Aerodynamics and Performance Study Guide

Constants and Conversions:

= 1.01325 105 /2 = 2116.2 / 2

= 1.2250 /3 = .002377 / 3
= 288.16 = 518.69
= 1.7894 105 /( ) = 3.7378 103 /( )
= 340.3 / = 1116 /

= 287 ()() = 1716 ()(R)
= 1.4
0 = 460R
0 = 273 = 32

1 = 550
= 746
1 = 2116 / 2 = 1.01 105 /2
1 = .3048
1 = 5280 = 1.609
1 = 4.448
1 = 9.8
1 = 32.2 = 14.594
1 = 1 / = 1.852 / 1.15 /

Chapter 2:

1. Equation of state for a perfect gas:

=
Chapter 3:

1. Modeling the Atmosphere:

2 2

= 0 ( ) = 0 (+ )

= +

= (+ )

Where is the gravitational acceleration at a given altitude, 0 is the gravitational acceleration
at sea level, is the radius of the Earth, is the geometric altitude (the geometric height above
sea level), is the absolute altitude (the geometric height above sea level plus the radius of the
Earth), and is the geopotential altitude (a fictitious altitude that is physically compatible with
the assumption of = = 0 ). Note that is only really used for ease of calculation.
2. Change in Pressure vs Altitude:
= =
3. Isothermal Regions:

[ 0 ][1 ]
1
= =
1
4. Gradient Regions:

0
()
1
= ( )
1

0
{[]+1}
= ( )
1 1

= 1 + ( 1 )

= 1
1

5. Standard Atmosphere Model

Note that the vertical lines (e.g. from 11 km to 25 km) represent the isothermal regions of the
atmosphere while the sloped lines (e.g. from 0 km to 11km) represent the gradient regions of
 the atmosphere. The various values listed are the average lapse rate of the corresponding
gradient region of the atmosphere.

6. Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes:

The pressure, temperature, and density altitudes are the altitudes that correspond with a given
pressure, temperature, and density respectively as given in Appendices A and B. For example,
given the actual outside pressure of 6.16 106 /2 the standard pressure altitude, as found in
Appendix A, is 4 km. The same is true of temperature and density altitudes. This has nothing to
do with the actual altitude of the aircraft and everything to do with the standard model of the
atmosphere.

Chapter 4:

1. Incompressible Flow (<100 m/s = 225 mi/h = 300ft/s):

Continuity:

1 1 = 2 2
Momentum:
12 22
1 + 2
= 2 + 2

2. Compressible Flow (> 100 m/s = 225 mi/h = 300 ft/s):

Continuity:

1 1 1 = 2 2 2
Momentum:

=
Energy:
1 1
1 + 2 12 = 2 + 2 22

3. Basic Thermodynamics:
First Law of Thermodynamics:
= +
Where is the change in internal energy per unit mass, is an incremental amount of heat
added per unit mass, and is an incremental amount of work done on the system per unit
mass.
Specific Heat:

()


()



=
 Where and are the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at constant
pressure respectively. Also note that for air at normal conditions and are constants and
thus = = 1.4.
Internal Energy and Enthalpy:
=
=
Where is the internal energy and is the enthalpy. These equations assume constant volume
and pressure but they hold in general as long as the gas is a perfect gas.
Thermodynamic Processes:
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is added or taken away: = 0.
A reversible process is one in which no frictional or other dissipative effects occur.
An isentropic process is one that is both adiabatic and reversible, i.e. a process in which there is
neither heat exchange nor any effect due to friction.
4. Speed of sound:

For a perfect gas:

5. Mach Number:

=

If M < 1, then the flow is subsonic.
If = 1, then the flow is sonic.
If . 8 < < 1.2, then the flow is transonic.
If > 1, then the flow is supersonic.
If M > 5, then the flow is hypersonic.
6. Dynamic Pressure:
1
= 2 2
7. The speed of a gas flow can be measured by a Pitot tube:

For incompressible flow:

Basic Equations:

2(0 1 )
1, =

0 = 1 +
True and Equivalent Airspeed:

2(0 1 )
=

2(0 1 )
=

=

 can be calculated if is the true value, somehow measured in the actual air
around the airplane. is used because is hard to calculate in the atmosphere directly
at the planes location and thus the airspeed indicators of low-speed airplanes are
calibrated using the standard sea-level value of .

