Ivanov - Smolensky-Electrical Machines, Vol. 2

117 \ ( L. ..
I A~J UT THE BOOK

Thel book is in three volumes as fol-
lovk
VCllume I:
Preface. Introduction. Transformers. A
General Theory of Electrical Machines.
Volume II:
Classification of Electrical Machines.
Mechanical, Hydraulic and The rmal
Analysis and Design. Induction Machi-
ne s. Synchronous Machines.
Volume III:
D.C. and Commutator Machines. Tran-
sients in Electrical Machines.
The book is intended for college and
university students majoring in elec-
trical-machine theory and design. It
will also be useful to electrical power
engineers.
A. B. HnaHOB-CMOJIeHClmll
8JIEHTPMt-lECHHE MAWI1HbI
M3AaTeJILCTnO 8neprllH ~OCllna

Contents
Classification of Electrical Machines.
3 Mechanical, Hydraulic
and Thermal Analysis and Design
Chapter 32 Basic Construction of Electrical Machines 11

32-1 Parts of an Electrical Machine and Theil' Functions 11
32-2 General Requiremen ts for the Construction of
Electrical Machines 15
Chapter 33 Construction Types of Electrical Machines t7

33-1 Type and Direction of Mounting. Type of Shaft 17
33-2 Types of Enclosure 18
33-3 Cooling Arrangements 21
33-4 Noise Level (Quietness) Classification 23
33-5 Some of the Soviet Standards Covering Electrical
Machines 24
Chapter 34 Mechanical Design of Electrical Machines 25
34-1 Parts Transmitting Mechanical Power 2/j
34-2 Analysis of the Rotor Elements for Security of
Attachment 27
34-3 Shaft Analysis for the Effect of the Rotor Self-
Weight and Magnetic Attraction 29
Chapter 35 Thermal Analysis of the Cooling System 32
35-1 Basic Arrangement of the Cooling System in an
Electrical Machine 32
35-2 Transfer of Heat from a Hot Body to the Surround-
f ings 34
35-3 Heating and Cooling of Solid 36
35-4 Steady-State Temperature Analysis 39
Chapter 36 Hydraulic Analysis and Design of the Cooling
System 41
36-1 The Choice of a Coolant. Determination of Flow Rate 41
36-2 The Resistances of Series or Parallel Paths of the
Hydraulic Circuit 44 . . .
36-3 Analysis and Design of a Multipath Hydraulic Cir-
cuit 46
Chapter 37 Thc Size of an Electrical Machine
~7-+ 9tz~ ilnd Performance of ~ Machine 47
6 Contents
37-2 Relation Between the Prin cipal Dimensions and

Ele ctromagne t ic Loading 49
37-3 P ower Output , Power Losses and Mass of Geomet -
ricall y Similar Machines 51
Induction Machines
4
Chapter 38 A Genera l Outline of Induction Mach ines 53
38-1 Definitions. App lications 53
38-2 An H ist orica l Out line of the Induction Motor 56
Chapter 39 Construction of Inducti on Machines 57
39-1 The Squirrel-Cage Induct ion Motor 57
39-2 Construction of the Sli p-Ri ng Indu ction Mot or 61
Chapter 40 Electromagneti c Processes in the Electri c and Mag-
neti c Circuits of an Induction Machine at No-Load 64
40-1 The Id eal No-Load Condi ti on 64
40-2 Analy sis of t he Magnetic Circu it at No-Load 65
40-3 Calculation of No-Load Curr ent 71
40-4 Calculatio n of the Main Stator Wind ing Impedance 72
Chapter 41 Electromagneti c Pro cesses in Induct ion Mach ines on
Load 73
41-1 Basic Defi nitions an d Assumptions 73
41-2 The Stator Voltage E quation. Stato r MMF 7'5
41-3 The Rotor Voltage Equation . Ro tor MMF 78
4'1-4 Analys is and Design of th e Squi rrel-Cage W indi ng 8 1
41-5 MMF Equati on. Magnetizing Current . Mutual Field 84
4'1-6 Voltage and Current Phasor Dia grams for an In-
duct ion Mach ine 86
41-7 En ergy Conv ersion by an I ndu ction Mach ine .
Power Losses. E fficiency 87
Chapter 42 Appli cati on of Transformer Theory to th e Indu c-
tion Machine 91
42-1 The Rotor at Standstill 91
42-2 Transferr ing the Rotor Qua ntities to the Stator
Winding 95
42-3 Basi c Equat ions and the Space-Time Vector
Diagram of an I ndu ct ion Mach in e 96
42-4 E qui valent Circuits of a n Induct ion Machine 98
Chapter 43 Analytical and Graphical Determination of El ectro-
mechanical Characteristics of Inducti on Machines 103
43-1 Modes of Operation 103
~~ -~ Currents in the Stator and Rotor Windings i OE)
Contents 7
43-3 Electromagnetic Torque 110

43-4 Active and Reactive Power 113
43-5 Stray Electromagnetic Torques 115
43-6 The Circle Diagram of an Induction Machine 125
Chapter 44 Starting of Induction Motors 131
44-1 Starting of Squirrel-Cage Motors 131
44-2 Phase-Wound Induction Motors 133
44-3 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors with Improved Start-
ing Performance 135
Chapter 45 Steady-State Performance of Induction Motors.
Speed Control 139
45-1 Loading Conditions. Stability 139
45-2 Performance Characteristics of an Induction Motor 141
45-3 Methods of Speed Control 143
45-4 Speed Control by Change of Field Velocity 144
45-5 Speed Control without Slip Power Reco very 148
45-6 Speed Control with Slip Power Recovery 150
Chapter 46 Unbalanced Operation of Induction Machines 155
46-1 Unbalanced Operation due to Unbalanced Primary
Voltages 155 .
46-2 Unbalanced Impedances in the Rotor Winding Pha-
ses 159
Chapter 47 Single-Phase Induction Motors Hi3
47-1 Field of Application. General Arrangement and
Principle of Operation 163
47-2 Basic Equations and Equivalent Circuit of the
Single-Phase Induction Motor 167
47-3 The Split-Phase Induction Motor 170
47-4 Capacitor Motors 174
47-5 The Shaded-Pole Motor 177
Chapter 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 179
48-1 The Induction Generator 179
48-2 Induction Frequency Converters 180
48-3 An Induction Machine in the Transformer Mode of
Operation 182
48-4 The Solid-Rotor Induction Motor 186
48-5 The Nonmagnetic Drag-Cup Motor 188
48-6 Electromagnetic Induction Pumps 189
48c7 Linear and Limited-Rotation Induction Motors .192
Chapter 49 Induction Machines for Automatic Cuntrol Applica-
tions 195
149-1 Induction Control Motors and Tacho-genorators 195
49-2 Induction Resolvers 200
49-3 Synchros 204
Chapter 50 Practical Induction Motors 207
50-1 General 207
~0-2 Iv[Qqific!ltioI)s of the Basic Models 208
8 Contents
Synchronous Machines
Chapter 51 A General Outline of Synchronous Machines 210

51-1 Purpose and Field of Application 210
51-2 A Brief Historical Outline of Synchronous Machines 214
51-3 Construction of Salient-Pole Synchronous Machines 217
51-4 Construction of Nonsalient-Pole Synchronous Ma-
chines 226
Chapter 52 Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines 230

52-1 Arrangement of and Requirements for an Exci ta-
tion System 230
52-2 Classification of Excitation Systems 234
Chapter 53 Electromagnetic Processes in a Synchronous Ma-

chine 236
53-1 Voltage and Magnetic Field Waveforms on Open
Circuit 236
53-2 Calculation of the Magnetic Circuit of a Salient-
Pole Machine on Open Circuit 242
53-3 Calculation of the Magnetic Circuit for a Nonsa-
lient-Pole Machine on Open Circuit 250
Chapter 54 MMF, Magnetic Field, EMF and Parameters of the

Armature Winding 254
54-1 Armature MMF and Its Direct-Axis and Quadra-
ture-Axis Components 254
54-2 The Armature MMF at Various Loads in the Gene-
rator Mode 257
54-3 Mutual Field and EMF due to the Armature Currents 260
54-4 Equivalent Armature MMF in an Unsaturated Ma-
chine 263
54-5 Parameters of the Armature Winding (for Positive
Sequence Currents) 265
Clw.pter 55 Electromagnetic Processes in a Synchronous Machine

on Load 27~
55-1 Electromagnetic Processes in a Nonsalient-Pole
Machine (Neglecting Saturation) 21'1 .
55_2 Electromagnetic Processes in a Salient-Pole Synch-
ranous Machine (Neglecting Saturation) 275 .
Synchronous Machine (with Saturation) 27.9
515-4 Electromagnetic Processes in a Salient-Pole Syn-
phnlllPU~ Machin with Allpwanco for S~~Wfl.tioH 28$
Cont ents 9
Chapter 56 Energy Conversion by a Synchronous Machinc 293

56-1 Encrgy Conve rsio n in th e Gen erator Mode of Opera-
ti on . Losses and E fficiency 293
56-2 E lectromagnetic P ower a nd E lec tromag netic Tor qu e 2'16
Chapter 57 Characteristics of a Synchronous Generator Supply-

ing an Isolated Load 301
57-t Opera t ion of a Sy nc hr onous Gen erator into an Isol at-
ed Load 301
57-2 Exc ita t ion Cha rac te r is tic of a Sy nc hronous Gene -
rator 302
57-3 External Cha racter is t ics 306
57-4 Shor t-Circu it Charact erist ic 309
57-5 Load Cha racteristics 3i3
57-6 SeH-Exci tatio n of a Sy nc hro nous Generator Ope-
ra ting int o a Ca pacitiv e Lo ad 316
Chapt er 58 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Machines 323

58- t Para lle l Oper at ion of Sy nc hro nous Gene rators ill
an Electri c Sys tem 323
58-2 Bringing in a Gene rator for Paralle l Operat ion 326
58-3 Cont ro l of Load on a Synchr on ous Generator Con-
nec te d to an In finite Bu s 329
58-4 Acti ve a nd Re act ive P ower of a Sy nc hr onous Ma-
chine Connec ted to an I nfinite Bu s 331
58-5 E lectromagnetic P ower an d E lec tromagnet ic Tor-
qu e or a Synchronou s Machine Conn ected to an In-
fi nite Bus 335
58-6 Control of Act iv e Power a t Con stant V and 1/.
Power Angle Characteri stic 337
58-7 Sta bili ty in Pa ra lle l Oper ation 340
58-8 Re active P ower-O Charact er isti c of a Synchro nou s
Mach ine 345
58-9 Control of Rea ctive P ower in P arallel Operation .
"V" Curves 346
58-'10 Sy nc hro no us Motor s 350
58-1 t Sy nchronous Con de nse rs 355
Chapter 59 Synchronization Mcthods 358

59-t Ex act Synchron iza t ion 358
59-2 Self-Sy nc hr onizat ion. Conditions for Pulling into
Synch roniza t ion 361
59-3 Sy nchronizing by Fr eq uenc y Control 366
59-4 I nd uct ion Sta rting 369
59-5 In du ction Running of Syn chronous Mach ines . Re-
sy nchro niza tio n 373
Chapter 60 Instability of Synchronous Machines in Parallel

Operation 376
60-1 Fre e Osc il la t ions of th e Rotor Following a Sudden
Cha nge j II E x ternal To r que 3 76
6Q-? Fgrceq Osc illa t lons 9f th e R~ tor 38~
10 Cont ents
Chapter 61 Unbal an ced Operation of Synchronous Machines 387

61-1 An Outline of Unbalanced Operation 387
61-2 Positive-Sequence Impedance of the Armature
Winding 387
61-3 Negative-Sequence Impedance of the Armature
Winding 389
61-4 Zero-Sequence I mped ance of the Arma tur e Wind in g 396
61-5 Unbalan ced Operation of a Synchronous Machi ne 397
61-6 Pa ralle l Oper at ion with an Unbala nced System 399
61-7 Opera tion of a Synchronous Generator in to an Iso-
lat ed Unbalanced Load 401
61-8 Unbal anced Steady-State Short-Circu its 402
Chapter 62 Synchronous Machines of Soviet Manufacture 405
62-1 Turbogenerators 405
62-2 H ydro generators and Engine-D riven Synchronous
Generators 415
62-3 Synchronous Motors and Synchronous Condensers 422
Chapter 63 Special-Purpose Synchronous Machines 424
63-1 Elec tromagnet ically Exci ted Single-P hase Synch-
ronous Generators 424
63-2 Reluctance Sync hr onous Mot ors 425
63-3 Claw-P ole Synchronous Machines 429
63-4 Inductor Machines 431
63-5 Rolling-Rotor and Flexible Wave -Rotor Motors 438
63-6 Permanent-Magnet Synchrono us Machines 444
63-7 Hys teresis Motor s 448
63-8 Stepper Motors 452
63-a Doubly-Fed Synchronous Machines 453
Bibliog raphy 1t 59
Index 462
Classification of Electrical
Machines. Mechanical,
Hydraulic and Thermal
Analysis and Design
32 Basic Construction
of Electrical Machines
32-1 Parts of an Electrical Machine and

Their Functions
In an electrical machine, energy is converted within a space

taken up by an electromagnetic field. The parts that serve
to establish and confine the field may be called active (or
electrical) as they directly contribute to energy conversion.
These are the cores, conductors (coils), and air gaps.
In addition, there are parts which do not contribute to
energy conversion directly, but are essential to the operation
of a machine. They may be called structural (or mechanical)
parts. Among other things, they
(a) hold the stator and rotor in their designated relative
position and ensure (or limit) the desired degrees of freedom;
(b) transfer electric energy between the cores and coils,
on the one hand, and external lines, on the other;
(c) transfer mechanical energy between the prime mover
and the driven machine;
(d) provide cooling;
(e) insulate the coil turns from one another, from mecha-
nical parts, and from the cores electrically;
(f) protect the cores and coils against exposure to external
factors (moisture, harmful gases or fumes, and the like) and
prevent ingress of foreign objects inside the machine;
(g) ensure safety to attending personnel by limiting (or
preventing) access to and contact with rotating or live
parts;
(h) facilitate the installation of a machine at its penna-
n~!lt locatiou ,
12 Pa rt Three. Classification of Electrical Machines
The typica l par ts of an elec trical mach ine are illustra t ed

in Fi g. 32-1 which sh ows a sa lie nt-pole synchronous machine.
The arrangement sh own will he found in most electri cal
mach ines in general.
The active parts are stator winding 1 , rotor winding 7,
stator core 2, and ro tor cor e whi ch consists of pol es 3 and
'1-7 '1-8 49 50 51 52 1 2 3 If 5 6 7
\
39
38
36--J_~~~
9
35-~~~~"""~
3"
33
32
31
30 11
Fig. 32-1 Genera l arra ngemen t of an elec tric al mach ine
yok e 18. In the arr ange men t sh own , t he m agnetic fi eld in

the poles an d yoke of the ro tor is constant in m agni tud e and
di rectio n. This implies that these parts are not su bject t o
cycli c ma gnetization, so they m ay be fabricated of solid
(one pi ece) st eel forgings.
In t he st ato r core , the m agne tic fie ld var ies periodically at
th e supply frequ ency. To m in im ize hyst eresis and eddy-
current losses (see Sec . 31-3), it is buil t up of insul at ed
l}~~n!,i<:a l-~lwe t st eel lamin ations 2 clam ped tO ~'eth el' bi'
Ch. 32 Basic Construction 13
clamps 50, pressure blocks 4, and keys 5 inserted in annular

recesses in fram e 48.
Th e t angential electromagnetic forces acting all th e stator
are mainly applied to the stator teeth (see Sec . 29-3). These
forc es are , in the fin al analysis, transmitted to and absor bed
by th e foundation . Th eir path is from the stator t eeth and
18
2fi 19 Its 49 50 51 20
yoke, through keys 51, fram e 48, fram e feet 19, anchor holts
25, baseplat e 24, to foundation 20. (The electromagne-
tic forc es and the forc es transm itting external torque via
fixed parts ar e shown by arrows 53 and 54, respectively, in
Fig. 32-1) .
Appreciable electromagnetic forces (especially during
transi ents) are act ing on the coil conduct ors as well.
To count era ct them, the active conductors are anchored
to slots by wedges 49, whereas the coil ends (over-
Part Three. Classification of Electrical Machines
hangs) are held in place hy tape or clamps.

The tangential electromagnetic forces acting on the rotor
are mainly applied to the pole-shoes. On the shaft acted
upon by the external torque that balances the torque due to
the tangential electromagnetic forces, the poles are held
by a combination of dovetail joint 23, rotor yoke 18, and
key 16.
Axially, the rotor parts are additionally locked by straps
26 that prevent the poles from moving in the dovetail
joints, and also annular key 15. The rotor is held in its
designated position and permitted to rotate relative to the
stator by axial and radial bearings. The radial bearings in
the design shown in Fig. 32-1 are of the roller type,
13 and 29, held in end shields 6 and 46 by caps 14
and 12.
The weight of the rotor is transmitted to the foundation
via end shields 6 and 46, and frame 48 to which the end
shields are fastened by means of flanges. To the rotor weight
is added the weight of the stator (the respective forces are
shown in Fig. 32-1 by arrows 22).
The flow of electromagnetic power, P em, across the ail'
gap separating the cores is shown by arrow 41. For the adopt-
ed sense of rotor rotation, Q, the directions of torques, forces,
and energy fluxes are those existing in the generator mode
of operation. .
Mechanical power, Pm (the direction of its flow is shown
by arrow 41), is transmitted from the associated prime mover
to the rotor via a chain of mechanically strained rotating
parts. Starting at half-coupling 9, the mechanical power is
transmitted via key 10, through shaft 17 and key 16 to the
rotor, whence it is directed to rotor yoke 18, dovetail joint
23, and poles 3 which are acted upon by the bulk of the
electromagnetic forces (see Sec. 29-3) shown in the cross-
sectional view by arrows 53.
Electric power is conveyed from the stator coils laid in
stator slots by leads 47 to terminals 44 and cables 40.
To the rotor coils, electric power is conveyed over cables,
via conducting segments 30, pig-tails 38, brushes 37 which
are free to move in brush-holders 36, slip-rings 32, slip-
ring leads 33, and leads 27 passing through an opening in
the shaft. Segments 30 are attached over insulating parts to
rocker-arm 39; the slip-rings are press-fitted on sleeve 34
insulated by cylinder 35.
Ch. 32 Basic Construction 15
The total power losses, ~P, are dissipated in the machine

as heat which is abstracted by cooling air flowing in the
direction shown by arrows 52 . The static pressure required
to circulate cooling air is produced by axial-flow fan 42.
Air enters the machine by openings in end shield 46 , is
directed by baffles 43, scooped by the fan and, on passing
through ventilating ducts in the cores, is expelled from the
machine through openings in end shield 6 and louvres 8.
Many of the baffles , ducts and enclosures (8, 45, 31, and 11)
serve a two-fold function in the machine: they prevent
ingress of foreign objects and water drops and also keep
attending personnel from direct contact with the rotating
and bare live parts.
As a further safety measure, the frame of the machine
must reliably he grounded . To this end, it has grounding
bolt 21 . This will prevent an electric shock upon contact
with the machine, should its insulation be damaged.
To facilitate installation at its permanent location, the
machine is fitted with lifting lugs or eyes (at 55 in Fig. 32-1) .
As already noted, the arrangement illustrated in Fig . 32-1
is basically common to all rotating electrical machines.
Whatever variations there may be, they will mainly concern
the core shape and the winding circuits . (Various designs
and types will be examined in separate sections and chap-
ters.)
The arrangement and size of the active and mechanical
parts vary with the form of cooling used (see Chap. 37),
the type of enclosure adopted, the type of shaft, and some
other features (see Chap . 33).
32-2 General Requirements for the Construction

The active and mechanical parts of a machine must be
designed, detailed and manufactured so as to meet the re-
quirements of relevant standards, and so that the machine
could perform its designated function adequately.
Among other things, appropriate standards or codes re-
quire that a machine should reliably operate under nominal
service conditions. In the Soviet Union, the li m iting service
conditions are taken to be an ambient temperature of + 40C
and an altitude of not over 1 000 m above sea level. Also,
a machine should remain fully serviceable UJ1(] AI' conditions
16 Part Three. Classi fication of Electrical Machines
of overcurrents, overvoltages, excessive rpms, and starting

currents, voltages and electromagnetic torqu e (in the case
of motors) to the extent likewise specified in applicable
standards or codes.
Th e choic e of materials and dim ension s for the active and
m echanical components is decid ed upon and checked at the
tim e of elec tromagne tic design and analys is, insulation
design, stress-strain analysis (Chap. 34), h ydraulic design
(Chap. 36), and thermal analysis (Chap. 35). The t urn insula-
tion must be designed to withstand th e interturn voltage,
and the ground in sulation must be able to s tand up to the
voltage betwe en the conduc tor s and the grounded core.
Th e type and form of in sulation (ins ula ting and impreg-
natin g materials, clearances , radii of curva ture and bends,
and the lik e) mu st he chosen such that th e elec t ric field
strength in the insula tion at the hi gh est operating voltage
will not exceed the safe limit and th e insulation will retain
its electrical strength Ior a long time . The insul ation must
also be checked and tested for its ability to withstand re-
pea t ed application of atmospheric and swit ching' surges. The
electric strength and insulat ion resistance of a ma chine
should be checked at the tim e of testing th e groun d and t urn
insulation [131. Th e insulation is required t o pass these
tests without any dam age or impairment in quality.
The winding insul ation must have ample mechanical
strength so as to withstand all kinds of mechanical forces
during erection and in service (static, impact , vibrational ,
etc.). Th e requirements for the mechanical str ength of
insulation are not very stringent, because the elec t romagne-
tic forces transferred from the conduct ors to th e slot sides in
a tangential direction are insignificant (see Sec. 29-3). The
prevailing factor is the pulsational forces arising from
the interaction of currents with the leakage field , which drive
the conductors against the slot bottom.
The maximum temperature at which a given typ e of insula-
tion retains its electr ical and m echanical strength and dura-
bility (the abil it y to preserve its properties for a period of
15 to 30 years without noticeable changes) serves as a basis
for dividing all insulating materials into sev eral classes,
such as listed in Table 32-1. In more detail, this matter is
discussed in [13].
The insulation classes listed in Table 32-1 are as follows.
Class A. Cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic materials
Ch. 33 Construction Types 17
Ta ble 32-1 Temperature Limits and I ns u lation Classes
I nsu la t io n class
'I'em p er ature , C
A
I E
I B
I F
I I-I
Temperature l imit for insula-

ti on '105 120 130 155 180
Safe operating temp erature for
winding toO 1'15 120 140 165
when either impregnat ed or imm ersed in a liquid di electric.

Clas s E . Som e synthetic film s.
Class B. Mat erials or combinations of materials such as
mica , asbestos, glass fibre, etc. , with su itable organic bon-
ding, impregnating 01' coating substances.
Class F. Materials or combinations of materials such as
mi ca , asbestos, glass fibre , etc., with suitable synthetic
bonding , impregnating 01' coating substances.
Class H . Materials such as silicone elast omer and combi-
nations of materials such as mica , asbestos , glass fibre , etc .,
with suitable bonding, impregnating or coating substanc es
such as appropri ate silicone r esins.
In designing an electrical m achine , it is customary to use
standard insulation arrangements, each adapted to a particu-
lar voltage level, r ather than to do an al ysis and design work
each time.
"* 33 Construction Types

of Electrical Machines*
33-1 Type and Direction of Mounting.
Type of Shaft
The tables th at follow appl y to the cla ssifications for Soviet-
made machines. Similar classifications are in use in the
CMEA countries.
* As in Volu me One, the mat er ial marked with a starlet is optional.

2-0 2 1,0
18 Part Three. Classification of Electrical Machines
The most commonly used desi gns of electri cal machines as

regards typ e and direction of mounting, and type of shaft
are illustrated in Fig. 33-1.
1M 1001 1M2011 I M 6211 1M 7011
...
ifJt
1 M 3001
i ih1 fbl
1M som 1M 7211 1M822 1
t
J$
1M 5002 1M 5102 1M8'f21
J ,e
,..., ,...,
1M9'f01
+mf ~ ~
J '[
J ,[
Fig . 33-1 Various form s of moun ti ng, sha ft positi on, anrl bearing
design for electrical machines
i
33-2 Types of Enclosure

Quite a number of machine designs exist, using different
degrees of enclosure and protection t o the operating parts
and windings. Th e most commonly encountered standard
types are defined below .
1. An open machine is one having ventilating openings
which permit passage of external cooling air over and around
the windings of the machine.
_. 2. A guarded machine is an open machine in which all
openings giving direct access to live or rotating parts are
limited in size hy the design of the structural parts or hy
screens, grills, expanded metal, and the like, so as to pre-
vent accidental contact with such parts and ingress of
forei gn objects . .
Table 33-1 'l'ype and .Direction ot Mounting
Codc dc-I
s ig n a- Descri p ti on
tion
IM1 Foot-mounted, end-shield type

1M2 Foot-mounted, end -shield, with a flange on
an end-shield (s)
1M3 Flange-mounted, end-shield type, with a
flange on one side
IM4 Flange-mounted, end-shield type, with a
flange on the frame
IJlil5 Non-bearing type
1MB End-shield, pedestal-bearing type
IM7 Pedestal-bearing type ' (no end-shields)
1MB Vert.ical-shait type (other than in Groups
IM1 to IM4)
J]'1'!9 Special-purpose machines
3. A drip-proof machine is an open mach ine in which the

ventilating openings are so constructed that drops of liquid
or solid particles cannot enter the machine either directly
or by striking and running along a horizontal or inwardly
inclined surface of the machine.
4. A splash-proof machine is an open machine in which
the ventilating openings are so constructed that splashes of
liquid or solid particles falling on the machine or coming
towards it in a straight line cannot enter the machine either
directly or by striking and running along a surface of the
machine.
Table 33-2 Type of Shalt
sumdC-/
Corle
a- Description
tion
o No shaft extension
1 One cylindrical shaft extension
2 Two cylindrical shaft extensions
3 One tapered shaft extension
4 Two tapered shaft extensions
5 One flanged shaft extension
G Two flanged shaft extensi oris
7 Flanged shaft extension on the drive end,
and a cylindrical shaft extension on the
opposite side
8 All other shaft arrangements
2*
26 Pa rt t hree. Class ification of Eiectrical Machines
(el
Fig . 33-2 Venti lation and cooli ng sys te ms used on elec tr ical machines:
II l - m aehi ne bein g cooled ; 2-external-fan motor: ,1- hot a ir (gas) pipe cond u it;
4-co l d-a il' (gas) p ipe cond ui t ; 5- wa te r-coo led h ea t -exch an ger
II
I
Ch. 33 Construction Types 21
5. A water-proof m achin e is a totall y encl osed machin e so

constructed th at it will exclude wa te r applie d in th e form of
a stream from a hose , and also soli d particles and for eign
objects.
6. A sea- pr oof ma chi ne is a totally encl osed machine so
constructed that, wh en installed 0 11 the deck of a sea-going
vessel, it will exclude water in the form of wav es, and also
preven t con tac t with ru nning or live parts, ingress of foreign
objects, and deposi t of conducting or abra sive dust.
7. A short-t ime submersible m achi ne is a totall y enclos-
ed machine whi ch permits a shor t stay underwater .
8 . A lon g-time subme rs ible machine is a totally enclosed
ma chine so construct ed th at it can be held underwater Ior
an unlim ited spa n of tim e.
9. An explosion-proof machine is a to tally enclosed
ma chine whose enclosur e is desi gned and constructed so as
not to cause the ign ition or explosion of an ambient atmos-
ph ere of the spec ific dust and also not to cause the ign ition
of the dust on or around the machine.
10. A weather-protected m ach ine is an open machine 01'
a t otally enclosed m achine design ed for service at elevated
relative humidity .
'11. A frost-proof machine is a t otally enclosed ma chine
designed and const ruct ed so as to be able to operate with
ho ar-frost forming on the enclosure .
12. A chem ica l-pr oof m achine is a to tally enclosed ma-
ch ine designed an d const ructed so as to be able to opera te
in the presence of chem ica lly act ive substa nces .
'13. A t ropicali zed machin e is a mach in e capa ble of opera-
t ing under condit ions of likely fu ngous growth.
33-3 Cooling Arrangements

Any one of seve r al cooli ng arrangemen ts can be used in
elec trica l mach ines . For ex ample, th ey ma yor m ay no t use
a fan (or a blow er) to supply cooli ng . In th e latter cas e, th ey
are classed as na turally air-cooled. In them , cooling a it' is
mad e to circula te by the rotatin g parts of the machine and
by conve cti on . This form of cooling is ordinarily limited to
open ma chines .
Anoth er major class includes forc ed-cooled machines.
For ced-cooled machin es may fur th er be subdivided into
self-vent ila ted , if a fan is mounted on th e shalt inside the
22 Par t Thr ee. Class ification of Electric al Machines
m achine (whi ch is usu ally th e case with gua rde d a nd t otall y

enclosed machin es, F ig . 33-2a, d, and g ), and separately
vent ilate d, if th e fa n is dr iven by a separate mot or (whi ch is
usually the case wi th totall y enc lose d m achi nes, Fi g. 33-2e
and f) .
Another di stinct.ion wi th for ced-cooled machines is th e
m an ner in which t he coola nt is applied . Some of t he m h ave
a blow er (Fig . 33-2a) th a t for ces cooli ng air over th e mach ine
I'
oft en fi tt ed with fin s to give a larger cooli ng area . This
form of cooling is appli ed to enclosed machines. In othe rs
(Fig. 33-2b, d and g ), mostly enclose d or guarded, cooling is
accomplish ed by forci ng air th rou gh du cts so that it blows
over t he ho t part s (coil s and cores ) and is disch arged into
th e a tm osphe re .
In m edium-rated enclosed machi nes us ing blowers an d
intend ed for op eration in a dus t-l ad en air, it is usual to add
a bu il t -in fan for better a il' circ ulation inside t he mach ine
and for better heat t r an sport from t he hotter to the col der
p arts (cool ed by a blo wer).
In self-ven t il at ed m achines, the cooli ng ail' ma y be
cause d to flo w axia lly (as in Fig. 33-2c), rad iall y (as in
Fi g. 33-2 b), or both axi all y and radially (as in Fi g. 33-2d).
Th e cooli ng syst em may he eithe r open- circui t or close d-
I[ circu it. Open-circuit ven til ation is ordin arily use d in guard-
ed or partiall y encl osed mach ines, with t he coola nt scoope d
or dr awn in from inside or ou ts ide t he h all or room wher e th e
ma chine is in st alled , and th e outgoi ng coolant is eithe r
disch arged in side the room or carried outside, as the case
may he.
For small - and mediu m-r ated ma chi nes in stalled in spa -
cious room s with a cl ean at mosphere, th e coolant may he hath
drawn in from and expelled into t he room , as in F ig . 33-2 b
and d.
For enc lose d mach in es ins talled in rooms with a poll uted
at mosphe re, cooling air is scooped from th e outside an d guid-
ed by a p ipe or pipes in to t he mach ine fr om wh ich t he ho t
air is exp elled outside likewis e by a pipe or pipes (p ipe-
ve ntila te d mach ines, as in F ig . 33-2g ).
For large machin es , i t is preferabl e to scoop cooling ai r
from th e rooms where th ey a re ins tall ed , an d to di sch arge
th e Ioul ai r by a pipe outside so as to avo id h ealin g th e
atm osph ere ind oors. If a large mach ine (such as a wa ter -
wheel tu rbo alternator) is installed in a locality with a clean
Ch, 33 Construction Types 23
atmosphere, the best sch eme is when cooli ng air is drawn in

from and discharged into the atmosphere so as to a void both
excessive heating and hi gh- veloc it y ail' cur rents indoors
(see Fig. 33-2e).
Closed-circuit ventilation is preferable for large machines
of the totally enclosed type . After the ventilating medium
(air or, frequ ently , hydrogen), held at a constant volu me ,
has been heated by circulating through the various parts of
the ma chine, it is cool ed by pa ssing it through a fin-tube
cooler in which cooling water is circulated (as in Fig. 33-21).
Sometimes, the cool er m ay be built into the machine.
The coolant may be air, hydrogen, oil, or water. Some -
tim es, a combination of severa l cool ants may be used in the
same machine (say, hydrogen to cool the rotor and oil to
cool the stator of a turboalternator) . In some cases , cooling
is provided by causing a coolant to evaporat e. Quite ap tly,
this is ref err ed to as ev aporative cooling.
The windings of a machine m ay likewise be cool ed in any
one of sev eral wa ys. For example, the cool ant mayor may
not com e in direct contact with the conductors . This res-
pectively is direct and indirect cooli ng . In the case of direct
cooling, machines ordinarily have ventilating ducts to guide
the coolant as appropriate . The ducts take the form of thin-
walled, nonmagnetic conduits given a thin layer of insulation
and built into the windings. Such an arrangement is employ-
ed in he avy-duty, l ar ge-po wer machines, such as large-
size steam-turbine and water-wheel al tern at ors, and sup er-
heavy squirrel-ca ge induction mot ors (see Sec. 62-1).
33-4 Noise Level (Quietness) Classification
According to the noise level (D in decibels) they produce

whe n running, all electrical ma chines in the USSR are
divided into the following classes:
noiseless m achines with D < 35 dB on scale A;
- low-noise m ach ine s with D r an ging between 35 and
55 dB;
- normal machines wi th D r an gin g from 55 to 75 dB.
Th e no ise produced by an elec tr ical machine com es from
several sour ces, namely : .
(1) Windage noise du e to th e turbul en t coola nt flow pro-
duced by th e rotor and fan .
24 Part Three. Classification of Elect rical Machin es
(2) Humming produced by the vibrating stator and rotor

under the action of elect romagnetic forces.
(3) Mechanical noise coming from the vibr ation of the
bearings, baseplate, and other structural parts.
Th e noi se level is found by the follo win g equat ion
D = 10 logl o (III o) = 20 loglo (plp o)
wh ere I = noi se in t ensity
p = sound pr essure
1 0 = 10- 12 Wm -2 = noise intensity corresponding to
the threshold of sensit iv ity of
th e human ear
Po = 2 X 10- 5 P a = sou n d pr essure corresponding to
the threshold of sens it iv ity of
the hu man ear
:ns Some of the Soviet Standards Covering

Electrical Machines
The objecti ves of t he standards covering commerc ially

available elec trical ma chines in the USSR ar e to make the
ma chines int erchangeable as regards mo unting di men sions,
lead and te rminal design ation , power ratings, voltage r atings,
and speed ratings .
Mounting dimensions are covered by USSR St ate Stan-
dards GOST 12126-71 , GOST 8592-71, GOST 13267-73 , GOST
12080-66 , and GOST 12081-72.
Le ad and term inal desi gn ations ar e given in GOST 183-74.
Po wer ra t ings up t o 10 MW are subject to GOST 12'139-74.
Spe ed ra t ings ar e give n in GOST 10683-73 .
The principal requirements to be complied with by elec-
trical machines of any type and design ar e given in the Sovi et
standards listed below.
GOST 183-74 . Electri cal m achines. General requ iremen ts.
GOST 12139-74. Electrical mach ines. Power r atings up
to 10 MW.
GOST '10683-73. E lectrica l mach ines. Speed r a ti ngs an d
t olerances.
GOST 12126-71. Electrical machines, low-power. Moun t-
ing dimensions. Mounting arrangements .
GOST 8592-71. Electrical m achines . Tol erances on mo unt-
ing dim ens ions.
Ch, 34 Mechanical Design 25
GOST '1 2327-66 . Electrical machines . R esidual rotor di s-

bal an ee. Li mits an d m ethods of measurements .
GOST '1 3267-73 . Electrical machines and di rect-coupled
no ne lect r ieal machines . Axi al heights and dim ensions .
GOST 2479-65 . Elec trical ma ch in es . Enclosures and
type desi gnations .
GOST 454'1-70. E lectri cal machines. Designations---Over-
all and mo untin g dim ensions,
GOST '12080-6 6. Sh aft ex te ns ions , cy li ndr ical.
GOST 1208'1-72. Shaft ex tensions, t ap er ed .
COST '1 6372-70. Electri cal mach ines, ro ta ting . Noise
level li mi ts.
CMEA ST 169-75. E lectrical mach ines. Form s , te rms an d
defini tions .
34 Mechanical Design
:M-1 Parts Transmitting Mechanical
Power
An electrica l mach ine must be designed so th at all of its
me m bers h av e am ple m ech ani cal stre ngth and rig id ity t o
carryall l ik ely for ces w ithin t he sp ecifi ed limits of defor-
mation.
Th e elem ents are checke d for st re ng th and ri gidity as
a part of th e m echanic al ana lys is and desi gn of a mach in e,
which reduces to determinin g the stresses and strains that
may be indu ced by the various forces and m om ent s (mech anic-
al and electromagnetic).
To begin wi th, cons ider the me ch an ical ana lysis of the
me m bers transmitting mecha nica l power.
In t he generating m ode of op era ti on , input mech anical
power is conveyed t o t he conversion asse mbly where it is
t urne d in t o electric power (see F ig . 32-'1 ) by a chain of
elements whi ch include a h alf-coupling (9) , th e shaft (17) ,
t he rotor yoke (78), and t he pol es (3).
Let us tak e a closer look at how mech an ical pow er is
t rans mit t ed alon g the sh aft of th e m achin e. In a s teady
st ate, the sh aft is act ed up on by mutu all y b al an cin g tor-
qu es, nam ely an ex te rn al torque, T ext (arrows 53 in the figure)
26 Part Three. Classi fication of El ectrical Machines
appl ied [0 t he ri ght-h and side and di rect ed in the sense of

rot ation , and an elec tromagnetic torque, T e m (arrows 54 )
transmitted vi a th e rotor yoke an d direct ed in t he opposi te
sense . An enlarged shaft de-
tail at section I -I is shown
in Fi g. 34-1.
Th e two torques stress the
shaft. The part of th e shaft
to th e left of sectio n I -I trans-
mits the torque to th e r igh t-
hand part of the sha ft by
v ir tue of the t angent ial stres-
S(I -I)
ses "tv induced in the eleme nts
dS of tha t sect ion . Th e stres-
ses ar e proportional to the
Fig. 34- 1 Mecha nica l power di st an ce R of the ele men t
tr an sferred by a r otating shaft dS = (Rdy)dR from th e sh aft
centre line and are a ma-
xi mum, "to, a t th e out er surface of the sha ft
"tv = - "toR/Ro
The sum of th e ele me nt a ry torques
dT P ill = R I "tv dS I
mu st he eq ual to th e to tal electromagnetic torque
T c lIl '= .J
S I _I
dT em = ; 00 ydvT
.0 0
R 3 dR = "to I n~i: I
H ence, th e tungeutial stress at th e outer surface of th e sh aft is
"to = T em/ (nR~/2) (34-1)
where nR ~/ 2 is t he mom ent of resistance in torsion .
Under r at ed con dit ions, it sh ould not exceed the limit set
for the sh aft material. I n practice , it r anges from 40 to
100 MPa according to ser vi ce con ditions and the gra de of
steel used .
The fl ow of mechan ical power per unit are a of a sec tion
passed th rough a rotating body (say , section I-I acr oss the
shaft) is given by th o proj ection of th e Umov vector on an
ou twar d norm al t o tha t sur face, or m a th em aticall y
Up = - vv"t'l' = 2R2 Q T e m/n R~
Ch. 34 Mecha nical Design 27
whe re 'tv = t an genLial s t ress a t a gi ve n s u rface ele me n t dS

Vy = R Q = ta ugnn Lial li neal' ve loc ity of t he surface
ele ment
The total fl ow of me cha nical power, P m, through th e s ur-
face S sepa rating one part of th e rotatin g body from th e
ot her is ob tai ned by ad d ing t ogeth er t he ele me n ta ry power
fl ows UpdS ov er th e ent ire surface S .
It is an easy m at ter to see that the total power fl ow th ro ugh
the sh aft sec t ion is equ al to t he m echanical pow er , T exlQ,
t ra ns m i Lted along t he shaft:
~rr Ii.
Pili = .\ Up dS = Jdl' ~ U pR3 dR = T emQ

S 0 ()
34 2 Analysis of the Rotor Elements for

Security of Attachment
When a 111 ach ine is run ning, the 1'0 tal' ele men ts (pol es , cor e
tee th, coi ls) ar e ac ted upon b y r adial ce n trifugal for ces
C = mRQ 2 (34.-2)
whore In = IlHlS::; of th e ele me n t
R = d istance fr om t he axis of rot a ti on to th e cen troid
Q = angu la r velocity of the rotor
Th e joint s of the rotor elements mus t be desi gn ed to res ist
withou t d am age the cen tr ifuga l for ce ind uced a t an eleva te d
rot a ti on al spee d, /l e ' In E q . (34.-2),
Q = 2:n:n e/60
Among other thin gs , th e cr oss-seotiona l area, b zl z. of a tooth
wh ere it join s the yoke (F ig . 34.-2) mu st he ch osen such that
th e tens i le st ress
o"z = : C 7. / b z l z
du e t o th e centrif ugal for ce C z ac ting on and t ra nsm itte d

fr om t he coil t o the t ooth coul d not excee d th e safe li m it.
For sol id teeth, this li mi t is half th e y iel d stre ngth of t he
materia l .
Th e r oto r vok e is act ed upon by a cen tr ifuga l for ce du e
to t he yok e ' itself
Co = m "R ,, ~2 2
and th e s um of Ow ce n l.rifugnl for ces du e to tho tee th
~ c, = ZCz = ZmzIl. z &~2
28 Part Three. Cla ssification of Electrical Machines
wh ere In a = mass of the yoke

Inz = m ass of a too th
Ra = distance from the ax is of rota ti on to the cen troid
of the yoke element
R z = distance from th e ax is of rota ti on to the
cen troid of a t ooth
Z = number of t eeth on th e rot or
Let us isol ate the rotor eleme nt shown by solid lin es in
Fi g. 34-2 and consider the equilib rium equa tion for th e cen-
trifugal forces Crt an d ZC z un iform ly di stribut ed around the
~-r-- \ / --..1
~/\', / r,~
v:~ I~~~" -~\~:v
/'~' iffi ~\\ 'v,,-
Fig . 34-2 Stresses in th e rotor eleme nts due to cen tr ifugal forces
peripher y of the rot or , a nd also the tensile for ces 2u"h,,la

exis ti ng in th e ro tor part shown by da sh ed lin es. Th e centri-
fugal for ce ac ti ng on a yoke eleme nt with in an angle dy is
given by
Ca -\- ZCz I
2:rt C'\'
Its projection on the vert ical axis is
C,,-\- ZCz
2:rt cos v dv
On combining' th e pr ojections of elemen tary centr ifugal
for ces within th e top part of th e rotor, we get
+;1/2 Ca-\- ZCz
J- ;1/2 2 Jl, cos Vdl' =
Ca-\- ZC z
2u"h"l"
ua = 2:rtha l a
Ch . il4 Mnch an ical Design
It is seen from the abov e equation that the tensile force

acting 011 the section h al n is 1I2:n; that of the total centrifu-
gal force C a + ZC z- The tensile stress in the yoke, G,L' ought
not to exceed a prescribed limit (which is 0.7 to 0.9 of the
yield strength).
34-3 Shaft Analysis for the Effect of the

Rotor Self-Weight and Magnetic
Attraction
Consider a machine with a horizontal shaft whos e diam eter
is 2R o (Fig. 34-3). Suppose that the rotor is positioned mid-
way between bearings spaced a distance l apart. Knowing
N
G
Fig. 3!i-il Sag of th e sha ft.clue to tho sol f-woig h t and ma gn eti c. a urae -
t.ion
the weight of the rotor, G, we can find the sag of th e shaft

at mid span [7]:
Yr; = GIl( (34-3)
where K = 48EJ I P = shaft rigidity in bending

E = 2.0G X 1011 Pa = modulus of ela sticity for st eel shaft s
J = :n;R~ /4 = equatorial moment of inertia of the
sh aft section
The air gap of an excited ma chine contains a magnetic.
field , so that each element dS on the outer surface of the
rotor is act ed upon by a magnetic tensile forc e TndS proporti-
ClO Part Time. dassiflcntion of Electricai rviachfnes
nal to th e specific ma gn etic t ensile force (see Sec. 29-3)

7'" = B2/2~l 0 (34-4)
wh ere B = air-gap magnetic flux density at the rotor surface
Po = 4:n: X 10-7 H ill -1 = p erm eability
Wh en the rotor is arran ged concentrically with the stator
and hath ar e sep arated by a uniform ai r gap 0 , th e ma gnetic
t ens ile forces appli ed at diam et ri cally opposite points on
th e rotor balance one anothe r (for a periodic field, the flux
density at diam etricall y opposi t e points is th e sa me ).
Wh en the rotor is arr ange d eccentr icall y r elative to th e
stator, so that its axis is displaced by a dis Lance eo from
that of the stator, and th e air gap vari es from o m nx
+
= 0 eo to 0m ln = 0 - eo (Fi g. 34-3), th e flux densi ty at
diametrically opposite points is different. Th e winding mmf
wa veform rem ain s periodi c as befor e, hut the peak valu e of
Ilux density is in versel y proportion al La th e gap
B - Fl~lO
ma x - (il- eo) 1>0
Fl~tO
B m i n = (il+e o) "'0
Th e di stribution of ma gne ti c flux density ill the ail' gap
of an eight-pole machine is sh own in Fig. 34-3 whi ch also
g ives th e specific m agn eti c t ensil e for ce Tll'
As is seen , the sp ecifi c m agnetic tensil e forc e acting on
the lower half of th e rotor excee ds that actin g on th e top
half. Wh en th e two for ces are com bine d , th e rotor is ac ted
lipan by a radial force of magnetic attraction from one side
only
No = , (34-5)
whe re /(0 = (:n:/2)
(BU2~Lo) (DUo) = 3 X (Dl %) = spec-
105
ifi c for ce of one-sided ma gn etic attrac tion
at an average air ga p flux density amplitude
of about 0.7 T
D = rotor diameter
lo = design core length (axial gap length)
o = m ean air gap
In th e worst cas e, wh en th e rotor is di splaced verti cally
downwards, the forc e of magnetic attraction , No , acts in
the same direction as th e rotor self-weight, G. Th e for ce of
one -sided magnetic attraction tends to di splace th e rotor
Ch. 34 Mechanical Desigri
still more downward, th e eccentricity is increased , and so

is the force of one-sided attraction . Finally, the force of one-
sided attraction reaches a value
N = K o (eo + y)
and the shaft sag s by an amount y su ch that this forc e and
the self-weight are balanced by the reaction of the deform-
ed shaft, yK [see Eq . (34-3)]
N +G= yK
K o (eo + y) +G= yK
Solving the a bove equa l. ion for the steady-state sag of the
shaft, we get
(.... 1. G)
y = J(oeo+G
[( -[(0 ,) 1- )
The shaft must be proportioned so that it has 11 suffi-

cient rigidity K, and its sag is not more than 10 % of the
ail' gap (y:::;;;; 0.1 6). The init ia l eccen tri city du e to inaccu-
racies in assembly and the wear of bearings is taken equal
to 10 % of the air gap .
Also , the shaft mu st be analyzed for its ability to res ist
the bending moment du e to N = K o (eo + y) a nd G. The
stress ind uced in the shaft by this mom en I. is
(N + G) l
(j" = 4W (34.-7)
e
where W e = 'JtR~/4 is the equatorial moment of res istance.
As th e shaft rotates , this stress varies cyclically at the speed
of the shaft. Ther efore, the lim it stress must be adopted with
allowance for fatigue effects and ought no t to exceed 80 X
X 106 Pa for hi gh-carbon steel (which is about half the
fatigue strength in tension) .
In the design and analysis of the shaft, it is important to
determine what is called the critical angular velocity of the
shaft , Qe ' It is the same as the angular frequ ency of trans-
vers e (bending) vibration of the shaft , and it is the frequen-
cy at which res onance takes place.
The natural fr equency of transverse vihra tion of the shaft
incr eases with increasing sti ffness, K, and decr eas es wi th
increasing mass of th e rotor, m, An increase in t he one-
sided ma gnetic a ttract.ion brings down this frequ ency. As is
shown in [7], the natural fr equency of transverse vibration
32 Part. Three. Classificntion of Electrical Machin es
of th e sh aft is a Iuuct.iou of th e sa g und er th e self-weigh t of

the sha ft an d magne t ic at tract ion *
fc = ~ln V g/y
Th is frequency is the sa me as the r ot ational Ir equ encv cor-
respond ing t o the critical ang ular velocity
Q c = 2nf c ='V
g/y (34-8)
The resonant vibrations that occur at th is frequ ency m ay be
pr ohibitively larg e in amplitude . Therefor e, the sh aft stiff-
ness , K, mu st be ch osen such th at the cr itical rot ation al
fr equ ency differs from th e r ated one by at least 30 %.
In more det ail , the m ech anical anal ysi s and design of
elec tr ical m achines is discussed in [39, 40].
35 Thermal Analysis
of the Cooling System
35-1 Basic Arrangement of the Cooling
System in an Electrical Mach ine
En ergy convers ion by an elec trica l mac h ine in evitabl y in-
volves th e loss of some po wer di ssipat ed as h eat in th e
coils , cores , and structural parts. To avoid overh eating and
damage to t he m achi ne, th is heat must he abs tracte d and
discard ed ou tside the machi ne. Thi s purpose is served by
a cooli ng sys tem and a coolin g agent (whi ch ma y be a gas or
a liquid) wh ich is mad e to ci rcula te t hrough the system
con tinuously.
Ordinarily , th e cooling system of an electr ical machine
consists of du cts inside the m achine t o gu ide t he coolant,
and a fan or pump to build up the sta t ic pr essure necessary
to circulate the coolant. Closed- circuit cooling systems use
a consta nt quan t it y of coolant wh ich , on bein g heate d, is
made to pass through a cool er wh ere it giv es up its heat to,
say, water , and this di scards th e h eat to the surroundings.
A typica l arra nge ment of a cooling system is shown in
Fig. 35-1. A cold gas (mostly ai r) at inlet t emp erature 8 1
en ter s t he m achine at th e left en d, flow s ax ially in t he air
* Th is equation appli es to both horizo n tal anrl ver tica l machines.
Ch, 3!i Th ermal Analysis of Cooling System 33
O'a p between th e sta tal' an d ro tor , an d ventilating du ct s G.

Inside the ma chine, the coolant bathes th e hot parts (the
con duc tors in wind ings 1 and 2, and cor es 3 an d 4) ,is gradual-
ly r aised in te mperature by th e hea t it abs or bs from th e hot
parts (the heat flows are sh own by arrows 8 , .9, 10, etc .).
7 1 8 693
5 10
Fig . 35-1 Cooling system of an elec trical machine:

I-stat or winding conductor; 2- rot ol' winding con duc tor ; 3-statOl' core; 4-
rotor corr- ; 5- fan to force cooling ai l' (gas) th rough machine; a-ventilating
ducts; 7-stator an d rot or win ding groun d insulation; 8-copper losses dissipat-
ed as heat (unfilled arrow s); 9- core losses dissipated as he at (fill ed arro wsn
lo-friction and windage losses (cross-hatched arrow s): 11- 1usses With exp elled
cooling gas ; Q-flow rate of cooling gas; 0, and F) .-inl et an d outlet temperatu
r es of cooli ng gas; OWl' 0 W2' 0 Cl ' 0 c2-temperaturesor th e st at or and rotor wtn-
din gs and of th e stator an d rot or core s; u - spe ell and direction of !low or cooli ng
gas
The heating of th e coolant on its passage through the cool-

ing system m ay be expressed in t erms of th e flow rate of th e
coolant , Q, and its specific heat capacity per unit volume, c.;
8 2 - 8 1 = 2Jp i/C vQ
where 2Jp i is the total m ean heat abstracted by the coolant.
The specific heat capacities per unit volum e and densities
of th e most frequently used coolan ts are listed in Table 35-1.
Table 35-1 Specific Heat Capacities per Unit Volume
and Densities of Some Coolants
Coolant y, kg m- a
Air (DOC , 105 Pa) . 1.1 X loa . 1.29

Hydrogen (DOC, 105 Pa) 1.1 X l 0a 0 .0898
Wato r (15e) 4.14 XI0 G 999
T r ansformer oil U5C) 1.54 Xl0 G 850
3-021,0
Part three. Class ification of Electri cal Machin es
The static pressure required to circulate the coolant is

built up by fan 5 which may be mounted on the shaft of
the machine. In a steady state, the temperatures (e W1 ;
eW 2 , eC1 , and eC 2 in Fig . 35-1) of the hot parts are so high
above that of the coolant that all of the heat dissipated in
them is transferred to the coolant and withdrawn from the
machine.
Th e temperatures of the hot ma chine parts (coils and cores)
are found by the thermal analysis of the machine.
* 35-2 Transfer of Heat from a Hot Body to

the Surroundings
The thermal analysis of an elect rical machine is based on
the laws of thermodynamics.
Let the temperature of a giv en body be e, and that of the
coolant, eo' Then the temperature rise of the body will be
~e = e - eo
Experiments have shown that the time rate of heat flow
(that is , the quantit y of thermal energy t ransferred from
a body to the medium pel' unit t ime) is propor tional to the
temperature rise of th e bod y and inversely proportional to
the thermal resistance R (OC/W ) between the body and the
coolant
(35-1)
If heat is transferred by conduction through the wall
enclo sin g th e body (whi ch ma y be a soli d, a liquid , or a gas),
then the thermal res ist ance of the wall is given by
R}. = 8181. (35-2)
where 'A = thermal conductivity of the wall material
8 = surface area of the wall through which the heat
flow is transported
8 = wall thickness in the direction of th e heat flow .
Th e thermal resistance of a multilayer wall is found as the
sum of the thermal resistances of the individual layers
R}.= RJ..I + R }.2 + . .. = 811811. 1 + 8218 21.2 + .. .
The thermal resistance of the wall ranges between broad
limits, depending on the thermal conductivity of its material.
Referring to Table 35-2, it is seen that the thermal conduc-
Ch. 35 Thermal Analysis of Cooling System 35
Table 35-2 Thermal Conductivity of Some Materials
Material IA, W m- I DC-III Mat erial lA' W m- I DC-I
Copper
Aluminium
385
200
Asbestos
Electric-grade I 0.2
Electrical-sheel pressboard 0.17
s teel (along la- Glass 0.11
minations) 20-45 Slot insulation
Electrical-sheet (class B) 0.16
steel , varnished Transformer oil 0.12-0.17
(acro ss lamina- Thin film of stag-
tions) 1.2-1.5 nant air 0.025
Mica 0.36 Thin film of stag-
nant hydrogen 0.017
tivity of metals is substantially higher than that of insulat-

ing materials .The value of thermal conductivity is especi-
a lly low for thin sheets of stagnant gases.
'r he thermal resistance to the transfer of heat from the
wall of a hot body to a coolant fluid
s; = 1/a v S (35-3)
is inversely proportional to the coefficient of heat transfer a v
and the area S of the cooling surface .
The coefficient of heat transfer a v depends on the density
and viscosity of the coolant, the velocity u of the medium
and the pattern of flow in the passage adjacent to the wall.
For liquids, the coefficient of heat transfer is substantial-
ly higher than it is for gases. As the velocity of the coolant
is raised, the coefficient increases, the increase being espe-
cially noticeable when a laminar flow gives way to a tur-
bulent flow . .
For use in tentative thermal analysis and design, the
coefficient of heat transfer for air-cooled electrical machines
may be taken as given by
a v = a (1 leVu) + (35-4)
where a is the coefficient of heat transfer by radiation and
convect ion in a quiet air (u = 0), in 'V m - 2 DC-I, which
varies with the properties of the surface being cooled. For
varnished surfaces, it ranges between 12 and 16 W m - 2 DC-I,
whereas for bare metal surfaces it is anywhere between 8 and
11 W m- 2 DC-I. The velocity of air, u, is taken in m S-l .
3*
36 Part, three. classification of Electrical Machines
TIle blowing rate factor k v aries with the geometry of

the surface being cooled, the efficiency of blowing, etc. For
electrical machines, it usually equals 0.8 .
When the coola nt is hydrogen rather than air, the coeffi-
cient of heat transfer can be raised by a factor of 1.35.
When the coolant is distilled water, it increases 30 to 60
times .
The over all th ermal resistance to h eat transfer between
a hot body and a coolant is the sum of the thermal resis-
tance of the wall , R y , and the thermal resistance betw een
th e wall and the coolant, R a :
R = R~ + R a (35-5)
'* 35-3 Heating and Cooling of a Solid

From a thermodynamic point of vi ew, an electrical machine
is a complex com binat ion of solids and sources of heat. For
propel' insi gh t into wha t happ ens in a machin e, we shall
de 0' fi rs t t ake a closer look at the
me heating of a homogeneous solid
specimen which dissipates an
amount of h eat equal to P .
t 'ZI If we assum e that the ther-
mal conductivity of the sp eci-
men is infinitely large (1"6= I
= 00) , then all points on its
surface will be at th e sam e
temp erature and have the same
temperature ris e, ~e = e -
- e o= e . (For simplicity, we
assum e th at the coolant has ,
a zero temperature, eo = 0.)
Fig . 35-2 Heating of a soli d Consider the heat balance
ar ound the spec imen (Fig.35-2) .
The heat ener gy generat ed in the specimen over a time dt
and equal to Pdt is partly accumulated in the specimen as
its t emp erature ri ses by de, and partl y transferred to th e '
coolant against a therm al resistance .
If th e specimen has a mass m an d a specific heat capacity c

(see Table 35-3), then it will take an amoun t of heat equal to
Ch. 35 Thermal Analysis of Cooling System 37
Tabl e 35-3 Specific Heat Capacity of Some Materials
Material C, J k g-1 C-1 Material C, J k g-1 C- 1
Copper 390 Asbestos 840

Al umin ium 240 T ra nsfor mer
Steel 480 oil 1750
l\Hcan ito 925 Gla ss 850
me d8 in ord er to raise its temperat ure' by d8. If the t emp e-

ratur e of th e sp ecimen ri ses abo ve that of the coolant, the
amount of heat transferr ed to the coola n t over a t ime dt
will be given by
On writin g th e equat ion of conservation of energy , we ob ta in

a differenti al equat ion describing th e heating of the sp e-
cimen
Pdt = me d8 +
(81R) dt (35-6)
To begin with, let us find th e steady-state t emp erature
rise, 8 = 8 00 ,at whi ch all of the heat dissip ated in the
specimen is translerred against the resist anc e R and there
is no fur ther ri se in its temp er ature, d8 = O. (Th eoretically,
this tempera t ure can he at t ained over a very long time,
t = 00.) Und er su ch condi t ions , we obtain from Eq. (35-6)
8 = PR 00 (35-7)
This implies that the s tea dy-s ta te t emp erature ris e increas-
es with an increase in power loss and with a decrease in
hea t transfer (th at is , with an increase in th e therm al resist-
ance R) .
Multiply ing both si des of Eq . (35- 6) by R and usin g
Eq . (35-7) , we get
8 dt = Td8
00 +
8dt (35-8)
Here
T = melt = mc8 /P 00 (35-9)
has the nni ts of tim e
kg (J /k g "C) X (OC/W) = s
and is call ed the tim.e constant of heating . I t in creases in
val ue wHh an increase in the hea t capa ci ty , m~ l of the speci-
men and with an increase in R. In Eq . (35-9), the numerator

mc6 00 is the heat stored by t h e specimen as it rises in t em-
perature towards 6 00 ' Therefore, the t ime constant T may,
in accord with Eq . (35-9), be construed as t h e time during
wh ich the specimen might have r eached the steady-state
value 6 00' if all of the heat dissipated, P, had been spent to
heat the specimen, and no heat had been transferred to the
coolant.
Now, let us see how a solid specimen is being heated .
Suppose that at t = 0 its initia l t emperature rise is 6 = 6 1,
On dividing the variables in Eq . (35-8) and rewriting it as
dt /T = d6 /( 6 00 - 6)
we obtain, upon in t egrat ion ,
tiT = - In (6 00 - 6) + J( (35-10)
On recalling the initial condition
6 = 6 1 at t = 0
we get
[( = In (6 00 - 6 1)
On substitu ting J( in Eq . (35-10), we obtain an expression
for the temperature rise as a function of time
6 = 6 00 (1 - e- t i T ) +
6 l e- t i T (35-'11 )
Consider two impor tant cases . Figure 35-3a gives a plot I
of 6 as a function of time for 6 h = 0, when the equation of
heating has the form
6 = 6 00 (1 - e- t i T )
Figure 35-3b shows the cooling curve for a specimen which
dissipates no heat, P = 0 and 6 00 = 0, and in which the
temperature rise at t = 0 is 6 = 6 h . Now, the equation of
cooling has the form
6 = 6 h e- t / T
It is seen from Eq . (35-'11) that in the gene ral case the
temperature rise is the sum of two t erms on e of which con-
tains 6 00' and t he other, 6 h . If the heat dissipated in a spe-
cimen is such that 6 00 > 6 11' th e specim en will rise in
temp erature (Fig . 35-3c). If 8 00 < 6 h , it will fall in temp era-
ture (Fig . 35-3dl ' . .
Gh. 35 Thermal Analysis of Cooling System 39
Ana lysis of temperature variations with time is essential

for electrica l machines in t en ded for short-time and intermit-
tent duties [13]. In the case of mach ines inten de d for long-
- - -_-_=1:-=
-
/ /...... --
o
,/
/J( <,
T
.... _-
2T 3T
t
(c)
t
T 2T 3T (d)
Fig . 35-3 Heating and cooli ng curves of a solid
time duty, analysis may be li mited to operation at steady-

state temperatures.
35-4 Steady-State Temperature Analysis

Th is form of an alysis uses a set of heat transfer equat ions
sim ilar to E q. (35-7), wr itten with allowance for the li kely
paths of heat flow from the hot parts to the coolant .
In the analysis, the quantities assumed to be known in
advance are the heat dissipat ed in the mach ine, the thermal
resistances presented by the li kely path s of heat transport,
the fl ow ra te of coolant, Q (see above), the ve locity u of the
coolan t ar oun d the par ts being cooled, an d t he res pective
coefficients of h eat transfer av o Th e inlet tem perature of the
coolant must also be specified in advance. (For general-
purpose machines ['13], it is set at 40C.)
A convenient way to determine steady-state temperatures
is t o set up a thermal resistance network . It is composed of the
heat sources and thermal res istances thro ugh wh ich heat is
t rans por ted in a mach ine from ho t par ts to the coolant.
A thermal resistance network is set up by ana logy with
electric networks and ~13 described b}' Eq . (35-7) which ~1?
40 Part Three. Olnssifrcution of Electrical Machines
an al ogous t o Ohm's voltage equ ati on . More specifica lly , the

th ermal res istances are t reate d as the ana logs of elec trica l
resistances, th e pow er of h eat flows as th e analogu e of elec-
tric current, and th e steady-state temp erature rise as the
analogu e of voltage .
As an exa mple , let us develop a therma l resistan ce network
for t he ma chine in Fi g. 35-1 and find the stead y-state tem-
peratures of the eoils and
cores. The network appears in
Fi g. 35-4 . The heat flo ws fr om
t he stator are plo tted at the
top, and th e heat flows from
the rotor, at the bottom. The
t herm al potential at the cen tre
line eois equal to the ave rage
--!---+---t--1o---+-eo te mperature of th e coolant .
<30 02
' Q _
Va - ,
1-I-2 2-- Q
Vi T
I "\I
L.J P /2
i Cv
Q
(35-12)
Th e no ta t ion us ed in th e net-
P"2 work is as follows. P W l and P Cl
s tan d for the copp er (winding)
Fig . 35-4 Therma l an al og cir- and core losses in th e stator "
cui t of an electrica l mac hine P W 2 and P C 2 for the copper
(winding) and core losses in the
rotor, R l is th e thermal resistance presented by th e insula-
tion between the s ta tor winding and the stat or core [see
Eq . (35-2)], R 2 is t he thermal resis tance presen t ed by the
sta tor overhangs to t he coola nt, wi th all owa nce for th e
insulation resistance of the overhangs [see Eqs. (35-2),
(35-3)], R ~ is th e th ermal resistance that the heat flow
experiences in transfer from the stator t eeth t o th e coola nt
in the dir ection of th e ail' gap, R q is the t he rma l resist ance
that the heat flow exper iences in tr ansfer from the
outer surface of th e stator yok e to the coolant . R 5 , R B ,
R 7 , and R s are th e therm al r esi stances in th e 1'0 tor
which resp ecti vely corres pond to R l , R 2 , R ~ , and R / in 1
th e sta tor.
Th e temp erature-rise equa tions ar e written in th e same
mann er as the voltage ecJuations for a!1 electr tc network (the
Gh. 36 Hydraulic Analysis of Cooling System 41
temperature plays the part of electric potential):

i1e wl = e Wl - eo = R 2 P 2
i1e cl = e Cl - eo = R3~ (P Cl +- P WI - P 2) (35-13)
e Wl - e Cl = i1e wl - i1e cl = HI (PWI - P 2)
where H3~ = H3~IIR~;
i1e w2 = e W2 - eo = H aP 6
i1e c2 = e C2 - eo = H 78 (P C 2 +- P W 2 - Pe) (35-14)
e W2 - e C2 = i1e w2 - i1e c2 = H 5 (PW2 - Po)
where R 7 S = R 7 II n;
Equations (35-13) for the stator and Eqs. (35-14) for the
rotor can be solved independently. For example, the tempe-
rature rise of the stator winding is
i1e - - R34PCI+(RI+R34)PWI R (35-15)
WI - R 2+R 34+R 1 . 2
The temperature rise of the stator core is

i1e -- (R l +R 2 ) P Cl + R 2P Wl R (35-16)
cl- R 2+R 34+R 1 . 3~
The temperature of the stator winding is given by

e Wl = eo +- i1e wl = e l +- (~Pi !2cvQ) +- i1E>wl (35-17)
The temperature of the stator core is given by
e Cl = eo +- MY CI = e l +- ('2JP i!2cvQ) +- i1e cl (35-18)
For the rotor, similar temperature equations can be written.
36 Hydraulic Analysis and Design

of the Cooling System
36-1 The Choice of a Coolant. Determination
of Flow Rate
As has been shown in the previous chapter, for proper func-
tioning of the cooling system it is essential that the coolant
he circulated at a sufficient rate and if! a sufficient quantity.
~!l plher words, t h e total How rate Q of the coolant ~n~l HI~
velocity in the ducts, u, must be such that the temperature

rise of the cores and coils does not exceed the safe limit.
The primary objective in hydraulic analysis and design
of the cooling system is to find the static pressure h that will
maintain the desired flow rate Q and velocity u of the coolant
in the various parts of the system. Another objective is to
determine the dimensions of the pressure elements of pumps
(fans) that would give the desired circulation.
The coolant and also the shape, position and size of the
ducts in which it will travel are chosen according to the
design of the machine. The choice is carried out so as to
optimize the machine itself in terms of manufacturing costs
and service life. For most machines, the best choice is
indirect cooling for the windings, in which case the coils enclos-
ed in ground insulation are bathed in the coolant coming
in contact with their outer surface.
With such an arrangement, the coolant is a gas nearly al-
ways (mostly, air). In high-speed, high-power machines (rated
at 25 MW and higher) and also in synchronous condensers,
the coolant is hydrogen at atmospheric or a gauge pressure
of up to 5 X 10 5 Pa. Very seldom, an indirectly cooled ma-
chine may be filled with water, kerosene, or transformer oil.
To prevent the ducts in a directly cooled machine from
clogging, the coolant must be of an especially high purity.
It is usually distilled water or highly refined transformer oil.
Once the coolant has been selected, the next step is to
determine its required flow rate. This is done from the
known power losses, 2jP t- in the machine, the recommended
temperature rise of the coolant as it travels round the hydrau-
lic system (it usually ranges anywhere between 20 and
30 degrees C), and its specific heat capacity per unit volume, c.;
(see Table 35-1):
~ Pi
Q= Cv (8 1 - 8 2 )
(36-1)
where 8 1 and 8 2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures of
the coolant.
The cooling ducts must be arranged so that all the parts
capable of dissipating heat are bathed in an ample quan-
tity of coolant and that the cooling surfaces have a suffi-
cient area. To maintain the thermal resistances in a ma-
chine at an acceptable level, the coolant must travel in the
ducts at a sufficientl~ high velocit~ [see Eqs. (35-3~ and
Gh. 36 Hydraulic Analys is of Goaling System 43
(35-4)]:
(36-2)
As is seen , this can be done by adopting suitable cross-secti-
ons qi for t he cooling ducts.
It is important to rem emb er t hat the h ydraul ic (cooli ng)
system of a machine ordinarily has several paths operating
I.----~~I I II
C-_-'_'-f-...,---,-
h . hI=hI[=hm
(c)
Fig. 36-1 H ydrauli c cir cu it of an ele ctri ca l machine
in par all el. Therefore , th e flo w r ate in th e ith pa th, Qt , is

a fr action of th e total flow rate, Q. As an example , th e liquid
cooli ng system of t he m achi ne sh own in Fig. 35-1 consists,
as is seen fro m Fig . 36-1 , of t.hree pa ra llel paths, na mely , the
annula r space he tween th e s ta tor core and th e fr am e (at I
in Fi g. 36-1), the annula r clearan ce betw een th e s tator and
rot or cores (at !! in. the sa me fi~ure) , an d the an nula r space
between the 1'0 tor core and the shaft (at I I I in the same
figure) *.
In carrying out the hydraulic and thermal design, the
parallel passages must be detailed and proportioned so that
the flow rate in each particular path, Qi, is proportional to
the heat transferred to the coolant in that path whereas the
sum of the flow rates is equal to the total flow rate, Q.
36-2 The Resistances of Series or Parallel

Paths of the Hydraulic Circuit
The static pressure, h, required to force the coolant around
the hydraulic circuit of an electrical machine is equal to
the sum of the pressure losses in the series elements of the
ducts (say, elements 1 through 7 in Fig. 36-1).
As experiments show, a loss of pressure occurs each time the
cross-sectional area q of a duct changes . This is illustrated
in Fig. 36-1c. As is seen, when the cross-section changes
from, say, ql (within element 1) to q2 (within element 2) or
from qI4 (within element 4 of path I) to qI5 (within element 5
of path I), there occurs a loss of pressure. This is also true
when a duct undergoes a change in direction. For long and
narrow passages , one has to allow for the loss of pressure
owing to friction against the walls. .
In most cases, the coolant in the ducts of an electrical
machine produces a turbulent flow. In the circumstances, the
pressure loss is proportional to the square of the flow rate
and can be found by the equation
h1 2 = Z12Q2 (36-3)
Here, Z12 is the local hydraulic resistance from section 1 to
section 2:
Z12 = ~,\,/2q~ (36-4)
where I' = density of the coolant, Eq. (35-1)
q2 = cross-sectional area of the duct downstream from
the local resistance or (when ql = q2) in the
region of the local resistance**
* In calculating the cro ss-sectional ar eas of these passages, deduc-

tion must be mad e for th e vent fin ger s.
** Where the coolan t is discharged from a duct into a free space
and '12 1> '11 ('1 2 = (0), one replaces 112 with '11 ' th e cross-section al
ilfeu o] qw dlic t upstream of th!'l local resistance ,
roh. 3f1 Hydranlic Aila lys is of Cooling System
~ = coeffic ient of local hydraulic r esistance (see

Table 3(j-1)
Table 36-1 Coefficients of Local Hydraulic Resistances
Descri Pt ion Sket ch Coeffic ient ~
Duct exit, 1.0

lJ 2 ~ lJl ~
-%
~
Duct expansion,
lJ2 > lJl
f/,-qz
~
0.5
Duct inlet,
lJl ~ lJ 2
~ (or 0.1 for a gra dua l c ha nge
in cr oss sec tion)
~
lJ2!lJt /0 10 .2 I 0.41 0.6/ 0 .8
~
Duc't con trac-
tiou, s.>, ~ '. 5 1 .35 1 .3 1 . 21 . 1
q, - 1/[
~
a 1 20 I 40 I 60 I 80 I 00
.~
Duct bend
~ J .05 1 111 1 35 1.75 11.0
Fricti on in du ct ~= f.. (l !d)

where f..= 1
d
1.74+21og 1o 21c
The pr essure losses in series local hydra ulic resistances

ar e added to gether, so the hydraulic r esistance of a chain of
sev eral such resistances is eq ual to their sum. For example,
48 Part 'Three. Classification of Electrical Machines
the hydraulic res istance of path I in Fig . 36-1 is

ZI = Z 2(I3) + Zj3~ + ZI45+ ZI5(6) (36-5)
wher e
ZI3~ = ~"Y12ql~
is the hydraulic resistance from section qI3 to section qI4, etc .
Because the pressure loss in parallel paths is the same
(say, hI' = h II = hIlI in Fig. 36-1), and the total flow
rate Q is th e sum of the flow rates in the parallel paths,
Q = QI + QII + QIII
we may conclude that the hydraulic resistance of the parallel
paths, ZI-II-III, is connected to the resistances by a relation
of the form
2
+
ZI -II-III = (1I V ZI 1IV Zn 1/1/ ZIIIt + (36-6)
The total resistance of the hydraulic circuit in Fig. 36-1 is

Z = Z1 2 + ZI-II-III + Z67 + Z7
where Z7 = ~"Y12q~ = y/2q~ is the resistance at the outlet
of the hydraulic circuit.
The static pressure required to produce the desired flow
rate is given by
(36-7)
The loss of pre ssure in th e parallel paths is
hI = h II = hIlI = ZI_II_IIIQ2
Th e flow rates in the parallel paths are given by
QI = VhI/Z I; QII = V hn /Z II ; QIII = V':"""hI-I-II'-'Z=-II-I
The velocity of the coolant in the ducts is given by Eq. (36-2).
36-3 Analysis and Design of a Multipath

Hydraulic Circuit
For a more elaborate hydraulic circuit, one has to set up
static-pressure equations for the loops (or meshes) of the
circuit and flow-rate equations for the nodes of t he circuit .
This is done by analogy with Kirchhoff's electric circuit
equations . Taking the system in Fig. 36-1 as an example, we
cil. 37 size an ci Performance 47
may write a set of four equations as follows:

ZIQj - ZIIQh = 0
ZjQj - ZIIIQlII = 0
(Z12 + Z67 + Z7)Q2 + ZIQl = 11,
QI + QII + QIII = Q
Solving the above set of equations yields the static pressure 11" ,
and the flow rates QI, QII' and QIII in the individual paths.
The power P r required to drive a fan or a pump so as to
keep the coolant circulating around the system is found
with allowance for its efficiency
P r = Qh/Y]f (36-8)
where Y]f ranges anywhere between 0.5 and 0.6.
37 The Size of an Electrical

Machine
371 Size and Performance of a Machine
Given the desired power output and speed, the best approach
for the designer to follow would seem to build a machine
that would take up as little space as practicable, have
a small mass, and be inexpensive to make. Unfortunately,
as a machine decreases in size, its power loss per unit weight
goes up, and this leads to higher operating costs. It is usual,
therefore, to trade off size and design for a minimum total
cost (the sum of manufacturing and operating costs) and
a minimum power loss. The trade-off also presumes that the
materials and dimensions for the electrical and structural
parts are chosen such that the electric intensity in the
insulation, stresses and strains, and-especially-tempera-
ture are within the prescribed limits.
Temperature affects many physical properties of mate-
rials. For one thing, an increase in temperature leads to
a higher resistivity of conductors and to a lower perme-
ability of ferromagnetic materials. At the Curie point
(770C), the permeability undergoes a sudden change and
approaches that of a free space. At over 600-700C, the
mechanical properties of magnetic materials and conductors
1,8 Pa rt Three. Clnssificntion of El ectrical Mnchines
deteriorate to a dangerous proportion . One must also reckon

with the increase in the size of the machine parts with tem-
perature (especially in large units) and with a build-up of
stresses, because ma ting parts mad o of diff erent materials
change in size differently.
Fortunately , a m achine is never allo wed t o ru n th at ho t,
so th e effect of t emp era ture on the ma gn etic and mech anical
properties of machine materials m ay be neglected almost
always. The point is that for each cl ass of insulation there is
a limiting temperature. For the most commonly used classes
of insulation, this t ompera ture is anywhere between 105
and i 80C.
The t emp erature of a m ach in e part is found by therm al
an al ysis, foll owing the select ion of th e siz e and ma t erial(s)
for a particular part an d findin g the associa te d pow er loss
(dissipated as heat ill tho part concerne d).
The temp erature rise of a part is related to the sp ecific
power loss of a given material, the volum o of th e part,
and the thermal resistance from the part t o the coola nt .
The hottest parts of any machin e ar e its conductors . In
ind ir ectly cooled (blown) m achines, heat is abstracte d from
the outer surface of the coil in sulation ba th ed in the coolan t
(which ma y be air or hydrogen). With th is form of cooling,
the heat flow traverses the insulation, so the primary factor
is the thermal resistance of the insulation . Because of this ,
it is important to minimize the thickness of the insulation
and to make its therm al conductivity as high as practicable.
One way to minimize th erm al resistance an d t o raise curr ent
density in th e con ductors of larg e m achines is to use direct
cooling (ventilation). With th is arrangement , the coll an t
flows in suitably arranged ducts and comes in di r ect contact
with the parts to be cooled . Obviously, the thermal resis-
tance of the insulation is no longer important. In fact, the
current density in the conductors can be substantially
increased and the size of the coils and , as a result, of the
entire machine can be decreased without exceeding the
specified temperature limit.
ell . 37 Size and Performanc e 49
37-2 Relation Between the Principal

Dimensions and Electromagnetic
Loading
The fir st step in th e design of an elec t r ica l mach in e is to
select t he di mensio ns of an d the materials for its parts.
Th e dimensions of primary impor ta nce are th e di am et er D
and t he design length l o of th e arma ture.". Th en come an
elect romag netic ana lysis (see P ar ts 4 through 6), m echanical
ana lys is, th erm al and h ydraulic calcula ti ons. If necessar y ,
t he figures th us foun d are adjusted or other m a teri als ar e
taken . These steps are rep eated until the design altern a t ive
meets the spec ified object ives .
Th e amount of work invol ved in desi gn optim ization de-
pend s on t he correct choice of th e princi pal dim ensions. Th er e-
for e, it is important to tr ace the r elat ion betw een th em and
the ma chine's pow er ou t pu t an d elec tr omagnet ic lo ading
(the rated ga p flu x densi ty B e.n and the armature elec t r ic
lo ading, A = 2m 1 w1 I Ri nD ) .
Fo r a .c. m achi nes , I R in the equa t ion for th e design power
Sd = mlEnI R
mus t he expressed in t erm s of the arma tu re elec tric loading,
th e resu ltant mu t ual em f un der r at ed condi tions in ter ms
of th e mutu al flux
cD m = E R /4k Btw1kw 1
an d in t erm s of th e r ated ga p flux densit y
B o. n = (D mla oTlo
Becau se T = nD I2 p ari d t = pQ /2n , we can derive an
equa tion for t he machin e cons tan t whi ch con nec ts the design
power Sd' th e principal dim ensions , and elec t romagne t ic
lo ading :
CA = D 2 l oQ IS d = 2/na okBkwlB o. RA ~ 1IB o. R A (37-1)
Here,
k B = sh ap e factor of the flu x density waveform (for
a harmonic fi eld, k B ~ n / 2 II :2 = 1.11)
* The member of an elec tr ic ul mac h ine in which an al ternating
curre n t is generated by v irtu e of r el a t iv e moti on to a magn eti c flux
field. It may be a rotor or a s ta tor , depend iug on type of mac hi ne .-
Tr an slat or' s n ote.
1, - 02 1,0
a(l = pole enclosure (=pole arc -7- pol e pitch), usu al-
ly from 0.6 to 0.75
k WI = winding fa ctor for the fund amental componen t
of the ma gn etic fie ld (in mos t cases , 0. 92
t o 0. 96)
Q = 2:n:n/60 = synchronous angular velocity (17, =
synchronous spee d, rpm)*
For a .c . mach in es,
Sd = lniERI R = kES R
wh ere
S R = ln i V nI n = t otal ra te d power
k E = En/Vn = a coefficient (equ al to 0.0 5-0.08
for Induction m achin es, and 1.07-
1.1 5 for sy nchro nous mach in es)
For d ,c. ma chines,
Sd =
kEVnl n
wh ere k E is 1.05 for genera t ors, an d 0.95 for motors.
Given a par ti cular electromagn etic lo adin g , the m achin e
constant remains un changed. An inc rease in electromagnetic
lo ading leads to a decreas e in the machine cons tant . Th e
magni tude of elect rom agnetic loading depend s on the proper-
ties of the m aterials that go to make the coils and cores,
and also the arrangement of the cooling system.
The rated gap density , B 0, R , is limited by the saturati on
of t he armature cor e teeth , and its v alue usuall y li es he-
twe en 0.7 T and 0. 95 T . An increase in the ga p flux densi ty
and, as a cons equence, in the tooth flux density leads to an
increase in the core loss, P eu """ B5. n-
In geometrically si mil ar machines, the elect ri c loading is
proportional to the conductor size and cur rent density:
A = QeuJ/1:""" l
where Qeu ,..,., l2 is the total cross-sectional are a of the con -
duc tors occupying one pole pitch, and 1: = :n:D/2p ,..,., l ,
where l is the base (or ref erence) dimension of the machin e.
Therefor e, the copper loss in the arm ature winding is propor-
t iona l to the base dimension an d the squa re of t he electr ic
.loading
P eu """ ZSJ2 ,..,., lA2
* Synchronous spee d (vel oci ty) is that whic h corr esponds to th e
Irequ ency of the a.c. suppl y. - Tr anslator' s note.
--
ch, 37 size I1TI(I Performan ce 51
The temperature rise of the armature insulation is propor-

tional to the sq uare of the electric loading
e Ins u l ,..... P cu 0IUSU!/A,lnSU! l2 ,..... l2J2 ,..... A 2
where 0IUSll! l is the insulation thickness, and A,lusn! is

r-J
th e thermal conductivity of the insulation (see Chap. 35).

The temperature rise of the insulation surface in the case of
indirect cooling (by a blower) is proportional to the square
of the electric loading and inversely proportional to the
machine size
ea r-J P cu/a.,l2 ,..... lJ2 r-J A2/l
where a is the coefficient of heat transfer (see Chap . 35).
The electr ic loading is a function of power output, rpm,
and method of cooling, and can vary between fairly broad
limits (from 2 X 10.1 to 2 X 10" Am-I) . From past experi-
ence, the electric loading should preferably be chosen such
that the total t emperature rise (finalized by thermal an aly-
sis and equal to e Ins ul +
e a in the case of indirect cooling
and to e a ill th e case of direct cooling) does not exceed the
temperature limit for the class of insulation used .
As is seen from Eq . (37-1), the product D 2l{')l and also th e
volume, mass and cost of a machine, which depend on that
product, ar e inversely proportional to the rated gap density,
B e.n- and the electric loading, A . Obviously, the size, mass
and cos t of a machine can be minimized by ma ximizing the
gap density and the electr ic loading. However, th eir maxi-
mum values ought not to exceed th e specified limits.
37-3 Power Output, Power Losses and Mass

of Geo metrically Similar Machines
Consid er a r ange of geom etrically similar machines designed
for the same fr equency j and the same synchronous angular
velocity Q = 2nj/p (which also implies that all the machines
have the same number of pole pairs, p).
Suppose that the rated gap density has been chosen the
sam e for all the m achines, B e.n = constan t, and so has the
current density, J = constant. As has been shown, the elect-
ric loading for such machines increases in direct proportion
to th e physical dim ensions, that is ,
A,.....Jl
4*
Part three. Cla ssifi cation of Electrical Machin es
Taking the desi gn cor e length as the base (reference) dim en-
sion, l = lo' and noting that th e core diamet er is likewise
proportional to the bas e dimension , D L, we can derive r-J
from Eq . (37-'1) a very important relation

Sri l4 r-J (37-2)
As follows from Eq. (37-2), the power of geometrically simi-
lar machines manufactured so that B 0 , n = constant and
J = constant is proportional to the base dimension raised
to the fourth power.
In other words, electrical machines fully obey the relation-
ship deduced in Sec. 9-'1 for transformers. Therefore, we
may extend to electrical machines the relations derived in
Secs. 9-'1 and 9-2 for th e rela tive mass and th e relative los s.
As in transformers , th e mass of active par ts per uni t of
design power in electrical machines is inversely propor tion al
to their dimensions:
m/Sd r-J '1Il '" 'lilY'S;;
Z3/l ' r-J
Th e sum of elec tr ical and ma gnetic (copp er and core) losses

per unit of design pow er is likewise inv ersely proportional to
the base dimension:
2J p / S d '" l3!l' r-J '1/ l r-J 'lI;Y-S;;
Accordingly, the manufacturing and operating costs per
unit power go down as the power rating of m achines goes up.
This expla ins why the present-day t endency is to build
ever bigger machines especially generators for electric
power stations.
An electric power station will be less exp ensive to build
and operate , if it us es gener at ors having the largest attain-
able power output. On the other hand , an increase in pow er
output ent ails an increase in the power losses per unit area
of the cooling surface
'l
LJ P/l2 '" za/l 2 '" l r-J V1./Sd
-
In ord er to bring down the temp er a ture of the coils and cores
in high-pow er machines, one ha s to increase the cooling
surface area by ar tific ial means, such as ducts in the cores
and coils, to use bettor coolants (such as hydrogen or trans-
former oil), and to replace indirect cooling (blowers, ordina-
rily used on smaller machines) by direct (internal) cooling
(ventilation).
Induction Machines
4
38 A General Outline
of Induction Machines
38-1 Definitions. Applicat ions
An ind uction mach ine is an a .c , two-wi ndin g un i t in which
only one (primar y , usuall y the s ta t or) windi ng is supplie d
with an alternating cur rent at a constan t fre que ncy WI from
an external source . In the othe r (second ar y, usu all y the
rotor ) winding, cur rents ar ise from induct ion . The fact
t hat the ro tor cur rents are produ ced by in du ction is th e basis
for the na me of th is cla ss of ma chines. The fr equ ency W 2
of the ro to r cur re nts is a fun ction of the roto r mechanical
speed Q , and the rotor rpm depend s on th e torque applie d to
the shaft.
Induction machines are als o called "asynchrono us" because
the ir operating speed is slight ly less than sy nchro nous in th e
moto r mod e and sligh tly hi gher than syn chronous in th e
generator mode.
Induction m achines ar e r arely used as genera to rs, but are
very popular as moto rs. I n fact , of all elect r ic motors, th ey
are the most commonly used ones .
More oft en th an not, induct ion ma chin es ha ve a three-
phase , sy mmetrica l (ba lanced), het erop ol ar wi nding on the
st ator (see Chap . 22) and a three (or pol y-) pha se, symm etri-
cal (bal anced) , h et eropolar winding on t he ro tor.
The r oto r winding is eit he r of the squirrel-cage or th e
phase-wound t ype . The squirrel-cage rotor (Fig . 39-1) con-
sists of met al bars push ed t hrough the ro to r slots and shor te d
at both ends by rings. In a phase-wound rotor, th e terminal
of each ph ase is br ough t ou t to a collec tor or sli p ring.
Squi rre l-cage motors are less expensive to m ak e, are more
reli abl e in service and hav e, th erefore, found a wid er field
54 Part Four. Induction Machines
of application than wound-rotor motors. They have a flat

torque-speed characteristic-as load is varied from no-load to
full load, the rpm drops by 2 % to 5 % at most. A further
advantage is a larger starting torque than in the case of
a phase-wound motor. Their disadvantages are as follows.
(a) The power factor is low.
(b) The starting current is high (five to seven times the
rated current).
(c) The speed is not easily varied, except by an elaborate
design.
Phase-wound (or slip-ring) induction motors (see Fig. 39-6)
are free from the above limitations. Unfortunately, they are
more elaborate in design and, as a consequence, more expen-
sive to build. Because of this, they are only preferable under
adverse starting conditions and where a broader speed con-
trol is essential.
Slip-ring motors are sometimes used in cascade with other
machines. Cascade connection extends the range of speed
control and improves the power factor, but such an arrange-
ment is far more expensive, and this limits its field of appli-
cation.
As already noted, the terminal of each phase ill a wound-
rotor motor is connected to a slip or collector ring. The
slip rings are held in contact with brushes by means of
which an additional impedance may he brought in the rotor
circuit 01' an additional emf injected so as to modify the
starting 01' running performance of the machine (see Chap. 45).
Also, the brushes can be used to short-circuit the rotor
winding.
In most cases, an additional resistance is brought in the
rotor circuit only at starting. This serves to increase the
starting torque, to ' bring down the starting current, and to
make the starting easier. When an induction motor is
running on load, the starting rheostat must be fully brought
out, and the rotor winding must be short-circuited. Some-
times, induction motors are fitted with a device which shorts
together the slip-rings at the end of the starting time and
lifts the brushes clear of the slip-rings. Such motors have
a ' better efficiency because they are free from the losses due
to friction between the slip-rings and brushes, and also from
the brush-drop loss.
Ea ch type of induction motor is designed 10 operate
under particular service conditions [13]. These condiLions, 0['
Ch. 38 Gener al Outline 55
raLings, ar e usnall y listed all the nameplate of the machine.

