Imaging Techniques

Summer 2016
7) X-rays are commonly used as an imaging technique in medicine. X-rays are
produced by bombarding a metal target with electrons of suitable energy.
There are two distinct methods of production. (a) Describe the two methods
of X-ray production.
Rapid deceleration of the electrons by the nuclei (of the target material with
the emission of photons of electromagnetic radiation with various energies).
[1] Deep lying electrons in the target material being knocked out by the
bombarding electrons creating a vacancy. [1] The vacancy is filled by an (outer)
electron falling into the vacancy (with the emission of a high energy photon of
electromagnetic radiation)
(b) CT scanning is a powerful diagnostic tool that uses X-rays. (i) What does
CT stand for?
Computed tomograph(y)
(ii) Both the CT scanner and the conventional X-ray machine require the use
of an X-ray beam and a detector. Outline the difference in the procedure
employed with the beam and detector when each technique is used.
In a conventional X-ray the beam and detector are stationary [1] In a CT scan
the beam (and detector) are rotated (in phase)
(iii) State one disadvantage of using a CT scanner instead of a conventional X-
ray machine when used for producing images of patients.
The X-ray dose in a CT scan is much higher than for a conventional X-ray or The
cost of a CT scan is much higher than for a conventional X-ray or Patient
preparation can be time consuming/unpleasant
Summer 2015
7 (a) What do the letters CT stand for in a CT scan?
Computed tomography
State one similarity and one difference between the radiation used in
producing a conventional X-ray photograph and that used in carrying out a CT
scan.
Similarity: Same type of radiation used/X-rays used in both
Difference: Amount of radiation is much larger in CT scan
(c) State one example of a person who would be unsuitable for diagnosis
using CT scanning and explain why they would be unsuitable.
Pregnant woman [1] Ionising radiation could harm (the foetus)
(d) What is the role of the computer in the production of a CT scan?
Puts together the images to form 3D information

January 2014
7) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a powerful diagnostic tool requiring
complex analysis of data based on atoms in the human body which have
experienced nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). (a) Describe the nuclear
magnetic resonance phenomenon.
Nuclei (some) immersed in a (static) magnetic field (allow atoms) [1] Are
polarised/line up/spin/precess [1] Exposed to radio waves
(b) One component in the magnetic resonance system requires a current of
around 700A to flow. Name this component and state the main design
feature it incorporates to reduce power losses.
Scanner magnet (allow main) [1] Superconducting (coils)
(c) Explain why each of the following must be removed before undergoing an
MRI scan:
(i) A credit card: Strong B-field wipes data on cards magnetic strip
(ii) Gold chain: Strong B-field and movement causes non-ferrous metal to heat
up/eddy currents/it distorts (not blocks) the image
Summer 2014
5) Ultrasound cannot be detected by the human ear but it can be used for
internal imaging of the human body. One type of ultrasound scan is an A-
scan. In the space below, briefly describe an A-scan by commenting on the
physical principle involved, on the frequency of the ultrasound used, on the
resulting display and on how the display is interpreted by the operator.
reflection of ultrasound from tissue boundaries (internal) [1] output is
spikes/peaks on a time-based display [1] from which distances/depths are
calculated [1] 115 MHz [1]

January 2013
(a) A medical flexible endoscope contains two bundles of optical fibres and
several other channels. (i) State the function of the two optical fibre bundles
Bundle 1: carries light into the body/illumination
Bundle 2: relays an image to the doctor
Explain clearly how the arrangement of fibres in the two bundles differs.
Bundle 1: (non-coherent) fibres randomly arranged
Bundle 2: (coherent) fibres maintain a regular order
(ii) State a possible function of one of the other channels.
e.g. irrigation/laser/suction/air

(iii) A thin optical fibre used in an endoscope is 1.45m long. If the refractive
index of the fibre is 1.53 calculate the minimum time taken for a pulse of
monochromatic light to pass from one end of the fibre to the other end. The
refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in one medium to another
medium. In this case light travels 1.53 times faster in air compared to its
speed in the optical fibre.
Time = distance/speed in fibre
= 1.45/(3 108 /1.53)
= 7.4 109 (s)
(b) (i) One of the main components of an MRI scanner is the scanner magnet.
How is the magnetic field of the scanner created?
Using an electromagnet
(ii) Which recent technological advance has vastly reduced the cost of
producing this magnetic field?
Superconduction
(iii) Outline one advantage of MRI compared to CT scanning.
No ionising radiation/better resolution

