room.
ent from all the filters remaining on line to wash The capacity for manual control, in addition to auto-

88 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 JOURNAL AWWA
matic control, is essential at each filter
FIGURE 11 Vertical distribution of media sizes in a filter bed
for calibrating the automatic system and
in case the remote control system is dis-
abled. It is not necessary to have a con- Anthracite Sand Mixed
sole for each filter in the case of local 30
control. In fact, one console may furnish
control, an indication system, and record-
ing for two to four filters. A portable

0.93 mm
0.88 mm
600

0.92 mm
25
plug-in control and indication system

1.0 mm
may be used for each filter, thus elimi-

0.9-1.1 mm
nating the use of consoles.
20
Other aspects requiring control and

Depth of Bedmm
Depth of Bedin.
instrumentation are the water level in

1.03 mm
the elevated tank and waste wash water 400

holding tank, and water elevation in the 15

clearwells. Each filter should be furnished

with a turbidimeter (although additional
particle sizing and counting systems are 10
even better) for process control. 200
Filter housing. The local consoles

0.52 mm
0.55 mm

0.52 mm

0.51 mm

0.51 mm
should be housed in a building because 5

0.52 mm
the computer control mechanisms re-
quire a dust-free environment and a
constant, cool, ambient temperature for 0 0
proper functioning. The building may Original Filter Filter Filter Filter Filter
also shelter plant operators during Design Zone
severe weather. Automatic backwash Numbers inside the bars are the effective size of the media.
filters certainly require housing; expos-
ing the filters to open air increases the
likelihood of contaminating the filtered
water. Several articles on filter design
by Monk20,21 are good references. filter beds at least once a year, depending on the
Many engineers believe that the removal of 213 local conditions. If the filter bed is dirty, it should be
m particulates is a good surrogate measure of the washed longer than usual with a higher backwash
removal of protozoic cysts and oocysts (Giardia and rate and auxiliary scouring such as surface wash.
Cryptosporidium) and parasite eggs. Unfortunately, Such washing two or three times in succession may
cysts and oocysts can adhere to filter media. Several be needed to clean the filter bed. Although some
recent pilot studies18,19,2224 report that the removal water professionals firmly believe that a thorough
of cysts and oocysts may be 1.52.5 logs higher than filter wash is absolutely necessary, the author ques-
the removal of particulates of the same size range tions its effectiveness. The concept is correct in prin-
under the same filtration rate. ciple, but the definition is vague, the process is
Core sampling of the filter bed. Filter perfor- wasteful of wash water, and the maturation level
mance is commonly evaluated on the quality of the of the filter bed is reduced; therefore, the benefits are
filtered water and the length of the filter run under questionable.
given operating conditions. These methods, however, Media-grain gradation analysis. A media grada-
do not provide a complete picture of the condition of tion analysis includes determination of uniformity
the filter. Analyses of core samples taken from the coefficient and the specific gravity of the media, effec-
filter bed provide substantially more information.1 tive size of the media, mixed zone, and bed depth. Fig-
The analysis should include a filter-media grain ure 11 depicts the physical conditions of each filter
gradation profile and a floc-retention profile through- bed compared with the original design conditions
out the depth of the bed. Because the core sampling (specifications) for a 120-mgd (0.45 X 106m3/d)
process also measures the filter bed depth, the topog- plant. A frequent surprise of trimedia filter beds is
raphy of the support gravel bed mounding can be the loss of practically all of the small, high-density
established (provided a sufficient number of core media, generally garnet or ilmenite, after two to three
samples are taken). years of regular filter use.
Floc retention. The cleanliness of the filter bed
and effectiveness of the filter washing system and Summary
technique may be evaluated by considering floc Filtration is the final barrier to removing sus-
retention (expressed as turbidity) for the cored sam- pended solids such as cysts, oocysts, and parasite eggs.
ple after filter wash (Figure 10). Plant operators The common denominator of the pretreatment and
should consider core-sampling and analyzing the filtration processes is coagulation; thus, proper coag-