They are:-
mechanical power, PH = P2 ,n
supply frequency, 11
line stator voltage, VI, lin e
line stator current, II, line
rotor rpm, nR
power factor, cos (PI , R
efficiency, lJR.
If the stator has a three-phase winding with the start
and finish of each phase brought out , and the winding may
he star- or delta-connected, the nameplate gives the cur-
rents and voltages for all the likely connections (a star or
a delta) as a fraction, VlIn e , ylV lIne , li and I u ne , y lI u ne , s -
For a slip-ring motor, the nameplate also gives the locked-
rotor voltage, with the slip-rings open-circuited and the line
rotor current at its rated value.
Induction motors ar e available in a wide range of rat-
ings. For example, the rated power may extend from a frac-
tion of a watt to tens of megawatts. The rated synchronous
speed may be from 3 000 to 500 rpm or less for a supply
frequency of 50 Hz and from 100 000 rpm upwards at higher
supply frequencies. (The ra t ed rpm of the rotor is ordi-
narily 2 % to 5 % below the synchronous one; in fractional-
horsepower motors, it is 5 % to 20 % below the synchronous
speed.) The rated voltage may extend from 24 V to 10 kV
(the higher values applying to hi gher power ratings) .
The rated efficiency of induction motors increases with
rising power and frequency. At power ratings in excess of
0.5 kW, it is 0.65 to 0.95. For fractional-horsepower motors,
it is 0.2 to 0.65.
The power facto r defined as the ratio of the active power
La the total power drawn from the supply line
cos (Pi = P 1/ V p~ -+ Qi
likewise increases with rising power and rpm. At over 1 k W,
it is 0.7 to 0.9. For fr actio nal-horsepower motors, it is 0.3
to 0.7 ,
*" 38-2 An Historical Outline of the Induction

Motor
The principle by whi ch th e pr esent-day inductio n motor
operates may in fact be t raced ba ck t o the rotat iona l magne-
t ism first discovered by Arago in 1824 and explained by Fara-
day in 1831. In Arago 's exper im ent s, however, a copper disc
was driv en by a rotatin g ma gnet r a ther than a rot ating ma g-
netic field est abli she d by a fix ed devi ce, or stator, as this
is don e in pr esent-day ma chines.
Arago's di scover y ha d remained an academi c cur iosi ty
until 1879 whe n Bail y came out wi th a dev ice in whi ch the
magnetic fie ld was ca used t o move in space by a fixed arrange-
m ent ma de up of four electromagnets pl aced an equal
dis tance h om the axis of rotation of a copper disc. The
electromagn ets were supplie d with d.c. pulses of appropria te
magnitude and polarity via commutator.
The rotating (or revolving) magnetic field, as it is under-
stood tod ay, was discovered in 1888 independently by
Ferraris, and Nikola Tesl a. In their exper imen ts, th e rotat ing
magnetic fi eld was produced by two coils set at ri ght angles
to each ot her an d supplied with two id entical sinusoida l
curren ts in qua dra ture . At the in tersection of the coil ax es,
the flu x vector was found t o be ro t ating at a unifo rm speed,
with it s peak va lue re main ing unch an ged .
Unfor tunate ly, F err ari s' two-ph ase motor whi ch had an
open m agnetic circui t and a copp er-disc rotor could deve-
lop an output pow er of as little as 3 W. Also , reasoning
that hi s motor could advantageously be used a t maximum
power only, Ferraris did not believ e it could have an effi-
ciency of more than 50 %. Quite naturally , this did not serve
to stimulat e comme rc ial inter est in hi s inv ention and the
otherw ise sou nd eng ineer ing id ea had pr acti call y been
re jected.
Tesl a 's t wo-phase ind uction motors used concentrated
windings on bot h the sta to r and ro tor . This impaired the
starting perf orm an ce of the ma chine and m ad e the star ting
torque dependent. on t he initial position of the ro tor. This
was th e reason why Teslas motor later gave wa y to th e thr ee-
phase construction.
A major br eakthrough came with the inven tion of the
three-phase induction motor, largely developed by Dobrowol-
sky of Russi a. In 1889, he proposed the squirrel-cage structu re
Ch. 39 Construction 57
for the rotor and a di stributed three-phase drum winding

for the s tat or . La ter, he proposed the use of a phase-wound
rotor and also , in 1890, a sta r ting rh eosta t to be bro ught
in the rot or circui t at starting. They are all th e basic features
of th e present-day induction motor .
39 C onstruction
of Induction M achines
39-1 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
Th e basic arr angement of a squirre l-cage inductio n mo tor is
shown in Fi g . 39-1. As is seen, it is about the sam e as th a t
of the rotating elect rical machine examined in Sec. 32-1
(seelFig. 32-1).
Fig. 39- 1 A 55-kW, 1500-r pm, 50-H z, totally enclosed, bl ower- cool -
ed squir rel-cage inducti on motor
Th e stator consists of a core 2, a three-phase het eropolar

winding 20 in which each phase is tak en vi a a termin al
box 13 to the respective phase of a supply line, and a frame 1.
58 Part Four. Induction Machin es
Th e core and coi ls produce a rot ating (rovolving) magne-

tic field . Th e fr am e serves as a mechanical support for the
act iv e (electrical) parts and is m ad e fast to a founda ti on
by feet 14.
The stator core is built u p of elec tr ical-shee t stee l lami-
nations usually 0.5 mm thick , insulated by a coat of varnish
on either si de*. For cores with an outside diam eter of less
th an 1 m (whi ch is true of all induction motors excep t the
la rgest ones), the lamin atio ns ar e m ade in one piece, with'
sui tab le slots on the ir inner periphery (Fig . 39-2b).
The core m ay or may no t be di vid ed in to blo cks by means
of vent fin gers. In the for m er case (see Fi g. 39-1), the lami-
nations ar e stacked up an d clamped tog ether on a suitable
mandrel outsid e the fr am e, so that no radial vent ducts
are formed . The comple te stack is held compressed by end
pl at es 6 and clamps 5 , an d is installed in t he fra me afte r
th e coils have been put in pl ace.
In a core di vided into blo cks , the blocks ar e sep ar ated
from each other by r adial vent du cts . Such a core is ordi-
narily assembled in side the fr am e. An un wo und s ta tor of
th is t yp e is shown in Fi g. 39-3. R adi all y , the lami nations
Z are held in place by the r ibs of the fr am e 2; ax ially, th ey
ar e clamp ed an d held in pl ace by end plates 3 and keys 4
weld ed on after the core ha s been clamped . Th e ducts ar e
formed by means of vent fin gers 5 .
For cores wi th an outside diame t er of ove r 1 m , the lami-
nati ons cons is t each of several segmen ts, and the stat or h as
the same construction as t hat of a lar ge syn chro nous machine
(see Sec. 51-3). '
The stator winding uses single- 01' doubl e-layer mul titurn
coils mush-wound with insulate d circul ar wire (at 1 in
Fig. 39-4a ). The term "m ush" refer s t o the fact tha t the con-
duct ors are laid in slots at a t ime . The slots are of the semi-
closed type (see Fig. 39-4) so as to minimize th e ripple in the
magnetic field and the addit ional loss due to the core
saliency** .
In sulation on the coils for the stator (armat ure) winding
consists of stran d insulation if th e conduc tors are stranded ,
conductor or turn in sul ation , coil or groun d insul ation , and
* Th e selec tion o f t.he thic kne ss and matcr lal for core Iaminntlons
has been di scussed in See . 3'1-3 .
** Large induction machi nes use ei ther pr olorm ed-coil or bar-t ype
windings a nd opc n sl ots (see Soc . 51-3). '
Fig . 39-2 Rin g-shaped sta mp ings fur (a) rutur core a nd (b) st ator
cor e:
I-roto r yoke ; 2 - 100111; .:i -~ lot ; 4 -uxia l ve n ti ng d uc t; 5-shaft ol'l'ning ; 6 -
stat or yulee
Fig . 3!J-3 Hadi al-duct sta tor core built up of one-pi ece lam in ations
and mou nted in th e fr a me
h.lrand
5 ---~==t~
5,
". ~1t:;;:;~\1\1
J
z:
1
(a ) (b)
Fig . 39-4 Sl ots:

(a) for the d nubt e-Iayer m ush sta tor w ind ing o f a n induction m achine: (b ) for
the t hre e- p hase, double-l ay er, ba r-type , wa ve r otor wtndlng of a wound-rotor
in d uct ion macn tne .
the slot liner or cell . The slot liner or cell is usually made
up of two or more layer s of in sulating material: it is placed
in each slot prior to pl acing th e coils . In the slots, the coil s
are a nchored by top in sulation plates 6 and slo t wedges 7.
In a double-l ayer winding , th e l ayers ar e separate d by inter-
l ayer 5 (or, simply , la yer) insulation . No suc h insulation is
need ed in a singl e-la yer winding .
The rotor consists of a cor e 3 (see Fi g. 39-1) with slots on
its outer periphery, a pol yphase winding 19, integrally cas t
Fig. 3!1-5 The core of a cas t-alumin ium squirr el-cage induction m ot or
cool ing blades 7, a shaft 15 , and two fan s , 8 and 11. Onl y
the core and t he winding cont r ibute to ene rgy conve rs ion:
the rema ini ng parts serve v arious st ructural or mechanical
fun cti ons . For exa m ple, the sha ft t ra nsmits mech anical
energy to th e assoc iated driv en mach in e, th e fan s make the
coolant circulate inside the machine, etc.
In more det ail , the const ruc ti on of the cor e and winding
is shown in Fi g. 39-5 . Th e cor e, 4, is built up of one-piece
elec trical-sh eet steel l aminations 0 .5 mm thick . On the outer
peripher y , th e laminat ions are pu nch ed with slo ts of a s uit-
ableshape(closed in Fi g . 39-5, an d partl y clo sed in Fi g . 39-2 a) .
Th e ro tor core laminations are stack ed up on a mandrel,
clamped, and held compressed so lon g as the rotor windin g
is fabri cated . The 1'0 tor winding consists merely of iden ti cal
copp er 01' cast-aluminium bars sol idly connected to a conduct-
ing (sho rt-ci rcuiting) en d ring a t each end (at 2 in Fi g. 39-5),
thus forming a short- circui t ed sq uirrel-cage s tructure. The
end rings ar e cast integral wit h fan bl ades 3 .
Apart from serving as t h e secondary winding, t he squirr el-
cage stru cture holds together the rotor lamina tions upon
removal from the mandrel. With this -arrangem ent, t here is
no need to us e separate axial clamps .
The rotor is mounted on th e shaf t (at 15 in Fi g . 39-1)
which is carried in two ball or roll er bearings (12 and 17).
Ch. 39 Construction 61
The hearings are press-fitted in end shields or end frames

(9 and 21) with caps (16 and 18) by which they are attached
to the frame.
Ball bearing 12 centres the rotor both radially and axially
and takes up radial and axial (thrust) forces. The bearings
are lubricated with grease which is packed under the bearing
caps and can last for several years of service .
Because the clearance (air gap) between the rotor and stator
cores is very small (0.3 to 1 mm for machines rated at
0.5 kW and higher and 0.02 to 0.3 mm for fractional-horse-
power machines), it is important that the shaft should have
ample stiffness (see Sec . 34-3), and the structural parts
ensuring the correct position of the shaft in space should be
machined to a very high level of accuracy.
Figure 39-1 shows a totally enclosed, externally blown
machine (see Sec . 33-2) . Cooling is provided by an external
blower, and protection to attending personnel is given by
an enclosure (10) which also serves to guide cooling ail'
towards the ribbed surface of the frame. Inside the machine,
air is forced by the integrally cast fan and fan blades (the
direction of air flow is indicated by arrowheads).
Wherever necessary, the motor can be lifted and moved
about by means of a lifting ring (at 4 in Fig. 39-1) .
39-2 Construction of the Slip-Ring

Induction Motor
The general arrangement of a slip-ring (wound-rotor)

induction motor is shown in Fig . 39-6. From the squirrel-cage
machine, it only differs in the construction of the rotor.
The stator may be built along the same lines as for a squir-
rel -cage machine. The stator of the motor in Fig . 39-6 (with
the core divided into blocks by vent ducts) is almost identi-
cal with that in Fig. 39-3 (see Sec. 39-1) . The stator consists
of a frame 1 in which end washers 5 and keys 7 hold the
stator core blocks built up of ring-shaped laminations 2.
The vent ducts between the core blocks are formed by vent
fingers 4. The slots on the inner periphery of the stator core
receive a two-layer winding made up of coils 30 joined by
end connections (or overhangs) 8. The terminals of the
stator winding are brought out via a terminal box 23. Attach-
ment of the frame to its foundation is by feet 22. To facilitate
Part Four . induction Machi nes
handling in t ra nsi t or d ur ing ere ction, the fra me has

a lifting ring 6.
The rotor consi sts of a sh aft 26 on which end pl ates 24,
a key 21, and a split key 20 ho ld the compr essed core blo cks
built up of ring-sh ap ed laminations 3 (see Fig. 39-2a).
The rad ial vent ducts ar e form ed by vent fingers placed
within each pole pitch . The partially closed slots made on
the outer periphery of the rotor cor e (shown in th e sec tional
-IfE~3-IIhnlIfr-L .,.t=--"-.,J1L=;;j;;=:-:=I==;;:l~l...,rl" VI\-l,lh- dL--""-l'""li'l'f'--'--''' --;~16
17
Fig . 39-6 A 250-kW, 3000-rpm, 50-I-Iz, totall y-oncl osod, internally

blown wound -rotor inducti on motor
view of Fi g. 39-4b) r eceive a three-phase, double-layer (usual-

ly sta r-connected) wav e winding 29 made up -of pr eformed
ba rs . Th e three terminal leads ar e brough t out by means of
cables 19 passing through a hole in the shaft to slip r ings
15 mount ed on the shaft .
The winding bars (at 1 in Fi g. 39-4b), preform ed at one
end and with the turn insulation (2 and 3) already appli ed,
ar e pushed from one end of th e core through the slots alread y
insulated with slot liners or cells 4. The bars ar e anchored
in the radial direction and also th e turn and ground insula-
I ' tion is au gmented with plates 5 and 6. The centrifugal force
acting on the overhangs is r esisted by slot wedges 7.
The coil and connections (overhangs) are supported by end
plates 24 (Fig. 39-6 ) which also doubl e as coi l clamps. On
Gh . g9 Construction
the outside, th o overh angs are taped with bands 32 to res ist
centrifugal forces.
Electrical connection of the rotor winding to ex terna l
(uonrotating) circuits is by means of slip rings to which
the coil t erminal leads are brou ght out, and a bru sh assembly
connected to the external circuits directly. It is usual to
make t he slip rings as an integral assembly. The rings (at
15 in the figure) may be made of st eel or brass alloy and are
separated from one another and from ground by insulating
spacers 17. Th e assembly is held together by insulated studs
16 and joined to the shaft end by a flange. The slip rings
make sliding contact with carbon or copp er-carbon brushes
electricall y connected to th e conductors 12 of the brush yoke
(or rocker arm) . Figure 39-6 also shows the bru sh-yoke studs
11 and insulating parts, the brushgear enclosure 13 and
cover 14; the brushes and brush-ho ld ers are not shown.
The necessary contact betw een the brushes and slip-
rings is ma intained by brush-holders mounted on the brush
yoke (for mor e detail, see Sec. 51-3). Connection of the
brush-yoke conductors to the starting rheostat is made
inside the slip-ring termin al box 18.
The rotor is held in a proper position relative to the sta-
tor and made free to rotate by the same parts as are used in
a squirrel-cag e motor . These are a roller bearing 25 , a ball
bearing 10, end shields (or fram es) 31, and bearing caps 27.
The motor shown in Fig. 39-6 is of ventilated, drip-proof
construction (see Sec . 33-2). Inside the ma chine, cooling air
follows both radial and axial paths. Atmospheric air enters
the machine by openings in the end shields and is directed
by baffles 9 towards the cooling blades 28, between the
overhangs of the rotor winding, and towards the axial
ducts in the rotor core. From the ax ial ducts, the air enters
the radial ducts in the rotor and stator cores. The air driven
by the cooling blades past the rotor ov erhangs bathes the
stator overhangs. The hot air then en ters th e clearance be-
tween the stator yoke and the frame wh ence it is discharged
through side openings in the frame into the atmosphere.
The static pressure required to drive cooling air inside
the machine is produced by the radial ducts in the rotor,
which act as centrifugal fan s .
40 Electromagnetic Processes
in the Electric and M agnetic
Circuits of a n Induction
Machine at No-Load
401 The Ideal No-l oad Condition
I t is convenient to beg in our study of the induction mac hine
wi th the id eal no-load con dit ion . In this condition, the
electromagnetic processes involved are less elaborate than
they ar e on load.
In the id eal no-load condition , th e external torque applied
to the shaft is zero, Tex t = O. I t is also assumed that th e
friction torque is likewise zero. The ro tor is spinning a t the
same ang ula r velocity as the ro tat ing (or revo lving) fi eld
(Q = Q1), the slip (defined as the quotient of the difference
between the synchronous sp eed and the actua l speed of th e
rotor , divid ed by th e synchronous spe ed) is zero (8 = 0),
no emf or current is induced in the rotor winding (12 = 0),
and the electromagnetic torque required to balance th e exter-
nal t orque and the frict ion torque is zero (T ern = 0) .
At no-load, an induction motor clos ely resemb les a trans-
former (see P art '1). In ei ther case, there is only a curr en t
in the primary winding, 11=1=0 , and no current in th e second-
ar y 1 2 = 0; the magnetic fie ld is es ta bli she d solely by the
pr imary current, for which reason we may call it the m ag-
netizing current (II = 1 0 ) , In contrast to a transformer ,
howev er, the set of magnetizing curren ts in the phases of th e
polyphase stator winding es tablishes a rota ting (01' r evol v-
ing) magnetic fi eld .
By analogy with a transformer, the voltage equation at
no-load is onl y needed for one phase of t he stator (tha t is,
primary) wind ing :
.. .
VI = -E I + (R + jX
I 1) 10
where E I = emf induced in the phase by a rotating magne-
.
VI
tic flux (Pm
= primary ph ase voltage

Ch. 40 El cetrornagn etic Processes at No-Load 65
III
pri mary ph ase leak age resistance (to he expla in-
=
ed lat er)
X I = primary phase leak age inductance (to be ex-
pl ai ned later)
Because th e inducti ve and resist ive dr ops, X II o an d
. .
RII o, are negligible, VI is almost completely balance d by E I ,
that is
40-2 Analysis of the Magnetic Circuit

at No-Load
Th e magnetic circuit needs t o be analy zed at no-load in
ord er to determ ine the stator magnetizing current 1 0 (or the
stator mmf F 0) which pr oduces the rotating magn etic flux
(D m th at will induce the desired emf, E I , in th e sta t or .
l,
74
Squir rel -cage rotor Phase-wound r otor 8
Fig . 40-1 To calculation of the mag netic circu it for an induction

machin e:
1-frame (st ator yoke); 2-stator core block; 3- stator win ding ; 4- rot or core
bl ock; 5-ins ul ate d, t hree-p hase rotor win ding in a wound-rotor motor; 6-roto r-
win ding termina l lead ; 7- sllp rings; 8-shaft ; 9, 9a-pressure plate; 10, 10 a-
key; ll-end ring of a squlrrel-cage rotor; 12-squirre l-cage bar ; 13-pressure
plate ; 14-key
Two sectional views (t ra nsverse and ax ial) of the magne-

t ic circuit in an inductio n machine are shown in F ig . 40-1.
The cross-sectional view shows one half-cycle of change
in the field, occupying a sector spanning the angle 360o/2p.
The figure also shows the mean line of the mutual magnetic
fi eld .
5- 02'<0
Part Four. induction Machines
So long as it is unsaturated, the iron parts of the magnetic

circuit have an insignificant reluctance, and the air gap
field is mainly controlled by the gap reluctance. Therefore,
the gap flux density follows the sine-wave distribution of
the fundamental mmf, Eq. (25-18). In Fig. 40-1, the gap flux
density and mmf are maximal at the start and end of a half-
cycle and vanish at the middle of the half-cycle. As the
mmf builds up in magnitude, the stator and rotor teeth are
saturated increasingly more, their reluctances go up, and
the relation between the mmf and flux density ceases to be
linear (the mmf rises at a higher rate than the flux density).
However, the teeth are saturated only within the regions
of high mmfs (at the edges of the half-cycle in Fig. 40-1),
and are not where the mmf is low (at the middle of the
half-cycle). Because of this, tooth saturation distorts the sine-
wave gap flux distribution, and the flux waveform in the
region of high mmfs is "flattened". .
Since the rms value of emf, E 1 , is mainly controlled by the
fundamental flux density, the magnetic flux in the case of
a nonsinusoidal flux distribution has to be calculated by
the equation
d>m = E 1/4k Bf1W1kW1 (40-1)
where 1 B is the shape factor of the flux density waveform.
In an unsaturated machine, when the magnetizing forces
in the stator and rotor teeth are low in comparison with the
air gap magnetizing force;
F Z1 + FZ2~ FI)
the flux density waveform is nearly sinusoidal, and
k B = :n;/2y 2 =1.11
As the teeth are saturated in the region of high mmfs
more and more, the magnetizing forces in the teeth, F Zl
+ F Z2' become comparable with the air gap magnetizing
force, F I), the flux density waveform is flattened, and 1 B
somewhat decreases in value .
kB = (:n;/2 V 2) SB
Here, . 1; B is a correction factor. It can be found from the
plot in Fig. 40-2 where it is 'shown as a function of the tooth
saturation factor . .
kz = (FI) + F + F Z2)!FI)
Z1
Ch. 4.0 Electromagnetic Processes at No-Load 67
For each specified value of Ell the values of le z and len

are found by the method of successive approximation (to be
described later). To a first approximation, we may deem
that le z = 1.
The mmf F 0 that produces the magnetic flux <D m is found
by applying Ampere's circuital law to the mean magnetic
line composed of the segments
L a l , h Zl, 6, h Z2, and L a 2 (see
Fig. 40-1):
~ '~ H dl= r,

1.4 E,B,~rx
7.3
7.2
/
/
//~t
--
1.7
where H is the magnetic in-
tensity at CD m , and dl is an
element of length of the mean
magnetic line .
To facilitate calculations,
7.0
0.9
1
I---
2
/
1
~8
-
-/<z
J
the line integral is replaced by Fig. 40-2 Plots of ~a = j (lcz)
a sum of mmfs within the oha- and ~B = j (k z )
racteristic segments of the
mean magnetic line, assuming that within each segment
the magnetic intensity is constant:
~ ~Hdl=F6 +Fzt+Fz2+Fut+Fu2=Fo (40-2)
The ail' gap mmj is given by

F II = H r/jlell = B m6k 6 /tto (40-3)
where le 6 = le6lle ll2 = air gap factor defined in Eq.
(24-10), which accounts for the
effect of the stator and rotor sa-
liency on the air gap reluctance
B m = cD m/a 6"Ll6 = maximum air gap flux density
l6 = design core length (axial gap
length) as given by Eq. (23-10).
The value of a6 depends on the saturation of the stator
and rotor teeth, in turn given by le z. At low saturation, when
I the gap flux density waveform is sinusoidal, a{) = 2/:rc [see
Eq. (27-2)1. At saturation, a6 goes up; now it is a o
= 2s a/:rc . The correction factor Sa (usually greater than
\ . unity) can be found from the plot of Fig. 40-2. The values
of k z and a {) are found for each specified value of E I by the
method of successive approximation.
5*
The mmj in the stator teeth

F;1 = H Zlh z1 (4.0-4)
is found from the field intensity in the tooth section which
is h Zl distant from the narrowest section (that is, the tooth
tip). The active surface area of iron at that section is
A ZI = b ZllClkj
where b ZI = tooth width at the section
lCI = l~ (n y + 1) =
total length of the stator core,
that is, lamination blocks in
the stator of Fig. 40-1 (here,
n y is the number of radial vent
ducts)
k f = block fill factor (= 0.93 for
varnished laminations 0.5 mm
thick)
The tooth flux density is found, assuming that the magne-
tic field is continuous and that the flux is conserved at
all the sections within the tooth pitch. At a moderate tooth
saturation, which is true when the tooth flux density is
B ZI ~ 1.8 T, it is legitimate to deem that the tooth-pitch
flux, as found from the air gap flux density,
cD /I = t Zll/lBm
is concentrated solely within the tooth laminations and
does not extend into the slots and nonmagnetic clearances
between them (the radial vent ducts and insulation between
the tooth punchings). On this assumption, the tooth flux
cD Z = B Zl b ZllClkt
does not differ from the air gap flux
cDz=(P/I
Hence"
B - B l fJtz1 (4.0-5)
Z1 - m krlcl bZ1
When B ZI ~ 1.8 T, the tooth magnetic intensity H ZI

can be found from the main magnetization curve, H = j (B).
Such curves plotted for several grades of electrical-sheet
steels may be found, for example, in [13].
If Eq. (40-5) gives B ZI > 1.8 T and, as a consequence,
the assumption made does not hold, the calculation must
Ch, 40 Electromagnetic Processes at No-Load 69
be refined by all owing for the flux branching into the slot
and nonmagnetic clearances
o, = B s1A s1
where
A S1 = ll bS1 +
('1 - k r )lC1 b Z 1 b y n yb z 1+
is the cross-sectional area of the slot and nonmagnetic clea-
ran ces per slot pitch, B sl is the flu x den sity in the slot and
nonm agnetic clearances, bS1 is the slot width at the section
which is h Zl /3 distant from the tooth tip, II is the total
leng th of the stator core, and by is the width of a vent duct.
In t he circums tances,
(I)z = <Do - (D s
Let us divide the right- and left-hand sides of th e equ ation
by th e act ive cross-s ectional area of the tooth, A Z1> and
t ake into account the fact that when two paths with flux
density B 2 1 and B S1 are arranged in parallel, the magnetic
intensity in them will be th e sam e
H S1 = B sl / /1 o = H Zl = I (B 21)
Then we ge t
B Zl = B z, - /1o k s H Zl
where B Z1 = (l)zIA 21 is th e actual tooth flux density, B Z1
is the too th flu x densi ty as found by Eq. (40-5) on the
assumption mad e ori gin ally, H Zl is the tooth field in tensity
corresponding to B ZI on the main magnetization curve, and
k s = A 811A Zl is the coeffi cient allowing for the effect of
nonm agne tic clearances .
The sough t flux density B Zl is found by simult aneously
solving the above equation, where B Zl is a linear function
of H z i . and th e equat ion describing the main magnet ization
curve H z i = I (B Zl ) for t he core material used . As a r ule ,
th e solution is obtained gra phicall y at the intersection of
the straight line B 2 1 = B Z1 - ~LoksH z i. passing through
po in t BZl> with th e curve H 21 = I (B 2 1 ) ' Th e pr oced ure can
be fac il ita ted by usi ng magnetiz ation curves H Zl = I (B Zl )
plotted in ad vance for sev eral values of ks'
o Th e mmf in the rotor teeth
(40-6)
is found in the same ma nner as for t he stator teeth . At mo-

derate saturation, when B Z2 ~ 1.8 T, the flux density is
calculated on the assumption that all of the tooth-pitch
flux is concentrated within the tooth iron
B -B l rh 2 (40-7)
Z2 - ill Icrl C 2bZ 2
where b Z2 is the tooth width at the section which is h z 2/3

distant from its base, and lC2 = l~ in ; - 1) 2l~ is the +
total length of the rotor core shown in Fig. 40-1.
If B Z2 as found by Eq . (40-7) exceeds 1.8 T, the next
step is to refine its va lue by allowing for the frac tion of
the total magnetic flux crowded out of the teeth int o the
slots and nonmagnetic materials . This is done in the same
manner as for the stator teeth.
After F 6, F Zl and F Z2 have been found, it is important
to verify the va lue of k z - Should it differ from the specif ied
value by more than 5 %, t he mmfs must be re-ca lculated,
adopting the refined va lue of k z .
The nun! in the stator yoke
F al = HalLals (40-8 )
is found from the maximum yoke field intensity correspond-
ing to
s., = (Pm/2hallclkr (40-9)
on the ma in magnetization curve [13]. The coefficient S
accounts for variations in the magnetic intensity along the
length L al, and is taken for B a = B al from the table that
follows .
1.0 1.'1 1.2 1.3 '1.4 '1.5
V.57 0 .54 0 .5 0.46 0.4 0.33
The mm] in the rotor yoke

F a2 = H a2La2s (40-10)
is found in a sim ilar way from the maximum flux dens ity
in the rotor yoke
. .
The phase angle ~~ between 1 0 and -E I (see Fig. 2-8)
does not differ from the angle between 1 0 and loa' and
may be written
~~ = arccos (I .J1 0 )
Accordingly, we may define the active and reactive compo-
nents of the no-load current as
loa = 1 0 cos ~~
and
lor . t, sin ~~
By the same token, the active and reactive components or
-E I may be written as E I cos ~~ and E I sin ~~.
At VI = VI R, the no-load current in an induction ma-
chine accounts for a larger proportion of the rated current
than in a transformer. This is because the stator and rotor
cores are always separated by a nonmagnetic clearance which
presents a considerable opposition to the magnetic flux,
whereas in transformers the cores are usually of the closed
construction.
The relative no-load current, IoIII,R' increases with
decreasing power output and rpm . For motors rated any-
where between 1 and 100 kW, it ranges from 0.5 to 0.25.
For fractional-horsepower motors, it ranges from 0.5 to 1.0.
By finding 1 0 for several values of E I (or (D m ) , we can plot
the relations E I = f (1 0 ) and cD m = f (1 0 ) , The former is
known as the no-load characteristic of a machine, and the
latter, the magnetization curve (or characteristic) of the ma-
chine. The two relations are linear only at E I ~ VI,R' At
E I > VI,R when the . magnetic circuit of a machine is usual-
ly saturated, the relations are strongly nonlinear.
40.4 Calculation of the Mail'l Stator W inding

Impedance .
Once the magnetic circuit has beep designed and analyzed

and the no-load current Iound , the next step is to determine
the main stator winding impedance with allowance for the
saturation of the magnetic circuit
(4.0-17~
Ch. 41 Electromagn etic Processes on Load 73
whe re R o = E I cos ~~II 0 = ma in res istance

X 0 = E I sin ~~/I 0 = main r eactance
~~ = arctan (I orlI ou ) = angle between -E I and 1 0
(see above) .
The power dissip ated in R o represents the actual core
loss , P c. Th erefore, we may express R o in terms of P c:
R 0 ...:- E 1 cos ~~ In I T o _ ]:J I mt 120 (40-'18)
- Io In ,
T0 - c
The rea ctive pow er, Qo, sto red by X o at 1 0 represents the
re active pow er stored by the m ain reactive impedance du e to
self-inductance Xu = 2nf IL n m =, E t l1 0 r at lor. Therefore,
O = mIX oI~ = InIXUnr
Hence,
X o = Xu (nJI~) = X u sin 2 ~~ (40-19 )
where
.
SlIl ~' - I II - x, X 11
~ ~~===:=~
0 - Or 0- lfX~+R5 l/X rl+Rij
In most cases, it will be sufficiently accurate to take
sin ~~ ~ 1.
In an unsa turated machine, L n m is found by E q . (28-4).
In a saturated m achine, it should be reduced by a factor
of k s The relative magnitudes of R o and X o for the stator
winding are depend ent on the core sa t urat ion which in turn
varies with E I or Wm .
41 Electromagn etic Processes

in Induction Machines on Load
41-1 Basic Definitions and Assumptions
Our discussion will be limited to the s tea dy-st a te elec tro-
ma gn etic pro cesses in a loaded induct ion mach ine whose
sta t or winding carr ies a balanced polyphase system of sinu-
soidal volt ages ,
An- induction ma chin e is capable of energy conversion in
any condi tion, exce pt a t. no-load (open-ci r cuit) and a short-
circuit. At no-load (an open-circuit), th e mechanical pow er
dev eloperlj hy the rotor, P rn = T emQ , is zero , because the
rotor is revolving a t th e sa me an gular v elo city as th e field,
~ = Qt' and T e/11 = O ~ Iu pw case 9~ 11 ~~l Q rt-~ ir~u iLl th ~
mechanical power is zero, because the rotor is at standstill ,

Q = O.
Giv en VI and t.. the electroma gnet ic processes in an
induction machine depend on the exte rn al torque, Te xt!
appli ed to th e shaft, and its direction. If the external torque
opposes the rotation of the field, the machine will be operat-
ing as a motor. Should the applied torque be increased, the
mechanical power output will
also increase,
P2 = T extQ
At the same t ime , the angular
i jA velocity Q of the rotor will
go down (Q < QI ) , and the slip
s will increase:
Q1- Q
s=---'~-
>0
Q1
Conversely, should the ex ter-

nal torque be in the direction
Fig. 41-1 Mutua l and leak age of the revolving field, the ma-
fie lds in an inducti on machine chi ne will be operating as a ge-
nerator . Now , an in crease in
'II
the to rqu e will lead t o an in cr eased amount of active elec-
tric power delivered to the receiving line,
P 2 = T extQ
At the sa me time, the angular velo city of the rotor will
increase (Q > Q I ) , but the slip will t ake on a negative value :
Q -Q
s= 1
Q1 <0
In ord er to est abli sh quantit ative relations between the
exte rn al t orque T ex t ' t he ang ular veloc ity Q, and the elec-
tric qu an tities associated with the polyphase s tator and
rot or circuits (volt ages, cur rents, act ive and reactive power),
we need a set of equations describi ng the electromagnet ic
proc esses in those circuits .
Because all quantities associated with the st ator and rotor
circuits vary in time practically sinusoidally, it is conve-
nient to write the above set of equ ations in complex nota-
tion. Also, the analysis can best be don e, usin g a two-pole
model (see Sec. 30-2 ~ ? such as shown in Fig. 41-~ : -
Ch. 41 Electromagnetic Processes on Load 75
Within a pitch pole, a two-pole model retains all the

basic dimensions of the prototype machine (air gap length,
slot width and depth, number of effective turns per slot,
slot currents, turn voltages, magnetic flux densities, and
magnetic fluxes). The angles between any elements within
a pole pitch are multiplied by P (where P is the number of
pole pairs in the prototype machine) . The angular velocity
of the field, Ql' and the angular velocity of the rotor, Q,
are each multiplied by P to become respectively
QlP = ((j)l/P) P = (j)l
and
(j) = Qp
The slip and the statal' and rotor current frequencies, 11
and 12' remain unchanged.
To simplify matters, the two-pole model shown in all
the subsequent drawings has a smooth stator and a smooth
rotor.
41-2 The Stator Voltage Equation.

Stator MMF
A three-phase stator winding (see Chap . 22) may be star
or delta connected . When energized with a balanced set of
phase currents II' it establishes a rotating (revolving) field
with 2p poles . The phase currents are induced by a balanced
set of supply voltages VI' The frequency t, of these currents
is the same as the supply frequency . The peak value of the
2p-pole (fundamental) stator mmf
- ("V -2 /)
F 1m- n 1n1
_I~lw-,l,--k..::..w=...l (41-1)
p
is proportional to III the number WI of series phase conduc-

tal'S, and the winding factor for the fundamental compo-
nent, le w l [see Eq. (25-9)].
The stator mmf F l nt and the mutual flux density B m
which, in addition to the statal' mmf, are produced by the
rotor mmf, F 2m, rotate at an angular velocity given by
Ql = 2nll/p = (j)l/P
In the diagram of a two -pole model shown in Fig. 41-2a,
. .
the electric quantities V~ and I~, and also the space-distri-
. .
buted quan ti t ies F l m and B m ar e depicted as complex am pli -
tudes rotat ing at an electrical angular ve loc ity W I '
The projections of t he com plex fun ct ions re prese n ting
th e rm s phase quantities (l\e jrol , I~ejrol, and so on) on t he
stator pha se axes A I , BI and CI are equal t o VV' :2 of
the correspond ing ins tant aneous phase qu anti ties. The
Fig . 41-2 P haso r diagr am s for (a) s tato r qua ntit ies and (b) rot or quan-
tities of an indu ction machine (motor mode of operation, w < wI>
s > 0)
projections, on an arbi tra ry dir ection, of th e space-distribu-

ted com plex fun ctions re prese nt ing the qu antities sinusoi da l-
ly dis tribu ted in t he air ga p give the ins tant an eous va lues
of these quan ti ties at a give n po int on the peripher y of the
air gap.
The rotating mutu al fi eld and t he st ator phase winding
produce a flux linkage (see Sec. 27-5) whose peak va lue
11'11n = wlkwl<D m
is proportional to th e flux
2
<D m = Jt 'Li oEn!
and, in the final ana lysis, to the peak va l ue of the gap flux
density, Em. *
* Here , the ()) m and E 1 equa tions hold for an unsatura ted mac hi ne
with a sin usoida lly di s tribu ted gnp fl ux dens i ty , For a saturutor]
!!!\lc!Jine, they are ~i yen iy. <;:;hap. 40,
Gil. 41 Electromagnetio Processes on Load 77
. . .
On the diagram B, , (!J m , and 'l'l1n rotate all in the same
direction (see Fig. 41-2). Variations in the flu x linkage at
WI = 2n/1 induce in each phase a mutual emf whose com-
pl ex rms value is given by
E t = - .
JWt
' r m
1/ 2 = -
.
J V2
2lt I tlV t' wt rT-.
7
'l-' m
(41 2)
-
Also, the stator phase is linked by the leakage flux, giving

rise t o a leakage flux linkage W1 a proportional to the phase
current I I (the lines of mutual and leakage fi elds for phase
Al and the oth er stator phases are shown in Fig. 41-1) .
Th e leak age emf E a 1 ind uced in the stato r ph ase by varia-
t ions in the leak age flux linkage at WI is usually expressed
in t erms of I I and Xl = W1L a17 the leakage inductive reac-
tance of the stator (see Sec. 28-7):
Et a = - jlVt1~tal V2 = - ix ), (41-3)
Th e stator ph ase vol tages , emfs, an d currents must satisfy
the voltage equaton which , as written in complex no ta-
t ion , is the same as for the transformer primary (see
Sec. 3-2)
. . . .
VI + E1 + E1a = RIll
where R 1 is the stator ph ase resistance at 11 (see Sec. 31-2).

On expressing E1 a in te rms of i, in accord with Eq. (4'1.3),
we ma y introduce the stat or phase impedanc e Zl :
. . .
VI = -E1 + ZlI1 (41-4)
where Zl = R 1 + jX 1 is the stator ph ase impedance. *
Graphically, Eq . (41-4) is shown on the stator voltage
phasor diagram plotted in Fig. 41-2a for motoring. In this
d iagram , the magnitude and direction of E1 induced by the
. .
ro tating B m field ar e chosen suc h that at the specified VI
t he machine could oper ate as a mo tor . For this to happen,
it is required that the ph ase current
. . .
II = (VI +E 1) /Z 1
* Zl is determined without allowanc e for the mutual flux linkage.

78 Part Four. induction Machines
should lag behind VI by CPI < n/2 and that the active power
should be
PI = 7n I V I I I cos CPI > 0
(The power drawn from the supply line is assumed positive.)
413 The Rotor Voltage Equation.

Rotor MMF
Th e rotor of an induction machine rotates at an angular
velocity Q which is in the general case different from the
angular velocity of the mutual field
Q I = 2nfi/p = 0hP
Accordingly, in a two-pole model , as shown in Fig. 41-2,
the electrical angular velocity of the rotor, W = Qp, is dif-
ferent from the electrical angular velocity of the field
WI = QIP = 2nfl
R elative to the rotor, th e mutual field depicted in the
diagram of Fi g. 41-2b by Em rotates at an angul ar velocity
Q s = QI - Q
called the angular slip velocity . Accordingly, in the model
the field rot at es relative to the rotor at
Ws = WI - W
Recalling that the slip is defined as
s = QS/Q I = W s/ WI (41-5)
we may express the angular slip velocity in terms of the
angular field velocity as
Qs = QI - Q = sQI
or
(41-6)
In the motor mod e of operation to which the diagram
in Fig. 41-2 applies, both sand Qs are positive . This implies
that in motoring the Em field is rotating relative to the
rotor in the same d irection as it does relative to the stator
(ro, is in the same direction as WI)'
The rotating mutual field and the rotor phase winding
produce a flux linkage (see Sec . 27-5) whose peak value
Gh. 4i Electromagnetic Processes on Load
is
'P'2m
w2k w 2<P m
= (41-7)
where W2 = rotor phase turns
lC w 2 = rotor phase winding factor for the fundamen-
tal (2p-pole) component of magnetic flux den-
sity
.
In Eq. (41-7), the mutual flux <Pm is the same as in
.
Eq. (41.2). Both <Pm and 'P'2m are acting in the same direc-
tion as ti.; As they vary at W S , the rotor phase flux linkages
give rise to the mutual emf E 2S' The frequency 12 of the
mutual emf, currents and other quantities in the rotor
phases is a function of the angular field velocity relative
to the rotor
12 = ws /2n = wls/2n = lIS (41-8)
The complex emf E2S lags beh ind the complex flux linkage
by n/2, and the rms value of the emf at slip s is given by
E2S= -jw s 1fzmIV2 = -j(2n/V2)/zW2kw2CDm (41-9)
The rotor phase mutual emf, E 2s, may be expressed in
terms of the mutual emf, E 2 , that would be induced by the
same field in the rotor at standstill, when ro = 0, Ws
= WI - W = rol,
S = 1, and 12 = lIs = 11'
As follows from Eq. (41-8),
E 2S = E 2s (41-10)
wh ere E 2 = Wl'P'2mIV2.
The rotor phase is also linked by the leakage flux. This
produces a leakage flux linkage, 'P'2U, proportional to 1 2
(the lines of the mutual and leakage fields for phase A 2
and the other rotor phases are shown in Fig. 41-1).
The leakage emf, E 2US, induced in a rotor phase by va-
riations in the phase flux linkage at
Ws = 2n/2 = SWI
is usually expressed in terms of 1 2 and the rotor leakage

inductive reactance at slip s, given by
X 2S = 2n/2LU2= 2nsl lL u2 = sX 2 (4'1-11)
where
is the leakage inductive re actance of the rotor at standstill,

when s = 1 and /2 = /1 (see Sec. 28-7).
The rms value of the rotor leakage emf is
.
E 2as = -jX 2s1 2
. (41-12)
The rotor phase emfs and currents must satisfy the volta-
ge equation which, as written in complex notation, is the
same as for the transformer primary (see Sec. 3-2):
.. .
+ E 2a s
E 2S = R 21 2
where R 2 is the rotor phase resistance at
/2 = S/ l
On expressing E2 as is terms of 't2 in accord with Eq. (41-12),

we may introduce in the voltage equat ion the ro tor phase im-
pedance (R 2 + jX 2S) :
. .
E 2S = (R 2 + jX 2S) 1 2 (41-13)
The action of E 2S is such tha t the rotor phases carry a cur-
rent
i, = R2~~sX2S (41-14)
which lags beh ind E 2S by angle ~2 (see Fig. 41-2b):

~2 = arct an (X 2sIR 2 ) (41-15)
The current 1 2 induced in the rotor phases varies at the
same frequency as E 2S , that is / 2 = S/l '
Graphically, Eq. (41-13) is illustrated in the rotor voltage
phasor diagram plotted in Fig. 41-2b. The rotor phase quan-
tities are obtained by projecting the respective complex
quantities on the rotor phase axes A 2 , B 2 , and C 2 which
rotate together with the rotor at an electrical angular velo-
city oi. Because the complex quantities representing the
rotor phase quantities rotate relative to the rotor at
ffis = ffi1 - ffi
their projections vary at /2 = ffi s l 2 n .

The balanced set of currents 1 ~ in the m 2-phase rotor
winding, displaced from each other by an angle 2n/m21 esta-
blishes in the rotor a 2p-pole (fundamental) mmf whose
Ch, 41 El ectrom agn et ic Pro cesses on Load 81
peak value (see Sec. 25-9) is given by
F2m -- - ("V2- /)
n 1 C,,W-=-2A
-:
ln 2 -
,- -C\\,-,,
-,- '~ (41-1G)
p
R elative to th e ro tor, F 2m rotates at oi , = 2nj 2 in the

two-pole model, and at Q s = ws/p in the prototype machine .
. .
In doing so, F 2 m is acting in the same direction as 1 2 , Since
the rot or velocity is ro = Qp in th e two-pole model and Q
in the prototype ma chine , it is an eas y m atter t o see that
relative to the stator F 2m rotates at
to + Ws = WI
in the model, and at

Q + Qs = Q1
in the pro totype machine.
To sum up, "the rotor mmf, F 2m' rotates in space at the
same ve locity as th e stat or mmf , F 1 m
* 41-4 Analysis and Design

of the Squirrel-Cage Winding
A squirrel-ca ge rotor cons ists of Z2 bars cast or pushed
through th e rotor slots and connected at both ends by end
rings so that the cage is permanently shorted.
E ach phase of a squirrel-cag e winding is in effect a single-
t ur n loop composed of two adjacent bars and the in tervening
end-r ing segments . For ex ample, ph ase loop 1 consists of
bars 1 and 2 an d t he resp ective segm ents "of th e end rings .
The bars carry each a curr ent I b ll I b 2 , I b 3 , . , and the
end-r ing segments carry eac h a current I er l between bars 1
and 2, I er 2 between bars 2 and 3, and so on (Fig . 41-3).
Obv iously , the numb er of phases in a squirrel-cage rotor
is equ al t o the nu mb er of bars (or loop s):
m2 = Z2
As alread y noted , each phase is a singl e-turn loop :
102 = 1
The phase wind ing fa ct or is equal to the pitch factor:

kW 2 =k P 2 = sin (ny/2't) = sin (n p/Z 2) (41-17)
where y = 1 = phase loop pitch (in slot or tooth pitches)

't = Z2/2p = half-pole pitch (or half-cycle) of the
. fundamental component of the rotat-
ing field (also in slot or tooth pitches)
Fig. 41-3 Currents all((el~fs in the loops and bars of a squirrel-cage

s tructura
A phase current refers to the loop current in turn equal to

the current in the respective end -ring segments:
. . . .
1 2(1) = lerl' 1 2(2) = ler2' etc.
Each bar actually belongs to two adjacent phases. There-
fore, the current in a bar is equal to the difference in cur-
rents between these two adjacent phases (or loops):
. . .
Ib2 = len - ler2 (41-18)
Owing to the symmetry of the squirrel-cage structure, the
currents induced in the phases by a 2p-polerotating field are
the same:
1 2 = ler = len = ler2 = ...
On a phasor diagram, the complex phase currents form a
symmetrical star in which the currents of adjacent phases
Ch. 41 El ectromagnetic Pro cess es all Load fiR
sp aced an angle 2nplZ2 apar t. (The loops of adjacen t ph a-

ses ar e di splaced from on e another by an angle 2n IZ 2 . )
T he bar currents are the sides of a pol ygon cons tructed on
the loop-cur ren t star . T he rms v alue of a hal' cu rrent is
given by
(41-1\"1)
(Hint: to der ive the above equation , cons ider the tri an gle
of currents I er l , I er2, i.,
in Fig. 41-3 .)
The ph ase emf
E 2 s = Eel' = E er l = E er2 =
may he r egard ed as the differen ce in emf between th e bars
formin g a loop . Fo r exam ple ,
. . .
E erl = E b2 - E b l (41-20)
The rm s value of a bar emf

E b = E b l = E b2 = ..
is fou nd fr om the t ri an gl e of vectors E b l , E b2, E erl :
E = E 2S (41-21)
b 2 sin (np/Z 2)
Th e eq uiva len t r esis tan ce, R 2 , and the equ iva lent reac-
tan ce, X 2 , of a squir rel-cage winding is found h om pow er
considerations . The sum of copper losses in the phases
Z2R2I~
must be equal to the sum of losses in the hal's, Z 2RbI&
and in the end-r ing seg me nts between a djacent hal's,
2Z2 RerI~r ' (H ere, I eI' = 1 2, R b is the resistan ce of a hal',
and ReI' is the resistance of the end-ring segmen t betwe en
adja cent ha l's (see Fi g. 41- 3).) Upon rearran gement, we get
(41-22)
Similarly,
X2 = 2X er + X b (I bII 2) 2 (41-23)
where X b is the leakage inductive imped ance of a hal', and
X er is th e leak age indu ctive imped an ce of an en d-ri ng seg-
men t.
(see Eq . (4.1-19)) .
6*
84 Part Four. Induction Machinos
41-5 MMF Equation. Magnetizing Current.

Mutual Field
As has been shown iu Sec . 41-3, the rotor mmf, F 2m , rotates
at the same velocity as the stator mmf, F i m . Either mmf
rotates at an angular velocity QI relative to the statal' and
an angular slip velocity Q s relative to the rotor. In the
model, this occurs at an electrical angular velocity WI
and au electrical angular slip velocity ws , respectively.
The relative position of the stator and rotor mmfs shown
. .
in the model by the complex amplitudes F i m and F 2 m re-
mains unchanged so long as the machine is in a steady state
(see Fig. 41-4). Therefore, the resultant mmf, F om , has
a certain definite peak value
in either condition (at no-load
and on load), rotates at Q I re-
lative to the stator (at WI in
the model), and is given by
. . .
F om = F i m + F 2m (41-24)
Accordingly, the mutual
field set up by the resultant
mmf, F om, has a certain defi -
nite peak flux density Em in
either condition (at no-load
and on load), and rotates rela-
Fig . 41-4 Phasor diagram of
tive to the stator at the same
mmls and currents in an induc- velocities .
tion machine (motor mode of On load, the mutual flux cD m
operation, (0 < (01' s > 0) can be found from the mag-
netic-circuit analysis carried
out for the no-load condition by Eq. (40-2) . In doing so, it
is legitimate to use the magnetization curve (D m = f (F om),
assuming that F om, is the result an t mmf on load. If the
resultant mmf, F om has the same value at no-load and on
load, the mutual flux will likewise be the same in either
case.
Extending the no-load analogy to the generation of the
mutual field, we may introduce the concept of magnetizing
current, 1 0 , It will refer to the stator current which produces
an mmf equal to the resultant mmf, F om . In the diagram
Gh. 4'1 Electromagnetic Proc esses on Load 85
of Fi g. 41-4, the magnetizing current is pl otted as a com-

pl ex qu an ti ty
j _ Fomrtp
(41-25)
o- l f Z mI wIk\\"!
which, on th e complex plane, is in line with F om. At th e

same tim e, F 2m may be imagin ed as bein g produced by a cur-
rent 1~ t ra v ersing the stator wind ing. It is called the rotor
current referred (or transferred) to the stator winding and
is written
(41-26)
where
k - II Z-2W 2!cW 2
t r: 11! w k
1 I w i
is the referring coefficie n t for th e 1'0 tor curre nt.

It is to be noted th at th e phase currents 1 0 and I~ are ba -
lanced sets of stator currents varying at a frequency 11 and
pr oducing rot ating mm fs wi th amplitud es F om and F 2m ,
resp ectively .
On introducing i, and I;,
we ma y express Fom , F2m and
F1 m in Eq. (41-2 4) in t erms of the resp ective currents by
use of Eqs. (41-2 5) and (41-2 6). Then, di viding th e equa-
tion through by V 2mI w1k w 1 lnp , we ob tain an altern ate form
uf th e mmf equation
(41-27)
Qui te appr opr ia tely, it is ca lled th e curre nt equa tion . The
magn etizing current 1 0 given by this equa t ion sets up the
sam e mutual fi eld as th e no-lo ad current 1 0 equal in mag-
nitude. B y the same to ken , t he on-load sta tor mutual emf
E 1 is t he same as it is a t no-load and a t curren t 1 0 , Quite
na turally , the equation connect ing the mutual emf E 1 and
the magnetizing current loon load turns out to be th e sam e
as at no-load (see Eq . 40-17):
(4'1-28)
where
Zo = R o -I- jX o
is the main impedance of th e s ta tor winding.
. .
The complex flux densi t y, B m , and the complex flux, q)m,
lead the complex emf E l by n /2. The r elationship between
E l , on th e one hand, an d B m and cD m , on the other, rem ains
the same as at no-lo ad [see Eq. (40-'1) and also Eq. (40-3)
with allowance for saturation and Eq. (41-2) without allow-
ance for saturation].
The mmf and curren t phasor diagrams corresponding to
Eqs. (41-24) and (4'1-27) app ear in Fig. 41-4 .
41-6 Voltage and Current Phasor Diagrams for

an Induction Machine
The voltage and current phasor diagram of an induction
machine shown in Fi g. 4'1-5 gi ves a graph ical interpretation
A1 of the equ ations that describe
th e pro cesses in the stator and
rotor electric circuits: (4'1-4),
(41-13), (41-27), and (41-28).
The diagram is constructed
on the space complex pl ane
of a two-pole model and com-
bin es in effect the partial di a-
gra ms appearing in Fi gs. 41-2
an d 4 '1 -4 . All compl ex quan-
tities sho wn in the diagram
rotate at WI = 2nfl; th e rotor
w and its phase ax es rotate at
an electrical angular velocity
Fig. 41-5 Phasor diagra m of a n W = Qp ; th e stator and it s
induct ion machine (motor mode ph ase ax es ar e assumed to be
of operation , W < WI ' S> 0) a t standstill . The sta tor ph ase
qu antities a re the projections
. . .
of the resp ectiv e complex qu antities (Vb E l , II , etc .)
on the stato r phase ax es. Th e rotor phase qu an tities are
the projections of th e respective complex quantities
(I":2S' I~ , et c.) on th e rotor ph ase ax es re la t ive t o whi ch th ey
rot ate at WI - W = WS
Ch, 41 Electrom agn etic Processes on Load 87
The sp ace-distributed quantities are obtained by project-

. .. .
ing Em, F lm, F 2 Tn , and F om on the radi i originating at a
given point in the air gap . .
.
It is conv enient to begin the construction of the diagram
. .
by plotting Em, because it is in line with <D m , 'lm, and
Wam- In addition to the value of Em, the quantities assumed
to be specified in advance are the stator current frequency
II> the rotor angular velocity Q , the circuit par ameters
X o, R o, R l , R 2 , X i and X 2 S and the magnetization curves.
All the other qu antities associated with the stator and
rotor electric circuits (E 2 s , 1 2 , 1 0 , I I' E l , VI> and so on)
are found in the course of construction.
Th e diagram shown in Fig. 41-5 holds for the motor mod e
of operation (0 < Q < Ql' 1 > s > 0) . The seq uence of
steps is as follows.
1. Choose an arbitrary position for Em .
2. Plot cD zn, Wl m , and W2m so that they ar e in line with
Em. Calcu late o., by Eq . (41-2) or Eq . (40-3), with allow-
ance for the flattening of the flux density curve.
3. P lot El as foun d by Eq . (40-1) or (41-2) and 1 2 s as
found by Eq. (41-9), so that they lag behind <Pm by n/2.
. .
4. Using Eq . (41-14), find 1 2 lagging behind E 2 s by an
an gle B2' and construct the rotor volt age diagram .
5. Using Eq . (41-26), find th e rotor current referred to
the stator, I~.
6. Using Eq . (41-28 ), find 10
7. Using Eq . (41-27), find t ;
8. Using Eq. (41-4), construct the stator voltage di a-
gram and det ermine the supply voltage VI and the phase
. .
angle qJl between VI and II'
41-7 Energy Conversion by an Induction Machine.

Power Losses. Efficiency
For better insight int o the electr oma gnet ic proc esses that
tak e place in an induction machine, it is useful to trace
the various steps in t he energy convers ion th a t it imple-
ments .
In th e motor mode or operation (Fig. 41-6), the mechanic-

al an gul ar velocity or the rotor does not exceed th at of
the fi eld (0 < Q < Q l ) , and the mach ine dr aws active
power from the supply line
PI = 1nl VIII cos qJl (41-29)
where qJl is the phase angle between the stator voltage and
current, shown in the di agram of Fi g . 41-5 . It is taken posi-
t ive when the current is lagging behind t he voltage. In the
Fig . 41-6 Energy conversion by a n inducti on mach ine (motor mode

of operat ion) : I - st ator; 2 -rotor
motor mod e of opera tion, it li es in th e interval n /2 > qJo

> qJl > 0, and PI is positiv e.
On expressing the active stator voltage VI cos (j)l as the
sum of RIll and E l cos ~~ and writing
PI = mIl l (VI cos qJl) = 1nl l l E t cos ~~+1n l R l l t
we can see that the second term represent s the copper loss
m lR ll~ = Peu!
that is the power dissipated as heat in the stator wind ing
(Fig. 41-6).
Ch. 41 El ectromagnetic Proc esses on Load 89
On expressing the active stator current I I cos ~; as the

sum of the activ e magneti zin g current loco s P ~ = 1 0 " and
the active component of the secondary r eferred current,
I~ cos ~2
ml EI (II cos ~~ ) = m 1E1 I o cos ~~ mlEII~ cos ~2 +
we can see t hat the second term represents the core loss
m l E 1 I o cos ~ ~ = r;
that is the power d issipated as heat in the statal' core (see
Sec . 40-3) .
The remaining power,
P em = PI - P eUI - Pc = mlE lI~ COS P2 (4'1-30)
is transferred elec tromagnet icall y acr oss the air gap from
the stator to the rotor. Quite aptly, it is call ed electromagne-
tic power, P ern (see Sec. 30-1).
T aki ng t he mutual em f as defi ned by Eq . (4'1-2) and
noting that the electromagnetic torque acting on the stator
may , in accord with Eq . (29-13), be written as
r.; = (pm /V2 ) 1J!lm [~ cos ~z (4-1-31)
where ~2 is the phase an gle between k, and i; we find that
the elect r omagnet ic pow er is proportional to the electro-
magnetic torque and the angular velocity of the field:
P em = mlElI~ cos ~2 = T ernQ l (4'1 -32)
Going back (see Eq. (4'1-10)) to E 2 , the emf induced in
a phase of t he rotor at standstill , and expressing the re-
Ierred rotor cur rent I~ in terms of the rotor'[current 1 2 ,
we may write the electromagnetic power in terms of the
rotor qu ant ities as follows :
P ern = Jn 2 E z I 2 cos ~ z = T ernQ l (4'1 -33)
where
T em = (pmzl V 2 ) 1J!2nJ2 cos ~z
is the electromagne t ic torque ac t ing on the 1'0 tor. I t is equal
to the ele ct rom agne tic t orque giv en by Eq. (41-31) and
acting on the sta tor .
Th e conversion of the electromagnetic power , Pem ' com-
ing into the rotor across the ail' gap was ex am ined in
Sec. 30-1 . In a n induction machine, the total angul ar velo -
cit y Q of th e surf ace ro tor curran t A 2 is the sum of th e

mech ani cal (rot ational) ang ular speed of the rotor
Q = Q1 (1 - s)
an d the an gul ar veloc ity of the sur face curren t relative to
th e rotor
Qs = sQ1
wh ich is a fu nction of the freq uency of th e rotor curren t,

t, = sf1
Accordingly, P em = T em Q 1 may be written as the sum of
two power components
P em = T emQ 1 = T emQ s + T emQ (41-34)
The term T emQs = T emQ 1s re presents the electrical or rotor
copper loss, P e 2 = P CU 2 ' This can be proved by writing
the torque in terms of the rotor quantities and noting
th at E 2Scos B2 = R 21 2 (see Fi g. 41-5):
T emQ s = (pln zlV 2) 'I' 2m1z cos B2 Q s
= lnz ( (Os 1IJ' zmlV 2 ) i, cos Bz = lnzI 2 (E 2s cos Bz)
= ln2R2I: = P Cu z (41-35)
Accordingly, th e t erm T emQ = T emQ 1 (1 - s) is th e
mech anical power developed by the electromagnet ic to r que
T em as the rot or rota tes at t he angula r ve locity Q:
T emQ = Ps = P ~
Thus,
P em = Pcuz + Pm = P e2 + P~
It is an easy matter to sho w that the rela ti on between
P ez and P ~ (or P CU 2 and P m) and the elec tromagnetic power
depend s on the rotor sli p s:
P e2 = sP ern , }
(41-36)
Pm = P~ - (1 - s) P em
Th e useful m echanical power t r ansmit ted by the sh aft t o
the associated dri ven ma chi ne is less th an th e mechanical
power P ~ applied t o the rotor by an amount equa l to the
fri ctio n and windage losses , P I /w, and t he addi tional (or
s tr ay) losses , P ad' in t he wind ings an d cores, associated
Ch. 42 Application of Transformer Theory 91
with the higher-harmonic currents and fields,

P 2 = P ; - P r/ w - P ad (4'1-37)
The efficiency of an ind uc tion machine operating as a
motor is defined as the ratio of the useful mech anical power
P2 to the active power drawn from the supply line, PI:
'1 = P 21P1 = '1 - L:,PIP 1 (41-38)
where
.2J P = ; + P CU1 -I- P CU2 -I- Pf/W -I- P ad
is th e to tal power loss in th e machine .
42 Application of Transformer
Theory to the Induction
Machine
42-1 The Rotor at Standstill
The equations derived in Chap . 41 to describe th e electr ic
circuits of an induction machine give an ad equat e insight
into the associated processes. Unfortunately, they ar e in-
convenient to us e, because th e rotor circuit qu antities
vary at a frequency different from that of the stator circuit
quan tities . This stands in the way of expla in ing the perform-
ance of induction machines by transformer theory, where
the primary and secondary quantities vary at the sam e fre-
quen cy .
Fortunately, the stator voltage equation,(41-4) , written
at 11 is th e same as th e primary voltage equation of th e
transform er . Therefore , we need only to r e-arrange the rotor
v olt age equation in such a way that the rotor quantities
vary at the same fr equency as the stator quantities, that
is, 11'
As follo ws from th e for egoing (see Chap. 41), th is can
be done by r eplacing the rotor rot ating at Q by a rotor
at sta nds till, because then s = '1, and 12 = sll . 11 : I n .
doin g so, th e oircuit paramet ers of the rotor at s tands till '
must be chosen such that. th e repl acement could not affect
energy conversi on in th e machi ne. I I, is an easy m atter to
show th at with the rotor at standstill the rotating .mutual
field, th e electromagne ti c torque and all the stator qu anti-

ties will re main unchanged, if the rot or current I ~ and the
rotor mmf E 2 1 remain th e sam e as befor e in both magni tude
and ph ase.
A model of an inductio n motor , with the rotor rotating
at W = WI (1 - s) < WI is sh own on the left of Fi g. 42-1.
In t.he figure the resultant 1'0 taLing field is represen ted
by B m ro t ating at WI = 2n/ 1 rel ative to th e sta tor and a t
Ws = S WI relative to the rotor . Th e emf E2 S ind uced in th e
Fig . 42-1 An equiv alent rotor at sta ndstill as a mo del of a ruta tin g
rot or
roto r and defined by E q. (41-9) la gs behind th e fl ux densit y

vec tor by n 12. Th e ro to r current 1 2 given by Eq. (41-1 4) lags
behi nd E 2 S by an an gl e ~ 2 as given by Eq . (41-15).
Let us see how we should adjust the rotor phase imped an ce
at standstill so that its current remains unchanged . Becau se
th e mu tual field remains as it was before, and its velocity
rel a tive to the rotor (on the ri gh t of Fi g. 42-1) is increased
wI/w s = l is t imes, the rotor mutual emf (E 2 on th e righ t
of Fi g. 42-1 instead of E 2 S = sE 2 on the left of th e sam e
figure) and its frequency will be mult iplied by the same
factor .
Obviously, for the rotor cu rren t to retain its magnitud e
and it s phase relative to the emf , the resistive and reactive
I
II
Ch, 1.2 Application or T ransformer Theory
componen ts of the impedance must be multipl ied by 1/s,

that is, in proportion to the change in E 2 S ' The resistance
R z must he replaced by R z/s, and the leakage inductive
reactance of th e rotating rotor , X 25 = 2nf zL u2, must be
rep laced by X 2 = X 251s = 2nf 1 L u2 wh ich is t he phase lea k-
age inducti ve imp edance of the rotor at standstill at /1
[see Eq . (41-1"1)]. Then, the rotor ph as e currents at stand-
still, defined as
(42-1)
will be the same as it is when the rotor is r ota ti ng .

The standstill rotor cur rent will lag behind E z by the
same an gle
A
IJ 2 = arct an
XOj- (42-2)
R2 S
as when the rotor is rotating [see Eq . (41-15) ]. The vol tage

triangle on th e standstill rotor diagram (on the right of
Fig. 42-1), answer ing the voltage equation of the equiva-
lent standstill rotor,
. . .
E 2 = (R 2/s) 1 2 + j X 212 (42-3)
is multiplied by 'lis as compared with th e voltage trian gl e
all the diagram of the ro tating rotor (on the left of Fig . 42-1).
The voltage equation of the rotat ing rotor, Eq. (41-13),
can also be transform ed into the voltage equat ion of an
equivalent standstill rotor by multiplying it by 'lis. How -
ever, in ord er to be able to reproduce in the rotor at stand-
s till th e processes th at occur when t he rotor is ro t ating,
an additional resistance must be included in the rotor
phase
1- s
R m =R 2I s -R 2=R 2 - s
-
which, when combined with the intrinsic rotor res istance
R 2 , gives the r equired resistance R 2 /s. The inductive impe-
dance, X 2 = 2nfrL u2, is reproduced automatically as the
frequen cy in the rotor at standstill is increased 1Is t imes,
because the rotor leakage inductance, L U 2 ' remains un-
changed .
As follows from Fig. 42-1, so long as i , r et ains its mag-
nitud e and phase, F 2 m . r emains unchanged as well-with
94 Part Four . Induction Machines
the rotor at standstill, it will have the same peak value ,

the same phase relative to B m , and the same angular velocity
relative to th e stator, CUi' as when t he rotor is rotating. As
a consequence , there will be no ch ange in the mu tual flux
field B m established by the stator and rotor mmfs , the
stator and rotor flux linkages "lJf 1 m and 'V zm , the electromag-
netic torque T ern' and the elect roma gnet ic power P em ' How-
ever, t here will be a ch an ge in the manner of energy con-
version wi thin the rotor itself . In a ru nning machine (on
th e left of Fi g. 42-'1), the input electro magne t ic pow er is
conv erted to a mechanical pow er
Pm = T em Q 1 ('1 - s) = P cuz ('1 - s)/s
and to an elec tr ical pow er or the rotor copper loss
P ez = P CU2 = T emQ l s = 7n 2R 2I ;
In a machine with its rotor at standstill (on the ri ght of
Fig. 42-1), no electromechanical energy conversion takes
place, and all of the input electromagn etic power, Pem' is
coverted to electric pow er dis sipated as heat in R 2 /s. In
th e r esis tance add ed to the ph ases of the standstill rotor,
R m = R 2 ('1 - s)/s, the heat dissipated is th e power
1- 8
m2 R2- I
s -
:= P e2 ('1-s)/s
0
equal to the me chanical power

Pm = P e2 ('1 - s)/s
developed by the rotor. The remaind er

P em - Pm = Pe2 = P e U2 = ln 2Rz!;
is di ssipated as he at in t he rot or winding.
In concl usion , it sh ould be noted that energy conversion
in an induction m achine with i ts rotor at s tandst ill and
with R m added to its phases does not differ from energy
conversion in a transformer loaded into R m .
An induction m achine with its rotor at stands till in
whi ch all the cir cuit quan tities var y at fr equ ency 11 is in
effect a rotating-field tran sformer.
Th e rotor voltage equa ti on for such a machine does not
differ from tha t for the transformer secondary
. . ..
E 2 = R 21 2 + jX +V
21 2 2
Ch. 42 - Application of Transformer Th eory 95
. .
where V 2 = R mI 2 is the voltage develop ed across the equi-
valent load .
42-2 Transferring the Rotor Quantities to

the Stator Winding
To obtain a complete mathematical description for what
happens in a rot at ing-fi eld transform er , one more change
is needed : the rotor win ding with 1n 2 phases and W 2 turns
per phase must be re placed by a r eferred (or transferred)
winding which ha s the same number Inl of phases and the
same number WI of turns per phase as th e stator. This referr-
ing (or t ransferring) pro cedure leads to I~ , E~, R ~, and X~
which ar e called th e referred (or transferred) quantities. They
must be chosen such that the tran sferring procedure does not
affect the m agnetic field in the machine or the associated
energy con version processes. A ref erred (or transferred)
quantity will be designated by the same symbol with a
prime.
The referred rotor current
j~ = k r i 2 (42-5)
and the ref erring coefficient for the rotor current
k _ m 2w 2 k w 2
t - m1w1 k w 1
(42-6)
have already been derived in Chap . 41 [see Eq . (41-26)],

subject to the r equirement that the mIDI in th e rotor with
a referred winding should r emain the sa me as it was before ,
that is ,
The referring coefficient for rotor voltage is defined as

the ratio of th e emfs (or flux link ages) in the referred and
unreferred rotor windings, with the mutual flux (Pm remain-
in g unchanged ,
E'/E - 1p" flIf - WI " W I cD m - WI "Wl - le
2 ~2 - 2m . 2m - W2 k W 2 C[) m - w kw - l'
2 2
Both E~ and 1Jfzmar e th e sa me as the respect ive stator qu an-

tities :
. .
E'
2
= E1 '
1I'"Zm = 1I'"lm (42-7)
Part Four, Induction Machines
The rotor phase resistance is transferred in such a way that

the copper loss (electrical power) rem ains unaffected:
mR~ (J~)2 = mzRzJ~ = P ez = P eliz
Hence, the referring coefficient for resistances may be
written
R 'o I R 2 = (n12 1m., ) (J 2IJI)2 W I)2 k v Ik-t (42-8)
j
2 = ( 1k ) 2 =
In] (W 7
= I.Z
- m2 ~~2
The same relation must apply to the phase leakage induc-

tive reactance of the referred and unreferred rotors
X~/X2 = k z
because it is only then that the rotor current will retain
its phase given by the angle
~z = arctan (X 2S!R 2) = arctan (X~sIR~)
and there will be no change in the electromagnetic torque
T em acting on the rotor carrying the referred winding
Tern = (pmj/V 2) lJf2mJ~ cos ~2 = (pm2/V 2) lJf2 rrJ 2 cos ~2
(42-9)
The voltage equation for the referred rotor winding may
alternatively be derived by multiplying Eq. (42-4) by ley:
kyE z = (n, -I- jX 2 ) (leylk r) (kri z) -I- s; (kylle r) (k[I z)
(42':10)
and, finally,
E 2I -
- 1
E' -- 2ZIJ'I
2
-1- R m2
' 1'1
where
E~ = Ii j = - j (wjkwjCDm) Ulj/V2
R~l = R~ (1 - s)/s = referred additional resistance
in a rotor phase at standstill
Z~ = R~ -I- jX~ = referred impedance of the rotor
a 1. standstill
42-3 Basic Equations and the Space-Time

Vector Diagram of an Induction Machine
Taken together, Eqs. (41-4), (41-27), (41-28) and (42-10)
derived in Chapters 41 and 42 for an induction machine
treated as a transformer, give an exhaustive description
of the associated electromagnetic processes. Arranged in a

logic sequence, this set of equations is as follows.
1. The stator voltage equation
. . .
VI = -E I + ZIII (42-11a)
2. The standstill rotor voltage equation
E~ = EI = z~j~ + R'mj~ (42-11b)
3. The emf equation
E~ = EI = -zojo (42-11c)
4. The current equation
jl + i; = j0 (42-11d)
In appearance, the above equations do not differ from the
set of equations describing a referred transformer loaded
into R'm:
Graphically, Eqs. (42-11a)
through (42-11d) are shown
in the phasor diagram plotted
in Fig. 42-2 for an Induction
machine interpreted as a trans-
former. In appearance, it
does not differ from the phas-
or diagram of a transformer,
but it has a different physic-
al meaning. For an induction
machine, this diagram is plot-
ted on the complex plane of
its two-pole model, with the
rotor at a standstill in an
arbitrary position relative to
the stator. To go over from
the complex quantities rotat-
ing at (j)l = 21th to the phase
quantities, the complex stator Fig. 42-2 Phasor diagram of an
quantities must be projected induction machine modelled as
onto the stator phase axes a transformer (motor mode or'
(AI' B I, and CI ) , and the com- operation, 1 > s > 0) ,
plex rotor quantities must be
projected on the stationary and arbitrarily oriented rotor
phase axes (A 2 , B 2 , and C 2 ) . . ..
7-0240
....
In some cases , the diagram may be used to solve the

set of equations graphically . FoL- example, suppose that
the operating conditions are specified by giving the mutual
emf E1 = E~ and the slip s = (Q1 - Q)/Q 1 . Then, to find
the currents, voltages and phase angles, the procedure
should be as follows .
(1) Using Eq. (42-11b), find I~ and ~2 '
(2) P lot i~ and the rotor voltage diagram (E~, R~I~,
R~j~, jXi2 )' .
-(3) Using Eq. (42-11c), calculate and plot 1 0 ,
(4) Using Eq. (42-11d) , construct the current triangle
and determine 11' _
(5)- Using Eq. (42-11a) , construct the stator voltage dia-
gram and find VI'
In other cases, such as when the operating conditions are
specified by -giving the stator vo ltage T\ and the slip s,
the diagram cannot be used to solve the set of equations
I,I graphically an d to find the currents 11 and I~, and the phase
,; angles. Instead, Eqs. (42-11) must be solved analytically,
and the diagram may only serve to facilitate an interpreta-
tion of the solution obtained and to determine the stator
and rotor phase quantities graphica lly.
Once the diagram is constructed, it is an easy matter,
using _Eq. (42-9), to calculate the electromagnetic torque
T em = (pm1/V 2 ) 1p'2mI~ cos ~2
and also the active and reactive powers of the machine .
42-4 Equivalent Circuits of an Induction

Machine
By analogy , the mathematical des cription of an induction
machine treated as a transformer may be based on -the equi-
valent circuit for the transformer (see Sec. 3-5). For an
inductio n mach ine with it s rotor at standstill, the equivalent
circuit will be shown in Fig. 42-3a. The additional resis -
tance
R~ = R~ (1 - S)/8
may be regarded as the load resistance of a transformer
whose secondary is referred to the primary side. The voltage
Ch. 42 Application of Tran sformer The ory 99
acro ss t hat res is ta nce is t he referred secondary voltage of

th e equ iva lent transformer
V' =
2 ' i:2
Rm
The power diss ip at ed in t hat res istance is numerica lly equal
to t h e mech anical power develope d by the in duction ma-
chine
r; = mR:n (I ~) 2
The equ ivalent circuit full y answers Eqs. (42-11), and
is ca lle d the equivalent Tvcircuit of an induction mach ine .
Usi ng i t , we can dev elop (see Chap. 43) the exact desi gn
I, z, 1; z, it c. z, i"Z eZz'
. 1 Z it z, z~
10 il
ZI ~1
~ E1 z, R:n 100 CIR'
f m 100 ,.jo R'm
20 Zo
(lL ) (6) (c)
Fig . 42-3 E quivalent circuits of an inducti on mac hine
equ ations for all the qu antities char acte r i zing th e electro-
magn etic processes in t he m achin e (for exam ple , I I, I~ ,
1 0 , E l = E~, P em , P m' etc .). I n some cases, h owever , su ch
as when it is required to construct the circle diagram (see
Chap . 44 ), t he equivale nt T vcircu it should pr efer abl y be
t ran sform ed in t o an equiv alent L- circuit, such as sh own in
Fig. 42-3b . It diff ers from t he T- circ uit in that t he m agne-
t i zing ar m is brough t out to t he term ina ls and connected
to rece iv e VI' The impedance of the magnetizing arm in the
L-circuit is t aken equal to Z o +
Zl' an d it is assumed t o
carry a fic t it ious magnetiz ing curren t
. .
1 0 0 = V1/(Zl + Zo)
wh ich is the same as t he actual magneti zing current 1 0
in t he T-circui t un der ideal no-load conditions , when s = 0
an d R:n = CXJ .
Th e current I;
in t he right-hand arm of the L-circuit
(th e r otor ar m ) may be foun d subj ect to t he requirement that
7*
the primary current II should remain unchanged in the

L-circuit. Obviously,
. . i; = i, - i.,
and , because 1 0 0 =1= 1 we have
0,
. . . .
I; =1= -I~ = II - 1 0
Using Eq. (42-11) and the equivalent T-circuit, let us first
find the currents in the primary and secondary windings
ZO+Z2eq 1+YoZ 2e'l
Ii = ViZ 1 Z 0 +Z 0 z'2e q +Z 1 z'2eq = Vi Z1 + C1 Z'2e q
(42-12)
',' z, . 1
- I2 =. V 1 Z 1 Z 0 +ZZ'
0 2eq
+ ZZ'
1 2e q
= V 1 Z 1 + C 1 Z '2eq
where
Z2eq = R~/s + jX~
and
Yo = 1/Z o
The complex coefficient, C1 = (Zl + Zo)/Zo, used here
"
and elsewhere, is the sum of a real and an imaginary part
,1
,~ C1 = (Zo + Zl) Zo = e' + e"j (42-13)
II" where
+
e' = [(R o--I- R 1) R o (X o + Xi) Xo]/(R~ + X~)
e" = [(Xu + Xi) R o- (R o+ R 1) Xo]/(R~ --I- X~)
Now we can determine I;,

the current in the right-hand
arm of the equivalent L-circuit:
(42-14)
It is connected to j~ by a simple relation-it is 1/C1 times

the value of -I~.
From the expression for i; it is seen that the impedance
of the rotor arm in the equivalent L-circuit is ,
C1 (Zl +C 1Z 2eq) = C1Z1 + CiZ~ + CiR:n
In practical engineering calculations, the equivalent T-cir-

cuit can sometimes be replaced by the simplified L-circuit
shown in Fig. 42-3c. Th e simplification is based on the
relations between the parameters of the equivalent T-cir-
cuit. To begin with, let us express the parameters of the
equivalent T-circuit on a per-unit basis, taking the stator
impedance as the base (or reference) quantity
V1,RII1,n
Zl,b =
For the most commonly used commercial induction motors
rated from 3 to 100 kW, the per-unit parameters are
X*o = X o/Z 1 , b = 2.5 to 3.5
X~l = X~'2 = 0.07 to 0.15
H~l = R;~2 = 0.02 to 0.06
R*o = 0.1 to 0.4
The lower values apply to motors of higher ratings.
The parameters of induction machines are such thatthe
replacement of the equivalent T-circuit by a simplified
L-circuit in which the magnetizing current (10 ) arm is
brought out to the stator winding terminals does not lead to
an appreciable error. To minimize it still more, the mag-
netizing current arm of the L-circuit is extended to include
Zl in addition to ZOo
The simplified L-circuit is fairly accurate only under
the ideal no-load conditions, when 8 = 0, R~ = R~ (1-8)/8 =
00 and I~ = O. In these conditions, the stator current
i, = i, = V1/(Zl + Zo)
does not differ from the current found from the equivalent
T-circuit. At V*l = V*l,H = 1, the per-unit no-load cur-
rent is
I V I" 03t 04
*0= z*,+z*o ~ . 0
Under rated conditions, when 1*1 = l*l, R = 1 and V*l

= V,~l,R = 1, the voltage drop across the . impedance
Z1 = VR~+X~
of the T-circuit is on the average 0.1, whereas at no-load
it is about 0.035. Taking the approximate phase angles of
currents, we fi nd th at und er r at ed conditions, E*l ~ 0.91 5,

wh ereas at no-l oad it is about 0.965.
Using the equiv al ent T- circuit , we find t ha t in going from
no-l oad t o full load the magnetizing current decreas es by
about
[(0.965 - 0.915)/0.965] X 100 = 5 %
In calcula tions on t he basi s of t he L-ci rcuit, cha nges in
load (the sli p, R :n , and I:) do not aff ect th e m agnetizing
current . As a consequ ence, under r at ed conditions (at
full lo ad) i t is exaggera ted by abou t 5 %. As found from
the L-circui t , I~ is ex aggerat ed by about 0.5 % becaus e of
the und errat ed - vol t age drop across Zl which carr ies I~
instead of II' The error in the primar y current
. . .
Il=I o-I~
arising from in accuracies in the calculation of 1 0 and I~
from the simplified L-circui t does not exceed + 1 % or +2 % .
In th e th ir d t ypical con dition, a short-circ uit, wh en the
rotor is at sta nds till (Q = 0), t he slip is un ity , and R~l =
. = R~ (1 - s)ls = 0, and th e winding of the equiva len t
standstill ro tor is short-c ircuite d, the value of 1 0 as found
fro m th e T-cir cuit is about h alf the no-loa d cur r ent (becau se
Xl ~ X: and R, ~ R ~) . In cal culations from the L-cir-
cuit, the"m agnetizing current at a short-circuit remains abou t
th e same as it is at no-loa d. In oth er words , it is exaggerated
by the cur re nt whi ch is half t he no-l oad curre nt and equal
(on a per- unit basis) to 0.175.
How ever, the referred rotor current at a short-circuit
and at V * 1 = V,;: l ,H = 1 is seve ral tim es th e rat ed s tator
current
1";: 2 = VII I z,+ Z 2 I ~ 1/0. 2 = 5
and the errol' in th e s ta tor curre n t
does no t exceed
0.17 5 -7- 5 X '100 = +3. 5 %
The errors in the curre n ts , power losses, activo and r eact-
iv e powers found from the simpli fie d L-circuit for all the
oth er operating con ditions of an induction machine will
likewis e be ins ignifican t.
Ch. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics
43 Anolyticcl and Graphical

Determination
of Electromechanical
Characteristics of Induction
Machines
43-1 Modes of Operation
An induction machine can operate in anyone of three modes,
namely: .
-as a motor, when 0 < s < 1 and Q I > Q > 0;
-as a generator, when s < 0 and Q > QI;
-as a brake, when s ; 1 and Q < O.
In all of these modes, the machine converts mechanical
energy to electrical or back. There are two more conditions
in which no energy conversion takes place. These are an
open-circuit (ideal no-load) and a short-circuit. In the
former, s = 0 and Q . QI' In the latter, s = 1 and Q = O.
In motoring (region 111 in the plot of Fig. 43-2), the
electromagnetic torque T em > 0, which is in the direction
of the field, causes the rotor to rotate with the field at a
velocity less than the field velocity (Q I > Q > 0 and 0 < s <
'1). In the circumstances,
P ern = TemQ I = P CU 2 /s > 0
Pm = TemQ = P CU 2 (1 - s)/s > 0
The inpu t electric power
PI = P em + r; + P C Ul > 0
is converted to mechanical power
P 2 = Ps - Pad - P f / w > 0
which is transmitted by the shaft to the associated driven
machine.
The events occurring in the motor mode of operation are
illustrated in Fig. 43-1a. Here, the active rotor current i 2a
acts in the same direction as the emf induced in the rotor.
The direction of the electromagnetic torque, Tern' is decided
by B m i 2a acting on i 2a (see Fig. I-3, vol. 1).
The useful (output) power, P 2 , is less than the power

drawn from the supply line (input power) by an amount
Fig . 43-1 Opera Ling modes of an inducti on machine:

(c) mot or in g; (b ) genera t ing; (c) br uk i n g; (d) transfo rmer (or s h or t- cu rcu l t )
equal to t he t ot al power loss, 'ZP:

P 2 = PI - 'ZP = PI - (P CUI + P c + P CU2 + Pad + Pt/w)
So the efficiency of the motor is given by
(43-1)
In the generator mo de of operation (region G in Fi g. 43-2)
the external to rque, Text> 0, acting in the di rection of the
field (see Fi g. 43-1b) causes t he roto r to ro tat e at a speed
exceeding the fi eld velocity (Q > QI , S < 0). In this mod e,
the fi eld is travelling relative t o the rotor in the opposite
di rection, and the act ive rotor cur re nt i 2 a is also reversed
(in comp arison with the motor act ion). Therefore, the electro-
Ch. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics 105
magnetic torque
T em = B m i 2a
balancing the external torque acts against the field and
is assumed to be negative (T ern < 0). The electromagnetic
I 'i.: _
Fig. 43-2 Performance characteristics of an induction machine (on a

per-unit basis), with V1 = 1, 1 0 = 0 . 364, cos (Po =0.185, X 1 =
X; = 0.125, R 1 = 0.0375, R; = 0.0425
power, P ern, and the mechanical power, Pm' are likewise

taken to be negative:
P em = TemQ = P CU 2 /s < 0
Pm = TemQ = P C U 2 (1 - s)/s < 0
The direction of energy conversion is likewise reversed:
the mechanical power P 2 applied to the shaft (input power)
is converted to electric power PI supplied to the external
line (output power). Because the power loss is always posi-

tive (in any mode of operation, it is always dissipated as
heat), the mechanical power
Pm = P em - P eU2 <
at s <
is greater in absolute value than the electromagnetic power
(Fig. 43-2):
I r; I = I e.; I + P eu2
By the same token, the input mechanical power
P 2 = PI - .~ P <
is greater in absolute value than the electric power deliver-
ed to the using line
I P 2 1= I PI I + ~ P
and the efficiency of the generator is
11= I P tI / IP 21 = 1- ~ P/jP 2 1 (43-2)
In the braking mode of operation (region B in Fig. 43-2),

the external torque, Text < 0, acting against the field (see
Fig. 43-1c), causes the rotor to run in the direction opposite
!/
to the field (Q < 0, s = Q
1;-Q
1
> 1). In this mode,
the electromagnetic torque, Tern, balancing the external
torque, acts in the direction of the field, as it does in the
motor mode of operation (the field is rotating relative to the
rotor in the same direction), and it is taken to be positive,
Tern> 0. However, because Q < 0, the mechanical power
is negative:
Pm = TemQ = P eu2 (1 - s)/s <
This implies that it is consumed by the machine. The electro-
magnetic power in this mode is positive:
. P em = TemQ I = P eu2/s >
Therefore, the machine draws it from the supply line.
The powers applied to the rotor from the supply line,
I P em I, and via the shaft, I Pm J, are dissipated as heat,
. P CU2' in the rotor resistance, R~ (see Fig. 43-2):
!Pm 1+ IPem I = P euz (s- 1)/s -+- Peuz/s = Peuz
= mjR; (I~)2
P ern = PCU 2
In this mode, an induction machine is operating as a trans-
former short-circuited on the secondary side, the only dif-
ference being that instead of a pulsating mutual field there
exists a rotating mutual field.
At a short-circuit,
R~ = R~ (1 - 8)/8 = 0
and the equivalent circuit in Fig. 42-3 has an impedance
given by the parallel combinations of Zl +
Zo and Zl +
Z;.
Noting that
I z, + Z~ I -e; I z, + z, I
(see Chap. 42), we may discard the arm Zl + Zo and take

the impedance of the equivalent circuit in the case of a short-
circuit equal to
Zsc = Zl + Z~ = R sc + jX sc (43-3)
where
R sc = R I + R~
X sc = Xl + X~
If we connect to the rotor of an induction machine at
standstill a balanced set of additional impedances
R 2 ,a d + jX 2,ad
it will operate as a transformer converting the electric
energy drawn from the primary supply line into an electric
energy having other parameters and expended by (R 2 , ad +
jX 2 , a d ) ' This is the reason why at 8 = 1 the mode of
operation is termed the transformer action.
The mode of operation or the slip in a given mode of an
induction machine (at VI = const., and 11 = const.) can be
, changed only by varying the external torque, Te xt' applied
to the machine shaft. At T ext = 0* , the rotor is travelling
at the field velocity (Q = QI, and 8 = 0), and the machine
performs no useful energy conversion. If the external torque
T ex! applied to the shaft is in opposition to the field rotation,
the rotor will slow down until there appears an electromagne-
tic torque, Tern = I (8), which balances the external torque.
When this happens , the machine changes to operating as
a motor
s = (Q I - Q)/Q I > 0
Conversely, when the external torque is in the direction of
the field, the rotor speed exceeds the field velocity, and
the machine changes to operating as a generator
8 = (Q I - Q)/Q I < 0
Finally, the braking action can be obtained by causing
the machine to cease operating as a motor. This is done by
varying the external torque in such a way that the rotor
first comes to a standstill, then begins rotating in the
direction opposite to that of the field rotation,
* We neglect the friction torque and the torque associated with
additional losses.
43.2 Currents in the stator and Rotor

Windings
The events taking place in an induction machine are func-
tions of the stator voltage VI' the supply frequency t.. and
the rotor slip s.
Given a constant stator voltage and a constant supply
frequency, the dependence of the quantities associated with
the operation of an induction machine on the slip is graphi-
cally represented by performance characteristic curves.
The equations describing the quantities involved can be
derived by means of the equivalent T- or L-circuit (see
Fig. 42-3).
The stator and rotor currents are found by reference to
the equivalent L-circuit in Fig. 42-3b.
The magnetizing current is given by
100 = V(R 1 +Ro)~~(Xl +X O)2

(43-4)
The active component of the no-load current is given by
1 1 VdR1+R o)
OOa = 00 cos CPOO = (R 1 +R O)2+(X 1 +X O)2
. .
where CPOO is the phase angle between VI and 1 0 0 , and
cos - R 1 +Ro
CPOO- V(R 1+Ro)2+(X1+X O)2
The reactive component of the no-load current is
<P 00 = -;-;:;--;--;;-7;;-"';----7=-"";---:;;;"""7;;---
100 r = 1 00 SIn VI (X1+X o)
(R +R 1 +X0)2+(X 1 O)2
where
. X 1 + XO
SIll <P - :-r-;;:;;==;=:#:;:;;,:=::~;:=::;:::::::;=::;:
00 - V (R +R O)2+(X 1 +Xo)~
1
The current in the rotor arm of the equivalent L-circuit

as defined by Eq. (42-14) is
i; = - j~/CI = VI/Z s
where
Zs = CIZI C;ZZeq = R, jX s+ +
is the impedance of the right-hand arm in the equivalent
L-circuit;
R, = c'R I + (C')2 (R;/s) - c"X I - 2c'c"X;
is its resistive component , and

X , = c'K; + (c'rX~ + c"R l + 2c'c"(R~ /s)
is its reactive component.
The current in the rotor arm is given by
I ; = V l/V R; + X; (43-5)
The active component of the rotor arm current is
I 2a = I ; cos CP 2 = V 1R s/(R ; + X;) (43-6)
where CP2 is th e phase angle between VI a nrl I; and
cos CP2 = R sill R; + X ;
The reactive component of the rotor arm current is
I '2r = I ; sinrp , = V1Xs/(R ~ + X~) (43-7)
where
sin tp, = X s/V R; + X;
From the current equation apply in g to the equ iva lent
L-cir cui t
i, = i ., - i~/C1 = i .; i; +
(43-8 )
we can obtain both the active and reactiv e compo nent of
the stator current
the stator current
and the power factor relative to the primary supply line

cos CP1 = I 1a /I 1 (43-11)
Plots of I~ ~ I ; = f (s) and I I = t (s) for an induction
machine with typical va lues found by Eq . (43-5) and (43-10)
appear in Fig. 43-2 .
43-3 Electromagnetic Torque

In der iv ing an equation for the electromagnetic torque as a
function of slip, we shall proceed from the equation, (4'1-33),
for electromagnet ic power and from the relation between
Ch. 43 Electrom echani cal Characteristics 111
that power and the. copp er loss in the rotor, as give n by

Eq. (41-36):
Te rn = P em/Q l = P CU2/SQ l = InlR; (I;)2/SQ l
Using Eq. (42-12) for th e rotor current , we can obtain

an equation of elect romagnetic torque as a function of slip
T
em =
In l vr R ;
sQl f(R-i- c' R ~ /S)2 +(X +c" R~/s)2 1
(43 12)
-
where R = R, - c "X ~ and X = Xl + c' X ~. In approxi-

mate calculations, it is safe to take c' = 1 and c" = 0, and
X = X se = Xl + X:.
A plot of Tern = 1(8) at VI' 11 and other circuit paramet ers
held constant gives what is known as the torque-slip characte-
ristic of a ma chine. The torque-slip cha racteristic for typica l
values of machine quantities is shown in Fi g. 43-2.
At s = 0, wh en the angul ar velocity of the rotor, Q, is the
same as that of the field, Ql ' the electromagnetic torque is
zero, Tern = 0. At s > 0, the electromagnetic torque is
positive (it is acting with th e fi eld). At s < 0, when Q > Ql'
the electromagnet ic torque is negative, T ern < 0.
We take a closer look at t he torque-slip charact eris tic,
Tern = l(s) . To begin with, let us pro ve t hat at s ; 1, the
torque-slip char acteristic is linear very closely. We sh all
pression. On set ting c' = 1 an d c" =

do th is by consid ering the denominator of the t or que ex-
and negl ecting R l ,
in comparison with R ~/s, and Xie in comparison with (R~/S)2,
we get
Tern = Inl V~s/R~Ql
W ith torque plotted against slip, the above equation yields
a straight line (shown by the dashed line in Fig. 43-2) .
Conversely, if th e slip is close to unity, then
R;/s ~ R;
Hence, with an error tolerable for practical purposes, we
may write
T _ InlR ~Vr
em - sQ l ( X~e +Rie)
The above equ ation describes a hyperbola (it is shown by

a dashed line) .
. Let us determine what is known as the critical (or maxi-
mum) slip, s = Sm, at which the torque is at its maximum
(or breakdown) value, Tern = Tern, m - To simplify the

matters, we shall determine 8 m at which the variable part
of the denominator in Eq. (43-12) is a minimum:
A (s) = 8 [(R +~ ' R~/s)2 + (X + e" R~/S)2]
On equating the derivative to zero and solving the equa-
tion
dA (s)/ds = 0
we obtain
sm= + R;ICd ~+ R; (43-13)
y R 2+X2 Y R~+X~c
where R = R I - e"X~ and X = Xl + e'X~. Neglecting
R~ in comparison with X~c introduces an error of about 1 %
in the critical slip.
As is seen, the torque-slip curve shows two peaks , one in
the region of positive slips and the other in the region of
negative slips, respectively corresponding to the and "+"
"-" sign in Eq. (43-13) (see Fig. 43-2).
Practically, the critical slip is a function of only the
rotor resistance R~ and the leakage inductive reactances of
II the stator and rotor, Xl and X~, Therefore, the only way to
control Sm is to insert a series impedance in the rotor cir-
I' cuit.
For general-purpose induction machines in sizes upwards
of 3 kW, the critical slip usually ranges between 0.15 and
0.3. In special-purpose machines and also in cases where
a series impedance is introduced in the rotor circuit, it may
be higher.
The maximum torque is found by substituting sm as de-
fined by Eq. (43-13) for s in Eq. (43-12):
mlVl
T em, m ~ + ----f::-===~~----
2Q1C1 [l R2+X 2 (c'R +c"X)/C 1 ]
~+ ml V~ (43-14)
CV R ~ +X ~c R
2Q1 1)
where the "+" sign applies to Sm > 0, when Or;

T em ,m( +) >
and the "-" sign applies to Sm < 0, when O.
Tem,mH <
In absolute value, the maximum torque at negative slip
is substantially larger than the maximum torque at positive
slip I Tem,m{-) I > I T em ,m( +) I. It is interesting to note
that T em.rn is strongly dependent on the applied voltage
Ch. 43 Ele ctrome chanica l Charac teris tics 113
squared and the leak age inducti ve react an ce X sc , bu t is only

slig h tly affect ed by the s tator resis tance R I , and is in-
d epend ent of the rotor resistance R ~. Variations in th e latter
only tell on the cri tical slip , s m [see Eq. (43-13)]. As the
ro tor resistan ce is incr eased , the max imum to rque , T em , m( +),
shifts on the diagram t o the right , but remai ns unchanged
in magnitude.
An important point on the torque-slip cha racte rist ic
is th e po int where s = 1. It correspon ds t o t he instan t
when th e ro tor is a t a s ta ndstill (Q = 0, s = 1) prior to
startin g. Accordingly, th e torque corresponding to s = 1
is called the inherent (or sta ti c) st arting torque. An expr es-
sion for it can be ded uced fro m Eq . (43-12) on sub stituting
s = 1:
(43-15)
43-4 Active and Reactive Power

Th e ac tive power drawn from t he supply line can be expres-
sed in terms of the act ive stato r cur rent wh ich is a function
of slip , using Eq. (43-9):
PI = Inl VII I cos CPI = Inl VIl la
Th e electromagnetic power can be expressed in terms of

the rotor copper loss or ele ctromag netic torque, using
E qs. (41-33) , (41-36), an d (43-12):
P em = PI - P CUI - P c = P cu2/s = TemQ I (43-16)
where Pc = m1R oI~= s t ator core loss

P CUI = mIRII~ = f (s) = stat or coppe r loss
P CU2 = 7n1R~ (I~) 2 = f (s) = rotor copper loss
If we t ake as a unit power the rated t otal power of a ma-
chine
SI,R = In l VI ,RI I ,R
and as a unit torque
T em, l = S l ,R/Q I
we shall obtain identical per-unit expressions for both
the electromagn et ic power and the electromag net ic
8-02 40
Part Four. Induction Machines
torque:
T T /T R ~, .V~I
ern.*= em i = s[(R* +c'R ~' 2Is)2+(X *+ c "R ~' 2Is) 2]
= Pern/Si , R = P'l, ern
Th erefore, the torque-slip and the power-slip characteristics
plo tted in Fig. 43-2 on a per-unit basis are id entical.
The mech anical power develop ed by the rotor can be
found from Eq. (41-36):
(1- s) m1Rfvr
P rn =(1-s)P em= s [(R + c"R /)2 'I '
2 S + (X +c" R 2 s)~ l
= TernQ (43-'17)
Th e power-slip curve crosses zero twi ce (see Fi g. 43-2),
namely at s = 0 (when Tern = 0) and at s = 1 (when Q = 0).
The useful mechanical power available at the sh aft of
a machine, P 2' is found by accounting for the additional
(stray) losses P ad and the frict ion and windage losses p t / w ,
which should likewise be found as fun ctions of slip:
P 2 = P m - P ad - P f / W (43-18)
Wh atever th e mod e of operation and whatever the direc-
tion of energy conversion , an induction machine alw ays
draws from the supply line a reactive power required to set
up the mu tual rotating fi eld and leakage fi elds. The reactive
power drawn by an induction machine from the supply line
is giv en by
(43-19)
wher e fIr = f (s) is from E q. (43-9).
The total reactive power is the sum of the reactive powers
required to set up the mu tual rot ating fi eld
Qo = mlXof~ (43-20)
the stator leakage field
QCJl = m1X1fi (43-21)
a nd the rotor leakage fi eld
QCJ 2 = ml X~ (f~)2 (43-22)
where f~ = f (s) is from Eq. (42-12).
th. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics 1.15
43-5 stray Electromagnetic Torques

Apart from the principal electromagnetic torque produced
by the interaction of the fundamental mutual field with
the currents induced in the rotor (see Sec. 43-3), the rotor
of an induction machine is additionally acted upon by sever-
al minor or stray electromagnetic torques arising from
various physical sources. In many cases, such torques have
an appreciable effect on the torque-slip characteristic of
the machine. Because the calculation of stray torques invol-
ves elaborate and widely varying techniques, we shall
limit ourselves to a qualitative explanation of their origin.
Induction stray torques. In their origin, they are analogous
to the principal electromagnetic torque and only differ
in that they arise from the interaction of the higher harmo-
nics of the stator field (and also the lower harmonics in
the case of fractional-pitch windings) with the currents
induced in the rotor winding. The most noticeable induc-
tion stray torques are those produced by the stator tooth
(slot) harmonics of the order v = (ZI/P) + L The peak
value of the associated flux density,
B I v m = ltoFIvmCv/6k02
is especially high not only because the winding factors in
the mmf equation
F - V2 mlIlwlkdvkpv
Ivm- npv .
are close to unity and are the same as the winding factors
for the fundamental field (k dv = k dl and k pv' = k pl), but
also because these harmonic fields build up owing to the
stator saliency (the slotting effect). For an open-slot stator,
the saliency factor C v may be as high as 3 or 4 (see Sec. 25-6).
As an example, let us consider a three-phase induction
machine for which Ini = 3, qi = 1, P = 2, and ZI = 2pInIQI
= 12. In this machine, the order of the tooth harmonics is
v = 12/2 + 1
that is, v = 5 and v = 7. The 7th harmonic rotates in the
same direction as the fundamental at Q 7 . Q I /7. The
5th harmonic rotates in the opposite direction at Q 5 =
-Q I /5.
When the rotor is at standstill, the 7th harmonic travels
relative to the rotor in the same direction as the fund amen-
8*
116 Part Foul'. Induction Machines
tal and produces a torque, T em,7 > 0, which acts in th e

same direction as t he principal torque (Fig. 43-3) . As the
angula r speed of the rotor builds up , the slip
87 = (Q 7 - Q)/Q 7
relative to the ro tor decreases until it reduces to zero at

Q = Q7 and 8 = 6/7. Now the 7th harmonic is stationary
r elative to the rotor, no cur-
rents are in duced , and T em ,7 =
O. As th e angular speed of the
ro tor relative to the 7th harmo -
nic keeps rising, Q> Q 7 (8 7
<, 0), the machine goes into
the gen erator mod e of opera-
tion, and the electromagnetic
torque is r eversed, Te rn 7 <: 0
?--~-!:::::-~~;;--~.......,.,.-.:s::~ (see F ig. 43-3) . The 5th-har-
monic torqu e, T ern 5 , dep ends
on the angular speed of the
rotor in a similar manner, but
:::Ilg. 43-3 Stray in duction tor- now the slip
ques associated with hi gh er har-
monics 8 5 = (Q5 - Q)fQ5
f
-Iz" reduces to zero at Q = -Q 1 /5,
that is, in the reg ion of brak-
ing action for the fundamental
component, where 8=6/5>1.
The other harmonics of the
stator fi eld likewise produce
stray induction torques, and
the r esultan t electromag ne tic
Fig. 43-4 Equi val ent cir cuit of torque is their sum
an induction ma chine for th e
vth harmoni c of the magne tic
field
T ern = + T em 5+Tem7
T enn
+ Teml! + T em13 + ...
The stray induction torques di stort th e waveform of the
pri ncip al electromagnetic torque .
The distort ion is most severe at low rotational speeds
where the stray induction torques associated with the h igh-
er harmoni cs are maximal. The "dips" in the starting tor-
que curve make the starting of the motor more difficult,
and a condition, known as crawling, arises .
Ch. 43 Electromec hanica l Cha ra cteristics 117
Quantitatively, th e stray induction torque associated with

the vth space harmonic fi eld may be eva luated by reference
to the equiva len t circuit in Fi g. 43-4 . This equiva len t cir-
cuit is developed by analogy with that for the fund am ental
in Fig. 42-3a. The stator cur rent II is assum ed to be fixed .
At any angular rotor velocity, it dep ends on the processes
associated with the fundam ent al space component and is
found from Eq . (43-8) . The angular rotor spe ed Q and the
slip for th e vth h armonic, s; = (Q v - Q)/Q v , where Q v =
+ Ql/v, are al so fix ed.
From the equivalent circuit, the referred current 12v
induced by the vt h h armo ni c fi eld in t he rot or winding is:
, J j X ov
- I zv = 1 R ' /sv+ i (Xov+ X r
zv zv)
.-
As is seen , - I 2v is a fra ction of II' and is a fun ction of both
sv and the resistance of the equivalent circuit. X n v is the
mutual inductive reactance of the stator associated with
the vth harmonic fi eld . X~ v is the referred leak age inductive
reactance of the rotor for the vth harmonic field . R;v is the
referred rotor resistance for the vt h harmoni c field (with
allowance for the current crawling at f2V = fI SV)'
At s; = 0, when the rotor is travell in g at a synchronous
speed relativ e to .the vth harmonic, I ;v = 0, and the ma g-
netizing current I ov which produces the resultant vth har-
monic field is the same as II ' At s; *0, there appears in the
rotor a cur rent , u.. which weakens the stator fi eld, and the
magnetizing current is reduced ,
. . .
I ov = II - (-I;v)
Th e stray induction torque due to th e vth h armonics
of the stator fi eld can be found, using E qs . (41-33) and
(41-36):
m 1R zv (I zV)2
T ern . v = Pern ovlQv = P euz, vlsvQv = S Q
v- v
As is seen from the equivalent -circuit , given II and SV,

and assuming that all the other condit ions ar e equal , I;v
and T ern v increase with a decrease in X;v . Th erefore , in
a wound-rotor machine displaying a very high leakage at
any higher fi eld harmonics , I~v and T ern . v ar e very small ,
and their distorting effect may be neglected. This can be
118 Part Four, Induction Machin es
explained as follows. Firstly, a wound-rotor machine has

very low winding factors for the tooth (slot) harmonics
of the stator field, so that these harmonics induce very small
I:
emfs in the rotor winding. Secondly, v induced in a phase-
wound rotor produces, in addition to "the small vth harmo-
nic field, a fairly strong fundamental field which acts as
a leakage field with respect to the vth harmonic.
In contrast , in a squirrel-cage rotor, X~v is comparable
in magnitude with X ov , so I~v induced in the rotor wind-
ing and the stray induction torques present a real hazard.
This is because a squirrel-cage structure consists of several
elementary loops each of which is made up of two adjacent
bars and the intervening end-ring segments. Such loops offer
a low leakage inductive reactance, X~v, to the higher field
harmonics. An increase in the number of bars, Z2' and
a decrease in loop width bring about a decrease in X~v,
and an increase in "dips" in the torque-slip curve. This, too,
might lead to crawling. ,
To avoid a noticeable distortion of the torque-slip cha-
racteristic, it is recommended that Z2 should be less than
Zl' The detrimental effect of the higher harmonics on the
torque-slip characteristic of an induction machine can be
reduced, if the rotor slots (bars) are skewed by one stator
tooth (slot) pitch. In the case of a squirrel-cage rotor with
insulated bars skewing substantially reduces the currents
induced by the stator slot (tooth) ripples in the rotor wind-
ing and removes nearly . all "dips" from the torque-slip
curve. '
In a squirrel-cage rotor with uninsulated bars, skewing
is ineffective in minimizing the effect of the higher har-
monics. This is because in such a case transverse induced
currents would flow between adjacent bars via the rotor
teeth and introduce further losses. This is why skewing by
a tooth (slot) pitch is nearly never used, although skewing
by a half-tooth pitch can be used in some exceptional
cases.
Synchronous stray torques. These minor torques are pro-
duced under certain conditions due to the interaction of two
higher harmonics of the same order 'V, one of which is pro-
duced by 'the stator current 1 1 at frequency t, and the other
by the rotor current 1 2 at frequency i 2 = sf1' They are in-
dependent harmonics, because neither is induced by the other.
They owe their origin to the . stator and rotor currents, ' I I'
and 1 2 , produced by mutual induction a t the fund amental

frequency of the field.
Proper insight into the ma tter can best be given by an
exa mple . Consid er the case where a synchronous torque is
produced by the most pronounced t oot h (slot) h armonics.
Suppose t hat the stator has m 1 = 3, ql = 1, 2p = 6, and
ZI = 18, whereas the phase-wound rotor has m 2 = 2, q2 =
2, and Z2 = 24. Then the lowest tooth harmonics due to
11 will be of the order VI =
Zllp + 1 = 18/3 + 1 = 7
(for the h armonic travelling
in the forward direction)
and 5 (for the harmonic
trave ll ing backward).
The lowest t ooth h armo-
nics due to 1 2 are of the
order V 2 = Z 21p + 1 = 24/3
1 = 9 and 7 (for the for-
ward and the backward
one, respectively).
As is seen, the forward
stator harmonic and .the 52
backward rotor harmonic are
of the same ord er, Fig . 43-5 I n ter action of the inde-
pendent vth st ato r and r otor ha r-
V = VI = V2 = 7 monics devel oping stray synchr o-
nous torques
The forward stator harmo-
nic with a peak flux density
B 1 v rn rotates at Q1 /v (Fig . 43-5). The backward rotor harmonic
with a peak flu x density B 2 V m rotates at
relative to the rotor, and at

Q - (Q 1 - Q)/v
relative to the stator. Relative to the rot or harmonic, the
stator harmonic is travelling at
QI2=Q1/v-(Q - Q\ Q)
Thus, in an arbitrary steady state, such that Q12 =1= 0,;
the stator and rotor harmonics are rotating out of synchro -.
nism , and their relative position defined by the angle

Yl 2 = Q l2t
is changing continually. This gives rise to a continuous
change in the electromagnetic torque T sy nc , v produced by
the interaction between the stator-harmonic poles N l and
8 1 , on the one hand, and the rotor-harmonic poles N 2 and
8 2 , on the other. This torque changes sign periodically, is a
function of the electrical angle CX12V = VPY12 betwe en the
harmonics and varies as the sine of that angle
T syne, v = T syne,v ,m sin CXj2V
At CX 1 2 V equal to zero or rt , when the unlike or like poles
are opposite one another,
Ts yne,v = 0
At CX12V = 'it/2, the torque on the rotor is a maximum
T sync ,v = T svnc .v.m
and is directed with the rotation. At CX12V = -:rrJ2, the
electromagnetic torque has a negative peak value:
Tsyne .v= - Tsyne. v.m
The average value of T s yne, v alternating in magnitude and
si gn at (J)12V = ypQ 1 2 is zero and has no effect on the rota-
-t ion of the rotor because the latter has a large mechanical
inertia.
The interaction of a stator and a rotor harmonic produces
a synchronous torque only when they are stationary rela-
tive to each other. This occurs at a certain definite angular
velocity of the rotor
Qsyne . v = 2Q j /(v + 1) = 2Q 1/(7 + 1) = Q1/4
which can be found on setting Q 1 2 = O. At this angular ve-

locity of the rotor (Fig. 43-6), either a positive or a negative
synchronous torque is produced, depending on the relative
position of the stator and rotor harmonics. Its value lies in
the range
- T8yne .v.m~Tsyne.v~ Tsyn e.v.m
A synchronous torque might cause the rotor to lock at
starting or fail to come up to the normal speed (the crawl-
ing condition) . In contrast to an induction torque which
Ch. 43 Electrom echanic al Characteristics 121
exists over a relatively br oad range of an gular velocities ,

the effect of a synchronous locking torque is felt for a very
short time at star ting, as the motor passes Qs ync ,v, and it
can be overcome by th e kinetic energy stored by the rot at-
ing rotor. Because of this, synchronous torques are less
rem
aO-------<>---<J-----<~
S2 1 Qsync.v a
Fig. 43-6 Stray synchronous t orque due to the vth stator and rotor
harmonics
troublesome than induction torques , and they have to be

reckoned with onl y when they are likely to be dev eloped
at Q sync, v = O.
Syn chronous stray torques are at their strongest when the
lowest tooth (slot) harmonics of the stator and rotor are of
the same order, that is, when
VI = Zl/P + 1 = Z2/P + 1= V2
This can occur with two combinations of stator and rotor

t ooth numbers. Wh en Zl = Z 2' the st ato r and rotor harmo-
nics t ra velling in the sam e direction will be of the same
order. Wh en Z 2 - Zl = + 2p , this is t rue of the stator and
rotor harmonics t ravelling in the opposite directions . In
the former case, the stator and rotor harmonics ar e t rav el-
ling in synchronism with the rotor at standstill. Obviously ,
the rotor does not store any kinetic energy and should the
synchronous torques exceed the fundamental starting tor-
que, the rotor will fail to start rotating. The latter case
has already been examined earlier.
As follows from the foregoing, in order to avoid substan-

tial synchronous stray t orques , it is essential that Zl =1= Z 2
and Z 2 - Zl =1= + 2p. The detrimental effect of stray syn-
chronous torques on the torque-slip (or torque-speed) char-
acteristic of an induction machine can be minimized by
. skewing the rotor slots by a
rotor tooth (slot) pitch.
Reactive stray torques. The
term 'reactive' refers to the
stray torques act ing on a fer-
rom agnetic body in a magne-
tic field and t end ing t o turn it
in a posi tion in which the ma g-
netic circuit has a maximu m
Fig. 43-7 Production of a: re ac- permeance.
tive torque at Zl = Z 2 In an induction ma chine,
s, stray reactive torques may be
developed in two basically
different cases, ' namely: (1)
when the stator and rotor have
the same numb er of teeth ,
Zl = Z2; and (2) when the
lowest tooth (slot) harmonic
of the stator field has as many
poles as the rotor has te eth ,
that is,
Fig. 43-8 Prod uction of a reac-
tive tor que by a ..sl ot (t ooth )
2PVl = 2 (Zl + p) = Z2
har moni c of the magnet ic fi eld In the former case, the mu-
' . ~ . :' : 0- ~.
_ " . ' '. ' .' .
tual field tends to position the

stator and rotor teeth so that they oppose one another, that
is, wh en th e, airgap .h as' a maximum permeance. In this
position, the stray reactive torque is zero , T', = O. When
the r ot or t eeth move out of alignment with the stator teeth
(Fig. "43-7), the rotor is act ed upon by a react ive torque
acting tow ards the position of a maximum permeanc e.
Because of such stray reactive torques, therotor of an indue-
tion miotor with Zl = Z2 fails to start (this is known as
sticking). .
. In the latter case (Fig. 43-8), the lowest tooth (slot) har-
monic has a pole pitch
Ch. 43 Electromechan ical Characteri stics 123
which is the same as the tooth (slot) pitch of t he rotor

t Z 2 = 2n R/Z 2
Th erefore, the rotor t eeth t end to take up a position opposite
th e pol es of the lowest too th (slo t) harmonic of the stator
field, that is, where the airgap has a maximum permeance
for that harmonic. Thus, so lon g as the rotor is rotating at
an angular velocity Q equal to that of the lowest slot har-
monic, Q" = Q l /Vl' and the rotor teeth are positioned rela-
tive to the harmonic poles as shown in the figure, the stray
reactive t orque will be zero , T', = O. When the rotor tee th
move out of alignment wi th the harm onic pol es, the rotor
is acted upon by a reactive torque, Tn direc t ed towards the
position of a ma ximum permean ce. This re act ive torque is
develop ed at a certain definite angular velocity, Q = Q",
and affects the torque-slip (or torque-speed) characteristic
of the machine in the sam e manner as the stray synchronous
torque (see Fig. 43-6). For example, when ml = 3, 2p = 6,
ql = 1, and Zl = 18, the stray reactive torque will be de-
velop ed at
Z2 = 2 (Zl p) = 2 (18 + 3) = 30 or 42
and at a rotor speed equal to
Q = -Q 1/5 or Q l l7
Eddy -current and h ysteresis stray torques. In contra st

to synchronous and induction s tr ay to rques, those due to
eddy curre nts and hy steresis are associa ted with the fund a-
mental field rather than its hi gher harmonics.
Both eddy-current and hysteresis torques can be traced
back to what happ ens wh en the ro tor core is cyclically
magnetized by th e main magne tic field . The eddy-current
torque, Tee, is produced by th e interaction of the eddy
currents induced in the core wi th the main magnetic 'fi eld.
It diff ers fr om the principal electromagnetic torque only in
that the induced currents t hat produce it ar e flowing in the
core bod y rather than in t he rot or winding.
The generation of hysteresis torque will be discussed in
more detail in Sec. 63-7 concerned with hysteresis motors.
This form of torque has its origin in the hysteresis of the
rotor core material, owing to which the rotor is cyclically
magnetized with a certain delay from the field travelling
relative to. the r otor. As a result, the fundamental stator and.
124 P art Fou l'. Induction Machines
rot or fi eld s ar e displaced fr om each other by an angle 1'12

which dep ends on the ma gnetic properties of t he rot or core,
and their rel ative posi ti on is the same as is shown in
Fig. 43-5. This figur e applie s to the cas e wh ere the rotor is
travelling more slowly than th e stator field, and th e attrac-
tion of the unlike pol es (8 1 and N 2 or N 1 and 8 2 ) gives ri se
t o a hysteresis t orque, T h = T hm > 0, which acts in the
direct ion of rotor rotation . Wh en the roto r is travelling
faster than the stator field the angle 1'12 becom es negative,
and the hysteresis torque acts in the opposite direction,
r; = -T hm <0.
When the ro tor is trave lling at synchronous sp eed , the
angle between the axes of the stator and rotor fi elds ma y
vary between 1'12 and -1'12' and the hysteresis torque be-
t ween T hm and -T hm, depending on the direction of the
exte rn al torque.
To see how the above torques vary with slip, let us as-
sume that the mutual flux <!1 m and, as a consequence, the
mutual flux density in the rotor core remain unchanged as
the slip var ies . Then the hyst eresis loss in the rotor , Ph ,
will be proportional to the fr equency of cyclic ma gnetization,
12 = SIll and the eddy-current loss, Pee, will be proportion-
al to I;. Hence,
Ph = sP h,o, P ee = s2Pee,o
where Ph,o and P ee , o are th e respective losses at s = 1. The
electromagnetic powers Ph ,em and P ee, em bear the sam e
relation to the resp ective losses Ph and P ee' as P em to
P C U 2 ' Eq . (41-36). Therefore,
Ph, em = Ph is = Ph, 0
Pee, em = Peels = sPec, 0
Dividing the electromagnet ic powers by the fi eld angular
velocity Q 1 will give the h ysteresis and eddy-cur rent t orques
Th =Ph ,em/Q1 = pP h ,o/2n/1
Tee = P ee, em /Q1 = spP ee,o/2nfr
where p is the numb er of pole pairs.