For subsonic compressible flow:

Basic Equation:
1
2 212 0
1, = [( ) 1]
1 1

True and Equivalent Airspeed:

1
2 212 0
= [( )
1 1
1]
1
2 22
= 1
[( 0 1 + 1) 1]

can be calculated if 1 is the true value, but this requires knowledge of 1 . The
static temperature in the air surrounding the airplane is hard to measure. is used
because 1 is hard to calculate in the atmosphere directly at the planes location and
thus the airspeed indicators of high-speed subsonic airplanes are calibrated using the
standard sea-level values of and .

For supersonic flow:

Basic Equation:

02 (+1)2 12 1 1+212
1
= [42 2(1)] ( +1
)
1

Where 02 is the total pressure behind the shock wave as measured by a Pitot tube, 1
is the free stream static pressure, and 1 is the free-stream supersonic Mach number.

Where total pressure, 0 is the pressure that would exist if the flow were slowed down
isentropically to zero velocity. Also, 1 is the static pressure and is the dynamic pressure. Note
also that the equivalent airspeed, , is the airspeed at which a plane would have to fly at
standard sea level to experience the same dynamic pressure as if the plane was flying at its true
velocity, , at sea level.

8. Wind Tunnels:
Low-speed subsonic wind tunnels:
2( 2 )
2 = [1(1 2
2 /1 ) ]

Where 2 , 2 , and 2 are the velocity, pressure, and area at the test section respectively and
1 , 1 , and 1 are the velocity, pressure, and area at the settling chamber/nozzle where air
enters.
High-speed subsonic/supersonic wind tunnels:
 High-speed subsonic and supersonic wind tunnels follow the equations for isentropic flow found
below.
9. Change in Pressure, Density, Temperature, and Volume between two points in an isentropic
process:

2 1
1
= (2 ) = (2 )
1 1

Note that this equations are relevant to compressible flows only. As such, if the compressible
flow is isentropic, this equation can be used to replace either the momentum or the energy
equation for compressible flow.
1
=
1
2
(2 ) = ( ) = (1 )
1
1 2
1

Note that is the specific volume, the volume per unit mass. If the mass in the isentropic
process is constant, the values 1 and 2 can take on the values given in the problem.

10. The isentropic flow of a gas is governed by (also high-speed subsonic flows for rockets and
wind tunnels):
0 1 2
=1+ 1
1 2

0 1 2 1
1
= (1 + 2
1 )
1
0 1 2 1
1
= (1 + 2
1 )
1
2
12 = [( 0 )
1 1
1]

Here 0 , 0 and 0 are the total temperature, pressure, and density, respectively. That is they
are the temperature, pressure, and density when the flow has been isentropically slowed to
zero velocity. Also, 1 , 1 , and 1 are the static temperature, pressure, and density, respectively,
for a point in the flow (i.e. the atmospheric pressure). 1 is the free-stream Mach number of
the flow. For an isentropic flow, 0 , 0 , and 0 are constant throughout the flow.

11. The area-velocity relation for isentropic flow (Rocket Engines/Wind Tunnels):


= (2 1)
+1
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) = [
2 +1
(1 + 2
)]

Note:
 a. If the flow is subsonic ( < 1), for the velocity to increase (dV positive), the area must
decrease (dA negative); that is, when the flow is subsonic, the area must converge for the
velocity to increase.
b. If the flow is supersonic ( > 1), for the velocity to increase (dV positive), the area must
also increase (dA positive); that is, when the flow is supersonic, the area must diverge for
the velocity to increase.
c. If the flow is sonic ( = 1), then the equation yields for the velocity:
1 1
= 2 =
1 0
Which at first glance says that / is infinitely large. However, on a physical basis, the
velocity, and hence the change in velocity, , at all times must be finite. Thus, looking at
the previous equation, we see that the only way for / to be finite is to have / = 0;
so:
1 0
= = =
0 0
That is, in the language of differential calculus, / is an indeterminate form of 0/0 and
hence can have a finite value. In turn, if / = 0, the stream tube has a minimum area at
= 1. This minimum area is called a throat.
12. Types of Viscous Flow:
a. Laminar flow, in which the streamlines are smooth and regular and a fluid element moves
smoothly along a streamline.
b. Turbulent flow, in which the streamlines break up and a fluid element moves in a random,
irregular, and tortuous fashion.
13. Shear Stress for Viscous Flow:

= ( )
=0

Where is shear stress and is local shear stress. Viscous effects create a boundary layer
along a solid surface in a flow. In this boundary layer, the flow moves slowly and the velocity
goes to zero right at the surface. This creates a shear stress that gives rise to skin friction drag.
Shear stress is larger for a turbulent boundary layer than for a laminar boundary layer.