DECEMBER 1999 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999 S. KAWAMURA 89
ulation and flocculation are essential to producing
good filtered water. Filter performance is dictated
mainly by the filter media, the filtration rate, and the
effective use of polymer as a filter aid.
Two proven high-rate filtration beds are the stan-
dard dual-media and the coarse deep bed. A thin
(10-in. [250-mm]) sand layer at the bottom, to act
as a barrier, is worth consideration. For better filter
performance, the media should have a uc < 1.4.
The trimedia bed commonly behaves as a dual-
media bed because it frequently loses its bottom
garnet layer.
Each filter must be fitted with auxiliary scouring
and backwashed at the appropriate rate to maintain
the filter bed in clean yet ripened condition. Stan-
dard dual-media beds expand about 25 percent (not
50 percent) during backwash. A coarse deep bed
(effective grain size > 1.5 mm and depth > 4 ft or 1.2
m) must have auxiliary air-scouring. A surface-wash
system may need to be added if air-scouring with an
underdrain nozzle system with backwash does not
prevent mud ball formation (particularly when poly-
mer is used as coagulant).
Each media in a filter bed composed of two or
more types of granular media should fluidize to the
same degree during backwash, to prevent intermix-
ing and the loss of media.
Under the current Surface Water Treatment Rule
and the upcoming Enhanced Surface Water Treat-
ment Rule, the goal is to produce a filtered water
turbidity of  0.1 ntu. To meet this goal, the ratio of
the bed depth to grain size of the media (effective
size) should be at least 1,000.
Plant operational staff should examine the con-
dition of the on-line filters, especially the cleanliness
of the filter beds and the media-grain gradation pro-
file. It is thus recommended that the filter bed be
core-sampled and analyzed once a year.
Proper filter design alone will not yield good fil-
tered water. The importance of thorough and con-
sistent observations of filter bed conditions cannot
be underestimated, especially at plants where filter
controls are highly automated.
References
1. KAWAMURA, S. Integrated Design of Water Treatment
Facilities. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1991).
2. ASCE, AWWA. Water Treatment Plant Design.
McGraw-Hill, New York (3rd ed., 1998).
3. Culp, Wesner, Culp. Handbook of Public Water Sys-
tems. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York
(1987).
4. J.M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers. Water
Treatment Principle and Design. John Wiley & Sons,
New York (1985).
5. WEBER, W.J. JR. Physicochemical Process for Water
Quality Control. Wiley International, New York
(1972).
6. FAIR, G.M. & GEYER, J.C. Water Supply and Waste-
water Disposal. John Wiley & Sons, New York
(1954).
90 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 12 1999 American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA December 1999
7. Greeley and Hansen. Pilot Filter Test Report for
South Water Purification Plant (draft). Chicago
(1995).
8. BAUMANN, E.R. Granular-media Deep-bed Fil-
tration. Water Treatment Plant Design (R.I. Sanks,
editor). Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich.
(1979).
9. C LEASBY, J.L. Declining-rate Filtration. Jour.
AWWA, 73:9:484 (Sept. 1981).
10. HUDSON, H.E. JR. Water Clarification Processes. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1981).
11. BAYLIS, J.R. Nature and Effects of Filter Back-
washing. Jour. AWWA, 51:1:126 (Jan. 1959).
12. KAWAMURA, S. Optimization of Basic Water Treat-
ment ProcessesDesign and Operations: Sedi-
mentation and Filtration. Jour. Water SRTAqua,
45:130 (1996).
13. ASCE. Water Treatment Plant Design Manuals of
Engineering Practice. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs.,
No. 19 (1940).
14. Health Education Service. Recommended Stan-
dards of Water WorksThe Ten States Standards.
Health Education Services, Albany, N.Y. (1968).
15. WILCZAK, A. ET AL. Filter Performance Using a
Troughless Design at the Sacramento Plant. Conf.
CaliforniaNevada Section AWWA (Oct. 1994).
16. K AWAMURA , S. ET AL . Modifying a Backwash
Trough to Reduce Media Loss. Jour. AWWA,
89:12:47 (Dec. 1997).
17. BAYLIS, J.R. Design Criteria for Rapid Sand Filters.
Jour. AWWA, 51:11:1433 (Nov. 1959).
18. J.M. Montgomery & CH2M Hill. Joint Rept.
South Fork Tolt River Pilot Study for Seattle
Department of Water (Oct. 1992).
19. JEFFERY, J. Cryptosporidiosis and Water Supply.
Jour. Water SRTAqua, 40:5:110 (Apr. 1991).
20. MONK, R.D.G. Improved Methods of Design of
Filter Boxes. Jour. AWWA, 76:8:54 (Aug. 1984).
21. MONK, R.D.G. Design Option for Water Filtra-
tion. Jour. AWWA, 79:9:93 (Sept. 1987).
22. C UMMINGS , L. Removal Correlation of Cryp-
tosporidium and Giardia muris With Particle Size
and Turbidity for Pilot Scale. Proc. 1994 AWWA
Ann. Conf., New York.
23. NIEMINSKI, E. Giardia and Cryptosporidium Removal
Through Direct Filtration and Conventional
Treatment. Proc. 1994 AWWA Ann. Conf., New
York.
24. Montgomery Watson. Optimization of Filtration
for Cyst Removal (90699). AWWA Res. Fdn., Den-
ver (1994).
About the author: Susumu Kawa-
mura is a senior vice-president and
corporate technical director of Mont-
gomery Watson, 300 N. Lake Ave.,
Suite 1200, Pasadena, CA 91101.
He has nearly 50 years of experience
in water treatment engineering, par-
ticularly the design of new water
treatment plants that include softening processes.
JOURNAL AWWA