As is seen from the equat ions derived abo ve, th e hyst ere-
sis torque is independ ent of th e slip. In passing through a
zero slip, it changes sign relativ e to the direction of rotor
rotation. On the assumption t h at <D m is cons tant, which is
Ch. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics Wi
equivalent to neglecting the reaction of eddy currents, the

eddy-current torque is proportional to the slip .
Thus, the eddy-current and hysteresis torques aid the
principal electromagnetic torque in both the motor and ge-
nerator modes of operation , so they contribute to energy
conversion . In ordinary induction motors, however, the ro-
tor core is built 'up of laminations insulated from one an-
other and punched from electrical-sh eet steel which has low
hysteresis losses . Because of this, bo th Til and T ee ar e small
and may be neglected in determining th e torque-slip (or
torque-speed) characteristic.
* 43-6 lhe Circle Diagram of an Induction

Machine
The rationale of the circle diagram. As the slip varies over
the range + 00, the primary current phasor, II, will trace
out a circular locus (Fig. 43-9) , if the impedance parame-
ters (R l , Xl' R~, X~ , ti; and X a) and also VI and /1 are
assumed to remain constant. This circular locus, known as
the circle diagram, offers a means for a spe edy determination
of a machine's performance.
Let us cons truc t the circle diagram of an induction m achine
with reference to the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4 2-3c.
The voltage equation for the rotor arm of the equival ent
circuit has the form
. .
. . VI = R sI;
jX scI;+
where I ; = -I~.
Since we have assume d that
VI = constant, an d X sc = X l X~ + = constant
the current I~ will vary due to cha nges in
R; = Rl +
R~/s .
To prove that, as the slip varies, the locus of I;
will be a
circle, let us divide the right- and left-hand sides of the
last equation by jX sc
-jVl/X sc = - j (RsIX sc) i ; + i;
On the ri ght-hand sid e of the above equation, the current
I;, represented in the diagram of Fig. 43-9 by AoA s' is
Part Four. In duction Machines
combined wit h the current - j (R s/X sc) i ; which la gs behind

r, by n /2. In the di agram, - j (R s/X sc) i; is represented by
A sD. Th e sum of i; and - j (R s/X sc) i; is equa l t o an un-
varying current, - j (T\/X sc ), shown in the diagram as AoD.
(The current -j"VI/X S C lags behind VI byn/2.)
. V, B jXsc
- 1 xsc
-0.3
-0.2
-0.15
Fig. 43-9 Th e circle diagram of an inducti on mach ine (on a per-un it

ba sis), with VI = I , fo = 0.364, cos (Poo = 0. I85 , Xl = X ; = 0.I2 5,
R I = 0.0375, R; = 0.0425
The current phasors i; and - j (R s/X sc) i ; ar e the legs

of a right-angled triangle whos e hypothenuse, -jVI/X S C ,
remains unchanged. Hence, whatever t he relative magnitu-
des of i; and - j (R s/X sc) i; and whatever the values of
H, = RI + R~/s, th e right-angle apex As will always li e
on a circle with point Qsc as centre and with AoD as diam e-
ter. This circle is the locus of th e current phasor tip. I;
cu. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics i 2"
A s. To draw this circl e, the current phasor - rVl/X S C '

corresponding t o th e circle diameter, is plotted as A oD at
right angles to VI' Choosing the length of AoD as appro-
pr iate, we obtain a current scale, A/mm, given by
CI = (Vl/X sc)/AoD
where A oD is the length in mm ,

As the next step, the centre of AoD is located at point
Osc , and the circle of constant I;
is dr awn with OscA oas
radius.
Now we shall see how the position of As on the circle can
be found if we know the slip.
The angle (P2 between VI and I;
is a function of the ratio
R s/X sc ' Let us dr aw a resistance trian gle, A oRs R , to a
cert ain scale . Its horizon tal leg AoR is proportional to
jX sc; its vertical leg RR s is proportional to the resis t ance
H; in the rotor arm; its hypoth enu se AoR s is proportional to
the impedance of that arm
Zs = R , jX sc +.
As s and R s ar e varied, the t ip of the phasor Z s will trace
out the resistance line RR s - The angle between .It oR sand
RR s is equal to th e angle (P 2 between VI and I; , such that
tan (P 2 = Xsc/R s
Hence, the line dra wn through poi nts A o and R s will cu t
the circle at point As (the tip of th e current phasor I ;). To
loca te point A s, layoff RR s proport ional to R s = R,
+ R ~/s from po int R on t he imp edan ce (Zs ) li ne. To det er-
mine the stator current
. . .
add t o r~ the no-lo ad current 1 0 which la gs beh ind VI by the
angl e eroo and is equal to Vl/(Zl +
Zo). The start of the
current phasor 1 0 0 will locate the origin 0 to which the
voltage ph asor may now be sh ifte d . On joining th e poi nts
o and As, we obtain th e stator current phasor I I (th e seg-
ment OA s), which lags behind the voltage by th e angle (Pl'
Let us mark on th e resistance line the points corre spond-
ing to th e cha ra cter ist ic values of slip as follows.
(1) s = 1 (the rotor is at standstill). R s = R I + R~

= R se . For this case, the point on the resistance line gives
R I and the point on the current circle gives AI'
(2) s = + oo (the rotor is rotating with or against the
l ield at an infinitely high speed). Accordingly, R s = R I ,
which is proportional to RR 00' The characteristic points
are Roo and A 00'
(3) s = 0 (an ideal no-load condition). Now, R ; = oo ,

and the point R s , on moving along the resistance line,
tends to infinity. On the current circle, this condition is
represented by point A o
Proceeding in the same way for any other values of slip,
we shall scale off the circle in units of slip.
The characteristic points on the circle diagram mark
the likely regions of operation for an induction machine.
Within the arcAoA I where the slip varies from zero to unity,
lies the motor region of operation. Within the arc AlA 00
where the slip varies from unity to +=, is the braking

region of operation. Within the arc AoA where the slip
00,
varies from zero to - oo, the machine is operating as a

generator.
It is important to stress that the circle diagram gives an
idealized locus of current in an induction machine, because
it is constructed on assuming that X se is constant. Actually,
the saturation of the magnetic circuit by leakage fields
causes X se to decrease as the currents increase. As a conse-
quence, the actual locus is other than a circle. Fortunately,
this departure is negligible in the range from no-load to
full-load current.
Determination of currents, powers, losses and other quan-
tities from the circle diagram. In addition to It and I~ = I~,
the circle diagram enables the analyst or designer to deter-
mine the powers, efficiency, and power factor of an induc-
tion machine as functions of slip. This is done by measur-
ing appropriate line segments on the circle diagram.
The stator current is
II = (OA s ) Cr
where Cr is the current scale factor.
The referred rotor current is
I~ = I; = (AoA s) Cr
In order to determine powers, we need to carry out some
additional constructions. Let us pass OB parallel to A oD,
cu. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics 129
which is -the diameter of the circle, through point 0, and

also A oAl and AoA 00 through point A o; the latter two lines
will cut the circle at the characteristic points A j and A 00 .
Jumping a little ahead , it is to be noted that A oA l is
called the mechanical power (Pm) line, A oA 00 is called the
electromagnetic power (P em) line or electromagnetic torque
(T em) line, and OB is the primary power (PI) line.
Drop a "perpendicular AsB o from point A s on the diame-
ter A oD and denote the points wh ere t he perpendicular cuts
the characteristic lines as B 1, B oo, an d B.
Let us prove that the active pow er drawn from ,the supply
line is represented, to scale", by AsB:
" PI = m1 V1 I1a = m1V1Cr (A sE) = Cp (A sB)
where Cp = m11'1cr is the power scale factor, W mm -1.
The electromagnetic power is r epresented by A sB 00 .
From the similarity of the triangles, 6. (A oAsBoo) and
6. (AoRsR oo), we get
AsBoo = (R sRoo) (AoA s)/(AoR s) = (R~/s) (AoA s)/Z s
I-Ience,
Cp (AsB oo) = m1 (R;/s) (V1/ZS) (AoA s) Cr
= ~n1 (R~/s) (1;) 2 = P C U 2 /s = P em
Now we will show that A sB l is proportional to the mecha-
nical power. Since R sR is pa rallel to AsB , we may write
(A sB1)/(A sB 00 ) = (R sR1)/(R sR 00 )
= (R~ /s - R~)I(R~/s) = 1- s
Hence,
Cp (A sB1 ) "= Cp (A sB 00 ) (1 - s) = P em (1 - s) = P m
The sum ofthe magnetic (hysteresis and eddy-cur ren t ) l~sses
and the electric (copp er) loss es in the stator is proportional
to BooB:
Pc + P CUl = Cp (B ooB )
Th e rotor copp er loss is proportional to B 1B oo :
P CU2 = P em - P = Cp (B 1B oo )
The electrom agnetic torque is proportional to the electro-
magnetic power:
Tern = P em /Q1 = (cp/Q 1 ) (A sB oo)
9-0240
130 . Part Four. induction Machines
The power factor, cos CPI, can be found from the ratio of
the powers involved. The efficiency in motoring and generat-
ing can be found by Eqs. (43-1) and (43-2). The mechanical
power at the shaft cannot be found directly from the circle
diagram. Instead, it is deduced from the mechanical power
on the rotor:
P 2 = Pm - P f / W - Pad in motoring
I P 2 I = I e.; I Pf/w+ +
Pad in generating
Using the circle diagram, we can also find I I R , cos CPR,
SR, TJR, T em.rm and Tern,s' Under rated conditions, when
the machine is operating as a motor, point A B coincides
with point A R chosen from the specified rated power, P R =
P 2 ,R , such that
ABBI = Pm,R/cp
where A B -+A R , Pm,R = P 2 , R +
Pf/w +
Pad' and A sB I is
the intercept of the perpendicular AsB on the diameter.
The electromagnetic torque is a maximum, Tern, m(+) or
Tern , m(-), when point As coincides with point A m(+ ) in
the case of a positive slip, or with point A m (_) in the case of
a negative slip. At those points, the length of AsB 00 per-
pendicular to the diameter and bounded between the circle
and the electromagnetic power line, A oA 00, is a maximurn:
Tern, m(+) = (cp/QI ) (ABB 00)' where A B -+ A m( + )
Tern. m(-) = (cp/QI ) (AsB 00)' where As -+A m(_)
When point As coincides with point AI' the inherent
(static) starting torque can be found from
T B = (cp/QI ) (AsB 00)' where A B -+A I
The circle diagram can be constructed from a no-load or a
short-circuit test, as either can readily be applied to an
induction machine. From the circle diagram thus obtained,
it is an easy matter to determine all the intermediate con-
ditions.
Gh. 44 Starting of Squirr el-Cag e Motors 131
44 Starting of Induction Motors

44-1 Starting of Squirrel-Cage Motors
Motoring is the basic mode of operation for most induction
machines. In fact, the other modes are used very seldom
(see Sec. 43-1). Therefore, the bulk of the commercially
available induction t,machines
are induction motors, although rem
they may, at least in prin-
ciple, be used as generators
or brakes, as well.
All induction motors must
be capable of starting from a ~
standstill and coming up to ....~ ...."
a nearly synchronous sp eed
against the opposition presen- D, OR Om
ted by the load. This basic
requirement is complied with
differently in different forms
of the induction motor.
Squirrel-cage motors. Nearly
all squirrel-cage motors are
started by simply conn ecting _Q_~.L..L...L.::~~LL..LLL.L~
them to the line at full-load Q
(rated) voltage, VI = V I .R
(direct-on-line starting). The Fig. 44-1 Start ing of a squ ir-
manner in which a squirrel- rei-cage induction motor
cage motor comes up from a
standstill (Q = 0, s = 1) to its rated angular speed, QR,
depends on its torque-speed characteristic, Tern = f (Q)f
and the torque-speed cha racteristic, Te xt = f (Q), of the
associated load.
The torque-speed characteristic of an induction squirrel-
cage motor is shown in Fi g. 44-1. The dashed line applies
to an ide alized condition, when we neglect all harmonic
fields (see Sec. 43-3). The solid curve is the actual torque-
speed characteristic, plo tted wi th allowance for the effect
of the harmonic fi elds (see Sec . 43-5) .
As is seen, the stray torques associated with the harmonic
fields have a marked effect on the torque-speed characte-
ristic and bring down the resultant torque at low speed.
9*
132 Part Four. Induction Machi nes
The torque-speed curve of the associ a ted load is shown in

Fig. 44-1 as the I Text I = f (Q) cur ve . Th e shape of the
curve depends on the typ e of driven machine. As a rule,
I Text I increases with ri sin g sp eed (to a greater ext ent in
the case of fans and pumps, and t o a lesser degree in the
case of metal-cutting machines).
If, wi th the rotor at standstill (Q = 0), the inherent
starting torque of the motor, T s , exceeds the to rque required
to put the driven machine in motion, I Text I, then , in
accord with the equat ion of motion
T em + Text = J dQ/dt (44-1)
(where J is the mom ent of in ertia of rotating parts, refer-
red to the rotor), a positiv e accelera t ion , dQ/dt> 0, will
be applied to the rotor , and it will begin pi cking up speed .
This will go on un til the sum of T em and Text' where T em
> 0 and Text < 0, vanishes. This will occur at point 1
where the two curves, T em = f (Q) and I Text I = f (Q), in-
tersect. From that inst ant on, the mo tor will k eep running
at the rated electromagn et ic torque, T em,R, and at the ra-
ted angular spe ed Qn .
The starting time, t s , can be found by integrating Eq .
(41-1) graphically
OR
t -_ r J dQ
s- J Tern+ Text
o
As an alternative, Eq. (44-1) ma y be in tegrated numerical-
ly, using a computer.
Th e starting time is found t o be proportional to the shaded
area under the J/(T em + Text) = t (Q) curve. From the
equat ion it follows t hat the start ing time is a function of
the mom ent of inertia .r of the rotat ing par ts and of the
sum of the to rques, T ern +
Text (or their difference, T ern
- I Text I). Although it lasts from a split second to sev eral
seconds, an important point to remember is that at star t-
ing the primary and secondary current s, 1 1 an d 1 2 , ar e
many t imes the rated (full-load) cur re nt . On a per-unit
basis, the static starting current is
1*s = 1 s/11 ,R = 5 to 7
* It is not al ways that the point of in tersecti on of the two curves
corre spond s to the rated opera ting condi ti on.
Ch, 44 Starting of Squirrel-Cage Motors '133
As is seen from Fig. 43-2, it slowly goes down as the .slip

increases. Therefore, should the electromagnetic torque be
insufficient (and the difference Tern - I Text I too small),
the starting time may be stretched out so that the windings
may be overheated.
According to relevant Soviet standards, the ratio
Tem,mlT em,R for general-purpose industrial induction motors
must be anywhere between 1.7 and 2.2, and the ratio TsITem,R
should range between 0.7 and 2.0. Also, the ratio of T min
(Fig. 44-1) to the rated torque must be not less than from
0.6 to 1.0. Should the minimum torque be too small, the
load torque-speed curve may cut the motor torque-speed
curve at point II. At that point, the angular speed falls
below the rated value, and the motor would fail to come up
sufficient ly close t o the synchronous speed, QI'
When "direct-on-line" starting is used for large squirrel-
cage motors, the power supply, especially one of low capa-
city, may be adversely affected. The voltage VI may "dip"
excessively, and other loads may suffer a malfunction. In
such a case, the starting current may be brought down by
inserting a reactor or an autotransformer between the motor
and the supply line. It should however be remembered that
a decrease in VI at starting leads to a sizeable reduction in
the starting torque because it is proportional to the voltage
squared. This is the reason why "direct-on-line" starting is
inapplicable to squirrel-cage motors operating under severe
starting conditions (when I Text I is very large).
44-2 Phase-W ound Induction Motors

The starting performance of a phase-wound induction motor
can be improved by inserting an external resistance in the
rotor circuit at starting. The starting resistance R 2 S is
connected to the rotor resistance R 2 R by means of slip
rings and brushes. The rotor phase resistance is the sum of
these two values:
R 2 n -/- R 2 S = R 2
At starting, it is essential to bring down the static start-
ing current
134 Part Four. Induc tion Machines
and to rais e the static (inherent) star ting torque, Eq. (43-15):
T ml R~Vr
8 = Q [(Rd- R ~) 2+x~e]
Th e st arting torque is a ma ximum when the critical (or ma-

ximum) slip is
R'
s = 2 = 1
m V R 2+ X sc2
I
that is, wh en the rotor phase resista nce is

R zm= V R~ + X~e ~ Xsc
As a rule, R ZH < R 2m, and t he inser tion of an extern al
starting r esist ance with R Z8 < R 2m - R 2H in the rotor
circui t leads t o a hi gh er st arting to rque (compare the st art-
in g torques for curves 1 and 2 in Fi g. 44-2). Wh en R 28
= R 2m - R 2H th e starting torque is a ma ximum (curve 3).
Fig. 44-2 Star ing of a wound-roto r ind uction motor
A fur ther increase in R 28 leads to a decrease in t he starting

torque again (curve 4). Physi cally , this occurs because in
the range R~ < R 2m, an increase in R~ has a stronger effect
on the electromagnetic torque than a decrease in the start-
ing current
T 8 ~ mlR /~/Ql
If t he external starting resist ance can be se t to sev era l
consecu tive va lues,
R 2H = R 2 (1 ) < R 2( 2) < R 2 ( 3)' < R 2 ( 4 )
several torque-speed (or t orque-sli p) characteristics (cur-
ves 1, 2, 3) can be obt ained, having all the sam e maximum
Lorcp18 , but diff ering in the cri tical slip (Fig. 44-2).
Ch. 44 Starting of Squirrel-Cage Motors 135
Curve 1 is the natural torque-speed characteristic. In this

case, the starting resistance is brought out of circuit, and
R 2 (1 ) = R 2R In the course of starting, the resistance is
moved from step to step at the instants when the difference
between the electromagnetic and load torques is a maximum.
Before a phase-wound motor is connected to a supply
line, a resistance is inserted in its rotor circuit, so as to
ensure a maximum starting torque (curve 3 for R 2 (s). The
motor begins to pick up speed, because Tern> I Text I. At
the instant when curve 3 cuts curve 2, the starting resist-
ance is set to R 2 ( 2 ), and the motor is picking up speed along
curve 2. The transition to the natural torque-speed charac-
teristic (curve 1) proceeds in a similar way. Under the steady
state, the motor is running at a point on the natural tor-
que-speed (torque-slip) curve, where T em,R and Q R exist.
Wound-rotor motors can be used under the more severe
starting conditions than squirrel-cage machines. Unfortu-
nately, they have to be fitted with slip-rings and brushes
for the insertion of an external starting resistance, and this
results in a higher manufacturing cost and a lower reliabili-
ty in service. ' .
44-3 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors with

Improved Starting Performance
At starting, no resistance can be inserted in a squirrel-cage
rotor as this is done in wound-rotor machines. Yet, the
starting performance of squirrel-cage motors can be improv-
ed in more than one way. One is to increase the effective
resistance of the rotor winding by .utilizing the skin effect
in the bars of the squirrel-cage structure. This effect mani-
fests itself at the beginning of starting, when the rotor cur-
rent frequency, 12 = et-, is close to the supply-line fre-
quency 11.
In order to increase the bar resistance at I 2 ~ 50 Hz (see
Sec. 31-2), the bar height h must substantially exceed the
depth of penetration of the electromagnetic field
,1 = lf2p/ rot/lo = Vp/n/l/l o
At I = 50 Hz, the penetration depth is about 10 mm for
copper and 15 mm for aluminium. With h in excess of 2~,
the effective bar resistance at 12 = 50 Hz is k; = hl ~
times its d,c. resistance,
136 Part Four. Inducti on Machin es
Deep -hal' rotors. For deep hal's of aluminium, the height

is usu all y chosen anywhere between 40 an d 60 mm . This
gives a three- or even four -fold incr ease in t he effect ive
a .c, r esist an ce of the roto r winding at 50 Hz.
The leakage-flux paths for a deep-bar des ign are shown in
Fig. 44-3. For convenience of analysis, we may think of
each bar as consisting of several layers of equal cross-sec-
tion with a d .c. resi stance of Rlaycr = pllql a yer ' Since in-
ductance is the number of flux li n kages produced per am-
pere, it is obvi ous that the layers, or par ts, of each bar ex-
t ending deeper in to the core have hi gh er leakage in ductances,
Fig . 114-3 Current densi l.y d istribuli on in a bar of a deep -bar squi r-
rel-cage structure
than the par ts of the bar cross-section ly ing closer to

L1 a y cl'l
t he airgap. Referring to the figure, la yer I nearer the slo t
bottom has a max imum Ll a yer; layer II lyi ng closer to th e
airgap lias a minimum Ll a y el:' On the other hand, the mutual
fie ld ha s the sam e flux linkage with each of the bar layers
and induces in all of them the same mutual emf, sE1 ayel'l
where Elayer is the emf at s = 1. Therefore, the current
density in each layer, or par t , of the bar cross-section
sE ] ayer
.r ';: : , ----=-~==:::;:::;:;;==:=:==7':
QlayerY Rfaycr -I- (2rts fl L l ayer )2
depends on the position of a given bar layer in the slot and
on the slip . At high slips (s ~ 1), 2nsfILlaycr > R lay cn
and it plays an impor t ant par t. In the parts near the ail'
gap wh ich have a lower reactance, the current densi t y is
therefore su bstantia lly h igher (see the current density
distribution at s = 1). Conversely, at rated slip (sn ~ 1),
Rla yer 2nsh L laycl'
Ch. 44 Starling of Squirrel-Cage Motors 137
Therefore, the inductive reactance may be ignored and we

may deem that the current density is the same in all the
parts of the bar cross-section (see the curve for S = SR) '
At SR, the current is uniformly distributed over the cross-
section of the bar, and the effective a .c. resistance of the
rotor, R 2 , does not differ from
its d.c , resistance, R 2 (1 ) ' At
S = 1, the current occupies
only a fraction of the total
bar cross-section, and the ef-
fective resistance of the rotor
rises to R 2 ( 2 ) ' The torque-slip
characteristic of a deep-bar
rotor machine is shown in
Fig. 44-4. Curve 1 holds for a
constant resistance, R 2 (1 ) ' s
Curve 2 applies to R 2 ( 2 ) which
exists at any slip . Curve 3
gives the actual torque-slip Fig. 44-4 Torque-slip characte-
characteristic of a deep-bar mo- ristic of a deep-bar induction
tor in which the resistance of motor
the rotor winding gradually
rises from R 2(1) to R 2(2) as the slip is varied from Sn to
S = 1. Most commercially available induction motors are
built with deep-bar rotors.
Double-cage rotors. A double-cage rotor has two squirrel
cages, with the bars of one cage lying, say, deeper in semi-
closed slots than those of the other, and separated by a nar-
row neck (at 5 in Fig. 44-5).
A double-cage structure may be cast or brazed (welded or
soldered) . In the former case, the slots and necks are filled :
with molten aluminium, and the two cages form a single
structure . In the latter case, the bars of the outer (starting)
cage are usually made of a material having a high resisti-
vity (brass or, though seldom, bronze), whereas the bars
of the inner (running) cage are made of copper. Frequently,
the bars in the starting cage have a smaller cross-sectional
area than the bars in the running cage. This also serves to
raise the effective a.c. resistance of the starting cage. The
two cages may be connected to the same end rings, or there
may be separate end rings for each cage.
At starting, the frequency of the current in the hal'S is
that of the supply line and? for the same reasons as in a
deep-bar rotor , the bulk of the current is flowing in the st ar t-

ing cage which has a lower inductive reactance than the
running cage. This leads to an increase in the effective re-
sistance of the starting cage and , as a res ult, to a hi gher
starting torque.
After the motor has come to the rat ed or nearly rated
speed, the frequency of the rotor current falls (to a few
hertz), the inductive reactance of the bars reduces t o a
fraction of their effect ive a .c, resistance, and the rot or cur-
rent is shared between the two cages in in verse propor tion
4.0
"
It/f7, R Tern/Tern",
2.2
Z.O
' / ~\ Tem/T,m.R V Kr;:T
11I 17,ff 1.8
~ '"'
./V
3.2 1.ti
~ ." ~ k 1.4
~'" ~ ~5 ~ ~6~ 1.2
/ \\j '/'>
2.4
\' f'ij ~ ~ ~, ~\ 0::
7.0
/ 1\'< ~ ~ ~~ ~ 0.8
"" ~~
7.6
~
I '\ '< 0
0.6
~
0.8 0.4
~~ 2
jilli r-= s
0.2
a
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 44-5 Torq ue-slip chara cte ristics of squirrel-cage moto rs with
improved starting perf orman ce:
l-wound-rotor motor; 2- roun d-bar squirrel-cage motor; 3- rectang ular deep-
bar sq uirre l-cage mot or; <i- tra pe zoida l-bar squirrel-cage motor ; 5- double-cage
motor; a- bulb-bar sq ui rrel-cage motor
to their effective a.c. resistances. If the running cage has a

lower resistance than t he starting cage , the bulk of the cur-
rent will be flowing in the running cage. In a cast double
cage , the current density is distributed practically uni-
formly over the ent ire cross-section of the slot. .
Apart from the deep-b ar desi gn (at 3 in Fi g. 44-5) and
the double-cage design (at 5 in t he sam e figure), recent years
have seen the advent of bell-shaped (6) and trapezoidal
bars (4), especially for high-speed and hi gh-power motors.
At starting, the rotor current in copp er bell-sh aped bars is
crowded in to the narrower t op part which has a higher
Ch. 45 Steady-State Perform ance. Speed Control 139
effective a .c. resistance, and this serves to raise the starting

torque. As regards starting performance, bell-shaped-bar and
double-cage rotors are about equal (see the shaded ar ea
5-6 in Fi g. 44-5). Motors with a trapezoid al-b ar rotor (at 4
in Fig. 44-5) show about the same high starting performance
as motors with a rectangul ar-bar rotor (see the shaded area
3-4).
Typical torque-slip and current-slip cha racteristics of mo-
tors using the var ious bar designs are shown in Fig. 44-5.
All motors have th e sam e power rating, the same inherent
starting current, and the sam e rotor loss at full (rated) load.
For comparison , the figure also shows the natural torque-
sli p charact eristic (curve 1) of a wound-rotor induction mo-
to r. Th e shaded are as give the ranges of improved st arting
perform ance for motors using the various bar designs. As is
seen , the in crease in st arting t orque due to the use of special
bar designs is accompanied (owing to an increase in X 2 , the
leakage inductive reactanc e of the rotor) by a decrease of
15 % to 25 % in the maximum electromagnetic torque and a
decrease of 4 % to 6 % in the power factor as compared
with mot ors using a round-bar rot or.
45 Steady-State Performance
of Induction Motors.
Speed C ontrol
45-1 Loading Conditions. Stability
When properly started (see Figs. 44-1 and 44-2), an induc-
tion motor must come up to a sp eed such that it will be
running at rated (full) load (point I) or less than rated load
(point III lying on th e characteristic curve between the
no-load point where Tern = 0 and Q = Ql ' an d the rat ed-
t orque point where T ern = T ern,n and Q = Qn).
For short interv als of tim e, the load may he such as
exists at point IV which lies between points (Tern,n,Qn)
and (T m, Q m ) at torques exceeding the rated value (Tern
> T ern ,n), but lower than the m aximum (breakdown or
pull-out) torque (T em < T m)' How lon g a motor may be
140 Part Foul'. Induction Machines
all owed to run in such a condition depends on the amount

of h eat dissip ated in the windings.
Lon g-term operation at the intersection of the motor
and lo ad torque-speed curves, I' em = f (Q) and I' ext = f (Q),
is permissible onl y if a chance departure of speed from the
steady-st at e value produces a torque, I' em + I' ext, on the
rotor which will restore the previous stead y-st ate speed.
Th e condition for stable operation can be written in t erms
of changes in (or derivatives of) torques, I dTem I and
I dT ext I, assuming the same depa rture of sp eed, dQ, from
t he value at the intersection of t he t wo torque-speed curves,
say, at point I in Fig. 44-1 or 44-2.
If
d I Text I
dlTextl = dQ
dQ>dlTernl
dl Tem l dQ
dQ
and , as a conseq uence,

d IText I > d I Tern I
dQ dQ
the oper ation is stable. If, however,

dlTextl < dl Ternl
dQ dQ
the operation is unstable. For example, at point I where

dIT ext I > dI Tern I
dQ dQ
th e opera tion is s table. Should, by an y chanc e, t he speed at
point I ris e to (QR + dQ), the electromagnetic torque Tern
would fall off, because
dl T ernl <0
dQ
whereas th e external (or load) torque Text would go up,

because
dl Text l > 0
dQ
The rotor would be acted upon by a negative torque

I' em - I I' ext I = + d I T em I - d' I' ext -] < Q
th. 45 Steady-State Performance. Speed Control 141
and thoro would be a negative acceleration (deceleration)

which would cause the rotor to slow down until i t goes back
to its previous speed, QRo
The operation will likewise be stable at point III 01' IV
within the effective part of the torque-speed characteristic
under the most commonly encountered load torques. Con-
versely, it can be shown that the operation at point V is
unstable. This may happen when a sudden fall in supply
voltage is followed by a sudden voltage recovery. At this
point,
dlTextl < dlTeml
dQ dQ
A chance increase in speed, dQ > 0,

Tern - I Text I = d ITem I - d I T ext I > 0
and there would be a positive acceleration
dQ/dt> 0
causing the rotor to pick up speed until a stable condition
arises at point IV in Fig. 44-1 or at point I in Fig. 44-2.
A chance decrease in speed, dQ < 0, the unstable condition
at point V will change to a stable condition at point II in
Fig. 44-1 or to a short-circuit (Q = 0) in Fig. 44-2.
45-2 Performance Characteristics of an

Induction Motor
An induction motor of a particular power rating may ope-
rate in actual service under loads varying from no-load to
full load. Therefore, it is required that it should have a
sufficiently high efficiency and power factor not only at
rated load, but also at half the full load. An increase in
efficiency leads to a decrease in the active power, PI = P 2 hl ,
drawn by the motor. An improvement in the power factor
cuts down the total power, Sl = Pl/cos CPl' owing to a
decrease in the reactive power, Ql = Sl sin CPl = PI tan (Pl'
In either case, there will be a decrease in the current drawn
from the supply line
1 1 = SllmlVl = P 2 lm lVl'll cos (PI
in the capacity of the synchronous generators that must be
installed at the supply power station, and in the losses
Part Four. Ind uction Machines
occurring in the transformers and networks conveying elec-

tricity to loads. In the final analysis, there will be a cut-
down in the operating costs of the motor.
The efficiency and power factor of a motor can be im-
proved in one of several ways. For example, we can use
bet t er magnetic materials (those with reduced spec ific loss
fJ./Q 1 ,- P1/PI/ ,I1/In

1.00
- -
fJ.jS1. 1 -
~ [7 1.5
r
7]. 0.98 ~ r-
c: Tem/Tem,!
/-
cos 1 7] l"- I>-
s,
1.0
1/
V -
r-
V P1~ Y"
:/'"
V
-
v
DID
" 10
I cos1f1 ~ TemiY v/v
I / 1/ V V- 3
0.5 11
1
-
I /
/ .,/
~
A
" /'
V
/V A
.,/
V s 2 0.5
'-1 ./ /' t:::- 1
I ./ ~ ~
~ P2/ PN
a o 0 a
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
Fig . 45-1 Perf ormance character-istics of an induction motor
and increased permeability), reduce the air gap between

the stator and rotor t o a permissib le minimum (0.3-1.5 mm,
depen ding on the power rating of the motor), or br ing down
the electromagnetic loading (current density in the wind-
ings and magnetic flux density) by scaling up the motor.
Unfortunately, this would raise the manufacturing cost of
the machine .
In designing an induction motor, its efficiency and power
factor are most frequently adjusted through a suitable
choice of materials so as to minimize the sum of the manu-
facturing and operating costs.
The performance of a motor under varying load conditions
is usually presented in graphic form as plots of 'YJ, cos (PI' PI'
Tern, S, and n versus power output; P 2 Typical performance
characteristics of an induction motor (plotted on a per-
unit basis) are shown in Fig. 45-1.
Ch. 45 Steady-State Porjormance. Speed Control
The performance characteristics of a motor can be cal-

culated, derived from the circle diagram (see Chap. 43), or
obtained by experiment.
As is seen from the circle diagram (see Fig. 43-9), varia-
tions in load (represented by the mechanical power, P 2 ~P m),
are accompanied by variations in II and CPl' As P 2 increa-
ses, the power factor changes from cos CPo at 1 0 to its maxi-
mum value, cos CPmax, at II whose phasor is tangent to the
circle. As a rule, the power factor is a maximum at a cur-
rent close to rated (see Fig. 45-1). The rated power factor is
anywhere between 0.7 and 0.9. As load goes down to about
50%, the power factor falls off by 0.1.
As in transformers (see Sec. 6-3), the efficiency is a maxi-
mum when the constant losses (Pc, P f / w ) , which depend on
load but little, are equal to the varying losses (P e u1 , P eu 2 ,
and Pad) which vary with load.
A motor is usually designed in such a way that the effi-
ciency is a maximum when the actual load is less than the
rated, or full, load (in Fig. 45-1,~ 'll = 'llmax at P 21P 2 ,R
= 0.7). If this requirement is met, the efficiency will re-
main nearly constant and equal for general-purpose indu-
strial motors to 0.75-0.95 as the load varies from 50% to
full.
Variations in load entail insignificant changes in the rpm
of the motor, usually from n = n1 to nR = n 1 (1 - SR)"
that is, by as few as several per cent. Such a motor is said to
have a flat speed-power or speed-torque characteristic.
"45 3 Methods of Speed Control
Speed control refers to a deliberate change in the rotor speed

Q by the operator. It is presumed that speed control leaves
the torque-speed or torque-slip characteristic unchanged.
Because
Q = Q 1 (1 - s)
the speed can be controlled in anyone of two ways, namely:

(1) by varying the angular field velocity Q1 or (2) by va-
rying the slip, s.
In turn, the angular field velocity defined as
Q1 = 2nf1lp
Part Four. Induction Machines
cau be controlled by (1) change of the line frequency 11;

(2) by change of the number of pol e pairs p; and (3) by
cascade conn ection.
Slip control can be effect ed in several ways which may
be classed into two groups as follows : (1) slip control by
causing the slip power sP em to be dissipated as heat in the
rotor circuit (this can be done by varying VI' by inserting
a series resistance or series reactances in the rotor circuit),
an d (2) by recovering the greater part of slip power and
letting only the smaller p art, m2I~R 2' be dissipated as heat
in the rotor circuit (by injecting an auxiliary slip emf into
the rotor circuit by what is known as cascade connection).
45-4 Speed Control by Change of Field Velocity

(a) Speed con tro l by change of the line frequency , fl' This
form of speed control can be effected only if the motor draws
its power from a supply with an independently controlled
frequency. This purpose can be ser ved by variable-speed
synchronous generat ors , synchronous and induction fre-
qu ency converters, gas-tube and semiconductor rectifiers.
If the motor is to re t ain a flat torque-slip (or torque-speed)
characteristic and a sufficient overload capacity, it is
essential to control both 11 and VI so that the magnetic flux
remains unch anged
cD /"OJ VI/II = constant
This requirement can be satisfied if the actual frequency is
comparable in magnitude with the rated frequency.
Speed control by change of supply frequency is mostly
employed for a group of identical squirrel-cage motors, such
as used in roll er-table dri ves . This form of speed control
permits a wid e range of change (from 10-to-1 to 12-to-1),
but the cost of the scheme is relatively high.
(b) Speed control by pol e changing. This form of speed
control is effected in what are known as multispeed indue-
t ion motors. To this end, a multispeed motor may have two
stator (or rotor) windings arranged for diffe rent number of
poles . As an alt ern at ive, it may have one winding with
special connections, which can be reconnected simply to
give two or even three different numbers of poles. The rotor
is pref erably of the squirrel-cage construction so that no
connect ion change is required on the secondary.
Ch, 45 St eady-State Performance. Speer! Control 115
Multispeed motors are used to driv e ma chines where it is

essential to change their speed in steps (hoists, winches,
machine tools, etc .) .
A single pole-changing winding is espe cially simple when
it is arranged for th e numb er of poles to be changed in the
Fig. 45-2 Pole- chan gin g windin g for tw o and four poles (2h = 2,
2P2 = 4)
proportion 2:'1 (Fig. 45-2) . The coil pitch is chosen such

that with the lowest numb er of pole s (2Pl equa l to, say , 2)
it is y = 0 .5 1:1 ' Each ph ase of the winding is divided into
two identical sections (Fig. 45-2 shows onl y one phase, A ).
When the winding is switched to have the smaller number
of pol es (2Pl)' each ph ase has two parallel pa ths , and the ad-
jacent coil groups in the two sec tions carry currents in the
opposite directions (see Fig. 45-2a). Wh en th e winding is
switched to have the greater number of poles (2p2 = 4Pl
equal to, say, 4), each phase has onl y one parallel path, and
the adjacent coil groups in the two sect ions carry currents
in the same direction (see Fi g. 45-2b). The winding has a
total of six phase t erminal leads.
Balanced windings whi ch ca n offer three, four or even two .
different spe eds, but with th e pol e ratios other t han 2-to-'1
or 3-to-2, have a larger number of terminal leads and involve
the use of more sophisticated pol e-ch an ging switches.
Although a multispeed motor ha s a larger size and is
more expensi ve to make than an equi valent single-speed in-
duction motor , sp eed control by pol e ch an gin g is fairl y
wide-spread.
10-0240
' ..
I(c) Cascade control. A cascade connection of two induc-

tion machines, proposed independently by Gorges and
Steinmetz, is shown in Fig. 45-3.
As is seen, the cascade consists of two wound-rotor induc-
tion machines, 1 and 2, one having 2Pl poles and the other,
2P2 poles. The rotors of the two machines are mounted on
a common shaft, and the rotor windings are interconnected
Fig. 45-3 Cascade connection of two induction machines
and brought out on slip-rings. The circuit has two contact-

ors, 3 and 5. One serves to connect an external starting
resistance 4 to the slip rings, and the other is used to con-
nect the stator winding of motor 1 to the supply line. Using
a switch 6, the operator can connect the stator winding of
motor 2 to the supply line or to close it through another
external resistance 7.
The scheme in Fig. 45-3 gives three different synchronous
speeds of shaft rotation. When motor 1 is connected to the
supply line and rheostat 4 is short-circuited upon starting,
the shaft will rotate at a synchronous speed given by
Q 1 = 2:rtfl/Pl
When motor 2 is connected to the supply line and rheostat 4
is shorted upon starting, the shaft will rotate at another
synchronous speed given by
Q 2 = 2:rtfl/P2
(it is assumed that the external, or load, torque is zero.)
Ch. 45 Steady-State Perlormance. Speed Control 147
When both motors in the cascade are running at the same

time, the shaft will be rotating at a synchronous speed Q 12
which differs from both Q 1 and Q2' Now the stator winding
of motor 1 is connected to the supply line, starting rheostat 4
is brought out of circuit, the rotor winding of motor 2 is
energized from the rotor winding of motor 1, and the stator
winding of motor 2 (which, in a cascade connection becomes
its secondary) is shorted or closed through starting rheo-
stat 7.
Let the shaft rotate at an angular velocity Q. Then the
emf induced in the rotor of motor 1 will be E 281 at frequency
/2 = Srll' where
SI = (Q 1 - Q)/Q 1
is the slip of the first motor, and

Q1 = 2rt/l/Pl
is the angular velocity of the flux cD 1 established by the
stator winding of the first motor. The emf E 2s1 gives rise to
a current 1 2 which traverses the rotor winding of motor 2
and sets up a magnetic flux (J)2 which rotates relative to the
rotor of motor 2 at an angular velocity
Q 2SC = 2rt/ 2/P2 = (Q 1 - Q) Pl/P2
Since Q 2SC is directed in opposition to Q, the <])2 field rota-
tes relative to the shorted stator winding of motor 2 at an
angular velocity
Q 2SC - Q = S2Q2SC
where S2 is the slip of the second motor.
If we investigate the last equation together with the
equation for Q2SC' the speed of the shaft in a cascade connec-
tion is found to be
Q= PI Q ! (1-s 2)
P2+ p! (1-s 2)
As Text is decreased, 8 2 goes down as well. At Text = 0,
when both T em,l and T ern.z vanish at the same time, 8 2 = 0,
and the shaft of the cascaded machines is rotating at a
synchronous speed
Q 12 = Q( S2=0) = Q1Pl/(Pl + P2) = 2rt/l/(Pl + P2)
In the circumstances, (1l2 is stationary relative to stator of
motor 2.
10*
Neglecting the losses in the motors, it is an easy matter to

find how the electromagnetic power
P ern1 = Tern ,lQl
transferred across the air gap from stator to rotor in the
first motor is shared between the two motors. (Now S2 = 0,
Q = Ql2' and Sl = (Q 1 - Qd/Qd
Of the total power developed by the first motor, the frac-
tion directly converted to mechanical power is given by
P m1 = Tern,lQ ~ T ern,lQ12 = Pernl Q12 / Ql
The remainder, proportional to the slip of motor 1 and
equal to
P em1 - P m1 ~ T l (Q 1 - Q12) ~ SlP ern1
is transferred electrically to the rotor of motor 2 and con-
verted to mechanical power
P rna ~ T em,2 Ql2 = SIPeml
The electromagnetic torque of the two cascaded motors is
Tern = T em.l + T em ,2
where
and
T em,2 = T ern,l Sl / (1 - Sl)
The reactive power required to magnetize the motors in
cascade has to be drawn from the supply line. Because of
this, the power factor of the cascade is reduced. Also, since
the motor windings are connected in series, the short-cir-
cuit impedance of the combination is doubled, and its
maximum (breakdown or pull-out) torque is reduced.
45-5 Speed Control without Slip Power Recovery

As we have seen, speed control in the case of squirrel-cage
motors can only be based on variations in the amplitude or
symmetry of the supply voltage VI (see subsections "a" and
"b" below). In the case of wound-rotor motors, speed con-
trol can also be effected by inserting additional resistances
in the rotor circuit (see subsection "c" below). Speed con-
trol by slip control in cases where the slip power, sP em,
is not converted to mechanical power, but is dissipa ted as
Ch. 45 Steady-State Performance. Speed Control 149
heat in the rotor circuit, is wasteful of power and results

in a low effi ciency . At sufficiently large slips, the sP em
loss dominates the other losses in the machine, and its
effici ency is
'Y] = PmlP I ~ (Fe rn - sPem)IPem = 1 - s
(a) Speed control by variation of the primary voltage.
The electromagnetic torque of an induction motor is propor-
tional to the primary voltage
squared: rem
T em r-/ V~
(see Sec. 43-3). Therefore , a

cha nge in VI brings about a
marked cha nge in the to rque-
slip cha rac teristic of the mo-
tor. If we arra nge so that the s
load torque remains unchanged,
this will lead t o a change in
Fig. 45-4 Torque-slip char acte -
the slip. So lon g as the load ri stics wi th sp eed control:
torque remai ns constant , the 1 - by change of VI ; 2 - by in serti-
slip will vary in inverse pro- on of resi s tance in the r o t or circu i t
portion to the primary volt-
age squared:
s r-/ ll Vr
Referring to Fi g. 45-4 , it is
seen that VITI' O.85VlR and
O.7Vm respectively correspond
to SI, S2' and S3
Unfortunately , speed cont-
rol by primary voltage change Fig . 45-5 Speed control of a
thr ee-phase induction motor by
suffers from several dr aw- cnange of symmetry of the sta-
backs, nam ely the overload tor voltage:
capa city of the mot or is redu- a1 -batorque-s li p ch arac teri stic w i tb
l anced se t of primary volta ges :
ced; as t he slip is varied from 2 - same w ith si ngl e-phase s upp l y
s = 0 to s = Sm' the speed can vo ltage
be controlled within narrow
limits; the rotor copper loss,
P Cl\q = sP ern = sT emQI , is in-
crea"sed. This for m of speed control is mainly use~ on mot?rs
with a low power output and an increased maximum slip,
(b) Speed control by change of symmetry of the primary

voltage. When the stator winding is supplied with an un-
balanced set of voltages, the magnetic fi eld in the motor
may be visualized as consisting of two field s rotating at
the same speed , but in opposite directions, and having, in
the general case, different peak values . The total torque of
the motor is determined by the difference in torques between
the forward and reverse fields. The torque-slip characteri-
stics of a three-phase induction motor supplied with an
unbalanc ed set of primary voltages lie between the normal
characteristic obtained when the supply is a balanced set of
voltages, and th e charact eristic obtained wi th a sin gle-phase
supply (Fi g. 45-5). A change in the relative ma gni tudes of
the PPS and NP S vol ta ges leads to a change in the t orque-
sli p charact eris ti c and , as a consequence, in the slip of
the motor.
(c) Speed control by change of resis tance in the rotor
circuit. An increase in the rotor circuit resistance, R 2 ,
brings about a chang e in t he torque-slip characterist.io of
the motor . More sp ecifically , t he maximum slip Sm incr eases
(see Sec. 43-3), whereas the max imum (br eakdown or pull-
out) torque rem ains unchanged; t he net resu lt is that the
torque-slip characteristic is drooping rather than flat.
Referring to Fi g. 45-4, it is seen t hat the in sert.ion of an
added resistance Rt.. in the rotor circuit causes th e torque-
slip characteristic (curve 2) to change. At II constant ele-
ctromagnetic torque , this cau ses the slip to ris e from SI
to S4'
In the case of speed control by change of resistance in
the rotor circuit, the rotor circuit loss, sP em, is shared be-
twe en the motor and the adjusting rheostat in proportion to
their resistances . At large slips when R 2 ~ Rt.., this loss
is mainly dissipated in the rheost at (it is equal to sPemR t..IR 2).
If sp eed control is effected with Tern an d 1 2 held constant,
the loss in the rotor winding will remain constant.
45-6 Speed Control with Slip-Power Recovery

In this speed control scheme, an additional emf, Et.., is
injected into the rotor circuit via the slip rings. This injected
emf has the same frequ ency, 12 = s/] , as th e rotational emf,
sE 2 , in the rotor. The source of Et.. ma y be a rotary converter
or an SCR circuit (see Sec . 68-4) .
Ch. 4.5 Steady-State Performance. Sp eed Control 151
. .
In the general case, E/!; may be oriented relative to E 2 in
any arbitrary manner, and it may be visualized as consist-:
ing of two terms
Ell = E't,. + Et. = k AE2 + jk~E2

The magnitudes of the complex coefficients kA and jk't" are
the relative values of E't,. and E't,,; their arguments define
the phases of E't,. and Ei, relative to E 2
The injection, into the rotor circuit , of Ell = Et" = k't,.E 2
which is in phase with E2 when k't" > 0 and in anti-phase
with E2 when k't" < 0, offers an economical method of con-
trolling the rotor speed gradually and over a wide range on
either side of the synchronous speed. Suppose that prior to
the injection of Ell in the rotor circuit, the slip was SI > 0
and the emf induced in the rotor winding was SI E 2
(Fig. 45-6a) . Assuming for simplicity that the slips are
small and R 2 ~ sX 2 , we may write
z, = V R~ + (sXz)Z ~ R tan ~z = sXzIR z ~ 0;
2;
12 = SlE2/ZZ = SlE2/R z
and write the original electromagnetic torque given by
Eq . (42-9) as
pm 2w 2kw2C!Jm 1 A
T em.l= V2 zcospz
= CT (J)m S 1E 2/ R Z = CT (J)m I 2 = Text

After E/!; has been injected, the electromagnetic t orque
can be expressed in terms of the resultant emf
S2E2 + I1E = E2 (S2 + k't,,)

as
Tern. 2 = CTw
IT.
m R
+
E 2 (82 lc;',) _ C IT. 1
- TW m Z
2
Also, if the load torque, Text, remains unchanged, the eleq

ctromagnetic torque will likewise remain {\~ it W~S before:
T em 2 = T em 1 = Text
The secondary current, 1 2 , will also remain unchanged, and

a new operating condition will ar ise with
82 = 81 - k~
If 81 > k~ > 0, the new slip will li e in the range
0< 8 2 < 81
If k~ > 81 > 0, the slip will become negative, 82 < 0
VI
i,
'II -i;
5ZEz
i,
t, Pm
.pm rPm
/ E" Iz
/
I- -iza -i, Sz Ez ~
i, S,El (IL) sz(+EiJ(b) Sz Ez+EiJ (c)
V, VI -i; VI
-j z' -i;
io rpm fA 10 to <Pm
<Pm
iil fA t, IA E~'
i.iJ
f
t, i, IZ
'1 i, (d) s,Ez (e) szEz (f)
Fig . 45-6 The ullc c t or an injected : emf in tho rotor circuit on slip
and reacti vo curreu ts
(Fig. 45-Gb) ., Conversely, when k~ < 0, the slip will in-

8 ~ > 8f
crei:lse , 0 (Fig, 45-Gc) , >-
Ch. 45 Stea dy-State Performance. Speed Control 153
The injection of Et:. = E~ = jk~E2' which is turned

th rough +n/2 relative to E2 , giv es rise to an additional
reactive current which can be found on the same assu mp-
t ions:
r, ~ Et:.1R 2 = jk~ (E 21R2)
Wh en k~ > 0, j t:. leads E2 by n/2 and cont ri but es t o (I) as
part of the magnetizing current 1 0 , This results in a decrease
in the reactiv e component of II and in the phase an gle (PI
(Fig. 45-6d). Conversely, when k't, < 0, t , lags behind E2 ,
and this results in an increase in the react ive component of
II and in the phase angle CPI (Fig. 45-6e). If, at k~ > 0, the
. .
current I~ is equal to the ma gnetizing current 1 0 , the rotat-
ing fi eld will completely be set up by I t:. flowing in the
rotor winding, and there will be no magnetizing current
flowin g in the stator winding.
It is to be noted that at s < 1 the react ive power required
to set up the field on the rotor side,
P2r = mII~E2s = mlloEIs
is sma lle r tha n the reac tive power required to set up the
fi eld on the st ator side
P 2r ~ P l r = mlloE I
Accordingly, a smalle r reactive-power source will be requir-
ed t o excite the machine from the ro tor th an from the sta-
t or sid e.
If Et:. cont ains both E~ = k~E2 and E~ = jk"t:.E 2, th en,
on the assumpt ions made, each will act independently of the
other. More specifically, at a constant to rque, EAwill cause
a change in the slip, and k; in the angle CPl' The ph asor
diagram applicable to the injection of such an emf, Et:.,
at SI > k~ > 0 and k~ > 0 is shown in Fig. 45-6/.
If the injection of an emf is accompanied by a noticeable
change in the rpm and the assumption that R 2 ~ sX 2
cannot be adopted, then th e rotor QlJ.I'I;en,t; in t he initial
state and its active and reactive components will be

. .
1 21
. = + jX 2S1)
E 2s1/(R 2
.
1 21a = E2S1R 2/(R ~ + S~X~)
i 21T = -jE2SiX:/(R~ + s;X~)
Upon the injection of Et!. = E 2 (k~ + jk~) will be
i 22 = E2 [(S2 + k~) + jk~)/(R2 + jX 2S2)
i.; = E2 [(S2 + k~) R 2 + i; X2s21/(R~ + s~X~)
i 22T = jE2[k~R (s + k~) X 2s21/(R~ + s~X:)
2 -
Assuming, as we did in the approximate an alysis , that

the external torque and the el ect romagnet ic torque remain
unchanged
Text T ern.t = CT (f) m 1 21a = T em,2 = CTcPm122a
=
we can see that the active components of -current will also
, .
remain unchanged, 1 2l a = 1 22a, On expressing the currents
in terms of Sl and S2 and solving the equation thus obtained
at!.s: - bt>.S2 + Ct!. = 0
we get
where at!. = Sl tan'' ~2

tan ~2 = X 21R 2
i, = (1 + k~ tan ~2) (1 +
s~tan2 ~2)
Ct!. = Sl - k~ (1 +
si t an2 ~2)
At X 2 ~ R 2 and tan ~2 = 0, when at!. = 0, bt!. = 1, 'and
Ct>. = Sl - k~, the equation for S2 is the same as the appro-
ximate equation.
In the general case, S2 depends on both the active compo-
nent of the injected emf, E~ = k~E2' and (though to a les-
ser degree) its reactive component, E't, = jk~E2' The added
reactive component of current
. . .
r, = 1 22T-121T
.
is llkewise, in the final analysis, dependent on E~ and
(although" to a lesser degree) on E~ .
Ch, 4G Unbalan ced Operation 155
;!r 46 Unbalanced O peration

of Induction Machines
tt6-1 Unbalanced Operation due to Unbalanced
Primary V oltages
In unbalanced operation, the currents appearing in the sta-
tor or rotor phases of an induction machine are different in
magnitude and displaced from one another by a different
electrical angle. In the case of symmetrical polyphase
windings on the rotor and stator , current unbalance may be
caus ed by an yone of two factors: (1) the primary voltage
system applied to the machine is unbal anc ed or (2) the im-
pedances closing the rotor winding are unbalanced .
We shall begin our discussion by considering first the
unb alanced operation caused by an unbalanced system of
primary voltages. We shall do this, using the method of
symm etrical components.
If the star-connected neutral points of the stator winding
are isolated , no ZPS currents or volt ages will be produced ,
and the un bal anc ed system of primary voltages CrT A I'
V nt , V Cl) may be visu alized as the sum of PPS volt ages
(11A ll ' VB Il ' if cn ) and of NPS voltages CV A 12 ' VB 12 ' VC 1 2)
such that
V All = T'll = CV Al +V Bla +V Cl a

2
)/3
V A 12 = rT1 2 = CV Al +V Bla
2
+V cla) /3
where
a = exp (j2n/3)
Then th e cur rents in th e st ator winding may be written as
the sum of PPS curren ts (j AIl = ill , j Bll' jCll) and of
NPS currents (i A 1 2 = i 1 2 , i R12' j C 1 2), respectively produced
by the balanced sets of PPS and NPS voltages.
The P P S current t..
in the main stator phase (phase A)
can be found by reference to the usual equivalent circuit
of an induction machine (see Sec. 42-4). For convenience, it
is repeated in Fig. 46-1a, with the notation adopted for
the PPS quantities. The rotor slip relative to the PPS field
is given by
SI = (Q1 .: Q)/Q 1
where Q 1 is the angular velocity of the PPS field, and Q
is the angular velocity of the rotor. Therefore, the PPS
current will be
where
Zll = (R1 + jX 1) + (Z-b + Z-;I)-1
is t he imp edance of the stator phase for the PPS cur rents
(see Fig. 46-1a), and
Z 21 = R~/s + tx;
is the imp edance of the equ iva len t rotor at s ta ndst ill for
the PPS cur rents .
or
111 Rt+jX 1 I ZI j X ~ l IZ R1+jX I i~ z j X~
10,
101
20
(a)
IV"
tal
20
(b)
Zs
Rz
Fig . 46-1 E qui vale nt circu i ts of an induction machine for (a) posi-
tive sequence and (b) negative sequence voltages
Th e NP S current 1 12 in the main stator phase can be

found from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 46-1b, which
differs from that for PPS currents only in that it is ext ended
to include the rotor slip relative to the NPS field
S2 = (-Q 1 - Q)/( -Q 1 ) = 2- s
where (-Q 1) is the angular velocity of the NPS field, and
Q = Q 1 (1 - s) is the angular velocity of the rot or expres-
sed in t erms of the slip relative to the PPS fi eld . Therefore,
the NPS current is given by
. .
1 12 = V 1 2/Z1 2
where
c i, <16 Unbalanced Operation 157
is the impedance that the stator phase offers to the NPS

currents (Fig. 46-tb), and
Z22 = R~/(2 -
s) jX~ +
is the impedance of the equivalent rotor at standstill to
the NPS currents.
In calculating R~ and X~ for NPS currents in th e rotor,
it is important to rememb er that their frequency, f22 =
(2 - s) f1, is many times the frequency of PPS currents
in the rotor, f 21 = sf1, and also to allow for the crowding of
current in the rotor conductors (see Sec . 44-3) .
Referring to the equivalent circuits of Fig. 46-t, we can
find PPS and NPS currents in and i 1 2 in phase A and also
the total current in each stator phase:
. . .
l = In +1
. A 1
. .
12
I B1 = I na + 1
2
a
. . . 12
I Cl = Ina + 1
1 2a
2
The current unbalance is caused by the injection of an

NP S current. The degree of unbalance can be judged from
th e magnitude of the ratio 11 211n . If the voltage unb alance
is insignificant (V12IVn L) , the PPS voltage is at its
r ate d value (Vn = 'vIR)' and the slip is small (I s 1 I ),
which is typical of the generator or motor modes of opera-
tion at full load, the current unbalance, 1 1 21In , can r eadily
be expressed in terms of the voltage unbalance, V12 /Y n .
In the circumstanc es, the machine is operating in the bra k-
ing r egion relative to the NPS field, because the rotor slip
relative to th at fi eld, S2 = 2 - s ~ 2, ranges anywhere
between t and 2. At S2 ~ 2, the equivalent circuit for NPS
currents in Fig. 46-tb may be simplified in the same way as
for operation on short-circuit, when s = 1. Since .
I R ~ /2 + tx; I I z, I
th e resistive and rea ctive componen ts of th e imped an ce to
the NPS current
may he written
X 12 ~ Xd- X~ ~ x ;
R12 = R 1 + R~/s < n.; X sc
i58 Part Four. Induction Machines
In v iew or the foregoing, the NPS current at S ~ 2 is given by

1 12= V 12 /V R~2 + X~2 ~ V 12/X se
Because Xu ~ X se is small, 1 12 may be very heavy even at a
relatively small value of V u .
Since the positive sequence impedance is substantially
higher than the negative sequence impedance,
I Zn I ~ I Z12 I
the current unbalance, I 1 21In , is many times the voltage
unbalance, V1 21Vn . For example, under the rated conditions
for the positive sequence quantities, that is, at S = SR ,
Vn = VlR, In = 1 m = ViR/IZnRI, the current un-
balance is
IulI n = (V 1 2/ 1Z121) (I ZnR IIVn )
~ (V12 I ZnR I}IVnX se = V 12 IV n X *se
where
X*se = Xse/l Zi1R I = XseIlRIV lR
is the per-unit short-circuit reactance. Thus, the current un-
balance is about 11 X se times as great as the voltage unba-
lance. At the usually encountered value of X :1: se = 0.2, it
is about five times as great.
Accordingly, supply lines for induction machines are to
meet especially stringent requirements as regards voltage
balance. If we take the temperature rise of the most loaded
phase as a yardstick, the limit of current unbalance will be
I 12IIn = 0.2
Then the per-unit current in one of the phases may be 1.2,
and the losses may be 1.44, so that the limit of voltage un-
balance will be .
V12IVll = (IulI n) X*sc = 0.2 X 0.2 = 0.04
Under voltage unbalance conditions, the total electro-
magnetic torque Tern is the sum of T ern.r due to the PPS
voltage and T em .a due to the NPS voltage, that is,
Tern = T em1 + T em. 2
where
mlV71R~
sQ1 [(R 1 +R~/s)2+X ~eJ
cit. 46 Unbalanced Operation 159
and
T - m 1V r2R ;
e m ,2 -
(s-2) Q1 [( .
R1 n:2 )2 -.J_ X2 ]
+ __
2-s I sc
In the mo tor modo of opera tion , when 0 < s < 1, T em,1 > 0
and T em , 2 < O. To retain the same result an t torque under
voltage unbalance, T em,1 mus t be increased by Tern 2' This
leads to an increase in the slip (about Tern ~/(Tem 1
- I T em,2 I) t imes), in creased losses, a higher temperature
rise, and a reduced efficiency .
"* 46-2 Unbalanced Impedances in the Rotor Winding

Phases
Th e unbalance of impedan ces in the phases of a balanced
rotor winding m ay arise under various service conditions.
In slip-ring (wound-rotor) induction motors, this may be
VI (F,) WI
( .
Tem.2 (c} Tem,Z
Fig . 46-2 MMFs in the case of an open -circu ited rotor phase:
(a) pul sating rot or mmf an d it s resolution" into forward an d backward mmr
wav es; ( b) st a tor an d rotor mmfs set ling up a "posittve-seq u entce field ; (c) stat or
an d rot or rnrnrs setting up a negative-seq uence field
caused by the difference in starting resistance between the

various phases. In squirrel-cage induction motors, impedance .
unb alance may arise from poor workmanship in, say, the
squirrel-cage structure (the reduc ed cross-sectional area of
some bars or a complete open-circuit du e to poor casting).
Impedanc e unbalance is most noticeable when one of the
phases is open-circuited (say , ph ase c in a star-connected
three-phase winding) . In such a case, the remaining phases,
a and b, carrying a common current, 1 a2 = -1 b2, form in
. .
effect a single-phase winding (Fig. 46-2a).
In such a winding, t 2 establishes a pulsating mml, i;

The axis of this mmf is oriented relative to the winding as
shown in the diagram, and rotates at the rotor angula r velo-
.
city, 0) = 0)1 (1 - s). The frequency of the pulsating mmf is
the sam e as that of I a 2 , and is equal to
f2 = sfl
wher e t, is the frequency of the supply line t o which the
stator winding is connect ed .
The events taking place when phase c is open -circuited
can best be analyzed, using the method of symmetrical com-
ponents. Bec ause the neutral point of the rotor winding is
not brought out, there is no ZPS current flowing, i 2 0 = O.
Nor is there any current flow ing in the op en-circuited
phase c:
. . .
I C2 = l c 21 + I C2 2 = 0
H ence , the positive and negative sequence currents in that
phase ar e equ al in magnitude, but opposite in direct ion
.
I C21 = - Ic 22
.
. .
where I C21 = 1 21 is the positive sequence current in the

three-phase rotor w inding, and I C22 = 1 2 2 is the nega tive
sequence current in the same wi nding .
In t erms of positive and negative sequence currents, th e
currents in ph ases a an d b may be written
. .. ..
I a2 = 1 a22 + Ia n = + a1 22 + a 2I 21
=i 2i V3exp ( - j:n/2)
. . . . .
I b 2 = I b 22 + I b 21 = a 21 22 + a I 21
= -i 21 V3 ex p ( - j:n/2)
As is seen, t hey are equal in ma gnitude , bu t opposite in
direction (the positive di rection of current flow is assum ed
to be from the finish to the start of the phase):
. . .
1 2 = Ia 2 = - l b 2
Ch. 46 Un balancod Operation 161
The pulsating rotor mmf, F 2' may be visualized as the

sum of two rotating mmfs, namely F 21m due to the positive
sequence currents, 1 21 , travelling with and relative to the
rotor at an angular velocity UlIS , and F 22m due to the nega-
tive sequence currents, travelling at UlI S , but against the
rotor.
The magnetic field in the machine may be treated as the
sum of the fi elds associated , respectiv ely, with the positive
and negative sequence currents in the rotor . The synchro-
nous field rotating at synchronous velocity Ull is produced
by the joint action of two mmfs, namely the stator mmf
. .
, .
Fum which is associated with the stator currents l u at line
'
frequency It and F 21 m associated with the positive sequence

currents in the rotor and rotating relative to the stator at
Ul 21 = ro + Ull S = Ull
The generation of t he synchronous field is illustrated in

Fi g. 46-2b. At any slip, thetotal mmf, Fum F21m , is such +
that the resultant flux is proportional to the primary (sup-
ply line) voltage, VI' Th e interaction of this field with j 21
produces an electromagnetic torque, T ern.r- which, in mo-
to ring, acts on the ro tor in the same direction as it rotates.
. .
The rotor mmf, F 2 2 m , due to 1 2 2 travels relat ive to the sta-
to r at Ul2 2 = ro - UlIS = (1 - 2s) Ull .
The field set up by the rotor mmf induces in the stator
winding an emf at
122 = Ul 2 2 /2:n; = 11 (1 - 2s)
For this emf, the stator wind in g may be taken as closed by
the infinitesi~al resistance of the supply line. Therefore,
th e currents 1 2 2 flowin g in the rotor winding (which acts as
the primary for th em) give rise t o currents 1 1 2 at frequency
122 in the stator winding (acting as a secondary) connected
across the supply line. These currents produce an mmf,
F12 m , which contributes to the production of a magnetic
'fi eld revolving at Ul 2 2
The production of the backward field rotating at Ul 2 2 is
illustrated in Fig. 46-2c. The interaction of this field with
11-02/.0
11 2 produces a torque, T ern.a - acting on the stator in the same

direction as F2 2 m rotates . A similar torque, Tern, 2 ' acts on
the rotor in the opposite direction.
The extent to which T ern,2 can manifest itself depends
on the value of slip . At 1 ~ s ; 0.5, the rotation of F 2 2 m
is in the negative direction (C0 2 2 < 0), and T ern,2 aids in
rotating the rotor much as T ern,1 does . At 0 .5 > s > 0,
t he rotation of F22m is in the pos itive direction (C0 22 > 0),
and T ern.a opposes the rotation of the rotor. At s = 0 .5",
F2 2 m is stationary relative t o the stator, the slip of the sta-
tor winding relative to this mmf reduces to zero , and 1 1 2
no longer flows in the stator winding (i1 2 = 0). This is
what may be treated as an ideal no-load condition for the
negative sequence rotor currents 1 2 2 , Because there is no
reaction from the stator, 1 2 2
. rem are the same as the magnetiz-
t ing current 1 2 2 0 required to
. set up the negative sequence
field and take on the lowest
possible value . At s = 0.5,
s the positive seq uence currents,
equal t o the negative sequence
currents, 1 21 = 1 2 2 = 1 2 2 0 ,
likewise fall in magnitude in
the same proportion.
At s = 0, the cond ition is
a short circuit for the synchro-
nous field and the st ato r cur-
Fig. 46-3 Torque-slip cha racte- rents Ill ' the rotor comes to a
ristics of an induction motor standstill relative to the syn-
with a rotor phase open -cir- chronous field, and no currents
cuited .
are induced in it, 1 21 = 1 2 2 =
O and I II = 1 11 0 ,
The reduction in 1 2 1 and 1 2 2 at s = 0 and s = 0.5 leads
to a proportionate decrease in T ern ,1 and T ern,2 and in the
resultant electromagnetic torque .. Tern = T ern ,1 +
T em .s - As
is seen from F ig . 46-3, at s = 0 .5, when the angular velocit y
is equal to . half the synchronous one , .
co = COl (1 - s) = 0.5co1
Ch. 47 Single-Phase Induction Motors 163
the resultant torque may take on a negative value. This is

the reason why a wound-rotor motor with one phase open-
circuited would cease picking up any more speed on reaching
half the synchronous speed. When run in such a condition on
load, the motor would have a reduced power factor, an im-
paired efficiency, and increased stator and rotor currents,
so that long-time operation would only be possible if the
external torque is less than half its rated value, Text
~ O.5T em ,R '
An open-circuited rotor phase also causes the stator cur-
rents to beat at a frequency equal to the difference in fre-
quency between the stator current components, In and
112 , that is,
1 = 11 - 122 = 211 s
The distortion of the torque-slip characteristic caused by
open-circuiting a rotor phase will usually decrease as the
resistance in the rotor phases is increased.
47 Single-Phase Induction Motors

471 Field of Application. General Arrangement
and Principle of Operation
Single-phase induction motors are inferior to three-phase
units in performance, and their use is warranted where only
a single-phase supply is available (mostly in household
appliances, such as refrigerators, washing machines, and
fans).
The primary is wound single-phase and is dropped in slots
on the stator core. The rotor is of the squirrel-cage type. .
In fact, the primary may be treated as a two-phase winding
in which one phase, say phase A (Fig. 47-1a) is open-circuit-
ed. The remaining phase B operates as a single-phase wind-
ing which occupies a half of the pole pitch and has a fairly
high distribution factor
k d I = 2 VZ/rc = 0.9
The current in the single-phase winding
ii = VZ I I cos WIt
produces a pulsating mmf which can be resolved into two

revolving waves, a forward wave, Fu m exp (j Uht), and a
backward wave, F 12m exp (- j colt). Their peak values are
Fum = F 12m = F 1m/2 = 11 211 w1krl1 k p1/ np
The forwa rd mmf wave rotates at Q l = col/p with the ro-
tor. Th e backward wav e does so at Q 2 = -Q l in the oppo-
si te direction. R elative to the rot or , the forw ard wave tra-
vels with a slip equal to
8 1 = 8 = (Ql - Q)/Q l
. whereas the backward wave does so with a slip equal to
8 2 = (-Q l - Q)/(-Q l ) = 2 - 8
The forward st at or mmf induces in the rotor phases a set of
currents, 1 2l , which establish a forward mmf wave in the
Fig. 47-1 Circuit of a sing le-phase motor derived from a tw o-phase

unit by opening one of t he ph ases
rotor, F2l m . Since F2l m produces a dampin g (retarding) effect,

the resultant forward mmf is
. . .
F ol m = Fu m + F 2l m
The forw ard revolving field corresponding t o t he above mmf
on the magnetizing curve has a peak va lue of B l m exp [j ((Ult
+ e.Gl)].
Similarly, the backward st ator mmf induces in the rotor'
phases a set of currents, 1 22 , which est ablish a backward!
Ch, 47 Single-Phase Induction Motors 165
. .
mmf, F 22 ' Since F 22 m has a damping effect , too, the resul-
tant backward mmf is given by
. . .
F o2m = F 1 2m +
F 22m
and the corresponding re volving field has a peak flux den-
si ty equal to B 2 m exp [-j (W1t +
1X2)] .
When the rotor is rotat ing with the forw ard fi eld (in which
case S l = S < 1 and S 2 = 2 - s ; 1), the backward field is
travell ing relative to the rotor
fas ter th an the forward fi eld
is (S 2Q1 > Sl Q1)' and the ro-
t or cur rents damp en it more
heavily tha n the forward field. <, H
As a result, the dominating "
\ '<l"tl
component is the forward field \
\
F o1m > F o2m and B 1 m > B 2m o--,---~...=c--04 :
The result is what is known I
/
as an ellipt ical revol ving fi eld /
/ k
tl
whos e flux density is giv en / ..,"
by
B= B 1m exp [j (W1t + 1X1 ) ]
+B 2m exp [- j (W1t + 1X2)] Fig. 47-2 Locus of the ell ipti-
Th e field owes its name cal in du cti on fie ld phasor
"elliptical" to the fact that the
locus of the flu x densi t y phasor is an ellipse (Fig. 47-2).
Its semi-major axis, 1-0, repre sents th e maximum flux
densi ty of th e field ,
B m a x = B 1 m + B 2m
wh ereas its semi-minor axis, 2-0, represents t he minimum
flux densi t y
B m i ll = B V II - B 2 m
It is to he noted th at at B 2 ffi = a the ellip tical field becomes
a circular one with a peak flux density B 1 m (th e circle is
shown das hed in the figure). At B 1 m = B 2m , we ha ve a p ul-
sating field with a peak flux den sity 2B 2 m (the ell ipse
contra cts t o a straigh t-line segment between points 5 and 6).
Th e t orque of a s ingle-phase motor is the sum of two tor-
qu es
T ern = T e m , l + T e m 2
where T em,l is due to the forward component of the ellipti-

cal field, and Tern 2 is due to the backward component of
the same field. A plot of these torques as functions of slip
appears in Fig. 47-3:
When the rotor is at standstill and 8 = 8 2 = 1, the for-
ward and backward fields are weakened by the rotor cur-
rents to the same degree, their peak flux densities are the
same, B l m = B 2 m , and there appear two torques, equal in
Tern
S
Sz
Fig. 47-3 Torque-slip characteristic of a single-phase motor (R; =

R I = 0.05, Xl = X; = 0.1, R o = 0, X o = 3)
magnitude but opposite in direction, Tern, 2 = - T em.r- Be-

cause of this, the starting torque of a single-phase motor is
zero, and it needs some special arrangement to set it going.
With movement somehow initiated in anyone direction,
an elliptical field is set up, and the dominant torque will
be one (Tem,l or T em ,2' as the case may be) associated with
the field rotating in the direction in which the motor was
started.
Referring to the torque-slip characteristic of a single-
phase motor in Fig. 47-3, it is seen to consist of two equal
parts, one corresponding to the forward and the other to
the backward sense of rotation. At 8 = 1,8 = 0, and 8 = 2,
the torque reduces to zero. At 8 ~ 8 m and 8 ~ 2 - 8 m , the
torque is a maximum. Once the motor is set going by a start-
ing arrangement in, say, the direction of rotation of the
B l m field and the electromagnetic torque exceeds the exter-
nal torque, then, after all transients have died out, the
motor will have settled to a steady-state operation with a
Gil. 47 Single-Phase Induction Motors 167
slip, corresponding to the intersection of the Tern =

SR,
f (s) and t (s) curves.
Text =
In a steady state with s = SR, the resultant field in a
single-phase motor is practically circular, as it is in a three-
phase motor. However, the rotor currents in a single-phase
motor weaken the backward component of the field, and this
leads to increased losses and a poorer performance as com-
pared with a three-phase unit. Therefore, size for size, a
single-phase motor will have a power' rating which is not
more than 50% to 60% that of a three-phase motor, andIts
efficiency and power factor are -lower .
Should any phase in the stator circuit of a three-phase
motor be open-circuited (as a result of, say, the fuse in
phase C blowing), the remaining two phases, A and B, will
form a single-phase winding in which each phase belt occu-
pies two-thirds of a pole pitch, and the motor will keep ope-
rating as a single-phase unit-a condition fraught with
grave consequences. Since the transition to single-phase ope-
ration does not entail an appreciable change in the speed
and external torque, the mechanical power developed by the
motor remains unchanged as well: .
P s = Tem,~Qs ~ Tem,lQI = PI
Hence, recalling that in three-phase operation
e, = V'S VuneIs'Y]s cos CPs
and in single-phase operation
PI = VIineII'Y]1 cos CPI
we may conclude that the current in single-phase operation
increases by factor of V3'Y] a cos cP S/'Y]l cos cPl' If we add to
this the reduction in the efficiency and power factor, the
increase in current will be by factor of more than V3. At
the same time , the copper loss in the stator phase will increase
more than three-fold and, if the motor is not disconnected
from the supply line, it may fail through overheating.
47-2 Basic Equations and Equivalent Circuit of

the Single-Phase Induction Motor
We shall consider the operation of a single-phase induction
motor as an unbalanced operation of a two-phase motor in
which phase A is disconnected (1 A = 0), and the remainin~
168 Part Foul' . Induction Machines
. .
phase B carrying a current I B = 1 1 forms a single-phase
winding con nec ted for a supply voltage V1 (see Fig. 47-1).
By an alo gy wi th a t hree-phase win ding (see Sec. 46-1),
an unbalan ced set of curre nts in a tw o-pha se winding may
be visualized as the sum of positive and negative sequ ence
currents:
. . . . .
IA = I A1 + I A2' IB = I Bl + I B2
wh ere
. .. .
I A1 = jI B1' I A2 = -jI B2
. . .
The positive sequence currents, I Bl = I u and I A1'
establish a forward mmf, Fum, and a forw ard ro t ating
field. The negative sequence currents produce a ba ckward
mmf and a ba ckward rotating fi eld. Sol ving the above set
of equations for the current components in ph ase B , with
phase A disconnected, we get:
j B1 = iu = (j n - jj A)/2 = j B/2
j B2 = j1 2 = (j B ji.A) /2 = j B/2 +
The current diagram an swering the above equations app ear's
in Fig. 47-1b.
Th e voltage across a single-phase winding may be visu-
alized as th e sum of. positive and nega tive sequ ence compo-
nents:
. . . .
V1 = VB = V B1 + V B2
On express ing VB1 and VB2 in terms of positive and negative
sequence cur rents and impedances ,
. . . .
V Bl = Vu = IuZ u = I 1Zu /2
and
VB2 = V12 = i 12Z 12 = j1 Z12/ 2
we obtain a voltage equat ion for a sing le- pha se motor
V 1 = / 1 (Zu/ 2 + Z12/ 2)
The t erms Zu and Z12 are the ph ase impedances of a two-
ph ase winding to th e positive and negativ e sequ ence cur-
r ents (see the equivalent circuit in Fi g. 46-1). To calcula te
Ch, 47 Single-Phase Ind uction Motors 169
ZIl and Zl ~' we may use t he equa tions give n in Sec. 46-1,
but it must be rememb er ed that R 2 an d X 2 should be con-
s trued as the imp edan ces referre d t o a phase of t he two-
ph ase winding . Therefore, t he im pe dance referring coeffi-
cient as given by E q . (42-8)
an d used in
Ro
and Z
jX o
X 2 = X 2k z l zt
III
III us t
be adj usted for the
number of ph ases in the If, i---<~==~
primar y tw o-phase winding , RO
T
IILl = 2. r:tz
On the basis of the vo lt- R, u
I Zl
age equa ti on , we may t reat "2 . joz
the current in a singl e-phase ..J!i.
mo.tor as on.e pr?duced in a:ffi'=---=,o c..=...--=--2J_~~:r= __
ser ies combination of ZIl/ 2 Fi g. 47- 4 Equivalent circu it of a
and Zl 2/2 due t o Fl ' T here- single-p ha se motor
fore, the equivalent cir cu it
1.00 .--- .-------,------,---,
of a single-pha se induction
motor can be obta ined by
0.75 H+--.-- -+- :-+--,H
com bi ning the equivalent
circ u its for positive a nd, ne-
0.50 I-I-f~ -Q-~ :E-- H
ga t ive sequence curren ts
appear ing in F ig . 46-1a and
b, with t he r esistan ces an d
rea ctances in those circuits
all divided by t wo. The o 0. 5
upp er porti on of t he equi- Fig . 47-5 P ositive and negative se-
val ent circuit t hus deri ved quence volt ages of a single-pha se -
app lies t o t he posi tive- mo tor as fu nctions of sli p (R ; =
seq uence qu antities , and = R 1 = 0.05 , X 1 = X;= 0.1 , R o=
th e low er portion to the ne- = 0, X o = 3)
ga t .ive-se quenco quantities.
The t orq ue of a single-phase mot or can be wri tten as the
sum of two torq ues , T em,l an d T ern.s - res pectively associated
with t h e positiv e-sequen ce vol ta ge , F Il , and t he neg at iv e-
seq uence voltage, F l 2:
1' !!-!II = T ern .r + 1'em, g

The equations for T em,l and T em, 2 (see Sec. 46-1) should be
adjusted for Ini = 2 and extended to include the posit ive
.and negative sequence vo ltages as found from the equiva-
lent circuits of Fig. 47-4 : .
.
V lI = Vi
. I ZllZ+Z12I
. .I
V i 2=V i Zll+Z12
Z I
Because , with VI held constant, V n and V I 2 vary with slip
approximately as shown in Fig. 47-5, the plots of T em, I
and T ern.z as funct ions of slip differ from those obtained
with V n or V I 2 held constant, and have the form shown in
Fig. 47-3 .
47-3 The Split-Phase Induction Motor

A split-phase motor has two wind ings, one called the run-
ning (run or main ) wind ing, RW, and an auxiliary, or
starting winding, SW, displaced from the run winding by an
electrical angle of n/2 (Fig . 47-6a) .
q----'0 Tr--. . - - - - - - - - , V1
V1
0---' - - - - t - - - , G
B
J(
RW
Zsw
F"m~
~Flzm II
(a, )
Fig . 47-6 Split-phase induction motor: (a) circuit and (b) phasor
diagram
To simplify the matters, let us assume that the two wind-

ings are identical in their design (wsw = Wnw and kw,sw
= kw,RW) ' The starting winding is connected to the supply
li ne via a phase-shifting impedance, Zsw, chosen such that
the current in the starting- winding, I sw , leads the current
in the run winding, I Rw , by as large an angle (called the

phase split) as practicable,
'IjJ = ljJRW - ljJsw
(Fig . 47-6b). Owing to this arrangement, the motor at start-
ing behaves as a two -phase unit.
If, with Zsw = - j/wC chosen such that ljJsw = (PRW
- rrJ2 , the phase currents form a bal anced set (I sw = I RW
and tp = rc/2) , a circular rotating field will be established
in the motor, and it will develop the largest possible st art-
ing torque . If, on the other hand , the phase currents form
an unbalanced set (I sw =1= I R W and 'IjJ =1= rc/2), what hap-
pens at starting can conv eniently be analyzed by the method
of symmetrical components.
To this end, let us identify the run winding with phase B
and the starting winding with phase A of a two -phase motor.
Then t he unbalanced set of currents , j RW = j Band i sw =
l A' shown in the di agram of Fig. 47-6b may be wr itten
as the sum of positive and negative sequence currents thus:

I RW =
.
I B =
. + I.
I BI B2
. . .
I sw = I A = I Al +I A 2
where

I Al
.
= jI BI
.
j B2 = (imv + dsw )/2
I
A 2 = -
.
jI B2
Graphically , I BI = I II can be found as the median OG of
triangle OCD or calculated from the equ ation
1 11 = I B1 = (lRw/2) -V 1 + k 2 - 2k cos (rc/2 + ljJ)
Similarly, I B2 = 112 can be found graphically as h alf the
side CD or calculated from the equation
1 12 = I B2 = (I Rw /2) V 1 + k 2 - 2k cos (n/2 -tl')
where k = I sw /l mv is the relative current in the starting
wind ing .
The peak values of the forward and backward stator mmfs ,
172 Part Four. Induction Mach ines
F n m and F 12m , are proportional t o the corr esponding cur-

rents, F n m ,....., I ll ' an d F 1 2m ,....., 11 2 , The pos itions that their
ph asors take up in space (see Fig. 47-6a) correspond to those
occupied by th e respective curren t ph asors (see Fig. 47-6b)
in t ime (relative to the t-axis) .
The ratio 1 12IIn varies with th e phase sp lit 111 and the
relative current in the starting wind ing, k = Isw /I Rw .
As is seen from Fig. 47-7, where these dependences are shown
graphically, 1 12 reduces to zero
1.00 Q---::---:---.-------.- ----, and sets up a circular field
only when k = 1, In = I nw
0.75 1--~-_l__-___!_-_1 = I sw and 11J = n /2, wh ich
can be obtained by ins erting
in th e starting-winding circuit
a suitably ch osen capacitive
r eactance (see above ). In all
0.25 I---f--~_~..--___J other cases , where any other
capacitive reactance or a re-
sistance is insert ed in the start-
o 7(/8 .;"r/4- ing-winding circuit , the ph ase
split for the starting current
Fig. 4.7-7 Eff ect of s tar ting- will be
windi ng curre n t and its ph ase
Oll the nega tive-sequ ence cur - 11 J = Cj)nw - (Psw < n /2
rent (as compared with th e po-
si tlvc-sequence cur ren t) and its relat ive magnitude
. will be k < 1. Then , in addition
to a forw ard mmf, Fum , du e to 1 11l th ere will appeal' a back-
ward mmf, F 12m , due to / 1 2 < In. As a result, an elliptical
field will be produced, an d the starting torque will be redu-
ced owin g to th e action of the backward fi eld .
If we connect the starting windin g to the supply line
directly (Zsw = 0, (Psw = (PHW, and 1p = 0), then / 12 will be
equ al to I n , a pulsating field will be produced , and th ere
will be no starting torque .
Although the best starting con ditions are obtained when a
capacitance is in serted in the starting winding, this form of
starting is used relatively seldom , wh en a very large start-
ing torque is essent ial. More frequ ently, the necessary
ph ase split is obtain ed by ins erting a resistanc e, and the
machin e is usuall y call ed a resistan ce split-phase mo tor. As
a way of redu cing the valu e of the external resistance, the
starting winding is mad e to have an in creased resistance
of its own (this is done by usin~ a smaller size ~f wire and a
bifilar arrangement for some of the turns). Upon starting,

the auxiliary winding in a resistance split-phase motor
must be disconnected from the supply line, or else it might
be overheated and the effici-
ency of the motor might be
impaired. As a rule, the auxi-
liary winding is disconnected 2 f--_1-l-1-
by a centrifugal switch, a time
relay, a current relay, or by '-.
f-I--J----J:>.--_ -.. ""~
a manual switch (symbolized
by K in Fig. 47-6a).
The torque-slip characteri-
stic of a resistance split-phase a
motor is shown in Fig. 47-8.
The auxiliary winding is dis- Fig. 47-8 Load-slip characteri-
connected at s = 0.3. stic of a split-phase motor:
1 - with th e starting winding
Where necessary, a three- hrought in; 2 - with the starting
phase induction motor can be winding disconnected
operated as a resistance split-
v
phase unit. Two of its phases
form a main winding in which
..
each phase belt occupies two-
thirds of a pole pitch. The
third phase serves as the start-
ing winding in which each
phase belt occupies one third
of a pole pitch. The two wind-
ings are displaced from each
other by n/2. The run winding
has twice as many turns as Fig. 47-9 Connection of a three-
phase motor to a single-phase
the auxiliary one, WRW = supply
2wsw, and a fairly large dis-
tribution factor, kd,RW=3V3/2n = 0.826. A preferable con-
nection of a three-phase motor to a single-phase supply is
shown in Fig. 47-9. In performance, a three-phase motor
connected as shown in the figure is equivalent to a specially
designed split-phase unit. Its full-load power in single-phase
operation will be no more than 50 % to 60 % of that in
the case of three-phase supply. The desired phase split can
be introduced by a resistance or a capacitive reactance, so
chosen that the starting torque is a maximum (see below).
Upon starting, it is usual to disconnect the auxiliary wind-
ing from the supply line.
47-4 Capacitor Motors

Capacitor motors are single-phase induction motors that
use . a capacitor (or capacitors) in the auxiliary-winding
circuit to cause a greater phase split between the currents
in the main and auxiliary windings.
0--..-.....---_._-,---,- +
11
(a)
Fig. 47-10 A circular field in a capacitor molar: (a) circuit and (b)
phasor diagram
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 47-10a, the main wind-

ing is treated as phase B of a two-phase motor, and is con-
nected to the supply line directly. The auxiliary winding is
treated as phase A and is seen to be connected to the supply
line via a capacitance C chosen such that a circular field
is set up in operation on full load.
Both windings have identical phase belts, each occupy-
ing an angle of :rrJ2, and the same winding factors, k W A =
k w B' The number of turns, W B, in winding B connected
directly to the line is found from an electromagnetic analy-
sis of the motor in balanced two-phase operation. In this
form of analysis, it is initially assumed that winding A
has the same number of turns, w~ = W B' On this assump-
tion, the currents, voltages, phase angles between them,
and power in both phases (or windings) turn out to be the
Ch. 47 Singl e-Pha se Induction Motors 175
sam e,
VB=VA
In = I A
CPB = CPA
P n = V nI n cos (f! B = VAI A cos rpA = P A
The phase A quantities at WA = W B are primed and repre-
sented on the diagram of Fig. 47-10b by dashed lines. Also,
since a balanced two-phase supply produces a circular field,
the ph ase curren ts and volt ages ar e shifted in time-phase by
i:
n /2, t hat is, = jiB and VA = Fir B' It should be stressed,
however, that such a voltage on phase A can only be obtain-
ed wi th a two-phase supply.
If, on the other hand, phase A having the same number of
turns as phase B is energized from a sin gle-phase supply,
it will, in the general case , be impossible to adjust the
value of C so that the phase A voltage is VA = Fir B which is
essential for a circular field to be established. The situation
is usu ally corrected by additionally adjusting the number of
turns in winding A . The circular field will be re tained if ,
in passing to a winding with WA =1= WB, t he phase A mmf
remains unchanged:
F A = wAI A = wn I A = FA = cons ta nt
Hen ce, the phase A current is
I A = IAwn1w A = I BWn1w A = I nin AB
where n AB = wAlw n is the turns ratio of a capacit or motor.
Since the circular field is retained, the phase A voltage
changes in proportion to the turns ratio:
V A = V 'AWA/Wn = V nnA n
At the same time, the angl e CPA = rp B and the ph ase A
power remain unaffected:
P A . VAI A cos CPA = V AI A cos (Pn = consta nt
A cha nge in W A leads t o a change in both V A and I A- Th e
objectiv e is to choose such a value of W A that the voltage
across the seri es circuit of phase A and capacitanc e C
is th e same as the supply voltage, Ti, that is,
. . .
VA +VC=V
and the voltage across th e cap acitance lags behind th e ph ase