= 0 =
The total skin friction drag, , is thus the integral of the local shear stress, , from 0 to the
total length with respect to x (i.e. integrating along the surface).
14. Reynolds Number:

Local Reynolds number:

=

Plate Reynolds number:

=
 Chord Reynolds number:

=

Where x is the running length along the plate, L is the total length of the plate, c is the chord
length, and is the viscosity coefficient.

15. For a laminar incompressible boundary layer, on a flat plate:

5.2
=

1.328
, =

0.664
, =

0.664
, = , =

Where is the boundary layer thickness, is the total skin friction drag coefficient, is the
local skin friction drag coefficient, Re is the Reynolds number, and is local shear stress. Note
that the total of all local shear stress (i.e. the integral of along the surface) is the total skin
friction drag.

16. For a turbulent incompressible boundary layer, on a flat plate:

0.37
=
0.2

0.074
, = 0.2

0.0592
, = 0.2

0.0592
, = , = 0.2

Where is the boundary layer thickness, is the total skin friction drag coefficient, is the
local skin friction drag coefficient, Re is the Reynolds number, and is local shear stress. Note
that the total of all local shear stress (i.e. the integral of along the surface) is the total skin
friction drag.

17. Critical Reynolds Number:

=

Any real flow along a surface starts out as laminar but then changes into a turbulent flow. The
point at which this transition effectively occurs (in reality, transition occurs over a finite length)
is designated as . The location of transition has its own Reynolds number, designated the
critical Reynolds number . Note that an accurate value of must come from
experiment, free flight, or some semi-empirical theory and cannot be easily and directly
calculated like the Plate and Local Reynolds number.
 18. Pressure Drag to Flow Separation:

= +

Where is the total drag due to viscous effects (profile drag), is the drag due to skin friction,
and is the pressure drag due to flow separation. is less for laminar flow but greater for
turbulent flow. is greater for laminar flow and less for turbulent flow. At higher angles of
attack, flow separation is higher than at lower angles of attack. The two major consequences of
the flow separating over an airfoil are a drastic loss of lift (stalling) and a major increase of drag,
caused by pressure drag due to flow separation.

19. Pressure Gradient:

a. Adverse pressure gradient: a region in a flow where the pressure increases with distance
along the flow.
b. Favorable pressure gradient: a region in a flow where the pressure decreases with distance
along the flow.

Chapter 5:

1. For an airfoil, the lift, drag, and moment coefficients are defined as:

,0 = =


= =


,0 = =
2
Where L, D, and M are the lift, drag, and moments per unit span, respectively, S =c (1), and c is
the chord length. The values , , and can be found in Appendix B.
2. For a finite wing, the lift, drag, and moment coefficients are defined as:

=


=


=

Where L, D, and M are the lift, drag, and moments, respectively, for the complete wing, S is the
wing platform area, and c is the chord length. For a given shape, these coefficients are a
function of angle of attack, Mach number, and Reynolds number.
3. Axial and Normal Force:
=
= +
=
= +
Where = angle of attack.
4. Lift to drag ratio:


=

5. Aspect ratio:
2
=
Where b is the wingspan of a finite wing and S is the area of the wing.
6. Planform Area for a Rectangular Wing:
=
Where b is the wingspan of a finite wing, S is the area of the wing, and c is the chord length.
7. The pressure coefficient is defined as:

,0 = = 1 2

2
When < 0.3, then = ,0.
8. The Prandtl-Glauert rule:
,0
=
2
1
,0
=
2
1
,0
=
2
1

The Prandtl-Glauert rule is a compressibility correction for subsonic flow. Where ,0 , ,0 and
,0 are the low speed, incompressible pressure coefficient, lift coefficient, and moment
coefficient respectively. , and are the compressible pressure coefficient, lift coefficient,
and moment coefficient respectively. This equation is reasonably accurate for 0.3 < < 0.7
but for > 0.7 its accuracy rapidly diminishes. Note that data in Appendix D on airfoils were
obtained at low speeds, hence the lift coefficient and moment coefficient values given are ,0
and ,0 respectively.
9. The Critical Pressure Coefficient:

2 2 1
2+(1)
, = 2 {[ ] 1}
+1

The Critical Pressure Coefficient, , , is the specific value of the Pressure Coefficient, , at
which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the airfoil surface.
10. The Critical Mach Number:

,0 2 2 1
2+(1)
= 2 {[ ] 1}
2 +1
1

The Critical Mach Number, , is the specific value of the Free Stream Mach Number, , at
which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the airfoil surface. To find the Critical Mach
Number, , set the equations for the Critical Pressure Coefficient, , , equal to the Prandtl-
Glauert rule equation.
11. The Drag-Divergence Mach Number:
< < 1.0
The drag-divergence Mach number is the free-stream Mach number at which the drag
coefficient begins to rapidly increase due to the occurrence of transonic shock waves. Transonic
flow is defined as the flow when . 08 < < 1.2.
12. Mach Waves and Mach Angles:
Mach Angle
1
= arcsin( )

Shock Angle
 >
The Mach wave is the coalescence of pressure waves caused by supersonic flight that cause
wave drag. The Mach angle is the angle between the Mach wave that is formed and the
direction of movement of the object. A more serious disturbance in the flow can be caused by a
thicker object resulting in a shock wave.
13. The lift and supersonic wave drag coefficients for thin airfoils at small to moderate angles of
attack in supersonic airflow and infinite span are given by:
4
=
2
1
4 2
, =
2
1
Where =angle of attack in radians.
14. Total Drag Coefficient for a finite wing at subsonic speeds:
2
= +

= , + ,
2

Where is the total drag coefficient, is the profile drag coefficient, and is the induced
drag coefficient. The induced drag coefficient is only a factor for a finite wing because of the
effects of downwash caused by wingtip vortices. Note that can be obtained in Appendix D
and is the sum of the skin friction drag, , , and the pressure drag due to separation, , . The
variable e is the span efficiency factor and AR is the aspect ratio of the wings.
15. Lift slope for a finite wing:

0 =
= ,1 ,2
1 2
0
= 57.30
1+
1
< 0
= ( =0 )
57.3
=
1

Where the variable a is the lift slope for a finite wing, 0 is the lift slope for the corresponding
infinite wing, is the aspect ratio,1 is the span effectiveness factor, is the geometric angle
of attack, is the induced angle of attack, is the effective angle of attack, and =0 is the
angle of attack where the lift equals zero. Note that < 0 and that the data for 0 is obtained
from Appendix D. Also, =0 is the same for finite and infinite wings and can be obtained from
Appendix D.

16. Stalling speed of an aircraft:

2
=
,

Chapter 6:
1. Lift and Drag in level, unaccelerated flight:
=
=
2. Drag Polar of Entire Aircraft:
2
= ,0 +

2

Where ,0 is the zero-lift drag coefficient and the term includes both induced drag and
the contribution of parasitic drag due to lift. Note that e is redefined and is now called the
Oswald efficiency factor. ,0 is the value of the drag coefficient when = =0 .
3. Minimum Drag Coefficient:
2
( , )
= , +
,0 is not the minimum drag coefficient possible for an airplane. The minimum drag coefficient
occurs when is slightly larger than =0 because =0 for most aircraft designs is a small but
finite negative value. In other words, the airplane is pitched slightly downward at this
orientation, and the pressure drag due to flow separation is slightly higher than if the airplane is
at an angle of attack slightly larger, nearer a zero angle of attack.
4. Thrust required for level, unaccelerated flight:

= =
/ /
Thrust required varies inversely with L/D.
5. Thrust available at altitude:

, = ( )
0 ,0
Where , and are the thrust available and density at the reference altitude (i.e. sea level)
respectively.
6. Lift-induced and zero-lift thrust required:
2
,0 = = ,

The curves for zero-lift and lift-induced intersect at the velocity for minimum (and thus
maximum L/D).
7. Maximum Velocity:
=
The maximum velocity of an aircraft is determined by the thrust required, , and the thrust
available, . Thrust required is a function of the aerodynamics of the aircraft whereas thrust
available is a function of the engine. The velocity at which the available thrust equals the
required thrust is the maximum velocity of an aircraft. Because propeller aircraft are rated by
power and not thrust, the power required and power available curves must be analyzed for max
velocity.
8. Power Required:
2
2 3 1
= = 3 3

2 /
3
Power required varies inversely with 2 / .
9. Lift-induced and zero-lift power required:
 1
,0 = 3 ,
3
Zero-lift drag is one-third the drag due to lift at the velocity that is at a minimum (and 2 /
is at a maximum). Note that for minimum is less than that for minimum .
10. Engine Power:
In Watts or ft*lb/s
=
Where is the propeller efficiency, is the power available to propel the plane, and is the
shaft brake power. Note that <1.
In Horsepower
= ()()
Both and are now in horsepower. Be careful when using these units elsewhere.
11. Power required at altitude:
0
, = ,0