Summer 2013
6) This question is about medical imaging techniques which rely on the use of
different types of waves.
(a) Explain the advantage of medical imaging techniques to image the
internal organs of the human body.
Non-invasive, (patient does not need to recover from operation) [1] Is not in as
much danger from infection or anaesthetic
(b) The flexible endoscope can be used to provide an image of inside a body.
(i) Describe how the area to be viewed inside the body is illuminated.
Non-coherent bundle of optical fibres (delivers light to area)
(ii) Describe fully how the image is transmitted to the observer.
Coherent bundle of multiple fibres transmits image (via t.i.r.) or a description
of what coherent means here
(c) Ultrasound is another method of imaging internal structures of the human
body. (i) Explain the basic principles of how ultrasonic pulses are used to
obtain diagnostic information.
Echo (from internal structure) [1] Conversion to an electrical signal
(ii) Describe the basic differences between an A-scan and a B-scan.
Amplitude v Brightness
Static probe v moving probe
 Depth determination v picture
(iii) In preparation for an ultrasound examination, gel is applied before the
transducer is placed on the skin. Explain why this is important to ensure the
efficiency of the procedure.
Couples transducer to skin avoiding excess reflection of signal at airskin
boundary
(d) Complete Table 6.1, by inserting the type of wave used in other medical
imaging techniques.

X-ray

Radio

January 2012
7) X-rays have been used in medical diagnosis for over a century. (a) (i)
Describe briefly how an image of part of a patient is obtained using
conventional x-ray imaging.
X-ray source directed at patient with detector below
(ii) More recently CT scans have become available. Explain how the
equipment needed and the process for CT scans differs from conventional x-
ray imaging.
Source and detector rotate around the patient while the patient is moved
through the scanner. Electronic scans are stored in a computer and they are
then built up to form a cross-section image.
(b) A patient with a previous fracture has had a steel pin inserted. He returns
for a check-up scan. Explain why a CT scan would be preferable to an MRI
scan.
Strong magnetic force on pin

Summer 2012
7(ii) State a typical frequency of ultrasound used in medical diagnosis.
115 MHz
(b) Give two reasons why ultrasound was the imaging technique chosen in
this case (knee scan)
(Relatively) inexpensive No harmful/ionising radiation Good for soft tissue
(c) State an example of a coupling medium and explain why it is required
when carrying out an ultrasound scan.
e.g. Water-based/cellulose jelly, film of oil [1] Ensures most of the ultrasound
enters the body [1] Prevents reflection at the boundary

January 2011
7 (a) The main components of an MRI scanner are the scanner magnet, field
gradient coils, rf transmitter, rf receiver and computer. Describe briefly the
function of the components listed below.
Field gradient coils: Produce controlled variations in the magnetic field/ locate
region
Computer: Processes the rf signals to produce the image
(b) Describe how the magnetic field of the scanner magnet is created. Explain
how recent advances in technology have vastly reduced the cost of producing
this magnetic field.
Created using electromagnet [1] Use of superconductors now [1] (High current
achieved with) fewer energy losses
(c) Outline three advantages of MRI compared to CT scanning.
No ionising radiation [1] Image in any plane [1] Higher detail (in soft tissues)
Summer 2011
7) Computed tomography (CT) scanning is a powerful diagnostic tool making
use of X-rays. (a) What is a tomograph?
Cross-sectional image (in the plane of a scan)
(b) X-rays are produced in two distinct ways. Both ways involve high energy
electrons being fired at a tungsten target. Outline the mechanisms by which
the high energy incident electrons produce X-rays once they strike the
tungsten target.
Incident electron deceleration (braking radiation or bremsstrahlung)
Target electron ionised from inner shell
Another target electron relaxing into vacated shell
(c) Fig. 7.1 shows a simplified diagram of an X-ray tube in which the tungsten
target is embedded in a large mass of copper all of which rotates.

(i) Approximately 1% of the incident energy of the electrons is converted to

X-rays. State what happens to the remaining 99% and explain how the tube
structure in Fig. 7.1 has been designed to cope with the 99% energy loss.
99% converted to thermal energy [1] Copper forms a heat sink for the tungsten
target [1] Target rotates to reduce localised heating
(ii) The emerging X-rays are passed through a 3mm thick aluminium filter
thereby removing the lower energy X-ray radiation. Explain why this is
necessary.
To reduce the X-ray dose received by the patient X-rays absorbed by
aluminium would otherwise be absorbed by patient