A current by n /2, tha t is,
. .
Ve = - jI AI c
As is seen from the ph asor di agram 1I1 Fi g. 47-10b, the
desired phase A vol tage is
V A = V n ta n cP n
H ence,
nA n = VA IV n = tan (Pn
and the number of turns in winding A requi red to set up
a circular field is
IV A = W nn A B = W n tan cP n
Th e value of capac it ance re quire d for a circ ular field to ex ist

is given by
C = I n cos (P nl ro V t an (P n
This capacitance draws a fairly large amount of react ive
power
Qe = Ve lA = VI nisin (Pn
I n fac t, it is the sam e as the total power t aken by the motor
in the cas e of a circular field :
S = VI = V I Bl sin CP n
It is to be no ted that with the value of capacitance ad-
justed as explained above, the circular fi eld will only exi st
at rated load . At any other lo ad, the bal ance of mmfs will
be upset , and in addition t o t he forw ard field t here will be
a back ward component.
Som etimes, the backward fi eld pro ves so strong that the
starting to rque obtained with the capacitance chos en to su it
the ra t ed condition is insufficient . This drawb ack can be
rectified by placing an auxiliary capacitance, Cs, in parallel
with the main capacitance C for the duration of starting
(shown by th e dash ed line in Fig. 47-10a ). This modification
is usu ally known as the two-val ue capac itor motor.
A conventiona l three -phase induction motor can likewise
be us ed as a capacitor motor. The ca pa cita nce required for
connection t o a sin gle-phase supply line (see Fig. 47-9)
may be found from the equation given earli er . In doing so,
however, it is important to remember t hat the effective
t urns in the A phase containing a capacitor and those in
the phase B which contains no cap acitor (see Fig. 47-9)

cannot be varied at will,
W A = wIk w A , W B = 2wI k w B
(where WI is the number of turns per phase in a three-phase

winding) , so the turns ratio cannot be varied at will either:
n A B = W A /W B = kW A /2kw B = 0.95 -7- t2 X 0.826) = 0.575
Therefore, when the value of capacitance is found from the

equation
C = I B cos !P B / WV tan !P B
a circ ula r fi eld can be obtained only wh en the load on the
moto r is s uch that
tan (P B = k A B = 0.575
!P B = 0.521 ~ 30
cos !P B = 0.866
In adjust ing the value of capacitance for the rated operating
conditions with a single-pha se supply , V should be under-
stood as the rated line voltage for a star connection, I B
as the rated phase cur r en t , and !P B as the phase split between
the phase curren t an d volt age under the r ated three-phase
operating conditions . Also, if (P B =1= 0.521, the field will
contain both a forw ard an d a backward component. As (PB
departs more fr om the value 0.5 21 ~ 30, the ba ckward
componen t pl ays an in creasingl y grea ter role in the total
field.
47- 5 The Shaded-Pole Motor

In sk etch form, the arrange ment of a typical sh ad ed-pole
mot or is shown in Fi g. 47-11a. Th e mo tor has a squi rre l-cag e
rotor , 2, and a concentrated single-phase stator winding 1
wound on salient st ator pol es. P arts of each salient st at or
pol e, nearer t o the trailing edge, are enclosed by heavy,
shorted, single-turn copper coils , 3. These ar e called "shading
coils".
Assuming t hat the m agn etic circ ui t of -the motor is linear
and using the principle of superposition , let us examine the
fields set up in the stator winding separately. The sin gl e-
phase -winding current II establi shes a pulsat.in g flux, (I\ i,
178 Part Four. Induction Machine s
i n the lead ing , or unshaded , part of each pole, and a pul-

sat ing fl ux, (PIS ' in the trailing , or shaded part of the
. .
pole. In the shading coils, cD IS in duces an emf, E sc, lagging
behind the flux by n /2, and giving rise to a current , I se wh ich
lags behind E sc by an angle (Pse. In turn, i; sets up a flux,
ipse, which has a shading effect on (PIS in the trailing (shaded)
.pI"
?
t.
J
-- --l (a)
Fig . 47- 11 Shaded-pole motor:

(c) arran gement and (b) st at or flux diagram
par t of the sa lient stator pol e. As a conse quence, the result-

ant flux in the shaded part of the pole
. . .
cPs:!: = o,, + cP se
lags in t ime behind the flux in the leading (unshaded) part,
c])IU ' by an ang le 1/J. Because , the axes of cps:!: and c])IU are
additionally displaced from each other by a certain ang le
in space, there app ears a ro tating fie ld travelling in t he
. .
di rect ion shown in the drawing . As cI)s:E and cI)1U diff er
in magnitude and are shifted from each other in time and
space by small angles , the rotating statal' fie ld is elliptical
rather than circular . Yet, the shaded-pole motor develops
a sufficiently large starting torque, T ern ,s = O.2T em,H to
O. 5 Te ~l , R' .
The st arting performance of a sh aded-pole motor is adver-
sely affected by the third space har monic of the rotating
field . Among other things, it br ings abou t a si zeab le drop
.,
cit. 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 179
in the torque at the rotational speed one-third of the syn-

chronous one (see Sec. 43-5). In motors rated at over 20 or
30 W, this effect can be minimized by placing magnetic
shunts (at 4 in Fig. 47-11a) between the pole-pieces, or by
increasing the air gap under the leading (unshaded) pa rts
of the poles, or by winding t he shading coils wi th two or
t hree t urn s diff ering in width, ins tead of a singl e turn.
Becaus e of the heavy losses in the sh ading coils, the
efficiency of shaded-pole motors is rather low (25 % to
40 %). Commercially, they are builtin sizes from a fraction
of a watt to 300 Wand are used in household fans, record
players, tape recorders, etc.
48 Special-Purpose Induetion
Machines
* 48- 1 The Induc tion Generator

If we connect an induction machine to a source of react ive
power and make the rotor run at a spe ed exceeding that of
the magnetic field (Q > Q 1 ) , the emf in the rotor winding
will be reversed as compared with the motor mod e of opera-
tion (see Chap. 43). As a consequence, the active components
of 1 2 and II will also be reversed (in comparison with motor-
ing), and the machine will deliver act ive power to an extern-
al circuit- this will be the generat or mode of operation.
A major roadblock t o a wider use of induction genera t ors
is that they cannot alone supply a power sys te m, but must
always opera te in parallel with synchronous machines,
thereby increasing the load.
In the circle diagram of an induction machine (see
Fig. 43-9), the generator mode of operation corresponds to
the lower half-circle of currents, lying between points A o
and R oo. Th e conditions under which an induction gener ator
delivers act ive power t o an external cir cui t are defined by
points on the current circle lying below the line OB. The
line A oA 1 represents the mechanical power P ill ~ P 2 that
must be applied to the generator by a prime mover.
Induction generators are mostly of the squirrel-cage t ype
and have found a limited field of application , mostly at
12 *
I :, .
180 Part Four. Induction Macilines
small unattended hydroelectric stations, because they do

not call for frequency or voltage control.
Instead of synchronous generators, the reactive power
needed to set up a rotating magnetic field in an induction
generator may be taken from a bank of capacitors arranged
as shown in Fig. 48-1. In the case of a resistive-inductive
load, the capacitors can additionally supply reactive power
for the load as well.
With the reactive power supplied by a bank of capacitors,
an induction generator operates by self-excitation, as it
Fig. 48-1 Connection of an induction generator using self-excitation:

IG - induction generator; DM - drive motor; C - capacitors: ZL -- load
impedance
utilizes the residual magnetization in the rotor. In the

circumstances, the capacitors must of necessity be very
large, so the entire unit is expensive. This is why capacitor-
supplied induction generators are only used for special
purposes.
"* 48-2 Induction Frequency Converters

The frequency of the emf induced in the rotor of an induc-
tion machine is decided by the difference in velocity between
the rotor and the magnetic field
12 = (Q1 - Q) (p/2n) = s11
where Q > 0 when the rotor is travelling with the field.
A voltage at 12 can be picked off the slip-rings of a wound-
rotor induction machine. In this way, it can be used as a
frequency converter.
The output voltage of an induction frequency converter
may be at a fixed or a variable frequency. In the former case,
its rotor must rotate against the field if it is desired that
12 be higher than 11 (s> 1), or with the field, if it is desired
that 12 be lower than 11 (s < 1).
Ch. 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 181
When 12> 11' an induction frequency converter is driven

by an external motor, 111 (usually an induction or a synchro-
nous one, see Fig. 48-2) , which applies an amount of power,
P 2' to the frequency conver-
ter; the latter operates as a
brake, with s ; 1 (see Sec .
43-1). The directions of power
flows in this case are shown
in Fig. 48-2 by solid arrows .
When 12 < 11' the rotor of
an induction frequency con-
verter is braked by the electro-
magnetic torque from M which Fig . 48-2 Connection of an in-
is now operating as a genera- duction frequency conver ter :
P,-power dr awn by conver t er fro m
tor and delivers its output .to sup ply li ne; Pl\f'-power drawn by
the same system as the frequen- m ot or from supp ly li ne; P .-mecha-
ni cal pow er tran sfer red by sh aft;
cy converter . The directions P L - load power; M-motor; FC -
of power flows in this case are fr equency converter
shown in Fig. 48-2 by dashed
arrows. The frequency converter is now operating as a motor.
Recalling that
and
we obtain
I 2 -- - S I I -- ~~l-Q
Q1
I 1-- Pm =F p rci
Pm
1
where the "+" and "-" signs apply respectively to the

braking mode (12) 11) and the motor mode (12 < 11) of
operation, Pt and Pm are the numbers of pole pairs in the
frequency converter and motor, respectively. If the drive
DlO tor, 111 , is an induction machine, the above equation
gives an approximate value of 12' on neglecting the slip .
On neglecting losses, the active and reactive powers are
given by
P l o a d = sP l
Qlo a rl = SQl
Pm = P 2 = (1 - 1/s) P l oa d
The value of 12 can be varied continuously by adjusting 11
or the rpm of the drive motor.
Induction frequency converters are mainly used to obtain

an alternating voltage at 100-200 Hz ord inarily utilized
to energize induction drives operating at speeds in excess of
3000 rpm (electric saws and some other hand-held electric
tools).
"* 48-3 An Induction Machin e in the Transformer

Mode of Op eration
(1) Phase regulator. If we restrain the rotor of an induc-
tion machine from rotating, the phase shift between E1 and
E 2 induced, respectively, in the stator and rotor windings,
'~~ !wv, v, fi _ _
VJv1 .c .
Vi"'E
-,
z Il
I' _1-
.
C -, _
Fig. 48-3 The circuit and voltage/phasor diagram of a phase regulator
will be decided by the electrical angle ~ between the phase

axes, because both emfs are induced by a common rotating
magnetic field . A change in p will immediately lead to a
change in the phase of E 2
Such a form of phase control is utilized in the phase regu -
lator shown in Fig . 48-3. Basically, it is a three-phase wound-
rotor induction machine operated in the transformer mode ,
that is, with its rotor locked (see Sec. 43-1). The stator
winding is connected to the supply line , and the rotor
winding is connected via the slip-rings to a load. If we neglect
the resistances and leakage induct ive reactances of the
stator and rotor windings, then
.
VI =
.
- E 1 and V 2 = E 2
. .
Furthermore, if the two windings are identica l,
WI = 10 2
k W1 = k W 2
E] = E2
Ch. 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 183
If we turn the rotor, the phasor V 2 = E

2 will also turn
relative to the phasor VI = -E 2
The secondary voltage across the rotor on load, with
allowance for the winding impedances, can be found, using
the equations of an induction machine, Eqs. (42-1), and
setting s = 1. The rotor voltage equation must be extended
to include an additional term accounting for the voltage
drop across the referred load impedance Zioad, so it will
be written as
where
. .
V z = ZioartIZ
The rotor of the phase regulator is acted upon by an app
reciahle electromagnetic torque which can be found from
Eq. (29-2). To overcome it, the rotor needs to be assisted
by a booster, usually in the form of a worm-pair transmis-
sion. The work pair is designed so that the rotor can be
moved by hand or by a small electric motor. The worm also
serves to lock the rotor in the chosen position.
(2) Three-phase induction regulator. A three-phase induc-
tion machine operated in the transformer. mode may be
Fig . 48-4 Circuit and voltage phasor diagram of a three-phase indue-

ti on regula tor . . '. : '
employed for a continuous voltage adjustment . To this end,

the stator winding should be connected to a phase winding
of the locked rotor as shown in Fig. 48-4, so that the two
make up an autotransformer .
The primary winding , usually placed on the rotor 1 is
connected to a supply line with a ' phase voltage VI' The
rotating magnetic field set up by this winding induces an
'184 Part Four. In duction Machines
. ' .'
emf E I in the primary and another emf E 2 in the secondary.
The phase voltage of th e secondary, if we neglect its imp ed-
ance , is t he vectorial sum of the supply voltage VI and the
secondary in du ced emf E 2 :
. .
Th e phase shift between the VI and E 2 vectors and, as a
consequence, the va lue of V 2 depend on the elect ri cal angle
bet ween t he phase axes of the st at or .an d rot?r windings . If
we turn the rotor , the t ips of the E 2 and V 2 vectors will
move along a circle . The min imum an d max imum va lues of
V 2 corres pon d t o the ang les ~ = 0'" and ~ = 180 ,
0
V2m 1n = VI - E 2
V2m a x = VI +
E2
If we ignore the resistance, R I , an d reactance, Xl ' of the
pri mar y, then VI = E I . The emfs in duced in the primary
and secondary are conn ected by a relation of the form
E I/E 2 = wlkwl/W2kw2
The pr imary of an induct ion regulator may be star- 0 1'
delta-connected. The rotor can be turned and locked in the
des ired position in much the
same way as in a phase regula-
tor.
(3) Rotating -field transfor-
mer for frequency and phase
conversion. A still furth er use
for an ind uction mach ine in
which the rotor is restrained
from rotation is phase and
frequency conversion Sin ce
the rotor need not move relative
to the stator , no clearance,
or . air gap, nee d be pr ovi ded
Fig . 48-5 Rotating-field trans-
between th em. So, in order to
former reduce the magnetizing cur-
rent, the outer core , 4, ma y be
press-fitted on the inner core,
3 (Fig. 48-5). The pri m ary , 1 , and the secondary, 2, which
remain stationary relative to each other, may , as a way of
Ch. 48 Special-P urpose Induction Machines 185
reducing the leakage, be dropp ed in the slots of say, th e

inner core alon e. Then the other core may be made slotless,
as a smooth ring press-fitted on the in ner core after t he
conductors have been placed in the inner-core slots . Th e
primary of a rotating-field transformer does not differ in
any way from tho stator winding of an induction m achine.
More sp ecifi cally, it is a heteropolar winding with PI pol e
pairs, m l = 3 ph ases, and WI turns per phase. The primary
is connec ted to an a.c, supply line with a phase voltage VI
at frequency 11' and sets up a 2pcpole rotating field whose
lines are drawn in the figure . Th is fie ld rotates at Q l
= 2:n/ l lpl ' Th e desi gn of the secondary depends on th e
intended applicat ion of the rotating-field transformer. If it
is intended for phase conversion , the second ary will have
the sam e number of pol e pairs as the prim ar y, P2 = PI'
and will only differ in the numb er of phases, m 2 , and th e
number of turns per phase, W 2 The emfs induced in th e
phases of the secondary winding form a balanced m 2-phas e
set
E 2 = (w2kw2/wlkwl) E l
. .
The ph ase shift betw een E 2 and E l depend s OIl the relative
position of th e ph ase axes in core slots . At no-lo ad,
. . ..
VI = -El and V2 = E 2
The on-load currents I I and 1 2 and the on-load voltage V 2
can be found in exactly the sam e manner as in the case of
a phase regulator.
If a rotating-field t ransformer is intend ed for frequency
conversion , it utilizes the dis tortion in the sinusoidal dis-
tribution of the ro t ating-fi eld flux in the airgap owing t o
core saturation . As has been explained in Sec. 40-2, th e
tooth sa tur at ion in th e region of hi gh mmf "flattens" th e
rotating-fi eld flux waveform, so that its Fourier expansion
has, in addit ion to a 2pcpole fundamental t erm, also a num-
ber of odd harmonics wi th OPl' 10pl ' 14pl pol es etc . To
accentuate this effect, a ro tating-field t rans former intended
for fr equency conve rsion is buil t with a heavily saturated
mag net ic circuit (wi th a maximum tooth flux of over 2 T) ,
and has a secondary desi gn ed to respond onl y to one of th e
higher (usually , third) harmonic of the rotating field .
Wh en the secondary responds to the third harmonic, a ro-
ta t ing-field transfo rmer operates as a fr equ ency trebler.
It has a three-phase winding (m1 = 3) which sets up a

2pepole "flattened" field rotating at an angular velocity
Q I = 2n/1/p1' Because, in travelling, the field does not
change in waveform, all of its harmonics travel at the same
angular velocity, Q1' To give a voltage at three times the
original frequency, the secondary must he a single-phase one
(m 2 = 1) with P2 = 3Pl pole pairs . In such a winding, the
flattened field mainly induces the 3rd harmonic of emf with
3Pl pole pairs , relative to which the secondary winding has
a winding factor of close to unity. Its frequency is three
times the primary frequency
/2 = P2Q1/ 2n = 3/1
The flux linkage of th e secondary with the fundamental
flux and also with the 10Pe, 14p1-' 22p1-pole and higher
(hut other than triplen) harmonics is zero, so they induce
no emf in the secondary .
To prevent the generation of emfs and currents at three
times the original frequency in the primary, it is chorded
by one-third of a pole pitch. Then its winding factor relative
to a field with P2 = 3p1 reduces to zero.
48-4 The Solid-Rotor Induction Motor
As its name implies, this type of motor has a solid rotor
in the shape of a cylinder (Fig. 48-6), which acts as both a
core and a current conductor.
The rotating magnetic field
penetrates . the rotor to a
certain depth and induces eddy
currents in it. The eddy cur-
rents interact with the mag-
netic field and produce an
electromagnetic torque. Owing
to the skin effect, the eddy
currents are flowing in a rela-
tively thin layer at the penetra-
tion depth . The equivalent pe-
Fig. 48-6 Solid-rotor induction netration depth depends on the
motor
frequency of cyclic magnetiza-
tion of the rotor. For a motor
designed to operate from a 50-I-Iz supply, the equivalent
penetration depth at starting (8 = 1) is as little as 1 to
3 mm; at running (8 = 0.05), it is about 5 to 'l5 mm ,
Ch, 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 187
In a lineal' approximation, the penetration dep th varies

inversely as II s. This results in a change in the cross-section
of the layer in which eddy currents can flow, in the effective
rotor resistance
R~~R~oVs
where R zo is the referred effective res istance at s = 1, and
in the leakage inductive reactance X z of the rotor . There-
fore, at starting R 2 is large, whereas X z is small; as the slip
decreases, R 2 goes down and X 2goes up. As a result, a solid-
rotor induction motor has a relatively large starting torque
T ern, s/Tern,R = from 1.5 La 2.0
In fact, it is inferior to a squirrel-cage motor only in terms
of efficiency and power factor. This is because at rated load
and at s = 0.02 to 0.1, the penetration depth is still small,
whereas the resistance to curren t and the reluctance to flux
are high, so the electric loss in the rotor and the mag-
netizing current are also high .
The performance of a solid-rotor motor can sometimes be
improved by fastening copper short-circuiting rings to the
ends of the solid rotor. The copper rings have a substantially
smaller resistivity than the steel rotor and serve the same
purpose as the end rings on the squirrel-cage structure .
As a result, the effective resistance of the solid rotor is
brought down owing to an increase in the conductance of
the rotor ends. The same purpose can be served by applying
a thin coat of copper (0.1 to 0.3 mm thick) to the outer sur-
face of the rotor. Also, the performance of the motor can be
improved by using a material for the rotor that would have
an optimal combination of conductance and perrneance .
Recently, alloys have been developed with a higher conduct-
ance and a lower permeance than steel. They substantially
increase the penetration of the field and improve the per-
formanceof the motor.
Solid rotor motors are mostly used in automatic control
systems. Since the rotor is very robust mechanically, machi-
nes in this class can be built for very high rotational speeds
(to 000-100 000 rpm and more). Such motors are intended
for operation from a supply at 400 to 1 500 Hz and higher,
and are used in special-purpose drives, for example in
gyroscopic systems .
Although they are relatively simple to build, solid-rotor
motors have not yet been used in general-purpose industrial

drives. The main cause is their low efficiency in operation.
In what may be looked upon as a modification of the above
type of motor, the rotor is made hollow, of a ferromagnetic
material so as to reduce the mass and moment of inertia of
the rotor, or the drag cup, as it is usually called. The wall
thickness of the drag cup is chosen to be equal to the penet-
ration depth under operating conditions. At 400-1000 Hz,
it is 0.3-0.5 mm , whereas at 50 Hz it rises to 1-3 mm ,
Because the magnetic flux has its path closed through the
walls of the drag cup, this type of motor requires no inner
stator. In this respect, it compares favourably with motors
in which the drag cup is fabricated of a nonmagnetic material
(see the next section). Unfortunately, the magnetic drag
cup has a low efficiency, a low power factor, and some 0 thor
important drawbacks. Because of this, its use is limited.
~8-S The Nonmagnetic Drag-Cup Motor

In this form of motor, the rotor (see Fig. 48-7) is a thin-
walled, hollow cylinder, or cup, 3, fabricated from a conduct-
ing, nonmagnetic material (usually, an aluminium alloy).
The drag cup rotates in the
air gap between an outer, 1,
and an inner, 2, stator core.
One of the stators (in our case,
this is the outer core) carries a
single- or polyphase winding.
The electromagnetic torque
< ; J'lNt---I-Z acting on the drag cup is pro-
3 duced by the interaction of the
rotating field with the eddy
currents induced in the drag
cup.
Fig. 48-7 Nonmagnetic drag- Nonmagnetic drag-cup in-
cup motor duction motors are mainly used
as control or servo motors in
various automatic control sys-
tems. Their popularity is in part owing to a very valuable
property-the extremely low moment of inertia of the drag
cup. Drag-cup motors come in sizes from a fraction of a watt
to several hundred watts for 50, 200, 400, 500, and 1 000 Hz.
In contrast to the solid rotor, the wall thickness of the
Gil. 4S Special-Purpose Induction ~1achines lSf)
drag cup is a small fraction of the penetration depth even

at starting. Therefore, eddy currents are uniformly distribu-
ted acr oss the wall thickness at any slip, and the referred
effective resistance of the drag cup, R 2, is independent of
the slip . Also, the leakage inductive reactance, X 2, of the
drag cup is so small that it may be neglected in calculations.
The value of R'z can readily be found, if we ignore the resist-
ance of the ends and imagine that it consists of Z2 elementary
bars. The resistance of such a bar is
R b = pl/t Z 2 1:::>.
where l is the rotor length, I:::>. is the wall thickness of the
drag cup, and t Z 2 = 2nR/Z 2 is the extent of the bar in a
tangential direction. Then, using Eqs. (41-22) and (42-8),
we get
R'z = 2plin I (wI k w l )2/ n R I: :>.
where R = radius of the drag cup
InI = number of phases in the stator winding
WI = number of turns in the stator winding
kWI = winding factor of the stator winding
Although the walls of the drag cup are made as thin as
practicable (0.1 to '1.0 mm), the nonmagnetic gap between
the two stators is fairly large (0.4 to 1.5 mm). Therefore,
the magnetizing current in a drag-cup motor is markedly
higher than it is in a squirrel-cage motor, being 0.8 to
0.9 of the rated (full-load) current . This leads to a reduction
in the power factor (cos (PR = 0.2 to 0.4), increased stator
copper losses, and a decrease in efficiency to 0.2-0.4 (under
rated operating conditions) .
48-6 Electromagnetic lnducfion Pumps

Electromagnetic induction pumps for liquid metals are
a modification of a.c . MHD machines. In such pumps, the
movable member is the liquid metal being pumped. It is
set in motion by a travelling or a rotating magnetic field
established by a three-phase a .c . winding.
According to the shape of the liquid-metal conduit inside
the magnetic field, such pumps are cl assed in to helical
(spiral) and linear.
Helical (spiral) induction pump. This type of induction
pump (Fig. 48-8) is arranged similarly to a drag-cup induc-
tion motor. It, too, has two stators, outer 1 and inner 2.
The slots in the external core accommodate a three-phase

winding connected to a supply line (sometimes, the three-
phase winding may be arra nged on both the outer and inn er
core). The ail' gap between the stators is occupied by a flat
nonmagn etic-steel conduit 4, to guide the liquid metal 3.
In Fig . 48-8, the liquid-metal conduit completes one turn
around the inner core and has a cross-sectional area equal
to ~l, where ~ is the radial
thickness of liquid metal, and
l is the length of the core and
liquid-metal conduit in the
axial direction. More oft en
than not , the liquid-metal
conduit has several turns
wound around the stator.
The currents flowin g in th e
stator winding set up a rotating
field which induces eddy cur -
rents in the liquid metal. The
interaction of the eddy CUl'-
Fig . 48-8 Heli cal (sp ir al) in- rents with the field gives rise to
duction pump electromagnetic forc es t hat
drive the liquid m et al at a
lineal' sp eed u in the direction of fiel d rot at ion .
Energy conversion in a single -turn helical electromagnetic
pump can be describ ed by the equations and equivalen t
circuit applicable to the drag-cup induction motor, except
that the l eakage inductive reactance of the "rotor" is set
equal to zero (see above) . Then the electromagnetic power
transferred from the stator to the liquid metal is, in accord
with Eq. (41-32), given by
P em = 1n 1 E 1/ z = psulB ~nhMp
wh ere E 1 = 2 V 2 flWl kwl LlB m = mutual emf in th e stator
winding
I z = E1s/R z -= referre d current III the Iiquid
m etal
R z = referred resist ance of th e liquid metal (to be
found as for the drag cup, see above)
p = pole pa irs of the field
Ul = 2nfl = RQ 1 = lineal' speed of the field
L = pole pitch
p = resistivity of the liquid metal
Ch. 48 Specia l-Purpose Induction Machines 191
B m = peak fl ux density
S = (Ul - U)/Ul = slip of the li quid metal re lative
to the field
The elect romagnetic force exerted on the liqu id meta l is
given by
N = Tem/R = PemfQ1R = P cm/Ul = psuI B~,;T: lMp
and the pressur e built up by the pump is
H = N/l f".. = psu1B k clp
The mechanical power of the pump is given by
Ps = N u = (N/ lf".. ) (u lf"..) = HQ
wh ere
Q = ult:
is the volumetric flow rate through (delivery of) the pump .
When the li quid-m et al conduit makes 12 turns aro und the
in ner stator, the pressur e develop ed by .the pump, H, is
as many t imes greater, but the flow rate (or, rather, delivery
of the pump) is decreased by the same facto r .
F lat linear inducti on pump. This form of pump (Fig. 48-9)
resem bles a li near induction mach ine (see Sec. 48-7). It
Fig. 48-9 Flat li near induction pump
consists of two flat stators or inductors, 1. The slots made

in the inductors carry three-phase multipole windings, 2.
The air gap between t he ind uct ors is taken up by a flat
condu it, 4. Its rec tang ula r cross-section is filled by the liquid
metal being hand led . The interaction of the travelling field
in the inductors with the eddy currents induced in the
liquid metal 3 giv es rise to electromagnet ic forces. When
combine d, t he electromagne t ic forces acting on the metal
particles bu il d up a pressure causing the liquid metal to
flow in the directi on of the field with a certain slip .
1(12 Part Four. Induction Machines
Annular linear induction pump. In this form of pu mp

(Fig. 48-10), the electromagnetic forces acting on the liquid
metal are produced by a travelling field. The liquid-met al
duct 4 is cir cul ar in cross-section. Inside the conduit there
is an unwound cor e, 2, and outside there is an inductor , 1,
enclosi ng th e conduit . Th e ann ula r sl ots in the inductor
carry the coil s of a t hree-phase winding 5.
1
Fig. 48-10 Ann ula r linear inducti on pump
An important field of application for induction pumps is

in fast reactors wh ere they handle liquid-met al cool an ts
(sodium, potassium , and sodium-potassium).
48-7 linear and Limited-Rotation

Induction M otors
In sketch form , the general arrangem ent of a linear and a
limited-rotation induction motor is shown in Fi g. 4.8- H a
and b, respectively.
The stat or 1 of a li near motor has the sha pe of a parallele-
piped , and that of a limi ted-rotation motor, the shape of a
sect or of an arc. In a linea r moto r , the heterop olar, three-
phase primary winding 2 is arranged in slots on a fa ce of
the parallelepiped. In a limited-ro tation motor, it is pl aced
in slots on the inner (or outer) surface of the sector.
The movable member in a linear motor is in a reciprocating
motio n. I ts core, 4 , like t hat of the sta tor , ha s the sh ap e of
a par allelepiped (see Fig. 48-11a). The slots mad e on the
surface of the movabl e core fac ing the stator acco mmoda te
a short-circuited winding, 3. In a limited-rotation mo tor ,
th e movable member is fr ee to rotate within a certain
sector. As in a conventional motor, it is called the rotor a nd
ha s th e sh ap e of a hollow cylinder (at 4 in Fi g. 48-Hb).
Th e slots on its onter surface hold a sho rt-circuited winding,
Ch. 48 Specia l-Purpose Induc Lion Machines 193
3. In a linear and a limited-ro tation mo tor , the movable

m emb er m ay be fa brica te d from a single pi ece of a m agnetic
material, in whi ch cas e t here will be no need for a short-
cir cui te d winding. Som etimes, some ma ssive part of th e
dri ven machine may serve as the r ot or .
Depending on the design of the mo vabl e mem ber , the
perfo rmance of the machine will be like tha t of a squirrel-
cage unit or of a soli d-rot or un it (see Sec. 48-4) . The effic iency
(a)
2p"C
Fig . 48- 1l (a) Linear and (b) l imited-ro tation induct ion motor
and power factor of linear and lim it ed-r ota tion motors ars .
usu ally inferior to those of units with a circular stator. This
is because their stators do not form a complete circle, and
there appear edge effect s.
The slip in linear and limited-ro tation motors is defin ed
as the r atio of the linear sli p ve locity , U 1 - U , to the syn-
chronou s linear ve locity of the travell ing fi eld, U 1 = 2T:h.
Under r ate d conditions, U is very close t o U 1, so S = (Ul - u )/u 1
is as small as it is in con ventional induction m achines.
Linear induction machines can be used t o give reciprocat-
ing motion by periodically reversing the ph ases of the stator
winding, such as in m etal-cutting machine tools. In su ch
an application" the movable part must be longer t ha n the
13-0 2 4 0
194 Part Four. In duction Machines
stationary one by th e displacement desi red. Because of a

siz eable inc rease in the ma ss of the movable part and t he
energy wasted during acce leration an d decelera tion, such
linear mot ors hav e not found any appreciable use. Th ere is
a better outlook for them in elect ric t raction , especiall y
where~high speed is involved.
F igur e 48-12 gives a sketch
N explaining the likely use of
a linear induction motor on
2 railways. The stator core 1 and
a po ly pha se winding 2 are
mounted on an electric loco-
mot ive and dr aw their power
from an a.c. supply line. Th e
travelli ng fi eld thus produced
interacts with the rail, 3, and
tends t o pull it along. Since ,
however, the rail is anchored
to the ground , motion at sp eed
N u is imparted to the stator and,
hence, the elect ri c locomotive.
Fig . 48-12 Linear traction mo- Limited-rotation induction
tor motors ar e used in cases where
the rotor is t o trav el at a re-
. latively low angular velocity.
To demonstrate, the stator of a limited-rotation machine
having p pole pairs and spanning a sector with a central
angle 'Yare (Fig. 48-11b) sets up on the radius R a field whi ch
rotates at a linear velocity
U1 = 2. f1 = YareRf1/P
whe re. = YareR/2p is its pol e pitch. In the circumstances,
the synchronous ang ular velocity of the rotor
Q1 = u 1 /R = Yarcf1/P
is by a fac t or of 2:rr/Yare lower than it is for a circular rotor
having the same numb er of pole pairs.
Limited-rot atio n induction mot ors ar e especia ll y attrac-
tive where some massiv e part of th e associated driven ma-
chine can serve as it s rotor.
Ch. 4[) Machin es for Automatic Control 195
49 Induction Machines
for Automatic Control
App lications
49- 1 Induction Control Motors
and Tacho-generators
Induction control motors. Induction con trol (or servo)
motors are us.d in aut omat ic control as devices that convert
the ampli tude or phase of a control voltage into the angular
displacement or angular velocity of the output shaft (the
final con trol element ).
cw
.
Veon/ro/

Q
Vconlrol
' VlTlfi i fl Vmllin
5 , "
r::
__L_--j.l:'!ain
ltco;trol (a)
Fi g. 49-1 Indu ction control (ser vo) motor:

--- -- ~
(b)
Vconlrol
- jVmain
(u) ampli tu de-contr oll ed and (b) phase-con trolled
They are small (0.1 to 300 W) squirrel-cage induction

motors with a stator carrying two distributed windings dis-
placed from each other by an elec trical angle of 900
(Fig. 49-1). To simplify matters , let the two windings be
identical. One, called the main or field winding, is always
energized with V rna In = constant. The other, called the
control winding, is supplied with V cont r oll which varies
in accord with the control si gnal.
13*
For a torque to be produced, VcontroJ must be out of phase

with V main, that is, 1/J =1= 0 and Vconirol =1= O. At 11) = 0 or
0
Vconirol = 0, there is 110 torque produced. At 11) = 90
. . . ,
Vcontrol = V ma in or Vcontrol = -jV m a in (this case is shown

by dashed lines in Fig. 49-1), the torque is a maximum.
Control (or servo) motors can be controlled by varying
the amplitude or the phase of the control (error) voltage.
In the former case (Fig. 49-1a), the amplitude of Vcontrol
is varied, whereas its phase, 1/J, remains constant. The
desired phase shift, 1/J = 90 0 , is prod uced by a suitable
phase-shifter, PS. In the latter case (Fig. 49-1b), the phase
1/J of Vcontrol is varied, whereas its amplitude remains con-
stant. The phase of the control voltage is varied by a phase
shifter, PS. . ,.
Control motors are required to have some special charac-
teristics necessary for their use in automatic control. For
example, in the case of amplitude control, these requirements
are as follows . .
(1) The angular speed must be controllable over a wiele
range as the amplitude of the control voltage is varied.
(2) The torque-speed characteristic, T em = f (Q), at a
constant Vcontrol' and the control characteristic, Q
= f (Vcontrol) at a constant Tern' must be as linear as prac-
ticable.
(3) The moment of inertia of the rotor must be a minimum
(so as to give a high speed of response).
(4) The starting torque must be sufficiently large.
(5) The breakaway voltage should be low (and the friction
torque small).
(6) Control power must be negligible.
(7) As the control voltage falls to zero, the motor ought
not to run of its own accord.
To meet the above requirements (especially those in '1,
2, and 7), the rotor resistance is chosen such that
= R~/Xsc
is 3 or 4. Then in the motor mode of operation the torque-

speed characteristic will be practically linear and the motor
will not run of its own accord at zero control voltage. This
Ch. 49 Machines for Automatic Control 197
can readily be proved by comparing the directions of the

torques at Vcontrol =1= 0 and Vcontrol = O.
At Vcontrol =1= 0 (Fig. 49-2a) and Q = 0, the torque Tern!
due to the positive sequence voltages V! exceeds the torqt{e
T em, 2 due to the negative sequence voltages, because V 2
< V!. Since T em! > Tern 2'
the resultant torqlle is posi-
tive:
Tern = T em.! - T em, 2 > 0
and the machine runs in the Q7
forward direction at Q > O.
When the control voltage is fa)
removed, V control = 0, and rem,1
V!=V 2 (see Fig. 49-2b), Tern.!
and T em 2 at Q = 0 balance
each other, whereas at Q > 0 r-...=::"'---6rru>7----"::::::-6
Q7 Y Q
the resultant torque is nega- - 1
tive:
Tern = Tem,l - T em, 2 < 0
and the motor comes to a Fig. 49-2 Torque-speed charac-
teristics of a control motor:
stop.
at V control =1= 0;
A motor designed to meet (a) (b) at V control = 0
the above requirements has a
low efficiency and a low power factor. But this has to be
reconciled with.
Two-phase control (or servo) induction motors usually come
in anyone of three modifications, namely the squirrel cage,
the nonmagnetic drag cup (see Sec. 48-5), and the ferro-
magnetic drag cup (see Sec. 48-4), the first two types being
most common. The squirrel cage is preferable for the smaller
control motors, and the nonmagnetic drag cup for the larger
. control motors.
As compared with conventional squirrel-cage motors, the
squirrel-cage control motor differs in the following.
(1) The length-to-diameter ratio of the rotor is anywhere
from 1.5 to 2.0, so that the moment of inertia is kept to
an accep table level.
(2) The air gap between the stator and rotor is kept to
a minimum value of 30 to 50 urn so as to minimize the
magnetizing current.
(3) There is a relatively large number of pole pairs (usually
J!J8 Part Four. Induction Machines
from four to eight), so as to enhance the speed of response.

(4) Resort is made to skewing by one tooth pitch as a way
of minimizing the stray torques (see Sec. 43-5).
Also, control motors usually have built-in electromagnetic
dampers to give an effective braking action upon removal
of the control signal. The dampers come in a variety of
designs and differ in the principle of operation. The simplest
Fig. 4!J-3 Sketch of a drag-cup control motor
of all is an eddy-current damper in which the braking

torque is produced by an aluminium drag cup rotating in
the field set up by permanent magnets.
The salient features of the drag-cup motor have been
examined in Sec. 48-5. It is important to add that this form
of motor is free from both stray synchronous and reactive
torques. Among its major advantages is the low moment of
inertia of the rotor. In sketch form, a drag-cup control
motor is shown in Fig. 49-3. The drag cup 1 rotates in the
air gap between an outer stator 2 and an inner stator 3.
The slots on the outer stator which is press-fit in a frame 4
accommodate the control and main windings, 5. The inner
core is mounted on a hub which is made integral with the
cover 6. The shaft 7 mounting the drag cup is carried by
bearings 8.
Ferromagnetic drag-cup motors are inferior in several
aspects to squirrel-cage and nonmagnetic drag-cup control
motors. Naturally, this limils their application.
In some control applications, the rotor of a control motor
needs only to turn through a limited angle proportional
to the torque of the motor and the control voltage. Quite
aptly, they are called torque motors.
Induction tache -generators. A nonmagnetic drag-cup motor

may well serve as a tachometer generator (or , simpl y , a tacho-
generator), if its shaft is coupled to that of the machine
whos e rpm is La be measured.
The circuit of a tacho-generator is sh own in Fi g. 494 .
As in a control (or servo) mo tor , the main winding , ll f W ,
. is connected to a supply of
V m ain at frequency f. Th e vol-
tage waveform must be as clos e
to sinusoidal as possible, and
its amplitude and fr equ ency
stabilized . In th e main wind-
ing, the applied voltage gives
rise to a current and a mag-
netic flux , cP ma in , pa rtly con-
tribu ted by the tran sformer sw
currents induced in the rotor
as well. Because th e transform-
er emf and currents in the
rotor are independent of the Fig . 4!l-4 Circ u it of an in du e-
rotational speed , <D m a ln re- t ion tachomet er-generator
mains the same at any rpm .
The main flux does not link with the si gn al winding, SW,
because it is in electrical quadrature with the axis of the
flux . Therefore, at standstill (Q = 0), no other currents,
except the transformer currents , ar e induced in the rotor,
a nd the voltage across the signal wi nding is V s = O.
Wh en the ro tor is running at Q , th e emfs induced in it
include transform er emf an d also rota tion al emfs propor-
tional to Q. Und er th eir action, ro tational currents, i 2Q
(shown in the di agram) appear in th e drag cup. Their am-
plitud es and al so th e amplitude of th e ma gnetic flux , cJ)sm,
th ey se t up are likewis e propor ti onal t o Q , so lon g as the
core is un saturated . <D s is pulsa ting at the fr equ ency f of the
main voltage and ind uces in t he s igna l winding an emf
whose rrns valu e, E s , is likewise propo rtional to Q. The
signal winding is connect ed to an indicator or a fi nal con trol
element. Th eir imp edan ce, Z i oarl , is ch osen so hi gh tha t the
current in the signa l winding does no t produ ce any no tice-
able voltage drop, an d V s ~ E s Thus , onl y t he rms va l ue
of emf, E s , is varying in an induction tacho -generator,
whereas its frequency remains unch an ged. Because of this,
induction tacho generators ar e used more frequently than
200 Part Four. Induction Machine s
synchronous units in which both the rms value and fr equency

of t he sign al emf are va ry ing.
49-2 Induction Resolvers

Induc tion r esol vers are used in various aut om atic cont rol
and compu ter cir cuits to conve rt an ang ular displacement
(shaft position) t o an al ternating vol tage whos e peak v alue
follows th e angular position in a predetermined manner.
Most fr equently, induction r esolvers have two or more
poles , two stator windings in electri cal qu ad rature with
4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 49-5 Brushl ess resolver :

l -rotating core of ri ng transfo rmer ; 2- r otating coil of ring tra nsformer; 3-
stationary coil of r ing transformer ; 4-stationary core of ri ng t ransformer ; ' 5-
synchro stator Winding; 6- synchro st a tor core ; 7-synchro rotor core ; 8- synchro
r otor Win ding ,
each other, and similar windings on the rotor. In fact, th ey

ar e not unlike an induction motor with two-ph ase windings
on the stat or an d rotor . Supply voltage is carried t o the
rotor by brush es and slip-rings or, if the rotation of the rot or
is limited , by fl exible conductors. In brushless r esolv er's,
th e rotor windings ar e energized by m eans of two inter-
, medi ate rin g tran sformers shown in Fi g. 49-5.
, For an induction res olver to perform its function , the
mut ua l induct an ce betw een th e sta tor and rotor windings
must be v arying with the angula r displacement (shaft posi-
tion) a sinusoid ally or cosinusoidally . This requires th at
the magnetic field s set up by the win d ings be as close to
sinusoidal as pract icabl e. To this en d, so-ca lle d "sinewave"
windings .are used, in which the numb er of turns is varied
from slot to slot in an appropr iate manner. Also, the lamin-
ations in the cores are s tac ke d up so th at every nex t layer
Ch. 49 Machines for Aut oma tic Con trol 201
of punchings is di splaced from the previous one by one or

several t ooth (or slot) pi t ch es. The emfs that are likely t o
be generat ed by th e hi gher h armonic fields are minimized
by skewing t he roto r slo ts one slot pitch. Furth ermore,
sp ecial care is taken to av oid inaccuracies in m anufacture
(t he eccentricity between the stator an d rotor on the si des
facin g the ai r gap, di ssymmet ry of the cor e, in accuracy in
slot skewing ). As a net r esult of all these mea sures , hi gh-
accuracy r esolvers gene r ate t he sin a an d cos a functions
accurate t o wit h in 0.01-0.02 %.
In mul tipole resol vers, the output voltage und ergoes a
complete cycle of cha nge as the rot or turns through 2nlp,
so for each revolu ti on of the rotor the output voltage has p
cycles of change. Therefore, the error in output voltage,
r eferred to the mechanical an gle of ro tation, is 11p of t he
error r eferred t o t he elec tr ical angle . In high-accuracy mul t i-
pol e res olvers, the output voltage goes through 60 to
120 cycles of change every re-
volution of the rotor. Such re-
solvers use concentrated wind-
in gs. For a still better gener-
ation of sin a an d cos a func- q
tions, an optimal tooth width vel
Lf'O'Y'O...lJY Y
is chosen an d the sl ots are

skewed one slot (or to ot h)pit ch.
Th e manner in which the
windings of a resolver ar e con-
nec te d in th e associated cir-
cu it an d fed with supply volt-
age (s) depend s on the job it
is intend ed t o do.
Sin e-cosine induction resol-
ver. This devi ce (Fig. 49-6)
transforms an angular displace- Fig. 49-6 Sine-co sine resolver
ment (sh aft position) , a , into
two a .c. voltages, Va and Vb,
prop or tional in am plitude to cos a an d sin a, res pectively .
A sin e-cosine reso lver h as three windings , d , a; and b.
Wi nding d sets up the exc itation field and is energized from
an a .c . s tab ili zed su pply . The pulsa ting ma gnetic fi eld set
up by th is win din g induces an emf, E a , proportional to cos a
in winding a , and an emf, E ill proportional to sin a in wind-
ing b. If we con nec t th e rotor win dings to lo ad s with impe-
202 Part Four. Inducti on Machines
dances, ZL ,a and ZL, IJl current s will flow in th em, giving

rise to a secondary magnetic field .
So that the secondary fi eld could not upse t the cosine and
sine relationship between the two emfs and the angular
displacement, the resolver is subj ect ed t o secondary and
primary balancing. For secondary balancing , the load im-
pedan ces are chosen to be equa l in value, Z L a = ZL b .
Primary balancing is effect'ed
by closing the qu adrature
(q-) winding of the stator ac-
ross an impedance, Z L. q , equal
in m agnitude to the internal
impedance of the supply con-
v, nect ed to the direct-axis (d-)
winding. As a resul t , th e cur-
r ents induced in th e q- and
d-windings bal anc e out th e
secon dary flux es to the sam e
degree .
Linear resolver. This device
(Fig. 49-7) serves to convert
ang ular displacement (shaft
position), ex , into an alternat-
in g voltage, V b, whos e amp-
Fig . 49-7 Cir cuit of a linear in- litude is proportional to the
du ction resol ver angle ex. In a linear resolver,
th e d-winding on the stator anrl
the cosine (or a-) win ding on th e rotor are connec ted in ser ies
and to an a .c. supply. The qu adrature (q-) winding is short-
circuited. The output voltage, Vb, is pick ed off the sine
(b-) winding connected across a load impedance, Z L,b'
In this conn ection , th e q-comp onen t of the secondary flu x
is nearly complete ly damped out by the cur rent induced in it.
Therefore, in ana ly zing the oper ation of a linear resol ver ,
we may neglect the flux along the q-axis and deem that all
of the emf is induced by the direct -axis field (one along the
d-axis) alon e. Then, on assum ing that th e winding para-
met ers ar e small , we may write th e following voltage equat ion
for the excitation circuit :
VI = E d +
E cos ex = E el (1 +
n cos ex)
and for the output circuit:
V b = E sin ex = nE d sin ex
where n = E/E d is the transformation ratio. On eliminating

E d between the above equ ations, we get
V b = nVl sin a/(1 + n cos a)
It is an easy matter to see that at n = 0. 536 the term
sin a /(1 + n cos a) is equal to the angle a accur at e to
within 0.06 %, if the angle lies in the range from _60 to
+60. Hence, if we choos e n = 0.536, the output voltage,
Vb , will be proportional to the angul ar displacement , a,
that is
V b = nVla
Coordinate transformation by induction resolvers. Th e con-
nection of an induc tio n reso lver for t he t ra nsformation of
Cartesian coordina t es t o ac-
count for the rotation of th e
coor dinate axes is shown in
Fi g. 49-8 . Th e d- and q-wind-
q
in gs on the st a tor are energized
with V d and V q , which are in
phase. Their amplitudes ar e
proportional to the coordinates
being transformed, V d ""' Y
and V q ""' x . On applying
primary and secondary balanc-
in g, the secondary vo ltages
will be
V a = m (V d cos a + V q sin a )
V b = In (V d sin a - V q cos a)
That is, they are proportion-
al , within the scale factor In , Fi g. 49-8 Connec tio n of an in-
t o the coord inate in the system du ct ion r esolver for tra nsforma-
t ion of Cartesian coord ina tes
turned th rough t he angle a. up on ro ta tion
For rect angul ar- to-pol ar co-
ordinate transformation , an
ind uc tion resol ver is connecte d as shown in Fi g. 49-9. As in
the pr evious case, the d- and q-win dings on t he stator are
supplied with vol tage s V d and V q, respectively . The se
voltages are in ph ase and have amplitudes proportional to
the coordinates to be transformed , th at is , V >: Y and
V q ""'x.
An appropriate servo system consisting of a servo motor Ail
and a servo amplifier S A causes the rotor of the resolver to
Part Four. Induction Machin es
t ak e up an angular position in which the volt age acro ss the

sin e winding is reduce d t o zero:
Vb = In (V d sin a - V q cos a) = 0
In this position, the vol tage across the cosine winding is
V a = ni V 17~1 + V~ "'-' 11 + x
y2 2
On an appropriately chosen scale, this gives a radial coor -

dinate, r "'-' V" . At the sam e time, the an gular position of the
rotor in elec t ri cal d egrees, a,
is th e same as the angl e e in
polar coor dina t es.
Inductos yn. A refinement of
the in duction resolver dis-
Vel cuss ed abo ve is the inductosyn
which ca n be m ad e in a flat
form , eithe r circular or linear.
A circular inductosyn con-
sists essentially of two insulat-
ing (most often, glass) discs
on which the coil conductors
are printed . The two discs
ar e mounted on a common
Fig . 49-9 Connection of a n in-
shaft coax ia lly and separated
duction resolver fur rectan gular- from each other by an ai r gap .
to -pola r coordi na te tra nsfo rma- One of the dis cs , called the
tion rotor , is free to rotate relative
to the other , called the stator .
In perform an ce, the induct osyn is similar to a concentrated-
winding, multipolar induction r esolver. However, it is
more accurate owing to a lar ge number of poles on th e rot or
and stator and the abs enc e of conventional cor es.
49-3 Synchros
The nam e "synchro" r efers to a class of induction ma chines
ada pte d for the r emo te meas urement and/or transmission of
angula r position .
Synchros m ay be brush-typ e or hru shl ess. In the form er
case, a salient-pole rotor carries a concentrated fi eld winding,
FJiV, whi ch draws its current from an a.c . supply via slip-
rin gs and brushes (not shown in Fig . 49-10) . The stator slots
accommodate thre e distributed synchronizing windings dis-
placed from one another by an electrical angle of 2:n:/3 and

arranged similarly to the three-phase winding of a conven-
tional induction machine. The stator and rotor cams are
built up of insula Led electrical-sheet steel laminations.
Three forms of synchro sysLems have found wiele use in
practice, namely: the direct (or data) transmission type
Fig. 49-10 Circuit of a direct transmission synchro system
(sometimes referred to also as the synchro repeater system), the

differential-synchro type, and the control-transformer type.
In the direct transmission type, there is a synchro trans-
mittel' (or generator) and a synchro receiver (or motor),
interconnected as shown in Fig. 49-10. The synchro receiver
is usually of a size just sufficient to drive the pointer of an
indicator. The field (rotor) windings, FW, of both the syn-
chro transmitter and synchro receiver are supplied with VI
from a common supply, and the leads of the like phases in
the synchronizing (stator) windings, SW, are interconnected
as shown in Fig. 49-10.
When so energized, the rotor winding in the synchro
receiver takes up an angular position that corresponds to the
position of the rotor in the synchro transmitter, ~T ...:... ~R'
Because of this, the emfs induced by the pulsating rotor
field in the like phases of the stator windings in both the
transmitter and receiver are identical:
. . . . . .
Ea,T = Ea,R' E/;,T = E/;,n, Ec,T = Ec,n.
In the loops formed by the inLerconnected phases, these
emfs are in opposition to one another. Therefore, no currents
are flowing in the stator windings, and the two synchros

develop zero torques. Any change in the position of the
transmitter rotor is not immediately followed by the receiver
rotor, and their positions differ by what is called the error
angle,
~~ = ~T - ~R
SO long as the error angle is nonzero, the balance of emfs
in the like phases is upset (Ea,T =1= Ea,R' and so on), currents
begin to flow in the stator windings, and the currents in the
rotor windings cease to be the same. The interaction of the
stator and rotor currents produces torques, Tern T and Tern R,
which act on the transmitter and receiver rotors , respecti~e
ly. By a well-known rule, it can be found that these torques
act in the opposite directions, so that the receiver rotor is
constrained to take up the same position as the transmitter
rotor, and the error angle reduces to zero, ~p = O.
In actual systems, the receiver rotor is always acted upon
by a small resistance torque due to friction in the bearings
and at the slip-rings, and also the load torque due to the
device coupled to the synchro shaft (this may be the pointer
of an indicator, the wiper of a servo-operated potentiometer,
and the like).
Because of this, whon tho two units are at rest, their
positions will agroe within a certain static 01'1'01', ~p. An
amount of inaccuracy (or uncertainty) may be added by
manufacturing tolerances, the structure of the cores, etc.
Depending on tho accuracy class, synchros may be accurate
to within 0.25 to 2.5 degrees of an arc.
Brushless synchros come in two basic modifications, name-
ly nonsalient synchros with a ring transformer, and claw-pole
synchros, In the former type, the single-phase rotor (field)
winding, FW, is supplied from a ring transformer similar to
that used in brushless induction resolvers (soe Fig. 49-5).
In the latter case (Roe Fig. 49-11), the field winding, 3, and
the synchronizing winding, 4 are both wound on the stator,
whereas the rotor carried in bearings 8 is made unwound.
The synchronizing winding is placed in slots on tho stator, 5.
Both the winding and the stator core do not differ from their
counterparts in a brush-type synchro ,
In the synchro of Fig. 49-11, the heteropolar excitation
field linking the synchronizing winding is established by the
stationary field winding made up of two ring-shaped coils, 3.
Cit. 50 Practical Induction Motors 207
The coils are supplied with a.c, and set up a pulsating flux
which has its path completed around the coils as shown in
the figure by the dashed line. This path runs through the
stator frame 2, a nonmagnetic gap, the right-hand claw-
pole 1, the nonmagnetic gap, the teeth and yoke of the stator
core 5, the nonmagnetic gap, the left-hand claw-pole 1,
Z 3 'I 5 B
Fig. 49-11 Arrangement of a brushless synchro
and again the gap. In order to prevent the flux from "short-
ing" between the poles without threading the stator core
and linking the synchronizing winding, the claw poles are
separated by a nonmagnetic gap, and the shaft, 7, is made
of a nonmagnetic material. Any other undesirable path for
tho flux is avoided by providing a broad gap 6 between the
stator core and frame.
With the above arrangement, the field in the stator core
varies with the rotation of the rotor in the same manner as
in a conventional brush-type synchro.
Brushless synchros are more reliable and accurate, but
their design is more elaborate and they have a larger size
and mass.
* 50 Practical Induction Motors

50-1 General
In the Soviet Union, induction motors are fabricated in
standard or unified ranges covering between them all the
necessary power ratings and rpms,
General-purpose induction motors come:in a fixed spect-
rum of power ratings at any rpm. Basic modelsare intended
for a 50-Hz supply.
The more recent makes of induction motors are manufac-

tured in compliance with relevant lEe recommendations as
regards outline and mounting dimensions, so they are inter-
changeable with other makers' motors.
For the most part, the induction motors of Soviet manu-
facture are the squirrel-cage type, designed for the moderate
climates.
The insulation is class E, class B, and class F, depending
on motor size and axis height.
The terminal boxes on the motors are of enclosed construc-
tion, with a gland for attachment of a rigid or a flexible
conduit or a cable.
50-2 Modifications of the Basic Models
Modifications involve tropicalization, enhanced resistance
to chemicals, moisture, frost, etc. Some makes are adapted
to a 60-Hz supply. In size, modified units are the same as
their respective basic models .
. As regards the type of enclosure, Soviet makers turn out
splash-proof units (the enclosure will not permit entry of .
o
drops falling at 60 'from the vertical, Fig. 50-1), and totally
enclosed (the enclosure will keep out solid particles at least
1 mm in diameter and drops of water falling from any direc-
tion).
Table 501 Electrical ModHications of Induction Motors
Modification Application
High starting torque Heavy starting requirements (compres-

sors, crushers, pug mills, e tc .)
f-lighsli p High moments of inertia, pulsating load
torque, frequent starting and rever-
sals
High-performance (high . Operation on a round-the-clock basis
efficiency and power
factor)
Wound-rotor Where the supply line does not have a
sufficient power to start squirrel-
cage units. In appl ications calling
for continuous speed control down-
wards from the synchronous one
Low-noise Where high noise level is prohibited
Multispeed Drives for machine-tools, winches, etc.
Built-in For machine-tools and other machinery
-6
L~
5
Synchronous
Machines
51 A General Outline
of Synchronous Machines
51-1 Purpose and Field of Application
A synchro nous machine is an a .c . two-winding machine in
which one winding is conn ect ed to a supply line operating
at a constant fr equency WI' and the other is excited by direct
current ( w2 = 0)* . It owes its name, "sy nchronous", to the
fact that the rotor must rotate at synchronous speed , that is,
the speed correspondi ng to the frequency of the a.c . supply.
Most fre quently, the stator carries a het eropolar , three-
phase, 2p-pole armature winding (see Chap. 22), and the
rotor carries a heteropolar 2p-pol e field winding (Fig. 5'1-'1a).
On small machines (2-5 kW), the armature is sometimes
wound on the rotor; this is known as the in verted arrangement
(Fig. 5'1-'1b). The field winding is then wound on the stator.
Whether the armature is wound on th e stator or rotor does
not affect the electromagnetic performance of the machine.
However , for big machines, the normal arrangement with
the armature on the stator is preferable . The point is that
the sliding contacts on the rotor carry as little as 0.3 % to
2 % of the converted power, whereas in the inver t ed arrange-
men t they have to transfer total power.
The part of the machine carrying the armature winding
is called the armature, and the part carrying the field wind-
ing is sometimes called the field structure. So, in the norm al
arrangement, the stator is the armature, and in the inv erted
arrangement, the rotor is the armature .
* In a wider sense , th e term "synchr onous" ref ers t o two-wind ing

a .c. machines in which both windings are exc ited from supply lines
at fix ed frequencies, Clli and Cll2 (see Sec. 21-2).
Ch. 51 Gene ra l Outlin e 211
Freque ntl y, th e excita tion fi eld for synchronous machines

is est ablished by perm anent magnets. .
The primary use for syn chronous ma chines is to conv ert
mechanical energ y to electr icit y . The bulk of th e energy
used in the Sovi et Un ion is supplie d by synch ronous three-
phase gen erators driv en by steam, gas , or water turbines.
4-r--",,~
J
2
1
Fig. 51-1 Synchronous machine : (a) norm al (rotating-fi eld ) and (b) in-
verted (stationary-field) arrangem ent
l -armature core; 2-three-phase armature winding; 3- fic l d-struct ure core; 4-
field win din g; 5-brushgear
./
There are also eng ine-ty pe syn chronous generators (those
driven by Diesel, gasoline, or st eam engines); they are built
for small outputs and supply isolate d loads.
The second important application for synchronous machi-
nes is as motors, especia lly for large units (reciprocating
compressors, blowers, and hydraulic pumps). They compare
favourable wi th induction motors in that they generate
rather than expend react ive power. Sm all synchronous motors
(notably those with permanent-magnet excita t ion) are very
popular, too.
As a rule, synchronous machines are design ed so that they
can generate reactive power about equal to the activ e
power (about 60% and 80% of the total power, respe ctively).
Sometimes, it is ad van tageous t o install near major indus t-
ri al centres what ar e known as synchronous condensers-
synchronous ma chines sp ecifi cally built to gener ate reactive
power only.
The data ordinarily st at ed on the nameplates of synchro-
nous machines include the following:
(a) Power rating (the t otal kVA for generators and sy nch ro-
nous condensers, and the shaft kW for motors).
(b) The rated power fac tor (at overexcitation).
14*
212 Part Fiv e. Synchronous Machines
(c) The rated effi ciency (for motors only).

(d) The stator phase connection .
(e) The r ated line vol tage of th e armature (st ator) wind-
ing , V.
(f) The rated rpm (and als o the run away rpm for hydro-
electric generators).
(g) The rated fr equ ency of th e armature current , Hz.
(h) The rated line curren t of the armature, A.
(i) The rated voltage and current of the field winding, V.
In the Soviet Union, all industrial synchronous machines
are built for a 50-Hz supply. The requisite synchronous speed
n (in rpm) or the r equisi te angular ve locit y Q (in radians
per second) is obtained by securing the number of pole pairs
as given Ly the following equation:
p = 60fln = 2nflQ
The numbers of pole pairs for some likely rpms are listed
below.
p . . . . . 1 2 3 4. 8 16 32 64
n , r pm . . 3000 1500 1000 750 375 187.5 93.7 46 .9
Depending on the turbine power rating and the water head
available, the speed of hydro-electric generators r anges
anywhere between 50 and 600 rpm. The higher speed hold
for high-head dams with low-power turbines, and the low er
spe eds apply to low-head dams with large turbines .
In the Soviet Union, steam - and gas-turbine generators
are built for 3 000 rpm and have two poles . Four-pole turbo-
generators are bu ilt in the Soviet Union for nuclear power
stations wh ere the steam pressure and temperature are not
high enough for the turbines to run fas ter than at 1 500 rpm.
The conditions under which hydro-electric and turbine-
driven gen erators ar e operated affect their design. Hydro-
electric generators (see Fig. 51-2) are pr edominantly built
with their shaft in an upright position. The turbine is
located under th e generator, and its shaft carrying the
impeller is coupled to the generator shaft by a flanged joint.
Becaus e the rpm is low, wh er eas th e number of poles is high,
the rotor of th e gener at or ha s a large diameter and a relati-
vely short active length. As a rule, the rotor is of salient-
pole construction (see below) . The active (electrical) parts
take up a r elativ ely small fraction of the total volume, the
larger proportion being occupied by the structural (or me-
Ch. 51 General Outline 213
chanical) parts, such as t he thrust bearing .which supports

all the rotat ing parts of t he gener ator and turbine, t he
guide bearings to hold the rotor in its designated position,
the top and bottom spiders giving support to the bearings,
the stator fr am e, the rotor hub, air cool ers, oil coolers, etc.
Gen erating units consisting each of a t urbine an d a hydro-
electric generator are the bi ggest machines us ed in any
industry. With a pow er output of 200 to 600 MVA apiece,
they st and 20 t o 30 m high. Th e world's largest hydro-
electric gener at ors are those built for the Say ano-Shushensk
Station in the Soviet Union. They spin at 14,3 rpm and
gen erate 715 MVA of power. The outside diam et er of su ch
a gene r ator is about 15 m , an d that of it s roto r is about 12 m;
t he st ator cor e is 2.75 m long.
In con trast to hydro-el ectric gen er a tors, turbogenerators
ar e nearly always ma de with a horizontal shaft (see Fig. 51-5).
The rotors of t ur bogenerators are usually of round (or cylin-
drical) cons truction , and their di am et ers are smaller than
their active l ength . At 3 000 rpm, t he limits (chos en from
consider ations of mechanical s tre ngth) are 1. 2-1.25 m for
t he di amet er and 6.0-6. 5 m for t he len gth. Because the
structural parts ar e smaller in size , th e act ive (electrical)
parts account for a larger proportion of the total volume .
A recent trend in generator eng ineering h as been to build
un its of ever increasi ng power ratings. As regards turbine-
driven gene ra to rs, this is ach ieved without an apprecia ble
increase in ph ysical siz e, t hrough t he use of bett er cooli ng
methods an d s ystems. T ak in g the Sovi et Un ion as an exa m-
pl e, the 800-MW to 'lOOO-MW t urbogenerators desi gn ed
in the 1970s had practically the sa me overall dim ensions as
the 100-MW machines buil t in the 1940s. Th e only differ ence
is that the newe r m ach in es use direct cooling for t he win d-
ings by hydr ogen at a p ressu re of 5 X 'lO" P a , dis tilled
water, or mineral oil.
Synchronous motors of Sovi et manufacture are commer-
cia lly av ailable in power ra ti ngs from 100 kW to t ens of
megawa tts and with spee ds fro m 3 000 to 'lO0 rpm. 3000-r plll
an d 1500-rpm units h ave cyli ndrica l rotors an d ar e close
in the gene ra l arra ngement to turbogener ators, Units for
1 000 rpm an d l ess have salient-pole rotors and are close in
the gene ra l ar ra nge men t to hyd ro-elect ric generators wh en
made with a ve r t ica l shaft, or to D iese l-d riven ge nera tors
wh en made with a horizon t al sh aft.
214 Part Five. Sync hrono us Machines
For pumped-s tor age stations , synchronous machines are

designed for both motor an d generator operation . When
used as motors, they dr ive the pumps that move water to
the up per r eservoir . When the water r eleased from the upper
reservoir drives the associated turbine(s) , the latter actuates
the machine to operate as a generator. Su ch machines com e
in ratings of 200 to 300 MW .
Synchronous condensers of Soviet manufacture come in
ratings from '15 to '160 MVA and for speeds from 750 to
1000 rpm . They have salient-pole rotors and, usually , hydro-
gen cooling.
Depending on pow er rating and rpm, the rated armature
voltages may be from 0.23 kV to 15. 75 leV for gen erators
and from 0.22 to 10 k V for motors . In large turbogenerators
and hydro-electric generators, it is from '18 to 24 leV. Th e
rated field vo ltage is from 24 to 400 V .
The effici ency of synchronous machines improves as their
power rating and rpm are increased . For rat ings from 100
to 4000 leVA, it is 0. 9-0 .95. For large hydro-e lectric gener-
ators and turbogenerators, it is 0.97-0 .99. F or more deta il,
see Cha p. 62.
'* 51-2 A Brief Historical Outline of

Synchronous Machines
The single-phase multipolar synchronous gen erator was
invented in '1 832 , a year after Faraday h ad discovered elec-
tromagneti c induction. An anonymous inventor who si gned
his patent application by t he lett ers P.M. proposed to use
permanen t ma gn ets as the sour ce of field excitation . Th e
horse shoe-shaped magnets were moun t ed around t he peri -
phery of a rotating disc so that t hey form ed a system of pol es
al terna t ing in polarity. Opp osi t e th e permanent ma gnet s
were stationary, massiv e s tee l coi l-carry ing cor es mounted
on a steel r in g acting as t he yoke. The numb er of cores was
the same as that of magn et poles . Further work on synchro -
nous genera tors was delayed for a long time, because all
practical applications in those days required direct curr ent.
It was not until '1863 tha t W ilde implemented in the syn-
chronous generator the idea advanced in '185'1 to rep la ce
the pe rm anen t magnets by elect roma gnets energized from
an auxiliary d.c . generator which later came to be known
as the exciter.
In Wilde's single-phase synchronous generator, the sta-

tionary field structure was a U-shaped electromagnet whose
pole-pieces enclosed a rotating armature. Instead of a bar-
shaped armature, Wilde used an I-I-shaped armature propo-
sed by Siemens in 1856 and now known as the salient-pole
construction. Physically, it was the shape of a cylinder with
slots on the outer surface for a winding whose terminal leads
were brought out on slip rings.
Work on synchronous generators was stimulated by the
invention of the electric lamp by Yahlochkov in 1876.
Immediately after the invention, Gramme's works began
quantity production of single-phase synchronous generators.
Earlier, they were made in units on the basis of d.c. machi-
nes. Already in 1876, Yablochkov designed, in cooperation
with Gramme, several synchronous generators similar in
overall design, each intended to power a different number
of electric lamps (four, six, sixteen, or twenty). In fact,
they were polyphase synchronous machines in which the
phases were electrically isolated. A unit designed to supply
16 lamps had 16 coils on a stationary ring armature and
8 d.c.-excited salient poles on the rotor. The coils were
interconnected so that two electrically independent phases
were formed, with their emfs displaced by a quarter of a
cycle from each other.
Until the end of the 1880s, the armatures of a.c. generators
were made solid. To minimize heating by eddy currents, the
armature core was made as small as practicable, or was
omitted altogether. This naturally led to an increase in the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit and a reduced efficiency.
Still, this principle was embodied in fairly large a.c. ma-
chines. In 1882, Gordon built a two-phase synchronous
generator with two electrically uncoupled phases, to feed
electric lamps. The generator was driven by a steam engine
at 146 rpm and produced 115 kW of power .
The subsequent period in the development of a.c. genera-
tors was associated with Dobrowolsky who proposed the
use of a three-phase system of currents and came out with
many ideas and embodim ents, including three-phase syn-
chronous generators. Among other things. he used a drum
(or barrel) armature winding composed of three parts inter-
connected in a delta or a star. This led to a generator design
capable of supplying an interconnected three-phase system
which , in contrast to a system with independent phases!
21 6 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
requ ir ed three instead of six line conductors. In 1890 , h e

proposed a four-wire, three-phase system. The fourth "wire"
was, as Dobrowolsky su gges t ed, the ground .
Th e firs t three-phase gene rator was desi gn ed by Brown
of the E rl ikon company , in coop er ation wi th Dobrowolsk y ,
for th e experime ntal L aufen-Frankfurt power t ra nsm ission
lin e who se commissioning was tim ed with an in t ernational
elecl ri cal eng ineering exh ibit ion in 1891. The 95-V , 40-Hz ,
150-rpm, 230 kVA gener at or was driven by a hydraulic
turbine. It em bodied all the l atest adva nces in the field
of d .c. elec tr ica l m achines of that time, notably a drum
arm ature wi nd ing pl aced in the slots of a toothed core built
up of l amin ations. The th ree-phase winding was wound on
the stator , a n rl t he fi eld win d ings on the rotor- an arra nge-
ment that is still in us e in present-day synchronous ma-
ch ines .
Instead of a sali ent-pole rotor ordinarily used in single-
phase synch ron ou s gene ra tors, Brown employe d a ring-
shaped fi eld wind ing (common to all the poles) put around
the sh aft and pl aced be twee n t wo steel blocks wi t h claw-
shaped proj ections that set up a system of poles altern at ing
in polarity. This roto r desi gn did not prove its worth, and
now it can only. be found in sp ecial-purpose syn chronous
gener at ors (see Cha p . 63 ).
Emphasis on non salient-pole synchronous machines was
stimulated by the advent of steam turbines having faster
spee ds and hi gh er efficiency than re ci procating st eam
eng ines . For the first tim e, steam t urbines were used to
drive three-phase generators in 1899. In that sa me ye ar,
an ele ctric station was put in service at Elberfeld, where
the t urbines were of t he multis tage react ive t yp e invented
by P a rsons in 1884. They served as the prim e movers for
1000-k'iV t. urbogeucrators,
T he ea rly turbogen erators h ad salient-pole rotors with
concentrated fi eld wind ings. I n the firs t decad e of t he 20th
cen t ury , turbogen er ators ca me to us e nonsalient-pole rotors
with a distribu ted fi eld win di ng .
Cit. 51 Genera l Outline 217
51-3 Construction of Salient-Pole

Synchronous Mac hines
The const ruction of a sy nchronous m ach in e and , abo ve all,

of its rotor substantially dep end s on th e desired spe ed* .
At n < 1 500 rpm an d p > 2, wh ich appli es t o h ydro-
elect ric gene rators, synchronous condensers and low-speed
motors, the rot or is of the salient-pole typ e, and a machine
usin g it is r eferred t o as a salient-p ole machine. At n = 3 000
(or 1 500) rpm and p = 1 (or 2), wh ich applies to turbo-
genera tors and turbomotors, th e rotor is a nonsalient-
pol e (round or cyli ndrical) typ e, and a m achine using it is
called a non salie ni-pole , (round-rotor or cy lindrical-rotor)
machine .
An exampl e of a salie nt -pole synchronous ma chine is the
vertica l-sh aft hyd ro-electric generator shown in a cut-away
v iew in Fi g. 51-2 .
The stator of a syn chronous ma chine does not differ from
th at of an induction machine. With an outsid e di am et er of
less tha n one metre, the stator core is buil t up of one-piece
r ing-shaped electri cal-shee t steel laminations (see Chap . 39
and Figs . 39-1 , 39- 3, and 39-6). Wi th an outside di am eter
of over one metre, which is true of m ost syn ch ronous ma-
chines, each layer of the cor e is assem bled of m an y segments
(which is also true of induc tion m achines) .
The segme nts (Fig. 51-3) ar e pun ch ed in elec trical-shee t
steel 0. 5 mm thic k . On the ou ter surfa ce, the yoke of each
segm ent has recesses for attachm ent to structural parts of
the machine. The cir cumferentia l dime nsions of segmen ts
an d the layou t of recesses (usu ally, dove-t ailed) ar e chosen
so that each lay er contains a whole number of seg men ts , and
th e seg ments in th e next la yer are sh ifted relative t o those
in t he p revi ous layer (usua lly, by a half-width). In -this
way , the air gaps between segments in one layer can be
shunted by th ose in th e next adjacen t layers in the same
way as in a t ra nsform er core stacke d up of individual lamina-
tions . Of th e two likel y seg me n t designs shown in Fi g . 51-3,
preference is usually gi ven to that in Fig. 51-3a wh ere all
. * Only l arg o sy nc hro nous m achines will be di scussed here . FOl;

m ore de La il o n Iru c ti ouul - hp sy uc h ro uous mach iuos, refe r Lo Cha p . 03,
- ' . - - ,:
10 11
17
e==~==~====~_tg
21
Fig . 51-2 Indirectly air-cooled, salient-pole synchronous machine

(hydr o-electric generator):
l -stator frame (yoke); 2-ro tor pole; 3-stato r core; 4-field coi l; 5- windin g
bracket; 6-oil coole r; 7- thrust-bea ring segment ; 8- upper guide-bearing seg-
men t; 9-thrust and gu id e bearing sl eeve ; lO-exciter armatur e; ll -exciter
pole and win ding; l 2-excit er comm utator ; l 3-excit er brushgear; 14-genera tor
sli p rings; l 5-slip-ring hru shge ar ; l6-regulator generator; l7-exciter frame;
l8-upper spider; 19- m achine field t o sli p-r ing connection; 20-rotor rim (yoke );
2l-lower spider ; 22-shaft ; 23-lower guide bearing sleeve; 24- lower guide
bearin g segment; 25-braJ,e; 26-rotor br aking rin g; 27-axial-fl ow fan; 28-
air baffle : 29- stator coil; 30 -coil winding t erminal lead s; 31- pole press ur e
plate .
Gh. 51 General Outline 2Hl
the teeth in a segment have the same strength an d resistance

to v ibration .
A segme nt-type stator core (at 3 in F ig. 51-2) is stacked
up on fr ame wed ges 1 which enter the dove-tail recesses in
the segments. Attachment of a wedge to the frame, 2, is
shown in Fig. 51-4. An alternative form of attachment is
shown in Fi g. 51-5 wh ere wedg e 7 is m ade fast to frame 1
Fig. 5 t-3 S ta tor core segments: (a) wi th dove- tailed re cesses on slo t
axis; (b) wi th dove-t ailed recesses on tooth ax is
by guss ets 8. Axially, the core 6 is clamped by pressure

segments 4 , studs 3 , and nuts 2 . The studs are placed between
the wedges, so in the section-
al vi ew they are seen at the
background . A pressure seg-
ment, 4, an d a vent segm ent,
5 , wh ich is included to form
a ra dial ventilating duct in the
core , are shown next to the
sectional v iew of the stator in
axonome tric project ion . Plates
9 fasten studs 3 to the frame
and prevent them from vib-
ration.
The slo Ls ill tho sta Lor core
are usually of open design .
They receive a heterop olar, Fig. 5t -4 Wedges welded to
three-ph ase winding (at 29 in fr a me rings
Fig. 51-2).
Large salien t-polo synchronous machines for 3 kV and
h igher use anyone of two typ es of t he two -layer winding,
namely multiLurn (from two to six turns) formed -coil lap
windings , and bar-type (single-turn) wav e wind ings. The
insulation on a formed-coil and a bar-type winding is il-
220 Part Fi ve. Sync hronous Machin es
lustrated in Fig. 51-6a and b, respectively. Each turn or bar

of a winding consists of an even numb er of rectangular
strands insulated from one another and arranged in two
rows in the slot width . As a further r emedy against th e
effect of eddy currents, it is usual to transpose the t erminal
F ig . 51-5 Attachment of a segment-type core in th e stator fram e
leads and end conne ctions (overh angs) of form ed-coil win-
dings and the stra nds with in each slot in bar-t yp e windings
(see Sec. 31-2).
In a multi- turn formed-coil win ding (see Fig. 51-6a), the
turns consisting of one or seve ra l strands , 1, ar e insulated
from one another by turn insulation, 2, an d from the ground-
ed par t s by ground insulation, 3. In a bar-typ e winding
(see Fig. 51-6b), the ground ins ulation, 3 , also doubles
as turn insulation . An insul ating pl at e, 2, separa tes the
adja cent rows of stra n ds the vol t age betw een which is
very low (by two ord ers of magnitude lower t han the turn
voltage). As a way of reducing the electric field in the ail'
gap between the groun d in sulation and th e cor e, an outer
wra pper of a semiconducting m ateri al , 4, is applie d to
the coil.
In large ma chines , the coil conducto rs, when energiz ed,
are sub jected to appreciable electrom agne t ic forces. These
forces ar e especially large a t st art ing or in th e case of a
sudden short-circuit. To prevent da mage to the coils or pro-
h ibit ive vi bration ; the slot "conductors , end connections and
Ch. 51 General Outli ne 221
overhangs m LIst be reliably a ncho re d iII pl ace. This is don e

with nonmagnetic built-up insulating wedges which are
driven into rec esses in the slot
sides (at 7 in Fig. 51-6). As a
further safety m easure, insul-
ating plates 6, 5 and 8 are
pl aced under the wedges, bet- B
ween the layers, and at the sl ot
bottom. Theil' th ickness is
chosen so as not to leave any
clearance between the wedge
and the coil.
The coil ends , or overh an gs
(at 5 in Fig. 5'1-7) ar e anch ore d
by distance pieces 2 inse rted
between adjacent coil bars,
and binding rings, 1, pl aced (a)
around the overhangs from the Fig . 51-6 Sectional views of
outside . Adjacent bar conduc- slo ts with (a) two-layer form-
tors between distance pieces ed-coil winding a nd (b) t wo-
are tied to gether by a strong layer bar- ty pe winding
cord, 3. A similar cord is us ed
to t ie the bar conduct ors (01'
formed coils) to the binding
rings (in large machines, th ere
may be several binding r ings
on either side of the stator).
The conn ections between coils,
4 , are tied by a cord to the
overhangs (as shown in F ig.
5'1-7) or to bracket s a ttached to J
the fram e (as in Fi g. 5'1-2).
The rotor cor e of a d.c .-ex-
cited salient-pole synchronous
machine may be made solid
or stacked up of individual
punchings whose thi ckn ess is
chosen from engineering and
manufacturing considerations. Fig. 51-7 Stato~ coil end (over -
In the genera t or of Fi g. 5'1-2, han g) secure d III pl ace
the poles, 2 , are built up of steel punchings 1.5 mm thick,
the rotor rim (01' yoke), 20, is m ade of a solid steel forging
mounted on a shaft, 22. Sometimes, the poles may likewis e
Part Fiv e. Syn chronou s Machines
be ma de solid. Mos t fr equently, t he rotor yoke is built up

of st eel pl ates 2 t o 6 mm th ick (if the pl at es are pun ched in
a press) or t o 100 mm (if they are gas-cut). The pl at es are
clamp ed by studs. With an outside diam et er of 2 t o 4 111 ,
the rotor yoke is made of one-pi ece r in g-shap ed pl at es and
is mount ed on a shaft di rectly. With a larger outside di ame-
t er, the yoke is assembled of individual segments held
t oget her by clam ping studs an d is mount ed on a hub or
Fig . 51- 8 Salie nt -pole r ot or:

l - ro tor spider ; 2- roto r rim (yoke) ; 3-sli p rings ; 4- shaft; 5- fie l d coil; 6-
damp er wind in g segmen t; 7- damper wi nd ing bar; 8-pole core ; 9-vent duct in
p ol e
spider, 1, as in t he case of the salient-pole rotor sho wn in

Fig. 51-8. For better ven tilation in the case of long machines,
the yoke is di vided into sev era l blo cks separat ed by vent
du ct s which give access for cooli ng air t o the peripheral
parts of the rotor. Some t im es (Fig. 51-8) , radial vent ducts ,
9, are also ma de in the pol es.
The pol es usually have a smalle r width than their pol e-
pieces (or pol e-shoes) . Therefore, in order that preformed
field coils , 4, could be put on t he pol es, the la tter or th eir
pole-pieces mus t be made detachable. Figure 51-9 shows
the most commonly used design which employs detachable
poles assembled of elect rical-sheet steel punch in gs, 1-2 mm
ci, 51 General Outline 223
thick, axially clamped hy studs 10. The pol es ar e attached

to th e rotor cor e by means of T-shaped shanks, 11 , each of
which terminates in two pairs of opposing rectangular steel
wedges, 2.
In laminated poles important elements ar e pressure, or
end , plates ha ving th e same shape as the pole laminations.
Fig. 51-9 Sect ion al view of a salient-pole ro tor:

I -pole; 2- dove-t a il Join t wedges; 3-insulating washe r; 4-pole ground insu-
lation ; 5- bare field coil con duct or ; 6-turn (or conductor) ins ulation; 7- dam-
per-winding bar; 8-damper-winding seg men t ; 9- pig-t ail (flex ihle conductor)
between segments; lO-clamping st u d; ll-T-shaped pol e shan k ; I 2-steel wash-
cr ; l 3-interp ole sp ace r; l 4-spring
Theil' purpose is to distrihute the forc e applied by the clamp-

ing studs evenly over the entire surface area of the pole
lamination. The pressure plates (at 31 in Fig. 51-2) can he
seen well in the sectional view of the generator.
The field coils are wound on edge with bare copper strip
conductors of a la rge cross-sectional area (200 to 800 mm '').
Tho conductors may be rectangular in cross -section (as at 5
in Fig. 51-9), or (such as for large hydro elec tric generators)
th ey may he given the shape of an ax e for hetter cooling of
the coil.
After conductor or turn insulation, 6, impregnated in
thermoset ting resin, has been installed between adjac ent
t urn s, the coil is clamped and baked. Ground insulation, 4,
is applied to the poles before the coils are dropped in place.
The manner in which coils are anchored on a pole can be
seen from Fig. 51-9. The centrifugal force of the slot pa r ts
directed along the pole ax is is resisted by the pole-piece
lips insulated from the coil by a washer, 3.
224 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
Recesses in the yoke hold springs .14 which act through

a steel washer 12 and an insulating washer 3 and force th e
coil against the pol e, thereby pr eventing any radial dis-
placement of the coil at low speed. The normal component
of the centrifugal force might deform the coil conductors. To
avoid this, high-speed machines with a large active length
may sometimes have one or (though seldom) several packing
blocks 13 installed between the coils on adjacent poles.
The centrifugal force of the coil ends is taken up by the
pole pressure tip (at 31 in Fig. 51-2). The field winding, 4,
is energized directly from the exciter armature, 10. The ex-
citer brushes, 13, held in con-
tact with the exciter com-
mutator, 12, ar e connected
by an automatic synchronizer
(see Sec. 52-1) to the brushgear
of the generator. The genera-
tor brushes are electrically
connected by sliding contact to
the field-winding slip rings 14
and, by cables 1.9 laid out in
the shaft bore, to the field
Fig. 51-10 Field slip-rings of terminal leads. .
a synchronous machine
A likely design of slip rings
is shown in Fig. 51-10. The
rotor shaft mounts a sleeve, 4, moulded in an insulating
material, 3. The sleeve receives steel (or bronze) slip rings,
1, which are mounted while hot. Prior to mounting, the
spots on the sleeve to be in contact with the slip-rings are
clad with sheet steel, 2. Each slip ring has a stud, 5, which
points in the direction of the winding and to which one of
the terminal leads is connected. From the other ring, the
stud is insulated by a tube, 6.
Riding the slip rings are brushes (at 6 in Fig. 51-11).
Electrically, each brush is connected by a pig-tail (or
flexible conductor), 3, to a terminal on the brush yoke
that carries the brush holders. One end of the pig-tail is
embedded in a brush, and the other is t erminated in a
ring-shaped lug, 2.
The necessary electric contact between the brushes and
the slip-rings is maintained by brush-holders which orient
the brushes as appropriate, apply the necessary pressure on
the brushes, and permit them La move down as they wear.
One or several brushes can ride on the same -slip ring. The
brush boxes 7 are fastened by bolts 8 to a common steel
yoke or bracket, 1, insulated from the machine frame and
connected to one of the terminals in an external circuit.
The force of spring 5 can be adjusted by moving a bracket,
4, up or down.
In the pole faces of synchronous motors and condensers
and of most generators, it is usual to install heavy copper
Fig. 51-11 Brushgear
bars (at 7 in Fig. 51-9) in semiclosed round slots. These bars

are all shorted together at both ends of the rotor by segments
8 and jumpers 9, also made of copper. These short-circuited
bars form what is known as a damper (or amortisseur) winding.
It improves the transient stability, that is, the ability of
the machine to withstand sudden changes in load without
losing synchronism . -
The damper winding serves an additional purpose -. at
starting, doing the same job as the auxiliary winding in
split-phase induction motors. For this reason, it is also
called the starting winding. Good performance during
transients and at starting is shown by a .tlou ble-ax is damper
winding (see Fig. 51-9) in which the segments are combined
into a single shorting ring by flexible jumpers. A direct-axis
damper winding (see Fig. 51-8) without flexible jumpers is
inferior in performance and is only used in small generators.
15-0240
226 Part Five. Synchronous Machin es
No damp er winding is inst alled on machines with solid

poles, because the eddy cur rents induced in such pol es
supply the necessary damp ing action durin g tra ns ients . As
a way of enha ncing the da mp ing act ion, the faces of solid
poles ar e electrically interconnect ed by fl an ged copper
segments and flexibl e jumpers placed in betw een. With such
an arrangement, the t ransient behaviour of the mach ine is
the same as if it were fitt ed with a double-axis damper
winding.
Th e functions of the struc tural parts in the vert ical-shaft
hydro-electric generator .of Fig. .51-2 .are expla ine d in the
accompanying legend. The arrows in th e figure indicate
the direction of .air flow inside the machine (air is scooped
from the outside, forced through the machine, and discharged
into the generator hall). In more detail, the cooling systems
and the structural parts of hydroelectric generators , syn-
chronous condensers, and salient-pole synchronous motors
will be discussed in Chap. 62.
51-4 Construction of Nonsalient-Pole

Synchro n~us Machin~s .
A nonsa lient-pole - ro t or is typical of two- and four-pole
syn chronous machines running at 3 000 and 1 500 rpm.
A salient-pole rotor cannot be used because of the difficulty
in securing the concentrated field windings on the few poles
(which is especiall y true of two-pole machines). So, tw o- and
four-pole machines have nonsalient-pole rotors, although the
salient-pole design would be less expensive to make.
The general arrangement of a t ypical nonsalient-pole syn-
chronous machines- a low-rating two-pole turbogenerator
with indirect air cooling-is shown in Fig. 51-12. Th e rotor
core 2 is mad e in t egral with shaft exte nsions from a sin gle
steel forging. (Wi thin the active zone, the core acts as the
shaft.) More clearly, the core proper and a shaft extension
of a nonsalient-pole rot or can be seen at 3 and 6 in Fig. 51-13.
To ensure a sufficient mechanical strength under the
action of centrifugal forces, the core is fabricated from
high-strength steels alloyed with chromium, nickel and
mol ybdenum . As is shown in the sectional views in Fig. 51-14,
rectangular slots are milled on the outer surface of the rotor
to receive the coils 5 that make up the field winding whose
circuit is shown in Fig. 22-12. The slots are uniformly dis-
... 27 28 1 2 :3 4- 5 ti 7 B 9
'"* IS
2ti
~o..;
I I I
1--24~
t t
Fig. 5 1- 12 Indir ectl y air-cooled nonsalien t-pole synchro nous genera tor (turho genera tor):
l -sl alor fram e (yoke): 2 - rot or core; s-s ta l or core ; 4-clampi ng st u d; 5-st a l or win di ng ba r ; 6'- p rcss ure ri ng : 7- ro tor bi n d-
in g ring; 8-win ding b racke t ; V-air baffl e and .diffusor; IO- field coil; l1-centr in g rin g; 12-cellt r ifu gal fan ; 1.' - lJrllsh yo ke
an d br ushgea r ; 14-bca ri ng en d-shield ; i 5-b ea ring liner ; 16 -exc iter ; 1 7-flexi b le coupli ng ; 18- bea ri n g pedes ta l ; l !)- slip ri ng ;
20-fan gu ide van es ; 21-sli p-r ing t o fi el d Wind in g conn ec t ion ; 22 - fire-exting uis hing system line; 2S-stn to r windi ng u-rm tn a!
leads; 24- directi on of h ot-air flow to wa r ds cool ers; 25- dire cti on of cool ed-air fl ow ; 26- cool ed-a ir t herm ome ter ; 27-en d
shiel d; 28- inspect ion hol e
-
tributed in two diametrically opposite belts each of which

spans one-third of the circle. Within each belt, minor core
teeth 3 are form ed between the slots, and major teeth 2
are located between the two belts. In the centre, the rotor
has a through opening, 4.
Fig. 51-13 Nonsalient-pole ro tor:

i -slip rings: 2- b in ding rin g; 3-solid rotor; 4-nonmagnetic rotor slot wedge;
5-centrifugal fan; 6-rotor shaft extension
On high-speed nonsalient-pole machines, the conductors

and insulation of the field winding are subjected to large
centrifugal forces and appreciable thermal stresses. Because
2
Fig . 51-14 Sec tiona l views across and along a nonsalient-pole rotor
i-rotor yoke; 2-maJor core t oot h; 3- min or core t oot h; 4- ax ial duct in core;
5-field coil ; 6-axial duct in ma jor tooth; 7-magnetic wedge in duct; 8- non-
ma gnetic wedge; 9- bin ding ring; l o-cent rin g ring; ll -field windi ng to sli p
rin g connection ; 12-sli p rings; 13-sleeve insul at ion; 14-sli p-ring sleeve
of this, the fi eld conductors (at 1 in Fig. 51-15) are fabricated

of silver-alloyed copper which has an increased mechanical
strength. The typ e of insulation is chosen according to the
type of cooling and ventilation used. With indirect cooling
eh. 51 Genera l Outline 229
(Fig. 51-15a ), the turn insulation, 2, is made of micanite and

glass-fibre tape. The ground insulation is in the form of slot
cells fa bricated from micanite or glass-fibre cloth, 3, by hot
moulding. The slot cell has a protective wra pper 4 of steel.
After the turns have been placed in a slot, the edges of the
slot cell are heated and lap-
fol ded . Before wedges 7 are
to be driven in, a mi canite
plate 5 is placed over the cell,
and this is topped by a steel
plate, 6, which is in direct
contact with the wedge. The
wed ges ar e made of duralumin,
an aluminium alloy of high
mechanical strength.
Wi th direct hydrogen cool-
ing (Fi g. 51-15b), th e turn in-
sulation within a slot is in
the form of glass -fibre clo th
strips 2 pasted over the conduc-
tor, 1 . Th e slot cell is made
of glas s-fibre cloth 3 with an
outer wrapper 4 of steel. At
the bottom of the slot cell is
pl aced a profiled glas s-fibre- Fig . 51-15 Flelrl-wind in g con-
cloth laminate plat e 8 with ducto rs in a slot of a non sa-
du cts for cooling gas .Th e wedge lient-pole sy nchronous machine:
7 is driven over a glass-fi bre- (a) indirect cooling ; (b) direc t
cloth laminate plate 5 which cooli ng ... ."
h as slots to adm it cooling gas
to and from vent ducts on the sides of the coils within the slots .
Th e radial centrifugal forc es acting on the fi eld coil s
(at 5 in Fig. 51-14) within the slots are transferr ed v ia wedges
8 to t eeth 2 and 3 and resisted by the rotor core yoke 1 .
The cent rifugal forces acting on the coil ends (overhangs)
ar e transferred through insulating plates to the solid , sub -
stantial binding r ings . In small turbogenerato rs, th e bind-
ing rings (at 7 in Fig . 51-12) ma de of high-strength all oy
steel are separated from the core by an air gap so as to pre-
vent th e formation of a closed magnetic path around the coil-
ends, and are sole ly suppo rted by a centring ring, 11, mount-
ed on the shaft extension of t he rot or . In large t urbogenera-
tors, the binding rings (at 9 in Fig. 51-'14) made of non-
magnetic steel are supported by the core t eeth , 2 and 3,

and a centring ring, 10.
Current from an exciter (at 16 in Fig. 51-'12) is carried to
the t erminals of the field winding 10 over a circuit passing
from the exciter brushes , via the autom atic syn ch ronize r, the
brushes riding the slip-rings of the generat or , the slip-rings
of the field winding, to the conductors 21 that int erconnect
the slip-rings and the field wind ing.
The stator of a nonsalient-pole synchronous machine is
built along the same lines as tha t of a sa li ent -pole machine,
and only differs in the relative magnitudes of the principal
dimensions (see above). Small nonsalient-pole m achines use
lap windings assembled from multi turn (usually, two-turn)
formed coils (at 5 in Fig. 51-12). Large turbogenerators only
use lap windings with two bars per slot.
The construction of both formed-coil and bar-typ e wind-
ings has been described in Sec. 51-3 (see Fi g. 51-6).
The turbogenerator shown in Fig. 5'1-12 uses indirect
cooling, with the cooling air circulat ed in a clos ed-circuit
sys t em. The static pressure required to drive cooling air is
supplied by centrifugal fans, 12. Th e direction of ail' flow is
indicated by arrows. The air coolers, extern al to the ma-
chine, are not shown in the figure. In the cooling system of
Fig. 51-12, the hot air is discharged as two streams. More
ad van ced cooling systems for large turbogenera tors are
discussed in Chap . 62.
52 .Excitation Systems
for Synchronous Machines
52-1 Arrangement of and Requirements for
an Excitation System
The direct current required to energize the fi eld winding
of a synchronous machine is taken from what is known as an
excit er. Most frequently, this is a d.c. gen er ator (see Sec. 64-12)
whos e shaft is mechanically coupled to that of the asso-
ciated synch ronous machine .
Sev eral arrangement s using a d.c. generator are shown in
Fig. 52-1 and Fig. 52-2a. Apart from t he main exciter, the
system contains a pilo t (or auxiliar y) excit er to energize
cu. 52 Excitation Systems ~ 231
the field winding of the separately excited main exciter,

adjusting rheostats, contactors, remote-control Iacflities,
automatic voltage regulators , and some other items.
Fig. 52-1 Rotating-machine excitation syst em of a large synchronous

machine:
Rot-rotor; Exe-exciter (shunt-wound, separate ly excited d .c. genera tor); PE-
pilo t excit er (a separ ately excited d .c, gener ator) ; A R an d A R ' -adjusting re-
sistor s; Kff and K 1 f f - f ield-forcing cont act ors; Rff and Rtf-field- fOrcing resi-
s tors; Ii , and K. -contact ors of an aut omatic synchronizer; Rd-damping re-
sistor
(1) Field current control. In large synchronous machi-

nes, the d.c. field current, If, runs into hundreds or even
t housands of amperes. Therefore, it would be wasteful of
Fig. 52-2 Excitation systems for synchronous machines:

(a) direct rotating-machine t ype; ( b) direct rectifier-t ype; (e) self-e xcitation sy-
stem; l -syn chronous gener ator; 2- d.c. exciter; 3-a.C. exelter: 4-a.c. pilot
exciter : 5-gas-filled tube or crys t al-diod e rectifier; 6-field regulator; 7-trans-
former; 8-field-regulator cont rolle d reactor; 9-transformer
power to adjust it with a rheostat connected in the field

(armature) circuit of the excit er . The losses in the rheostat
would markedly reduce t he efficiency of the synchronous
machine.
The field current is therefore adjusted solely by varying
the exciter field volt age, VI> because the field current varies
232 Part Five . Synchronous Machin es
in proportion to Vf:
The level of fie ld current and of field voltage that must be

maintained depends on the mode of operation in which a
gi ven synchronous machine is used . ..
In the system of Fig. 52-1 , the exciter field voltage is
adjusted with rheostats (AR in the ma in exciter and AR '
in the pilot exciter) . Th e provision of a pilot exciter extends
th e range of exciter voltage
ad justment appreciably. In
sm aller synchronous machines,
a pilot exciter ma y be
omitted (which is also true
of cases . where the range of
exci t er fi eld voltage adjust-
ment is extended by in troduc-
in g nonlinear resistances).
. (2) Excitation field killing.
I t is usual for an excit a-
tion system to include a device
Fig . 52-3 Decay of fie ld curren t which wou ld "kill" the fi eld
on fie ld killing : I-with K 1 open (reduce the field current to
directly; 2- when using an au to- zero rapidly) when nec essary.
matic synchr onizer
The need for fie ld killing may
ar ise in both normal operation
and in an emergency (such as a short-circuit in the stator
winding) : This is done by an automatic synchronizer comprised
of contactors [{I and [{2 and a damping resistor, Rd. A direct
break in the field circuit by contactor [{I would achieve the
des ire d objective in the sh ortest t ime (curve 1 in Fig. 52-3).
However, the resistance of the arc that wou ld strike betw een
the breaking contacts of [{I would dissip ate all of the energy
stored b y the excitation fie ld. In large machines, this energy
is so large that upon a direct break the ' contacts wou ld
be des troyed. Also , the rapid fall in fi eld current (owing t o
the high ar c resistance brought in circuit) would give rise
t o a substantial emf of self-induction (back-emf)
ek = -L f dlffd t
It wou ld be many times the rated voltage across the field
winding and might damage its insulation .
Ch. 52 Excitation Systems 233
To avoid this, the field is k illed by the automatic synchro-

nizer in the foll owing sequence . W ith K 1 closed, K z is
closed (at t . t z) an d conne ct s the fi eld win ding across the
damping . r esistor, R d ~ 5R f . Then (at t ime t = 0), K 1
opens and disconnects the exc iter from the field winding .
Becaus e the fi eld energ y in the synchronou s machine proper
remains un chan ged, opening of K 1 ent ails no complications.
Fro m that ins t an t on , th e fi eld current decays at a t ime
constant
Tf ,k = L AR d +
R f ) = TfR fl (R d +
R f)
where I', = Lf/R f is the time constant of the fi eld wind ing
with all the other wind ings open-cir cuited (see Sec. 71-2),
in accorda nce with t he follow ing equation
I f = I f,R expo(-tn'_f ,k)
along curve 2 in Fi g. 52-3 .
Th e value of the da mp ing r esistor is ch osen such th at
the fi eld is killed at a suffic ien tly hi gh rate, but wi thout
giv ing rise to voltages det riment al to th e ins ul ation:
Vd = R dlf = -Lfdlfl dt - Rfl f
= Rfl f (R dIR f ) = T!.i,R( RrllR f )
W ith the commonly used value of the damping resistor ,
R d = 5R f ' the field -k illing t ime constant is
T f k = T f l6 ~ 1 s
(for large machines). Then , l-Irl does not excee d five t ime s
t he rate d fie ld voltage .
(3) Excitation field forcing. The need for exc itat ion
fi eld forcing would arise wh en a r emot e short-circuit in
the syst em might cause a fa ll in the system voltage (see
Sec. 59-5), and the sy nchronous m achi nes might otherwise
drop out of syn chronism. Field forci ng is effected automa-
t ica lly by the relays of the machine from wh ich a si gna l
comes to close the con tactors K ff and K w (see Fig. 52-1) .
On closing, the contactors short out the forcing resistors
R f f an d R ef an d the field adjusting resist or AR, and the
exciter armature vol tage ri ses at a h igh rate t o its ma xi mum
v alue, Vfm (Fig. 52-4). With a delay decid ed by t he t ime
constant of the fi eld winding in the synchronous m achine,
the field excitation current also rises to its limiting value :
Ifm = If,R (VjmIVf,R)
texc .
Fig. 52-4 Build-up of exciter

voltage and field current ,upon
field forcing
522 Classification of Excitation Systems

Until the 1950s, the excitation systems for synchronous
machines had solely been of what may be called the rotating-
machine type described in Sec. 52-1. In such systems, the
exciter is a d.c. commutator generator.
I
Rotating-machine excitation systems may be divided

into direct and , indirect. In a direct system, the exciter arma-
ture is directly coupled to the shaft of the synchronous ma-
chine (see Fig. 52-2a and b).
In an indirect excitation system, the exciter rotor may
be driven by a synchronous or an induction motor energized
from the station's auxiliary bus Of' from an auxiliary syn-
chronous generator mounted on the shaft of the main genera-
tor, or from an auxiliary synchronous generator placed at
the station specifically for that purpose in a more conve-
nient location than on the shaft of the synchronous machine.
Indirect excitation systems differ from . those illustrated
in Fig. 52-2a and b only in that the exciter rotor is coupled
Ch, 52 Excitation Systems 235
t o a separate motor rather than to the shaft- of the main

synchronous generator .
Under a relevant USSR standard, hydro-electric and tur-
hine-dr iven generators must have direct excitation systems
because they are more reliable (indirect excitation systems
call for special care in coordination). The maximum power
rating of rotary exciters, as dictated by commutation require-
ments (see Sec . 64-11), depends on their rpm which is,
as a rule, the same as that of the main synchronous generator
(not over 600 kW at 3000 rpm). Therefore, rotating-machine
excitation systems cannot be used on two-po le turbogene-
raters with ratings in excess of 100-150 MW.
I n th e 1960s, there was a growing use of rectifier-type exci-
tation systems using silicon diodes and thyristors . In the
1970s, rectifier-type excitation systems almost completely
ousted rotating-machine excitation systems . Today, they
are used not only for synchronous motors and small synch-
ronous generators, but also on large turbogenerators, hydro-
electric generators, and synchronous condensers, including
those of the highest power ratings .
Re ctifier excitation systems may be classed into three
broad groups, namely: self-excitation systems, separate-
excitation systems, and brushless excitation systems.
In a self-excitation system (see Fig. 52-2c) , the energy re-
quired to excite the synchronous machine is drawn from
its armature winding as an alternating current which is
then rectified by silicon cont roll ed rectifiers (thyristors).
The necessary energy is drawn via a transformer, 7, con-
ne cted in parallel with the armature winding, and another
transformer, 9, connected in series with the armature winding.
The seri es-connected transformer permits the field forcing
function in the case of a near short-circuit, when the voltage
across th e armature winding drops substantially.
In a separate excitation system (see Fig. 52-2b), the energy
required to supply the fi eld winding comes from an a.c.
three-ph ase generator-exciter, 3, mounted on the shaft of
the main generator with silicon-diode or thyristor rectifiers
for a .c.vto-d .c. conversion. The diodes (or thyristors) are
usually set up in a three-phase bridge circuit . Excitation
control utilizes variations in both the rectified current and ,
the exciter voltage.
In a brush less excitation system, the rectifiers are mounted
onthe ro ta ting shaft, and the rectified output is fed directly ,
to the field winding, thus eliminating the sliding contact.