Where ,0 and 0 are the power required and density at a given reference point (i.e. sea level)
respectively. Furthermore, , and are the power required and density at altitude
respectively.
12. Intersection of required and available power (Max velocity and stall):
=
The high-speed intersection of the and curves determine the maximum velocity of an
airplane. Conversely, the low-speed intersection of the and curves or stalling determine
the minimum velocity of an airplane.
13. Equation for Max Velocity of an aircraft:
1
2
4 2
( ) ( )+( )( ) ,0

= ,0

[ ]
14. Rate of Climb:


= =
=
/ 1
( ) = () 0.8776 3/2
, ,0 (/)
1 3
(/) 2 2 3
( ) =[ ] () [1 6 2(/)2 2 ]
, 3 ,0 (/)
3
= 1 + 1 + (/)2 2
(/)

The rate of climb is the excess power divided by the weight.

15. Absolute and service ceiling:
The absolute ceiling of an aircraft is the altitude at which the maximum R/C = 0. The service
ceiling is the altitude at which the maximum R/C = 100 ft/min
16. Absolute ceiling:
 1/4
2 0.7436,0
= 19867 ln { } ( ) [ ()3/4
] ft
(,0 ) 0

17. Equilibrium Glide Angle:

=
=
1
=
/
18. Glide Range:

= = ( )

19. Wing Loading:

=

20. Range and Endurance for Propeller Driven Aircraft:

= ln 0
c 1

3
1 1
2 1
= (2 )2 (1 2 0 2
)
c

0 = 1 +

Where is the propeller efficiency, c is the specific fuel consumption defined as

and E is in seconds.
( )() ( )()

21. Range and Endurance for Jet Aircraft:

1
1 2
2 1 1
= 2 (0 12 )
2

1 0
= ln
1

Where is the minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption defined as =

( )()
( often given with inconsistent time (hours instead of seconds).
)()
22. Relationships between Lift and Drag:
1
(,0 )2
( ) = 2,0

1
1
1/2
( ,0 )4
3
( ) = 4

3 ,0
3
3/2
(3,0 )4
( ) = 4,0

23. Takeoff Ground Roll:
1.44 2
=
, {[+ ()]0.7 }
 = 1.2
1 2
= 2 (,0 + )
2

(16/)2
=
1+(16/)2

Where varies from 0.02 for a paved surface to 0.10 for a grass field. is ground effect, h is
height above ground, and b is wingspan.

24. Landing Ground Roll:

1.69 2
=
, [+ ()]0.7

= 1.3
25. Turn Radius and Turn Rate:
2

=
2 1

2 1
=

=
2
=
,max

,
= 2(/)

1 ,
= 2 2 /

26. Energy Height and Specific Excess Power:

2
= + 2

=

Chapter 7:

1. Static Stability:
a. Statically Stable: If the forces and moments on the body caused by a disturbance tend
initially to return the body toward its equilibrium condition, the body is statically stable. The
body has positive static stability.
b. Statically Unstable: If the forces and moments are such that the body continues to move
away from its equilibrium position after being disturbed, the body is statically unstable. The
body has negative static stability.
2. Dynamic Stability:
a. Dynamically Stable: A body is dynamically stable if, of its own accord, it eventually returns to
and remains at its equilibrium position over time.
 b. Dynamically Unstable: A body is dynamically unstable if the equilibrium position is never
maintained for any period and eventually diverges completely from equilibrium.

Note that a dynamically stable airplane must always be statically stable. However, static stability
is not sufficient to ensure dynamic stability.

3. Moments at Zero Lift:

= (/4 ) = ( )=0
=0
, = (,/4 ) = (, )=0
=0
4. Absolute Angle of Attack:
= + |=0 |
Where is the absolute angle of attack of the entire airplane, is the geometric angle of
attack (the angle between the free-stream relative wind and the chord line), and =0 is the
angle of attack when the lift is zero.
5. Contribution of the Wing to :
, = , + , ( )
, = , + ( )

Where , is moment coefficient about the center of gravity, , is the moment

coefficient about the aerodynamic center, , is the lift coefficient, is the fraction of the
chord length behind the leading edge that the center of gravity lies, is the fraction of the
chord length behind the leading edge that the aerodynamic center lies, is the lift slope of the
wing, and is the absolute angle of attack.

6. Contribution of the Wing-body Combination to :

, = , + , ( )
, = , + ( )

Where , is moment coefficient about the center of gravity, , is the moment

coefficient about the aerodynamic center, , is the lift coefficient, is the fraction of the
chord length behind the leading edge that the center of gravity lies, is the fraction of the
chord length behind the leading edge that the aerodynamic center lies, is the lift slope of
the wing-body combination, and is the absolute angle of attack.

