Studies have been done on dams around the world that are designed like Jamaica's very own

Hermitage and Mona Reservoirs that shows that evaporation from water storage facilities can be

as high as 50 % per annum. This high evaporation rate is due to relatively high wind speeds

coupled with daylight temperatures. The studies executed on dams in the United States and

Australia shows that the rate of evaporation of the storage reservoir can exceed actual demand.

Source: http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/focus/20150718/egerton-chang-black-dog-fi-monkey

Types of disinfectants

There are several different types of disinfectants used in water treatment processes these include

chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone and UV. Chlorine Dioxide has become increasingly used due to

its unique combination of properties. Chlorine Dioxide is powerful yet selective oxidant and

biocide, which means it kills microorganisms by the disruption of transport of nutrients across

the cell walls. Stabilized chlorine dioxide is ClO2 buffered in an aqueous solution the addition of

an acid to the required concentration activates the disinfectant. Chlorine dioxide if generated

properly will be able to treat water with higher organic load than ozone or chlorine though it only

reacts with reduced sulphur compounds, secondary and tertiary amines, and some other highly

reduced and reactive organics. Chlorine dioxide has been in use for years after it was discovered

that the direct use of chlorine formed some dangerous DPD's (disinfection by-products) like

THM (trihalomethanes). Advantages of chlorine dioxide include It destroys THM precursors and

increases coagulation, ClO2 destroys phenols and has no distinct smell, and It is better at

removing iron and magnesia compounds than chlorine, especially complex bounds, chlorine

dioxide also reduces corrosion and thus reduces maintenance costs.

Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant due to its affordability, effectiveness, easy

application and ease of control. Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by breaking

chemical bonds in their molecules. Disadvantages of chlorine include the fact that chlorine

leaves a taste and smell in water and produces residue that can clog machinery after a period

time. Chlorine is ineffective in killing protozoa like Cryptosporidium and Giardia

When chlorine is added to water, underchloric acids form:

Cl2 + H2O -> HOCl + H+ + Cl-

Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water treatment facilities by passing dry oxygen or air through

a system of high voltage electrodes. Ozone is one of the strongest oxidants and disinfectants

available. Its high reactivity and low solubility, however it is difficult to apply and control. None

absorbed ozone must be destroyed prior releasing from contact chambers to avoid corrosive and

toxic conditions. Ozone is more often applied for oxidation rather than disinfection purposes.

Advantages of the use of ozone include the fact that it does not Produces no chlorinated THMs,

HAAs, and it is effective against Cryptosporidium at higher concentrations. The use of ozone as

a disinfectant requires a high level of technical competence due to the fact that the process is a

hard one to control.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is generated by mercury arc lamp. This form of disinfectant is non a

non chemical form. When UV radiation penetrates the cell wall of an organism, it damages

genetic material, and prevents the cell from reproducing. Ultraviolet radiation is not used as often

but is very effective as it inactivate many pathogens while forming limited disinfection

byproducts.
Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/library/clo2/chlorine-dioxide.htm#ixzz4T2O886JR