This system differs from that in Fig. 52-2b in that the exciter
armature is on the rotor, whereas the exciter field winding
is on the stator and is supplied either from a pilot exciter, 4,
or from an excitation regulator, 6.
in a Synchronous Machine
531 Voltage and Magnetic Field Waveforms on
Open Circuit
On open circuit (at no load) , the armature current is zero,
whereas the field winding carries a direct current, If, which
sets up an excitation field inducing an emf, E f , ill the arma-
ture winding. In an excited ma chine, this condition can be
obtained in anyone of two ways, namely :
(a) by opening the line leads of the armature winding
(thereby introducing an infinite impedance in the armature
circuit), or
(b) by inj ecting an emf in the armature winding to ba-
. . ,
lance E j , that is , V s = -E f .
The procedure in (a) is simpler to implement and is nearly
always used in measuring open-circuit characteristics. The
procedure in (b), described in more detail in Sec. 58-2,
calls for an addition al source of V s ' Also the armature cur-
rent will reduce to zero only if E, and V s are ideally sinu-
soidal in waveform.
In carrying out an open-circuit test by the second pro-
cedure, the armature winding always retains a small cur-
rent associated with the harmonic emfs. Because of this
current, the measurements are always in error, and the error
is not always easy to estimate.
An excited machine on open circuit is subject to friction
and windage losses, P f/\y, the armature core loss, Pc, and
some additional (or stray) electromagnetic losses, P ad ,DC'
The motor driving a synchronous machine must supply a
power equal to the sum of the above losses, P f / W + Pc
+ P a tl. o c s and accounting for about 0.3 to 3 % of the total
power of the machine.
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Processes on Open Circuit 237
The departure of voltage from a sinewave shape leads to

additional losses (associated with harmonics) in all ele-
ments of an electrical system, including loads and power
sources. This is the reason why the emf of a synchronous ma-
chine must be as close to sinusoidal as practicable.
The departure of a voltage or current waveform from a
sinewave shape is stated in terms of the deviation factor
(defined in Sec. 27-6). A relevant Soviet standard requires
that the deviation factor for three-phase, 50-Hz generators
(including synchronous units) should not exceed 5 % at
ratings in excess of 100 kVA, and 10% at ratings from 1
to 100 kVA, as measured at open-circuit rated voltage*.
It has been shown in Sec. 27-6 that even when the excita-
tion field is nonsinusoidal, the emf induced in the armature
winding is nearly sinusoidal. The harmonic content of the
emf waveform can be reduced by chording (short-pitching)
the armature winding, distributing its coils on a sufficiently
large number of slots, and connecting its phases into a star
or a delta. As is seen from, say, Fig. 27-10, the excitation
field with a devitation factor of 28 % induces in a star-con-
nected armature winding with Yc = 0.831," and q = 2, a
linear emf with a deviation factor of 0.7%, which is appre-
ciably lower than it is required by the standard. It would
seem, therefore, that no further measures need be taken in
order to improve the waveform of the excitation field, even
though it would reduce the distortion of the emf still more.
However, the effort to improve the waveform of the exci-
tation field is taken mainly to reduce the harmonic content
in the field itself, because the harmonics entail additional
losses as they do not contribute to energy conversion. In a
star-connected armature winding, the vth harmonic of the
excitation field causes the field magnetization to change
cyclically at a frequency of 50y, and this inevitably leads
to stray losses. In a delta-connected armature winding,
triplen harmonics give rise to a circulating current at a fre-
quency of 50y, and this, too, leads to increased copper losses.
In a relevant Soviet standard it is required that the third-
harmonic current in a delta connection should not exceed
20% of the rated current at the rated power. Also, one has
to reckon with the likely effect of the harmonic fields on
* On load, the deviation factor somewhat rises.

238 Part Five. Syn chro nous Machines
the saturation of the pol es, arma ture te eth and other ele-
ments of the magnetic circuit.
As has been explained in Chap. 26, th e waveform of th e
excit at ion field in salient-pol e and nons alient-pole machines
is improved in different ways. In salient-pole ma e-hines this
is achieved by a proper choice of th e ratio of the maximum ,
om, and minimum, 0, air gap (th e air gap under a pol e, see
Fig. 26-1). In nonsalient-pole ma chines, this is don e by the
choice of the rel ative woun d
ri length of the pol e pit ch , p
(see Fi g. 26-4).
The waveform of the excita-
tion field on open circuit can be
characterized in t erms of a
set of factors which dep end on
the relative (pole-pitch) dimen-
sions (see Fig. 53-2).
The field form factor is the
ratio
Fig. 53-1 Determination of th e k t = B Ol.m/B o (53-1)
excitation fie ld facto rs where B ol, m is the peak value
of t he fundam ent al flux den-
si t y (see Fig. 53-1), and B o = B ot is the radial component
of the flux density at the pole axis. When the field is sinu-
soid al, k t = 1.
The excitation fl ux form factor is the ratio
k(J) = CVt m/CVil. m (53.2)
where
cD t m = 'tloB o. mean = ao'tloB o
is the total mutual flux , and
2
cD n .m = Ji'tloB ol, m
is the flux at the fundamental flux density. When the exci-
tation fi eld is sinusoidal, k(J) = 1.
The pole span factor is the ratio
a o = cDtmhloB o = B o. mean/Bo (53.3)
where B o.mean is the mean flux density in the air gap .l and B 6
is t he flux density at the pole axis. Since
B o.mean = cvtmhl o
and
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Proc esses on Open Circuit 239
The pole span factor may be expressed in terms of kr an d k(f> as

2
a o = B O,mean /B 0 = n k(f>kj (53.4)
Wh en th e excitation field is sinusoidal, ao = Zls.

The emf form f actor* is the r a tio
k B = B o , rms.1/ B o ,m~an (53.5)
where B O,rms.l is the rm s value of th e funda mental flux
density, and B O.me an is t he m ean air gap flux density . Since
B o.rms. 1 = B 61.m l V:2 = n<:D f m /2 l! 2k:pTl O
the emf form factor can be expressed in t erms of k(f> as:
kB = B6 .rmsjB o. mean = n/2 V 2 k(f> (53-6)
When th e excitation field is sinusoidal,
. k B = n /2 V 2 = L 11
In a nonsalient-pole machine (without allowance for
saturation) , the factors k(f>. kf , k B and ao ar e functions of
onl y the rel ative wound length of t he rotor pol e pitch, p.
R ecalling that in a nonsalient-pole machine the airgap is
uniform and deeming th at the flux density is proportional
to mmf (see Sec. 26-2), the excitation field factors may be
wr itten ana lytica lly .
The excitat ion fi eld form factor for a nonsalient-pole
machine (neglecting saturation) will then be
4 8 sin (pn /2)
/
kf=B 61 .mBo / m=nkdf =
=Ff1. mFf n 2p (53-7)
where Ff m = I jwf = mmf of the field winding
(at the pole axis)
Film =(4/n)k dfFf m = peak value of the funda-
mental excitation mmf
k df ~ sin (pn/2)/(pn/2) = distribution factor for the
fundam ental mmf .
The pole span factor for a nonsalient-pole machine ne-
glecting saturation is
ao = Bo.mean/Bo = Ff.mean/Fjm = 1 - O.5p (53.8)
* This factor is so called because it enables the mutual emf, Er,

to be expressed in terms of the total mutual flux, <D fm [see Eq. (53-11)1.
240 Pa rt Fiv e. Synchronous Machin es
where F i,mean = (1 - 0.5p) Ff is the mean mmf at the

pole axis, found upon replacing the stepped mmf waveform
by a trapezoidal mmf wa veform (see F ig . 26-2).
Graphica lly, plots of kf>, a 0' k<1> ' and k B as funct ions of p
are shown in Fig. 53-2 . As is
seen, the excitation field ap-
proaches a sinewave shape (k<1>
and kf are unity very nearly)
1.10 f----c7~- _+-----i
at p ~ 0.65 to 0.75, when the
winding of a nonsalient pole
1.05 f----+---{l-f-t------l occupies abo ut two-thirds of
a pol e pitch.
In a nonsalient-po le machi-
ne, the saturation of the teeth
has the same effect on the shape
of the excitation field and the
values of k Band a o as it does
in an induction machine (see
Sec. 40-2). This effect can be
accou nted for by applying the
0.651--- + ----"'1<;::---1 correction factors ~ Band
~a = f (k z ) in Fig. 40-2.
0.60 '--_ --'----_---.1..-_----'0 lJ .With sa turation ,
Fig . 53-2 Plots of a o' k , kf
and k<tJ as functions of p for a
nonsali en t -pole synchronous
machine
where k BO~ ao O = f (p) = values of k B and a o neglecting

saturation (k z = 1, see Fig. 53-2)
~B' sCZ = f (k z ) = correct ion factors from Fig. 40-2..
with k z = (Fa + FZ1) /F o taken
as ap propriate
Th e value of k z is foun d for each value of <D f m in calcu-
lating the magnetic circuit (see bel ow) . In doing so, only
F 0 ' the air gap mmf , and F z i . the stator tooth mmf , need
be taken into account . To a first approximation, k z = 1.
Once k B and a a have been found, the next step is to de-
termine k<1> and kf from Eqs . (53-6) and (53-4). It will be
seen that they, too, are functions of the saturation of the
magnetic circuit (that is, functions of k z). .
In a salie nt-pole ma chine, k<1>' kf , k B an d a a are mai nl y
dependent on the ratio of the maximum air gap, 15 m , to the
Ch. 53 Electromagne ti c Pr oce sses on Open Circuit 241
1.3
a il' gap at the pole ax is , 8,
01' the minimum ail' gap (see
Fig. 53-1). Plots of k ,J" k j , k B 1.2 1--'\+----1-+--+--1
and aD v ersus th e ratio 8 m /8',
as found from the field pa tt ern
of a ' smooth ar ma ture core
and for th e typical relativ e , I l
dimensions of salient-pole ma- 1.0 1--'-+----1---''d=~~

chines (8' IT: = 0.03 to 0 .05,
a . bpIT: = 0.69 to 0. 72) are
shown in Fig. 53-3. When the o.9 '-----'------l--'--L--'--:"-~
arm ature h as a smoot h surface, 0.6 1.0
8' ref ers to the ail' ga p be tween 0.9 r-,
statal' and ro tor at . the pol e 0.8
axis, 8' = 8. 0.7 CXa "-< ota
'0..... ........
The same set of form fac- 0.6 :-
tors may be ut ili zed in calculat- 0.5
ing the mmfs with sa turation
for real cor e designs hav in g Fig . 53-3 P lo ts of aD , k s , k'
an rl 1" (1) as func t ions of Bm /B t
teeth and slots on the stator
for a sa lient-po le sy nc hronous
and the pole pi eces. An ana - mach in e
lysis of the field in a real ma-
chine would show th at the sa-
liency of the ai r gap and the
saturation of the stator tee th
and yoke serve t o bring down
t h e flux density in the region
of minimum air gap (at a gi-
ven excitation mmf). At the
tips of a pole-p iece and be-
tween the poles, the effect of
stator saliency and the satu-
ration of the stator teeth and
yoke is immaterial. Therefore,
in t h e case of a saturated,
toothed core with an air ga p
whose profile is shown in Fig. Fig . 53-4 Repl acem ent of a
53-4 by a full line , the flux t oot he d sa tura te d core wi Lh air
ga p B by a sm ooth uns at ur ated
density and mmf in t he ai r gap core wi th ai r ga p B':
may be determined, taking an - - core surface; - - - - - sur-
equiv alent , smooth, unsatu- fa ce of equ ivalen t cor e; I -flux den-
sity wit h all owa nce for sat ur at ion
rated core and an in cre ased and sa lie nc y; 2-averaged air gap
flu x density ; 3-air gap flux density
air gap, 8', who se profile is for an equivalent core wi th ai r gap 0'
16-0 2 40
shown in Fig. 53-4 by the dashed line. The best approxima-

tion is obtained when the air gap at the pole tip, om, is
retained unchanged, and the air gap at the pole axis is
taken equal to
0' = Ok{)k Z a (53-10)
where k{) is the air gap factor (see below), and k z a = (F ()
+ F Zl + Fal)/F () = 1.0 to 1.4 is the saturation factor.
To begin with , a' guessed value of k z a is taken, then it is
refined by the method of successive approximation in the
course of magnetic-circuit calculations (see below).
The various excitat ion field factors with allowance for
saturation and saliency are found from the curves in Fig.
53-3 as functions of om/o', where 0' is the equivalent air
gap from Eq. (53-10). .
53-2 Calculation of the Ma gnetic Circuit

of a Salient-Pole M achine on Open
Circuit
The objective of magnetic-circuit calculation on open circuit
is to determine the d.c. field current If or the excitation
mmf F f m that set up a mutual field with a flux <D f m' = <D m
inducing the desired E f in the stator winding.
Recalling that the air-gap field is distributed nonsinu-
soidally (see above), the magnetic flux is calculated by
the same equation as for an induction machine, Eq. (40-1):
<t>m = <D f m = kcI><Dflm = Ef/4kBiIwlkwl (53-11)
Here, kcI> accounts for the difference between the mutual
flux and the fundamental flux given by
<t>jim = y 2Efi/2ntlWjkwj
The rms value of emf,
Ef = YE7t +E75+E17+'"
is assumed to be the same as the rms value of the fundamen-
tal emf, E f = E fl , because the squares of the harmonic
emfs, E15, E'7' are small in comparison with the square of
the fundamental emf, Eh.; The emf form factor, k B, . in
Eq. ,(53-11) can be expressed in terms of the flux form factor
-'"" 5 /4 /2
5
4
6 ~~ 411111111!iimlilll 1111111111111111 11111111 11111111 W- hat
12
13
11
18
~
' h02 9
h4
db
12 dt
Fig. 53 -5 Dimensions of the active parts in a salient-pole synchronous machine:

1-frame (stator yoke); 2-stator core; 3-pressure fing ers; 4-pressure plates; 5-dove-tailed segment attachment blocks; 6-
stator winding; 7-pole: 8- pole cheek; 9-opposlng wedges ; 10-T-sbaped pole shank; ll-field coil ; 12-'dampe r-winding bar; 13-
damper-winding short-circuiting segment (or rmg); 14, 15, 16-stator-core, rotor-yoke and pole-core clamping studs; 17-rotor spider;
18-field winding terminal leads to slip rin gs '
Part Fiv e. Synchronous Machines
k(J) as
k n = n!2 l/ 2: ;
and is found with allowance for saturation, airgap shape,
and mmf Ior each sp ecified value of E e It is especially
important to calculate the magnetic circuit for two charac-
teristic values of flux, namely:
(1) The flux corresponding
Zp to the r ate d no-load voltage,
s , = VR :
eDm ,n o- lo a d = V u/4kniIwlkwi
(53-12)
and
(2) The flux, eDmR, corres-
.ponding to the mutual emf at
rated load,
e, = kEV R
where k E = E rRIVR is the
mutual emf per-unit regulation
accounting for the increase in
mu tual emf as th e load is
Fig. 53-6 Magnetic field in a varied from no-load (open cir-
salient-pole synchro nous ma -
chine at no load cuit) to full-load (for conven-
tional gener ators and motors,
kE ~ 1.08) .
To obtain a complete magnetization characteristic of a
synchronous machine, cD m = t (E j ) , it will suffice to carry
out calculations for E j = 0.5V R, V R, kEVR, 1.2VR, and
1.3VR , with o., found from Eq. (53-11). '
The magnetic circuit of a salient-pole synchronous ma-
chine is shown in Fi g. 53-5, an d the fi eld pattern on open
circ uit (a t no load) , in Fi g. 53-6.
The exc itat ion mmf, F jm, tha t give s rise to <D m , is found
by Amp ere's circuital law for the mea n magnetic line con-
taining parts L a l (the stator yoke), h Z I (the stator teeth),
6 (the air gap), h m (the pole cores), and L a 2 (the rotor yoke):
Fjm = FfJ + F + F + r; + F
Z1 al a2 (53-13)
In calculating F fJ, it is important to account for the effect
produced by variations in the radial gap length owing to
..
' ~
saliency:
(53-'14)
where Bo is the flux density at the pole axis, 0 is the radial
gap length at the pole axis, and k o is the gap factor.
The va lue of Bois found from
B 0 = fPm/aoT:lo
where a o is the design pole span factor (the pole arc ratio)
with allowance for stator saliency and saturation , taken
from Fig. 53-3 for 0' = Okok z a. As has been explained in
Sec. 51-1, k Za is first guessed, then refined after F 0' F Zl and
F al have been found to a first approximation. The value of
k o = k Olk o 2 is found via
(bs/B )2
leo I = tzl/(tZ t - YIO) , where YI = 5+b s/B
and the damper-winding slot factor
02 (b !o)2
k02 =tz2/(tz2-Y20), where 1'2 = 5+b
o2 /B
The mmfs in the stator teeth and yoke, F Zl and F aI'

are found by the same equations as for an induct ion machine
(see Sec . 40-2). Once F 0' F Z1 and F al are found, it is an easy
matter to determine the stator and air gap mmf:
+
r, = r, F Z1 F a l+ (53-15)
and the saturation factor, k z a = Fl/ F o' If the va lue of
the saturation factor thus found markedly differs from the
guessed value assumed in calculations for a given E f , it is
necessary to go through the same procedure, taking the
refined values of the equivalent air gap at the centre of the
pole, 0' =. Okok z a and of the factors k Band a o = f (om/O ') .
In going from one approximation to the next, k z a goes up
in va lue with an increase in E f and in the saturation of the
magnetic circuit.
In calculating the rotor mmfs it is important to remember
that the rotor core is threaded not only by the mutual field
which li nk s both the stator and t he rotor windings, bu t also
by the leakage fie ld link ing only the field winding (Fig. 53-6) .
The mean line of the mutual flux passes through points 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 . All lines of the mutual flux cut the air gap
an d take up positions outside the dashed li ne passing
through point 6, The lines of the leakage field (say , the line
246 Par t Five. Synchronous Machines
passing through points 7 and 8) encircle the field cond uctors,

much as the mutual field lines do , but have their path com-
plet ed through the gaps between the pole-pieces and between
adjacent poles . The leakage-field lines t ake up posi tion
within the dashed line.
The pole leakage flux cD j cr is the sum of two identical
parts , one of which, cD j crf2, h as its pa th completed through
the next adjacent pole on the ri ght, and the other part through
the next adjacent pole on the left. H alf the pole leakage
flux, cD j crf2, is defin ed as the flu x through th e surface between
points 6 and 9 ,along the design length of the machine (axial
gap length) lo ' Th e total pol e leak age flu x is proportional
to the permeance per unit length betw een adjacent poles,
'As, and the mmf between adjacent pole -pieces, F 77 , (be-
tween points 7 and 7' ). Becaus e the leak age-field line pas-
sing through points 7, 8, and 7' links the current in tw o coil
sides,
2F j m = 2wj l j
and includes, in addition to portion 7-8-7' , also a pole-piece
and the rotor yoke, we ma y write
F 77 , = 2(Ftm - F m - F a 2 )
From insp ection of the loop 1-2-3-4-5 whi ch coincides
with the mean line of the mutual field , we may write in
accord with Eq . (53-13)
FI = F o + +F Z1 F a l = Fj m - F m - Fa 2
From a compar ison of the las t two equations it transp ires
that the mmf betwe en two adjacent pole -pieces, F 77 " is
equal to the mmf in the st ator and air gap:
F77 , '= 2F I = 2 ir , -I- F Z I + Fa l )
Th e sam e result would be ob t ained, if we recalled, that
2FI is equal to F 33' the mmf betw een points 3 and 3' lying
on adjacent pole-pi eces , and th at the magnetic potentials
at points 3 and 7, 3' an d 7' are res pect ive ly the same.
Now the pole leakage flux , cD j cr , may be expressed in terms
of F I found earlier, and As. H alf of this flux is given by
c!)j crf2 = It_o'A sl oF 77 , = ltoAsl o (2F I )
Noting th at 'Aj (f> = 4As is t he permeance seen by the pole
leakage Ilux , we finally ge t:
cD/ cr = ~Lo'Aj(f>l oFl (53-16)
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Pro cesses on Open Circuit 247
The permeance seen by the pole leakage flux, increases

with an increase in pole -piece height h p and pole-core height
h m , and with a decrease in the spacing between adjacent
pole-pieces and adjacent pol es (see Fig. 53-6). Equations
giving "Af(J) can be found in [13J and [30].
To a first approximation, "Af(J) can be expressed as a frac -
tion of "A o, the air gap permeance seen by the mutual flux:
"Af(J) = k"A o (53-17)
The ratio of the two permeanc es, k = "Af(J)/"A r" for salient-
pole machines li es an ywh ere between 0.15 and 0 .35 . On the
average, it may be t aken as 0.25 .
The air gap permeance per unit length [see Eq. (53-14)]
"A o = (JJ mhtoloF 0 = !X oT/6k o (53-18)
is expressed in t erms of the principal dimensions of the
machine, /) and T .
On taking a particular value of k = "Af (r)"Ao, we can ex -
press the pole leak age flux, cDf a, directly in terms of the
mutual flux, <Pm. This can be done by considering together
Eqs. (53-16) through (53-18):
<P f a = kk zacD m (53-19)
where k = "Af(J)/"A o ~ 0.25, and k Za = F 1 / F 0 is the satu-
ration factor .
The t otal flux through a pole base , <P 2 , is the sum of two
terms (Fig. 53-6):
<P 2 = <Pm + o,; = O'f(JJm (53-20)
where O'f = <P 2 /<p m = 1 + <Pfa/cDm = 1 + kk za is the pole
leakage factor.
The mmf in a pole core is given by
r; = hmHm + F om (53-21)
where H m is the field intensity at the pole base correspond-
ing to the flux density at the same section [13J:
Bm = <P 2/kmsl~,b m
where l~ ~ lo = design pol e len gth with allowance for
the end-pla tes
km s = pol e-core fill factor)
(k m s = 0.95 for a
pole core built up' of electrical-sheet
248 Part Five. Syn chronous Machines
steel laminations 1-2 mm thick , and

lem s = 1.0 for solid pol es)
and F om = 225 B ;" is the mmf at the joint between
a pole and the yoke .
Th e mmf in th e rotor yok e (see Fig. 53-6) is given by
F a2 ~ L a 2H a 2 (53-22)
wh ere H a2 is the maximum fi eld intensi ty in the yoke, cor-
responding to the flux density in the rotor yoke [131:
B a2 = ({l2
2k as (l a 2 - Il d2 1Jfl2 ) ha2
wher e nd 2 = number of ventila t ion ducts in the rim

yoke fill factor (le a s = 0.9 5 for a yok e built
leas =
up of elect rical-shee t steel laminat ions, and
leas = 1.0 for a soli d yoke)
The mmf in the rotor , F 2 , is the sum of two t erms:
F 2 = r; Fa 2 + (53-23)
Th e calculation of a ma gn etic circuit for each assumed
(or specifi ed) value of E, is complete d by determining the
excit ation rurnf , "F l m = wll f , which should balance the
sum of mmfs in th e stator , air gap and rotor:
Ff m = wf l f = FI +F 2 (53-24)
Th e results of calculat ions for a range of values of E f
ar e plotted as no-lo ad saturation (or open-circuit) and ma gne-
tization characteristics. A no-load saturation curve, or
open-circuit cha racter istic, refers to t he dependence of
mutual emf , E f , on d .c. fi eld cur rent, I f' or excit at ion mmf ,
Ef m.
Magnetization cur ves include the basi c ma gnetization
cha racteristic which rel at es cIJ m to F f m ; the ma gnetization
cha racteris tic of the st at or and ail' ga p wh ich relates cI:>m
to F I (al so calle d the transition magnetization curve); th e
air-ga p line relating cD m to F 0; the leakage-flux ma gnetiza-
tion curve relating o ,; to F I ; and th e rotor core magn etiza-
tion curve, rel ating -cI:>2 to F 2 '
For a salient-pol e synch ronous ma chine, the open-circuit
characte ri s tics and ma gn etization curves are shown in
Fi g. 53-7 . A t low excitation , cI:> m and E f are proportional
to Ff m which is pra ctically t he sa me as F o' As saturation is
increased, an increasingly la rger fraction of the total mmf
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Proc esses on Open Circuit 249
comes from the iron portions of the magnetic circuit, that

is, F jm - F O' The build-up i(:especially noticeable in F 2
This is because the rotor flux
~.Ef
cD 2 = cD m + cD j lJ
depends more and more on cD j
which rises with increasing
excitation at a faster rate than
ePm. (The ratio cDjlJ/cD m by
Eq. (53-19) gradually increa-
ses .) As a result, F jm= F 1 F 2 +
differs more and mor e from
F 0' and the cD m = f (Fjm)
curve progressively depar ts frm,oc
from th e air gap line, cD m Fig. 53-7 .Open-circuit and mag-
= f (Fo)' netization curves of a syn ch-
The no-load saturation curve ronous machine
or open-circuit characteris-
tic, E j = f (Fjm), is similar
in shape to the cD m = f (Fjm)
curve. Both (see Fig. 53-7) may
be plotted on a per-unit basis,
taking as the base quantities
the rated voltage V R , the mu-
tual flux on open circuit (at
no load)
cDm,oc = V R/4kL iIw1kw1
corresponding to the rated volt- 0 0.4 0.8 12 1.6 2.0
age on open circuit , E, = V R , Fig. 53-8 Normalized open-cir-
and the excitationmmf, F jm= cuit and magnetization curves
Fjm,oc = wjlj ,oc, also corres- of salient-pole synchronous ma-
ponding to th e open-circuit chines
rated voltage . The procedure
is as follows. Going from point to point on the curves in
Fig. 53-7, the quantities locating those points are written
on a per-unit basis:
E :I: j = Ej/VR
cP*m = cDm/cDm,oc
eI)'I:jlJ = cDjlJ/cDm .oc
cD"'2 = (]) 2/ eI)m,oc
250 Pa rt Five. Synchronous Machines
F:':fm = FtmlFfm.De
F:"l = FllFt m.De
F* o = F olFfm.De
F",2 = F 2lFfm.oe
Now, th e relationships betw een the per-unit quantities
in volved are plo t ted on a di agram . As is seen from Fi g. 53-8,
the open-circuit cha rac terist ics and basic magnetization
curves drawn on a per-unit basis are id entical. Also , a com-
parison of the per-uni t ma gnetization curves for a range of
diff erent salient-pole ma chines will show that t hey t oo dif-
fer very little. Th e aver aged per-unit open-circuit charac-
teristics and mag netization cur ves , calle d t he normal or
normalized char act eris tics, ar e shown in Fig. 53-8.
533 Calculation of the Magnetic Circuit

for a Nonsalient Pole M achine on O pen
Circuit
Th e magnetic circu it of a nonsa lie nt-pole machine differs
from that ofa salien t-p ole un it onl y in the rot or (Fi g. 53-9).
On open circuit (at no lo ad), it is cal cul ated in the same
manner as expla ined in the pr evio us section . Th e ma gn etic
field pattern in a nonsalie nt-pole ma chine at 'n o load is
shown in Fi g. 53-10. Th e resul t ant rotor fi eld (Fig. 53-:-10)
is shown as the sum of t he mu tual fi eld (Fig. 53-10a) and
the leak age field of the fi eld winding (F ig . 53-10b).
-Th e excitation mmf, F f , which sets up the mu tual flux
<t>m, is found by applying Amp ere's circuital law to the
mean mag netic line, 1-2-3-4-5 , wh ich consists of sev eral
parts, nam ely: L al (the st ato r yoke), h Z l (the stator te eth),
6 (th e air gap), hz ~ (the rotor t eeth) , and L a2 (the rotor
yoke):
F t m = r, + F 2 (53-25)
where F l = F0 +F +F =
Zl al m mf in t he stator and air
ga p
F2 = F Z2 + F a2 = mmf in the rot or
Th e mmf in th e stator and air ga p , Fl , and its components
F 0' F Z1 and F a l are found by the same equat ions as for a
salient-pole machine [see E q. (53-14) and Sec. 40-2]; k B ,
a o and k o are found with allo wance for th e specific features
of nonsalient-pol e ma chines .
Ch. 53 Electrom agne tic Processes on Open Circuit 251
Fig . 53-9 Dimensions of the ac tive zone in the rotor of a nonsalient-

pole ma chine .
Fig. 53-to Magne tic fie lds in a nonsali en t-pole synchro nous ma chine
a t no load: (a) mutu al Iield; (IJ) leakage field ; (c) resul tant fielrl
The values of k Band rJ.. o with saturation are found as ex-

plained in Sec. 53-1, on taking a guessed value for k Z =
(Fo + FZI}lF o The value of k o is found by the equation
k o = k oIk o2P + k OI (1 - p) (53-26)
where k OI is found by Eq. (53-14),
k 02 = t Z2/(t Z2 - '\'26)
and
(bs2!B)2
'\'2= 5+b s2!B
In calculating F 2 and its components F Z2 and F a2' it is
important (as for a salient-pole machine) to take into ac-
count the effect of the leakage flux. To determine <D 2 at the
base of the rotor teeth, <D m found from the field pattern in
Fig. 53-10a should be augmented by <D f a found from the
field pattern in Fig. 53-10b. The leakage flux is found by the
same equations (53-16) and (53-19) as were used for a salient-
pole machine; it is likewise proportional to F I between points
3 and 5, which is in turn equal to the mmf between points 7
and 8 (in Fig. 53-10, the characteristic points are numbered
in the same sequence as in Fig. 53-6), and to "AfeJ). The value
of the latter varies with the shape and the number of rotor
slots in the leakage-flux path 7-8-7' between adjacent hete-
ropolar major teeth, Z2/2p (in Fig. 53-10b, there are six
slots in half this path), and can be found by the equation
"AfeJ) = (Sp/Z2) ("As + "At) (53-27)
where "As = hl/2b s2 + h 2/bs2 = rotor-slot permeance seen by
the leakage flux .
"At = 0.2 + 6/2t Z2 = rotor tooth permeance seen
by the leakage flux
hI = slot height taken up by
conductors (Fig. 53-9)
h 2 = slot height free from con-
ductors (in the same figure)
In nonsalient-pole machines, "A f tI, is smaller than it is in
salient-pole machines. I ts ratio to the air gap permeance
"A o = rJ.. oL/k o6 = cDm /~toloF 0
ordinarily lies in the range 0.035-0.045 , and may rise to
0.06-0.08 in directly cooled machines only. On the average,
for indirectly cooled machines, this ratio may be taken as
k = "AteJ)/"A o = 0.04
so that the leakage flux may be calculated by Eq. (53-'19)

where Af(J) does not en ter . .
The rotor-tooth flux density , B Z 2, is calculated at the
desi gn tooth sec Lion corresponding to a surface whose dia-
meter is assumed to be
D O 2 = D 2 - 2h z 2 2 X O.2h z 2 +
and which lies within O.2h z 2 of the tooth base. Also, it is
important to remember that the desi gn section (see Fig. 53-9)
S z, (1-p) nDo.2 l b l
ma jor zx: 2p 2 = Z, major 2
of the major teeth lying within the region of high flux den-
sity is completely utilized by the flux. In contrast, the sec-
tion of minor teeth , (Z2/2p) l2bZ,minofl dis tributed in the
region of low flux density, is utilized in completely. The
fraction utilized is called their design section and given by
Sz,minor = (Z2/ 2p) l2b Z , minor (O.7'15p)
where bZ,mInor = (nD O 2p/Z 2) - bS2' and Z2 is the number

of slots on the rotor.
The mmf in the rotor teeth is given by
F Z2 = h Z2H Z2 (53-28)
where H Z2 is the field intensity at the desi gn section of the
rotor teeth, S Z = S z .m aj or +
S z .mtno r - corresponding to
the flux density at that section, B Z 2 = (J)2/SZ ['1 3].
At B Z 2 > '1.8T, some of the flux is crowded from the
teeth into slots, and this should be accounted for by apply-
ing a correction factor
k -= n D O 2 l 2 (1-p +O.715p2) -- '1
s. oc- . 2p Sz
Families of ma gnetization curves for rotors with several

values of ks ,oc can be found in ['1 3].
The mmf in the rotor yoke is given by
Fa 2 = L a 2H a 2 (53-29)
where L a 2 = D2 -22h z 2sin (n/2p) , or can be taken from Ftg.
53-9, and H a 2 is the maximum fi eld in tensity in the yoke,
corresponding to the flux density giv en by ['13]
<Do
B a2 = -
l 2 (D 2-2hz 2-do)
Part Five . Synchronous Machin es
Fig. 53-11 Normalized open-

circui t and magnetizatio n curves
of nonsalient-pole synchro-
nous machines
54 MMF, Magnetic Field,

EMF and Parameters
of the Armature Winding
54-1 Armature M M F and Its Direct-Axis and
Quadrat ure- Axis Components
In a'loaded synchronous machine, the ma gnetic field is
established by the current in th e field winding and by a ba-
lanced set of currents in the polyphase (usually , three-
chase) arm ature winding. The largest con trib uti on to ener gy
ponv ersion in the machine comes fr om the mu tual fi eld cor-
Ch. 54 Armatu re Pa rameters and Fields 255
responding to the fund amen tal componen t of the air gap

flux density.
In turn', the mutual fi eld is the result of the joint action
of the mmf in the field wi ndi ng, with a peak value F f m
= wflf, and the fund am ent al mm f of the arm ature winding
(see Sec . 25-4) with a peak value given by
F am = CJl 2l:rt ) n1-1IwlkWl/P (54-1)
To begin wi th , let us assume that the magnet ic circuit
is unsaturated and th at th e rel ative permeability of the
SM
, - - - -1 j
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
L J
Fig . 541 Magne ti c fie ld du e to th e armature mmf on load
iron parts of th e circuit is infinit ely large, ~t rc = 00: On

this assum ption, th e reluctance of t he magn etic circuit has
only one cons tant component , the relu ct anc e of the air gap.
The magnetic circui t may be deemed linear, and the mutual
field in it may be repr esented by the 'sum of simpler fields,
namely the fi eld due to F l m an d the fi eld du e to Fa.
The fi eld du e to F f m ha s al ready been in vestigated in
connection with the no-load (open-circuit) condition (see
Chap. 53). At /1 I'C = 00, the mmfs in the iron parts of the
circuit are zero (FaI = F ZI = F m = F Z2 = F a2 = 0), and
the field mmf needs to ba la nce onl y the ga p mmf, F f m
= F o. The exci tation flux is equ al to <P m, and E f maybe
found from the linear initial portions of t he ma gnetization
and no-load (open-circuit) cha ra ct eristics (F ig. . 53-7.).
256 Part Five. Syn chronous Machin es
In the dia gram of Fi g. 54-1 plo tted on th e complex plane

. .
of a two-pole model of a three-ph ase syn chronous machine,
the directions of th e F f m and <Df m phasors ar e determined
by the field current phaso r if. The excitation mm l, s;
induced in the armature winding by th e excitation field,
lags behind (D f m by n/2.
The armature mmf, Fa nt> is in line with t he armature cur-
rent, I (see Sec. 25-4), whose magnitude and ph ase relative
to E f vary with the load sustained by the machine. Depend-
ing on the mode of operation and the load in tha t mod e,
the phase an gle ~ between Ef and j (or Fam) may li e any-
where between zero and 2n.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, the magnetic field set up
by an arbitrarily oriented F am can be found with ease, be-
cause the air gap between the rotor and stator is the same
everywhere (the field can be found in the same manner as
in an induction machine). In a salient-pole ma chine , the
field due to F am taking up an arbitrary phase an gl e ~ is
far more complex in pattern (see Fig. 54-1). However , its
calculation can be substantially simplified, if it is repre-
sented as the sum of the fi elds due to two mutually perpen-
dicular components of F am . One of these components is
along the direct (or d-) axis of t he ro tor in t he mo del, which
is the axis of symmetry of pol es and is in line with Ff m .
The other component is along the quadrature (or q-) axis
which is the axis of symmetry halfway between adjacent
north and south poles and is in electrical quadrature leading
with (90 electrical degrees or a quarter of a cycl e from) the
d-axis. Hence its name, the quadrature ax is.
The resolution of Fam into the d-axis component, Fd m ,
and the q-axis component, F qm, is illustrated in Fi g. 54-1.
Their peak values ar e respectively given by:
F dm = Famlsin~1 }
(54-2)
F qm = F am Icos PI
From a comparison of Eqs. (54-1) and (54-2), it is readily
seen that the components of F am may be visuali zed as pro-
duced respectively by a set of direct-axis currents with an
Cit. 54 . Armature Parameters and Fields
rms value I d == I I sin ~ I, and by a set of quadrature-axis

currents with a peak value I q = 1 I cos ~ I
l:.'dm .= (.V :/:11) JntI.dWtkw)p }

_ (54-3)
Fqm={V 2/:11) JntlqWtkwtlp .
54-2 The A rmature MMF at V arious Lo ads in

the Generat or Mode
Let us consider the operation of a; synchronous machine
as a generator, with its armature winding connected to a
balanced isolated load where all the phases have the same
impedance equal to ZL = R L +
jX L . We set out to learn
how the armature mmf, F am, and its d- and q-axis compo-
nents, F dm and F qm, vary with the magnitude of load.
An equivalent .circuit for an unsaturated machine in this
mode is shown in Fig. 54-1. The current j produced in the
I
armature winding by E f depends not only on the load im-

pedance, ZL, but on the own impedance of each armature
phase, R I + jX I ,
i= Ef
(RI+RL)-j-j(Xd-XL) (54-4)
Ef
1 = -V (R I +RL)2+(X 1 +XL)2
The phase angle p depends on the ratio of the reactive impe-
dance to tho resistance:
~=arctan XI+XL (54-5)
R1+RL
In the above equations, the inductive reactance of the arma-
ture winding,' Xl' is the sum of the leakage inductive react-
ance, X cr, and the mutual inductive reactance, X a , asso-
ciated with the mutual field in the armature. In a nonsalient-
pole machine where the air gap is uniform, X a is calculated
in the same way as in an induction machine (see Sec. 28-5).
In a salient-pole machine, X a depends on the position of Fa
relative to the pole axes (see Sec. 54-5). R 1 is the resistance
of an armature phase.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, R I can be calculated in
the same manner as in an induction machine (see Sec. 31-2);
how it should be calculated for a salient-pole machine is
'explained in Sec. 54-'5.
17-0240
From the voltage diagr am in Fi g. 54-1, it is seen that tlu

phase an gle ~ is, in th e gener al case, diff erent from t he phasr
i=i~_
Ef x
fl=o
~
i=i d
Ef
\
p=,./2
(h)
Fig. 54-2 Armature magnetic fie ld and mmf under characteri stic
loads:
(a) fi eld and mmf due to q-axis armature current; (b) fi eld and mmf du e to d-axis
demagn etizing curr ent; (c) fiel d an d mm f du e to d-ax is m agneti zi ng c urr en t
angle between the current phasor I and the terminal voltage

. .
phasor, V = ZLI , sol ely dependent on the load impedance.
(1) Inductive load. In the case of an inductive load
(see Fig. 54-2b), when ZL = jXL , R L = 0, XL> 0, an d
th . 54 Arrnatnrc P aram et ers and Fields
the own resistan ce of a phase, HI, is small in comparison

with Xl + XL, the current pliasor I lags behind the emf
phasor E, by
~ = arctan CX) = + n/2
and is in line with the direct (d-) axis :
I = I sin ~ = I
I q = I cos ~ = 0
As is seen, the armature mmf, F a m = F d m , and the magnetic
field est ablished by the set of direct-axis currents, I = I d
oppose the excit at ion mmf, F f m , thereby weakening the
excitation field. Thus, in the case of an inductive load, the
armature winding carries a set of direct-axis demagnetizing
currents, I d .
(2) Capacitive load. A capacitive load (with respect to E f )
exists when the armature winding is connected across a set
of balanced capacitances C with an impedance ZL = jX L
chosen such th at X L = - X c = - 11 roC < 0 exceed s in
absolu te value the own inductive reactance of the armature,
that is,
and
Xl + XL = Xl - Xc < 0
If, in the case of a capacitive load, the own phase re-
sistance R I is small in comp arison with the inductive react-
ance, I XL + Xl I (Fig. 54-2c) , the phase angle between I
and E f is
I
~ = arctan ~L:~ = ar ctan ( - CX) )
.
= - n/2
.
This means that the armature current, I, leads E f by an
angle ~ and is therefore in line with the d-axis:
I d = I I sin ~ I= I
I q = I I cos ~ I= 0
Now the armature mmf, F a m = F d m , and the magnetic
field established by the set of d-axis currents, I = I d, are
in line with the excitation mmf, Fi nt , and boost the excita-
tion field. Thus , in the case of a capacitive load, the arma-
ture winding carri es a set of d-axis ma gn etizing currents , I d .
17*
2M !>art Five. Synchronous Machines
(3) Resist ive load. A resistive load (with respect to Et )

is that load at which the armature curre n t , I, is in phase
with E, or, which is the same, B = a (Fig. 54-2a). This
condition can be achieved in practice, if we connect the
armature winding to a set of balanced RC impedances,
ZL = RL + jX L
where XL = -Xc = -1 / wC, so adjus ted in value that
Xl = X c and the total reactance of the loop, Xl + XL
= Xl - X c , vanishes (see th e voltage diagram in Fig. 54-2a,
plotted on neglecting R I ) . Wi th such a load, the phase angle
. .
between I and E t is
B=arctan XL+X 1 =arc tan O= O
RL
and the armature current is direct ed along the q-axis:
I q = I cos B = I
I d = I sin B = a
Now, the armature field es tablished by the armature mmf,
Fa = F q is acting along the q-a xis. I ts path is across a
much longer ail' gap, than that of the d-a xis field. Combin-
ed with the excita t ion fi eld, t he q-axis fi eld somewhat
boosts the resultant fi eld, bu t causes it to depart from the
d-axis.
54-3 Mutual Field and EMF due to the Armature

Curre nts
Neglecting saturation (on assuming that !-Lrc = 00), the
magnetic field established by the armature currents I may
be investigated independent ly of the excitation field.
In a nonsalient-po le machine wi th a uniform air gap 6,
the armature field in t he air gap h as the sam e waveshape
as the fu nd amental comp onent of the ar mat ur e mmf, Fam'
The flux is distributed in the air gap sinusoidally (see Sec.
25-5), and its peak value is
B /il m = !-Lo F am / 6k !'J
The armature winding is linked by a mutual flux

2
C!lm = -'tl
rt
!'JB !'J im (54-6)
Ch. 54 Armat ure Pa ra meters and Fields 261
which prod uces with an armature ph ase a flux linkage gi ven

by
(54-7)
Th e emf in du ced by the mut ual fie ld in the armature wind -
ing is
(54-8)
. . . .
la ggin g by n /2 behind 1p'am ' (Pm, B 6 , F a ' an d I , which are
all in phase.
In a salient-pole machine, the mut ual field establishe d
by the arma ture current, I, ta k ing up an ar bitra ry phase
angle ~, ha s a very complex pattern (see Fig. 54-'1). To sim-
plify calculations, it is customary to treat it as a sum of
simpler fields, namely, the mutual fi eld du e to I d , and th e
mutual field du e to I q-
(1) Mut ua l fiel d and emf due to I" . Referring to Fig. 54-2b
or c, the d-axis currents in the ar mature wind ing, I d v esta b-
lish a si nusoid ally dis tributed mmf with a peak value F el m .
The mutual fi eld du e to th is mmf can be found by nume-
rical methods or by mathematical modelling. As is shown
in Fig. 54-3a, the radial compo nen t of air gap flux densi ty
is dis tributed nonsinusoidally.
The ratio of the fun dam ent al flux densi t y set up by the
d-axis arm ature mmf, B aellm, t o the peak flu x density ,
B ad m, due t o th e same mmf (as found for a uniform air gap
and shown by a dash ed line in Fi g. 54-3) is the direct-field
form factor
kd = B aell m /B ad m (54-9)
where B ad m = !1oFd n,!6.
Once B ad m is kno wn , it is an easy matter to cal cul ate
B adl m , usin g k d wh ich is ma inly depende nt on the ratio of
the ma ximum air gap, 6m , to the m ini mum air gap , 6 (Fig.
54-3a). Plots of k d = t (6m/6') and kd = t (6' h:) , as found
from the ma gn etic fi eld patterns for a smo oth armature core
and for th e pole-piece dim ens ions typical of salient-pole
machines (ex = bph: = 0.69 to 0.7 2), are given in Fi g. 54-4.
For a smooth round arma ture, 6/ is t ak en to be the air gap
between the stator and rotor at the pole axis, 6/ = 6.
Where it is important to account for the effect of slots on
the armature core and in the pol e pi eces, 6/ must be taken
262 Part Fi ve. Syn chronous Machines
equa l t o 8k lj and 8m/8' to 8 m/k Ij8 . (For the calculation of k f ,

k<I>, and other factors see Sec. 53-1.)
Fig . 54-3 Magnetic fields due to (a) d-axis and (b) q-axi s set of anna-
Lure currents
Once the value of k d is found from the curves in Fig. 54-4

it is an easy matter to calculate the mutual flux correspond-
ing to I d :
(54-10)
where B adm = ~~oFd m /8k lj.

With an arm ature phase, this flux produces a flux li nk-
age given by
1.' ~kd,kq. I I I
7.0 1p'adm = wlkwlCDa dm (54-11)
~ ~1..=o.07 I
as ~~~ r-- an d induces in it a mutual
<,
0.8 kd emf defined as
0.7
-, r-, 0'/7:=0.07
r-, <, <, hi 0.03
0.6 Ead=-jwWadm/V2 (54-12)
.? ~ - <, <, r-, r-. <, 0.05
0. 5
0.4
..........
r- r-- -=t:::: >-- k emf(2) due
Mu tual flux density and
to I d ll The mutual
0.3 om/o' ~ '-- q. field established by the set of
0.6 1.0 1.4 7.8 2.2
q-axis currents in the arma-
Fig ;. 54-4 plot s of k d and k 'l' ture windin g, 1 'lm (see Fig.
the direct- and. qu adra ture-axi s 54-2a) is likewise nonsinusoidal
fie l d form fac tors in waveshape. As is seen from
Fig. 54-3b, the radial compo-
nent of B between pole-p iec es is substantially weakened in
comparison with the flux density that would exist if the
ail' gap wer e uniform (shown by a dashed line in th e figure).
The mutual flux due t o the q-axis mmf is calculated by
Ch. 54 Armature Parameters and Fi elds 263
applying the q-axis field form factor, k q , defined as the

ratio of the fundamental flux density due to the armature
q-axis mmf, B a q1m , to the peak flux density due to the same
mmf, B a qm, as found for a uniform air gap and shown by
the dashed line:
k q = B aqlm/B aqm (54-13)
where B a qm = /Lo F qm /5 .
Plots of k q as a function of 5m /5' and 5' h , deduced from
the magnetic field patterns applicable to a round (nonsa-
lient) armature core , app ear in Fig. 54-4. As already explain-
ed, in the case of a smooth-surface armature , 5' = 5.
So, when it is important to account for the effect of slots ,
one should take 5' = 5k{j. Once k q has been found from
the curves in Fig. 54-4, it is easy to calculate the mutual
flux corresponding to I q'
(D aqm = -1t2 -r:l{jB a '/1m
2
= --r:l{jk
1t
q B a '1m (54-14)
where B aqm = /LoF qm/5k{j.
Linking the armature phase, this flux is
1faq m = w1kwl(!) a q m (54-15)
where it induces a mutual emf
(54-16)
54-4 Equivalent Armature MMF

in an Unsaturated Machine
The armature mmf, F am , and its d- and q-axis components,
F dm and F qm, differ in waveshape from the field mmf, Ft.
The armature mmf is distributed over the surface sinusoi-
dally; the field mmf is distributed in a manner substan-
tially differing from sinusoidal. This stands in the way
of combining the two mmfs. To simplify calculat ions, the
sinusoidal armature mmfs are therefore replaced by equi-
valent field mmfs chosen so as to retain the fundamental flux
density in the air gap and the fundamental emf induced in
the armature winding.
The d-axis armature mmf, F d m , which gives rise to a
field whose fundamen tal flux density is
B a d1m = kdB adm = k d /L oFdm/ 5 k{j
264 Part Five . Syn chronous Machine s
is repl aced by the fi eld mm f, F jm = F adm, which sets upa

field with the same fundam ental flu x density
B alm = kj fto Fadm/oko = B adl m
(see Sec. 53-1). Hence, the field mm f equ ivalent to the
d-axis armature mmf is given by
Fadm . k adFdm (54-17)
where k ad = k d/k j is th e d-axis ar mat ure reaction factor,
with k d found from the curves in Fig . 54-4, and' k j from
th e cur ves in Fi g. ' 53-3. '
Similarly , t he ~ field , mmf
Eao-- - - d equival ent to the q-axis arma-
ture mm f is
Eado----&,
F aqm = k aqFqm (54-18)
wh ere k aq = kq/k j is the q-
axis ar mature reaction factor,
with k q found from Fi g. 54,4,
F and k j , from Fig. 53-3 .< .
D Faqm Fadm In a . non salient-pole ma -
chine, the armature mmf, F am,
Fig . 54-5 Det.er mi nation of emf est ab li shing-a fi eld .with a -fun-
du e to arm atur e cur ren ts by da mental flux density
me ans of equi va le n t fi eld mmfs
B alm = ~to F am/ok"
is replaced by a fi eld mmf, F jm = F afm which establishes
a field with t he same fundament al flu x density'
B ojIm = kj ftoFajm/Oko = B al~
H ence, in a nons alient-pole machine , the field mmf equiva-
lent to th e arm ature mmf is "
F ajm = k aF am = F am/k j (54-,19)
where u; = '1/k j is t he armature reaction fact~r found fr'om
the..curves in Fig . 53-3. ,
::) hen replac ing F dm, F qm , an d F am with F adm, F aqm,
3,l)q.,fatm, . it . is imp ort ant t o remember that on a ph asor
vecto r di agra m t heir axes ret ain th eir original, directions,
f The use o~ equiva lent field mmfs (F adm and F aqm in a sa-
li ent-pole machine an d F aj m in a nonsalient-pols machine)

enables t he analyst or designer t o find t he mutua l emfs
E ad, E aq and .E a du e to the currents I d, I q; and I in the
Ch, 54 Armature Param eters an d Fields 265
arma ture wind in g fro m the no-load cha racteristic ,

Ej =f (F t m ), without ha ving t o use Eqs.(54-8), (54-12),
and (54-16).
In an unsaturated ma chine, wh ere Ft m = F o, this can
be done by using the linearized no-lo ad characteristics,
E f = f (F 0) , as illustrated in Fi g. 54-5.
,
54-5 Parameters of the Armature Winding
[for Positive Sequence Currents)
Ea ch ph ase of the armature winding in a synchronous ma-
chine has a resis t an ce and an inductive reactance associat-
ed with the mu tual and leak age field s set up by t he arma-
ture currents.
In steady-state balanced operation, the armature winding
carries a set of currents , I , that give rise t o the fundamental
mmf, F am , and the mutual field. These currents are rotat-
ing at the same speed as the rotor does, and take up a cer-
t ain definite position rel ative to the d- and q- axes of the
rotor. Th ey are positive-sequ ence currents.
The fi eld established by such currents is stationary rela-
tive to the roto r , and it does not induce any currents in the
rotor , field or damper windings that mi ght lead to additional
losses or weak en t he fi eld set up by t he armat ure currents.
Therefore, in calculating the imp edances of armature phases
to positive-sequence currents, one needs only to take into
account the magnetic field and losses due to the currents
in the arm ature winding itself.
(1) Resistance of the armature conductors. I t can be
found . from the copp er loss es as calculated with all owance
for current crowding (see Sec. 31-2). To minimize the cop-
per loss
P CUl = m 1 RI 2 (54-20)
and the resistance, R , of th e armature phase conduct ors,
it is usual in large synchrono us ma chines t o strand and trans-
pose the conductors. St rand ing and t rans posit ion reduces
the per-unit resistance in la rge machines to
R * = RIR/V R = 0.006 to 0.002 (or even less)
(2) Leakage inductive reactance of th e armature winding.
'I'he l eakage inductive reacta nce of an armature phase, X cr,
is associ at ed with th e leak age fi elds and the leakage induct-
266 Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machin es
ance of the arm ature phase, L UI ' (see Sec. 28-7):

Xu = 2:n; fL u1 = 4:n; ~Lo fwr (lr)pq1) AU1 (54-21)
Sin ce leak age fi elds depend li t tle, if at all, on the air
gap sh ap e, the equations giv en in Sec. 28-7 are equally ap-
plicabl e to nonsalient- and salie nt-pole machines. The
reluct anc e t o the arma t ure leak age fields mainly comes from
the various nonmagnetic ga ps (in t he slot s, air gap, and
overh ang s) wi th perm eability ~L o ' Th erefore, it is legitimat e
t o neglect t he reluct an ce presen t ed by the iron pa rts to the
leakage fi elds and deem the leak age reluctance const ant
und er an y operating conditions (even wh en t he magn etic
circuit of the mutual fi eld is saturated).
Since the le akage fi eld s altern at e at fr equency f, a leakage
emf is induced in the armature winding
i := - jXui = - jeutum/lf2 (54-22)
where 1.jr um . . LUI (V 21) is the leakage flux linkage of an
armature phase.
(3) Mutual inductive reactance of the armature (in a
nonsalient-pole machine). In an unsaturated, nonsalient-
pol e machine with a uniform air gap, the mutual inductive
reactance of th e armature, X a , is calculated from L u :
X a = 2:n; fLu = 4~omd1 (w1k w1)2 Ar,l:n;p (54-23)
where Aa = "tl a/k a6 is the permea nce of a uniform ail' gap
per pole .
The emf induced by the rotating mu tu al arm ature fi eld ,
Eq. (54-8), is
Ea= -jeutam/1/2 = - j X) (54-24)
wh ere 1.jr am = L u (V21) is t he mu tual flux linkage per
phase du e t o t he armature currents I.
(4) Direct- and quadrature-axis mutual inductive react-
ances of the armature (in a salient-pole machine). It has
been shown in Sec . 54-3 th at in a salie n t-pole ma chine iden-
tical set s of d- and q-axis current s produce field s differing
in the fundamental fl ux density because of the difference
in the radial gap len gth (see Fi g. 54-3a and b). Accordingly,
th e d- and q-axis mutual ar ma t ure induct ances, Lad and
L a'l' respectively associat ed with th e d- and q-'axis currents,
i, and 1 '1 ' are different. From Eqs. (54-10) , (54-11), and
CII. 54 Armature Purumct ors und Fie lds 267
(54-3) it follows that t he d-axis mutual inductive react ance

of the armature is
X ad = 2nfL ad = 2nf1fadm/VZ f d
= 4[10
rtp
mtit (Wt k w t )2 Aad (54-25)
where Aad = k d'tl o/k r.,(3 = kdAo =

d-axis permeance of the
air ga p
k d = d-axis fie ld form factor
(see Fig. 54-4).
From Eq s. (54-3), (54-14) and (54-15), it follows t hat the
q-axi s mutual induct ive reactance of the armature is
X aq = 2nfL aq = 2n flJfaqm /VZ f q
= 4~to
rtp
mti t ( Wt k wt) 2 Aaq (54-26)
where Aaq = k q'tl o/ko(3 = kqA O = q-axis perm ean ce of the

. air ga p
kq = q-axis fiel d form factor
(see Fi g . 54-4)
The d- and q-axis mutual ind uctive reactances of the arma-
ture are proport ional to t he res pective permeances. As the
radi al ga p length inc reases, the perm eances decrease. Be-
cause, how ever, the q-axis permeance is smaller, the q-
ax is mutual reactance is always sma ller than the d-ax is
mutual reactance, X aq < X ad'
Th e mutual emfs ind uced in each ph ase by the direct-
an d quadrature-axis sets of currents [see E qs . (54-12) and
(54-16)] can be expressed in terms of the d- and q-ax is mutua l
inductive reactances as foll ows:
Ead = - jrotadmI Vz = - jXad id
(54-27)
E'lq = - jro l aqm/ V 2 = - jX aqiq
where -qr adm = Lad 0(2 I d) = mutual fl ux li nkage due t o j d

1vaqm = L aq (V21 q) = mutual flux li nkage due to i q
(5) Inductive reactance of the ar mature (in a nonsalient-
pole machine). This is the total induct ive react an ce of the
armature wind ing for a bal anced set of positive-sequence
currents. Th e inductive reac lance of the armature , Xl '
in a nonsalient-pole machine is the sum of the leakage arm a-
ture inductive reactance, X cr' and the mutual armature

inductive reactance, X a:
XI = X o Xa+ (54-28)
(6) Direct- and quadrature-axis inductive reactances of
the armature (in a salient-pole machine). These reactances
are each the sum of the leakage and mutual reactances for I d
and I q' respectively . Because the leakage inductive react-
ance for the components of the armature current does not
differ from that for the armature current itself, X cr , the
d-axis inductive reactance of the armature may be wr itten
X d = Xcr + X ad (54-29)
.and the q-axis induct ive reactance of the armature may be
written
Xq = Xa +X aq (54-30)
(7) Direct- and quadrature-axis inductive reactances of
the armature (in a nonsalient -pole machine). In a non-
salient-pole machine, the inductive r eactance of the arma-
ture does not depend on the position of the mmf relative
to the rotor axes. Therefore, for both t he d- and q-axis sets
of currents , it does not differ from the total inductive react-
ance of the armature given by Eq . (54-28) :
X d = X q = Xl (54-31)
The same goes for the d- and q-axis mutual inductive react-
ances. In a nonsalient-pole machine, they do not differ
from the mutual inductive reactance of the armature:
(54-32)
(8) Armature impedance. Visualize the total emf, Ea .
.
induced by the armature field due to I as the sum of E nd
. . .
and E a q , in duced respect ively by III and I q'
. . .
e, = e., + E a q (54-33)
and express the mutual impedance of the armature, Za,
. .
as the ratio of the mutual emf, - E a , to I:
Za =R a +
jX a = - E alI (54-34 )
I t can be shown that the resistiv e component , R a , and
the reactive com ponent, X a , of the armature mutual impe-
eh. 54 Armature Parameters and Fields
dance Za, depend on the cl- and q-axis mutual inductive

reactances of the armature, X ad and X aq' and on the posi-
. .
tion of the armature mmf, Fa (or the armature current I)
relative to the rotor, as given by the phase angle B (see
Fig. 54-1). To this end, j and k; must be plotted on the
complex plane shown in Fig. 54-6. Deeming the angle B
positive when I lags behind the negative direction of the
q-axis or E I , the armature current phasor may be written
. . .
I = Id +Iq (54-35)
where
Id = I sin B= Id
I q = jI cos B= jI q
d
and the emf may be written
as
. . .
E a = E ad +
E aq (54-36)
where
. .
Ead=-jXadld=-j Xadlsin B
. . Fig . 54.-6 Determination of the
Eaq=-jXaqI q= +X aqI cos B mu tual impedance of the arma-
ture in a salient-pole synchro-
Taking the above equations nous machine
together and equating the
respective coefficients of the r eal and imaginary terms on
the right- and left-hand sides of Eq. (54-34), we get
X - Xad+Xaq Xad-Xaq 2(.\
a- 2 2 cos jJ
(54-37)
X ad-X aq . 2(.\
Ra = 2 SIn l-'
Plots of X a and R a as functions of Bapp ear in Fig. 54-7 .

The same figure gives plots of I d and I q as functions of B
(as B varies, I remains unchanged).
At Bequal to zero or rr, wh en the current is directed along
the quadrature axis, I = I q ' t he inductive component of
the mutual impedance is equal to the q-axis mutual induct-
iv e reactance of the armature, X a = X a q wh ereas the i
-
res istive component of the mutual impedance vanish es,

R; = O.
At P = + nI2, whe n the current is along the d-axis ,
I = I d, the induct ive component is equal to the d-axis mu-
tual in ductive reactance of the armature, X a = X ad, wh e-
reas the res istive com ponent vanish es, R a = O.
The ph ysi cal m eaning of R a in a salien t-pole machine
will be explaine d in Sec. 56-2, in connection with energy
conversion in synchronous ma-
chines. As will be shown, the
t erm 7n 1 R a P is the electric
power conve rted to mechanical
power when t he ro tor is of the
sa lient-pole desi gn (at R a < 0,
the direction of energy con ver-
sio n is reverse d). The resistive
comp onen t
I R a I = (X ad - X aq)/2
at p = +n/4 + ksi; where k
is an integer.
Th e m aximum value of re-
sistance, coinciding with the
Fig . 54-7 Compone nts of the
peak value of oscillations in
mu tual ar ma ture imp edance in inductive reactance about its
a salient-p ole machin e, plot ted mea n va lue , (X ad + X a q)/2 ,
as fun ctions of the angle ~ be- is equal to h alf the difference
tween the armature current and between X ad and X a q. Th ere-
the q-axi s
fore in a nonsalient-polo ma-
chine where X ad = X aq , the
resist ive component is zero, R a = 0, an d the inductive
component is t he same at any value of p, X a = X a d = X a q
In finding the armature winding impedance, Zl ' it is
imp or t an t to take int o account the armature conductor re-
sistance R and the ar ma t ure leak age ind uctive reactance , X a
+
z, = R 1 j X 1 (54-38)
where
Xd -Xq
Rt =R +Ra =R + 2 sin2p
is the r esistive compo nent of t he armature imp eda nce, an d
X d+Xq Xd -Xq
= Xa+Xa =
T
Xl 2 -- 2 cos 2P
eh. !jfi Electr omagnet ic Processes on Load 271
is the inductive component of the ar ma ture impedan ce. In a

salient-pole m achine they are functions of the angle ~.
Therefore, when ~ = +:n;/2 (the d-axis set of currents)
R I = R, Xl = X d = Xu + X acl
wh ereas at ~ equal t o zero or rr (th e q-ax is set of cur rents)
R I = R, Xl = Xq =X o + X aq
In a nonsalient-pole m achine, the arma ture imped an ce and
its components are ind epend en t of t he current ph ase angle , B:
R I = R, R a = 0, Xl = X o+ K;
in a Synchronous Machine
on Load
55-1 Electromagnetic Processes in a NonsalientPole
Machine (Neglecting Saturation)
A study in to t he elect romagnetic pr ocesses t hat take place
in a synchrono us m achin e is un dert ak en in ord er to develop
a mathematical model in the form of equat ions re lating
the quantities in its electr ic an d m agnet ic circuits .
To begin wi th, we sha ll tu rn to an un saturated machine ,
assuming that the rela tiv e perm eabi li ty of th e iron parts
in its magnetic circuit is infinitely lar ge, ~LI'C = 00 . Neglec-
ting the r eluctance of the iron, we m ay treat th e "m agne tic"
circuit as linear, and apply th e principle of sup erpo sition,
that is, det ermine the ma gnet ic field as th e sum of th e fi elds
established independ ently by the d. c. fi eld curre nt, I f ,
and the armature currents , I . Then, the per-p hase v oltage
equation for the arm ature of a non salient-p ole sy nchronous
m achine ma y be writt en as
. . . . .
Ef + Eu + Ea = V + RI (55-1 )
wh ere E f = fi eld emf induced by t he mutual fi eld due to
the field mmf , F f m
Ea = armature mu tual emf induced by the mutual
field du e to the armature se t of currents, I
Ea == leakage emf in duced by th e leak age field set

up by the arm ature currents , I
V = phase voltage at the arma ture te rm ina ls
R = per-phase r esist ance of the armatur e
The v alue of E f is foun d from t he li neariz ed no-loa d curve,
E f = f (F 6)' The va lue of E a (Fi g. 55-1) is pr opor ti onal t o
the arm at ure current , I. It can be found in one of two ways.
!fr
-i::~t>t
j Xt!I ~
Ri~
v. t R lXf VZ
If fJ TV Ef ~~>L
RJ
Fig . 55-1 Voltage phasor diagram and equiva lent circuit of a non-
salient-pole synchronous machine (neglecti ng sa tura tion)
1. Usi ng Eq. (54-1), find the armature mmf, F am. Referr-

ing to Fig. 53-2, det ermine th e arm ature reaction factor,
.i k a = 1Ik f = f (p). R epl ace F am by an equ iv alent fi eld mmf,
Faf m. = kaF am' R ecalling th at for a uniform air gap the
magnetization characte ristic is ind ependent of the direct ion
of mmf, find E a as an emf corresponding to F ai m on the
linearized E f = f (F 6) cur ve in Fig. 55-1.
2. Express E a in te rm s of the mu tual inductive reac tance
of the armature:
. .
E a = -jX aI
The leakage emf m ay be expressed in terms of the leak age
inductive react an ce of the armature from E q. (54-22)
. .
E; = -jX aI
Now the arm ature voltage equation m ay . be r e-written as
. . . .
E f = V + RI + jX1I (55-2)
wh ere Xl = X a + X a is the Lot al induc ti ve reac tance of the
armature.
Ch. 55 Ele ctromagnetic Processes on Load 273
Graphically, Eqs. (55-t) and (55-2) can be represented

by a voltage phasor diagram. In Fig. 55-t, the voltage phasor
diagram is constructed for a machine operating as a genera-
tor supplying an isolated resistive-inductive load, ZL
= RL + jXL- In the circumstances, V can be expressed as
(55-3)
where Va = RLj and Vr = jXLj are the active and reactive

components of the voltage, respectively.
In an arbitrary mod e of operation, the phase of V is de-
cided by the phase angle cp between V and I. If V is leading I,
the angle cp is taken to be positive.
When the activ e current component, I a = I cos cp is in
phase with the voltage, I a = I cos cp > 0, the machine is
operating as a generator and delivers active power to the
load,
P = m'l VI cos cp > 0
When I a = I cos cp < 0, it is operating as a motor and
draws active power from the supply line
P = 1n1 VI cos cp < 0
The reactive power gener at ed by the m achine is taken
to be positive
Q = 111 1 VI sin cp > 0
when t he reactive current component, I r = I sin cp > 0,
lags behind V by 90 electrical degrees (it is said to be in
electrical quadrature la gging). This will happen if the load
is inductive, XL> 0, and 0 < cp ~ n/2, as in Fig. 55-1.
The reactive power generated by a synchronous machine
is taken t o be negative
Q= 1n1 VI sin cp < 0
wh en the reactive current component, I r = I sin cp < 0,
leads V by 90 electrical degrees (it is said to be in elect rical
quadrature leading). This will happen if the load is capa-
citive , X L = -Xc < 0 and -n/2 ~ cp < 0, as in Fig. 55-'1.
Wh en a synchronous machine is operating as a motor,
positive reactive power is generated at st > cp ~ n /2, and
negative reactive power, at -n/2 ~ cp> -n.
18-0240
Formally, Eq. (55-3) may be extend ed to the motor mod e

of opera tion as well. Let us write the resistive a nd induct-
ive components of the load in t erm s of it s impedance:
R L = ZL cos cp = (V / l) cos cp }
XL = ZL sin (p = (V /1) sin (p (55-4)
it s voltage in terms of the act ive and react ive components:
. . + v,.
V ---: Va (55-5)
where
Va = R LI = V cos (p
V r = XL I = V sin (p
and it s active and rea ctive powers in terms of the load re-
sistance and reactance :
P = nu] (V cos cp) = 1ntRLI2 }.
Q = tru] (V sin rp) = 1ntXLI2 (55-6)
I t is seen from E q . (55-6) that P is positive and the ma chine
is operating as a generator at R L > O. In contrast , P is
ne gat ive and the machine is operating as a motor at R L < 0,
when it is load ed into a fictitious negative resistance, R L
Physically, this mean s that the machine is not delivering
any act iv e power to t he load; rather, the load is supplying
act ive power t o t he machin e at V .
From the same equations it al so foll ows t ha t in:,both the
generator and the motor mo de of operation, Q is positive
at X L > 0 and negative at XL < O. Therefore, wh atever
the mod e of operation defined by V, I and the phase angle cp
. .
between t hem, V can be expressed as the sum of Va and V r
.
in accord with Eq. (55-3) or in terms of R L and XL' as
given by E qs . (55-4) and (55-5).
Th e mode in which a machine is running is characterized
by four defining quantities, namely the armature voltage
V, the armature current I, the ph ase angle cp between them,
and the d.c. fi eld current I f. Instead of V and rp, we may
take R L and X L , in which case t h e mode of operation
will be cha ra cte ri zed by ano ther set of four defining quan-
tities, namely R L , X L' I, and If .
. A particular mode of operation can be specified by giY-:'"
ing any three of the four defining quantities. The fourth
can then be found either graphically (from a voltage pha-
SOl' diagram), or analytically, using Eq. (55-2) to which

Eq. (55-3) should be added, if and wh ere necessary. Most
naturally, a particular mode of operation can be specified
by giving (1) V, I, and (j), or R L, X L and I, in which case
I J needs to be found. Al ternative sets of defining quanti-
ties are (2) V, cp, and I f; (3) cp, I and If; and (4) V, I, and If.
In an unsaturated machine, the d.c. fi eld current If is repla-
ced in the design equation by E f as found from the lineari-
zed no-load curve. The unknown E f (for the 1st set of de-
fining quantities) can be found from Eq. (55-2) written
in terms of the projections of the complex quantities on
the current direction and on a direction at right angles to it:
EJ= V (V cos (j) + RI) 2+ (V sin (j) + X tI)2 (55-7)
or, subject to Eq . (55-5),
E f =rV(R+Rd 2+( X t + X d 2 (55-8)
where I = VIZ L ..
Solving Eq. (55-7) for I, V, or (j) will give the unknown I
(if the 2nd set of defining quantities is used):
I =[-2V (X t sin (j) + R cos (j))
V 4V2(Xtsin(j)+Rcos(j) 24 (X~ + R2) (E ,-V2)l/
+
2 (X~ + R2) . (55-9)
or the unknown V (if the 3rd set of defining quantities
is used):
V= -I(Xtsin(j)+R cos(j)
+ V ]2 (X t sin (j) + R cos (j) 2+ E , - ( X~ + R 2)]2 (55-10)
or the unknown (j) (if the 4th set of defining quantities is
used):
. El- V 2- (X H - R 2) J2
(j) = arcsm (XtIZ t) + arccos 2VIZ (55-11)
1
55-2 Electromagnetic Processes in a Salient-Pole

Synchronous Mach ine [Neglecting Saturation)
Neglecting saturation, a salient-pole synchronous machine
may likewise be treated as having a linear magnetic cir-
cuit. Now, however, it is convenient to represent the mu-
tual field established by the armat ure current as a sum
18*
:276 Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machines
of two independ ent fields, one set up by I d and the oth er

by I s: Th en Lhe mutual emf may he wriLLon
. . .
E a = E ad + E aq (55-'12)
Accordingly, th e arm ature emf will be

. . . . . .
Ef + E a + E ad + E aq = V + RI (55-'13)
As in an unsaturated nonsalient-pole machine, E f in

the above equation (see Fig. 55-2) can be found from the
linearized no-load ch aract eristic, E f = t (F 0)' The arm ature
leakage emf is , in accord with Eq. (54-22), give n by E a
-jX aI. The mutual emfs of the armature, E ad and
E aq, resp ectively proportio-
nal to I d and I q ' can be
~
-
........~~-/
JI
found in one of two ways,
as follows .
('1) Using I d=Isin ~ and
I q = I cos ~, found earlier
.....~.L-.~-t---i.:=...~ (see Sec. 54-'1), determine
F dm and F qm from Eq.
(54-3). Ref erring to Fi g. 53-3
and Fig. 54-4, find the ex-
citation field form factor ,
kf , and the armature field
form factors , k d and k q (In
an unsaturated machine, the
design air gap, or the axial
gap length, is 8' = k 0 8.)
Fig .~~-55-2 Voltage phasor diagra m Calculate the armature reac-
of a salient-pole synchronous ma - tion factors, k ad = kd/kf
chine in the generator mode of and kaq=kq/k , and replace
operation (negl ecting saturati on) f
(see Sec. 54-3) the direct -
and quadrature-axis mmfs,
Fdm and F qm, by equivalent field mmfs, Fadm = kadFdm
and F aqm = kaqFqm- Determine E ad and E aq as the emfs
corresponding to Fadm and F aqm from the linearized no-
load charact eristic, E f = t (F 0) in Figs. 54-5 and 55-2.
This method can be used, if we know 8, 8m , and k o (to a first
approximat ion , it may be taken that 8m/8' = '1.5), and
the winding data of the machine.
(2) Express E a d and E a q in terms of the mutual inductive

reactances X ad and X aq (see Sec. 54-5): -
. .
E aq = -jX a'll '1
This method is more convenient, because one only needs to
know the parameters of the armature winding.
On expressing E cr' E a d and E aq in Eq. (55-13) in terms
of the respective inductive reactances and currents, the
armature voltage equation may be re-written as
. . . . . .
Ef = V + RI + jXcrI + jXaql q + jXadld
or
. . . . . (55-14)
s, = V + RI + jXqlq+ ixsr,
where X d = Xcr + X ad and X q = Xcr + X aq arethe total
d- and q-axis inductive reactances, respectively.
: A voltage ph asor diagram for a salient-pole synchronous
machin e answering the above equation is shown in Fig. 55-2.
It has been plotted for a machine in t h e generator mode
of oper ation , supplying an isolated resistive-inductive load
for which V sin cp > a and V cos cp > O. The simplest ap-
proach is to construct a phasor diagram from which to
find E f (or If). When the operating conditions are specified
by giving V, I and cp , its construction poses no difficulty.
As is seen from Fig. 55-2 , the angle ~ that defines the direc-
tion of E , (or the negative dire~tion of the q-axis) may be
found gra ph ica ll y before th e E j itself is found. To this
end, i t will suffice to locate the point D which is the tip
of th e phasor
. . . .. . .
OD = 11 + RI + ix crI + jX a'll = V + RI + jXqI
and draw th e q-axis in th e direction opposite to the pliasor.
The d-axis must lag behind the q-axis by 90. The phasor
diagram can he constructed for any mode of operation of
a synchronous machine, as sp ecified by giving V , I , and cp o
(See the explan at ion for the equations of a nonsali ent-pole
machine.)
As has already been explained, the operating mode of
a synchronous ma chine may alternatively he sp ecified by
giving an y one of three more sets of defining, quantities ,
In such cases , however, th e fourth (unknown) quantity is

difficult to find graphically, so it should preferably be
found an alytically , using Eq . (55-14). P rior to that, it is
necessary to set up equ ations leading to the angle ~ or its
basic tri gonom etric fun ctions by reference to Fig. 55-2.
Proj ecting the ph asor OD on the di rection of the current I
and on a direction at right angles to it and referring the
proj ections thus obtain ed to its ma gnitude, we get
V cos cp+ R I
cos 13 = ~~=;==~;::::::;:~~o====;=~'"
. 11 (V sin (p + X q l )2+ (V cos (p+ RI)2
_ R L +R
(55-15)
- 1/ (XL +X q)2+ (RL + R )2
V sin cp+XqI
sin ~ = y (V si n cp + X qI) 2+ (V cos (p+ RI)2
XL+X q
' L=+
- --=yr;::;(x :;= ;=X
~q)"" ( R:::=L=+:;:==;:;R:;:;:)
2 +::;:=;:; 2
On findi ng th e t rigonometric functions of ~ from Eq. (55-15)

for th e operating mode 'specified in t erms of V , I and <p
or in t erms of XL arid R L , we can determine E f As is
seen from Fi g. 55-2, it is
E, = V cos 8 + X dl d + RI q (55-16)
where 8 = P - cp, cos 8 = cos ~ cos rp + sin ~ sin rp,
On subs tituting for sin ~ an d cos ~ from Eq. (55-15), we
get
E = V2+ 1V (X d+ X q) sin (p+2VI R cos cp +I2 (R 2+ X dX q)
f 1/ V2+2VI (X q sin (p+R cos cp)+ I2 (R2+X q )2
(55-17)
Zi, +XL (X d+ X q)+ 2RRL +X dX q+R2
E =I . (55-18)
f YZL + 2(XLXq+ RLR) +X~ + R2
where ZL = V R i + X'L is th e lo ad impedance, and I =
V/Z L
Th e sa me result might be obt aine d, if we used the equiv-
al ent circuit of a synchronous machine 01' the phasor diagram
in Fi g. 54-1 which are applicable t o both nonsalient-pole
and salient-pole machin es. By inspection of the equivalent
circuit ,
(55-19)
Ch. 55 Electromagnetic Proce sses on Load 279
where R I = resistance of the armature

Xl = inductive reactance of the armature as defined
by Eq. (54-38)
On re-arranging, Eq. (55-19) reduces to the same form
as Eq. (55-18). Dep ending on the manner in which the operat-
ing mod e of a machine is specified , the unknown quantity
ma y be found from Eq. (55-17) or from Eq. (55-18). If
the opera ting mod e is sp ecifi ed in te rms of V, I and rp,
the unknown I f (or E f ) can conv eniently be found from
Eq. (55-17). If the operating mode is spe cified Tn terms
of ZL, I , and cp, then V = ZLI, and If can be found from
Eq . (55-18). If , on the other hand , the defining quantities
are ZL , V, and cp , then I = V/Z L , and I f can be found
from Eq. (55-18). Finally , if the op era ting mod e is speci-
fi ed in t erms of ZL, I f , and cp , t hen E f can be found from
the linearized no-load chara ct eristic , I can be found from
Eq. (55-19), and V = ZLI.

Synchronous Machine (with Saturation)
As ha s been shown in calculating th e ma gnetic circuit at

no load (see Sec. 53-3) , the magnetization characteristics
of a saturated machine plotted for th e mutual field are
nonlinear. Because of this, we cannot investigate the mutual
fi eld due t o F f independently of the mu tu al field du e to F d,
and th en sup erimpose the two fi elds so as t o obtain the
res ultant fi eld.
In stead , we have t o consi der the resulta nt fi eld with
the flu x (P r m = (Pnll set up by F f m and F a m jointly. Prio r
t o th at, F a m must be repla ced by an equivalent fi eld mmf,
F t m- If we know th e mutual inductive reactan ce of the
armature, X a = Xl - X u, found neglectin g sa turation,
then E afm can he found fr om E ll = Xa I by reference to th e
lineariz ed no-lo ad cha racte ri stic (see Fi gs. 55-1 an d 54-5).
R ecalling t ha t F f m acts al ong the d-axis of the poles,
. .
and F af m is in line with I (see Fi g. 55-3) , t he resultant mmf,
r-; can be written in complex notation as:
.
r.; =
. .
r.; + F ai m (55-20)
280 Part Five. Syn chronous Machin es
It shou ld be remarked in pa ssing th at equivalent trape zoida l

mmfs are com bine d in th e same m anner as the funda ment al
mm fs .
Becau se F; has the same waveshape as the fi eld mm f, it
sets up nearly th e sam e mutual fi eld and gives rise to nearly
the sam e mu tual emf as t he
no-load fie ld emf equa l to
it. Owing t o this , we ar e in
a position t o det ermine th e
r esultant mutua l flux <P r m
and the resultant mutu al
emf E r from the basi c mag-
netization curve, (Pm =
f (Ffm) and from the no-
load characteristic, E , =
f (F f m), on deeming F ,
Fi g. 55-3 Voltage and mmf pbaso r = F ro <:) r m = (Pm' an d
dia gram of a nonsali ent-p ole synch- E; = E , (see Sec . 53-3).
rono us mac hi ne (wi th allowance for To m ak e t he desc rip tion
saturation)
of elect romagne t ic pr ocesses
in a non sali ent-pole ma chine
more complete, we should add t o the mmf equat ion (55-20)
an d the no-load chara cte r ist ic E f = f (Ffm) also the anna-
. ture v olt age equation
. . . .
Er+Eu=V+RI
or (55-2'1 )
. . . .
E r =V +RI + f '<uI
The voltage equat ion is writ ten on a fairly plausible as-
sumption that t he mu tual fi eld an d th e leak age fi eld of
the arma ture do not affec t each other and exist ind epend ently.
(1) Fin ding th e fiel d curren t neglecting variations in the
leakage flux of the field winding on load . This approach can
be used to det ermine I f in oper ation on lo ad , as specified by
giving the arma t ur e vol tage V , th e armature curren t I ,
and th eir phase diff erence cp o Fi gure 55-3 illustrates how
If can be found gra ph ica lly, using a ph asor di agr am pl otted
in accor d with Eqs . (55-20) and (55-21) , an d from the no-l oad
curve in Fi g. 53-11. The cons truction can be carried out in
absolute or per-unit terms. For the no-load curve to be
plott ed on a per unit basis, we need to know I f mDc or
F f m,Dc at rated voltage. The steps in vol ved in dot ermin-
Ch, 55 Electromagnetic Processes on Load 281
in g I f m for the generator mod e of operation specified in

terms of V , I and cp and for a resistiv e-inductive load are
illustra t ed in Fig. 55-3, wh ere they are numbered from
1 thr ough 6. On load , how ever , the no-lo ad characteristic
and Eqs. (55-20) an d (55-21) fail to give an accurate value
of the fi eld cur rent , because the effect of <D f u on <D 2 and
F . , the ro tor flu x an d mmf, resp ectively , is not taken into
account properly. The point is th at a t no load the mutual
flux <D m = <Df m and the leak age flux CD f u ar e functions
of F f lll On lo ad, <D r m dep ends on t he r esultant mmf, F r m =
F~m + r.; whereas the leak age flux is solely decided
by F f m , as at no load. Therefore , when we use the no-load
curve to det ermine E; from F r ll1 on load, we base our cal-
culations on th e leakage flux cD f u corresponding to the
r esultant mmf, F r m , whereas actually the leakage flux on
load corresponds to F f lll substantially different from F rm -
In th e generator mode of operation into a resistive-induct-
iv e load, the above approach leads to an underestimated
leakage flux and to an und erestim ated field mmf, F f m .
As a way ou t, it has been proposed to replace the leakage
inductive reactance X o by a fictitious quantity X p known
as the Potier reactance (after th e investigator who has pro-
posed it) , which is som ewhat larger than Xu' The value
of I f can be obtained still more acc ur ate ly, if we properly
accoun t for th e effect of the fi eld leakage flux on load, as
this is don e in the paragraph th at follows.
(2) Finding th e field current with allowance for varia-
tions in the leakage flux of the field winding on load. This
involves th e use of th e m agn etiza tion cha ra ct eris tics
(I)m = f (F I ) , cIl f u = f (F I ) ,
cIl 2 = f (F 2 )
found in calculating the magnetic circuit (see Sec. 53-3).

If they are not available for the m achin e in question, it
may be assum ed that on a per-unit basis they are the same
as the normalized magnetization characteristics of a non-
salient pole machine, shown in Fi g. 53-11. In Fig. 55-4,
they are drawn to a more convenient scale. The "per-unit"
subscript , (*), has been dropp ed . To pr esent the character-
istics in absolut e units (which is necessary sometimes),
we need to know V R , cI:>f nl.oc and F f nl .oc (or I f m.oc). Th en,

E = E*VR
cI:> = cI:> *cI:> [ m , oc
F = F 'I,Ffm ,oc
If = F *Ifm,oc
Now, I f (or F f m) in the on-load condition, specified in
t erms of V , I t',and; ,(p, can be det er mined as ill ustrat ed in
'P E
I
I
I
I
t
I
I
I 'Pf=f(F,)
.- - - - --1. - _ --
F
Fig . 55-4 Voltage phasor diagra m of a nonsalient-pole sy nchrono us

machine (with allowance for sa tura tion and varia ti ons in th e leakage
flux)
Fig. 55-4. The steps involved are numb ered from 1 through 11.
Th e first step is t o dr aw a pliasor di agram of the vol tages
defined by Eq s . (55-21) and to det ermine th e resultant
mutual emf, E r (1), and the resultant mutua l flux, cI:> rm,
equal to it when drawn on a per-unit basis , (2). The next
step (3) is to determine the resultant mmf, FIn correspond-
ing to the stator and ai r-g ap mmf, at cI:>m = cI:>rm, by refer-
ence to the magnetization curve, (Pm = f (F I ) , where F I
is taken as th e stator and a ir-ga p mm f. In doing so , we
still negl ect the effect of the rotor mmf , F 2 , and the value
Ch, 55 Electromagnetic Process es on Load 283
of FIr thus found differs from F rm by the value of F 2 :
(55-22)
The phasor FIr (4) is in phase with cDrm. Now we find

FI / (5) neglecting F2' It differs from the total excitation
mmf by F 2 :
(55-23)
On subtracting F 2 from the right- and left-hand sides of

Eq. (55-20)1
. . . . .
F rm - F 2 = Ft - F2 + Faim
we ma y wri te
. . .
+ F a/ m
F]r = F I / (55-24)
Hence,
. . .
Flf = FIr - F a/ m
Using t he <])/ a = f (F I ) curve and recalling that F I

. .
.
= F/ m - F 2 , we may write the on-load leakage flux,
. . .
.
cP/a (step 6), as a flux corresponding to Flf = F/ m - F 2
.
. .
In the ph asor di agram , cD/ a (step 7) is in line with PI!
which produces it. Combin ing CI>rm and cD/ a gives t he t otal
rotor flux
.
cP 2 = o .;
. +.
o,; (step 8) (55-25)
Next , using the rotor m agnetization cur ve, cP 2 = f (F 2 ) ,
we find (st ep 9) the r ot or mmf, F 2' whi ch is in t he sa me
direction as cD2 (st ep 10). Finally , using Eq. (55-23), we
obtain the to tal fi eld mmf (step 11):
. . .
F/ m = Flf +F 2
an d, if necessary , also the resultant mmf from Eq. (55-22):

. . .
F rm = FIr +F 2
With a r esistive-inductive load and the generator mode of

opera tion" the Held mmf thus found is somewhat greater than
the field mmf found from the no-load curve (see Fig. 55-3);
if the r esistive-inductive load is sufficiently larg e, it may
be som ewh at small er t ha n t hat mmf.
In Fi gs. 55-3 and 55-4 , I f (or E f) is found for th e generat-
or mod e of operation and a r esistive-inductive load.
A similar procedure m ay be used to det ermine If in any
other operat ing mode specified in t erms of the firs t set of
defining qu an tities (V , I and rp). If th e mode of operation
is specifi ed in terms of any other set of three defining quanti-
ties, nam ely: (2) V, (P , I f (3) (P, I , I f and (4) V , I, If '
t he fourth unk nown quantity will h ave to be found in
a more complicated manner.
Taking th e secon d set as an exa mple, several values of
I are taken arbitrarily, and for each (with V and (P fixed
in adva nce ) t he d.c, fi eld current, I f ' is found. Then an
If = f (I) curve is pl otted , and th e value of I corresponding
to t he assume d va lue of I f found from th at curve. With the
third set of defining quantities, sev eral values of V ar e
t ak en arbitrarily , an d with t he fourth set , sever al va lue s
of (p. The remaind er of the pro cedure is the same as has
been just explained .
55-4 Electromagnetic Processes in a Salient-Pole

Synchronous Machine with All owance
for Saturation
(1) The effect of the armature mmi on the mutual field
and emf. In a saturated, salient-pole machine, the fields
set up by diff erent mmfs can not be treated ind epend ently
of one another.
Th e effec t of th e arm ature field 011 th e excitation field
can be accounte d for as propos ed by Ri cht er. According
to him , the actual sinusoidally distributed direct- and
qu adrature-axis mm fs, F dm and F q m, which have a cert ain
definite effect on th e fundam ental mutual field and the
asso ciated mmf , are r eplaced by equiv alen t fi eld mmfs ,
F adm, F aqm ' and F q d m found with all owance for satura-
tion. .
The equivalent field mmfs are found as follows.
Assuming severa l values of load, diff ering in the values
of F f nu F d m and F qm' the air-gap fi eld is found with al-
low an ce for iron (teeth an d stator yoke ) sa turation. Th e
rotor mm] is assumed t o be zero, F ~ = 0 , The r esults are
eh. 55 Eiec tromagne tic Pr ocesses on Load. 285
presen ted as t hree air-ga p flu x densi ty distribution curves

shown in Fig. 55-5. One cur ve represents the -distribution
of B I du e to F f nn the secon d curve re presents the di stribu-
ti on of E lI due to t he join t ac tion of F f m and F d m , and
th e third curve gives the distribution of B II t due to the
joint action of F f m , F d ll ll an d d
-d
F qm
From each curve, the d- and
q-ax is fundamental compo-
nents of flux densi ty are ~ ~
th en found. The fund amental ;; ~
component of B r due to F f lll ""
is along the d-ax is and its -'--ld-I----04=-~~-=~-----,6"--
peak value is B Il elm ; in the
armature winding it induces
E ll d = E f . The fundam en tal
component of B II due to
Ffm and F dm is likewis e along
the d-axis and has a peak
value B t Il d m; in the ar ma - Fig. 55-5 Effect of the d- and
ture winding it induces E II I d . q-ax is armature mmfs, F dm and
The fundam ental component F qm' on th e excitation field
of B II r due to F f , r, an d
F q has a d-axis and a q-axis component, with ~a peak va lue
B II Il d m and B II I Iq m , respectively; in the armature wind-
ing they induce E II Il d = E r d and E II Il q = E r q = E a q .
The former is the r esultant mutual emf du e t o the d-axis
field, and the latter is the resultant mutual emf due to
the q-axis field. When combined, the t wo emfs give the
resul t ant mutu al emf
(55-26)
The effect of the dem agnetizin g d-ax is ar ma ture mmf,

F dm, on the exci tat ion field consists in that the fundam ental
flu x density and emf ar e som ewhat re duced (B I Il d m <
B Il d m , E II I d < E Il d = E f ) . By reference to a partial
no-load characteristic E , = f (F I ) , where F I = F f m - F 2 ,
the d-axis mmf, F d m may be repl aced by a fi eld mmf,
Fadm (see Fi g. 55-6), equiva len t t o it in t erms of its effect on
the fundamental emf.
The effect of F q m can be assessed by comparing B II
and B III' As is seen, in addition to setting up a q-axis
fi eld with a fu ndamental flux densi ty B II Il q m , t he q-axis

mmf F qm has a certain demagnetizing effect on the d-axis
field (B II Il d m < B r It dm ) .
Using the partial no-load characterist ic , E f = f (F 1 ) , we
may repl ace F qm by F a q m and F qdm (see Fig. 55-6). F aq m
is equivalent to F qm as regards
the production of the q-axis
field on load; F al m ~ives rise
t o t he same em , E r II 1 q =
E a q , as the q-axis field
with a flux density B II Il q m .
F q dm is equivalent to F qm
in terms of its effect on the
d-axis field - it brings down
the peak value of the d-axis
flux density from B t Ildm to
B II Ild m and the corresponding
o emf from E II 1d to E II Il d , in
the sam e way as F qm does.
Fq m has a demagnetizing
Fig . 55-6 Determina tion of effect on the d-axis field only
Fadm' F qdm, and F a.!1m equi- in a saturated mach ine. This
valent to F dm and Jl'qm in a is because th e in creas e in
sat ura ted sali ent-pole machine the flux density du e to F qms
appearing wi thin that part
of the pole pitch where the d- and q-axis mmfs are combined
du e to saturation, is not completely balanc ed out by its
decr ease within that part of t he pole pitch where the q-axis
mmf is subtracted from the d-axis mmf (compare the B II r
and B II curves).
The abo ve proc edure can be repeated for a range of salient-
pole machines diff ering in t he air gap geometry (that is,
in the value of the ratios om/o', and 0'/1;).
An an alysis of such cal culations will show that the equiv-
alen t mmfs F a d m , F aqm and F qdm dep end not only on
F d m, Fqm' and the air gap sh ap e, but also on the degree
of saturation of the magn et ic circuit by the resultant mutual
field which corr esponds to E r- The field mmf F adm equiva-
len t in its effect to F dm is found to be dep end ent not only
on t he d-axis mmf of the armature and the value of k a d ,
as in a nonsalient-pole machine, Eq. (54-17), but also
on the factor ~d :
(55-27)
F aqm, equivalent to F qm as regards the production of

the q-axis field, is found to be dependent not only on the
q-axis mmf of the armature and the value of k aq, as in a non-
salient-pole machine, Eq. (54-18), but also on the factor q:
F aqm = qkaqF qm (55-28)
F qdm equivalent to F qm in terms of the demagnetizing
effect on the d-axis field can be expressed in terms of 0' l i;
k qd, and F qm itself:
F qdm = k qd (-L/O') F qm (55-29)
The dimensionless factors
d, q, and k qd in Eqs. (55-27)
and (55-29) depend 011 the 0.8
saturation factor k z a= F 1/F o
(see Sec. 53-1), characterizing 0.7
the degree ~ of saturation of 0.6 r-T~~~~~
th e core by 'the resultant mu- . '---t--+7'4<2'\.2'-d"-o2loi..~
0.5,-
tual flux cD r m , and on the
ration om/o' = om/eko, which
characterizes the air gap shape
with allowance for the effect
of saliency (Fig. 55-7). The
value of k Za can be found from h~~~~~i~~
the partial no-load character- 0.003
istic, Ef = f (F 1 ) , as the ratio 0.002
of F 1 = F fm - F 2 = F 0
+ F ZI + F aI' corresponding 0.001
to the resultant mutual emf
En to the air gap mmf, F 0
(see Fig. 55-6).
As is seen from Fig. 55-7, Fig. 55-7 Plots of d' q, and
in an unsaturated machine k qd as functions of k Z a and
(at k z a=1), d and q are equal 6m/6'
-t o unity, whereas k qd = O. _ .
In the circumstances, Eqs. (55-27) and (55-28) for -the equiv-
alent mmfs are the same as Eqs. (54-17) and (54-18) for
the equivalent mmfs in an unsaturated machine.
Using d and q, we are in a position to find the saturated
values of the d- and q-axis mutual inductive reactances
of the armature
X ad S = dX ad (55-30)
X aq, s = qX aq
288 Pa rt Five. Synchronous Mach ines
Fig. 55-8 Deter minat ion of the fie ld mmf in a saturated sa lie nt-po le
synchronous mac hine (wi th allo wance for varia ti ons in fie ld lea kage
flux on load )
/ Z
/
Fig . 55-9 Determina tion of fie ld mmf in a saturated salient-po le

syn chronous machin e (neglecting varia tions in fie ld leakage flu x on
load)
Ch. 55 Electromagn eti c Processes on Load 289
where Xad, s and X aq,s are th e sat ura ted inductive react-
ances, and X a d and X a q are their values obta ined negl ecting
sa t ura t ion .
Us ing X ud ,s and X" q , s, we ma y write the resp ective
mulual emf's
. .
E ad = -jX ad ,s! d
and . .
E aq = - j X a q ,s! q
induced by ! d and !q in a saturated m achine . Us ing E a d
and E " q and also th e Iin earized no-l oad charac ter is tic,
E j = f (F 0)' we ca n readil y determine the eq uiv alen t mmf,
F a dm and F a qnll with all ow-
ance for sat uration (Fi g . 5.5-8 . 1.0 .; :---
and 55-9). Now , we need
r---.. -J ~~
-
0.8
not calcula te r-; F qm ' !t a d '
~?'" r-,
and k a q . 0.6
If the m agn etization ch a-
0.4 I
r acteristics and the radia l ga p
~'l d/ -:
--
length of a machine are no t 0.2
known, then the va lues of ~ I
d and q can be found by o f..---- Er
reference to th e normalized 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 7.1 1.2 1.3
no-load and magn etization
curves of asa lien t-pole mach ine Fig. 55- 10 P lots of cf' q and
in Fi g . 53-8 . Assuming also qd as functio ns of E r
t ha t the ma chine h as th e rela-
t ive ai r-gap dim ensions typi cal of salient-pole machines , na -
mely 8 m /8 = 1.5 , 8m /8' = 1.4 , and 8' IT = 0 .03, we can write
d and '1 as fun ctions of the res ultant mutua l emf, E,. (on
a per-unit ba sis) . The plots of d and q as fun ctions of
E r shown in Fi g . 55-10 h av e been constructed , us ing the
pl ot s of d and q as fun ctions of k z a (see F ig . 55-7) and
the normaliz ed no-lo ad characte r istic (see Fig. 53-8) from
wh ich k z a = f (E r) h as been det ermined. Consid ering
E qs . (55-28) and (55-29) together, F q d tn can be expressed
in terms of F a q m :
(55-31)
where qd = k q cfT/ k a qO' q is a dim ensionl ess factor . For
a sal ien t-pole m achine havin g a norm al no-load curve and
typical air-gap dim ensions, qd dep ends sol ely on E r . A plot
of th is dep end ence is shown in Fig. 55-10.
19 - 02 40
Part Five . Synchronous Machine s
(2) Voltage and rnm] equations. Assuming that the arma-

ture leakage field is independent of the mutual field and
neglecting the effect of saturation on the leakage inductive
reactance, X~; wemay write the armature voltage equat ion as
. . . .
e, = V + Rf + jX af (55-32)
where
. .
E; = E r d
.
+ Eaq = emf induced by the resultant mutual
field
E rd = emf induced by the resultant (I-ax is
mutual field with c!)rdm' It corrcs-
. .
ponds to F l r d = F r d m - F 2 Iouiid
.
neglecting the rotor mmf, from the
partial no-load curve
. .
E aq = - j X a q, sf q = emf induced by the resultant q-axis
"
field set up by 1 q
.
X aq,s = saturated value of the q-axis mutual
inductive reactance of the armature,
as defined in Eq. (55-30)
. .
The resultant d-axis mmf, F l rd , corresponding to E rd
and leading the latter by 900 , is the sum of all mmfs acting
along the d-axis:
. . . .
F l rd = F li + Fadm + F qdm (55-33)
Equation (55-33), which is the, d-axis mmf equation, con-
tains the mmfs found neglecting the rotor mmf:
Fl i , which is always acting in the same direction as Fl rd
.-""Fadm, which is in line with f~, and
, F qdm . which is always in electrical
. quadrature lagging
with E r d and in opposition to Flf.
The on-load leakage flux, cD i a , corresponds to the field
mmf, Flf = Fi m - F2' on the cD i a = f (F I ) curve. The
rotor mmf, F 2 , is found with reference to the <1>2 = f(F 2 )
curve, from the flux at a rotor pole
. . .
" cD 2 . cD rd m + cDi a (55-34)
The total on-load field mmf is given by
.
. Fi m =
. + F.
F li 2 (55-35)
eh. 55 Electromagnetic Processes on Load 291
where Fl f = r.; - Fa d m - Fa q m in accord with E q.