7. Contribution of the Tail to :

, = ,

=

, = (1 ) + (0 + )
Where , is the moment coefficient of the tail, , is the lift coefficient of the tail, is the
tail volume ratio, is the distance from the airplanes center of gravity to the tails aerodynamic
center, is the planform of the tail, is the chord length, is the wing planform area, is the
lift slope of the tail, is the absolute angle of attack of the wing-body combination, is the
downwash angle of the wing-body combination, 0 is the downwash angle of the wing-body
combination at zero lift, and is the tail-setting angle (the angle between the zero-lift line of
the wing-body combination and the zero-lift line of the tail).
8. Total Pitching Moment About the Center of Gravity:
, = , + ( ) ,

, = , + [ ( ) (1 )] + ( + 0 )

For most conventional aircraft:


Therefore:

, = , + [ ( ) (1 )] + ( + 0 )
9. Longitudinal Static Stability:
Criteria for longitudinal balance and static stability:
a. (, ) ,0 must be positive
=0
b. , / must be negative (alternatively < )
c. , the value of the absolute angle of attack, , when = 0 must fall within the
practical flight range of angle of attack.

Equations:

(, ) ,0 = , + ( + 0 )
=0

Note that ,0 must be positive in order to balance the airplane. , is negative for most
airplanes. In addition, 0 is usually so small that it exerts only a small effect. As a result, in order
to balance the airplane, the angle between the zero-lift line of the wing-body combination and
the zero-lift line of the tail, , must be positive. This allows the tail to generate enough negative
lift to produce a positive ,0 .
,

= [ ( ) (1 )]

Note that the values of , , , , 0 , and / come from wind tunnel data. Also note that
the desired values of ,0 and , / basically dictate the design values of and
respectively (for a fixed center-of-gravity location.

10. Neutral Point:

= + ( )(1 )

Where the neutral point, , is the fraction of the chord length behind the leading edge at which
the center of gravity would be located such that , / = 0. The neutral point is a fixed
quantity and is independent of the actual location of the center of gravity, . Therefore, an
alternative requirement for static stability (instead of , / must be negative) is the
following: for longitudinal static stability, the position of the center of gravity must always be
forward of the neutral point (i.e. < ). Furthermore, the neutral point may be considered the
aerodynamic center of the complete airplane (i.e. the point on the airplane at which the
moment and moment coefficient are independent of the angle of attack). By proper selection of
the tail parameters, principally , can be located at will by the designer of the airplane.

11. Static Margin:

 =
,

= ( ) =
Therefore, for static stability, the static margin must be positive (i.e. > 0). The larger the
static margin, the more stable the airplane.

12. Elevator Effects on Pitching Moment about the Center of Gravity:

,
, = , + , ( ) ( +
)

, = ( , )

Where is the angle of deflection for the elevator and , / is the change in the
coefficient of lift due only to the change in elevator deflection. Note that an up-elevator position
is denoted by a negative and a down-elevator position is denoted by a positive . This is
done to preserve the definition of the positive and negative directions of the moments.

13. Elevator Angle to Trim:

,0 +(, / )
= (, / )
This equation gives the elevator deflection necessary to trim the airplane at a desired angle of
attack in order to maintain level flight. Note that is a known value from the airplane
design, and ,0 (, ) = , , , / , and , / are known values usually
=0
obtained from wind tunnel or free-flight data.

14. Elevator Hinge Moment:

=


=
+


Where is the elevator hinge moment coefficient, is the elevator hinge moment, is the
portion of the elevator planform area that lies behind (aft of) the hinge line, is the distance
from the hinge line to the trailing edge of the tail, is the tail angle of attack, and is the
elevator deflection angle.
Note that / and / are approximately constant. However, the actual magnitudes
of these constant values depend in a complicated way on / , / , the elevator nose shape,
the gap, the trailing-edge angle, and the planform. In addition, is very sensitive to local
boundary layer separation. As a result the values of the partial derivatives must almost always
be obtained empirically (such as from wind tunnel tests) for a given design.
15. Stick-free Longitudinal Static Stability:
/
= /


, =
1 , /
=1
/

, = , + ( )

,0 = , + ( + 0 )

= + ( ) (1 )


,

= ( )
Where is the equilibrium, free-floating angle of the elevator as a function of angle of
attack. F is the free elevator factor and is usually less than unity and on the order of 0.7 to 0.8.
The prime notation denotes stick-free conditions versus stick-fixed conditions. Also, is
the stick-free static margin; because < 1.0, this is smaller than the stick-fixed static margin. It
is clear from these equations that a free elevator usually decreases the static stability of the
airplane.