(55-33).
(3) Finding the on-load Held current (with allowance for
variations in the field leakage flux). The field current I f
(or th ~ ex c i t a t ~ Ol? mmf P f ) in the loaded mode of opel:ation,
specifIed by grving V, I and cp , can be found gr aphically,
as illustrated in Fig . 55-8. The steps involved ar e numbered
from 1 through 17. The field mmf is found for a salient-
pole m achine with normal no-load cur ves , E f = f (Ffm)
and E f = f (F I ) and normal magnetization curves, <Pm =
= f (Pf), o., = f (F I ) , CPta = f (F I ) and <P 2 = f (F 2 ) plot-
ted in Fig . 55-8 on a per-unit basis. The per-unit inductive
reac tances of the machine (negl ecting saturation) are as
follows: X d = 1.0 , X q = 0.627 , X a = 0.2, X ad = 0.8,
and X a q = 0 .427. The ar m ature winding resistance is neglect-
ed (R = 0).
We shall consider the operation of the machine as a generat-
or into a resistive-inductive load with V = 1.0, I = 1.0,
and cos cp = 0.8. ,
The first step is to plot a voltage phasor diagram in ac-
cord with Eq . (55-32) and loc ate point 3 which represents
the per-unit r esultant mutual emf , E; = 1.13 . (Th e volt age
and mmf diagrams should be plotted on scales adopt ed for
performance characteristics.)
Using E; thus found and ref erring to th e curves in
Fig . 55-10, the next step is to determine ~d = 0.967, ~q =
= 0.77 an d ~g d = 0.23 . Then usingEq . (55-30), calculate
the mutual inductive reactances with' allowance for satura-
tion:
X ad ,s = ~dX ad = 0.967 X 0.8 = 0.772
X aq,s = ~qXa g = 0.77 X 0.427 = 0.329
As for an unsaturated, salient-pole m achine (see Fig. 55-2),
plot the phasor Er +
jX ag,i whose tip locates point 4
and the neg ative direction of the q-axis. The d-axis lags
behind the q-axis by 90. R esol ving j (step 5) into the
q- and d-axis components, find I d = 0.805 an d I q = 0.595
and the corresponding emf , nam ely
E ad = Xad ,sI d = 0.772 X 0.805 = 0.622
Eaq = Xaq,sI q = 0.329 X 0.595 = 0.196
19*
292 Par t Fiv e. Syn chronou s Mac hin es
Us ing th e abov e emf's HI]( l referrin g" to the linearized no-lo ad

charact eristics , determine til e eq uiv alent field mrnfs , F a d m =
= 0.583 (steps 6 and 7), and F a q m = 0.18 (st eps 8 and f)),
and plo t them on the di agram in ph ase wi til the correspond-
ing curren ts , F q tl n: (st ep 10) is found from E q . (55-3'1 ):
F q clm = Gq dF aq m = 0.23 X 0:18 = 0.042
I t is directed in opposition to the d-axi s and la gs behind
s ., by 90 0
To find E n [ (step 11) indu ced by th e resultant d-a ~'ds
mmf, E,. mu s t be proj ected on th e q-axis (or one mu st add
. .
- E aq = to it) . Us ing E rcl and referri ng to t he
jX a q, sI q
part ial no-lo ad character is tic, E , = f (P I), find (st ep 12)
the resultant d-axis mmf (negl ecting the roto r mmf) , F U rl =
= 1.1 , and plot it on the di agram as th e phasor Flr d (step 13)
which leads s ., by 90
0
Now using Eq . (55-33), determine graph ically (st ep 14)

the fi eld mmf , F I j = 1.725, negl ecting th e rotor mmf.
Th e le ak age flux, CDj lJ = 0.45, is fou nd (st ep 15) as a flux
correspondin g to F j ! on the CI)j lJ = f (F j ) curve . Addin g
cD j a to the resultan t d-axis mutu al flux , cD" d m = E rcl = 1.1 ,
we can find from Eq. (55-34) the pole flux
cP 2 = cP r d m + cP j lJ = 1.1 + 0.45 = 1.55
Th e next st eps are to det ermin e from the cP 2 = f (F 2)
curve the corresponding rotor mmf, F 2 = 0.107, and cal-
culate from Eq . (55-35) the to t al field mmf
F jm = FJ! +F 2 = 1.725 + 0.107 = 1.83
plotted on th e diagram as the F j m phasor (step 17).
(4) Finding th e d.c. fi eld cur ren t (neglecting variations
in the field leakage flux) . If the d.c . field current need
not be found very accurately, we ma y negl ect vari ation s
in the fi eld leakage flux on load and det ermine the field
curren t from the ba si c no-load cha ra cter is tic , E , = f (F j ),
without resort t o the partial no-lo ad charac terist ic,
E, = f (PI), and other ma gn et iza tion cur ves . Th e
necessar y cons truc tions are illustrated in Fig . 55-9 (where
som ewh at different paramet ers have been adop ted).
The s teps invol ved are numb er ed from 1 through 12. Th e
Cit. 50. Ener gy Conver sion 2D3
sequ en ce of .g ra ph ic al cons~ruction s is t h e sa me as it wa s
in th e pr ev iou s cas e. It differs from the sequen ce shown
in Fig. 55-8 onl y in tha t E rtl is used to find directly t h e
resultant d-axis mm f , F r rl ll ll whi ch a p p ro x ima te ly all ows for
th e rotor mrnf 3S well and is then used to d etermine th e total
field m rnl . . . .
Ffm = F r dm - F adm - F q dm.
With Ff m found in the abov e manner, we obta in under-

est ima te d v alues of th e l eakage flu x an d th e ro tor mmf in
th e case of a resi stive-inductive load . As is seen from
Fi g. 55-8, ins tead of cD f a = 0.45, we us e CI)f a,oe = 0.29,
and ins tea d of F 2 = 0.107, we use F 2,oe = 0.052. Because
of this , the field mmf found in this manner is sm aller than
th at fonnd in Fig . 55-8 by F z - Fz ,oe = 0.107 - 0.052 =
= 0.055. With th e parameters used in Fig . 55-8, it is
Ff m = 1.83 - 0.055 = 1.78
wh ereas its true va lue is 1.83.
Fortunately , because F 2 is v ery small , the error in Ff m
as found from Fi g. 55-9 is no t very large (in the case on
hand , it is 3 %) . Th erefore, it would be a good pl an t o det er-
mine F/ m from t he basic no -lo ad characteristic in some
cases .
If th e mode of op eration is spe cified by giving other
se ts of defi ning qu anti ties an d th e unknow n qu an tity is
not th e fi eld current, but 11, J , or qi , th e pro cedure must
be th e same as is us ed fo r a saturated , nonsalient-pole
machine (see a bove).
56 Energy Conver sion by

a Synchronous Machin e
56-1 !Energ y Conversion in the G en erator Mode
of Oper ation . losses and Efficiency
En erg y convers ion by a. c . el ectri c machines has been
exa m ine d in Cha p . 30. In this cha p ter, we sh a ll be concern-
ed with ene rg y conversion b y sy nch ron ous m achines , with
sp eci al reference to the ge ne rator mode of operation .
294 Pa rt Five. Syn chronous Machines
In t he generator mod e of operation (Fig. 56-1), a prime

mover supplies t he generator wi th an amou nt of mecha nic al
power given by
P 2 = T 2Q
wh ere 1'2 is the inp ut to r que acting in the d irect ion of rota-
tion. A fraction of this input power , equa l to P jhl j, is
expen de d to drive an excite r wi th effi ciency 'Y]f. Som e of
this power , P j /'Y] j - P j , is dissip at ed as heat in the exc iter.
Fig . 56-1 Energy conversio n in a synchro nous ma chine (in the gene-
ra tor mod e of operation) :
1-arm a ture (stat or); 2-field s truc tu re (rotor); 3-exciter (d. c, gene-
ra tor )
H er e, P j = R j I] is the power picked off th e exciter com-

mutator an d delivered via its bru shes and slip-r ings t o
the fi eld winding of the gen erator whe re it is likewise dis-
sipated as heat. Owing t o th e t orque P j/'Y]jQ required t o
drive the exc iter, the t orque supplie d by the p rime mover
is som ewh at reduced , and the t orque ac ting on th e rotor,
2 , of the synchronous machine prop er is
T ext = 1'2 -:- P j/'Y] j Q
Ch. 56 Energy Conversion 295
As a result, the mechanically stressed shaft appli es to

the rotor an amount of mech ~nical power given by
P ext = P 2 - Pill f = TextQ . (56-1)
Th e mechanical power , P , converted electromagnetic-
ally, is smaller than the pow er appli ed to the rotor by. an
amount equal to the fr iction and windage loss es, P f / w t.
and the stray core losses, Pc.a d associ ated with t he h ar-
i
monics of the air gap field:

Ps = TemQ = P ext - P f / w - Pc ,ad (56':2)
Accordingly, the mechanica l torque which balances the
elect romagnet ic torque , T em ' acting on the rotor is smaller
than T ext applied to the rotor , by the brake torque due
to the above listed factors :
T ern = Text - (P f / w + Pc,ad)/Q
In a synchronous machine, the field winding is excited
by a direct current, I f. Therefore, in contrast to induction
machines, the power required for exc itation , P f , is t aken
from an exciter.
Th e direct cur rent in t he fi eld winding, If> may be replac-
ed by an equivalent surface current of density A.j (see
Fig. 56-2) which sets up an equ ivalent fund am ental field
(sta tionary relative to the rotor). The surface current of
density A f , stationary relative to the rotor, travelsr in
space at the same angul ar velocity, Q, as the rotor does.
Th erefore, the electromagnet ic pow er gen erated by the rotat-
ing sur face current A f does not differ from the me-
chanical power supplied by the shaft
r ; - P em = T e mQ (56-3)
Th e rotat ing magnetic fi eld transfers P e m t o the 's ta tor.
SOfie of this power, re presen t ing the core loss, P c, is dis-
sipa ted as heat in the ' s ta tor core . The rema inder ..",- .
(56-4~
is conve rted t o electric pow er t ra nsferred to t he arm ature
wind ing .. . ". .
P el '= P + P e ul
,
(56-5)
. ,
where Peui = m l R I 2 = armature copper loss includ-

ing' st r a,y losses ( i
296 Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machin es
R = armature r esistance includ-

in g cop per loss
P In i In IR L I 2 = active power transferred to
Vi cos (P
load
R L = load resist an ce
The effi cienc y of a syn chronous machin e operated as
a gen erator is
", /
11 =P IP2 =1- ~c...P ( p+ .::-:p
"\1 )
where ~ P = P j hl j P f/w P e,ad + + + Pe + P e ll i is t he
sum of losses in th e m achine.
56-2 Electromagnetic Power and Electromagnetic

Torque
In a synchronous machine , it is mor e con ven ien t to express
th e elec t rom agne t ic power and th e ele ct romagne t ic t orque
in terms of armature (stator) quantities . From Eqs . (56-4)
and (56-5) it follows t hat
the el ectromagnet ic power
m ay be looked upon as t he
sum of three components
; Th e cor e los s, P e , due to

d Ff m CP ,.m an d proportion al t o E~
may be visualized as th e
q loss, m1ReI5, occurring in
jx, R a fictilious ohmic resist-
ance, R e , con nec te d in the
it
1
equ ivale n t circuit of Fi g.
Rc RL jX L 56-2 to ca rry E ,.. Then ,
j Pe = InIR eI 5 = InIEi-lR e
(56-7)
Fig . 56-2 Phasor diagram and equi -
wh er e I e = PellnlE ,. is the
valent circuit of a sa tura te d sy n-
chronous machine (with allowance additional current in the
for core losse s) arm ature winding , which
is in line with E ,. .
Be-writing Eq . (56-13) subject to Eq . (5 6~7) gives
P~m = mIl (V cos W + JR) + m~E.,.Ic
Ch. 56 En ergy Conversion
and noting th a t
v cos <p -+ L; = E ,. cos 13,.
and
I cos ~,. + I e = l' cos ~;.
we ge t
P e m = !nIE,.!' cos ~;. (56-8)
Using Eq . (56-8), we can write P e m transferred across
th e air gap to the stator , in terms of the armature quanti-
ti es , namel y th e resultant mutual emf E ,. , the armature
current l' adjus ted for t he a ddit ion al curren t I e asso ciated
with the core loss es , P e :
t: = 11 (t ; + I cos ~ ,.) 2 + (I sin ~ ,.) 2
and the cosine of the ang le B;' between E,. and 1':
cos B; = (I cos B,. + I e )/1'
As is seen, usin g Eq. (56-8), we can find the electrom agnet-
ic pow er in a saturated or an unsaturated synchronous
ma chine , onc e E ,., I, cos B,. and P e hav e been det erm in ed
for th e spec if ied mode of operation as ex pla ine d in Chap . 55.
It may be adde d that , give n E ,. or cD ,., th e arma t ure (stator)
core loss P e can be found from t he sa me equa tions as for
an induction ma chine (see Sec. 40- 3) .
As alread y noted, the elec tromagne t ic power transferred
to th e s tat or is t ho sum of two terms, nam el y
P el = P + P ell l = mIE,.I cos ~,.
and
P; = !nIE"!e
vVe may treat P el as th e pow er expended to move the sur-
face current Al equ ivalen t t o the armature cur re nt I, at
an ang ular v eloci ty Q . Likewi se, P ; ma y be t reate d as t he
power expe nde d to mov e th o surf ace curre nt A le equ iva len t
to I e, at an a ngula r ve lo ci ty Q .
Th e elect romagne tic tor q ue, T e m , acting on th e stator
(see Fi g. 56-1) is produced by the interaction of the resu ltant
mutual field having a flux cJ)rn" with th e s ur face current
A; equivalent t o the armature curren I,
. . .
I' = I + Ie
298 Par t Five. Synchron ous Machines
The equ ation of electromagnetic torque can be derived

from the expression for electromagn etic power
T ern = P ern/Q = m1plJFrn,!' cos ~;/ V '2 (56-9)
where
'I'rm = ]I '2 E rlpQ = W1 kw1 CDr m
is the flux linkage of th e resultan t mu tu al fi eld with the
armature winding* .
The equation of electromagnetic torque
T ern = (m1P/V'2 ) 'I'rmI' sin (rr/2 + ~;) (56-to)
can likewise be derived from Eq . (29-2) whi ch in clud es
the sine of th e an gle between 'I'r m an d l' (see Fi g. 56-2 )
equal to rr/2 ~; .+Becaus e sin (rr/2 ~;) = cos ~ :., +
Eq . (56-10) reduces to Eq. (56-9).
If we neglect the core loss and set P e = 0, I e = 0,
and R e = 0, the torque acting on the stator will be giv en by
T ern = Pern/Q = (m1P/ V '2 ) 1J1'r,,'! cos ~r (56-11)
wh ere
P ern = mIIE r cos ~r
Assuming that the armature is free from both core and
copper losses , P e = 0 and P e ul = 0, t he elec tromagnetic
power is equal to the active pow er
P ern = mIEJ cos ~r = mI ll! cos (p = P
Also ,
E r cos ~ r = V cos (P
(see t he ph asor di agram in Fi g. 56-2) , an d th e elec t romagnet-
ic torque can be expr essed in te rms of 'I' v "" the total
flux linkage with the arm ature winding , corresponding
to V :
(56-1 2)
wh ere
'I' v m = 1/ 2V/pQ
In the generator mode of op era tion , th e elect r omagnetic
torque is positive when - rr/ 2 < ~:: < rr/ 2 , - rr/ 2 < ~r
< rr/2, and - rr/2 < cp < rr/ 2. On th e stator, the positive
* 'I.'rm and (D rm are Iound from the fund amental component"of the
ai r gap field. _
Ch. 56 Energy Conversion 299
torque acts in the direction of rotation, and on the rotor,

in the opposite direction.
At 3n/2 > ~~ > n/2, 3n/2 > ~ r > n/2, and 3n/2 > {P
> n/2, the electromagnetic torque is negative, which cor-
responds to the motor mode of operation.
In an unsaturated salient-pole machine, the electromagnet-
ic torque may be visualized as a sum of two components.
Fig . 56-3 Determining the electromagnetic torque components for a

salient-pole saturated machine operating into a resistive-inductive
load (~ > 0)
Neglecting the core losses (Pc = 0) so as to sim plify

calculations, the resultant mutual emf, E" can be written
.. . .
as the sum of E f and E = - R aJ - jX aJ induced by the
armature fi eld in accord with Eq . (54-34), where, R a and
X u are the components of the mutual impedance of the
armature given by Eq. (54-37), that is,
. . .
E, = Ej + E;
and replace in Eq . (56-11) the projection of E r on the
rection of j by the sum of the projections of k, and
on that direction (see Fig. 56-3)
E, cos ~r = E, cos ~ +E a cos J3a
where E a cos J3a = - R aJ .
300 Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machi nes
Th e sa me can be don e for the flux linkages
o/r m cos ~ r = o/i 1l1 cos ~ + l[J'a m cos ~ (l

Then , proceeding from Eq . (5l5-1 'I), we ge t
T ern = P em/Q = T al + T ua (56-'13)

wh er e
is the to rque produced by th e in ter ac ti on of the arma t ure

current I with the exc itat ion fi eld whi ch gives rise to the
flux linkage o/im; and
is th e torqu e produced by the intera ction of th e ar ma ture

current with t he own fi eld di splaced becau se of t he rot or
salien cy through a certain angle, ~ a +
n /2, from the cur-
rent and giv ing ri se to th e flux linkage lV am-
The torqu e T a ] ex ists on ly in an excited m achin e. Th e
torque T aa can app eal' onl y in a sali ent-pole ma chin e (X rl =1=
=1= X a) at ~ not equal to 0 , n /2, rt , or 3n /2, wh en ~ a =1= -n/2
and R a =1= O. This t orque is prod uced whe n t he fl ux li nk age
1p'am (or t he ar mature fi el d) is displ aced t hro ugh a cer tain
angle, ~ a + n /2 , from th e current. This occurs wh en j
is no t di r ected along t he d- or t he q-axi s of t he 1'0 tOI'.
Th e torqu es T al and T aa acti ng on the s tator in th e generat-
or mod e of op eration into a resistive-inductive load (rp > 0 ,
and ~ > 0) are shown in Fi g . 56-3. Th eil' di r ections ca n
be determi ned by t he l eft-h and rul e appl ied to t he stator
current , or formally from Eq . (56-'13) . As is seen, in th is
mod e of op er ation T an is n egative (R n > 0) .
Similar to rqu es, hu t direct ed in oppos itio n to the stat or
torq ues, act on th e rotor as well. Th e direction of T al acting
on th e rotor ca n be fou nd hy th e left-hand r ule applied
to the electromagnet ic for ce produced by th e int er ac tion
of t he exc it ation fi eld and t he arma ture field. Th e t orqu e
T a a acting on a sal ient -pole rotor in th e armature field
always t ends to t urn th e rotor so th at its pole axis (the
d-axis) runs wi th th e arm ature field. To demonstrate, as
Ch. ,57 Synchronous Gen erator Supplying Isol ated Load 301
follows from
Tall = i dL
2
ll / dy
(at fixed armature current) th e torqu e T a a acts in th e direc-
tion of displacem ents ell' such l.ha t tlie armature induct-
ance L l1 in creases and dL lI >
> O. As a result, the cl-axis
of the rotor is forced to align
itself wi th th e axis of the
armature field . i
Figure 5G-4 shows a p has-
01' diagram for a synchronous
machine operating as a gene-
rator into a resistive-capaci-
tive load (cp< 0) at ~ < O. fia
Irrespective of the field
curren t , T a f in t h e generator Text
mode is always positive and
acts on the rotor in a direction
opposite to the direction of Ri
rotation . The torque r.; in
th e case of a resistiv e-indu c-
tive load (cp > 0, ~ > 0) is
negative , whereas in the case
of a r esistive-capacitive load Fig . 56-4 Determining the elec-
tro magne tic t or que componen ts
(rp < 0) at ~ <0 it is positive . for a salient-pole unsaturated
Formally, this is associat- machine operating into a r esi s-
ed wi th the change of sign ti ve-ca paci ti ve load ([3 < 0)
by the resistiv e componen t,
R a , of the mutual impedance , which is positive at ~ >0
and negative at ~ < O.
57 Characteristics of
a Synchronous G enerator
Supplying an Isolated Load
!.l J 1 Operaf' on of a Synchronoals Generator
int o a n Isolated! load
The op erating' con d it ions of a synchronous generator sup-
plying an isolated load vary according to the nature of
that load.
Under normal service conditions wh en the pow er drawn

by the load does not exc eed its ra te d v alue , the ampJit ude
and fr equ ency of the vol tage across the te rminals of the
generator must be as close t o t he ir rated va lues as practi cable.
In present-day plant, this obj ective is ac hieve d by contr oll-
ing the field and rpm of th e prime mov er automatically.
Under abnorm al con dit ions , su ch as a bal anced , st eady-
sta te short circuit across the gener ator te rmi na ls (or in
th e asso ciated electric system) , the arm at ure cur rent of
the generator ma y rise to dangero us prop ortions*. To avoid
this, safety features are built into both the generator and
the electric sys tem, such as overcurrent and undervoltage
rel ays. Together with th e excit at ion an d fi eld controls,
th ey keep the gener ator runnin g und er abnorm al condi-
tions as well as they do under norm al conditions .
57-2 Excitation Characteristic of a Synchronous

Generator
The excitat ion characteristic of a synchronous generator
is a plot of i ts field cu rrent as a fun ction of its arm ature
current
If = f (I)
with the te rm ina l voltage V, angul ar veloci ty Q and load
angle rp held constant.
The excit at ion charact erist ic shows how the field current
mu st be va r ied for the t erminal vol t age V t o rem ain constant
in spite of any changes in the load impedance, ZL' Ordin-
arily, such ch ar acteristics are plotted for the rated voltage
and th e r ated velocity, assuming several per-unit values
of arm at ure current (I = 0, 0.2 , 0.4 , 0 .6, 0 .8 and 1.0),
and finding the respe ctive fi eld current , I f> as explained
in Chap . 55.
N eglecting saturation, the field current can be found
an alytically from Eq. (55-7) or Eq . (55-17) . With allow-
an ce for sa turation , this is don e graphically, using the
m agn etiz at ion curves and t he voltage an d mmf phasor
diagr am in Fig. 55-4 (for a nonsalient -pole ma chine) and
Fig . 55-8 (for a salient-pole ma chine).
* Unb alanced load and unb al anced shor t circuits are examined in
Chap . 61, and the transients accompanying a bal an ced shor t circ ui t ,
in Chap. 73.
t h. 57 Syn chronous Generator Supp lying Isol at ed Load 303
A famil y of exc i tat ion ch ara c ter ist ics for a sy nchronous
gen erator at va rio us lo ad angles is shown in Fi g. 57-1.
With a r esistive-inductive load (cp > 0), the armature
mmf has a dema gn etizing effec t, and th e fi eld current must
be raised so as t o mai n tain
the desi red terminal vol tage.
The largest incr ease in field
current occurs in th e case
of a purely ind ucti ve load
(cp = 00), and t ho leas t , in
t he case ofa pur el y resistive
lo ad (rp = 0). .
This can be born e out qu a-
li ta t ively by reference to the
simple voltage phasor dia-
gram in Fi g. 57-2a (negl ecting
sa turat ion an d saliency, as I
explaine d in Sec. 55-1) , at o
cp = 37. The lo cus of I is
the line 1'-2'- 3', th e locus of
E f is the line 1-2-3 . As is
seen , at cp > 0 , an increase in I Fig . 57-1 Cont rol character-
istics, I f = f( I), of a sync hro -
is accompanied by a conti- nous generator a t V R , QR and
nuous ri se in E , or I f (on the rp held consta nt:
excitation character ist ic in - - negl ecting sa tur atio n;
Fig . 57-1 for cp = 37, the - - _ . wi th allowance for sa-
numerals 1, 2 and 3 label the tur ation
sa me poin ts as in Fig . 57-2a).
The effect of load on fi eld current gr ows in proport ion to
the ind uctive reactance
of the armature winding.

Point 3 (cos CPR = 0.8 , I R = 1.0) m arks the rated field
current, I f ,R . I t differs fr om th e op en- circuit fi eld current
in propor tion to the per-un it v alue of Xl '
Accurate va lues of the field current could be foun d from
diagr ams constructe d with all owance for saturation and
sa lie nc y. Howeve r, the exc itation ch ar acte r ist ics constructed
with all owanc e for satur a tion (in Fig . 57-1, they ar e shown
as dashed lines) would differ but little from those plotted
neglec ting saturation.
Part Fi ve. Syn chronous Machines
Wh en th e load is resi s ti ve-cap acitiv e (cp< O, see Fi g. 57-'2 b),

th e fi eld curren t at sma ll arm ature currents is low er than
i t is all op en circ u i t (sa y , at poin t 4), drops to a minimum
value (a t point 5), a nd ri ses again .
This behaviour can he ex pla ine d by refOI'e II ce to the fa-
mily of voltage diagram s in Fi g . 57-'2b. As is seen, E f for
which the locus is the line 4-5-6-7 varies with t he increase
Fig. 57-2 Constr uc tion of exc ita tion cha rac teris ti cs
in armature cur r ent from point 4' t o point 6' in th e same

manner as th e field curren t , as alread y ex pla ine d . A t low
arma ture curren ts (poin ls 4 and 4 ')
I = V I sin (p II X e
which flow a t X e > Xl'
~= arctan "X]- Xe < 0
Rl,
. .
and E f lags beh ind I . At the above points, th e d-axis cur-
rent and the d-axis mmf of the armature are ma gn etizing in
th eir effect. E, < V, an d If is smaller than I f ,Dc, th e field
current on open circuit .
At points 5 and 5 ' , wh er e X e = Xl' a voltage res ona nce
takes pl ace- the equ iva lent-c ircu it react an ce to E f van ishes ,
Xl - X e = 0 , and th e ar ma t u re curre n t
I = V I sin (p I/X I = V I cos cp IIRL
is now in phase with E f (rp = 0) . In the circumstan ces, the
field current takes the le ast possi ble value, If,min , corres-
pond ing to E f , mi n = V COS rp (poin t 5 in Fi g. 57-1) .
At I = V I sin (p fiX e > V I sin (P I/X], that is, at
Ch. 57 Synchronous Generator Supplying Isolated Load 305
Xc < Xl' the phase angle ~

is nonzero positive, and E f
leads j (for example, at points 6 and 6') . Now the d-axis
current and mmf of the armature are demagnetizing in their
effect, s, > Ef,min, and If exceeds If,min which exists
at point 5 when the armature current has only the q-axis
component, I q , whereas the d-axis component vanishes.
Finally, at the armature current
I = VI sin <p IIX c = 2V I sin <p IIX I
that is, at Xc = X 1/2, we again see that E f = V, and
If = If,oc (point 7 in Fig. 57-1).
When saturation and saliency are allowed for, the quan-
titative relationships are somewhat different, but the qua-
litative picture remains unchanged, the effect of saturation
alone being insignificant (compare with the curves for <p=
= _37 0 in Fig. 57-1).
When the load is purely capacitive, t he field current
falls off with an increase in the armature current at an
especially high rate, although in a linear fashion. At the
armature current given by
I = V I sin <p I/X c = VIX c = VIX I
which corresponds to voltage resonance, the field current
reduces to zero. Therefore, when the machine is connected
across a capacitive reactance, a voltage may exist across
its terminals even when no excitation is applied. This is
what is called the self-excitation of a synchronous machine
(in more detail, this will be explained later in this chapter).
If we reduce the capacitive reactance still more so that
Xc < Xl' which corresponds to I> VIX I , we will be able
to maintain the desired terminal voltage by exciting the
machine with a negative current, If < 0, whose mmf will
be in opposition to the armature mmf. A detail ed analysis
of operation at negative excitation would show that this is
an unstable condition. Should the rotor depart by any
change from a position where its mmf, Ft m , opposes the
armature mmf, F a m , there would appear an electromagnetic
torque that would tend to increase the departure. As a result;
the rotor and its mmf would turn relative to F am through
1800 (electrical), so that Ft m would be in line with F a m .
Negative excitation can be effected only in machine
fitted with suitable fast-acting automatic field and rpm
control circuits. .
20-0240
57-3 External Characteristics

An external characteristic is a plot of the terminal voltage
of a gen erator as a function of Us armature current, V =
= f (I ), with t he field current, rpm and load angle held
constant .
An external cha racterist ic sh ows how the terminal voltage
of a genera tor varies as t he lo ad current in creases , if the
field curren t and the nature of load rema in unchanged.
As a rul e, external character-
3 ist ics are plott ed for two
characteristic va lues .of field
current, namely I f, Dc cor-
responding to V R on opencir-
cuit , and I f ,R corresponding
to the r at ed operating con-
di t ions (V R , I R , and CPR) '
A family of external cha r ac-
te ristics for a syn chronous gen-
I
erator (Xl = 0.86, X a = 0.16,
a 3 5 and X a = 0.70) pl otted at
Fig . 57-3 Extern al charact eri s- V = V R , I f = I f ,Dc , and va-
tics, V = f (l) , of a sy nchro - rious load angles cP, is sh own
n ous generator a t 11= I f , R' Q R in Fig. 57-3 . In plotting exter-
and 'P held constan t : nal characteristics , it is essen-
- - - wi t h allowance for sa- t ial to allow for the effect of
turation; - - - -- negle cting saturation . .
saturation
From a com parison of the
external cha r acteristics for
Cp = +370 (cos (p = 0.8) , plot te d at t he same field current
with allowance for sa turation (fu ll curves) and negl ecting
saturation (dashe d curves), it is seen that the curves drawn
neglecting saturation ar e the same as the exact curves only
at low terminal voltages and give, in the general case , only
a qualitative idea about variations in terminal voltage.
In constructing external characteristics , V needs to be
determined under various sets of operating conditions ' as
specified in terms of I f> I and cP (see Chap . 55). .
The characteristics shown as fu ll curves in Fig . 57-3
have been constructed by reference to the ph asor diagram
of a non salient-pole sy nchronous machine an d using the
norm ali zed open-circuit chara cteristic of a non salient-polo
mach ine from Fig. 53-11 .
The basic external characteristic at the rated load angle,

CPR = 370 , passes through point 1 where the terminal vol-
tage and current are at their rated values (on a per-unit
basis, VR = 1 and I R = 1). A decrease in the current
through a resistive-inductive load (at cp = CPR), with the
field current held constant, is accompanied by an increase .
in the terminal voltage due to a decrease in the demagnetizing
effect of the armature mmf, Fa. On open circuit, . when
ZL = 00, I = 0 and Fa = 0, the terminal voltage becomes
equal to Ej,R' where Ej,R is a function of Ij,R' as follows
from the open-circuit characteristic. Using Ej,R' we can
determine the inherent voltage regulation in the case of
load shedding:
(57-1)
For the machine in question,
Ll V* = (1.26 - 1.0) -;- 1.0 = 0.26
This gives a percentage voltage regulation of 26 %.

An increase in the current through a resistive-inductive
load (at cP = CPR) is accompanied by a fall in the terminal
voltage. When ZL = 0, that is, when the terminal leads of
the armature are shorted together, a balanced, steady-state
short circuit occurs, with I j = Ij,R' The terminal voltage
of the generator is then equal to zero, and the current be-
comes equal to the short-circuit current at normal excitation:
I = Isc,R (Ej,RO/X 1 ) = 1.93 -;- 0.86 = 2.25

where Ej,RO = f (Ij,R) is found from the air-gap line - the
linearized open-circuit characteristic, E j = f (Fo).
External characteristics plotted for the same value of
Ij,R= 1.68,butforother value of CP=!==CPn, have a common
open-circuit point (V =Ej,R and I =0) and a common short-
circuit point (V = 0 and I = Isc,R) with the basic external
characteristic.
With a resistive-inductive load, when 900 > cp > 0, an
increase in current from zero to Isc,R is accompanied by
a monotone decrease in the terminal voltage from E I , R
to zero. The rate of fall is especially pronounced in the case
of a purely inductive load (rp = 900 , cos cp = 0), and is
20*
very slow in the case of a purely resistive load (rp = 0,

cos lp = 1.0).
With a resistive-capacitive load, when 0 > lp > _90,
the terminal voltage varies in a more elaborate manner (see
the full curve for lp = -37 in Fig. 57-3). At low armature
currents, when Xc is high, V> Ef,R' At a certain armat-
ure current corresponding to a voltage resonance (X c =
= XI,R, where XI,R is the armature inductive reactance
with allowance for saturation), V = V max' As ZL keeps
decreasing, the terminal voltage goes down too, but the
armature current keeps rising until it attains its maximum
value, I max> I sc R. From that inst ant on, it again falls
to I sc , R. '
With a purely capacitive load, when !p = -90, the
characteristic has two non-intersecting portions, one of
which passes through the open-circuit point (V = Ef,R
and I = 0), and the other passes through the short-circuit
point (V = 0, I = Isc,R)' The second portion corresponds
to unstable operation, because it involves negative field
currents (see the analysis of field control characteristics).
Neglecting saturation, external characteristics can be des-
cribed analytically by Eq. (55-18) for salient-pole machines,
or by Eq. (55-8) for nonsalient-pole machines. As already
noted, they are identical with the exact characteristics
at low terminal voltages and may be used to advantage
in a qualitative analysis of external characteristics.
As will be recalled, external characteristics are measured
for constant power factor (sin rp), and constant E f = Ef,RO'
the only variable being ZL' Then, differentiating Eq. (55-8)
and putting d VldZ L = 0, we find that
V = V max = Ef,RO/cos!p (point 3)
at I XL 1= Xl and ZL = XIII sin !p I At this point, a volt-
age resonance takes place, and the current
I = VIZ L = (Ef,RO/X I ) I tan !p I = Isc,R I tan !p I
Accordingly, taking the derivative Eq. (55-8) and equating
it to zero, we will see that the current is a maximum
I max = Ef,RO/X I cos rp = Isc ,R/cos rp
at ZL = Xl sin !p (point 5), where
V = ZLI max = Ef,RO tan rp
Using Eq. (55-8), it is as easy to find the current at which

the voltage first falls off, then becomes equal to that on
open circuit, V = Ef,R (point 4). This current is
I = 2E f ,R O I sin rp IIX l = 2 I sin cp I Isc,R
and corresponds to ZL = X 1/2 I sin cp I.
57-4 Short-Circuit Characteristic
A short-circuit characteristic relates the armature current

to the field current on a balanced, steady-state short circuit
at the armature terminals:
I sc = f (If)
Experimentally, a short-circuit characteristic is measured
as follows. With the machine stopped, three ammeters
or current transformers are connected in a star to its ter-
minals. The generator is brought up to rated speed Q R
at If = 0, then the field current is gradually raised, and
the armature current is measured for each value of If.
The results are plotted as an I sc = f (If) curve shown in
Fig. 57-4. Experiments have shown that this relation remains
linear even when the short-circuit current is three or four
times the rated armature current.
On a short-circuit, the excitation field is substantially
weakened by the demagnetizing action of the d-axis compo-
nent of armature mmf. The magnetic circuit of the machine
is only sligh tly saturated, and the short-circuit current
may well be found from the equivalent circuit drawn for
an unsaturated salient-pole synchronous machine in Fig. 54-1
or the voltage equation, (55-19). On a short circuit, ZL = 0,
R L = 0, and XL = 0, so the short-circuit current is solely
limited by the resistance, R, and inductive reactance, Xl'
of the armature winding.
The armature conductors have a negligible resistance in
comparison with their q-axis inductive reactance (in per-
unit, R = 0.01 to 0.001; X q = 0.3 to 1.5 for salient-pole
machines, and X q = X d = 1.0 to 2.5 for nonsalient-pole
machines). Therefore, at ZL = 0, cos B, Eq. (55-:-15), is
zero very nearly:
cos ~ = R/V X~ + R2 ~ 0
Hence, B = n /2, sin B = 1.0, and the armature current is

act ing who ll y along th e d- axis :
Id = I sin B = I = I sc
Iq = I cos B = a
Accordingly, at B = n / 2, the armature induct iv e reac-
tance, Xl ' to th e short-circuit current is the same as its
Ef,oc<?--- - - o
ViI = 1 Q - - - - I -!f
Fig. 57-4 Constructi on of a shor t-cir cui t characteristic , I se = f (T/),

und er a balan ced , s teady-sta te short circu it
cl-axis inductive reactance (neglecting satura tion):

X d+Xq X d-Xq
X1= 2 - 2 cos 2B= X d
whereas its resistance , R I , does not differ from that of the
winding:
Th e shor t-circuit cur rent itself can be found from an

equation deducib le from Eq . (55-19) and applicable to both
salient-pole and non salient-pole m achines wh ere Xl = X d =
= X q,
I - E fo (57-2)
sc - V R 2+ X a
where E t o is the emf corresponding t o t he specified fi eld

current and found from the li nearized open-circuit character-
isti c, E , = f (F t m).
At th e rated angular velocity , Q = Q R (or ro = roR),
the res istance of the armature winding is small in comparison
with its ind uctive react anc e. Th erefor e, it is safe t o calculate
the short-circuit current by the equ ation
r.; = E to/X d (57-3)
It is to be not ed th at at a const ant fi eld current the short-
circuit current is ne arl y ind ependent of th e angular velocity
of th e rotor , because both E t o and X d are pr opor ti onal to
t ha t vel ocity:
E t o = E f .ROQ*
X d = Xd,RQ*
where X d,R and E t,R O ar e the inductive rea ctance and emf
at the rated angul ar velocity (neglecting saturat ion), and
Q* is th e per-unit angula r ve-
locity of the rotor. I 1.0 lsc/Isc,1I ....-fo-"
From the approxi mate equa - /
tion (57-3) it follows that
under the above conditions
the short-circui t current is in-
dependent of an gular velocity: 0,5 I
I
I sc = E t o/X d = E f. RoIX d,R
= I sc . R = constant
If we all ow for the effect of Q/Q N
the resistance in accord with o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Eq . (57-2), it can be shown
tha t the short-circuit current Fig . 57-5 Short-circ uit current
is pr actically constant at suffi- as a function of th e rel at iv e ro-
ciently hi gh an gul ar velocities tor veloci ty a t constant fi eld
current
and t hat it begi ns to fall off at
very low velocities and decreas-
es gradually to zero. This is illustrated in Fig. 57-5 which
is a plot of I sclIsc ,R = f (Q* ), cons tructed at a constant
field current for a machine with R = 0.01, and X d = 1.0.
Figure 57-4 shows how I f (or F f) can be found for a salient-
pole machine at a sp ecifi ed sho rt-circuit curr ent gra phically.
This is done by using the phasor-vector di agr am for a saturat-
ed salient-pole machine (Fig. 55-9) and t he open-circuit
characteristic so as to see how large the currents may be for

the magnetic circuit of the machine to remain still unsat-
urated.
As is seen , F f m is the sum of F I'm corresponding to E; =
= XaI, and F adm equivalent to the d-axis mmf of the ar-
mature. At E :1: r = X *a!,I:<0.7, when the E f = f (F f m) open-
circuit characteristic is practically linear and is the same
as the F, = f (F 0) curve, F I'm is proportional to E I' = X 01
and to the short-circuit current. Also, k z a = F1/F o = 1.0,
Sd = 1.0, k q d = 0, and, in accord with Eq. (55-30),
= X ad
X ad, s
E ad = XadI
By the same token , Fadm corresponding to E ad from the
E f = f (FI)) curve is likewise proportional to the short-
circuit current, and this implies that both F f m = F I'm
+ Fadm and Ff/wf are proportional to the short-circuit
current so long as E*I" remains less than 0.7, and the short-
circuit current itself is
I,!,se < 0.7/X:,: a ~ 4 to 7.0*
On a per-unit basis, the short-circuit characteristic, I se -
= f (If)' can readily be plotted, using the so-called short-
circuit triangle (!1ABC in Fig. 57-4). The vertical side of
this triangl e, AB, represents the leakage emf, X 01, and
the horizontal side BC represents the d-axis armature mmf.
The dimensions of the triangle or of its sides AB and BC
are proportional to the armature current.
Using the short-circuit triangle, it is an easy matter to
find If or F f m corresponding to the specified short-circuit
current. If we position corner A on the open-circuit charac-
teristic and align the side BC with the axis of abscissae,
corner C will locate If. By varying the dimensions of tri-
angle ABC in proportion to the short-circuit current, we
will see that within the limits stated the short-circuit re-
mains linear.
The performance of a synchronous generator can to a cert-
ain extent be described in terms of the short-circuit current
which corresponds to the open-circuit mmf, Ffm,De' produc-
ing rated voltage on open circuit. The ratio of this cur-
rent, I se,De, to the rated current , I R, is called the short-
* It is assumed that X * 0 is independent of the current in the arma-
ture winding.
circuit ratio of a synchronous machine*:

SCR = Isc,oelIR = Ise,oe (57-4)
The SCR may be expressed in terms of the d-axis inductive
reactance of the armature [see Fig. 57-4 and Eq. (57-3)):
SCH= Ef,oc/XdIR ~ (1.06 to 1.15) VR/XdI R
= 1.06X:1: d t o 1.15X:,: d (57-5)
where X:1: d is the per-unit d-axis armature inductive react-
ance (neglecting saturation). The factor 1.06 applies to
salient-pole machines, and 1.15 to nonsalient-pole units
with normal open-circuit characteristics.
The steady-state short-circuit current, Ise,R, at rated
excitation, Ffm,R, is 1.5 to 3 times the current at Ffm,oc
I",sc,R = I:,:,se,oe (Ffm,RIFfm,oe)
= I:,:sc,ocF*f,oe (57-6)
57-5 load Characteristics

A load characteristic relates the terminal voltage of a gen-
erator to its field current, with the armature current, ang-
ular velocity and load angle held constant.
V = f (If)
A load characteristic shows how the terminal voltage
varies with changes in the field current, if the armature
current is held constant in amplitude (I = constant) and
in phase (cp = constant) by adjusting ZL, the load imped-
ance.
A special case of the load characteristic is the open-cir-
cuit characteristic which may be treated as a load character-
istic
V = E f = f (If)
measured at an armature current equal to zero (I = 0 and
ZL = 00).
Of all other load characteristics, use is practically made
of only the inductive load characteristic applicable to an
inductive load (rp = 90 0 ) .
* Some authors define the SCR as the ratio of the field current
producing rated voltage on open circuit to the field current producing
rated short-circuit current,- Translator's note.
To locate a point on the inductive load characteristic of

a salient-pole machine corresponding to V, it is necessary
to find F f m under the operating conditions defined by
V, I and cp = 90. With allowance for saturation, this
can be done by reference to the voltage phasor diagram
ET'=E 1d. i Xt1i

v
C 1.0
Fig. 57-6 Inductive load characteristic plotted for a salient-pole

machine (X d = 1.0, Xu = 0.16, 1= IR = 1.0):
l-wi th allowance for variations in leakage fl ux on load; 2- neglect ing variations
in leakage flux on load; a-neglecting the effect of saturation on Fadm (using the
short-circuit triangle)
and magnetization or open-circuit characteristics, as illustrat-

ed in Fig. 57-6 (see Chap. 55).
With an inductive load,
XL = ZL sin cp = ZL
RL = ZL cos (P =a
In accord with Eq. (55-15),
R
~O
cos ~ = V(XL+X q)2+R2
and
Therefore, the armature current only has a d-axis comp-

onent:
I d = I sin ~ = I
I q = I cos P = 0
Accordingly, in constructing the characteristic, we may

put I = I d, I q = 0, I qm = 0, and E rd = E; = V + X aI.
Most accurately, the construction is carried out as illustrat-
ed in Fig. 55-8, using the magnetization curves (see
Fig. 53-8), because it takes into account variations in the
leakage flux on load, and the excitation mmf is found as
r.; = F IT d + Fadm,s + F 2
where F ITd = mmf corresponding to E rd = En as found

from the E f = f (F I )
Fadm s = mmf found with allowance for saturation and
, corresponding to X ad,sI = ~dX adI on the
E f = f (F 0) curve, and ~d = f (E r ) in
Fig. 55-10
F 2 = rotor mmf on the <1>2 = f (F 2 ) curve
Curve 1 in Fig. 57-6 has been plotted in the manner
explained just above . Curve 2 in the same figure has been
plotted in accord with Fig . 55-9, using the open-circuit
characteristic in Fig. 53-8. It neglects variations in the leak-
age flux on load, and the excitation mmf is given by
F fm = F rdm + Fadm, s
where F rdm is the mmf corresponding to E rd = E r on the
s, = f (Ffm) curve.
Load curve 3 has likewise been constructed as illustrated
in Fig. 55-9, using the open-circuit characteristic, but neglect-
ing variations in the leakage flux on load and the effect
of saturation on Fadm ' Accordingly, the field mmf can be
found as
r.; = F rdm -1- Fadm
where Fadm is the mmf found neglecting saturation (at
~d = 1.0) and corresponding to X adI on the E f = f (F 0)
curve.
The simplest way to construct load curve 3 is illustrated
in sufficient detail in Fig. 57-6. On the assumptions used,
Fadm at a constant I is likewise constant and equal to that
on a steady-state circuit with I sc = I, when the magnetic
circuit of the machine is unsaturated (see above in this sec-
tion). Therefore; curve 3 can be constructed, using the short-
circuit triangle, t1ABC, with the side AB equal to X aI,
and the side BC to Fadm ' From the construction in Fig. 57-6
it follows that at V point C on load curve 3 can be located
with the aid of the short-circuit triangle, when the side
BC is aligned with the line of constant V and the corner A

is positioned on the open-circui t characte ri st ic. As poin t A
is moved along t he open-circuit characteristic, point C
will trace out the load characteristic, V = f (Ffm) or V =
= f (If) ' At V = 0, when the triangl e t ak es up the posi -
t ion labell ed AlBICI , point C1 will give the field mmf
on a short cir cuit with I = I sc .
At V < 0. 7, curve 3 is the same as curves 2 and 1 con-
structed on more rigorous assu mpt ions. At high voltages,
curve 3 substantially differs from curve 1 which is practic-
ally the sam e as the exp erimental load curve .
. The open-circuit characteristic, E , = f (Ffm), and th e
inductive load characteristic , V = f (Ffm), obtain ed by
exper imen t , may well be used to determine the leakage in-
ductive reactance . The procedure is as follows . Choose point
C within the nonlin ear part of the V = f (Ffm) curve,
layoff OC = 0ICI as shown in Fi g . 57-6 , and draw through
point 0 a line parall el to the initial part of the open-circuit
characteristic . Po int A at the intersection with the open-
circuit characteristic will giv e th e side A B of the triangle
on a voltage sca le. Now the armature leakage inductive
reactance may be written
X a = ABII
where I is the current at which the load characteri stic is
m easured .
The error in the va lue of X a thus found is proportional
to the discrepancy between curves 3 and 1, and X ~ is bein g
som ewhat over estimat ed .
57-6 Self-Excitation of a Synchronous Generator

Operati ng into a Capacitive Load
From analysis of th e field control charact eristics for a sy nchro-
nous generator at a constant V , it can be seen that a de-
crease in the capacitive rea ctance of the load ent ails an increase
in th e armature current , I, with the result that the fi eld
current gradually fa lls off until, at a certain valu e of X c,
it disapp ears altogether, although the term inal voltage of
the gen erator r emains th e sam e as before, that is, equa l to V.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, this ha ppens when Xc
is equal to X I' the inductive reactance of t he armature .
Now R + Hf-, = 0, a voltage resonance takes place! and
Ch. 57 Synchronous Generato r Suppl ying Isolated Load 317
Ef given by Eq. (55-8) vanishes:

Ef = IV (X t - X C )2= 0
In th e circ umstances , th e field is excite d by the d-axis
magnetizing current in the armature winding, and no exci-
t ation is n eeded from the rotor's side (If = 0).
If we conn ect an unexcited synchronous machine, with
its rotor spinning, across a capacitive reactance, X c = Xl'
t
o
Fig. 57-7 Variations in terminal voltage due to self-excit a ti on of a

synchronous generator
what is known as self-excitation will take place. The small

emf always existing across the armature terminals due to the
remanence of the poles gives rise to a magnetizing current
in the armature winding, and the current boosts the field.
In turn, the fi eld induces a larger emf which boosts the
field still more, and so on. The transient thus initiated
(see Fig. 57-7) causes the terminal voltage to build up until
it attains a steady-state amplitude, l!2V . This value cor-
responds to the onset of saturation in the magnetic circuit
and the associated insignificant decrease in Xl'
When a salient-pole machine is operating into a capacitive
load (XL = -Xc, R +R L = 0), the resultant current acts
. along the d-axis, see Eq. 55-15:
I d = I Isin ~ I = I
Iq =Icos~=O
sin~=(Xq-Xc)/l!(Xq- Xc)2= 1
At Xc> X qs it has a magnetizing effect! because
sin ~ = - 1
318 Part Fi ve. Synchronous Machines
and
~ = -n/2
At X c = Xl = X d , as follo ws from Eq. (55-19), E,

= I V (Xl - X C)2 reduces to zero, and self-excitation is
likely to take place. It can be shown that self- excitation
can as well occur wh en Xc differs from X d , but lies in
the range
(57-7)
The values of the armat ure voltage and current to which

they settle when t he process of self-excitation is complet ed
o 7.D I
Fig. 57-8 Determination of th e ar mature voltage for a synch ronous

ma chine connected to a capacitive load in the case of self -excitation .
at XL = -Xc can be found graphicall y , using the phasor

diagram and open-circuit ch aracter istics of a saturat ed
salient-pole machine, Eq. (55-32), an d Fig. 55-9. This is
don e in Fig. 57-8 pro ceeding from the fact that in a stead y
state the mu tual fi eld is establi shed solely by F dm , wh er eas
F f m = a and , as a cons equ ence, t he resultant d-axis mmf ,
F r d m, does not differ from F a d m' By the same token , E r d
is produced solely by the d-axis armature current and does
not differ from E a d As is seen from the di agram in Fig. 57-8
(drawn in accord with Eq. (55-32)) , given X c and X cr' the
Ch, 57 Synchronous Genera tor Supplying Isolated Load 319
resultant emf is proportional to the armature current

. . . .
Er = E rd + E aq = E rd
= V + jXaI
=-j(Xc-Xa)I
The emf induced by the d-axis armature fi eld , E ad,
can be found , using the open-circuit characteristic E j =
= f (E jm), from the mmf
Fadm = ~dkadFdm ~ k ad (V '2/ :11) m1 (w 1k w 1/p ) I

proportional to I (with a sufficient accuracy it may be
taken that d is equal to unity). Therefore, the E ad = f (I)
curve shown in Fig. 57-8 is in effect an open-circuit character-
istic re-drawn as a function of the armature current which
replaces F jm = Fadm' At I = 1.0 and neglecting satura-
tion, the per-unit E ad is given by
E ad = Xa dI = X ad
Therefore, as is shown in Fig. 57-8,
E j = E ad = X ad
corresponds on the open-circuit char acteristic to I R = 1.0 .
Thus, the condition arising at the end of self-excitation
corresponds to point A wh ere the E rd = (Xc - X a) I and
E ad = f (I) curves intersect and wh ere E rd = E ad. The cor-
responding armature voltage
V = E rd + XaI
is represented by t he corner C of the short-circuit triangle
with its side BC drawn on the armature cur ren t scale.
On expressing E ad at point A in terms of the current and
saturated d-axis inductive reactance
E ad = Xad ,sI
where X ad,s < X ad, it can be seen that
E ad + XaI =
XcI
Xad ,s+Xa=X c
Xd,s = x;
320 Part Five . Synchronous Machines
This implies that in a steady state a voltage resonance

occurs as an outcome of saturation in the magnetic circuit.
The linear part of th e E a d = f (1) curve is described by the
equation E a d = X a d l . Therefor e, t he E r d = (X c - X (J) 1
and E a d = f (1) curves can interest at point A only when
X a d ~ X c - X (J or X d ~ Xc, which checks with Eq. (57-7).
When X d < X c , the two curves can intersect only a t
point 0 where 1 = 0, V = 0, and no self-excitation can
take place . If X c ~ X q, the armature voltage that exists
after self-excitation will rise as Xc is decreased.
The ri sk of self-excitation in the case of synchronous
generators supplying capacitive loads complicates the opera-
tion of electrical systems and impairs the strength of the
insulation in the generators and the machines or devices
they feed. In practice, self-excitation may take place, if
a synchronous generator is connected via a transformer to
a sufficiently long, open-circuited transmi ssion line whose
reactance is capacitive in its behaviour, XL = -Xc.
In designing an elect ric station and a transmission line,
care is always taken to make the d-axis inductive reactance of
the generator sm aller than the capacitive react an ce of the
line, with allowance for a transformer,
x, -c s;
This will ordinarily rule out the likelihood of self-excita -
tion due to a rise in the line voltage.
Self-excitation ma y as well take pl ace in th e case of
a resistive-capacitive load ,
ZL = RL - jXc
if the tot al resistance of the armature circuit
u; = R + RL
is sufficiently small. In order to see how large this resistance
should be , let us turn to the equ ations (55-14) and the dia-
It is assumed that R =
gram, Fi g. 57-9, of an unsaturated , salient-pole machine.
and X d > X c> X q' Obviously,
. .
self-excitation will lead to V = (R L [X c ) I only if the
. . . -
armature current, 1 = I + I q'd gives rise to an emf

.
Ea = Ead
..
+ Ea q = - jX a dl d
.
-
.
j X a ql q
Ch, 57 Synchronous Gen era tor Supplying Isolat ed Load 32 1
which is equal to th e required mu tu al emf

. .. .
E 7' = -+ j X al =
V [R L - j (X c - X a)I 1
that is, if E a = Ero
VE
o 1.0 I
Fig. 57-9 Conditions for self-excitation in the case of a resistive-

capacitive load
Using Eq. (55-15) and findin g cos B and sin B from the
specified load resistance an d reactance :
cos B= RT"
V (X c - X q)2+ R t
X q-X c
sin B= <. 0
V (X c -X q)2+ R t
the equality E; = E a may he re-written in scal ar form as

E, = E a , where
E r =I V(X c- X a)2+R 't
E a = V' E~d-+E~q = I VX~d sin >B-+ Xa q cos- B
or
_ X ) 2 -+ R 2 =
X2 (X -x q )2--j_X2aq R L2
(X C aL
ad C
(X c-X q )2--j- R t
21- 024 0
322 Part Five. Synchronous Machlnas
On solving the last equation for R L , we find that sell-

excitation can occur at
RL = V( X d-X c) (Xc- X q ) (57-8)
From an analysis of Eq. (57-8) it follows that at Xc = X ci
or X c = X q ' self-exc ita tion can take place only in th e
case of a purely capacitive
load , tha t is , wh en R L = O.
At x ; > x; and x ; <X q ,
a real r esi stan ce at whi ch
self-excitation could occur
simply does not exist. At Xc =
= (Xci + X q)/2, self-excita-
tion will occur a t th e hi gh est
val ue of r esistance equal to
R L = (X ci - X q)/2.
A plot of R L as a fun ction
X.s . of X c appears in Fig. 57-10.
Th e va lues of voltage that
00---- exi st at th e va lue of R L and X c
lying on th e R L = f (X c) cur ve
Fig. 57-10 Cond itions for ca pac i- may be foun d graphicall y.
tive self-excita tion (th e sha ded For each combinat ion of R L
area of Xc and RL indicates
where self-exci ta tion is possible) and X c corresponding to a par-
ticular value of ~ , the E a
= f (1) and E r = f (1) curves
coincide over the ent ir e length of the lin eal' .par t of th e
E a curve (see Fig. 57-9). Th erefore , self-excitat ion r esults
in E a and E r at point A corresponding to the ons et of satura-
tion . Obviously, at X d > X c > X q , self-excitation can
take pl ace not only at the value of R L give n by Eq. (57-8),
but also at R L = 0 and an y va lues of R L :::;;
V(X d - Xc ) (X c - X q ) , th at is , at v alues of R L falling
within th e shaded area in Fig. 57-10. The values of arm ature
voltage that exist when self-excitation occurs at such values
of R L lie between the voltage found from Fig. 57-8 for
R L = 0 and the voltage found from Fig. 57-9 at R L = f (X c ).
Ch. 58 Parallel Operation
58 Parallel Operation
58-1 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators
in an Electric System
Mechanical energ y is conv erted to electricity predominantly
by syn chronous machines. In the Sovi et Un ion , about 85%
of th e total comes from the steam-turbine gener at ors instal-
led at fu el-fired stations, about 15 % by hydro-electric
Fig. 58-1 Single-li ne diagram of a simple electr ic sys tem
generators, and a few per cent by the steam-turbine gener-

ators operating at nuclear power stations.
The bulk of th e electri c supply is pr odu ced by sy nchro-
nou s genera t ors connecte d in parallel an d feeding a common
load.
A single-li ne di agram of a three-phase elect rical syst em
con taining parall eled sy nch ronous gene ra tors and paralleled
loads is shown in Fi g. 58-1. As is seen , t he system has sev-
eral electr ic sta tions (ES 1 , ES z , ... ) with several gener-
at ors installed a t each (GI , Gz , ) . The thr ee-pha se stator
windings of the gener at ors are conn ect ed in pa rall el to
common bus es. R emote stations are interconnected for pa-
rall el operation by means of transmission lines and three-
phase transformers with which the voltage level can be
21*
Part Five. Synchronous Machines
varied at will. The transmission lines on tappings from th em

supply power Lo the loads (L 1 , L 2 , ) connecLed in the
system.
Most often, the loads are various a.c. motors, heating
appliances, lighting fixtures, and a.c./d.c. converters sup-
plying systems that operate on d. c. All the"loads are con-
nected in parallel and add up to resistive-inductive imped-
ances inserted at various nodes of the electric system. Be-
cause the paralleled generators are interconnected electric-
ally or via transform ers, their voltages alternate at the
same frequency "
11 = 12 = t, = ... = I
Their rotors, too, roLate at tho same electrical angular
velocity
WI = W2 = W3 = ... = W = 2nl
whereas their mechanical angular velocities are inversely
proportional to the number of pair poles in the generators
Q1 = W/Pl' Q2 = W/P 2' Q3 = w/Pa
For this reason, the paralleled generators are said to be operat-
ing in step or synchronism with one another, and the proce-
dure of bringing the machines into parallel operation (put-
ting them on line) is call ed synchronizing or syn chroni zation
(see Chap. 59).
To secure reliable and economic operation of power sys-
tems, it is usual to group individual stations into what
are usually referred to as power pools or interconnections,
each with up to several hundred large generators totalling
between them 10 million kW or even more. In the Soviet
Union, there are tens of power interconnections of such
caliber. Most frequently, power pools are grouped into still
larger entities, known as interconnected power systems or
grids (or grid systems). This is tru e of most industrially
developed countries of the world, and th e tend ency has of
late been to scale up the interconnecLions and grids still
more.
As already noted, power service from interconnections
and grids is more reliable than it would be from individual
generators each supplying an isolated load. With the gener-
ators connected in parallel, an electric station can remove
anyone generator from service for maintenance without
interrupting power supply to its loads. Another advantage
eh. 58 Parallel Operation 325
of interconnections is that they can pool power from stations

using different sources of energy-fossil fuel, falling water,
fissile or fissionable elements. A third advantage is that
the installed capacity at anyone station can be reduced to
a reasonable and more manageable size, and the demand,
however fluctuating it may be (from day to day, from season
to season, and over a year), can be met more flexibly, because
the peak loads on the constituent stations will be staggered
in time.
The running of power pools and, even more so, power
grids or supergrids, each incorporating a large number of
stations, substations, power transmission lines, and loads,
is a formidable task. No matter how the load may vary,
the system frequency and voltage level must be maintained
at their optimal values. Each pool, grid and, even supergrid
is run from a control centre operated by a team of dispatchers
who send out commands to put a generator (or generators)
on line, or to remove them from service, as the case may
be, to increase or decrease the generation of active and
reactive power, etc.
As is seen, control of a power system reduces essentially
to the control of the individual synchronous generators
operating into (or, rather, in parallel with) an electric
system. Therefore, a major topic in a course on electric
machines is the behaviour of an individual synchronous
machine when it is operating in parallel with an electric
system.
If a system has a sufficiently large capacity in comparison
with the machine of interest, the system power can be
deemed infinitely large and treated as what is known as an
infinite bus . This implies that, whatever variations in the
operating conditions of the machine (changes in the arma-
ture current and output power), the system frequency, Is,
and the peak value of the system voltage, V s , will remain
constant, because they will be maintained by the other
units. By the same token, when Is or V s is controlled via
the remaining generators, the effect of a given generator
may safely be neglected. Any change in performance of the
generator can be assessed from changes in system voltage
at its terminals.
58-2 Bringing in a Generator for Parallel

Operation
The connection of a three-phase synchronous generator, G,
for parallel operation with a system is shown in Fig. 58-2.
For simplicity, the system is shown to contain one equiva-
lent 2-pole synchronous generator of an infinitely large
capacity, Gs , supplying a system load and the incoming
generator is r epr esent ed by its 2-pole model.
Fig. 58-2 Connection of a synchronous generator for parallel opera-

tion with a system containing Gs and Load
Let the positive direction of V s in the generator-system

loop be from the start As to the finish X s of its phase. The
positive direction of the emf and current in the As-Xs-X-A
loop formed by the like phas~s of Gs and G is chosen to be
. ..
the same as the direction of V s and is shown in the figure
by an arrow. Then E f (or V) supplied by G will be positive,
when it is directed from X to A, as shown in Fig. 58-2.
With the switch (usually a circuit-breaker) Sw open, G
is running on an open circuit, and the emf existing between
the phase contacts of the switch is
I1E
. = Ef + Vs (58-1)
.
which is a function of E f and of its phase relative to Vs'
given by the angle a in Fig, 58-3 . If, before the gen lrator G
Ch. 58 Parallel Operation 327
is to be put all line, its angular velocity Q and its field

current If are chosen such that
ffi = 2nl = Qlp = ffi s = 2n/ s
or, in words, the generator frequency is the same as the

system frequency, and the generator emf E f is equal to the
21's
Fig . 583 Exact synchronization
system voltage Vs , the emf across the switch contacts can

be found from an equation of the form
t;.,.E = 2Vs I cos a/2 I
As a is varied, t;.,.E may take on any values from zero to
2Vs (see Fig. 58-3).
The conditions most favourable for the generator to be
put on line are when a = rt , because then t;.,.E = 0, E f =
= - Vs , and no transient (or circulating) currents are flow-
ing in the armature winding. After the generator has been
put on line, its armature current will remain zero, and the
.generator will keep running on an open circuit (I = 0).
This manner of putting a generator on line is called exact
synchronization (for more detail, refer to Chap. 59).
Now let us see what will happen if we fail to satisfy the
conditions for exact synchronization
. .
f = Is, E f = Vs, E f = - Vs, a = n (58-2)
with regard to the angle a.
Neglecting iron saturation and saliency, the armature
currant, J; 'can be found by Eq. (55-2) and the equivalent
circuit in Fi g. 55-1 re-drawn for parallel operation in Fig.

58-4. The value of I is limited by Xl' the armature inductive
reactance, and l ags behind the resultant emf, I1E = E j +
Vs, existing in the generator-system loop, by an angle
'It/2:
.. ..
1= I1EljX I = iu, V S) /jX I + (58-3)
The emf , -jXII, induced by this current affects the termi-
nal voltage, so that instead of E j we have
.. . .
__ Y = Ej - jXII =- Vs (58-4)
As is seen, I acts to equalize the generator voltage and
the system voltage, V = V s , and causes the generator volt-
age to be directed in opposition to the system voltage,
Fig. 58-4 Production of a synchronizing torque
A voltage phasor diagram for values of ct appreciably larg-

.
er than 'It is constructed in Fig. 58-4. The diagram also shows
.
the angle B between V and E j , which is related to the angle
.
ct, e = a. --- 'It and is taken to be positive, if E j leads V.
.
At small positive value of 8, that is, when 'It ~ 8 > 0, the
armature current given by Eq. (58-3) is practically in line
with E j Its magnitude is proportional to the angle 8:
- IE f +Vs I rv 2E f sin 8/2 '" (E IX ) o
.1 - Xl rv Xi '" f i lJ
Figure 58-4 shows (by dashed curves) the field set up by

I. The ineraction of this field with the rotor field current
If giving rise to F f, produces an electromagnetic torque,
Tern' which acts on the rotor in opposition to its direction
of rotation. Because Text is balanced by the friction and
windage torque and the core loss torque, Tern is left unbalanc-
ed, and it causes the rotor to slow down
dQ/dt = - I Tern IIJ
As a result, the electrical angular velocity of the rotor,
(i) = Qp, becomes smaller than (i)s, and this leads to a de-
crease in 8, I, and Tern' and to the recovery of open-circuit
conditions. At 8 < 0, the current phase is :reversed, the
torque changes sign, the angular velocity of the rotor goes up,
and open-circuit conditions are again restored at 8 = 0,
I = 0, and T em = 0. Any departure from synchronism
. . .
((i) =f;= (i)s) likewise leads to a mismatch between the phasors
E f and V (or Vs), the angle 8 is no longer equal to zero, and

there appears an electromagnetic torque, Tern' which restor-
es synchronism. This is the reason why it is called the
synchronizing torque in parallel operation. It keeps the rotor
in synchronism after the generator has been put on line. As
will be shown, this torque maintains synchronism in ope-
ration on load as well.
58-3 Control of Load on a Synchronous Generator

Connected to an Infinite Bus
The operating conditions of a synchronous generator con-
nected to an infinite bus, that is, a large-capacity system
for which a constant fs' and a constant V s may be assumed,
depend on its total power S in comparison with the total
power, S + Ss, of all the paralleled generators supplying
a common load (Ss is the total power of the remaining gene-
rators in the system). As its per-unit power, S* = SI(S +
+ Ss), increases, variations in its operating conditions
have a progressively stronger effect on the system frequency,
t.. and the system voltage, V s '
Connections of a generator to load for two limiting values
'of its per-unit total power are shown in Figs. 58-5 and 58-6.
'In Fig. 58-5, the synchronous generator is the only system
generator (Sa = 0), and its per-unit total power is S* =
SIS = 1. Now; it is in effect supplying an isolated load,
ZL = RL + jX L, so the frequency
1= pQf2n
and the voltage (at a given load impedance) ar e solely de-
cided by the power supplied by t he prime mover (a turbine),
.Fig: 58-5 Control of a hydro-elect ric genera ting unit serving an

isolate d load:
HT-hydraulic turbine; G-generator; Exc -excite r; AR -adjusting
rh eostat in the excit ation system; GV- guide va nes of the turb ine
in turn dependent on the openin g of the guide va nes, GV,

and the field current dependent on the setting of the adjust-
ing rheostat, AR.
In Fi g. 58-6, the generator in question has a power out-
put which is negligibly sm all in compa rison wi th t he infi-
ni t el y large power of th e rem aining generators in the system.
Th erefor e, cha ng es in the oper a ti ng conditions of the gene-
rator have no effect on the system fr equ ency, Is, and the sys-
t em volt age, V s ' Th e ang ular veloci ty of its rotor in all forms
of syn chronous operation rem ains the same:
Q = 2nl slp
In the circumstances, any change in t he settings of the con-
trols of the t ur bine and the generat or will res ult in a change
in the act ive and re active power delivered to t he system. An
increase in the opening of the guide vanes, GV, willlead to
an increase in the prime mover's torque, Text' in the active
power of the synchronous machine, P = Text Q, and in the
active component of armature current, I (J. = P13V8 .An
Ch. 58 Pa rallel Operation 331
increas e in I f will be accomp an ied by an increase in the re-

act ive componen t of arm a ture current , In and in the reac-
tiv e power delivered to the system, Q = 3V sI r .
fs=const
lre~dP) J, I ~=-V=cunst
J/own- J t GV
UP-E-]
- j IIr(UQ
t ~
Down Up
Fig . 58-6 Control of load 'on a hydro-electric generating unit operat-

ing in parallel with an elec tr ic system (see the legend to Fig. 58-5)
In the intermedi at e cases , wh ere t he per-unit to t al power

of the gene rating un it r anges be tw een zero and unity, cha ng-
es in the settings of th e con t rols (the guide vari es and the
adjusting rheosta t) will lead to simultaneous changes not
only in the active and reactive power , but also in Is and V s'
58-4 Active and Reactive Power of a Synchro'nous

Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus
Let us 't ake a closer look a t th e fact ors that affect th e act iv e
an d r eactive power of a sa lient-pole synchronous machine
connecte d to an infinite bus, that is , as before , a large-capa-
city system for whi ch constant frequency , Is, and constant
volt age , V s , m ay be assum ed . "
The tw o powers are fun ctions of th e arm at ur e current
.
I, and the phase ang le bet ween I and the gene r at or voltage,
. -
V= - V s , ' J
P = Jn1VI cos (p
(58-5)
Q ...:... Jn1VI sin cp
In turn, j is a function of i,
and the spatial position of the
rotor relative to Vs, defined by the angle 8 between the
V Ii phasor and the q-axis.
In an unsaturated synchronous machine, I is determined
. ..
by V = - Vs, E f , and the phase angle 8 between them (with
E aligned with the negative direction of the q-axis). On
open circuit, 8 = O. Under the
action of an external torque,
Text, the rotor takes up a
position, or angle 8, at which
T em balances T ext. Therefore,
a study into the transients
associated with parallel ope-
ration can markedly be simpli-
d fied, if we express the active
and reactive powers as func-
tions of V = Vs, E f , and tI:
P = f (V, s; tI)
Q = f (V, s., tI)
Fig. 58-7 Active and reactive
powers expressed in terms ofTo begin with, let us con-
V, Ej, and 8 sider the active power. Noting
that rp = ~-8, we can write
P defined by Eq. (58-5) as a function of tI, I d and I,! as
Expressions for I d and I q in terms of V, E, and 8 can be

derived from the phasor diagram drawn in Fig. 58-7 for an
unsaturated, salient-pole synchronous generator connected
. .
to an infinite bus (V" = - V = constant). The diagram has
been plotted for a current lagging behind the voltage by an
angle n/2. Assuming the positive directions of I d and I q
along the d- and q-axis, respectively, the projections of V
on these directions can be written
V sin 8 = X qI q - RId
V cos 8 = E f - X dI d - RIq
Solving the above equa Lions simul taneously, we get

I = V[BR+(Xd sinO-Rcos0)
(58-7)
q X dXq +R2
V [BXq-(X q cos 0 +R sin 0)
I d = XdXq+R~ (58-8)
where e = EflV is the excitation ratio .

Substituting Eg. (58-7) and Eq. (58-8) into Eg. (58-6)
gives a general expression for active power
p = P' + P" (58-9)
where
p' = m1 V2 B (X q sin 0+R cos 0)
(Xd Xq+R2)
" m 1 V2 (Xd-Xq) .
P = 2 (Xd Xq+R2) SIll 28
The component P' arises when the saturation factor, eot
is nonzero. So it is the power that would additionally be
delivered to the line at V at a nonzero e.
The component P" arises from the interaction of an un-
excited salient-pole rotor with the currents that are produced
in the armature winding due to V. These currents can be
found from Eqs. (58-7) and (58-8) at e = O. So it would be
developed owing to saliency (X d =1= X q) by a synchronous
machine connected to a line with V at a given angle 8,
if it were unexcited (e = 0) , because then P' would be zero.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, X d = X q = Xl ' and P " is
nonexistent.
It is worth while noting that R needs to be accounted for
only in the design of fractional-hp ma chines wh ere it plays
an important rol e. In large machines, it is legitimate t o put
R = 0, because the armat ure winding has a negligibly small
resistance (R ~ X q < X d)' Then ,
P = P' + P" = P ern = Tern Q (58-10)
where
P' = m 1 V 2B sin 0
Xd
P" = mr;2(1IX q-1/X d)sin 28
Par t Five. Synchronous Machines
in a salient-pole m achine, and

m V 2 B sin 8
l
p = P' = ---''---==----
Xl
in a nonsalient-pole machine .
T aking SR as the base quantit y , we may re-write the equa-
tion of active pow er on a per-unit basis. For example , at
R = 0,
P * -_ V *EX*j sin 8 -2
+
V~, ('l/X * 1] - 1/X)'
*d SIn
28
*d
The reactive power defin ed by Eq. (58-5) can be re-written
in a similar manner. Sin ce (p = B- 8, it may likewise be pre-
sented as a function of 8, I d and I I]
Q = m lVl sin (B - 8) = m lV (l d cos e - II] sin 8)
Then, usin g Eqs. (58-7) and (58-8), we can write it in a form
more conv enient for a study in to parallel operation
Q= Xd;~~R2 [e( X I]cos8-R sin8) -XI]cos2 8 - Xdsin 28]
(58-11)
At R = 0, the components of the reactive power,
Q = Qd + Qq (58-1 2)
can be written in a simpler form, na mely
Qd = Q'd + Q"d = mIld (V cos 8)
where
Q'd = (mlEj/ X d) V cos e
Q"d = -m l (V cos 8)2/X d
and
Qq = -mllqV sin El = -m l (V sin 8)2/X q
The d-a xis reactive pow er , Qcl , is associat ed with the d-axis
current
Id = (E j - V cos 8)/X d
and the q-axis voltage,
V q = V cos 8
I t is the sum of two terms, nam ely:
(1) reactive power
en cl = m.; (- V cos 8/ X d) V cos e<
drawn by an unexcited synchronous machine in order to set

up the d-axis armature field at V '1 = V cos e and I d(V)
= - V cos el X d which leads V q by 90 0 ; and
(2) reactive power
Qd = (EjIX d ) V cos e > 0
In!
generated owing to the excitation supplied by the additional

d-axis current, Id(sc) = EjlX d , equal to the short-circuit
. ..
current at E j and lagging behind V q (and E j ) by 90 0
The q-axis reactive power, Q'1' is drawn by a machine to
set up the q-ax~s field at V d = V sin e and I q = - V sinelX q'
which leads V d by 900
Qd is positive at a level of excitation such that
E, - V cos e > 0
~>O
and I d is in quadrature lagging with VI} = V cos e. In
contrast, Qd is negative at a level of excitation such that
E, - V cos e < 0
~<O
and I d is in quadrature leading with VI}'
, The q-axis reactive power is negative always.
On a per-unit basis and at R = 0, the reactive power may
be written
Q= V*E*f cos 0 _ (V* cos 0)2 _ (V* sin 0)2
* X*d X 'I,d X'l,q
58-5 Electromagnetic Power and Electromagnetic

Torque of a Synchronous Machine Connected
to an Infinite Bus
In accord with Eq. (56-13), the electromagnetic torque and
electromagnetic power of a salient-pole sunchronous machine
may be written each as a sum of two terms
T em = r., + T aa
(58-13)
P em = TemQ = Paj + P aa
where Paj = QT aj and P aa = QT aa.
As has been explained in Sec. 56-2, T a] results from the
interaction of the armature field with the excitation field,
and T aa is acting on an unexcited, salient-pole rotor in the

field set up by the armature current . Using Eqs . (56-13),
(54-35), (54-37) , (58-7) and (58-8), the components Pa f
and P aa can be expressed in t erms of E f' V and 8 as:
Paf = Ta jQ = InlEfl q = (x :~~v~eR2) [eR+(Xdsin 0- Rcos8)]

(58-14)
Xq-X d .
Paa=TaaQ = - In112R a = ln1l 2 2 . sin 2p
= 1n1 (X q - Xd) l ellq

m 1 V 2 (X q -Xd ) .
= (Xd Xq+R 2)2 [eXq-(Xqcos0+Rsm8)
X [eR+(Xdsin8-Rcos8)] (58-15)
In the above equations, both P af and P aa are functions of
the excitation factor, e = Ef/V. In investigating parallel
operation, it is convenient to write the electromagnetic power
and the electromagnet ic torque each as a sum of two
t erms, one of which (T~m or P~m=QT~m) depends on e,
and the other (T~m or P~m = QT~m) is independent of e.
Then,
(58-16)
where
P~m = QT~m = Paa(=O)
m V2 (Xa-X )
= (~aXq +R 2): (XelsinO-RcosO) (Xqcos0+Rsin0)
(58-17)
P~ m = QT~m = P a ] + Paa- Paa(=O)
(Xel;:~~~ 2)2 [(X~Xd +2R2X d-XqR 2) sin 0
+ R (X qX el -2Xg - R2) cos 8+ eH (xg-R2)] . (58-18)
In Eq. (58-18), T" = P~m/Q is the electromagnetic torque

that would be developed owing to saliency by an un excited
synchronous machine connected to a system with V = V s
at a power angle 8 corresponding to the excited state. In the
same equation , T~ m is the additional electromagnetic
torque that would be developed by an excited machine.
cu. 58 Parallel Operation 337
Where the winding resistance may be neglected, the elec-

tromagnetic power does not differ from the active power in
Eq. (58-10), and its components do not differ from those of
the active power
P em = P, P~m = p', P;m = P"
58-6 Control of Active Power at Constant V and If.

Power Angle Characteristic
The active power generated by a synchronous machine con-
nected to an infinite bus is governed by Text, the external
torque applied to the machine shaft, and its direction. In
the steady state (with the ro-
tor spinning at synchronous
speed), the external torque is
always balanced by an equal ,
electromagnetic torque, Tern
= I (V, Ef> 8), as given by emV
\ p'(r' )
Eq. (58-13) or (58-16), so that \
\
Tern = Text \
\
and the active power is f)
P = TemQ
If P or Tern is varied so that
If remains constant, then (ne-
glecting saturation), E f will
likewise remain constant, and
of all the quantities governing
the operating conditions, only
the power angle 8 will be
varying. Fig. 58-8 Power/angle and
torque/angle curves of a salient-
The plot of P or Tern as a pole synchronous machine (VR =
function of the power angle 8 = 1.0, Ef, R= '1.77, ' X d = 1.0,
for constant V s, Is, and If (in X q = 0.6, PR = cos erR = 0.8)
an unsaturated machine, E f
is constant) is called the power versus power angle or torque
versus power angle characteristic or curve of a synchronous
machine.
The active power versus power-angle characteristic of a
synchronous machine (with R = 0 and neglecting saturation)
appears in Fig. 58-8. When drawn to a different scale, it is
22-0240
at the same time the torque versus power angle characteris-

tic (an electromagnetic torque is meant) . The characteristic
is constructed, using Eq. (58-10) , in which one of the compo-
nents with a peak value
pi = (m1 VE j/X d ) = constant
is proportional to sin El, and the other, with a peak val ue
P" = (m 1 V 2/2) (1/X q - 1/X d ) = cons tant
is proportional to sin 2El. The second com ponent exists only
in a salient-pole machine, when X d =j=. X s: The first com-
pon ent exists only in an excited machine, wh en E, =j=. 0.
In a salient-pole ma chine , th e first component gains in im-
portance with an increase in the ratio of its peak value t o
the peak value of the second component :
2E jX q
n=P '/P" =: V(Xd-Xq) (58-19)
Th o total active power is the sum of the abov e two compo-
nents:
P = pi sin El +
p"sin 2El (58-20)
On taking the derivative with respect to El and equating it
to zero ,
dP/dEl = p i cos El +
2P" cos 2El =
we can see that the power takes on an extremal value wh en
1/ n 2 + 32- n
El m a x = + arc cos 8 (58-21)
wh ere n is as defined by Eq. (58-19) .

At El m a x > 0, the power is a positive maximum, P m as >
> 0. At El m ux < 0, it is a negative max imum, P m ax < 0.
I n th e former case, the m achi ne is delivering active power
to th e system . In the l att er, it is absorbing' activ e power from
the system .
The maximum power th at a synchronous machine can de-
liver to , 01' absorb from, the system before it drops out of
syn chronism is called the pull-out power .
The pu ll-out power of a synchronous machine is given by
P m ax = pi sin El m ax + P" sin 2El m ax
= P' sin El m ax (1 + 2n cos El m us ) (58-22)
Ch, 58 Parallel Operatio n 339
For a nonsalient-pole machine, n = 00, cos B max = 0,,;

Bmax = n /2, sin Bma x = 1, and
P max = P' = InlEfV/X d (58-23)
In a salient-pole machine at I f ,R ' the pull-out power is a
few pel' cent higher than P'.
It follows from Eq . (58-23) that P max increases with an
increase in If and with a decrease in X d (see Sec. 54-5).
Therefore, in designing a synchronous machine , its dimen-
sions are chosen such that the pull-out power is su bstantial-
l y hi gher than the rated active power
P R = SR cos CPR = InlVR (cos CPR) I R
so that the generator could, if and when necessary, to
operate on an overload.
The ratio of the pull-out power at rated terminal voltage
and rated fie ld current to the rated power gives what we
shall call the steady-state power stability ratio (that is, one
for a slowly rising external torque)
k sspc = Pmax,R /P R
It can be found (exactly for a nonsalient-pole generator and
approximately for a salient-pole generator) by the equation
k sspc = Pmax,R /P R = P R /P R
= E'I:f,R /X *d cos CPR (58-24)
where E'!: f,R = Ef,R /V R and X'I:d are in per-unit .
Und er a relevant USSR standard, t he steady-state power
st ability ratio for turbogenerators is set at 1.7 as a minimum.
As with maximum power, the maximum torque that a
synchronous machine can develop before it drops out of
synchronism is called the pull-out torque.
Th e pull-out torqu e of a synchronous machine is propor-
t ional to th e pull-out power
T em , Il1a x = InlEfV/QX d = Pmax/Q (58-25)
At rated excit at ion, th e pull-out torque is
T max.R = In l V R Ef,R /QX d (58-26)
For synchronous motors , it is convenient to use the con-
cept of the torque stability ratio (identical to the steady-state
22 *
-
power stability ratio)

Tem,m ax,R ITem,R = Pmax,RIP R
= E:1:f,R IX*d cos CPR
Under a relevant USSR standard , the torque stability ratio
for synchronous motors at a power factor of 0.9 must be at
least 1.65.
58-1 Stability in Parallel Operation

The power angle 8 (also called as the torque angle or the
displacement angle) is solely a function of Text> the exter-
ual torque (see Fig. 58-8).
Fig. 58-9 Conditions for stability in parallel operation
As is seen hom Fig. 58-9, the external torque may be ba-

.l a nced by the electromagnetic torque, Tern' at two values of
8, namely 81 and 02' which correspond to the intersections of
the constant T ex t line with the torque-vs-power angle chara-
cteristic, T em = f (8), within one cycle of change (in the
Ch, 58 Parallel Operation 341
range - n < 8 < n), In Fig. 58-9, only the part of the
characteristic corresponding to the generator mode of opera-
tion is shown.
At first glance, it may appear that the conditions at points
1 and 2 are identical. However, although Tern and P =
= T em Q = m 1 VI cos <p are the same in either case, there is
a lot of difference in other respects. Because 8 at points 1
and 2 takes on different values (see Fig. 58-9) , the armature
current I at those points will have a different magnitude
and a different phase angle, but its projections on I cos CP.
will be the same. What is more important is that the depar-
ture of 8 from its value at points 1 and 2 produces opposite
effects. An increase in 81 by il8 results in an increase in the
electromagnetic torque, whereas an increase in 8 2 by il8 re-
sults in a decrease in the electromagnetic torque. Also, an
increase in 81 leads to an increase, whereas an increase in
8 2 , to a decrease in the active component of current. At
81 and 8 2 , the emf E f and the current I are shown by dashed
lines; at the angles 8 -+ il8 , by full lines.
Because of the above differences, the operation at point
1 is stable, because the machine is capable of going back to
a stable running (that is, in synchronism with the system)
in spite of chance departures in the associated operating va-
riables. In contrast, the operation at point 2 is unstable,
because the machine is no longer capable of counteracting the
departures in its operating variables.
Let us demonstrate that the operation at point 1 is stable.
Suppose that some chance factors have caused 81 to increase
by il8, whereas Ted, V, is, and If have all remained unchang-
ed. Then the electromagnetic torque will be Tern -+ ilT em,
where
ilT em = (aT em/(8) il8
is the positive change in the electromagnetic torque, ilT em >
> O. Obviously, this upsets the balance of torques that exist-
ed in the steady state and, as follows from the equation of
motion for the rotor,
Te ~t -(Tern -+ ilT em) = JdQ/dt
- ilT ern = JdQ/dt (58-27)
the excess torque, il Tern, which acts against the direction
of rotation, gives rise to a negative acceleration, or decele-
ration, give n by
dWdt = - /1T em/J
As a result , the an gul ar v elo cit y of the rotor decreases
t
Q=Qs+ \ (dQ /d t) d t<Qs
..J
o
The angular ve locity of th e ro to r, wi th E , acting al ong its
q-axis, will likewise decrease, so t h at
<
.
Because V = .- V
. (0 (Os
s rotates at (Os, a de crease in the an-

gula r vel ocity of E f leads t o a gr adual decr ease in 8 = 81 +
/18, until 8 becomes again equ al to 81 an d t h e mach ine
settles to the previous synchronous condition at point I
(a plot of 8 as a fun ction of tim e is sh own in Fi g. 58-9).
Should 81 , by some chance , decr ease by /18, then /1 T em
will be negative and, in accord with Eq . (58-27) , dQ /dl
will be positive . This implies t hat the angular velocity of
the r ot or in the mod el an d E f will increase, and the an gl e
8 = 81 - /18 will k eep risin g un t il it. is ag a in equa l to 8.
torque-vs-power angle characteri stic in th e range < 8 <

< 8 ma x will be st able.

Thus , t he operat ion at poi n t 1 an d at all ot her points on t he
In cont ra st, the operation at point 2 an d at all oth er point s

on the torque versus-power angle curve in the r an ge 8 m a x <
< 8 < rt will be unst abl e. This can be demonstrat ed by
consideri ng the beh aviour of t he gene ra t or wh en, by som e
ch ance factor, 8 2 is incremen t ed by /18. Then ,
/1T em = torem/(8) /18 <
because oT em/o8 < 0, and, in acc or d with Eq . (58-27) ,
dQ/dt > 0. T hi s implies t hat t he ang ula r vel ocity of t he ro-
tor in the model and E f will r ise , and th e an gl e 8 = 8 2 +
+ /18 will keep ri sing and dep arting from t he origin al an gl e
8 2 more and mo r e. Gra phically, th is is shown as a plo t of
8 v ersus time in Fig. 58-9 .
As follows from th e above ana lysis, the operat ion of the
machine is st able if at /18 > 0 t he roto r slows down , that is ,
dWdt < 0, and if at /18 < 0, the rot or picks up speed, that
ts, dWdt;> 0 , . . . . .
On expressing in Eq. (58-27) the change in electromagnetic

torque, /',T em, in terms of the chance change in power angle,
/',8,
dQ/dt = - /',TemlJ = (aT em/a8) /',81J
we can see that dQ/dt and /',8 take opposite signs, and the
operation is stable at those points on the torque-versus-po-
wer-angle characteristic where the partial derivative of
torque with respect to power angle is positive,
i, = er emla8 >
Conversely, the operation will be unstable at those points
where
t, = or em/as <
The partial derivative of electromagnetic torque with respect
to pow er angle for constant V s , (Os, and I f or E, is called the
specific synchronizing torque.
Referring to Eq. (58-10) and taking the partial derivative
with respect to 8, we find that the specific synchronizing
torque is given by
t s = aTem/aS = ap/Q as
= 1n,VEf
Q Xd cos8+m1V 2 (1//X I) - 1/X)
d cos
28
- (58-28)
-T h e corresponding specific synchronizing power is given by
Ps = ap/a8 = Qt s (58-29)

A plot of t s as a function of 8 for the generator mode of
operation appears in Fig. 58-9. As is seen, at < 8 < 8 m ax
t, > 0, and the operation is stable. In contrast, at 8 m ax <
< 8 <:Tt, t, < 0, and the operation is unstable. Sustained
tween 8 =
operation in the generator mode can only take place be-
and S = 8 ma x . The higher the synchronizing
torque, the more stable is the operation, and it is increasing-
ly more difficult for the machine to slip out of synchronism
with the system (or bus) voltage. The best stability exists
when the machine is floating on line, that is, neither deli-
vers nor absorbs power; then i, = t s ma x ' As the electromag-
netic torque or active power increases, the synchronizing
torque decreases. At Tern = Tem .max and P = P ma x , the syn-
chronizing torque is zero , and the machine is no longer cap-
able to &,0 back to stable o:peration of it~ own accord.
The torque-versus-power angle characteristic 'of a synchro-

nous machine is a periodic curve in which we can isolate
stable regions (t s > 0) and unstable regions (t s < 0) for
operation as a generator or a motor (Fig. 58-10). The period
of the curve, e = 2:n;, corresponds to the rotation of the rotor
in space (relative to the stator voltage) by an angle Zstlp .
u,
V B/p b r/p
Fig. 58-to Regions of st able operation on the torque/angle character-

istic
<
The operation in the gen erator mode is stable at < 0
8ma x , and also at 8 + 2:n;k, where k is an integer. The

operation in the motor mode is stable at - 8 ma x < 8 < 0,
and also at 8 + 2:n;k.
As we have seen, sustained operation in the unstable re-
gion of the characteristic (say, at point 2) is impossible. Even
a slight , inadvertent change in e will cause it to decrease pro-
gressively until (as the rotor slows down) the machine moves
in the stable region at point 1. Conversely, a chance increase
in 8 at point 2 will cause it to rise until (as the rotor picks
up speed) the machine moves in the stable region at point 3.
As is seen, 8 3 differs from 81 by 2:n; which corresponds to the
rotation of the rotor relative to the stator voltage by 2:n;/p
(or by two poles, see Fig. 58-10).
The active power of a synchronous machine can be control-
led by varying Text. At Tex t = 0, the machine is operating
at no load, e = 0, and Tern = f (8)=Q. An increase in
T ext in the direction of rotation of the rotor upsets the ha-
.I ance of torques (Text =f= Tern), so that an acceleratio..Q. j.~
produced in accord with Eq. (58-27), the angular velocity of

the rotor exceeds the synchronous angular velocity, E,
begins to rotate faster than V, the power angle 8 begins to
grow and keeps doing so until a synchronous operation in
the generator mode is again obtained at an angle 8 > 0
such that T em =1(8) in Fig. 58-8 becomes equal to Text.
When Text is negative, an angle 8 < 0 is finally reached
where Text = T em, and the machine goes motoring. Thus,
control of active power at constant V s, Is and If (or E f)
is accompanied by a change in the power angle, 8.
588 Reactive Powe r-El Characteristic
of a Synchronous Machine
This refers to a plot of Q as a function of 8, with V s , Is
and If (or, in an unsaturated machine, E f) held constant,
that is under the same conditions as are assumed in plotting
the active power-vs-power
angle characteristic. 11
An example of the reactive
power-vs-power angle charac-
teristic is shown in Fig. 58-11.
It spans the region of stable pa-
rallel operation (that is in syn-
chronism with the system volt-
age). Apart from the total
reactive power, Q, it shows its
components, Q'd' Q"d and o;
explained earlier.
The power angle El is a func-
tion of Text. Considering to-
gether the curves in Fig. 58-8
and Fig. 58-11, we can see how
the reactive power changes
whenever the active power is
changed.
At no load (with the ma- curve Fig. 58-11 Reactive power /angle
of a synchronous ma-
chine floating on line), 8 = 0, chine (VR = '1.0, Ef , R = '1.77,
and the reactive power is a X d = 1.0, X q = 0.6, PR =
maximum, Qmax (in Figs. 58-8 cos CPR = 0.8)
and 58-11, the field current
and voltage are at their rated values),
' Q" Q
Q(6=0)= Qmax= Qd+ d+ . g=..ln 1V (Ef
Xd
- V)
When s, > V, Q max > 0, and reactive power is delivered

to the system. When E , < V, reactive power is dr awn from
the sys t em. Wh en I f = I f R or E , = E f .R and the volt age
is at its rated va lue , E f R > V R , and the ma ximum reac-
tive power is always posi tive:
Qmax _
-
ml VR (Ef. R- VR)
Xd
>
Or , in per-uni t , as in Fi g. 58-11 ,
Q .= Q ./S =V*(E",f - V *)
* ma x ma x R X ,j'd
When T ext > 0, the machine is deliv ering act ive power
to the system. When T ext < 0 , it is absorbing acti ve power
from the system. Posi tive va lues of P correspond t o positive
values of 8; negative va lues of P correspond to negative va -
lu es of 8. As is seen from Figs . 58-8 and 58-11, an increase
in active load and 8 leads to a decrease in reactive power.
This decre ase sol ely dep ends on th e absolute value of act ive
power and e and is t he sa me in both the generato r and motor
mod es of operation:
Q (8) = Q (-e) , P (e) =-P (-e)
Under ra ted operating conditions, when P = P R , cosrp
= cos CPR (= 0. 8) and 8 = eR , the machine delivers ra t ed
re active power , QR = sincpR = 0. 6. At 8 0 (-eo), the
reactiv e power is zero . As act ive power ke eps rising (in ab-
solut e value), the reactive power becom es negative, t ha t is,
the machine absorbs it from the system.
58-9 Control of Reactive Power in Parallel Operation.

"V" Curves
At constant active pow er reactive power, Q, can be control-
led by varying I f. To obtain more react ive power at a con-
stant system (or bus) voltage, the fi eld current must be rais-
ed; to reduce the amount of reac ti ve power, If mus t be
brought down. As a proof , consider wh at happens wh en the
field current is, say, reduced. .
Suppose that initially the machine is operating as a gene-
rator at point 1 on the power angle curve, with Tern = Text>
If = I f l, and 8 = el (Fi g. 58-12) . When I f l is reduced to
I f a, and Ell to E f a, the torque-versus-power angle and reac-
" I ~
tive power-versus-power angle curves become different ,

but 8 retains its original value for some t ime owing to the
iner t ia of the rotor. The electromagnetic torque acting on the
rotor goes down by /),1' em to its value at point 2 on the pOWeI'-
angle curve at I f = I f 3. Now the rotor is subjected to an un-
bal anced t orq ue
I /)'1'em I =1'ext-[1'em-1 /)'1'em 11
which acce lerates the rotor, so that its angula r speed , ro ,
exceeds (Us, which is the velocity of the V phasor, and th e
power angle begins to increase until, augmented by /),8,
Fig , 58-12 Onset of new operating condi tions upon a decrease in

field current (at a cons ta nt external tor que)
it takes on the value 8 3 suc h that the electromagnetic torque

and the applied torque strike a balance aga in , T em = T ext
(a plot of 8 as a fun ction of time appears in the sam e figur e).
The reactive power a t point 3 on the power/angle curve at
8 = 81 + /),8 = 8 3 > 81 and at I f 3 < 1/1 will always be
smaller than it is at point 1 wi th 8 = 81 and If = I f 1. As
is seen from Fig. 58-12, t he reactive power versus power
angle characteristic at I f 3 < I f 1 runs below the characteristic
~ ~~ . .
When Q is controlled by varying If and/or s; with V s

and Text held constant, the active component of current cor-
responding to a given torque remains unchanged
I a = I cos (p = P/m 1 V = T erJ J /m1V = constant
and the armature current
changes only owing to the change in its reactive component

IT = I sin cP = Qhnl V = variable
The plots of armature. current as a function of If for con-
stant power and for constant system (bus) voltage V s ar e
called the "V"-curves of the ma-
I chine . A family of "V"-curves
for several levels of active po-
wer (P = 0, 0.4 and 0.8) appear
in Fig. 58-13 .
"V"-curves are constructed
by means of ph asor/vector dia-
grams with allowance for sa-
turation. Figure 58-14 shows
the phasor/vector diagrams
o 2 used in constructing the "V"-
Fig. 58-13 "V"-curves of a syn - curve of the nonsalient-pole
chronous machine (Xd = X q= machine in Fig. 58-13 for P R
1.2, X a = 0.2, cos (PR = 0.8) = cos CPR =0.8 per unit. Detail-
ed steps are shown for point 2
on the curve where I a = I a R , = cos CPR = 0.8, I T = I a R ,
= sin CPR = 0.6 . At other points on the curve (1, 3, 4, 2',
and 3'), the active component of current remains unchanged,
I a = I e.n - The reactive component is allowed to take on
several values, namely a value of zero at point 1; at points
2, 3 and 4 it is lagging behind V and assumed to be positive,
I,. = I sin (p > 0; at points 2' and 3' it is leading V, and
is assumed to be negative, I,. = I sin rp < O. The locus of
armature current on the complex plane is the armature cur-
rent line which is at right angles to the voltage li ne.
From the construction thus obtained, we can readily find
F f m and If = Ffm/wf corresponding to the armature current
existing at the points of interest. The positions that the tip
of the F t m vector takes up on the 10CiuS are labelled by appro-
priate numerals. Between points 3' and 2, where the magne-

tic circuit is not saturated, the locus of F f m is a straight line.
As the magnetic circuit saturates (between points 2 and 4),
the locus progressively departs from a straight line.
The "V"-curves for P = 0.4 and P = 0 are constructed in
a similar manner, with I a = 0.4 and I a = 0 (in per unit).
If
Fig. 58-14 Construction of a "V"-curve (Xd= X q = 1.2, Xu = 0.2,

cos CPR = 0.8)
The minimum value of current on the "V"-curve (at point 1)

occurs at a field current (cos <p = 1) such that L; = 0 and
there is only the active component remaining, I c =
I cos <p = I, cos <p = 1.
The curve connecting the minima of the curves for various
power levels is called the compounding curve (curve MN in
Fig. 58-13). Observe that minimum current always corres-
ponds to unity power factor, cos (p = 1. At points on the
"V't-curves lying to the right of the minima (say, points 2,3,
and 4), the machine is overexcited as compared with the con-
ditions existing at point 1 where I = I u' Its field current is
If> If(cosrp=l)l and, as is seen from Fig. 58-14, its reactive
current is positive, I; > 0, that is, it is lagging behind the
voltage. Conversely, at points lying to the left of the minima
(say, at points 2' and 3'), the machine is underexcited, Its
field current is If < If(cosrp= 1), and its reactive current is ne-
gative, I; < 0, that is, it is leading the voltage.
At overexcitation, the system acts as an inductive load
for the machine (the reactive current in the armature bucks
the excitation field). At underexcitation, the system acts as
a capacitive load for the machine (the reactive current in
the armature boosts the excitation field). If we look at the
things the other way around, relative to the system with
Vs = - V which is in antiphase with the machine voltage,
an overexcited machine acts as a capacitive load delivering
reactive power, whereas an underexcited machine acts as
an inductive load which absorbs reactive power (see Fig.
58-13).
A decrease in excitation leads to a decrease in the steady-
state stability limit which for a nonsalient-pole machine is
given by P ma x = m1EfV/X d The underexcitation region is
bounded by line AB to the left of which a synchronous ma-
chine is unstable. On line AB (say, at point 3'), P m a x he-
comes equal to the constant P level for which a given "V"-
curve has been constructed.
For the motor mode of operation , "V"-curves are plotted
in a similar manner, except that the active component of
current is drawn in the opposite direction from the voltage,
t, < 0.
58-10 Synchronous Motors
Any synchronous machine is reversible - it can be operated

as a generator and a motor. Nearly always, however, the
makers slate their machines for one particular mode of ope-
ration only, and the nameplate gives the particulars (ra-
ted torque, efficiency, etc.) for that duty.
A synchronous machine intended for operation in both
modes is called a reversible synchronous machine. Such ma-
chines are employed at pumped-storage hydro-electric stations
usually built to equalize the load on fuel-fired stations.
A pumped-storage station has two water reservoirs, upper
and lower. At peak load, water is allowed to flow from the
upper to the lower reservoir, and the reversible synchronous
machines driven by hydraulic (or water-wheel) turbines are
running as generators. When the load on the system is low,
the synchronous machines are operating as motors driving
Ch. 58 Parallel Operati on 351
the pumps which transfer water from the lower to the upper
reservo ir.
Three-phase synchronous motors in the Soviet Union come
in ratings from 20 kW to several tens of megawatts . At speeds
from 100 to 1 000 rpm, mo-
tors usually have a salient-
pole rotor. At hi gher speeds
(1500 and 3 000 rpm), the rotor
is of nonsalient-pole construc-
tion. Depend ing on their rat-
ings, synchronous motors can
be built for voltages from 220
V to 10 kV. The rotational
spee d of a synchronous motor
depends on the supply-line fre -
quency and is in depen dent of
the load applied to the motor
shaft.
Given the same power rating
and rpm, synchronous motors
are identical in construction to
synchronous generators. The
only exception is the design
of their damper (starting)
windings with which synchro-
nous motors can be started as Fig. 58-15 Voltage phasor dia -
induction un its where neces- gram of a salient-pole synchro-
sary . nous machine operating as a
The electromagnetic proces- motor (negl ecting sa turation)
ses occurring in synchronous
motors are described by the same equations, phasor and vec-
tor diagrams as in synchronous generators (see Chap . 55).
As an example, Fig. 58-15 shows the phasor and vector dia-
gram of an overexcited, salient-pole synchronous motor (ne-
glecting saturation) . It differs from the phasor and vector
diagram of a synchronous generator (see Fig . 55-2) only in
that the active component of armature current is drawn in
. . .
the opposite direction from V, and is in line with V s = - V.
As in an overexcited generator, 1/" lags behind V by n/2
an d leads V s by n/2 .
The torque, active and reactive power of a synchronous
moto r are calculated by the equations derived for a synchro-
nous machine con nect ed to an infinite bus (see Chap. 58).

At constan t exc it at ion , va riat ions in the above quantities
with changes in the power angle are assessed from the power-
angle curves for active and reactive power (see Figs. 58-8
and 58-11) , which also cover the region of mo to r operation
( - 8 m il x < 8 < 0). The effect of field current on reactiv e
power in the motor mode of operation can be judged from
the "V"-curves plo tted for the
motor mode of operation. They
ar e in effect exact copies of th e
"V"-curves for a generator (see
Fig. 58-13) .
Th e operating characteris-
tics of a syn chronous motor for
constan t field current chosen
so that on open circuit the
power factor is unity are shown
in Fig. 58-16. As the load is
inc reased, the power factor
o falls off, and the current be-
comes lagging. If the field cur-
Fig. 58-16 Operati ng characte- rent is chosen so that the mo-
ristics of a synchro nous mo tor
t or has the rated power fac tor at
rated load and leading current,
then a reduction in load will cause it to deliver to the line
still more reactive power t han at rated lo ad (cos cP < COScpR) .
Conversely, as th e lo ad increases, the power factor first in-
creases owin g t o a decre ase in the leading reactive current,
then becomes equal to unity, and fin ally drops aga in owing
to the appeara nce of a lagging reactive cur rent .
Auto matic cont rol of voltage as a function of armature
current can pro du ce any desired re act ive power or power fac-
tor.
Synchronous motors are either direct rotating-machine
excitation systems (d ,c. excite rs) or self-excit at ion systems
incorporating static rectifiers (a.c. exci ters with static re-
ctification) , described in detail in Cha p . 52.
Synchronous motors can be started as inducti on motors
(see Sec. 59-4) by means of a short-circuit ed damper (or
starting) winding emb edded in the pol e-face slots.
In nonsalient-pole synchronous motors with a solid rotor
and in salient-pole synchronous motors with solid poles,
induction-motor action at starting occurs due to the interac-
Ch, 58 Parallel Operation 353
tion of the eddy currents in the solid iron parts with the
rotating magnetic field.
The performance of a synchronous motor started as an
induction motor can be stated in terms of the starting torque,
T s, at s = 1, and the pull-in torque which is defined as the
torque at s = 0.05 and designated as T o.o5 Sometimes,
these torques and current are given as fractions of the rated
torque and current in synchronous running (see below) .
As has been noted in Sec . 37-2, the principal dimensions,
weight and cost of a synchronous motor depend on its total
(or apparent) power
S R = PR/TJR cos CPR
and increase with decreasing power factor. As is seen from
Table 58-1, a synchronous motor operating at unity power
factor is by a mere 17 % more expensive than a comparable
squirrel-cage induction motor, whereas at cos cP = 0.8,
it is 44% more expensive . On the other hand, a synchronous
motor operating at unity power factor does not generate re-
active power, that with cos rp = 0.8 leading does generate
a sizeable amount of reactive power equal to about 75 %
of the active power. Unfortunately, at cos cP = 0.8, the ef-
ficiency is lower. Synchronous motors capable of supplying
reactive power make it possible to reduce the reactive power
of unit synchronous generators (those . installed at electric
stations) and of synchronous condensers.
Table 58-1 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motors,
1000 kW, 1000 rpm
Haled power Efficiency, Relative

Motor type factor % cost, %
I
Synchronous 1.0 96.4 117
0.8 leading 95.3 144
0.6 leading 93.7 166
Phase-wound, induction 0.9 lagging 94.9 127
Squirrel-cage, induction 0.9 lagging 95.1 100
The choice of power factor for synchronous generators and

motors is a multifaceted optimization problem in which the
objective is to minimize the manufacturing cost of the ma-
chines and the operating cost of the system. Because the ef-
ficiency increases with the size of a machine, it is advant-
23-0240
ageous to obtain the bulk of reactive power from large syn-

chronous generators, and the remainder from synchronous mo-
tors having relatively lower ratings . Synchronous generators
are usually designed for operation at cos 'P = 0.8, and syn-
chronous motors, at cos cp = 0.9 (at overexcitation).
Whereas they are superior to induction motors in that they
can deliver reactive power to the 'syst em , synchronous mo-
tors are inferior in some other respects. For one thing, they
are more elaborate in des ign, especially as compared with
squirrel-cage in duct ion motors . For another, they are more
expensive, mainly because they need excitation systems for
their oper ation . Also, synchronous motors need sk illed at -
tendance and are less reliable in service . The decision on
wh ich of the two varieties of motor is preferable is ma de in
each particular case from a comparison of the likely alterna-
t ives in terms of manufacturing and operating costs .
At ratings over 100-200 kW, synchronous motors are more
attractive than induction units . At lower ratings, they are
used more seldom, and then mainly in cases where it is im-
portant to maintain their speed at a constant value close to
synchronous.
A special variety of synchronous motors (rated at not over
2 kW), known as reluctance-torque (or simply , reluctance) mo-
tors have no field winding and are excited by reactive current
drawn from the line. Still smaller synchronous motors dr aw
their excitation from permanent magnets (see Sec. 63-6).
Still another variety of synchronous motors are synchronous
ind uction (or auto-synchronous) motors, similar to induction
motors with a wound rotor . From the latter, they differ in
that they have a larger air gap and a larger three-phase se-
condary winding. At starting, the rotor winding of a synchro-
nous in duction motor is close d through a starting rheostat ,
then d.c. is applied to its field structure from an exciter or
a rectifier, and the rotor pulls int o synchronism . There-
after, it is running as a synchronous motor with its power-
factor control features .
Synchronous in duction motors have about the same start-
ing performance as comparable wound-rotor induction mo-
tors. They are int ended for use where a constant rpm is es-
sential and the starting requirements are heavy and call for
a high power factor (large compressors, pumps, and the like) .
Ch, 58 Pa rallel Operation 355
58-11 Synchronous Condensers

Synchronous condensers (also called sy nchronous compens ato rs
or synchrono us capacitors) are synchronous mach ines in te nded
to supply reactive power .
At fuel-fired and hydro-electric stations, this function is
performed by synchronous generators . Synchronous conden-
sers are connecte d across power transmission lines at the re-
ceiving ends, that is , at load points (Fig. 58-17 ), so the rea-
ctive power they su pply nee d not be transmitted over long
Fig. 58-17 Connecti on of synchr ono us condensers in an electric

system :
SC ~s ynchro n o us condenser; G-unit (station) generator; TL-p ower
tra nsm iss ion line
distances . Owin g to reduced energy losses in transmissioni li-

nes and at interventing transformer substations , the reactive
power supplied by synchronous condensers is m ark edl y less
expensive than wh en it comes from synchronous generators.
The mon ey put into the installation and running of synchro-
nous cond ens ers is well spent, if their output accounts for
20 to 30 % of th e total power handled by a given transmis-
sion line. Then, th e synchronous generators set up at sta-
tions need to supply only 60 % of the total line power, and
also active power accounting for 80 % of the t ot al. With an
output breakdown like that, the total power that the genera-
tors are called upon to supply exceeds their active power by
a mere 25 %. Therefore, the need to generate both active and
reactive power does not le ad to a prohibitive increase in
their siz e, weight and cost. (This also goes for the transm is-
sion line, transformers and other equipment at the interven-
ing substations linking the generators to their Ioads.)
The reactive power generated by a synchrono us condenser
connected to an infinite system is a function of its field CUI'-
23*
rent, I f. An overexcited synchronou s condenser, that is

one wi th I f > I f ,Dc (or z, > V s ), is operating with t,
leading V s , and delivers reactive pow er to the system,
Q = VIr> 0
An under ex cited synchronous condenser , that is , one wi th

If< I .t ,oc (or s, < V s ) , is op era ting wi th t, lagging behind
V s (Fig. 58-18) and is absorb-
ing reactive power from the
system,
Pscir
v=-fs Q = VIr < 0
The r ated conditions are as-
sumed to be th ose when a syn-
chronous condenser is deliver-
ing its rated power at overex-
citation and is absorbing from
the system a small amount of
active power needed to sustain
th e losses in the machine (core
Fig. 58-18 Voltage pha sor dia - loss , copper loss , and friction
gr ams of a synchro nous con- an d windage loss). Therefore,
den ser at und erexcitation (Ef < t he armature current of a syn-
< V s ) and overexcitation chronous condenser contains
(Ef > 11s )
both a reactive component,
In and an active component,
I a, which is in ph ase with th e system voltage, V s ' However ,
the active componen t is so small th at t he total armature
current does not practically differ from th e re active compo-
nent ,
I = V I~ + i f. ~ I r
In Fi g. 58-18 , the active component is not even shown as be-
ing very small.
As follows from the foregoin g, a synchronous condenser
connected to an infini te system operates as a synchronous
motor on no load, that is, wi th a zero external torque,
Text = O.
The operating cost s of a synchronous cond enser are directly
proportional to its total act ive power loss, 2:.P. In present-
day large synchronous condensers, the per-unit total active
power loss (with SR = QR taken as the base quantity) does

not exceed 0.013 to 0.016 with hydrogen cooling, and 0.02-
0.24 with air cooling.
Synchronous condensers come in units rated from 10 to
160 mVA at 6.6-15.75 kV, usually with a horizontal shaft.
The choice of speed is a matter of engineering and economic
consideration. As Soviet experience shows, for large synchro-
nous condensers used in electrical systems, the optimal speed
at 50 Hz is anywhere between 750 and 1 000 rpm. Although
the size and weight of two-pole , 3 OOO-rpm synchronous
condensers are minimal, their cost is by 20 % to 25 % higher
because their nonsalient-pole rotors are far more expensive
to manufacture. Also, at 3000 rpm there is an appreciable
increase in the friction and windage loss, and this leads to an
increase in operating costs.
As a rule, synchronous condensers are started as induction
motors (see Sec. 59-4). Since there is no load torque acting
on the shaft, synchronous condensers are relatively easier
to start than loaded synchronous motors.
The shaft of a synchronous condenser need not to transfer
any torque, so it is designed only to resist bending due to
the self-weight of the rotor and the forces of magnetic attrac-
tion (see Sec. 34-3). Given the same total power, the shaft
of a synchronous condenser may be smaller in diameter than
the shaft of a synchronous generator or motor. This leads to
a reduction in the bearing and overall size of condensers.
The shaft of a synchronous condenser is not carried outside,
and its casing is relatively easy to seal. This was the reason
why hydrogen cooling was first applied to synchronous con-
densers, first at a pressure of 0.05 X 105 Pa (gauge), la ter at
1 X 105 to 2 X 105 Pa (gauge). Owing to hydrogen cooling,
electric loading has been raised to an impressive level: from
580 X 1O~ to 620 X 1O~ A m -1 with indirect air cooling, to
800 X 10~ to 1000 X 10~ Aim with indirect hydrogen cool-
ing.
The electromagnetic processes in synchronous condensers
are described by the same equations and diagrams as in syn-
chronous generators (see Chap. 55). Notably, this applies
to the diagrams of a synchronous condenser plotted in
Fig. 58-18, neglecting saturation. The synchronous condenser
is connected to the system with V s via a transformer as shown
in Fig. 58-17. In the diagram, V s is referred to the transformer
Winding connected to the synchronous condenser.
The inductive reactance is th e sum of the inductive react-

ance of the synchronous cond enser and tha t of t he transformer
X sc = X T + X d
where X T is the short-circuit reactance of the tra nsformer,
and X d is total d-axis armature inductive react ance of the
synchronous condenser.
The most important characteristic of a syn chronous con-
denser is its "V"-curve, I = f (If) , plo tted for constant
Vs . It does not differfrom th e "V"-curve of a synchronous ge-
nerator pl otted for P = O. For a synchro nous cond enser , it
is useful to constr uct a famil y of "V"-curves at seve ra l sys te m
volt age levels (V s = V R = constant, V s = 0. 95V R , V s =
1.05 VR , and so on). From su ch a fa mil y of V-curves, one
can readily form an id ea about the response of t he syn chro -
nous cond enser LO changes in Vat constant I t= as V goes down ,
more reactive power is delivered to the system, and vice
versa . In fact, a synchronous cond enser operates . as a
voltage regulat or. In automatic voltage control, the perfor-
mance of a synchronous cond enser as a volt age regula t or im-
proves st ill more .
In choosing the param et ers of a sy nchronous cond enser,
one need no t s trive for a hi gh stead y-stat e power cap ability
(see Sec. 58-7) , as for synch rono us generat ors or moto rs. Th e
fact is that a synchronous condense r operates at act ive power
and power angle equa l to zero very nearly, P ~ 0, and
e ~ O. Hence, the d-ax is armat ure inductive rea ct ance is
chosen so as to supply the required re active power at und er-
excitation . At If = 0, the react ive power a syn chronous
condenser absorbs from the system is
Q* =Q/SR = 1IX'1:d
H ence , its per-unit induction reactance is X 'I:r! _:... 1IQ.
As a rul e, the desired Q'I: is set at 0.4 t o 0.6, so X*d must be
2.5 t o 1.65. . ,
59 Synchronization Methods
59-1 Exact Synchronization
In order to conn ect any synchronous machine in parallel
with another machine or a system, it must be synchronized,
that is, the speed of its rotor must be brought up to synchro-
Ch. 59 Synchronization Methods 359
nous, the field current must be chosen such that E f corres-

ponds to VB' and the machine must be connected in such a
way that, immediately following closure of the switch, it
will be floating on the line, with e = O.
The simplest method is exact synchronization described
in brief in Sec. 58-2. It is equally applicable to any synchro-
nous generator driven by a prime mover, and also to synchro-
nous motors and condensers if they are fitted with an auxilia-
ry motor which can acce-
lerate them to the synch-
ronous speed.
The procedure in exact
synchronization is as follows
(see Fig. 58-2). .
(1) The prime mover or an
auxiliary motor raises the
angular velocity Q of the
incoming generator, G, to
synchronous (or nearly so)
Q ~ (f) s/p = Q s
(2) An automatic synchro-

nizer connects the generator Fig. 59-1 Connection of a genera-
field winding (Fig. 59-1) to tor to a system for parallel opera-
the armature brushes of the tion
exciter (f{ 1 closes and K 2
opens). If is adjusted so that E f (or V = E f) at the
terminals of the disconnected generator is equal to V s (f{
is open).
(3) The speed (f) of the prime mover is increased or decreas-
ed a little in comparison with (f)s (say, by varying the set-
ting of the guide vanes in the turbine as in Fig. 58-6). As a
consequence, the angle a between E f and V s (see Fig. 58-3)
slowly changes
a = aD + (to - (f)s) t
The difference emf, I1E = 2V I cos a/2 I, also changes
with a period
T ex. = 2'Jt/ I (f) - (f)s I
(4) The rate of change of a is slowed down so that the ope-
rator has time to close the contactor (or circuit-breaker)
J( at the instant when I1E ~ O. This can be done if T ex. is
anywhere from 20 to 40 s, and the relative slip of th e rotor

is small
s = I co - Ws I Iw s =
2nlw sT a = T slT a
= from 0.001 t o 0.0005
Here , T s = 2nlw s = 111s is the period of change in system
voltage, equa l to 0.0 2 s at Is = 50 Hz.
(5) Keep in g watch on variations in f':...E as indicat ed by
the voltmeter shown in Fi g. 58-2 , or by a synchronoscope,
the opera tor clos es th e cont acto r when f':...E = 0 and the con-
dition required for exact syn chronization , namely
. ... . ' .
E , :- V= - VB
is satisfied.
If J( is clos ed at exactly such an instant, no current will be
flowing injhe armature winding (I = 0), and the machine
will be-floating on the line. This is how ever, an ide alization.
In pr actice the incoming generator is put on line a split se-
cond too earl y or too late, and f':...E somewhat diff ers from zero.
This gives ri se to small t ransient currents , and a condition
arises in whi ch th e armature current 1 differs from zero. If,
at th e in stant when the circuit-breaker is closed ro > ws ,
the machine will ru n as a generator with a small current
I ~ I R . If co < ws , it will run as a motor.
When a generat or is to be put on line for the first time and
also aft er any changes in connect ions, the above procedure
is exte nded t o in clude a che ck on the ph ase sequence in the
gen. era tor an d the .system. It mu st be the same, because it is
onl y then that f':...E = 0 will be in each phase,
. .
. . . .
f':...E A = +V
Ef A SA = 0
f':...E B =E + "V f B SB = 0
f':...E c fC= E + Vsc 0 =
and th e incoming generator will be connect ed to the line
withou t any dam age t o ' either.
Exact synchron izat ion is carried out with the aid of suit-
able ins trumen ts, such as lamp sy nchronizers , synchrosco-
pes, or synchronoscopes . Th ey ar e described in detail in books
on electr ical instruments and measu rements. The simplest of
the m is the lamp synchronizer which is in effect a combination
of three incandescent lamps (see Fig. 58-2) connected for the
voltage liE across the pairs of contacts (A and As, Band

B s , G and Gs ) of the contactor (or circuit-breaker). The lamps
must be either designed for twice the phase voltage, 2Vs ,
or connected via step-down transformers. As liE varies with
a period T u, the lamp voltage varies between zero and 2Vs ,
and the three lamps go dark or bright at the same time.
For exact synchronization, the contactor must be closed
at the instance when the three lamps are dark*. As an aid,
liE can be monitored by a voltmeter (see Fig. 58-2).
A lamp synchronizer will also indicate the phase sequence.
If the phase sequence of the machine differs from that of
the system, the lamps will "flicker", one going completely
dark, and the other two being half-bright.
59-2 Self-Synchronization. Conditions for Pulling

into Synchronization
Putting an incoming generator on line by exact synchroniza-
tion takes from five to ten minutes, as the contactor (or
circuit breaker) may only be closed at a certain definite an-
gular position of the rotor.
A faster procedure is self-synchronization which does not
call for an exact adjustment of speed and angular position
of the rotor. It can be applied to both synchronous genera-
tors and synchronous motors fitted with an auxiliary accel-
erating motor.
The procedure for self-synchronization is as follows (see
Fig. 59-1).
(1) The prime mover or an auxiliary motor accelerates the
incoming generator to synchronous (or nearly so) speed .
For large machines, the relative slip ought not to exceed
So = I c, - Q I ta,; 0.01 to 0.04
During acceleration, the field winding is disconnected from

the exciter (the field killer is "OFF", K 1 is open, and K 2
is closed), and the armature winding is disconnected from
the system (circuit-breaker K is open).
(2) At Q close to synchronous, the voltage existing across
the armature brushes of the exciter, Vex c , is sufficient to in-
duce (after the automatic synchronizer has been turned on)
* This is true only <if the connection shown in the figure. If the
secondary of one transformer is reverse, the lamps will be brightest
at synchronism and dark at 1800 of phase difference.- Translator's note.
in the gen erator field winding, GFW, a fi eld current,

If ,Dc = Vexc/R f
corr esponding to E f = V s ' The value of V ex c is found by
exp eriment in ad vance, with the ma chine running on no
load .
(3) The automatic synchronizer is act iv at ed ([(1 is closed,
and [(2 is open ed), and the gen eratorfield windin g is conn ect-
ed to the running exciter . Immediately after that, cir-
cuit-break er K is closed, and the arm ature winding is con-
nected to th e system with voltage V s '
(4) This initiates a transient process associated with a
build-up of if in the fie ld winding, and of i in the armature
winding. The interaction of the two currents gives rise to a
periodically varying electromagnetic torque which caus es
(under cert ain con ditions) t he ro tor to pull into synchro-
nism-now it is spinning at synchronous speed, and th e po-
. . .
wer angle e between V = - V s and E, reduces to zero. (It
is assumed t hat the t or que supplied by the prime mover,
T ext, is balanced by the friction/windage torque and the no-
load t orque .)
The tra nsient process terminating in synchr onism is the
superposition of two si mpler transient processes . One of them
occurs after the armature winding has been connected to the
line; the other ta kes pl ace after the field winding ha s been
conn ected t o t he ex citer .
The armature current att ains its m aximum value about a
half-cycle after conne ct ion to the line, that is, in time
t = T s/2 = sc! ffi s
It is sev eral tim es the rated current . In the worst case, it is
given (on a per-unit basis) by
i *max = i lll a xil/ 2IR = 2TT,,,sf(X;'d+ X~,) = 8 to 3
where X :1: d is the per -unit supertransient induct ive react-
ance of the armature winding (usually an ywhere from 0.15
to 0.3; for more detail, r efer to Sec . 73-3), X * is the induct ive
r eact anc e of the step-down tr ansformer an d other syst em
elements interposed between the synchronous machine and the
bu ses, th e bus voltage Vs may be deemed constant (X *
ranges between 0.1 and 0.3, depending on the system arran-
gement) .
Ch, 59 Synchronization Methods 363
The field current is the sum of the current produced by the

exci ter voltage (see Sec. 72-5), and several components induc-
ed in the field winding by variations in its flux linkage
with the armature winding.
Some time after the onset of the transient process (usually
within one to three seconds), the transient currents arising
when the arm ature winding is connected to the line die out
nearly completely, and the
synchronous electromagnetic i,
torque may be expressed in
terms of the rms armature cur-
rent, Is = Vs/Xi, produced by
Vs' and the armature flux
linkage, 1F"j m = V'2Ej / w, due ljr,.
to th e steady-state excita t ion -e-----:'?===;~=~
d
field set up by I j = Vext/R/.
Neglecting saturation and
deeming the slip sufficiently
small (so ~ '1), the synchro-
nous electromagnetic torque
applied to a nonsalient-pole Fig . 59-2 El ectro magnetic to r-
rotor can be found from Eq. running ques wi th th e in coming machi ne
at asynchronous ve-
(58-13) deduced Ior synchro- locity, Ws > 00, Tern . s-synchro-
nous operation. Now, how ever, nou s electr omagnetic torque;
it should be noted that a t non- Tlnd-induction (asyn chronous)
synchronous spe ed , W 0:/= W S , elec tro magne tic torque
Xl = wsL l (because Is = VS/XI
depends on the system frequency), and E f = wll'f /2 (bec aus e
the angular velocity of th e field emf, ro = pQ, is proper-
tional to the an gular velocity of the rotor, Q) . Thus, th e
synchronous electr om agnet ic torque may be written
T s= m;:gj sin 8=(pm/ V2) Isll'fmsin 8 (59-1)
The an gle 8 in Eq. (59-1) m ay be taken as the angle between

i s = VS/jX l and Wf As is seen from the phasor-vector diag-
ram of the mod el in Fi g. 59-2, this an gle does not differ from
the angle between V = - Vs and s;
Should the rotor slip out of synchronism, such as when
ro = ws /(1 - s) < W S , the angle 8 will be varying con-
tinually. With the origin of time chosen as shown in
Fig. 51:J-3, the angle 8 will be defined as

t
8= j (w-w s ) dt
o
and will be negative. As 8 varies, T s will also vary periodi-
cally. A plot of T s as a function of both 8 and t appears in
Fig. 59-3.
The negative electromagnetic torque is acting in the direc-
tion of rotation, so the rotor picks up speed. In contrast,
w the positive electromagnetic
torque tends to slow down it.
I As is seen from the plot, the
angular velocity of the rotor
oscillates about the initial an-
gular velocity, 000= ws(1- so),
going from its maximum,
W m a x = Ws (1 - smax), to its
minimum, Wml n and back.
Tern,s Because at 00 > 000' the angle
8 varies at a lower rate than
it does at 00 < 000' the scale of
8 on the plots appears non-
n uniform (whereas the time scale
is uniform) .
Let us take a closer look at
what happens over the inter-
val of 8 from -n/2 to -n, at
Fig. 59-3 Pulling into synchro- the end of which the rotor ve-
nism I ocity,
. I
00 = Wm a x ' comes c os-
est to synchronous. This change
in 8 by 90! occurs in a time t n / 2 approximately equal to
(59-2)
where
2
WaY = 000 +---;t (wm a x - (00) = Ws (1-s av )
is the average angular velocity over the interval, and
2
Say = So + n (Smax - So)
is the relative slip corresponding to Wav '
Ch, 59 Synchronization Methods 365
The average angular acceleration of the rotor, I dro/dz I av

depends on the average electromagnetic torque over the
same interval , as given by Eq. (59-1)
T em,av= ~ Tern, max=(2pm/n V2)ls'Jf/ m
The average angular acceleration over the interval (as
found from the equation of motion for the rotor) is
I dro/dz lav =" pi dQ/dt lav = r,, av/J (59-3)
where J is the moment of inertia of the rotor and associated
rotating parts .
Over the time interval t n /2 , the above angular accelera-
tion causes the electrical angular velocity of the rotor to in-
crease by (Olmax - roo), so that we may write
t n/ 2 I doi/dz lav = i romax-roo I = I So-Smax I Ols (59-4)
Using Eqs. (59-2), (59-3), and (59-4), we can find Smax
and romax = ros (1 - smax) for the values of So and Olo =
= ros (1 - so) that should exist at the instant when the
incoming generator is put on line. Obviously, the incoming
generator will pull into synchronism if, as the rotor oscil-
lates, its frequency becomes equal to synchronous, so that
romax = ros and Smax = 0 (the dashed ro-curve in Fig.
59-3).
On substituting for t n / 2 and I d oi/dz I a v from Eqs. (59-2)
and (59-3) into Eq. (59-4), and solving it for so, we will see
that the rotor will pull into synchronism (at Ols = romax
and Smax = 0), if the initial slip at the instant of putting on
line is such that
m
--- 6P
So:::::::::-O
(Ds
Y-SRI*s'P'*f
WRJ = P . 6Ols ) 1/ T em, max / PJ
(/0 (59-5)
where
l*s = IslI R = Vs/X1I R
is the per-unit armature current component due to V"
'Jf*/m= 'Jf/nJ\lfR, m= 'Jf/mOlR/VZVR
is the per-unit flux linkage of the field winding, and
roR = 2nfR
is the rated angular velocity of the machine.
Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machin es
Example. Self-synchronization is applied to a hydrogene-

rator for which S R = 25 X 106 VA, COS = CO R = 2nfR =
= 3'14 rad/s, In = 50 Hz, p = 24, V i: s = 1, Xl = 1,
1'1:5 = 1.0, 1f'I:! = 1.0, and J = 9 X 10 5 kg m". The rotor
will pull into synchronism, if the slip at the in st ant of put-
ting on line does not exceed (in absol u te term s) the value
give n by
I So I = 2t.1 --;- 0 G X 31t.1 ..V/ 25 X lOll

314 x 9 X 10 5 =
0. 03~'-'
I ,)
W e have deri ved Eq . (59-5), defining the conditions for

an incom ing generator to pull into synchron ism when it is
pu t on line off-synchronism, without allowing for the induc-
tion elec trom agnet ic torque , Tem .lnd, whi ch appears when
the machine is r unning off-synchronism with a slip s =
= (cos - co)/co s' At co> COs and s < 0, th e induction torque
retards the rotor . At co < COs and s > 0 (as in Fig. 59-2),
i t accelerates the rotor . In either case, it ten ds to close the
gap in speed between the roto r and the fi eld, that is, forc es
the rotor to pull into synchronism.
If we allow for the effect of the induction torque, we shall
see that, with self-synchronization, th e in coming machine
pulls into synchronism a t a somewhat higher initial slip,
so, than that given by Eq . (59-5) . In more detail the effect
of in duct ion torque will be examined in Sec . 59-4 .
A major li m it atio n of self-synchr onization is that it is
accomp anied by h eavy transient currents an d, as a corol -
lary , strong electromagnetic forces wh ich may work loose
or even damage the arm ature winding. It is safe to use onl y
where transient currents are not dangerous to the machine .
In other cases, its use is warranted only if a machine must be
brought int o the system with ~ minimum delay.
59-3 Synchronizing by Frequency Control
As we have learned, for the incom ing machine to pull into

synchronism, it is required that at the ins tant of coming on
li ne the difference, soQs, between the angular velocities of th e
rotor Q = Q s (1 - so ), an d t he rotating field , Q s = co jp,
be sufficiently small. .
eh . 59 Synchronization Methods 361
As follows from Eq . (59-5), the difference, or slip, veloci-

ty must be such that
Qs - Q = soQs = So (ros /p) ~(1I0. 6) V SR~;J*f (59-6)
With self-synchronization, the differenc e in speed is ke pt

small by bringing th e rotor up to synchronous speed , whi ch
is don e b y a synchron izing (acceler ating) servo-mo tor. In
th e course of syn chronization, the fi eld velocity and the
system fr equency do not ch ange and r emain at the ir rated
values.
Wi th fre quency control, no accele rating motor is requir-
ed, because the same effect is achi eved in a di fferent way. At
the beginning of sync hro nization , th e rot or of th e in coming
machine is stationary,
Q = 0, So = (Q so - Q)/Q so = 0
To obtain the desired small diff erence veloci ty, the system
frequency should be r educed from its r at ed va lue to a va lue
f so <f:.. IR necessary for Eq . (59-6) to be satisfied
Q = 2:Itfso :s:::: (110 .6) .. /' SRI*s'l'* f
so p --=:: V ffiRJ
For this to happen , the per-unit system fr equency must be
I 'I: so = I so'II R ~
- (P/06 ) .. ,/SRI*s'l'*f
. ())R V ffiRJ
Example. Given the same gener at or as in th e pr evious

exam ple, fi nd the freque nc y at which th e incomi ng ma -
chi ne will pull into synchronism.
. .../ 25 X 10 6
t *so~ (24 --;- 0.6 X 314) V 314 x 9 x 105 0.0373
Th en,
Iso = lm/R = 0 .0373 X 50 = 1.86 Hz
Afte r the in coming machine has pulled in to syn chronism,
th e system frequen cy is gra duall y r aised to its rated value,
In. Owin g to the syn chronizing to rque, t he ro tor speed is
likewise brought up to its r ated value (with syn chronous ope-
ration m aintained at all in t ermedi a te frequ encies) .
Synchronization by frequency control may be used for
lar ge synchronous motors an d also during t ests.
Synchronization by frequency control calls for a voltage

source whose frequency, is, can be varied between broad li-
mits (from nearly zero to In). To maintain the armature
current component
Is = V S /X 1 = V S /wSL 1
duo to V s , at the va l ue it has at the rated frequency,
I s R = V R/ WR L1
the system voltage must be varied in proportion to the sys-
tem frequency,
This can be achieved, using a servo synchronous generator

accelerated by its prime mover from rest to rated angular
velocity while keeping its
field current unchanged :
Alternatively, this purpose
can be served by a thyris-
tor converter with an ample
output.
The arrangement using
synchronous generator is
shown in Fig . 59-4. The
procedure involves two steps
as follows.
Fig. 5!J-4 Syuc hro n iza tion by Ir e- (1) The servo generator,
quency control : Gs , and the incoming gene -
G- incoming syn chronous mac hine; ra tor , G, are firs t excited
Gs--servo synchr onous gen erator each from an external source
of its own, with I f s and
I f maintained at a constant value throughout the starting
period . The circuit-breaker J( interconnecting the arma-
ture windings of the two machines is then closed, and
the servo genera tor is acce lerated by its prime m over.
When the angular velocity of the field in the incoming gene-
r ator, Q so = 2niso/p , rises t o a value sufficient to give rise
to the required armature current, I s (with allowance for the
ohmic resistances of th e arm atures) , and for th e incoming
generator to pull into synchronism, the incoming generator
sets in motion, an d does so in s tep with the system. If the
servo generator and the incoming generator differ in the num-
Ch, 59 Synchronization Methods 36fl
bel' of pol e pairs , the incoming genera tor will set in motion at
the velocity of the servo generator equal to Q soplp s'
(2) After Gs comes up to its rated angular velocity, Q s,R =
wRlps, and to its rated frequency, is = iR = Qs,RPs/2n ,
the incoming generat or , held in synchronism by elect ric al
conpling between the rotors, comes up to its rated velocity,
QR = wRlp .
594 Induction Starting
Induction starting of a synchronous machine does not call

for a servo mo tor t o bring up t he in coming machin e t o a ve-
locity close to synchronous . This is done owing to the induc-
tion to rque, T In d t hat is develop ed wh en the arma t ur e wind-
i
ing of the incoming machine is connected to th e system

(Fig. 59-1).
When the incoming ma chine is conn ect ed t o th e system
with V s and i s, th e cur rent s t ra versing the armat ur e winding
set up a ma gnetic fi eld wh ich rotates at Q s ' Relative t o the
rotor , this field travels at Q s - Q = sQ s (where Q is the
mechani cal angul ar velocity of the rotor and s is the rela -
tive slip) and induces currents at frequenc y sis in the fi eld
winding closed through a damping resisto r , R d , and in the
damp er winding. It is the interaction of these currents with
the rot at ing field th at produces T i n d .
The great er proportion of T In d is produced by the currents
induced in the damp er winding. Th erefore, its resistance
and reactance are chosen so as to supply a suff icient induction
torque at any st age of starting. In turn , the resistanc e an d
reactance of the damper winding depend on the number, di-
mensions and materi al of the damp er bar . .
In a synchronous motor, the dimensions of the damper
winding motor are governe d by the extern al (load) torque,
T ext; that must be overcome at starting. In any case, the
damp er winding mu st be proportioned so that it s t emp era:'
ture at the end of starting does not rise abov e 250C.
A sufficiently large T Iud is best supplied by series-shunt
damper winding in which all the bars ar e connected to short-
circuit ing rings at the pol e fac es (see Fig. 51-9). The rings
are formed by the conducting segments interconnecting the
bars of each pol e, and the flexible jumpers interconnecting
the segments of ad jacent poles.
2', - 024 0
The in du ction t orque varies with slip in about the same

manner as in a squirrel-cage in duction motor (see Sec .
43-3) .
The theory of the induction ma chine m ay he extend ed to
the induction runn in g of a synchronous m achine on replacing
the two short-circuited wind in gs on its rotor (field and dam-
per) with one short-circuited winding with an equivalent
re sistance R; an d an equ ivalent reactance X; (for more de-
tail , refe r to Sec. 73-3). Th en the induction torque in a syn-
ch ron ous m achin e may approxima tely b e found, ne gl ec tin g
the sin gl e-axis effect (see Sec.
43-3) :
7lnd
As applied to the induct ion

I Text I r unning of a synchronous ma -
chine , the notation us ed is as
o Soo.05 smax 0.5 follows : Inl = In is the numb er
of armatu re pha ses , VI = V s
Fig. 59-5 Torques at induction is th e system (bu s) v ol tage,
(asynchronous) starting
Q I = Q s is the mechan ical
angular velocity of the fie ld,
R I is the resistance per armature ph ase, R ~ is th e equiva-
lent resistance of the damp er and fi eld windin gs ref erred
to the armature winding, X sc = Xl + X: is the indu-
ctive reactance of the armature windin g ats = 1, where
Xl = X o is the le akage in du ctive reactance of the arma-
ture wind ing, and X;
is the equivalent inductive react-
ance of the fie ld and damper windings referred to the ar-
mature winding.
An approximate plot of the induction torque of a synch-
ronous machine as a function of slip , T ln rl = f (s), appears
in Fig. 59-5.
As the motor just changes from rest to rotation, when
s = 1, the rotor is acted upon by wh at is known as the
breakaway torque, T h . At full speed, when t h e sli p is a maxi-
mum , Sm ax, there ap pe ars th e maximum inducti on torque,
T tnd . m ax- As a rule, the nameplate of a syn ch ronous motor
also gives the t orque at s = 0 .05, re ferred to as t he p u ll-in
torque. Since T in r! = V~, it is usual to state t h e voltage at
wh ich r; Tln ct,m ax, an d T oo5 were determined .
Ordinarily, the characteristic induction torques of a syn-

chronous machine are stated as fractions of the rated syn-
chronous torque, namely
TblTem,R, Tlnd,mnxlTem,R , T o,o51Tem,R
where
T em,R = SR'YJRCOS fpR/QR
The single-phase field winding also contributes to the in-

duction torque. The currents induced in it set up a pulsating
("breathing") field acting along the cl-axis, rather than a ro-
tating field like that established by the polyphase damper
winding. Because of this, the induction torque has a "dip"
at s = 0.5 which might have an adverse effect on the start-
ing performance of the motor. This effect is minimized by
inserting a damping resistor, R d , in the field circuit. As is
seen from Fig. 59-5, the starting characteristic at R d ~
~ 5R I =1= 0 is substantially better than at R d = 0 (see
Sec. 46-2).
A~ starting, the field winding must he closed through an
exciter or a damping resistor. The reason for this is as follows.
When the machine is just changing from rest to rotation,
s ~ 1 and sQs = Qs, the voltage existing across the open-
circuited field winding is
V ~= (wflqu s ) Vp h
where V p h is the phase voltage of the armature winding,
wf is the number of turns pel' pole in the field winding, q
is the number of armature slots per pole, and Us is the num-
ber of winding conductors per slot. The voltage existing across
the open-circuited field may be three to five times the phase
voltage, rising to 20-50 kV which is about a hundred times
the rated voltage for which the winding insulation is design-
ed . This would damage field insulation and even knock the
machine out of operation. By short-circuiting the field wind-
ing, the induced voltage is reduced to zero. When the field
winding is closed through R d ~ 5R f , it vanishes almost
completely or does not exceed the rated voltage of the field
winding .
Induction starting of a synchronous motor proceeds in the
same manner as the starting of an induction motor discussed
in Part 4. At starting, the load (external) torque, Text.
on the motor shaft (see Fig. 59-5) must be smaller than
T tnd- Then, as follows from the equation of motion, the motor
24*
will come up to speed with an acceleration given by

dQ/dt = (Tinct - Text)I J
where J is the moment of inertia of the rotating parts, and
the mechanical angular veloc ity can be brought up to
Q o = Q s (1 - so)
corres pond ing to a ba lance between Tinct and I Text I .
If the pu ll -in torque of the motor is sufficiently high, and
So at T ind = I Text! satisfies Eq . (59-5), then, upon closure
of the automatic synchronizer and the appearance of current
in the field winding, the motor will pull in to synchronism.
(In starting on load, when Text =1= 0, So must be somewhat
smaller than is given by Eq. (59-5).) If the load torque is
high, starting must be done at V s = VR' The initial start-
ing current (that is, the steady-state armature current at
s = 1) in the circ umstances is fairly heavy, so that its ratio
to rated armature current , I st artlIR , ranges from 3: 1 to
5:1. Here, I R = SR/3V s is the ra ted armature current at
synchronism .
The currents in t he damper (starting) winding are as hea-
vy. If the starting conditions are especially severe, the tem-
perature of the dam per winding might rise to above 250C.
To keep its temperature within safe limits, V s must be held
below V R' This is done by switching in a reactor 01' an auto-
transformer . Unfortunately, this also reduces the induction
torque as it is propor t ional to the system (bus) voltage squar-
ed, so t he motor takes more time to start .
At rated voltage , a synchronous motor is induction-start-
ed, usi ng the arrangement in Fig. 59-1. The pro cedur e is as
follows.
(1) Before the armature wind ing is connected to the supply
li ne, the field winding is disconnected from the exciter
([(1 is opened) and connected across the damping resistor,
R d tK 2 is close d) . As already explained, this is done by open-
ing the automatic synchronizer which combines [(1 and
[(2 '
(2) Contactor (or circuit-breaker) J( is closed to connect the
armature winding to the supply li ne with T1 s . The resultant
indu ctio n torque brings the motor up t o so' Depending on the
power rating and angular velocity of the mo tor, th is may take
from a few secon ds to several minutes. At Q o = Qs (1-so),
t he exciter is self-excited, an d Vexc appears acr oss its
terminals. (Prior to starting, the adjusting rheostat AR

is set so that Vex c is sufficient for the desired If = Vexc/Rf
t o be obtained.)
(3) At Qo, the automatic synchronizer operates and con-
nects the field winding to the exciter, Exc, supplying Vex c '
In doing so, /(1 closes first an d /(2 opens second. Otherwise,
th e field winding would be left open-circuited (even though
for an instant) and damaged. As with self-synchronization"
the field current builds up and th e motor pulls into synchro-
nism (if So is sufficiently small). In this, the motor is aided
by induction torque .
(4) In starting at load, Vex c is pre-adjusted so that the
motor will be brought up to synchronism at the desired
power factor. In starting at no load (Text ~ 0), the motor is
first brought up to synchronism, then the desired Text is set,
and the field current is ad j ust ed so that the machine will
generate the required rea ctive power.
59-5 Induction Running of Synchronous Mach ines.

Resynchronization
As we have learned, except salient-pole machines with solid-
iron poles, nearly all synchronous machines (motors, con-
densers and, especially, large generators) have damper wind-
ings (see Sec. 51-3).
Damper windings give the synchronous machines quite a
number of valuable properties. Most important among them is
that the damper winding enables the machine to keep run-
ning even if it "swings" out of synchronism. Also, any tran-
sients caused by a change in voltage, field current or exter-
nal torque give a more favourable response owing to the tran-
sient currents that are in duced in the damper bars.
Importantly , induction torque in a synchronous machine
is also produced due to a short-duration departure of the
angular velocity of the rotor from synchronous. This may,
for example, occur when there is a change in the operating
conditions and, as a result , a change in the power (or torque)
angle. In the circumstances, induction torque enables the
machine to slip back to synchronism (see Sec. 50-1) more gra-
dually.
A swing out of synchronism may be caused by a sudden
fall in the system voltage or fi eld cur r en t , or by a sudden
increase in the load torq:ue beyond the pull-out torque,
374- P art Five. Synchronous Machines
T s,m ax.' When this happens, the angular speed of t he machin e

exceeds synchronous if it has been r unn ing as a gener a tor ,
or falls below syn chronou s, if it ha s been running as a moto r.
As the difference in sp eed betw een t he rotor and the fi eld
in creases, the r elative sli p increases too . This leads t o a gr a-
dual build-up in induction torque until it balances the exter-
na l (load) t orque at a certa in definite va lue of sli p .
How a syn chro nous m achi ne will r un up on a fall out of
synchronism depends on i ts induction to rque cha ra cter istic
which can appr ox ima tely be found from Eq. (59-7) . In per-
unit, the maximum induction torque (see Sec . 43-3) is gi-
ven by
T'I:in d. max. = TIn d, ma x /TB
~ V2 'I'S/2X ,,:sc ~ from 1. 5 to 3.0
wher e T B = SR/Q s is the synchronous torque taken as th e
base qu an tity, and X ,,:sc is the short -cir cuit reactanc e at
S = 1:
X ,,:sc ~ (X :,d +- X ;;,q)/2 = from 0.15 to 0.3

The maximum induction torque is 2 t o 3.5 t imes th e ex-
ternal t or que und er rated sy nch ronous condit ions
T,,:ex t = T ext/TB = P 'I',R ~ cos Cj)n
= from 0.8 to 0.9
Becau se of this, it often happens that
T'I:lnd ,m ax > T'I: ex t
even wh en th e system (bus) voltage is reduced by a sizeable
amount ( V.~ s < 1), so, upo n a fa ll ou t of synch ronism , t he
m achine kee ps runni ng on induc tion to r que at a sma ll slip ,
o < S < Smax , where
Sm a x = R;'2/ X'I'SC
is the slip corr espo nding to T InrL ma x (see Fi g. 59-5). A t
S < Smax. 1, the induction torqu e equation (59-7) call
mark edl y be simplified
T In d = t IndS (59-8)
where tind = m V~/Q sR.: is a constant, an d indu cti on to rq ue
is proportional t o sli p . -O n se t ti ng T i n d = T ex l > it is a n easy
matter to fi nd from ECJ . (59-8) the slip required for asynchro-
Ch. 5!J Syn ch roniz ation Methods 37 5
nous running t o t ake place

s = T ext/t llJ d = R;r. 2 cos fPR/V,~ s
This sli p is very small, being a few thou sandths in large
machi nes .
As we have seen, afte r it has dropp ed out of synchron ism ,
a synchronous machine will in many cases keep running as an
induction machin e. Obv iously, this is an a bnorm al condition
whi ch requires appropriate steps t o be taken .
To avoid likely damage, the firs t t h ing to do is t o turn off
excitation. This is done by disabling the au tom atic syn-
chronizer and closin g the fi eld winding through a damping
resistor. This will cance l th e alternating sy nc hronous to rque
that caus es oscillations in th e ang ular velocity and ar -
mature current. Upon removal of exc it at ion , th e m achin e
will run on induction t orque at a slip s , delivering th e sam e
act ive pow er as before. H owever , inst ead of deli vering reac-
tiv e power to the sys t em , the machin e will dr aw it from th e
system (because the reactive component of cur r en t lags behind
the system voltage as in an induction m ach ine).
For h ow lon g induction runn ing ma y be toler ated dep ends
on the losses dissipated in th e short-circuited field and dam-
per windings:
P C U 2. = sP em ~ sP
I t must be found in advance by thermal calculations . As a
rule, sustained induction running can be perm i tted at reduc-
ed power output (for turbogener at ors, at 50 t o 70 % of
rated pow er) .
After the caus e of falling out of synchroni sm h as been clear-
ed , the machine must aga in be sy nch ron ized . This pro cedure
is called resunchronizat ion , In a way, it is not unlik e self-
sy nchron izat ion . If t he sli p in induction running is substan-
tially sm aller than t he v alue of So gi ven by Eq . (59-5) and
required for a mac hi ne to pull in to synch ronism, resynch ro-
niz ation can be effecte d without r em ovi ng lo ad fro m the m a-
chine that is, wi thout r educing T ex t . It will suffice to connect
the field windin g to an exciter . This will cau se th e field cur-
rent to ri se, and the machi ne will pull in to synchronism .
If th e sli p in ind uction ru nn ing excee ds So, t he load on the
machin e should fir st be somew ha t re duced by brin gin g down
T ex t. This done, the au tom at ic sy nchr on izer may be activa t-
ed for res ynchronizati on as alrea dy e xplained .
376 Part Five, Synchronous Machines
60 Instability of Synchronous
Machines in Parallel Operation
60-1 Free Oscillations of the Rotor Following
a Sudden Change in External Torque
When a m achine is oper ating in parallel with anothe r ma-
chine or a sys t em, for each sy nchrono us steady st at e ther e is a
certa in definite an gul ar position t ha t t he r otor t akes up r ela-
tive t o the r otating fi eld . This positi on is described in ter ms
of t he lo ad (torque or di sp lacem ent) angle, 8, wh ich is the
. ,
sa me as th e ang le between "lff m and "lf v m (see Fi g. 59-2).
At constant V s and I f , eac h v alue of T ext corresp ond s to a
certain definit e v alue of 8 on the power- an gl e cha rac teristic
of th e m achine (see Sec. 58-6). An y cha nge in t he qu antities
that gov ern the power an gl e inevitably leads to a change in
the position of the rotor r elative to the rotating fi eld. The
response of 8 to such cha nges is usu ally oscillatory. Oscilla-
tions of 8 about its new va lue are acco mpan ied by oscilla-
t ions in the angu lar velo city of t he rotor, arm ature current ,
electromagnet ic to rque, and active and reactive power .
We sha ll limit ou r di scussion to small oscillations of th e
rotor. Th en L\8 , the d evi ations of 8 fro m its initi al va l ue,
8 0 , will be so small that
sin a ~ a = 8 - 8 0
where a desi gnates th e deviation, L\8.
Suppose that initially (at t < 0), the m achine is operating
as a genera t or at V s , T ex t .u balanced by T ern . u- synchronous
velocity (Os , and 8 = 8 0 , Then th e arma tur e cur re nt * will
be
. . .
1 0 = E, - V/ jX 1
In Fi g. 60-'1, the positions of the ro t or aud all the ph asors
and vectors in vol ved are sho wn at t ~ 0 by full li nes , and on
th e power-an gle cha ra cteristic the initial operating concli-
tions correspond to poin t 1 . At t = 0 , the ext ern al torqu e
suddenly increases hy L\ T ext to becom e
T ex t = T ex t , 0 + L\ T ex t
:I< 1'4e curren t eltuatioll is wr lt ten for a llo~saliellt-pole machine.

Ch. 60 In stability in Parall el Opera ti on 377
Th is upsets the bal ance of torques

T ext - T e m , O = !1Text
and the rotor picks up spee d wi th an accelera tion
(dQ /dt)o = !1T ext/ J
where J is the moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the
machine .
t: =((8)
"!~XI./Tem,o
8
Fig . 60-1 Tr ansien t r esponse to a sma ll change in 1'ex t
The rotor will keep pi cki ng u p speed (with a graduall y

decreasing acceleration) and the power angle, 8 = 8 0 a +
will increase until the in creasing electromagnet ic torque,
T ern = T em ,o +
!1Tem, balances the external torque
T em = T ext ,O !1Text, +
at point 2 on the power- angl e curve (see Fig. 60-1).
Despite the equality of to rques , h owever , the conditions at
point 2 corresponding to 8 = 8 0 + a oo (where a oo is the stea-
dy-state ch ange of angle) wiII not settle to their steady-state
. .
values at once , because the rotor velocity to exceeds the syn-
.
chronous velocity, ws , at which V = - Vs and 1Jf y rotate
(Fig . 60-2 ). The angle 8 = 8 0 +
a wiII keep increasing
(a> a oo ) , but with !1T em exceeding !1 T ext. Because of th is
an
, '. electromagnetic
_. , . , -' '. .. , to rque, !1T
. . counter " ' em
' ,.. -
:
!1T
- ext
/ .. .
, will
. .
be act ing on the r otor giv ing ri se to a decel er ation

dQ/dt = (L\1' ext - L\ 1'em)/J
The rotor will slow down until it slips back to synchronous
velocity, ro = (i)s . But again, this will not be a steady state,
because ex > exec" that is, the electromagnetic torque will
exceed the external to rq ue, and the machine will be decele-
rated still more (see Fig. 60-2) . As is seen from Figs. 60-1
Fig . 60-2 Oscillatory transient response of 8, s, dw!dt, T em , I, and

P to a small change in Text
and 60-2, this causes oscillations in 0 = 0 0 +

ex, in T e lll ,
dco/dz, and in co. (Plots of ex and L\1'e m as functions of time
are shown in circles in Fig. 60-1.) This is accompanied by an
interchange of ene rgy between the rotating rotor and the
magnetic fie ld . If there were no losses of ene rgy , the oscil-
lations would go on undamped . However, some energy is
inevitably lost as heat in the rotor circuits as they cut the
magnetic field . Because of this, the oscillations gradually
decay as shown in Fig. 60-2 .
For a mat hemat ical description of ro tor osc illations, all
the necessary quan tities m ust be expressed in terms uf the
initial power angle 0 0 and Us small deviration , L\0 = 0,.
Ch. 60 Instability in Parallel Operation 3U)
('1) The angle S between E j , rotating in th e mod el at W ,

. .
an d V = - V s , ro tating at Ws = 2n!s, is t he same (see
Fig. 60-1) as the angle between the d-a xis of the 1'01.01' (or
. .
1J'j m) an d th e axis of the res ultant fie ld (or 1Jf v m ),
S = So + flS = So + a
Alternative ly, the angle S may be interpreted as the angle
between th e unlike magnetic poles , S v and N j (see Fi g. 60-1),
. .
r esp ectively r epr esenting 1Jf v m and 1Y jm .
(2) The electrical ang ular ve locity of t he r ot or (or the me-
chanical an gular velocity of the rotor in a two-pole model)
is t he sum of the sy nchronous angula r velocity Ws and all
addi tiona l ang ular veloc i ty associ ated wi th the deviation of
the pow er angle from its initial value , So:
co = Ws + dS/d t = Ws + da/dt
The mechanical angular velo city of th e ro tor is
Q = w/p = Q s +
(da/dt) /p
(3) Th e slip of the ro tor r elative t o the resultant field is
s = (Qs - Q)/Q s = - (da/dt) / Ws
(4) The accelera t ion of the rotor is
dQ/dt = (d 2a /dt 2) /p
(5) The synchronous electromagnetic torque act ing on the
rotor at 0 = 8 0 +
a (see Fig. 60-1) is
= T em,o + flT em = T em ,o + tsa
T em
where T e m .o = ! (0 0 ) = electrom agnetic t orque at fl = So
on the power- angle ch ara cteris tic
i, = (oT em/oS)O=oo = spe cifi c synchronizing torque at
S = 8 0 (see Sec. 58-7).
For a nonsalient-pole machine
T em.o = m VE j sin8 o/ X 1 Q s
t , = m VEj cos 00/ X1QS
(6) Th e induction t or que produced b y t he interaction of
th e currents in the damp er and f ield windin gs wi th the r esul-
ta nt fi eld can be found a I. sma ll valu es of sli p from Eq ,
(5HI)
wh ere t jnd = 1n V2/Q sR~ , and D = t jnd/W s is the damping

factor whi ch is inversely proportion al to the referred r esist-
an ce of the damp er and fi eld win dings , R:.
The induct ion
elec troma gnet ic torque is assum ed to be positive wh en it
is act ing with the direction of r ot ation.
Now we can write th e equa t ion of mo tion for sm all oscil-
lations of the ro tor caused by a sudden change in external
torqu e, /lT ex t ,
Tex t - T ern + T lnd = JdQ/dt~
On expre ssing the to rques in t erm s of a and its deriva-
tives, da /dt and c12a /dt 2 , we get a linear inhomogeneous se-
cond-order differential equ ation with constant coefficients
d 2a/dt 2+ (Dp /J) (da/dt) +
(tsp/J) a = (p/J)/lT ex t (60-1)
fro m which we ca n read ily fin d t he an gl e a . The solution of
Eq. (60-1) is the sum of a complementary and a particular
solut ion. The comple me nt ary solution of
c12a /dt 2 +
(Dp/J) (da /dt) +
(tsp/J) a = 0
is a for ce-fr ee or tran si ent t erm . The particul ar solution is
a stead y-state t erm, th at is , one at t = 00 .
The complementary part m ay be wr itten
a = C1 exp (r 1t) + C2 exp (r 2t)
where C1 and C2 are con stants defi nabl e from th e initial
condit ions , and 1'1 and 1'2 are t he roots
1'1 , 2= -(Dp/2J) + V (Dp/2J)2 - t spl.T
of th e cha racteris tic equ ation
1'2 + (Dp/J)r + t. pl J = 0
I n the und erd amp ed case, wh en
(Dp/2J)2~ tsp/.T
and th e induction t orque is a sma ll fraction of the syn chronou s
torque, the roots of the ch aract eristic equat ion are com-
pl ex con juga tes
r l.2 = -BD+ jw o
the real part of whi ch
~p = Dp/2J
Ch. 60 Instability in Parallel Operation 381
is the decay factor, and the coefficient of the imaginary part

wo= tsp/! V
is the an gular frequency of free oscillations of the rotor in
the magnetic fi eld.
W ith such roo ts, the complementary solution may be
simplified still more
a = Co exp (-B D) cos (wot <Po) +
wh ere Co and <P o ar e constan ts t o be found .
part (at t = oo}, when da /dt =

steady -state change of an gl e

The particular solution of Eq. (60-1), or the steady-state
and d Za/dt 2 = 0, is the
a<t= oo) = a "" = 6.T ext /ts

Th e complet e solution of Eq. (60-1) is the sum of the two
above solutions
a = Co exp (-BDt) cos (wot + <P o) + a ""
The constan t s Co and <Po in th e complete solution are found
from the initial conditions:
(1) at t = 0, ro = W s and s = 0, so da/dt = 0. Also in
th e un derd am ped case, BD ~ W o ' and
(da /dt) t=o ~ [ - Cowo exp (- BDt) sin (wot (Po)]t=o =+
Hence, <Po = 0;
(2) at t = 0, 0 = 8 0 and a = 0. Recalling that (Po = 0,
we get
a = Co cos (Po + a "" = Co + a "" =
H ence, Co = -a ""
Finally, the devia tion of the pow er angle 8 in the case of
force-fre e, or trans ient, oscillations can be written
a = a "" [1- exp (- BDt) cos wot]
Th e wav eform of oscillation in the angle 0 = 8 0 a +
is shown in Fig. 60-2 which also gives the d8/dt and dZ0/dtZ
curves.
As foll ows from th e equation for a, t h e rotor is oscillating
in th e resultant ma gnetic field about its stea dy-state posi-
tion, 8 = 00 +
a"" . In the underdamped case, forc e-fr ee
or transi ent oscillations occur at th e frequency given by
w = 2n/T o= V tspl J (60-2)
As follows from Eq. (60-2) , the frequency is inversely pro-

portional to the square root of the moment of inertia and
directly proportional to t he squar e root of the specific syn-
chronizing t orque . For large machines, To is anywh ere from
a spli t second to several seconds . Th e frequency of oscilla-
tion is a ma ximum at no load, when 8 0 = 0 and t s = ts ,mnx'
As the load is in creased , the frequ ency of oscillation decrea-
ses. In approaching the steady-stat e stability limit , 80
t end s to 8m ax ,t s tends to zero , and so does the fr equ ency of
oscillation .
At the onset of the transient response, the amplitude of
an gle oscillations is CG = 11 T ex t/ts' With time th e oscilla-
00
tions gradually coll apse with a decay factor ~n = Dp /2J

and with a decay (or transient) tim e constant
T = 1 /~n = 2JIDp
At time Tn, it reduces to 1/e of its original value . At time
2T ii it decays to 1/e2 of its original value, and so on.
Th e oscillations of 8 are accompan ied by torque oscilla-
tions wi th an initial peak value 11 T e m , O = tsCG and activ e-00 ,
pow er oscillations with an initial peak value I1P0 =

= Q s l1 T ern .o = QstsCG oo
As is seen from Fig. 60-1 , changes in the angular posi Lion
of th e rotor are accompanied by oscillations in the rms va lue
. . .
and ph ase of current . Using th e volta ge (E j , ll, jXII) tri-
angle, we can readily express X II ill t erms of E j , ll, and 8,
and find th e rms value of current
1= 1/ E j+ V2 _ 2VEj cos6
Xl
the change in the rms cur rent
E jV sin 60
CG = CG oo
x, 1/ Ey+ V 2- 2VEj cos 60
and th e initial amplitude of oscillation of the rms current

1110 = (aIla8)o=ooCG oo
In the overdamped case,
(Dp/2J)2> tsp/J
Ch. 60 In stability in Parallel Operation 383
the characteristic equ ation has real roots, and the machine
goes to a new steady state at 8 eo = 8 0 + Cleo aperiodi-
cally.
60-2 Forced Oscillations of the Rotor

If the prime mover of a synchronous generator is a recip-
rocating engine , the external torque will contain a constant
(zero-frequency) terms an d several harmonics
Tex t = Text, 0 + l; ~= l T ext . v cos w"t
where Text." is the amplitude of the vth-harmonic external
torqu e, and w" is its angular frequency .
Suppose th at T ex t. o corresponds to 8 0 on the torque-an gle
cha rac teri stic (see Fig. 60-1) . Then, the vth-harmonic torque
will cause 8 to oscillate about its me an value , 8 0 , If
T ext, ,, ~ T ex t.o - W P may write 8 as
(3 = 8 0 + a
where Cl is a small ch ange in (3 due to th e vth-harmon ic

torqu e. This sm all change can he found from the equ at ion of
motion for the rotor , wri tten by analogy with Eq. (60-1):
cPa/dt 2 + (Dp IJ) (dcc/dz) + (tspIJ)Cl = (pi.!) Text."cosw"t
Th e particular solution of the above equation for rz , assum-
ing a s t.eady state (t = (0), m ay be written
Cl = Clma x cos (w"t - rp,,) (60-3)
wh ere
o: _ Te;t,,,
ma x - w" If D2+(w"J/ p- 1s/w ,,)2
is th o amplitude of the vth-h ar moni c oscillation or 8, and
'Pv = arct an w"J/p-t~/w"
D
is its phase.
To . begin with , let us investigate the oscillations of t he
rot or wh en a synchronous gene ra tor is servin g an isolated
load (as shown in th e diagram of Fig. 58-5) . The vth-harmo-
nic torque causes the rotor to oscillate about its m ean elec-
trical angular synchronous velocity Ws = Q sP. Because the
load voltage, V, has the sam e electrical frequency ro as
Ej , the angle e between them and the synchronous electro-

magnetic torque, Tern' remain unchanged. Tern balances the
constant term of the external torque, Tern = T ext.n- As
the rotor departs by an angle a from the axis rotating at
synchronous velocity, no change occurs in the electromagne-
tic torque,
I1T em = f (a) = a
Formally, this enables us to deem the specific synchronizing
torque in the general expression for the change of torque
equal to zero, t s = O.
Assuming at the same time (for simplicity) that the amount
of damping is small (the underdamped case), D = 0, and
using Eq. (60-3), we find that the deviation in the power angle
of a synchronous generator serving an isolated load, caus-
ed by the vth-harmonic torque is
a = a omax cos (ffivt - CJlv) (60-4)
where
a omax = Text.vP/ffi~J
is the amplitude of the vth harmonic of oscillation of the
power angle in operation into an isolated load, and
CJlv = + rr,/2
is its phase.
Recalling that the electrical angular velocity of the rotor
is
ffi = ffis + da/dt
it is an easy matter to find the speed regulation
'" = Cilmax-Cilmln
1':
Cil s = 2 (I( a/C'I)t max / ffis
= 2T ext. vp/ffivffisJ
where ffi max = ffis + (da/dt)max
ffimin = ffis - (da/dt)max
When a synchronous generator is supplying a lighting
load, the moment of inertia for its rotor must be chosen such
that ~ < 0.01 to 0.005. Failure to meet this requirement will
cause flicker unpleasant and tiring to the eye.
When a synchronous generator is connected to an infinite
bus or system (as in Fig. 58-6), which implies constant Vs
and constant fs' the amplitude of the vth-harmonic oscilla-
Ch. 60 In stability in Pa rall el Operation 385
tion of th e pow er angle is a fun ction of th e sy nchronizing

torqu e, i, =1= O. In the un tlerd amp ed cas e, wh en D = 0 ;
Eq . (60-3) may he re-written as
a m ax
.. = I t -ao . max I
((Do /ltJv)~
(60 5)
-
where ' roo is the an gul ar velocity of free oscilla tio ns of the
rotor in p arall el operation at 0 = 0 0 Irorn Eq , (60-2), and
eGo, max is the amplitude of t he vth-harrnon ic oscillation of
the pow er an gl e in suppl ying an isolated load und er the
same conditions.
As is seen from E qs . (60-5) an d (60-4.), t he ra ti o b etween
the amplitude of the vth-liarmonic oscillation of the power
ang le wh en th e machine is connecte d to an infinite bus to
the same amplitude when the
machine is serving an isolat- 7
ed load , called the r esonance 6
SV
modulus of the vth harmonic
5
~I
4
= r1- (~lo/(Dv)~ I (60-6) 3 /
2
2 II IV
strongly depends on the ratio )/ '\
of 00 0, the natural fr equency 1
of rotor oscillation, to OO v , the <, (,JoIUJIJ
frequency of oscillation of the o 2 J
vth-harmonic of external
torque (Fig. 60-3). Fig . 60-3 Plot of ~v =
. At ooo/oov~1,theamplitude =amaxlao .max as a fun ction of
of oscillations of the power (D ol (D v:
angle in ope ration into an l - a t . D = 0; 2 - a t D =
infinite system, = ~ V ; tslp > 0
a max = Svao ,max ~ a omax
is the same as with the m achine serving an isolated load.
In this case, the motion of the rotor is mainly governed by
its inertia, and the s ynchronizing torque plays a minor
role ' .
tseG -e; (J/p ) (d 2a/dt2
)
In contrast, at oo o/oo v '5J> 1, the amplitude of oscillation of

the power angle with the machine connected to an infinite
bus,
25-0 2 40
is a small fraction of the amplitude in the case of an isolat-

ed load. In this case, the inertia of the rotor is unimportant,
(J/p) (d 2a/dt2 ) ~ tsa
and the amplitude of oscillation of the power angle, as can
readily be checked, is solely dependent on the amplitude of
oscillation of the external torque, that is
a m ax = (ffi~/ffib) a o.m ax = (Text .vlta) = a oo v
Finally, at ffi v = ffiu, that is, when the torque oscillates
at the same frequency as the ro tor does, there occurs a re-
sonance of forced and free oscillations, a m ax = 00. As a
result, if no damping action were supplied, D=O, the machine
would not be able to operate into an infinite system. For-
tunately, the rotor circuits do supply some damping action,
so that D > 0, the amplitude of oscillation of the power angle
decreases t o a finite value even within the resonance range
(see Fig. 60-3).
When a synchronous generator is connected to an infinite
system, the forced oscillations of the power angle are accom-
panied by oscillations of armature current (see above);
oscillations of the rotor give rise to currents in its field and
damper windings. The net result is an increase in losses, an
impairment in efficiency, and a higher temperature rise.
These drawbacks can be minimized by reducing the amplitude
of oscillations of the power angle as much as practicable.
Because the value of ffi v is fi xed for each particular reciprocat-
ing prime mover, a shift outside the resonance region can be
secured by changing ffio, the natural frequency of oscillations,
through an increase or a decrease in the moment of inertia ;
If ffio ;;d .15ffi v or ffio :::;;;0.82ffi v, then ~'V:::;;; 3. A further
decrease in the amplitude of oscillations can be obtained by
bringing down the resistance of the damper winding-this
leads to a higher damping factor.
Similar forced oscillations arise in synchronous motors
which drive reciprocating pumps. "Their amplitude can_be
minimized in "the same manner as explained above.
Ch. 61 Unbalan ced Operation 387
61 Unbalanced Operation
61- 1 An Outline of Unbalanced Op eration
Unbalanced operation is a frequent occurrence in the use of
synchronous m achines. It may arise from internal causes,
such as damage which upsets t he symmetry of the arm ature
winding, and from extern al caus es, su ch as lack of symmetry
and balance in the load or the system to which a given syn-
chronous'j'machine is conn ect ed. .
In this section, we shall limit ourselves to steady-state
unbalanced conditions arising sol ely from the dissymmetry
or unbalance of the system to which the machine is conn ected.
In all cases, it will be assume d that the three-ph ase arm ature
winding of the machine is well balanced and symmetric.
If not otherwise qualified, it will be assumed t hat the wind-
ing is star-connected.
In the case of an isolated load , current unbalance can arise
from a difference in load impeda nce between the generator
phases. This form of unb al anc e also includ es various exter-
nal unbalanced short-circuits (a t wo- or a single-phase fault
to ground, etc.) , when t he r esistance betwe en the shorted
points falls to zero.
L I n operation into an infinite system, current unb alance
between the generator phases may occur owing to voltage
unbalance in the system (in turn caused by an unequal
sharing of load among the phases) , or owing to various unba-
lanced faults in t he system 's parts (transmission lines, trans -
formers , etc .). .
The unbalanced conditions arising in a synchronous ma-
chine can conveniently be analysed by the m ethod of sym -
metric components. In the genera l case , when the arma tu re
winding is star-connect ed with t he neutral point brought out,
the arma t ure carr ies all the t h ree sets of sym metric curren t
componen ts, na mel y positive , negative, and zero.
61-2 Positive-Sequence Impedance

. . . . ..
Th e positive-sequence set of cur rents in the armature phases
(II = I AI. I Bl = I lA a 2 , and I ci = I Ala) produces a fun-
25*
dam ental mrnf, }'"m = Fl lll , rotating at Q I = 21' f/p in the

direction of positive phase sequence (from phase A to phase
B to phase C).
Under synchronous st eady-st at e condit ions , this mmf is
stationary relative to the ro tor (see Sec.54-1) and can be re-
solved into a d-axis and a q-axis component:
F i d m = F i m sin ~
F i qm = r.; cos ~
where ~ is the an gle between F i nt and the negative direction
of the q-axis.
The d-a xis mm f is produced by the positive-sequence set
of d-axis currents
iAid = I A i sin ~ exp [-j (1'/2 - ~)]
. .
lci a = I Ai da
The q-axis mmf is produced by the positive-sequence set
of q-axis currents
. .
I AIq = I Al cos ~ exp (j~)
. .
I BIq = I A I qa
2
. .
I CIq = I AIqa
As has been explained earlier, the synchronous field es-

t abli shed by positive-sequence currents depends solely on
the dim ensions of the stator and rotor cores and the angle ~
(see Fig. 54-2).
Th e armature impedance seen by th e positive-sequence
set of d-axis currents is the sum of the phase-conductor re-
sistance and the d-ax is inductive reactan ce
Zld = R -I-- jXd
where
x, = X u + X ad
Accordingly, the impedance seen by t he positive-sequence
set of q-axis cu rrents is
Zj q=R+ j X q
whe re
cu. 61 Unbalanced Operation 389
In the genera l case , the posi tive-sequenc e imped ance of

the armature (see Sec. 54-5) is a funct ion of B:
Z1 = R1 + jX 1 (61-1)
where
R1 , R + R;
X 1 =X a +X a
X a '- = X a q cos2 B X a d sin 2 B +
R a = 0 .5 (X a d - X a q ) sin 2 B
For a non salient-pole machine where X ad = X a q = Xa
and R a = 0, the impedance is
Z1 = R + jX 1
where
X 1 = X a + Xa
61-3 Negative-Sequence Impedance
.
The negative-sequ ence set of currents in the armature ph a-
. . . . .
ses (1 2 = 1 A 2 , 1 B2 = 1 A 2 a, 1 C 2 = 1 A 2 a2 ) produces
a fundam ental mmf, fr 2m ' rot at ing at Q 2 = 2nj/p = - Qt
in the direction of negative ph ase sequence (from phase A
to phase C to ph ase B).
If the rotor of a synchronou s machine is m agnetically
and electrically symmetrical and balanced, which is true,
for example, of the polyphase (m2 >
2) , squirrel-cage rotor
of an induction machine , the negat ive-sequence impedance
of the armature winding can be det ermined by reference t o
the equiv alent circui t of an ind uctio n machine in Fig. 42-3.
As will be rec all ed, at syn chronous speed the rotor slip , 8 1 ,
relative to the positive-seq uence curre nts is zero. Therefore,
in calculating the negative-sequen ce impedance, the rotor
slip relative to the negative-sequence field must be taken as
2 - 8 = 282 =
This can readily be pro ved , because
82 = (Q 2 - Q})/Q 2 = (Q 2 +Q 2)/Q 2 = 2
Assume that the rotor is of the nonsalient-pole d esign, the
field winding is open-circuited , and the damper is an elec-
trically~ symmetric, equ al-pitch , short-circuited winding.
Let us adopt for the equivalent circuit in Fi g. 42-3 the nota-
tion used for synchronous machines, namely: the resistance

of the armature-phase conductors is R I = R, the armature
leakage inductive reactance is Xl = X cr' the mutual armature
reactance is Zo = R o +
jX o ~ jX a , the damper-winding re-
sistance referred to the armature windinglTs R 2 = R~c,
and the leakage inductive reactance of the damper winding
referred to the armature winding is X 2 = X~c. Then the ne-
gative-sequence impedance of the armature winding may be
written
Z2 = R 2 + jX 2 = R + jXa+ 1/jXa+1/(0~5R~c+jX~c)
If Xa~ X~c > O.5R~c, then approximately we may write
R2 = R + O.5R~c > R
X2 = x ; + X~c~ Xl
As is seen from the above equations, the negative-sequence
reactance of the armature is substantially smaller than the
positive-sequence reactance . This is because the negative-
sequence field is bucked by the currents induced in the dam-
per winding. The currents in the damper winding hinder the
penetration of the magnetic field into the rotor core which
has a low reluctance, and crowd it outside the damper-
winding loop where it sees the high reluctance presented by
the nonmagnetic gaps and clearances. These same gaps and
clearances complete the path for the damper-winding leak-
age flux defined in terms of X~c' Because of this, the nega-
tive-sequence impedance is equal to the sum of X tJ and X~c'
In contrast, the negative-sequence resistance is higher
than the positive-sequence resistance, because it is associat-
ed not only with the copper losses in the armature winding,
P e u = mRI~
but also with the electromagnetic power transferred across
the gap to the rotor
P em ~ (mR~c/8) I~
which should be found for the braking mode of operation.
The-rotor copper losses, P e u2 = rnR~cI: are made up for by
the P em supplied from the stator side and by an ~equal me-
chanical power input
I Pm 1= mR~cn 1(1 - 8)/8 I = Peln
coming from the rotor's side.
Ch. 61 Unbalanced Operation 391
Now we assume that the rotor is of the salient-pole design

\yith a short-circuited, single-axis field winding and a va-
riable-pitch damper winding. Then there will be both elec-
trical and magnetic dissymetry owing to which thej d-
and q-axis quantities will be different.
Fig. 61-1 Magnetic fields set up by negative-sequence currents along

(a) d-axis and (b) q-axis
Among other things, the magnetic unbalance of a salient-

pole rotor is responsible for the difference between the d-
and q-axis mutual reactances of the armature,
x., =1= x;
Electrical unbalance is responsible for the difference be-
tween the d- and q-axis leakage reactances and resistances of
the damper winding,
X~c,d =1= X~c.q
R~C.d =1= R~c.q
Electrical unbalance is aggravated by the fact that the
field wlnding.I'can only affect the d-axis field (its effect
increases with ' decreasing Xia and decreasing Ri)*.
To determine'tthe negative-sequence field and impedance
of the armature winding, we may, as in a balanced induction
* The manner in which the rotor quantities are referred to the

armature winding is discussed in Sec. 71-3.
machine, replace the rotor travelling with a slip 8 2 = 2

by an equivalent, standstill rotor and divide the resistance
by 8 2 ,
( ~As the negative-sequence mmf travels relative to the
rotor at standstill, it aligns itself now with the d-axis,
F2d m , now with the q-axis, F2 '1m The d-axis field set up by
F2d m (which corresponds to the ~s curre~t i., or the in-
stantaneous currents i A 2d, i B 2d and i C 2d) is bucked by the
currents induced in the d-axis loop of the damper winding,
i sc d , and in the field winding, if (see Fig. 61-1a). When
the rotor resistances are small, the field is crowded nearly
completely out of the field and damper windings. The
impedance
Z2d = R 2d + jX 2d
that the armature presents to the negative-sequence currents
1 2 d establishing the d-axis field can be found from the equi-
valent circuit at the top of Fig. 61-2:
Z2 d = R +- ix, +- [(jX a d t 1
+- (0 .5R~ c. d + jX;c, d t 1
+- (0.5Ri +- jXicrt r 1 1
(61-2)
. The q-axis field set up by F2 '1m corresponding to the rms
current 1 2 '1 or the instantaneous currents iA2~' i B 2 '1 and
i C 2 '1 (in the figure, i A 2 '1 = 0), is solely bucked by the cur-
rent induced in the q-axis loop of the damper winding,
i sc . '1' and is nearly completely crowded out of that loop
(see Fig. 61-1b). The impedance ZZq= R 2q+jX 2'l
that the armature presents to the negative-sequence currents
1 2 q that set up the q-axis field can be found from theequi-
valent circuit at the bottom of Fig. 61-2. .
ZZq = R +- jXcr + [UX a'1t 1 + (0.5R sc. '1 + jX~c, qt r
1 1
(61-3)
In a salient-pole machine, "the d- and q- axis negative-
sequence impedances and their resistive and inductive com
ponen ts differ from the positive-sequence quantities: .
I Z2d I * I Z2'1 I
R 2d *- R 2 '1
X 2d X 2 '1*
A more detailed analysis would show that the magnetic
and electric dissymetry of the rotor in a salient-pole machine
Ch, 61 Unbalanced Operation 393
manifests itself under asynchronous conditions in the same

manner as the unbalance of ph ase impedances in the rotor
of an induction m achine (see Sec. 46':2). The negative-
sequence field at the fundam ental frequency, / =/1' rotates
at an electrical angular velocity 0)1' the rotor travels in
the opposite direction at 0) = - 0)1' and its slip relative
to the negative-sequence fi eld is
s = (0)1 - 0))/0)1 = 2
As a result, currents ar e induced in the rotor circuits at
frequency
/ 2 = s/ = 2/
Because the rotor is unbalanced, the fi eld set up by the
currents in the rotor circuits can be visualized as the sum
of two rotating fi elds. One is the forw ad fi eld travelling
at SO)I = 20)1 relative to t he rot or and at S O)I+ 0) = 2 0) 1 -
- 0)1 = 0)1 relat ive to th e stator. Th e other is the backward
field travelling at -SO)I = -20)1 relative to the rotor and
at -SO)I + 0) = - 20)1 - 0)1 = -30)1 rela tive to the stator.
In the st ator winding, t he forward fi eld of the rotor
induces an emf at /1 = 0)1/2n , an d, trav ell ing at the same
velocity as the fundament al negativ e-sequence fi eld, com-
bines, with the latter. In the same winding, th e backward
field of th e rotor induces a third-h ar monic emf , E s, at
a triple fr equency , / s = 30)1/2n = 3/ . The effect it produces
depends on th e impedances in th e stator circuits. When
the stator winding is connecte d to a negative-sequence set
of voltages via large external imp edances, the third-harmonic
currents flowing in those imp edanc es are neg ligible in com-
parison with the fu ndamen t al current , and their effect
may be neglect ed . Th e ar mature winding is trav ersed solely
by the negative-sequ ence currents at the fundamental fre-
quency. Because Z 2 d and Z2 Q ar e small in comparison with
th e external imp edances, the negative-sequence currents
are independ ent of th e position that the rotor takes up
relative to the field,
. . .
1 2 = 1 2d = 1 2 Q
Combining with the fund am ental volt age, V 2' the third-
harmon ic emf , s, = V s' distorts the wav eform of the termi-
nal voltage in such a way th at [when the rotor is aligned with
.394 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
the field along the d-axis, the voltage is

. .. .
V 2 + Va = V 2d = -Z2d /2
and when the rotor is aligned with the field along the q-axis,
the voltage is
. .. .
V 2 - Va = V 2 Q = -Z2Q12
In an analysis of unbalanced operation, only the funda-
mental negative-sequence current and voltage are consider-
ed, namely the current 1 2 , and the voltage given by !
V2 = CV 2d + V2 Q)/ 2 = -i 2 (Z 2d + Z2q)/2
which is found from the set of equations given earlier. The
negative-sequence impedance is equa l to the ratio of the
negative-sequence voltage to the nega tive-sequence current
Z2 = R2 + jX 2 = - V2li2 = (Z2d + Z2Q)/2 (61-4)
Using Eqs. (61-2), (61-3) and (61-4), we can readily deter-
mine the resistive and reactive components of the negative
sequence impedance in the case of large external impedances
in the armature phases.
Conversely, when the stator winding is connected to a
negative-sequence set of voltages through small external
impedances (as compared with Z2d or Z 2Q)' the stator termi-
nal voltage is the same as those voltages and remains un-
changed, whatever the position of the rotor relative to the
field,
.
V2 =
. .
V 2d = V 2 Q
With respect to the third-harmonic emf, E a , the armature
winding is short-circuited (the system and external impe-
dances are small). Therefore, in the armature winding E a
gives rise to third-harmonic currents 1 a which reduce the
third-harmonic terminal voltage to zero, Va = O. Combining
with the fundamental currents, 1 2 , the third-harmonic
currents distort the wa veform of the armature current in
such a way that when the rotor is aligned with the field
along the d-axis the current is
t, + i, = i 2d = -V2 /Z 2 d
and when the rotor is aligned with the field along the q-axis,
the current is
i, - is = i., = - V /Z2 2q
Using the above equations, the fundamental current may be

written as
i, = (i 2d + I: q)/2 = -(V2/2) (1/Z 2d + 1/Z 2Q)
and the negative-sequence impedance may be defined as
Z'"'2= R 2 + J'X 2 = 2Z 2 d Z 2 Q
V 2 II2="Z2d+ (61 5
- Z2Q - )
Using Eqs, (61-2), (61-3) and (61-5), we can find the

resistive and inductive components of the negative-sequence
impedance when the armature phases contain small external
impedances,' such as when a"!"machine is connected to an
unbalanced, infi nit e 'system ." _.
When the rotor is balanced ,I R+jXo
and Z2d ~ Z2 Q' the negative- {'
sequence impedance will be lid
the same in either of the two Z -~d jXtlt!
above cases, 2d
Z2 = R 2 + jX 2 = Z2d = Z2Q O - - - . - - 4 I l - - - -..........>--.........

R+jXu
In per unit, X 2 is 0.12 to 0.18 {' f----1~----,
for nonsalient-pole machines 12q
andrO.2 it o 0.4 for salient- 19 - vi;
pole machines (with indirect .'/ 2q R;cq
cooling used in either case). 2
In calculating negative-se-
quence impedance, R, refers to Fig. 61-2 Direct- and quadra-
the total resistance of the field ture-axis equivalent circuits of
a synchronous machine for ne-
winding (that is, including gative-sequence currents
the resistance of the exciter
0
armature or the damping resis-

tor). All the resistances and reactances involved in Eqs.
(61-2) and (61-3) and in the diagram of Fig. 61-2 must be
found with allowance for current crowding which occurs
at 2/.
61-4 Zero-Sequence Impedance

of the Armature Win ding
The z er~-sequ ~ n ce CU!Tents ~re the sam e in all the phases,
that is, 1 0 = I A O = I EO = I Co ' The fund amental pulsating
fi elds (those with t he funda menta l numb er of pol e pairs, p)
produced by the zero-sequence phase currents are displaced
from one another through 1200 (electrical) and canc el out .
This leaves only the mutual field with a number of pole
pa irs equa l to 3p , gp, 15p,
et c. , associa te d with the odd
sp atial h armonics of the phase
mm fs with a number of pole
pairs equa l to vp and with a
harmonic ord er which is a mul-
t iple of three, v = 3 (triplen
harmonics). The la rgest con-
trihution comes fro m the mu-
t ua l fie ld wi th 3p pol e pairs.
I ts lines for p = 1 are shown
in Fig. 61-3 (as is seen , this
is a si x-p ol e fi eld).
The zero-sequ ence mu tual
inductive re acta nce, r x a (O) '
owes its existe nce sol elyto the
Fig . 61-3 Magnetic ric ld set up fie ld set u p by triplen mmfs.
by zero-sequence currents
Because these mmfs and the
associa te d fl ux linkages are
small, Xa( O) is a sm all fractio n of, Xa, the posit ive-sequ ence
mutu al reactance . Th e zero-sequ ence leakage reactance ,
X u( o)7 is likewise sma lle r than Xu, the positiv e-sequ ence
leak age react ance. Th e point is that , because of short-
pitching (chording), t he other ph ases bu ck t he leakage flux
linkage of a give n ph ase in the case of zero-sequ ence cur-
ren ts and boost it in the case of positive-sequence currents.
Th e t otal zero-sequence phase reactance is the su m of the
two terms defined above,
X o = Xa(,O) + X u( o)
In two -la yer, short-pitched windings, X o is ordinarily
a li t tl e sma ller than the posi ti ve-sequence leakage react-
anc e, X 0 ~ X n - In per-u nit , X 0 is 0.05 to 0.0 8 in in-
directly cooled, nonsalie nt-:pole ma chines, 0.08 to 0,15 in
Ch.61 Unbalanced Operation 397
directly cooled, nons alien t-pole machines, and O~07 to

0.'10 in indirectly cooled salient-pole machines.
The zero-sequence field only links the damper winding
(its linkage with the field winding is negligible). The cur-
rents induced in the damper winding by the zero-sequence
field somewhat reduce X o- The zero-sequence phase resistance
differs very little from the positive-sequence resistance
R o ~ R a This is because the additional losses in the dam-
per winding owing to the currents induced in it by the zero-
sequence field are small in comparison with the ohmic losses
in the armature winding.
The total zero-sequence impedance per phase is
Zo = R o + iXo (61-6)
61-5 Unbalanced Operation
of a Synchronous Machine
Under unbalanced operating conditions, the phase voltages'
I
are defined as the sum of PS, NS and ZS voltages associated
with currents of the corresponding phase sequences: ..
~ = ~ + ~ +~
A Ai A2 AO
VB = V + V B2 + V no
Bi
(61-7)
. . . .
V C= V Ci + V C2 + V co
where
. .
V BI = V Ala 2

V C I = VAl a
.

V B2 =
.
V A2a
.
V no = V co = V Ao
.
Contributions to the positive-sequence voltage come from
the field set up by the field (excitation) current and the
field set up by the positive-sequence armature currents
rotating at synchronous velocity. The equation for the
positive-sequence voltage is written in the same manner as
for balanced synchronous operation (see Chap. 55). It can
be written with and without iron saturation. If the magnetic
circuit is unsaturated, the phase A positive-sequence voltage
will be given by
. .
VAl = E Aj - ZII AI
. (61-8)
where
.
E Aj =
.
s,
is the excitation voltage of phase A, and
z, = RI + jX I
is the positive-sequence impedance from Eq. (61-1).

The phase A negative- and zero-sequence voltages are
produced only by currents of the corresponding phase se-
quences:
. .
V A2 = -Z21 A2 (61-9)
. .
V AO = -ZoIAo (61-10)
The PS, NS and ZS voltages of the other phases can be
found from the relations explaining Eq. (61-7).
Using Eqs. (61-7), we can write the total phase voltages
in terms of Ej, the phase A excitation emf, and symmetrical
current components:
(61-'11)
where
. .
Ej - ZII AI = VAl
Equations (61-11) could be used to construct a voltage
phasor diagram for unbalanced load. Unfortunately, it
would be rather cumbersome. It is simpler to construct
a combined voltage phasor diagram for unbalanced load
(as shown in Fig. 61-4) which corresponds to Eqs. (61-12)
deduced from Eqs. (61-11) upon multiplying the second
Iine by d and the third line by a 2 :
V A = Ej-ZliAI-ZziAZ-zoiAO }
a~ B= ~j-Zl~~l- zzaj~z-zoajB.o (61-12)
aZVc = Ej-Z1IAI-ZZa2.1cz-Zo azI co

where
.
Ef -
.
ZII AI = VAl
.
In the case of a balanced load,
. . .
VA = a 11 B = a2 V e = 11 Al
The combined diagram shows how m uch V A' a V /I and
Fig. 61-4 Combined voltage phasor diagram of a nonsalient-pole

synchronous generator operating into an unbalanced load (neglecting
saturation, R = R 2 = R o = 0)
a2 V e differ in the case of an unbalanced load and which

currents are responsible for this difference.
616 Parallel Operation with an Unbalanced System
When a synchronous machine is connected to an infinite

system, the operating conditions can be specified by giving
the unbalanced system voltages
. .
VAS = -VA
. .
V BS = -VB
. .
V e s = -Ve
From them , it is an easy matter t o find the sym metric com-

ponents of th e te rmina l vol tage . Also, the magn i tud e and
. .
phase of the positive-sequ ence current in one of t he phases,
.
say, I AI' and the angle rp between V A l and I A l must be
specified. The magnitude and ph ase of I A l dep end on th e
duty in which the machine is running, and the activ e and
reactive power it delivers or absorbs. The abov e data ar e
sufficient for the an alyst (or the design er) to determine the
required E f and I f' an d also the nega tiv e- and zero-sequence
currents .
The phase A field emf is give n by
.. .
Ef = VA l + ZII A l
where
ZI = RI + jX I
is the armature impedance whose components in a nonsa-
lient-pole machine are
and
XI =X cr +X a
whereas for a salient-pole machine the y can be found fro m
the specified V AI' I A l and <!J, as explained in Chap. 55.
The negative- and zero-s equence currents are
i A2 = - VA2/Z2
and
JAO = - VAolZo
In the rotor circuits, the negative-sequence field induces
appreciable second-harmo nic currents which may lead to
a prohibitive t emperature rise of t he rotor. Th erefo re,
whether or no t a machine can safely be operated at a given
voltage unbalance dep en ds on the magnitude of negative-
sequence currents. For long-term op eration of large m achi nes,
the per-unit negative-sequence current should be less th an
0.1 or 0.2, that is, 1*2 = I 2/IR < 0.1 to 0.2.
A still lower limit is set for the negative-sequence voltage
V,1:2 = I Z*2 I I,~2 < 0.1 I Z*2 I to 0.2 I Z*2 I
= from 0.015 to 0.05
Ch. '61 Unbalanced Operation 401
because usually
I Z*2 I ~ X'I'2 = 0.15 to 0.25
This implies that a synchronous machine can operate in
parallel with a system for a long time only at practically
balanced .voltages, when the negative-sequence voltage is
such that
V*21V*1 = 0.015 to 0.05
The positive-sequence voltage is always very close to its
rated value, that is
V I:l = 1.0
. 61 ~7 . Operation of a Synchronous Generator into

, an Isolated Unbalanced Load
In this case, unbalanced operating conditions can be spe-
cified by giving an unbalanced set of load impedances
ZA=I=ZB=I=ZC
and their connection diagram.
Suppose that the load impedances are connected in a star
whose neutral point is brought out to the neutral point of
Fig . 61-5 Connection to an unbalanced load:

(a) general case; (b) single-phase fault to ground; (c) two-phase short-
circuit; (d) double single-phase fault to ground
the armature winding in the generator (Fig. 51-Sa). Then

the phase voltages of the armature winding may be written
in terms of the load impedances and phase currents as
VA=iAZ A)
T> =~BZB (61-13)
Vc=IcZ c
26-0240
Considering Eqs. (61-'11) and (61-13) together, expres-

sing the currents in Eq. (61-13) in terms of symmetrical
components, and deeming E f = E f fix ed in advance, th e
set of equations thus obtained can be solved for th e sym-
metric components of currents.
The equations for symmetric components of currents are
the simplest to write and solve for an unsaturated, non-
salient-pole machine, where Zl = R 1 + jX1 is fixed in
advance and independent of the angle p.
. . .
E f = (Zt +ZA) l Al + (ZZ+ZA) i.. + (ZO+ZA) lAo )
Eja = (Zt + ZB) aZlAt + (Zz + ZB) a:AZ + (Zo + ZB) ~ AO
Z
Eja = (Zt + Zd alAl + (Z z+ Zc) aZlAz + (Zo+Zc) lAO

(61-14)
Hence,
i Al = 1D11D , jA 2 = D 21D, j Ao = DolD (61-15)
where
- Zt + Z A ZZ+ZA ZO +ZA -
D= (Zt + Z B) a 2 (Zz +ZB) a ZO+ZB
+
_(Zt Zc) a (Zz + Zd a Z Zo+Zc _
is the determinant of Eqs. (61-14).
The determinants D 1 , D 2 and Do are deriv ed from the
determinant D upon replacing the column of the coefficients
of the unknown current by .t he column of th e free terms E j ,
E fa 2 and Efa. For example, D 1 is derived from D by replac-
ing the column (Zl + Z A) with Ejl the column (Zl + Z B) a2
with E fa 2 , and th e column (Zl + Z c) a with Efa.
Once the currents are found, the corresponding voltages
and their symmetric components can be obtained from
Eqs. (61-11).
61-8 Unbalanced Steady-State Short-Circuits I.