Chapter 9 (Rockets starting at 9.8):

1. Thrust:
= + ( ) =

+ ( )
Where is the thrust, is the mass flow rate, is the exit velocity, is the exit
pressure, is the ambient pressure, is the area of the exit, and is known as the effective
exhaust velocity. Note that the value ( ) is the pressure thrust, the thrust due to
differential pressure. Also note that the value is the momentum thrust, the thrust due to
conservation of momentum.
2. Nozzle Expansion:
=
a. Ideally Expanded Nozzle: = . Thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy and aimed
in the opposite direction of the motion of the rocket.
b. Overexpansion: < and the nozzle is expanded more than the flow. In an
overexpanded nozzle, thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy but some of that kinetic
energy is converted back into thermal energy because of shockwaves.
c. Underexpansion: > and the nozzle is expanded less than the flow. Because the flow is
not full expanded there is a loss of thrust.

Note that because the nozzle on a rocket is fixed (because a varying expansion nozzle would add
too much weight to be practical) and because decreases with altitude, rocket nozzles have to
be designed with an ideally expanded nozzle at some altitude in order to maximize thrust
throughout the entire flight. This altitude is usually around 40,000 .

3. Mass Flow Rate and Weight Flow Rate:

= +
=
+1
0 2 1
= ( )
+1
0

= 0

Note:

a. Where is the mass flow rate, is the weight flow rate, 0 is the total temperature and
combustion temperature, 0 is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, 0 is the total
pressure, is the heat capacity ratio (1.4 for air), is the specific gas constant, is the
 area of the nozzle throat, is the velocity at the nozzle throat ( =1 for a convergent-
divergent supersonic nozzle, therefore = ), and is the density of the air at the
throat.
b. Note that this equation states that the mass flow through a nozzle that is chocked (when
sonic flow is present at the throat) is directly proportional to 0 and and inversely
proportional to the square root of 0 . For a given combination of propellants, 0 is fixed by
chemistry. For a fixed nozzle design, is a given value. Hence, for a fixed nozzle design and
combination of propellants, 0 = ().
4. Exit Velocity:
1
1 2
20
= { 1
[1 ( ) ]}
0

Where is the exit velocity, is the exit pressure, 0 is the total pressure, 0 is the total
temperature and combustion temperature, is the heat capacity ratio (1.4 for air), and is the
specific gas constant.
5. Specific Impulse:

=
=
=
= 0
= = = ( ) = ( )
0 0 =0 0 =0
1
(1) 2
1 (20 )
= 0
{ 1 [1 ( ) ]}
0

= /

Note:
a. Where is the thrust, is the change in weight, is the total impulse, is the
change in time, is the mass flow rate, is the weight flow rate, is the effective exhaust
velocity, is the exit velocity, is the exit pressure, 0 is the total pressure, 0 is the total
temperature and combustion temperature, 0 is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level,
is the heat capacity ratio (1.4 for air), is the specific impulse in seconds, is the
universal gas constant, is the molecular weight, and is the specific gas constant.
b. Note that the specific impulse is the total impulse divided by the change in weight (i.e., in

metric, the change in momentum ( ) per every unit of weight changed ( = ) and
2
is hence measured in seconds) In other words, it is the change in momentum for every unit
of weight that is changed. In the context of the specific impulse of rocket engines, the
specific impulse only takes into account the mass (and thus weight) of the propellant and
not of the structure and is a property of the fuel (i.e. the specific impulse is the change of
momentum of the propellant per unit of weight of propellant used).
c. Note that the combustion temperature, 0 , is primarily dictated by the chemistry of the
oxidizer and fuel; a given combination, say oxygen and hydrogen, will burn at a specific 0
called the adiabatic flame temperature, and this value of 0 will be determined by the heat
of the reaction. The more highly reacting the propellants, the higher the 0 . (and hence
) is also a function of the chemistry. If lightweight propellants are used, the will be small
(and will be big). Therefore, outside of adjusting the oxidizer-to-fuel ratio (the O/F ratio),
there is not much the engineer can do to radically change the for a given propellant
combination: It depends on the propellants themselves. However, the equation certainly
 tells us to choose a very energetic combination of lightweight propellants, as dramatized by
the following table:
Fuel-Oxidizer Adiabatic Flame Average Molecular Weight ,
Combination Temperature, K of Combustion Products
Kerosene-oxygen 3144 22 240
Hydrogen-oxygen 3517 16 360
Hydrogen-fluorine 4756 10 390

6. Rocket Equation:

= ln ( ) = ln ( + 1) = 0 ln ( ) = 0 ln ( + 1)

= + +

= +

Where is the change in velocity, 0 is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, is the
specific impulse, is the initial mass, is the final mass, is the effective exhaust velocity,
is the mass of the propellant, is the mass of the structure, and is the mass of the
payload.