(1) Single Phase-to-Ground Fault (Fig. 61-5b). This is
a special case of unbalanced load, where ZA = 0 and Z B
= Zc = 00 . However, in order to find the fault (or short-
circuit) current, it is simpler to use Eq. (61-11) and not
. .. .
Eq. (61-14), becau se V 11 = 0, 1 11 = I e = 0, and E f = E f .
The first step is to write the symmetric components of
currents in t erms of the unknown fault current for phase A
. . . . .
l AO = (I A + I B + I e) /3 = I A I3
. . .. .
I Al = + I Ba + I ea2)/3 = I AI3
(I~4.
i A2 = ii, + i Ba2 + i e a)/3 = i AI3

Now, using Eq. (61-11) for phase A, it is easy to find the
single-phase fault current:
i _ 3Ef
A - ZI +Z2+ Z0
(61-16)
I ~ 3Ef
A ~ X1+X 2 +X O
(2) Phase-to-Phase Fault (Fig. 61-5c). In this form of
fault (also known as two-phase fault) the line voltage turns
to zero
. . .
VAB = VB - VA = 0
Also, the fault current in phases A and B is th e same , whereas
phase C remains unaffected:
. .
I B = ;- I A
Ie = 0
The symmetric components of currents may be written in
terms of fault current as
. l' .
lAO = 3" (I A + I B) = 0
i Ai = 1A
3
(1-a) =(I~/-V3)exp(-j300)
. I '-
I A2 = : (1- a 2) = (IAI -V 3) exp (300)
.. .
I Bi == [A i a 2 = - IA2
.. .
I B2 = I A2a = - I Ai
26* .
Now, using Eqs. (61-11), we can write an equa ti on for

the line voltage, V AD
VAD = VB - VA = E f (a2 - 1) - ZI (j BI - j AI)

. .
where
- Z2 (I B2 - I A2) =
. . . . .
I Bi - I A1= - IAz-IA1= - I A
. . . . .
I Bz-I Az = - I A1- I Az = - I A
1- a Z = V3exp (j 30 0)
On solving the abo ve equation , we get the phase-to-phase
fau lt current
. V 3Ef exp (j3 00)
IA = Zl+ Z2
IA~ V3Ef/(X l+ XZ) (61 -17)
(3) Doub le Phase-to-Ground Fault (Fig. 61-5d). In this
form of fault, two ph ases ar e faulted to ground , so that
VA = O~ .and VB= 0
The phase C current is zero , Ie = O. The symmetric com-
ponents of currents can be expressed in te rms of an equal
fault current in phases A and B :
. . .
lAO
.
=
. + I B)/3
(I A
.
I Al = (I + aI B)/3
A
j A2 = (i ; + a2j B)/3
. .
Solving the equations for V A = 0 an d V B = 0, derived
from Eqs. (61-11) and neglecting t he resistive components
of ZI' Z2 and Zo, the double phase-to- ground fault current
is found t o be
jEj V3(X2e -j 30 +Xoej30o)
X 1 X 2+X OX 1 +x 2XO
I _ V 3 Ef V X ~+ X iJ+ X2X O (61-18)
A - X IX 2+X OX 1 +X 2XO
Ch. 62 Soviet Synchronous Machine s 405
{{ 62 Synchronous M achines
of Soviet M a nufacture
62-1 Turbogenerators
Th ese are nearly always two -pole , 3000-rpm , horizo nt al-
shaft, nonsali ent-pole machines. Turbogenerators with rat-
ings under 30 MVA use indirect air cooling. Air is circulated
in a closed-circuit ventilation system, abs orbing h eat from
the active parts and giving it up in water-cooled heat
exchangers . A sectional view of an air-cooled turb ogenera t or
is shown in .Fig. 51-12 (see Sec. 51-12 for more detail).
A closed-circuit ventilation system (see Sec. 33-3) may
use not only air , but also hydrogen which compares favour-
ably with other gaseous coolant . With a machine, it is
maintained 97% pure , the remaining 3 % being water va pour
and air. At a pressure of 0.05 X 10 5 Pa (gauge ), this mixture
has a density whi ch is one-ei ghth of that of air. Th e heat
transfer coeffici ent from th e cooling surface to hydrogen
is 1.35 t imes the figure for air, and the thermal conductivity
is about five times that of air. Because of this, ind irect
hyd rogen cooling offers the following advantages.
1. Friction and windage losses are reduced t o ab out one-
eighth . In turbogenerators ra ted at 25 to 100 MW , these
losses account for 25 % to 50 % of the t otal losses, so the
efficiency is improved by 0.9 t o 1.0 %.
2. The temperature gradients due to gas layers in the
insulation""'and also between the insulation and the sl ot
sides are practically non-existent. The heat transfer coef-
ficient of the insulation is improved by about 30% . Coupled
with the improved heat transfer, th is permits the rating
of turbogenerators to be raised by about 20 % for the same
temperature ris e and the sam e dimensions of the stator and
rotor windings.
3. The insulation is more reliable and durable, because
there is no oxidation , dirt or dampness , an d also becaus e
a corona discharge in a hydrogen atmosphere is less det ri-
ment al t o the insulation than' in "air.
.4 . Since hydrogen will not sustain combust ion, there is
no ri sk of a fire breaking out in the windings.
5. Hydrogen cooling systems require sma ller coolers
than for air.
406 Part Fi ve. Synchronous Machines
Unfortunately, a mixture of 7 % to 70 % hydrogen and

air presents an exp losive hazard. Ther efor e, t o avo id any
explosion risk , the hydro-
gen insi de t he m ach ine mu st
be m aintained extre mely
pure and at a slightly
excess ive (positive) pr es-
sure (the minimu m figure
is 0.05 X 105 P a (gau ge).
This will eliminate ingress
of ai r t hr ough the in avoid-
able cle ar an ces and t he
shaft seals (Fi g. 62-1).
The fram es of hydrogen-
cooled machines ar e built
sufficiently robust to with-
stan d the pr essure of an
explosion, if any should oc-
cur . With a ma rg in of safety,
the frames and end-sh ields
5 are buil t for a pressure of
8 X 105 P a.
Comm on practice in the
4 USSR is to supply hydro-
gen in cy li nd ers wh er e i t
is held compressed to a pr es-
sure of a bou t 150 X 105 P a .
Wat er-cooled heat exchang-
ers are built either into
the stator fr ame (as in
Figs. 62-2 an d 62-3) or into
the st ator end-shields (as
in Fi g. 62-9) .
The manner in which
Fig . 62-1 Hydr ogen shaft seal : h ydrogen is circulated in-
I-rotor shaft; 2-gla nd; 3-bab- si de a m ach ine will be clear
bitt; 4-press ur e spr ings; 5-lab y- from reference to Figs. 62-5.
rinth; 6- gasket H y drogen is admit te d in to
the machine through a
multiplicity of inlets. Figure 62-5 shows a six-inlet hydro-
gen cooling system .
In indir ectly cooled turbogenerators, the ro tor is cooled
by hydrogen from the outside. Because of this, there exist
9060
650 2850 2770
1000 I (625 ," ,
Fig . 62-2 Seclio na l vi ew ofa 30-MW, 3000-r plll, turbogcnera tor using indirect hydrogen cool ingtal l dimensi ons
in "mrn)
marked temperature gradients in the slot insulation. It

would seem that the temperature rise of the windings could
be lowered and, as a result, the power rating of machines
for the same size could be improved by using hydrogen at
1760 !7[]0
Fig. 62-3 Cross-section through a 30-MW, 3000-rpm turbogenerator

using indirect hydrogen cooling (all dimensions in mm)
a high pressure. This however only leads to a lower tempe-

rature gradient from surface to coolant and a lower tem-
perature of the coolant (roughly in inverse proportion to
pressure), but leaves unaffected the temperature gradients
at the other places, a(is the case with' indirect cooling. The
likely increase in power rating for indirectly cooled machines
using hydrogen at an elevated pressure can . be assessed
from Table 62-1.
Ch. 62 Soviet Synchronous Machines 409
Table 62-1
Hydrogen pre ssure, X 105 Pa 0.035 0.5 1.05 2 .1
Load ratio (load at 0.035 X 105 Pa

taken as reference) 1 1.07 1.15 1.25
. 'I n turbogenerators using indirect hydrogen cooling, the

electric l oading may be raised to a h igher value. : A -
7.3 X 104 to 8.0 X 104 Am-I.
. For turbogenerators indirectly cooled by hydrogen at
a pressur e of 0.05 X 105 Pa (gauge) and using rotors of
maximum permissible dimensions (1.1-1.15 m in diameter
and 6.5 m long) the limit of power rating is set at 150 MW.
An increase in hydrogen pressure used for indirect cooling
does not lead to a decrease in temperature gradient between
slot insulation and core iron . Therefore, the rise in pressure
to about 2 X 105 Pa (gauge) can raise the limit of power
rating for turbogenerators to only 200 MW.
Any further decrease in temperature gradient from the
winding to the coolant at constant power output or an
increase in power output at constant temperature rise is
only possible with direct cooling. This eli minat es the tem-
perature gradient in the insulation, and even at a pressur e
of 0.05 X 105 Pa (gauge ) the temperature rise of the winding
is not over 50% of the figure with indirect cooling. At a
pressure of 2 X 105 Pa (gauge), the temperature gradient
is as low as 20 % of the figure with indirect cooling .
If the temperature rise be maintained unchanged , .the
p~wer rating can be raised by a factor of 11 100/20 ~ 2.4,
that is, t o about 350-500 MW .
... As Is seen from Table 62-2, the limit of power rating as
fixed from considerations of temperature rise varies with
hydrogen pressure in a greater proportion than in the case
;'0 surface cooling. .
Table 62-2
"Hy dr ogen pressure, X 105 Pa

(gauge) 0.035 0 .7 1.4 2 .1 2,8 : '4 .2
. Total power, % of power at

. :2 .1 X 10~ Pa 40 62 83 100 112 123
I
Liquids, such as water and t ransformer oil, abstract

heat better than hydrogen . Given the same temperature gra -
dients and the practically accept able flow ra tes of the
coolant in ducts, transformer oil can withdraw 5.5 times
and water , 41.7 times the amount that can be abstracted by
hydrogen at a pressure of 2.0 X '10 5 P a (gauge ). When
applied to the stator winding, liquid cooling mak es it pos-
sible t o reduce t he cross-sectional area of ducts , to raise
the current density in the winding (if this is warranted by
economic considera tions) , or t o redu ce (to a h alf or even
to a third) the t emp erature ri se of th e winding, if the current
density is held at t he pr evious level. In the latter case,
a reduction in winding t emp erature l ead s t o a marked de-
crease in the resistivity and major loss es of t he winding.
However , th e use of liquid cooli ng for the stator winding
only does not permit any further r ise in the power rating
of a machine, because it is limited by the rotor. One way
to raise the pow er r at ing to '1000 MW and more is to cool
both the stator and rotor wind in gs by dis tilled water .
Another advantage of direct cooling in turbo generators
is a substantial increase in elect ric loading (Table 62-3).
Tabl e 62-3 El ectric Loading in Dtrectly Cooled
Turhogen era tors
100 200 300 500 . 800
A, k A m-I 110 135 150 175 200
At the time of writing, four basic types of indirect cooling

systems for turbogenerat ors were in us e in the Soviet Union .
(1) Axial systems Ior" the stator and rotor windings
and the st ator core, usin g hydrogen at eleva te d pressure
(F ig. 62-4).
(2) Multiple-inlet radi al systems using hydrogen at ele-
vated pressure, with the rotor winding directly cooled and
the stator winding indirectly cooled .
(3) Multiple-inlet radial sys t ems using hydrogen for
the stator core and the rotor winding, combined with a water
cooling system for the stator winding (Fig. 62-5) .
(4) L iquid (oil or water) cooling systems for the stator
and rotor windings combined with ai r or hydrogen cooling
Ior the stator and rotor cores and the inner space of the
Ch, 62 Soviet Synchronous Machines 411
machine. Som eti mes, the stator core is liquid-cool ed as

well.
Fig. 62-4 Axi al sys tem of dir ect ven t ilation for a turbogenerator
In the fi rst type of systems (see Fi g. 62-4) , hydrogen j s

mad e to circula t e insid e th e ma chine by a centrifugal corn-
II
~d ~ 2
- hydrogen . -:--- hydrogen
.-.:-< Liqui d
Fig . 62-5 Multiple-inlet radial system of direct hydrogen cooling for
th e stator cor e and rot or win ding combine d with direc t liquid cooli ng
for the st a tor winding:
1- axial fl ow fan; 2-water-co oled heat-exchan ger ; 3-hi gh- pressure com pa r t-
m en t ;!4 - col d-liquld hea der; 5- ho t - l iq uid header
pressor, 1, moun ted on th e rotor shaft. From the high-

pressure compartment, 3, hydrogen is distributed in the
following pattern:
.4 12 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
(a) Some hydrogen enters inlets in vent tubes embedded

in the stator bars (see Fig. 62-6), cools them, and enters
a hot-gas compartment, 4 (see
+ Fig. 62-4).
(b) Some hydrogen enters
the axial ducts in the stator
core, cools it, and enters com-
partment 4 (see Fig. 62-4).
(c) Some hydrogen finds its
way under the binding rings
J on the rotor from both ends of
the machine, enters the rotor
conductors (see Fig. 62-7),
cools them, and is discharged
through radial openings into
Fig. 62-6 Section through the the gap whence it goes to
stator of a turbogenerator using
axial direct hydrogen cooling: compartment 4 (see Fig. 62-4).
I-hydrogen line; 2-axial vent From compartment 4, the
ducts in core; 3-copper conduc- hydrogen passes through coo-
. tors; 4-slot insulation
Fig. 62-7 Circulation of hydro- Fig. 62-8 Rotor winding in a

gen in the rotor-winding du cts turbogenerator directly cooled
of a turbogenerator using ax ial by hydrogen drawn from the
direct cooling gap
I -hydro ge'l inl et to winding ducts;
2-hydrogen outlets from winding
du cts
ler 2 and is conv eyed by ducts to compartment 5 at the inlet

to the compressor.
In the second and third types (see~Fig. 62-5), hydrogen
circulates inside a machine in about the same manner as in
indirectly cooled machines (see above). The only difference
~ Ri_~~W@W ,~w w w ~
~F
Fig. 62-9 Turbogenerator with the stator windings directly cooled by water and the rotor winding cooled by hydro-
gen at a pressure of 3.5 X 10 5 Pa (gauge)
,.
is that the hydrogen entering the gap through radial ducts

in the stator not only cools the 1'0 tor from the outside, but
is scooped and conveyed inside the rotor (Fig. 62-8). Then,
on passing through a multiplicity of inclined ducts on the
rotor coil surface, it cools the coil from both sides and is
discharged into the gap.
The area where hydrogen is
admitted inside the rotor
coincides with the area where
hydrogen emerges from the
radial vent ducts in the sta-
tor. The area where hydrogen
is discharged into the gap
coincides with the area where
hydrogen enters the stator
ducts. The stator winding is
liquid-cooled.
The only difference between
the second and third types
is that in the former case the
stator winding is indirectly
cooled by hydrogen, whereas
in the latter case the stator
winding is cooled by 'water
flowing in the hollow stator
conductors (Fig. 62-10) which
Fig. 62-10 Stator slot with wa- communicate via insulating-
tor-cooled conductor material tubes with a cold-
liquid header, 4, and a hot-
liquid header, 5 (see Fig. 62-5). From header 5, the liquid
passes through a cooler and enters header 4 again. In
Fig. 62-11, the arrangement of water inlets and outlets
is shown in more detail.
The fourth type has two modifications as explained above.
In some turbogenerators, the stator and rotor windings are
water-cooled, whereas the stator core and the inner space
of the machine are cooled by hydrogen at a pressure of
3 X 10 5 Pa. In some other turbogenerators, the stator space
is filled with oil, the rotor is separated from the stator
by an insulating cylinder, and the space around the rotor
is filled by rarefied air. In this arrangement, the stator
winding and core are cooled by oil, and the rotor winding
by water.
Ch, B2 Soviet Synchronous Machines 415
62-2 Hydrogenerato rs and Engine-D riven

Synchronous Generators
Hydrogenerators, As h as already been exp lained. these
elec tric machines are driven by hydraul ic (or water-wh eel)
turbines.
As a rul e, they h ave fro m
8 to 120 poles, and r ot or is
alw ays of salient-pole design
(see Sec. 51-3). Both hori-
zont al and vertical-sha ft arran-
gem ents are used , the for mer
for high-sp eed ma chines and
the latter for low-spe ed ma ch i-
nes. In the ve rt ica l-shaft ar-
rangement , th e dead weight
of t he ro tating par ts of t he
generator an d turbine an d also
the pressure of water on the
water wh eel of the turbine are
carried by a thrust (or axial)
bearing. The thru st bearing
is built into a pad which tran-
sfers the v ertical force to the
foundation. If the ro tor is m o-
un ted below the thrust bearing,
this is the 'suspension' form J~~~I~Il~:::~
of rotor construction (see 6
Fig. 51-2). If t he t hrust bear-
ing is loc ated below t he gene-
ra tor, this is the "umbrella"
form of rotor constr uct ion (see 7
Figs. 62-12 and 62-15).
Hydro-electric genera t ors Fig . 62-11 Connecti on of stator
mos tly us e indir ect ai r cooling. ba rs to cold - and hot-water dis-
For small hydrogenerators wi th tri bu tion tu bes :
I-hot- wa ter di stribut ion tu be; 2-
ratings not over 4 MVA, col d-water di st ribution t ube; a-fle x-
ible
open-circuit self-ventilation ter-d ist ins ulating hoses; 4-copper wa-
ributi ng bar nozz le; 5- bar
may be used (see F ig. 51-2). conv eying water to winding ; 6-elec-
t ri cal connection between bar no zzles;
Larger h ydro-electric genera- 7-bar conv eying water from win ding
. tors are built with closed-
circuit self-v entilation systems, with air cooled in h eat
exchangers (see F ig. 62-12).
Fig. 62-12 Umbrella-type 150-MW, 15.75-kV, 100-rpm hydro-electric generator
Ch, 62 Soviet Syn chronous Machi n es Id7
Table 62-4 El ectric Loading of I ndirec tl y Ai r-Cooled

Salient-Pole H yd rogcne ra tors
Sn/2p, kV A 10 50 200 1000 . - 2000 5000 and more
Electric landing,
kA/m:
p ~10 38 45 50 61 67 70
p=/1 32 40 45 4!J 50
p=2 28 32 . 36 41 45
In more detail the construction of indirectly air-cooled

hydro-electric generators is described in Sec. 51-3 . P ower
ratings per pole and electri c
loading (linear current density)
are listed in Table 62-4.
A more recent trend has :
been to use direct cooling for
hydrogenerators, especially for
machines in the top power
output bracket. Hydrogen is
used because the machines
cannot be properly sealed
against leaks. The best coolant
for hydrogenerators is distilled
water. Given the same prin-
cipal dimensions, the power -7 6 ~ '
rating of a hydrogenerator I ,
totally water-cooled can be Fig. 62-13 Po le ofa hydro-elec-

more than doubled in compari- tri c generator :directly coole d by
son with indirect cooling. The wat er:
l - conductor insulation ; 2-iJoliow
maximum power rating may fiel d-winding conductor: 3,5- pole
be increased in the same pr o- insula ti on; 4-rotor pole; a- rot or
rim (yok e); 7-rotor-r im insulation
portion. The direct water cool-
ing system for the stator wind-
ing is built along the same
lines as for turbogenerators ,-~m~_~~~z.s:~~1
(see above). II$"~ -w " .
1Jl1nnnnnn
A sectional vi ew of a pol e
in a hydrogenerator with a
water-cooled stator wind in g is UUUUUUI
shown 'in Fig . 62-13. The dis-
tilled water that is used to Fig . 62-14 Water cooli ng of the
cool the rotor is allowed to sta tor core
2 7- 02 40
Fig. 62-15 Umbrella-type, 500-MW, 15.75-kV, 93.S-rpm hydro-electric
Hydro (USSR):
l-stator; 2-rotor; a-upper (spider; [4-auxiliary generat or ; 5-auxili ar)'-generator exclt ert '-regulator generator ; 7-t hrust
bearing; 8-air cooler
ci. 62 Soviet Synchronous Machines 419
flow in the ducts provided within the field conductors. For

the flow of water, the coil turns are connected in series.
In hydrogenerators with water-cooled stator and rotor
windings, the stator core may likewise be cooled by water
(Fig. 62-14). For this purpose, openings are punched in
core laminations, 1, to accommodate tubes 2 which carry
cooling water. To avoid currents that might be induced by
the pulsating field, the water-carrying tubes must be located
within the shortest distance of
the core surface. As a way of
minimizing the thermal resist-
ance, the tubes are press-
fitted in a fully assembled
core. For the flow of water, the
tubes are connected in series-
parallel. Some of the heat
dissipated in the machine is
abstracted by the air in the
gap and by the water that
cools the stator winding
through the insulation. This
somewhat reduces the tooth ' It I I
temperature.
Apart from cooling systems
ti l / /
"8
which use only water, there
are mixed direct cooling sys-
tems. In them, the stator is
directly cooled by water, and Fig. 62-16 Direct air cooling~of
the stator winding, [directly the rotor winding in a hydro-
electric generator
by air. In such cases, the sta-
t.or core is likewise cooled by
air. The most popular arrangement for the field winding
is one in which the cooling-air ducts, 3 (Fig. 62-16) run
across the field winding.
To form these ducts, each conductor is made up of two
strands one of which, 2, has a groove that forms a duct, and
the other, 1, is constant in cross-section. Air entering the
transverse ducts comes from ducts, 8, in the rotor rim, located
opposite a hollow, 6, in the pole, 5. There is a circular duct,
4, which serves to distribute cooling airmniforml y among
the transverse ducts. The pressure required to circulate
air is supplied by the centrifugal force of the air column
between distance pieces 7 in the rotor rim ducts, 8, and
", r
I'
-.
00
~
in ducts 6 and 4. A fraction of the cooling air comes from

the rotor-rim ducts into the inter-pole space where it is
mixed with hot air from the transverse ducts and serves
to cool the stator. Transverse ducts increase the cooling
surface area of the rotor winding by a factor of 8
to 12.
Engine-driven synchronous generators. These are medium-
sized generators direct-connected to reciprocating or inter-
nal-combustion (Diesel) engines, intended for industrial
use and small isolated power systems.
Most frequently, they are salient-pole, horizontal-shaft
units with two end-shield or pedestal bearings, with a totally
enclosed (Fig. 62-17) or an open (Fig. 62-18) enclosure cooled
by self-ventilation. The excitation system is usually of the
direct type, with the exciter either driven by a V-belt
or coupled to the generator shaft . Some engine-driven syn-
chronous generators use a.c, exciters with static rectification
(the voltage regulator unit is mounted on the generator
frame).
62-3 Synchronous Motors and Synchronous

Condensers
General-purpose synchronous motors of Soviet manufacture

are available in several ranges and modifications . Some of
them have a salient-pole, horizontal rotor carried in two
end-shield (see Fig. 62-17) or two pedestal bearings (see
Fig. 62-18) . They may be enclosed or open with self-venti-
lation . Some motors use direct excitation systems, with
the exciter either driven by a V-belt or coupled directly
to the generator shaft.
Some of the Soviet-made synchronous condensers are pro-
tected units with indirect air cooling and are intended for
indoor installation. The cooling system is of a closed-circuit
type, with the air cooled in water coolers installed in a pit
beneath the machine. There are also synchronous condensers
of totally enclosed construction (Fig. 62-19) . They are cooled
by hydrogen at a pressure of 105 to 2 X 105 Pa (gauge) .
Hydrogen is cooled in coolers built into the end bells of
the stator.
eo
.s
......
0
0
o
1
~
OJ ~
eo
"C
...0
;;.,
..=l
....,
c.>
OJ
.!::
"C
.s
bJl
.sUl
;::l
-,
...
OJ
Ul
~
OJ
"C
~
0
c.>
Ul
;::l
0
~
0
IIo
~
;;.,
-
(f)
0-
C'1
~
.~
~
424 Part Fi ve. Syn chronous Machines
63 Speclo l-Purp ose Synchronous

Machi nes
63 -1 Electromagnetically Excited Single-Phase
Synchronous G enerators
These machines have a single-phase armature win ding
(F ig. 53-i) , its conduct or spa nning about t wo-thirds of
a pole pitch . Sue-It a wi nding may be visualized as form ed
by t wo ph ases of an or din ary three-phase winding conne ct ed
in a star. Th en, the operation of a si ngle-phase machine
may be regard ed as t he unbala nce d operation of a conv en-
t ional synchronous machine
in wh ich tw o ph ases carry
a l ine voltage,
v= VAll
and a common curre nt,

.. .
I = fA = -f n
whereas the t hird ph ase is
dead ,
i; = 0
Fig . 63-1 Si ngle-phase synchro- Let us analyze the even ts
nou s genera tor: tak ing place in a sing le-phase
l - ar ma tur e winding; 2- fie ldsynchronous _machine, using
winding; 3- rlamp er bar; 4- the theory of unb al anced ope-
da mper-windi ng end ring
r at ion as applied to a three-
ph ase m achines (see Chap. 61).
By this t heory , t he p ulsa t ing mmf is resolved into two
equ al- amplitude rotating mmfs , one of which is trav elling
at Q (in synchroni sm with the ro tor), and the other at -Q ,
th at is, in th e opposite direction . Th e forward synchron ous
component of the armature mm f affects the excitat ion field
as it does in a conventiona l sy nchronous machine. The
backward synchro nous component t ra vels relative to the
rotor at twice the synchronous sp eed, 2Q. R ela tive to the
backw ard mm f, the rotor slip is equal to 2, so the emfs and
currents induced in its dam per and fi eld windings ar e like-
Ch. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 425
wise at double frequency, 21. The useful synchronous elec-

tromagnetic torque is produced only b y the interacti on
of the synchronous field with the arm ature current. Th e
backward synchronous field is detrimental. To minimize
it , t he rotor of a single-phase synchronous m achin e carries
a series-shunt damper winding in which the bars and the
short-circuiting end rings have a lar ger cross-section t han
they ha ve in a three-phase synchronous machine. This type
of damper winding has a reduced resistance and leakage
react anc e. The redu ction in resistance leads to r edu ced losses
in t he damper winding, lower te mperat ure, an d improved
effic iency of the machin e.
Because of low efficiency, higher cost, and inferior vibra-
tion characteristics, single-phase synchronous machines are
solel y used to supply isola ted loads. As a r ule, their rating
does not exceed a few tens of kilowatts , although there
are units with ratings up to 50 MW for use on a. c. elec tric-
traction railways.
63-2 Reluctance Synchronous Motors
A reluctance synchronous mo tor is a devic e with a salie nt-
pole rotor without a winding and an excite d windin g on the
stator which may be salient
or non-salient.
Polyphase reluctance motors.
In a pol yphase (three- or two-
phase) reluctance motor, the
stator is similar to that in
convent ional synchronous ma-
chines (Fig. 63-2). Th e event s
t aking place in a polyphase
reluctance motor can be ana-
lyzed , using the theory of sa-
li ent-pole synchronous machi-
nes, assuming that the field
curre nt is zero,
If = 0, E f = a
When a polyphase reluctance Fig. 63-2 Beluc tancc sy nchro-
machine is connected 't o an nous ma chine (motor mode of
infinite system (which implies operation, e < 0, Tern < 0)
a constant terminal voltage,
V), the electromagnetic torque is given by Eq. (58-16) for
j; = E t/V = O. The torque is a function of the angle El
between the d-axis of the rotor and the axis of the resultant
field, 'I'v, which in this case is solely set up by the armature
current, I.
For its operation, a reluctance motor depends on the dif-
ference in permeance along the d- and q-axis of the rotor,
xs :,
The electromagnetic torque acting on the rotor of a reluct-
ance motor always tends to align its d-axis with the field.
This can be proved by reference to the basic equation of
energy conversion by electric machines
r.; = (dWldY)i=constant
In a reluctance machine,
W '" i 2 L
where L is the inductance of the armature winding and i
is the armature phase current. As the d-axis of the rotor
moves through an angle dy> 0, tending to line up with
the axis of the armature mmf (01' towards the field axis),
the armature inductance goes up
dL>O
because La > L q , and the energy stored by the magnetic
field is incremented by
dW = i2dL
As a consequence,
r.; = (dWldy) > 0
and this implies that the electromagnetic torque is acting
in the direction of dy and tends to line up the d-axis of
the rotor with the field axis. In the motor mode of operation
(Fig. 63-2), when the d-axis of the torque lags behind the
field axis, e < 0, the electromagnetic ' torque operating
on the rotor acts in the direction of rotation, T em < O.
At R = 0 and I e I = n/4, the electromagnetic torque is
a maximum,
r.; max = m~;2 (11X q - 11Xa)
In analyzing fractional-horsepower reluctance motors
(especially, those with ratings of a few watts or less), it
Ch, 63 Special-Purpose Machines 427
is important to consider the effect of the stator resistance

(see Sec. 58-5). It consists in a reduction of t he maximum
torque and the value of 8 at which it is observed, I 8 I <
< n/4.
A major advantage of reluctance synchronous motors is
a very simple cons truction (they have neither a field winding
nor an excitation system). Unfortunately, t hey suffer from
a vital shortcoming-they draw reactiv e pow er from the
system t o wh ich they ar e connected. This can be seen from
Fig. 63-3 Sec tiona l views of th e r ot or cores used in four-pole r e-

lu ct an ce synchro nous motors:
(a ) conv entio na l core carrying a cast-alu m iniu m damp er windin g; (b) sectionali z-
ed core carrying a cast- alumin ium damper winding whos e sh aped bars form non-
mag netic gap s
Eq. (58-H) , if we put e = O. Because of this, three-ph ase

reluctanc e motors are mainly used in low-power drives
(a few t ens of watts).
Reluctance mo tors are started as induction motors, for
which purpose their rotors carr y an aluminium-cast , un-
equal-p it ch, short-circuited auxiliary winding (Fig. 63-3a).
As follows from the equation giv en earlier, the maximum
to rque could be increased by reducing X d and X q- This
could in turn be don e by increasing the radial gap length.
This would, howev er, lead t o an increased consumption of
react ive .pow er and impairs the power fac tor.
A better way t o improve the performance of reluctance
motors is to sectionaliz e the rotor core by providing seve ral
non magnetic gaps in the path of the q-axis fi eld , with no
such gap s made in the path of the d-axis fi eld. Whereas
in the conven tio nal design , Xdl X q ~ 2, in a sectionalized
rotor with its nonmagnetic gaps filled by aluminium bars
(Fig . 63-3b), t he ratio XdlX q rises to four or five. This
markedly improves T'1 m , ma x' with the reactive :power drawn
from the system held at its previous value. In terms of power

factor and efficiency, three-phase reluctance motors using
sectionalized rotors are comparable with induction motors.
As a result, they can be used even where the required power
output must be as high as several kilowatts. At its ends,
a sectionalized rotor carries short-circuiting rings cast of
aluminium integral with the shaped bars filling the non-
magnetic gaps. The bars and rings form the starting winding
of the machine.
Fractional-hp, single-phase reluctance motors are widely
used in automatic control systems, recording instruments,
video and sound tape recorders. At starting and in running ,
the rotating magnetic field is obtained by the same methods
as in single-phase induction motors. The most commonly
used types are shaded-pole and capacitor-type reluctance
motors in which the stator is built exactly as it is in similar
induction fractional-hp motors (see Sees. 47-4 and 47-5).
The rotor of a single-phase reluctance motor may be built
similarly to that of a polyphase reluctance motor. Here ,
too, a sectionalized rotor core (see Fig. 63-3b) can markedly
improve the starting and running performance of the machine.
In contrast to induction single-phase motors, the auxiliary
winding of a reluctance motor under operating conditions
only affects the backward field and has no effect on the
forward field. Conversely, the saliency has a marked effect
on the forward field because it depends on the position of
the rotor relative to the mmf. Its effect on the backward
field can be accounted for in averaged terms.
Another important factor is that the starting torque of
a reluctance single-phase motor (especially, that of the
capacitor type) at Q = 0 depends on the initial position
of the rotor axes relative to the axes of the main and auxili-
ary windings. This is because the auxiliary winding has
different values for the permeance and leakage inductances
along the d- and q-axis. Given certain conditions, this
factor may be the cause of cogging in capacitor-type motors.
The difference in permeance and reactances along the
d- and q-axis in the auxiliary winding adds a good measure
of complexity to the electromagnetic processes that take
place in a single-phase reluctance motor as compared with
single-phase induction motors . Moreover, it makes the pat-
tern of the rotating field still more dependent on the rotor
speed at startin{5 and the an gular position of the rotor under
running conditions. Therefore, in a capacitor-type motor

a nearly circular field can be obtained only under one par-
ticular set of operating conditions, namely, at a certain
definite rpm at starting or at a certain load in operation.
In all other cases, the ellipticity of the field will be more
pronounced than in similar single-phase induction motors.
At starting and in running, a circular field can be obtained
by varying the capacitance of the capacitors connected in
the auxiliary-winding circuit, after the motor has pulled
into synchronism.
In shaded-pole single-phase reluctance motors, the field
remains elliptical always, both at starting and in running.
Therefore, shaded-pole, single-phase reluctance motors are
inferior to capacitor-type reluctance motors in all respects -
efficiency, power factor, and initial (static) torque.
63-3 Claw-Pole Synchronous Machines

Claw-pole synchronous machines differ from conventional
synchronous motors by the construction of the field
(rotor) core and the field winding.
Fig. 63-4 Claw-pole synchronous machine:

I-N-pole disc; 2-field yoke; 3-S-pole disc; 4-field Winding; 5-armature
core; 6-armature winding
The rotor core consists of three parts (Fig. 63-4), namely

a yoke 2, a disc 1 with claw-shaped projections which serve
as north (N) poles, and a disc 3 with claw-shaped projections
which serve as south (8) poles. The ring-shaped field winding',

4, is placed between the claw-pole discs 1 and 3, and
energized from an excit er via slip-rings. Excitation giv es
rise to a magnetic flux which encircles the field conductors
as shown by arrows in th e figure. The larger proportion
of the flu x emerging from the N pol es crosses the gap, links
the armature winding, threads the yoke, and goes back
to the field structure across th ega p between the armature
2 J 4
10
Fig. 63-5 Brushless, cla w-pole synchronous machine:

l-ring-shaped field win dings; 2- ar ma t ure win ding; 3-armature core; 4- frame ;
5-end-shield; 6-shaft; 7-S-pole yoke; 8-8 poles; 9- N poles; 10-N-pole
yoke; ll-end-shield
teeth and the 8 poles. This is the mutual flux. The smaller
proportion of th e total flux goes directly from the N t o
the 8 poles without linking the armature winding. This is
the leakage flux of the field winding.
The best performance is shown by claw-pole machines in
which the ring-shaped winding is stationary. Because such
a design needs neither a sliding contact nor brushgear to
supply the field winding it is called the brushless type.
I
A sectional view of a brushless synchronous generator with

claw-shaped poles on the rotor is shown in Fig. 63-5, and
its rotor in Fig. 63-6. Its field winding consists of two sta-
tionary ring-shaped coils, 1, installed in recesses of the end
shields , 5 and 11. The flux set up by the coil currents has
its path basically as shown in the figure, that is, from the N
poles 9, across the gap, to the teeth of the armature core 3
along the yoke and armature teeth, again across the gap
to the S poles 8, through the S pole yoke 7, across the gap
between yoke 7 and end-shield 5, through the end-shield,
the frame 4, the other end-shield 11 , across the gap between
-
Fig. 63-6 Rotor of a brushless, claw-pole synchronous generator
end-shield 11 and the N pole yoke 10, and from yoke 10

again to the N poles. The greater proportion of the field-
winding flux links the armature winding and produces the
mutual flux, and the remainder acts as the leakage flux. As
the shaft 6, the pole yokes 7 and 10, and the poles 8 and 9
rotate, the flux linkage with the armature winding (that
is, the mutual flux) varies periodically and induces an emf
in the armature.
Brushless synchronous generators and motors are employed
in cases where brushgear would be hard of access or main-
tenance and where the machine must operate with high reli-
ability for a long time under adverse service conditions.
For example, such generators are used as sources of electri-
city for railways cars. They come in ratings of 10 kW ani'
higher.
63-4 Inductor Machines

General. In an inductor machine, the armature and field
windings are stationary, and the rotor is made of laminated
steel and has a large number of teeth or, rather, notches
but no winding.
Energy conversion in an inductor machine is based on
variations in the mutual inductance between the armature
and field windings as the rotor notches past the stator
teeth (see Sec. 20-4).
In fact, any electric machine with a toothed rotor and
with two windings of a suitable type wound on the stator
can be used as an inductor synchronous machine. I ts mutual

inductance (see Eq. (20-8)) is proportional to the number
of rotor notches, Z:
f = ZQ/2n
With the field winding excited by d.c., the emf induced in
the armature has the same frequency. The armature winding
can be connected to an isolated load or to a system operating
at the same frequency . When connected to a system, an
inductor machine can operate as a generator or a motor,
according to the direction of the external torque applied
to the shaft .
In performance, inductor alternators (as they are usually
called) and inductor-type synchronous motors do not differ
from conventional synchronous machines. Their theory is
based on the general mathematical description of energy
conversion by electric machines, as outlined in brief in
Sec. 18-2.
As compared with a conventional synchronous machine,
an inductor machine has a substantially larger size and
weight. The point is that the flux in the toothed layer
of the stator in an inductor machine varies only in magni-
tude, whereas in a conventional synchronous machine it
varies in both magnitude and direction. Given the same size
and the same maximum tooth flux density, the peak value
of the fundamental flux in an inductor machine is one-third
to one-fourth of its value in a conventional machine. There-
fore, the use of inductor machines is warranted only in cases
where the desired frequency is difficult to obtain with a con-
vent ional multipole or claw-pole synchronous machine.
According to the construction of the field winding, there
may be heteropolar and homopolar inductor machines. In
polyphase machines, the armature winding is always hetero-
polar; . in single-phase machines, it is more frequently
heteropolar, although the homopolar design is also used. In
either case , the stator may be salient or nonsalient. Within
each design class, there may be a multiplicity of modifi-
cations (with referencet to a single-phase machine, they
are described in Sec. 20-4). As an example of a heteropo-
lar design, we shall take up a machine with a salient-pole
stator.
In this design (Fig. 63-7), the field winding, FW, is
held in the major slots of the stator and sets up a two-pole
r flu x (p = 1) whose li nes emerge from the N pole of t he stator

in ,zones II an d I I I, cross the gap, enter the rotor core, 'and
cross the gap in the reverse direction to enter the S pole of
the stator in zones I and IV . The armature winding A W,
is wound for the same number of pol es as the field winding
Fig . 66-7 Heteropolar inductor-type SYIlC ilrOIlOUS ma chine
and is held in the major slots of the stator, displaced from

the field-winding slots by a qu arter of a cycle . The number
of rotor ' teeth is set at
Z = 2pk
where k is an odd integer (in Fig. 63-7, Z = 2 X 1 X 7 =
= 14). On their surface, -t h e major teeth (in zones I-IV)
have recesses between which minor stator te eth ar e formed,
with an angular pitch equal to the rotor too th pitch,
Clz = 2n/Z
I n all the zones, the same number of minor teeth is made
(in Fig. 63-7, there are three minor t eeth in each zone) .
As the rotor turns, the relative position of the teeth on
the stator and rotor varies periodically. 'When the .rotor
takes up the position shown in Fig. 63-7 a, the rotor teeth
lin e up with the minor teeth on the stator in zones , I and'
III , the gap permeance in those zones reach es a maximum
va lue, and the excitation flux is ori ented basically as shown
by the full lines (the dashed lines show the flux whose path
runs through low-permeance zones I I and IV where the
rotor teeth line up with the stator slots). When the rotor
t urns through a half of a tooth pitch,
Clz/2 = n/Z
2 3-0240
Part Five. Synch ronous Machines
and takes up the position shown in Fig. 64-7b , the rotor

teeth line up with the stator teeth in zones II and IV, and
the excitation flu x is oriented basically as shown by the
full lines. From a comparison of Fig. 63-7a and b, it is seen
that the directio n in which the flux cut s th e plane of the
armature coil is reversed.
When the rot or t urns through ano ther h alf of a tooth
pi t ch, that is , an an gle a z/2 , t he flux pattern will be the
Fig. 63-8 Homopolar inductor-type synchronous machine
same as it was in the initial position shown in Fig. 53-7a.

Thus, the flux linking the armature winding varies with
a period
T = az/Q
which corresponds to the rotation of the rotor t hrough an
angle az.
As an example of the homopolar design , we shall take up
a machine with a toothed stator, which differs from the
machine in Fi g. 20-9 only in that its armature winding is
located in the major slots.
In this homopolar machine (Fig. 53-8), t he ring-shaped
field winding, FW, encircles the rotor shaft and is located
between the end-shield and the stator and rotor cores. This:
winding sets up an axi-symmetric excit at ion flux. All of
the flux (one of its lines is shown in the sectional view}
links the field winding. From the rotor magnetized in north
polarity , the flux goes ba ck across the gap to the stator
cu. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 435
magnetized in south polarity. The magnetic circuit of the

mutual flux linking the two sections of the armature wind-
ing, A Wi and A W2, and the fie ld winding, consists of the
following parts: the rotor core RC, the main toothed gap,
the stator core SC, the frame F, the end-shield ES, an
auxiliary annular gap AG, and the rotor hub Rli. The coils
of the sectionalized armature winding are placed, as already
noted, in the major parts of the stator core. The rotor core
does not differ from that in the heteropolar machine shown
in Fig. 63-7. It has Z = (Zmajor/2) k teeth , where Zmajor
is the number of major teeth on the stator core, and k is
an odd integer. In Fig. 63-8, Z = (4 --:-- 2) X 7 = 14.
On their surface, the major stator teeth carrying the coils
A Wi and A W2 have recesses between which minor stator
teeth are formed, with an angular pitch equal to the tooth
pitch of the rotor, az = 2n/Z. (In Fig. 63-8, there are three
minor teeth in each zone between major teeth .) As the rotor
turns, the relative position of the stator and rotor teeth
varies periodically. When the rotor takes up the position
shown in Fig. 63-8, the rotor teeth line up with the minor
teeth in the zones encircled by the coils A Wi. The gap per-
meance in those zones reaches a maximum value; the flux
is basically oriented as shown by the full lines, and links
the coils A Wi. The flux shown by the dashed lines produces
a markedly smaller linkage with the coils A W2, because
in the zones encircled by these coils the rotor teeth line up
with the stator slots, and the gap permeance is a mini-
mum.
When the rotor turns through a half of a tooth pitch, that
is, an angle az/2 = n/Z, the rotor teeth line up with the
stator teeth in the zones encircled by the coils A W2, and
the flux linkage produced by these coils is a maximum,
whereas the flux linkage produced by the coils A Wi is
a minimum. The armature flux linkage varies with a period
T corresponding to the rotation of the rotor through an
angle az. Therefore, as with the heteropolar 'design,
T = az/Q
Because variations in the flux linkages with A Wi and A W2
are displaced in time by T/2, that is, are in antiphase, the
two armature sections must .be connected in series opposi-
tion. In each section, A Wi and A W2, the coils must however
be connected in series aiding.
28*
Part Five. Synchronou s Machines
Inductor-type alternators, Origina lly, the iud uctor ma-

ch ine went in to use as a generato r . In '1854, Knight took
out a British patent for a machine wh ich opera te d by th e
ind ucto r pri nciple. In '1 877 , Yablochkov invent ed a cylindri-
cal-ro tor inductor generator wh ich bore a close rese mb la nce
t o the m ach ine as we know it today .
With t he adve nt of r adio in 1895, ind uctor alternators
ca me to be used as sou rces of current a t 50 kH z and hi gher
for t he antenna reson an t circu it . K nown today as constant-
flu x inductor alt ern ators (see Sec. 20-4, " b" and "d" ), they
remained in this cap acity for a lon g time (until abo ut the
1920s), al though already in '1 901 Guy had proposed his
toothed-stator inductor alternator , now more commonly
known as the pulsating t ooth-flu x inductor generat or
(see Sec. 20-4, "c" an d "e" ).
For the generation of frequencies at the v alues given
above the heteropolar arm ature winding of cylindrical-rotor
inductor alt ern at ors was made with a minimum attainable
number of pole pairs, and their rotor was made to spin
at the maximum permissible sp eed (as high as 20 000 rpm) .
Th e difficulties in t he manufacture of inductor alternators
for such frequencies wer e circumven ted by the pulsa ting
tooth-flux inductor alternator wh ere t he desir ed hi gh fre -
qu ency is obtained owing t o an in creased number of r otor
an d stator teeth .
At present, inductor alternators are no l onger used in
r adio engineering whe re other sources of h igh-frequency
supply h ave been fou nd. I nst ead , they are widely used in
a mul tiplicity of industri al processes such as inductio n
melting, induct ion wel ding and brazing, induct ion heat
t reatment, induction dr yi n g, and so on, wh ich nee d power
sour ces operating at 1 000 to 10 000 Hz . Among their ot her
uses are hi gh-sp eed drives an d radar.
Inductor-type synchronous motors. Although they do not
differ from inductor-type synch ronou s genera tors in con-
struction an d operation, they found practical applicatio n
much later and did not see a growing interest un til the
1960-70s .
In an inductor-type synchronous motor, the synchr onous
sp eed at a given supply frequ en cy, j, is solely a fun ction
of Z = Z~, the number of rotor te eth,
n = Q/2n = j/Z~
Gh. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 437
With a suffi cien tly la rge number of rotor t eeth , very low
sy nchronous spe eds can be obtained. For example , at f =
= 50 Hz and Z" = tOO,
n = 0.5 rps = 30 rpm
If t he numb er of rotor teeth is limited an d the heteropolar
armature winding can be m ade wi th a numb er of pole pairs
clos e t o that of rotor teeth, two modifications of t he smoot h
stator core design can be used , namely :
(1) with he t eropolar (or ra dial) excit at ion (see Sec . 20-4,
"b", Fig. 20-6);
(2) with homopolar (or axial) excit at ion (see Sec . 20-4,
"d", Fi g. 20-8).
If the r ot or has so m any teet h that a smooth stator desi gn
is out of the questi on , resort can be made t o a toothed stator
in an y one of the two modifications discussed above, namely:
(1) w ith het er opol ar (radial) exc itat ion (see Fi g. 63-7
and also Sec. 20-4, "e" , an d Fi g. 20-7);
(2) with homopolar (axial) excit at ion (see Fig. 63-8 ,
Sec . 20-4, "e", and Fi g. 20-9).
The field mo t or dr aws its power from an a .c , supply line
v ia a r ect ifi er . I n self-exc ite d mo t ors , the field wind ing is
energized fro m the armature wind ing by t ra nsformer act ion .
In t h is arrangem ent, the fie ld circuit is clos ed through a rec-
tifier, and transform er cou pli ng is provided by using th e
heterop olar arrangemen t with a pole ratio , P2/PI' equal to
an odd numb er . With both h eteropolar and homopolar
exc it ation , th e exci tat ion fi eld can be produced by suitably
magn etiz ed perm an ent magnet s. The armature winding
can be sing le-, two-, or three-phase . Starting is by direct
connection to t he line.
In addit ion to a ma in (or run) winding , single-phase ind uc-
t or-type moto rs h ave an aux ili ary (or starting) winding con-
nected to th e supply line via a capacitor. To facilitate
starting in whi ch the current s inte r act with the armature
fi eld rota t ing at Q2 = 2n f/P2 whi ch is m any times the rated
sy nchron ous veloc ity of the moto r, Q = 2nf/Z". The v ar i-
ables of the short-circuited win ding must be matched so that
the star tin g to rque excee ds the load (external) t orque , but
is smaller t han the m aximum synchronous (or pull-out)
torqu e . If thi s requirement is not m et, the rotor m ay "skip"
the rated rotational speed . If th e moment of iner tia of the
rot or is not very high, and the synchr onous speed is suffi-
ciently low, the motor can be started even without a short-

circuited auxiliary winding, solely owing to synchronous
torque. In the circumstances , the rotor has time to come up
to synchronous speed and pull into synchronism during
a half-cycle of the synchronous torque, when its direction
remains constant.
Inductor-type reluctance motors. In contrast to conven-
tional reluctance motors, inductor-type reluctance units
are nonexcited single- or three-phase synchronous motors
with a number of rotor teeth in excess of the number of
poles on the armature winding, that is
Z> 2P2
In a conventional reluctance synchronous machine, Z = 2p
(see Sec. 63-2 and also Sec. 20-3).
This type of machine with one winding and toothed stator
and rotor cores is described in Sec. 20-3. The stator must
always be salient, and the number of stator tooth pitches
along the gap circle, Z;, must be either the same as the
number of rotor teeth , Z4 (see Fig. 20-2), or differ from it
by the number of armature poles, Z4 - Z~ = 2Pl (see
Fig. 20-3).
In a reluctance synchronous machine, the armature induct-
ance alternates at
(0 = 2nf = ZQ
On the other hand, as is shown in Sec. 21-1, for electro-

mechanical energy conversion it is essential that the arma-
ture winding be connected to a line with (01 = 2nfl = (0/2.
Hence, in synchronous operation a reluctance motor is
running at
Q = 2(01/Z = 4niI/Z
which is twice the speed of an inductor motor having the
same number of teeth on the rotor.
63-5 Rolling-Rotor and Flexible Wave-Rotor

Motors
Like the motors described in the previous section, these
motors serve to produce low rotational speeds. Instead of
electromagnetic effects, however, they do so with the aid
of mechanical speed reduction .
Rolling-rotor motors. Proposed by Moskvitin in 1944,

it differs from all other motors in two respects. Firstly, the
rotor core has neither a winding nor any projections or
notches on its surface. Secondly, a rotating field causes
the rotor to roll on guides so that it remains eccentrically
positioned inside the stator.
The construction of a rolling-rotor motor is shown in
Fig. 63-9. Its stator carries two windings, namely a hetero-
polar armature winding, 1, and a homopolar field winding, 2.
Fig. 63-9 Rolling-rotor motor (PI = 1, Ini = 2)
Figure 63-9 shows a two-phase armature winding, but it

can be made three- or poly-phase as well. In any case,
however, it must be a two-pole winding (PI = 1). The field
winding consists of two symmetrically disposed coils encircl-
ing the shaft. The two-pole field set up by the armature
winding has its path in the main stator (3) and rotor .(4)
cores. The two cores are smooth and built up of electrical-
sheet steel laminations. The openings of the stator slots
are so small that the effect of stator saliency on the perform-
ance of the motor may be neglected.
The paths for the excitation flux are provided by auxi-
liary stator (5) and rotor (7) cores which are likewise cylin-
drical and built up of electrical-sheet steel laminations.
Thus, the magnetic circuit for the excitation flux has the
following parts; the main gap, core 3, stator frame 6) cor(5,
440 Part Fiv e. Syn chronous Machines
auxil iary ga p, core 7, shaft 8 , and core 4. Th e ro tor shaft

mounts roll ers 10. When driven by the rota ting fi eld , th e
rollers carry the ro tor on cyli ndr ica l guides 9 .
. The di amet ers of t he roll ers and guides, D r and D g ' ar e
chosen so as t o produce a sufficiently large gap e ccentr icity
e = (8rna x - 8 rn1n)/2 = 8 rna x - 8
and so that th e rotor core does not touch the st at or core.
That is , 8 rni n > 8s a re I-lere, 8 rna x , 8 rnin , ' 8 and 8s a fe ar e
the max imum , minimu m , ave ra ge (mean) and safe radial
gap l engths , respec tively . As is easily' seen , the abo ve r e-
qu irement is satisfied when D g - Dr = 2e.
The r ollers and guides ar e ma de either t oot he d or smoot h,
of sp ecial wear-resistance materials hav ing ' a sufficiently
hi gh coeffic ien t of fr ict ion. .
A ro ll ing-rotor m a tor is star te d by exc iti ng the field
windin g wit h a direct cur rent i 2 and by conn ecting it s
arma t ure windin g t o a supply line at 11' When excite d, the
fi eld windin g sets up a unipolar field in the gap, an d the
ar ma ture wi nding est abli shes a t wo-pole _rotatin g field
which travels at Q I = (01 = 2n/ l . Because wi th in 'one pole
pi t ch th e t wo fi eld are combined, -
B' = B~ + B~
and -with in t he other t hey are subtracted,
B" = B~ - B;
th e r otor is at tr act ed tow ar ds th e pole pitch wi th th e larger
rms flu x d ensity, B;rns > B;ms. Figure 63-9 sho ws th e
position th at the rotor t ak es up at ii A = 11m and i l B = 0,
when the ax is of the rotating arm ature fi eld is aligned with
th e axis of ph ase A I ' Th e gap is a minimum, 8 rn in , on axis
AI " and a maxi mum at the di am et ricall y opposite point ,
8 rna x . As airesult, the force of magnet ic attraction pro-
po r tion al to (B;rns)2 - (B;ms? holds the rollers down t o
th e guides. I n t ravelling, t he fi eld t ends to pull th e rotor
along'. Since, however, t he force of sliding friction exce eds
the force of rolli ng fri ction, the rotor is moving down the
guides on t he ro lle rs. Aft er a time T I , which is the period
of change of current , the fi eld axis turns through an angle
2n -count er-clockwise, wh ere it is again aligned -with axis
AI' the point on ro tor 4 that was originally on axis . Al
will have turned th rough an angle y z to take up the position
\
marked by a dashed line. The an gle I' z is the difference be-

tween the angles throu gh which the minimum-gap point
mov es on t he surface of the rotor and stator, resp ectively,
that is,
I' z = (DglD r) 2n - 2n
As a result, the rotor turns at a spe ed which is a sma ll
fraction of the field v elocity (and in t he opposite direction).
As the rollers travel on the guides, they reduce the angular
velocity of the rotor mechanically by a factor of D rl(Dg- D r)
in comp ari son with the fi eld ve locity
n IT Dg-D r n
~'=I' z 1= Dr ~'1
The torque of a rolling-roto r motor can be found in an

easier way, if we observe th at elect romagne t icall y it is
in effect an ind uctor-typ e synchronous mot or with a smooth
st at or and homopolar (axi al) excitation (see Sec. 20-4, "b",
Fig. 20-6).
On t his assumption and with a t wo-pole armature winding
(PI = 1), the ro tor would have only one to oth, because
according to Eq. (20-12),
Zq = PI = 1
and its eccentri call y displaced cylindri cal ro tor would,
as r egards the permeance distribution, be analogous to
a single-tooth rotor. If t he cyli ndrical ro tor were eccentr i-
call y mounted on the shaft carried by bearings, it would
rotate at
Q = 2nfr/Zq = 2nfI = QI
Mechanical spe ed reduction brings it down to the value given
abov e. Ther efore, assuming fix ed currents in the winding,
t he to rque of a rolling-roto r mo tor can be expr essed , as for
any elect romechanical devi ce, in terms of th e cha nge in
magnetic-field energy, dW, du e to rolling through an angle
dl' , that is,
r em = dWldl'
Noting th at
Dg-D
I' = Dr
r ,'1
where I' is the angl e through which t he rotor rolls and 1'1
is t he angle through wh ich t he rotormoves in simple rot a-
442 Part Five. Syn chronous Machines
tion, it is seen that the rolling torque Tern exc eeds the torque
T e rn l = dW/dl'l
developed when an eccen tric 1'0 tor is carried by b earings
by a factor of D r/(D g - Dr), that is
T ern = [Dr/(D g - Dr)] T ern . 1
The ratio D r/(D g - Dr) , called the mechanical spe ed
reduction ratio, can be as high as 100 or even more. Owing
to this, rollin g-rotor motors can give very low rotational
speeds-from several rpm to te ns of rpm, and l arge torqu es.
A major disadvan tage of rolling-ro tor mot ors is t hat
the centre of gr avity of the ro t or , O, mov es r ound a circle
with a radius 0 t,03 at a very high angular velocity, Ql'
This circular motion of th e centre of grav ity necessitates
the use of suita bly designed coup lings to tran smit ro tation
from the r ot or to the output shaft, and also leads t o vibra-
tion and noise in operation.
Flexible wave-rotor motors. Their distinction is that
their hollow, thin-walled rotor , 4, mad e of a ferromagnetic
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 ritz

Fig. 63-10 Flex ible wave-r ot or machine (PI = 1, ml = 2)
material, can be deformed by forc es of magnetic attraction

(Fi g. 63-10). Attracted to the stator at poin ts wh ere the
flu x density of the ro ta ti ng fi eld is a max imum, the rotor
is sh ap ed into a polygon with r oun ded ap exes acting as
rotor t eeth whos e numb er, Z'jl is the same as that of field
poles, 2Pl' With a t wo-pole field, 2Pl = 2 , as in Fig. 63-10,
t he rotor takes the shape of an ellipse wit h two high points
or "teeth", Z4 = 2, where t he radial gap length is a minimum,

and two low points , or "slots" at the centre of which the
radial gap length is a ma ximum. The deformation of the
rot or is limited by cylindrical guides, 2, which support
the rotor directly (as in Fig. 63-10) or via flexibl e rollers .
To avoid slippage, the contacting surfaces of the rotor rollers
and guides should preferably be made toothed . Alternatively
the guides can be placed exte rnall y to the rot or rollers,
as in t he rolling-rotor motor in Fi g . 63-9. The va lue of Dr
for the undeformed rotor and that of D g are chosen such that
Dr - D g = <'l ma x - <'l mln
Th e stator core, 3, is cylindrical, and its slots hold a two
(or three)-phase winding (usually with two poles), 1 , which
is energized from an a.c. line at fl.
Figure 63-10 shows the position of the rotor at il A = Ilm ax
and i1B = 0, whe n th e flux density of the ro t ating fi eld is
a m aximum on the axis of phase A and at the diam etrically
opposite point . The forc e of magnetic attraction holds the
deformed ro to r against the gu ides at two points lying in
zones with a maximum r adial gap length. In moving , th e
fi eld pulls along at the field velocity both the wave of de-
form ation and the points of con t act between t he fl exible
rotor and guid es. As th e rotor rollers move on th e gu ides ,
they reduce the angular veloci ty of th e fl exible rotor by
a fa ctor of D g/(D r - D g) in comp arison wi th the field velo-
city,
where
Yz =
Dr -D g 2rt
Dg
is the angle through which th e rotor turns over a period
of change, T l ' of current . When Dr> D g, the rotor will
rotate with the field; when D r < D g, it will rotate against
the field.
In det ermining the t orque of a wave-rotor motor, it should
he remembered th at , elcctromagnetlcally.Cit is in effect
a reluct ance synchronous motor (see Sec . '63-2). On this
assumption , t he deform ed ro to r h asf'the same numb er of
"teeth", Z4 = 2Pl' as a salient-pole r ot or . If the deformed
r tor were able t o rotate at the field velocity % th e electro-
magnetic torque, Tern, l ' acting on it, could be found from

Eq. (58-16) , on putting 8 = O. Owing to mechanical sp eed
reduction, the actual speed is brought down by a factor of
D g/(D r - D g), and the actual torque is increased in th e
same proportion to the value given by
T ern = ~~2 (1/X q -1/X d ) Dr~Dg sin 28
where V is the phase voltage, X d is the d-axis reactance,

X q is the q-axis reactance, and 8 is the angle between the
field axis and the axis of the deformed rotor (the power or
torque angle).
As compared with the rolling rotor, the flexible wave
rotor offers two unquestionable advantages: it has a low
moment of inertia and a stationary centre of gravity, so
that its operation does not produce vibration or noise.
63-6 PermanentMagnet Synchronous Machines
In this type of synchronous machines, the excitation field
constant in direction is set up by permanent magnets.
Therefore, there is no need for an exciter and there are no
losses associated with excitation and the sliding contact.
As a result, permanent-magnet synchronous machines
hav e a better efficiency and reliability than conventional
synchronous machines where damage to the rotating field
structure and the brush system is a frequ ent occurrence.
Also , they need practically no maintenance throughout their
service life.
Permanent magnets can replace the field winding in both
general-purpose polyphase synchronous machines and all
special-purpose machines (single-phase , claw-pole, and in-
ductor-type units).
Naturally, the field structure of permanent-magnet syn-
chronous machine differs in construction from that of con-
ventional designs. The counterpart of the rotor of a con-
ventional nonsalient-pole machine is a ring-shaped non-
salient magnet magnetized in a radial direction (Fig. 63-11b).
The counterpart of the rotor of a salient-pole synchronous
machine is a star-shaped magnet as in Fig. 63-11a, where
~ ~he magnet, 1, is made fast to a shaft , 3, by m eans of a
\ . s t.luminium hub, 2.
Fig. 63- 11 Permanent-magnet field structures for inductor-type ma -

chines: (a) star-t y pe magne t witho ut pole-pieces; (b) four-po le cylin-
drical magne t
--lA
Fig. 63-12 Permancnt-rnagnet-excl ted claw-pole rotor: 1- ring-shu perl
perman en t magnet; 2-S -pole disc; 3-N-pole disc
Fig. 63-13 Heteropolar inductor-type generator using permanent-

magn et ex citation:
~A W-armature winding; PM-permanent magnet
MB Part Five. Synchronous Machines
In a claw-pole machine (Fig. 63-12), a ring-shaped mag-

net magnetized in an axial direction serves as a ring-shaped
field winding (compare with Fig. 63-4). In the heteropolar
inductor machine shown in Fig. 63-7, electromagnetic
excitation can be replaced by permanent magnets as shown
in Fig. 63-13 (instead of three minor teeth in each zone,
I through IV, as in Fig. 63-7, this design has only one).
The homopolar machine of Fig. 63-8 likewise can have a per-
manent-magnet counterpart. In this case, the permanent
magnet can be made in the form of an axially magnetized
ring inserted between the frame and end-shield.
The electromagnetic processes taking place in permanent-
magnet synchronous machines may well be described by the
theory of electromagnetically excited synchronous machines.
Before it can be applied, however, it is necessary to deter-
mine the no-load emf E f or the excitation ratio e = EflV
from the demagnetization curve of the permanent magnet,
and to calculate X a d and X a q with allowance for the reluct-
ance of the magnet, which may be so large that X a d < X aq
Permanent-magnet synchronous machines were invented
in the early days of electrical engineering. However, they
did not come into wide use until quite recently following
the advent of better materials for permanent magnets (such
as Magnico, and samarium- and cobalt-base alloys). Within
a certain power and rpm range, permanent-magnet synchro-
nous machines can now compete with electromagnetically
excited synchronous machines as regards size, weight, power
output, and torque.
High-speed permanent-magnet synchronous generators
with ratings of tens of kilowatts are widely used as power
supplied on aircraft. Low-power permanent-magnet synchro-
nous generators and motors are mainly used on aircraft,
automobiles and tractors where reliability is of paramount
importance. Fractional-hp permanent-magnet machines have
found a very broad field of application in many industries.
As compared with reluctance machines, they have a more
stable rpm, and better performance in terms of power output
and torque. Unfortunately, they are more expensive to make
and have a poorer starting performance.
Permanent-magnet, fractional-lip synchronous motors can
be self-starting and induction-started.
Self-starting permanent-magnet Iractional-hp motors serve
as drives in clocks, relays, timing devices, and the like.
th. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 447
For ease of starting, they usually have more than eight

pol e pairs and are energized from a single-phase supply at
commercial (power) frequency.
Such motors are started by the synchronous torque that
is developed by the interaction of a pulsating field with
th e permanent magn ets of the rotor. For the start to be
su ccessful and in the desired direction, such ma chines are
fitted wi th suitable mechanical devices th at permit the
rotor to turn in one direction only and decouple it from
the shaft during synchroniz ation.
Induction-started Iractional-hp permanent-magn et syn-
chronous motors come in two modifications namely with
a radial permanent magnet and short-circuited auxiliary
(starting) winding, and with an axial permanent magnet
and auxiliary winding. As regards the stator construction,
they do not differ from electromagnet icall y excited machines.
In either case, the stator winding has two or three phases.
In motors with a radial permanent magnet and auxiliary
winding, the latter is arranged in the slots of the laminated
pole-pieces of the permanent magnets. The leakage fluxes
between the pole-pieces of adj acent poles are kept to an
acceptable value by nonm agnetic gaps. Sometimes, the pole-
pieces ar e interconnected by saturable jumpers into an
integral ring-shaped core to mak e the roto r more robust
mechanically.
In motors with an axial permanent ma gnet and auxiliary
winding, some of the active length is taken up by the per-
manent magnet, and the remainder is occupied by the la-
minated auxiliary-winding core located next to the magnet.
Both ar e mounted on the same sh aft . Becaus e at starting
permanent-magnet motors are excited, their starting per-
formance is inferior to conv entional synchronous motors
where the excitation is removed. The point is that, at
starting, the positive induction torque produced by the
interaction of the rotating field with the currents induced
in th e auxiliary winding co-exists with the negative induc-
tion torque due to the interaction of the permanent magnets
with the currents induced in the stator winding by the per-
manent field.
448 Par t Five. Synchronous Machin es
63-7 Hysteresis M otors

In t his type of mo to r , th e excit ation fi eld is produced by
the r esidual magnet ization of the rotor core m ad e of a mag-
netically hard m aterial. In con trast to permanent- magnet
synchronous machines whose rot or is pre-magnetiz ed prior
t o assembly, the rot or of h yst eresis machin es is mag neti zed
by the rotating field of the ar mature winding at s tarting.
fl.,
<:1;10
WI Q;,O
f.
2
i, 11m
Fig . 63-14 Hysteresis motor:

i - stator core; 2- rotor core made of a magnetically hard material (VicaJloy);
3- t h ree-phase stato r win ding; 4- magneticaJly soft h uh ; 5-gap bet ween stat or
and rotor
A section al vi ew of a hysteresis motor is shown in

Fig. 63-14. The sta t or is the same as in a conventional
synchronous or an induction machine. The stator slots carry
a polyphase (three- or t wo-pha se) armature winding ener giz-
ed from a supply line at VI S and f . The rotor core mounted
on a cyli ndri cal hub is built up of rings with a radial thick-
ness b.. Th e rings ar e mad e of a m agnet icall y hard material
(most frequent ly; Vicallo y), wh ereas the hub ma y be mad e
of a magnetically soft or nonmagnetic material.
Figure 63-14 shows a hysteresis motor in which the hub
is mad e of a magnetically soft material having a substanti-
ally higher permeability than the rotor core. As is seen,
the thickness b. of the rotor cor e is small in comparison
with the radius of the huh. As follows from the field pat-
Ch. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 44!)
tern shown ill the figure, the lines of flux in the core and
in the gap are directed radially, and the flux density B
does not differ from the gap flux density.
Consider the magnetization of the rotor core rotating
at Q which is smaller than QI' the angular velocity of the
stator mmf, F l m , that is, with a slip given hy
S = (Q I - Q)/Q I > 0
The rotating stator mmf
F l1ll = (mI V 2 I n ) Ilw1kwllp
magnetizes the parts of the magnetic circuit cyclically in
a sinusoidal manner . This gives rise to a field such that
the sum of the partial mmfs halances F I ,
. . .
F l m = F om + e;
where
Pom = cEl m ~ BlmfJhL o
is the peak value of mmf existing in all the parts of the
magnetic circuit where the hysteresis effect may he neglect-
ed, except the rotor core propel'. F m is the peak value of
mrnf within the rotor core, equal to H m /::. .
Suppose that an element of the rotor core is cyclically
magnetized in a sinusoidal manner at tho slip frequency
SUl I Then the magnetic field intensity in that element
will vary likewise sinusoidally,
H = H m sin (SUl I) t
The flux density in the element under consideration varies
periodically hy tracing out the hysteresis loop corresponding
to the peak field intensity, H m From knowledge of H m
at each instant of time, t, we can readily determine B = f (t)
(Fig. 63-15). As is seen, the flux density varies with time
nonsinusoidally . Applying a Fourier expansion, we can
isolate the fundamental component (varying at tho slip
frequency SUl I) and determine its peak value, B l1 n , and the
\ phase shift a relative to Hill" Then, we can calculate the
mutual flux
zo -0240
its link age wi th the stator wind ing

. .
'VI Om = wlkwl<D m
th e m utua l emf of t he stat or
s, = - jCOj<jom/ 1/ 2
and th e st ator vol tage,
. . . ...
VI = - VI S = E I - jX aII
A phasor-v ector di agr am of a hysteresis motor, construct-
ed in accor d wi th t h e above eq ua tions and the mm f equa -
t ions , is sho wn in Fig . . 63-14.
The electrom agne tic torque dev elop ed by a hysteresis
mo to r can be found from th e general equat ion Ior th e elec-
trom agnetic torque of an a .c . m ach in e (29-4). It is more
conven ient to fin d the torq ue act ing on th e sta tor (it is
equal 1.0 th e torque actin g on th e ro tor , hut is actin g in th e
opposi t e di rection):
Tern = (n1jp / V 2) \P'lO m1 j si n a lO
On expressing \P'Iom in t erms of o., and II in t erm s of

F jm, we get :
Tern = (p2n /2) <DmF l m sin alO
As is see n fro m the pli asor-v ec tor diagram, how ev er,

Fl1n sin a l O = F m s in a = H mIJ. sin a
Also, the mutual flux is express ed in term s of B l m and th e
dim ensi ons of th e rotor core propel'. Th erefore, finall y,
Tern = (p/2n ) VW h
where V = 2V rlIJ. is t he volum e of the rotor core proper,
TV" = n B ImH m si n a is th e sp ecific hyster esi s loss di ssi-
pated per cy cle p er unit v olume, and 1: = n R /p is the pol e
pitch .
. This , on the assump ti ons m ad e, th e el ect rom agne tic t orque
of a hyst eresis machine is ind ep enden t of sl ip and is pro-
por tio n al t o the hyster esis l oss p er cycle of m agn et ization.
(The ar ea of the ell ipse corresponding to cyclic ma gnetiza-
tion at the fund am ental H and B is al wa ys equa l to t he area
of the h yster esi s lo op, see F ig . 63-15.)
At starting, a hysteresis motor develops the same electro-

magnetic torque, whatever the slip , s ; 0. If this torque
exceeds the load (retarding) torque even by a small amount,
the motor will come up to synchronous speed. At synchronous
speed, it can develop the same maximum torque at an angle
a between H m and E m 1 . Now, however, it will be running
as a permanent-magnet synchronous motor, because its
rotor is no longer subjected to cyclic. magnetization, and
Fig . 63-15 Cyclic magnetization of the rotor core in a hysteresis motor
no hysteresis effect takes place . Should the load torque go

down, the machine will keep running under synchronous
conditions, but the angle between the primary current and
the flux linkage will decrease. At Tern = 0, it is equal to
zero . Should the load torque change sign, the machine will
keep running under synchronous conditions, but it will
now be operating as a motor . Finally, should the load torque
exceed the maximum electromagnetic torque and act in
the direction of rotation, the machine will drop out of
synchronism and begin rotating at a speed exceeding syn-
chronous. Now, it will be delivering energy to the system.
Hysteresis motors of low power ratings (a few tens of
watts) are widely used in various fields . They are especially
advantageous in cases where they are used to drive bodies
having high moments of inertia (such as gyroscopes).
Most frequently, hysteresis motors are made with a rotor
<, hub fabricated from a nonmagnetic material. Then the rotor
~co re proper acts as a yoke,an d the flux in it is predominantly
tangential. In other respects, a hysteresis motor with a non -
magnetic rotor hub behaves in the same manner as explained
above and obeys all the relevant relations.
29*
1152 Part Five. Sync hronous Machin es
63-8 Stepp er Motors

Th ese motors are important in automatic control systems ,
compute rs , num erically con trolled m achine-tools, and oth er
position-control applications. Instead of a con tinuous rot a-
tion, th eir ro torsmove in steps in response to con t rol pul ses .
Thus , over a rotor-slot p itch , th e rotor can tak e up several
stable positions.
r./6
'''-.----' I
Fig. 63-16 Explaining opera t ion of a four-phase ste pper mo tor
Figure 63-16 shows the simplest 6-ph ase , 2-pole reluctance

stepper motor . Its phase coils are divided into three groups
(1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6). In each group, the phase coi ls
are connected in parallel
opposition . Ther efore, wh en
a positiv e pulse is applied t o
one of the phases in a group ,
a negativ e pulse is applied at
the same time to the other
phase in that group . When
phase 1 is excited, the salien t- I
Vs '--+--+-+-__--""==-__ pol e rotor takes up th e posi-
tion shown in Fig. 63-16a. If ,
""'<:l-O--O--- - ---""<LLL.""-- - i . . wi th ph ase 1 s till excited,
I
voltage is appli ed to phase 2,
Fig . 6~ -17 Commutati on se- p si t.i
qucnco ill the st epper motor of 0
the rotor will move to th e
.on
shown in Fig. 63-1611
,
I
Fig . 63-16 th at IS , through a step 0: 0 =
n16. Upon removal of volt-
age from phase 1, th e rotor will move by an angle of n j()
once more, thereby advancing another step (c), and so on.
If we apply con trol pulses in th e sequence shown in
en. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 453
Fig. 63-17, the rotor will move counter-clockwise hy an

an gle ex = Nexo, proportional to th e numh er N of control
pulses. If we appl y cont rol pulses in a reverse d sequence,
the rotor will mo ve clockwise.
Cont rol pulses of an appropr iate waveform and frequ ency
ar e generated by electron ic (tube-type or semiconductor)
switching circuits . They ar e steered by a control circuit
wh ich also lock s the rotor in position bet ween pulses.
Th e perform ance of a stepp er motor is described in t erm s
of its step size, torque-an gle ch ara cte ri stic , and maximum
pulse repetition frequency sufficien t for all transients to
die out hetween steps . The starting perform ance of a stepper
motor is ch ar act er ized in t erms of the pull-in frequency ,
that is, th e ma ximum pulse r epetition fr equency at which
th e motor can still be star te d withou t mi ssing some st eps
(that is, without fallin g out of synchronism). Depending
on type of mo tor , this frequ ency may extend from 10 to
10000 Hz.
A stepp er motor can be based on any one of known modi-
fications of the synchrono us mo tor. Th e best choice is
offerred by polyphase, multiple-pole r eluct anc e synchronous
motors , re luctance in duct or-type sy nch ronous motor, and
polyphase inductor-type motors.
For better control accuracy, the step siz e is usually kept
to a minimum. This is achieved by increasing the number
of ph as es an d pol es, and also the numb er of rotor teeth
in the cas e of inductor-typ e mo tors. Accor ding to the desired
I evel of accuracy , the ste p si ze can r ange from '1800 to 10
or even less.
63-9 Doubly-Fed Synchronous Mac hines
Doubly-fed synchronous motors. In construct ion, th ey ar e

similar to a wound-rotor indu ction machine. Th e st at or and
rotor carry each a three-phase winding , 1 and 2 , with the
sam e effect iv e turns. The two windings are conn ect ed ill
parallel (or in series) to a comm on a .c. supply line opera t ing
at VI and 11 (Fi g. 63-18). Therefor e, t hey carry equal cur-
rents, II and 1 2 , As has been sh own in Sec. 21-1, this type
of machin e will he cap able of energy conve rsion , if its rotor
is spinning at an ele ctrical an gular velo city
(0 = (01 + (0 2 = (01 + (01 = 2 (01
or a mechanical angular velocity

Q = eslp = 2wI /p = 2 QI '
that is, at twice the mechanical angular velocity as com-
pared with a conventional synchronous machine having the
same number of pole pairs, p.
To meet this requirement,
the stator winding, 1, must
be connected to a positive-se-
quence supply, and the rotor
winding, 2, to a negative-
sequence supply. Then, F l m
will rotate at QI in the posi-
tive direction, and F 2 m will do
so in the opposite direction,
and they will move in synch-
ronism, if the rotor is travell-
ing at 2Q I in the positive di-
Vl i fl rection.
As a result of the interne-
Fig. 6318 Circuit of a doubly tion between the synchronously
excited synchrorious motor rotating stator and rotor
fields set up by Fl m and F 2 m ,
the rotor is acted upon by an electromagnetic torque, T em'
which can be found by the same equation as for induction or
conventional synchronous machines (see Sec. 29-2). Nurne-
ricall y, this torque is equal to the torque acting on the sta tor,
T em = (m1pIV2) o/iOmI1 sin (a/2)
Here, 'P' Iom is the flux linkage of the mutual field with
the statal' winding, II is the stator current, and a/2 is a half
. .
of the angle between F1111 and F 2 n1> or the angle between
WlO m and II (see Fig. 63-19).
The electromagnetic torque balances the load torque
applied to the shaft, thereby keeping the rotor at syn-
chronous speed. A change in the load torque brings about
a change only in the angle a. In the motor mode of opera-
. .
tion, F 11n leads F 2 m , so a> 0 and T em> O. In the generator
mode of operation, the situation is reversed, so a < 0
and Tern < O. .
Neglecting losses, the active power of the motor, equally
shared between the stator and rotor windings, can e written
in two ways, namely :

P = 2m l VIII cos (P = T em Q = 2Jn l E l OI 1 sin (a /2)
wh ere
E IO = W t \ lOnJ V :2
is the emf induced by the resultant mutual field .
Fig. 63-19 Phasor-voctor dia gram of a doubly excited synchronous

motor
A phasor-vector diagram for a doubly-fed motor is shown

in Fi g. 63-19. As is seen ,
10 = 211 cos (a /2) (63-2)
Also, if we neglect leakage and put X I U = 0, th en
E I O = VI
cp = n /2 - a/2
and
(03-3)
wh ere X u is th e mu tu al reactan ce.
On simplifying as abov e and using Eqs. (63-1) through
<, (63-3), the activ e power and torque ca n be wri tten in terms
<, of th e angl e a as .
P = T em Q = (7121 Vi/ X 0) tan (a/2)
Doubly-fed m ot ors are used on a limited sc ale, and then
in special-purpose applications only. At starting, they have
456 Part Fiv e. Syn chro nou s Machin es
to be brought up to synchronous speed by an aux il iary (servo)

motor, which is a decisive limita t ion. Also, doubly-fed
motors tend to hunting , because the damping to rque app ea r-
in g upon a depa rture from synchronous rota tion is too small
(see Sec . 60-1) .
Synchronous induction machine. This ma chine (also known
as the auto-synchronous motor) is similar t o a n induction
motor wi th a wound seconda ry .
I t h as a two-pha se rotor (field) winding excite d with
a.c . at t , from a thyristor frequency converter . Its s ta tor
does not differ from th e conventional design and is con-
uect ed t o a supply a t fl ' In a way , a sy nchr onous ind uction
machine m ay be looked upon as a doubly-fed machin e in
which the stator and rotor are energized with currents dif-
fering in fr equency, t, =1= f 2 (ordinarily, 12 /1)'
In this typ e of machine , ene rgy conversion will tak e pl ace
onl y if .
01'
Q2 = Ql - Q = sQ 1
This condition ca u be sa ti sfied both when th e rotor is tra-
vell ing at synchronous sp eed, Q 1 = Q, and at synchronous
speed, with som e slip ,
s = (Q 1 - Q) /Q 1
At synchronous sp eed , the r ot or phases ar e excited with d. c.:
Q2 = Q1 - Q = 0
At as ynchronous speed , the ro t or ph ases are exc ite d wit h
a .c. at the slip frequency , /2 = Sfl ' shi fte d in tim e ph ase
by :rc/2 . As a result, th e excitation fi eld is rotating rela tiv e
to th e rotor at the desired an gular velocity, Q 2 = sQl .
Th e fr equ ency of field current , f2' is contro lle d cont i-
nuously and au toma t ically in such a way th a t th e stato r fi eld
and th e rotor field are travelling at a consta nt velocity
such that
Ql = Q +Q 2
"<, and produce an elec tromagnetic to rque wh ich m aintains

synchronous rotation.
A synchronous induction machine can be used as a gene-
rator and as a motor.
To minimize th e active power drawn by the frequ ency

converter
P2 = sTernQ
variations in the slip and the frequency of field curr ent are
usually held within very narrow limits: .
s = +0 .0'1 , 12 = 0 to 0.5 Hz
Even with this tight tolerance on likely departures [rom
synchronous speed, synchronous induction machines stand
' "f'Z
I )11
p ~r
Fig. 63-20 Variable-ratio connection giving "flexible ti c" between
two elec tr ic syste ms
up to abnormal and fault conditions (such as sho rt-circuits

in the system, hunting provoked by load shedding , and the
like) and retains stability far better than conventional
synchronous machine. In this li es their most v aluable advant-
age. Unfortunately , synchronous induction machines are
more expens ive to mak e and operate, so they are onl y
warranted in large installations where their advantage is
decisive.
R ecently , synchronous induction machines hav e come to
be used as a "fl exible t ie" (known as t he variable-ra tio
conn ection) between two electrical systems slightly differing
in frequency (11 - I~ ~ 0.5 %-'1 %). The need for a "flexible
tie" arises wh en the interconnect ed syste ms belong to dif-
ferent owners (states or utilities, as th e case ma y be) , and
th e pow er exchanged between the m ought no t to depend
on th e operating conditions of either sy stem.
The arrangement ordinarily used for a flexible tie is
shown in Fig. 63-20. As is seen , i t us es two machines with
the same number of pole pairs. One is a conventional syn-
chronous machine, 8. The other is asynchronous induction

machine, 8'. Theil' rotors are coupled by a common shaft.
The stator of 8 is connected to a system operating at 11'
and th e stator of 8' to a system operating at I~. The rotor
of 8 is excited with direct current I ? from an excitation
system, E8. The two-phase rotor winding of 8' is excited
with alternating current I~at I~ from a static frequency
converter. .
For unidirectional energy conversion, the static frequency
converter maintains the field current at a constant frequency
,'-- -_. .-.. f; = s' I~ r-
wh ere s' ; '(- (f~ - f1)/f~. The magnitude and ' direct ion of
power transler ris controlled by ,'v arying ,t he phase of I~
and the angle :c;x "between the stator and rotor mmfs, F~1I:
and F~m, rotating in synchronism in.the synchronous induc-
tion nlachiri'l3.'--If F;-,n ' lags behind ::P i1li, the synchronous
induction machine will operate' as a motor, and the syn-
chronous machine as a -generator: As .a T~sUlt , power will be
transferred from the :system at fi to rthe system at 11 (tho
direction of power transfer is shown by full arrows). If
F;m leads F~1I" power will be transferred tho other way around
(the direction of power transfer in this case is shown by
dashed arrows).
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Index
Air ga p factor , 67 E lcc tro iu ng ue ti c torque,

Air ga p mmf, 67 d cfincd , 110
An gular sli p v elocity , 78 inhercnt (stati c) starting, 113, 132
Armature el ectric loading, " ~ maxi mum , 112
Armatu re winding, 26 5 01' sy nc h ro n ous mach inc, 336
impedan ce, 2G8 st ray, 115-125
indu ctive react an ce , 2G7 eddy-c urren t , 123
leakage inductiv e re si sta n ce, 26 5 hystcr csi s , 123
mu tual indu ctive r eactan ce , 266 indn ction, 115
paramet ers , 265 r eactive, 122
resistan ce of cond uc to r s, 2G5 sy nc h r onous, 118
A u tom a ti c syn chronizer, 22'. , 230, 232 Elliptical r cvolving field, 1G5
Auta-synch ronous motors , 35', EMF form fa c tor , 239
Equivalent armature mmf in UII-
saturated
Blo ck fill fa ctor, 68 mac hine , 263
Br eakaway torqu e, 370 Excitation field for cing, 23B
Excitation fi eld form fa ctor, 238
Capacitor mo tor, lH Excitation nu x form fa ctor, 238
Circl e diag ram of indu ction machine, Excita tio n fi cld killin g, 232
125 Excit at ion ratio of sy nc h ron o us rnu-
Claw -p ole sync h r on ous ma chines, 42!J ch i nc , 333
Com pou mli ng torque, 3'.9 Exc ita tion sy ste m s for
Condition for s ta ble opera tion, lI,O fi eld c urren t co n t ro l, 2:J1
Cra w li ng, l1 G, 118, 121l sync hron ous ma chin e, 230
Criti cal a n g ular ve loc it y of sh a ft, Bl Ex citer , 2BO
Cooli ng a r rangements, 21
Field voltage ratio, 23',
Damp er (amortissenr) winding, 22 5 Flexible wave-rotor m otors , ft42
direct axis , 225 Flux density waveform shape ra ctor,
doubl e a xis, 225 ',0, 66
Decay fa c tor , 382 Forced oscillation of roto r, B83
Deviation f actor, 237
Di r ect cooli ng 01' windings, ',2 Hydrogcncrators , 212, 415
Doubly-fed synchronous m otors , 45B Hys te re sis motors , 1,1, 8
Effici en cy of indu ction motor, 91 Indirect cooli ng, 42

E lcctric al m achin es Indu ction c o n t rol motor, 195
cooli ng sys tem of, 22 Induc ti on fr cqucn cy co n ve rte r. 180
close d-c irc u it , 22 I ndu ction gene ra t or, 17!J
direct, 22 Indu cti on ge nc rator with sel r-cxc t ta-
indirect, 22 tion , 180 :
op en-ci r cu it, 22 ' I nd u cti o n ma chine ,
dr ip-pro of, 19 breaking, lOG, 1117
I'or ccd ai r- cool ed , 2 1 circ le dia g ram of, 125
g ua rd ed, 18 defined, 53
m cch ani cal an alysis ami d esign , 2 5 eq u iv ale n t ci rc ui t of, 98, 9!J
naturally a tr-c oolcd, 21 ge ne r ator. 10ft, 105
noi se-l ev el class if icat io n of, 24 m ag nc t izing curre nt of, 81,
opcn, 18 m echani cal p ower o f, 1111
sea-proof, 21 mmf's and curren ts o f, 81,
sclf-v entllated , 21 m ode s of op eration of, 103, 108
se pa r a tcly v entilatcd, 22 stator leakage indu ctiv e reac ta nc e
sh or t-t ime s ubmers ible, 21 of, 77
Sov iet standard s for , 2', v oltage and c ur re n t di a g rams of, 80
spl ash-proof, 19 Indu ction machin e at no load , (j',
/ w a ter-proof, 21
Electro m ag ne tic dampers, 198
fndu ction machin e on load , 7B
Indu ction motors ,
El cctromagneti cally ex i tcd si ngl o- e ffic ie nc y of. 91, 103, 101" 13',
ph ase synchronous gen era t ors, 424 limited r ot ation , 1!J2
E lcc tromagnc t ic indn cti on pump , 189 lin eal' , 192
annul ar lin ear , 192 loadi ng conditio ns of, 130
n at lin ea r, 101 multi s pecd , 1""
heli cal, 189 nhuse-wound. 5',
Elec tro magne tic pow er, rlcf i nerl, 80 Ringle -phase, Jn3
01' syn chron ous ma ch ine, 296 sli p-r ing, 61
Index 163
I nd nc tio n m oto rs, P olyph ase re l uc ta nc e m otors, 425

so lid r otor, 186 Pos i ti v e sequence impedance of
speed con t rol, u,a armatu re wind in g, 387
by line frequency chaugu, 1"" Pu ll- in torque , 353, 370
by p ole cha nging, lit4 Pu lling into syn chroni zation, 361
by primar y voltag e ch a nge, iltU Pull-out new er , 338
by r oto r cir cuit r es istance, 150 P o ti er r ea ctance , 281
withou t slip power recov ery, 1118 Powe r an gle ch arac teris ti c, ~3 7
with slip power re covcry.: 1'tS Process es i n ind ucti on ma chines on
split-p ha se, 170 load , 73
sq u irre l cag e, 57
Induction re solver, 200
coord ina t e t ransformation by , 2 0 ~
li near , 202 n adi al for ce of magn eti c a ttracti on,
s in e-co s ine, 201 30
Induction starting, 360 !Jcc t ifi er t yp e exit a ti on system s,
Induction t a ch o-gener at or , 100 brushless , 235
I ndu ct or machines , 1,3 1 self-excitation, 235
I nductor-typ e a lternators , 436 separate, 235
Inductor-type syn chron ou s m otor s, Heferred qu antities, 05
436 Relu c t an ce synchron ous motors, 425
Indu ctosyn, 204 pol yphase , 1,2 5
In stahility of syn chro nous ma ch ines single-phase, 1,28
in para lle l operation, :17G Relu ct an ce -torqu e motors , 351,
In snl a ti on clas ses, 16 Reson an ce modulus of v th ha rmon ic,
385
La mp sy nch ro n izer, 360 It esv ncluoni za tlon, 372, 375
Limited-rotation induc tion motor, Hev er sible sy nc h r on ous machine 35 0
102 Hollin g-rotor motors , 1,38 '
Lin ea r ind uction motor, 102 !Jotating fi eld transformer, 181,
Lo cal h ydrauli c r esi stan ce, "" Hot ating-machine exei tation sys te m ,
Ma chi ne constant, 40 ,
?~~1~~ct~3~34 .. r ': ' :
Magneti zing c urve of a ma chine, n Ro tor teeth mmr, 60 .,
Main stator wind ing impedan ce, 72 Hotor y ok e mmr, 70
w!l\1F
armature , 251, . ~ ~,"~ ..
in ge nera tor mod e, 257 Sali en t-pole synchron ous m achin e,
M ul t tspc cd inducti on m ot or , 1"" 217 l
elec tromagnetic p~ocesses in , 275,
Ne gativ e sequ en ce imp edance of 284 , '
armature winding, 380 v olt a gc -d ragram of , 276
Noise le vel class if ic ation, 23 Self -syn'ehronl zation , 361
No-load cha rac teris tic of a ma chin e, Sha ded- pole m o tor, 177
72 Shor t-ci rcuit ratio ' (Se!J ) of
No-load c urre n t, 71 sy nc hrono us ma chine, 3 13
No- load (op en-circuit) mode of ope - Shor t-c ir cu it triangle, 312
ration ; 7 ~ Single phase ind uction motor, 163
Nominal se rv ice condi ti ons, 15 hasi c eq ua tions, . 167
No n magne tic drag-cup motor, 188 eq niva len t circu it , ' W 7
Nonsalien t-pol c synch rono us ma- Single pha se -to -gr ou nd fa ul t, 402
c hi ne , 217, 22u Skewed slots, 118, 122
clcc tr omagnc ttc pro cesses in, 271 I Sli p-r ing indu ction motor, 61
270 Solid -rotor induction motor, 186
v oltage dia gram of, 2n , 280 Sov ie t turbogcnerators, 405
Speci al-p urp ose indu ct ion m a chi nes,
179 ,
Operati on of sy nc hr ono us ge ne rator Specif ic ma gn eti c ten sil e force , 30
into Spe ci fic syn chroni zing power, 31.3
isola t ed load , 301 Sp ecifi c syn chroni zing t orq ue, 343
is olated unhalanced load , Split-p hase in duction motor , 170
-: Perf ormance cha rac teristics, l id, 142,
Sq uirre l-c age in duction motor, 57
Squirrel- cag e w indin g a na lysi s, 81
143 Stabili ty in paralle l opera tion , 340
P orm an cn t-mngnet sy nch ro n o us 11lU- Sta r ti ng of inducti on m otors, 131
chines improved startin g performan ce , 13!i
Phase r egulator, 182 bell -shaped ba r des ign , 138, 130
Phase- to-phase fault, I,O:J de ep-ha l' desi gn, 13G
Ph ase-w ound i nd uc tio n motor, 54 doubl e ca ge design, 137
Pol e enr:losure, 50 torqu e-slip cha racteristic, 138
Pol e spa n factor , 238 t ra pe zoida l-ba r desi gn, 138
Inuex
S tarting of indu ction motors eng ine ty pe, :Yl

inherent starting t orq ue, I:J:.! rield structure of, 210
starting t ime, 1:J2 hi s tori cal out li nc , 211,
to rque-speed characteristic, I:JI ind u cti on ru n ning of, 3n
Star ti ng of phase-wo u nd indu c ti on ind uctor- tvpe, 43li
m ot ors, 133 in generator mode, 2n:J
Starting of squ irre l-cage i nd uc ti on Inverted arrangement of, 210
mo tors, I:JI of Sov iet manuracturc , 405
Stator phase mutual emm f, 77 perman en t magnet, ViI,
Stator t eeth mmf, 68 rea ctive power - 0 c ha rac teris ti c,
Stator yoke mmf, 70, 75 345
Steady-s ta te power s tability rati o, ov erex ert ed , 31,9
339 u nderc x cited , :J4n
Steady-s tate stability li mi t , 350 revcrsibl e, 350
Steady-state temperatures, 39 Synchronous machine on load,
Stepper motors, 1,52 elec tro magnet tc process es in , 271
Stray torques, 115 nousali ent-pole machin e, 279
eddy current and hy steres is , 12:J sa lie n t-pole ma chine, 275
ind uc ti on , 115 un ba lanced ope ration of, :J97
reactive, 122 Synchro nous motors , 350
synch ronous, 118 doubl y fed , 1, 53
Sy nc hronization, 321" 358 Sy nc hros, 204
exa ct, 327, 358
me thods of, 358 Th erm al an al ysi s of cooli ng sys tem .
Sy nc hron izing by fr eq uc ncy co n trol, 32
366 T he rmal resista nce , :J!J
Synch ron izing to rq ue , 329 network, 39, 1,0
Sy nch ro nous compens ators (ca pa ci- hr cc-ph a sc indu cti on reg ula to r , 18.1
t ors ), .3.~,5 . 'i Im e co ns ta n t of h eatin g, :J7
Sy nch roncllls .qon denser ,..211, 21 /., 35 ~ 'I'orqu e m ot ors, 198
S y n chl' orfo'tI~ "g-eiler a t or (s ) , Torqu e-slip ch a rac te r is t ics , III, ] 1:1
con trol of load for infinitc bus , ;j 2 ~ ' of flat indu ctio n mo to r, l!J:J
ex citati on c uaracte rts t lcs of, a02 Tor qu e-sp eed ch a racteristics , 131
e xte r na l, ch'a\'aGter is tics of , :JOG Tor qu e s tability rati o, 33!l
load clraractcristtcs of,' 313 '. ' T ra ns form er t heory for indu cti on
opcratton -Into isolated load , :JOi mach ines, nI
paralic ] opera tio n of, 323 T ra ns ien t osc illations , 381
se lf excita ti on.' of. 3Q5, 3i6 . '. T urbogenerato r, 213
s hort-c irc nit characterlsttcs; :of, 30!l
Sy nchronous intlu ction rmotorB,"35 /,
Sy nc hronous mac h inc, . : .~ Un bal a nced ope ration of sy nc hro nou s
armaturc . rore 21.0 . ~ t, :;h ; l ct' H . 1
mac h ines, 3[)7
claw-po le, f!29 \..mi ;~, i f d ~ .~ -. I Unba lanced stcad y-state shor t c lr-
COlIllJOUIHli ng curve of, :J4n c uits, 402
clectrorn agnetl c power of, 2n6
ctectroma gn et lc: nrocesses . i n , ,23.6 v- c uivcs. 31,li
ele c trom agn etic .t orq ue, 2n8; , ; ' ..'.
energ y convers ion li n ge nerator z cro -scqucncc impedance I)f ar matu re
mode by. 293, ., " ".
\ '. ".' .' win ding, 396
t :.
P rinted in the U n ion of S oviet So cialist R epubli cs

'"""' _ _ 1 _ _
Professor Alexei V. IVANOV-SMO-

LENSKY, D. Sc. .(Tech .), is a leading'
Soviet autho rity . in his field. Currently,
he is w ith the Moscow Power Institute.
He' has wr itten (individually and as a
coautho r) six books on electricity in-
cl udi ng t he present one.
IR. PUbliishers
I tJ ... .'
r Mlr
Per
1-1 ublish
Rlz hsky ' I
ers Pereul
o s cow USSR

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I A~J UT THE BOOK

M3AaTeJILCTnO 8neprllH ~OCllna

Classification of Electrical Machines.

Chapter 32 Basic Construction of Electrical Machines 11

Chapter 33 Construction Types of Electrical Machines t7

37-2 Relation Between the Prin cipal Dimensions and

43-3 Electromagnetic Torque 110

Chapter 51 A General Outline of Synchronous Machines 210

Chapter 52 Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines 230

Chapter 53 Electromagnetic Processes in a Synchronous Ma-

Chapter 54 MMF, Magnetic Field, EMF and Parameters of the

Clw.pter 55 Electromagnetic Processes in a Synchronous Machine

Chapter 56 Energy Conversion by a Synchronous Machinc 293

Chapter 57 Characteristics of a Synchronous Generator Supply-

Chapt er 58 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Machines 323

Chapter 59 Synchronization Mcthods 358

Chapter 60 Instability of Synchronous Machines in Parallel

Chapter 61 Unbal an ced Operation of Synchronous Machines 387

32-1 Parts of an Electrical Machine and

In an electrical machine, energy is converted within a space

The typica l par ts of an elec trical mach ine are illustra t ed

Fig. 32-1 Genera l arra ngemen t of an elec tric al mach ine

yok e 18. In the arr ange men t sh own , t he m agnetic fi eld in

clamps 50, pressure blocks 4, and keys 5 inserted in annular

hangs) are held in place hy tape or clamps.

The total power losses, ~P, are dissipated in the machine

32-2 General Requirements for the Construction

of overcurrents, overvoltages, excessive rpms, and starting

Ta ble 32-1 Temperature Limits and I ns u lation Classes

Temperature l imit for insula-

when either impregnat ed or imm ersed in a liquid di electric.

"* 33 Construction Types

* As in Volu me One, the mat er ial marked with a starlet is optional.

The most commonly used desi gns of electri cal machines as

1M 1001 1M2011 I M 6211 1M 7011

33-2 Types of Enclosure

IM1 Foot-mounted, end-shield type

3. A drip-proof machine is an open mach ine in which the

5. A water-proof m achin e is a totall y encl osed machin e so

33-3 Cooling Arrangements

m achine (whi ch is usu ally th e case with gua rde d a nd t otall y

atmosphere, the best sch eme is when cooli ng air is drawn in

33-4 Noise Level (Quietness) Classification

According to the noise level (D in decibels) they produce

(2) Humming produced by the vibrating stator and rotor

:ns Some of the Soviet Standards Covering

The objecti ves of t he standards covering commerc ially

GOST '1 2327-66 . Electrical machines . R esidual rotor di s-

appl ied [0 t he ri ght-h and side and di rect ed in the sense of

whe re 'tv = t an genLial s t ress a t a gi ve n s u rface ele me n t dS

Pili = .\ Up dS = Jdl' ~ U pR3 dR = T emQ

34 2 Analysis of the Rotor Elements for

du e t o th e centrif ugal for ce C z ac ting on and t ra nsm itte d

wh ere In a = mass of the yoke

peripher y of the rot or , a nd also the tensile for ces 2u"h,,la

It is seen from the abov e equation that the tensile force

34-3 Shaft Analysis for the Effect of the

the weight of the rotor, G, we can find the sag of th e shaft

where K = 48EJ I P = shaft rigidity in bending

nal to th e specific ma gn etic t ensile force (see Sec. 29-3)

still more downward, th e eccentricity is increased , and so

The shaft must be proportioned so that it has 11 suffi-