7. Rocket Propellants:
To produce a flame you need fuel and an oxidizer. The fuel and oxidizer together are called the
rocket propellants. In addition, there are two main types of rocket propellants.

Liquid Propellants:

a. Pressurizing Propellants:
1. Pressure-fed System: Here both the liquid fuel and oxidizer are placed under high
pressure in their respective tanks by a high-pressure inert gas such as helium which is
carried in separate tanks. The advantage is the simplicity of this system. The
disadvantage is the added weight needed for the thick walls of the high pressure tanks.
These are often used on small rocket engines the operate for only a short duration such
as attitude control jets on spacecraft.
2. Pump-fed System: Here the propellants are stored at relatively low pressure in thin-
walled (hence lighter) tanks, and their pressure is increased by pumps before injection
into the combustion chamber. In turn, the pumps can be driven by electric motors and
batteries or, more usually, by turbines that are themselves powered by burning a small
amount of propellant.
b. Categories of Liquid Propellants:
1. Cryogenic Propellants: Chemicals that must be stored at extremely low temperatures to
remain in liquid forms (i.e. liquid oxygen and hydrogen). These cryogenic temperatures
must be maintained during fueling and the launch periods of the rocket. Often times the
combustion process is started with an igniter, and the burning is self-sustaining after
that.
2. Bipropellants: Two chemicals used for the combustion process (i.e. 2 2
combination).
 3. Monopropellants: One chemical is used in which chemical energy can be released simply
by decomposing the molecules (i.e. Hydrazine, 2 4 ). Usually a solid catalyst is used to
promote the decomposition. Monopropellants find use in small rocket engines for
spacecraft attitude control. Monopropellants usually have smaller than bipropellant
combinations, but are easier to deal with reducing weight, simplifying the fuel system,
and increasing reliability.
4. Hypergolic Propellants: Propellant combinations that ignite simply on contact with each
other. There is added danger in handling the propellants. However, they have the
advantage of eliminating the need for a separate ignition system

Solid Propellants:

a. Propellant Grains:
The fuel and oxidizer are premixed and cast in solid form. Burning of a solid propellant is
initiated by an igniter on the surface of the propellant grain. There are different types of
propellant grains:
1. End Burners: One end is ignited and burns away, as a cigarette does.
2. Internal Burners: Have an inner cylindrical bore, where the inner surface is ignited, and
the propellant grain burns outward toward the motor case. As the burning surface
recedes, the burning surface area increases, increasing the mass flow of burned gases.
In turn, because rocket thrust is proportional to mass flow, the thrust will increase with
time.
3. Star-Shaped Internal Burners: With this configuration, ignition takes place on the star-
shaped internal surface, and then the surface recedes, becoming more circular in time.
Because the star-shaped internal surface presents the maximum burning surface, which
decreases with time, the thrust of this shape of grain is maximum at the beginning of
burning and decreases with time.
b. Linear Burn Rate:
1. = 0
Where is the linear burning rate (the time rate at which the burning surface of the
propellant recedes normal to itself in units of length/time), 0 is the combustion
chamber pressure, and and are constants that are determined by experiment.
c. Advantage of Solid Propellants:
1. Solid rockets are simpler, safer, and more reliable. There is no need for pumps and
complex propellant feed systems.
2. Solid propellants are more storable and stable. Some solid rockets can be stored for
decades before use.
3. Solid propellants are dense; hence the overall volume of solid rockets is smaller.
d. Disadvantages of Solid Propellants:
1. The specific impulse of solid propellants is considerably less than that of liquid
propellants. For the Space Shuttles solid rocket boosters, = 242 at sea level. In
general, the specific impulse of solid rockets ranges from 200 to 300 .
2. Once a solid rocket is ignited, it usually cannot be turned off. Also, it is difficult to
throttle a solid rocket to vary the thrust. In contrast, liquid rockets are easily throttled,
and the thrust can be cut off whenever desired just by manipulating the fuel and
oxidizer values.