PRODUCTION ENGINEERING NOTES

Inflow and outflow performance

Reservoir inflow performance

Solution of diffusivity equation of real gas is given in terms of; pressure squared
method and pseudo pressure.

Basically pseudo pressure of gas is given by;

Pseudo pressure is function of viscosity and gas deviation factor w.r.t. pressure of
the gas. The pseudo pressure relationship is possible for the all pressure ranges but
applicability of pressure squared method is limited for pressure less than 2000 psia.
Pressure squared is applicable only when product of viscosity and z is constant.
This occurs only at low pressures. Hence pseudo pressure is method is preferred
for gas well analysis.

The steady state solution for single phase fluid flow is given by;

(Steady state is state where pressure of reservoir is maintained throughout due to

present of constant pressure boundary i.e. reservoir is supported by the aquifer
from the bottom of the reservoir).
The semi steady state condition is for the well that produced long enough to felt a
reservoir boundary.

(Semi-steady state is state where rate of pressure drop is constant i.e. constant
pressure drop for stipulated period of time).

The well is assumed to be flowing across the closed reservoir boundaries. There is
no flow across the boundaries. At a constant production rate, pressure decline will
be constant for all radii and time.

Stabilized flow conditions for gas wells;

Steady state: pressure squared and pseudo pressure

Semi steady state: pressure squared and pseudo pressure

Gas well performance

AOF (absolute open flow) - It is common indicator of well productivity and refers
to maximum rate at which a well flow against the theoretical atmospheric back
pressure at the reservoir.

The productivity of gas well is given by deliverability test. Deliverability test

provides reservoir rate-pressure which used to prepare inflow performance
relationship or gas-back pressure curve.

Gas back pressure curve equation:

Where C flow coefficient, n- deliverability exponent

Deliverability constant (n) is inverse of slope of the straight line. Flow coefficient
can be determined by substituting any rate and corresponding pressure once n is
obtained. The equation show straight line behavior on log-log plot.

In terms of pseudo pressure,

The value of n lie between 0.5 to 1 depending on flow characteristics. Flow
characterized by Darcy equation will have flow exponent of 1 while flow that
exhibits non-Darcy flow behavior will have flow exponent value ranging between
0.5 to 1.

Above given equation can be used to prepare inflow performance curve for gas
wells;

Or

The maximum gas flow rate term is AOF. Deliverability exponent is determined
from multi rate test.

IPR generation for non-Darcy flow (Houpeurt Analysis):

Non-Darcy flow effects in high-velocity gas production rates;

On reshuffling above equation we get,

Again above equation can be rewritten as,

Now above equation resemble the straight line equation (y=mx+c). The constant
a is intercept of the plot laminar flow coefficient; b is slope of the plot.

Once the coefficients are found the deliverability of the well can be given in terms
of solution of quadratic equation;
Deliverability test method

Basic deliverability test Flow after flow test The test consists of
uses all stabilized data series of flow rates.
The test is often
referred as four
point test as it uses
four test rates. The
test is performed by
series of stabilized
flow rates and
obtaining
corresponding
stabilized BHP. The
drawback of this test
is it takes much time
to stabilize the data
for low permeability
reservoirs.
Deliverability that uses Isochronal and modified This test consists of
stabilized as well as isochronal test producing well at
transient test data different flow rates
with flowing periods
of equal duration.
Each flow period is
separated by shut in
period in which shut
 in BHP is allowed to
stabilized essentially
at average reservoir
pressure.

The test method is

based on the principle
that the radius of
investigation is
function of flow
period not a flow rate.

Rate is transient data

while stable BHP is
stabilized data.

Modified isochronal
test is used where
time required to
obtain stabilized shut
in pressure may be
impractical. In this
shut in periods are of
equal or longer than
flow period.
All transient data Multiple modified
isochronal test

Oil well performance

It is often considered that the oil well performance can be estimated by the
productivity index. However this is not true for multiphase flow. The constant
productivity index concept is applicable only for the oil wells producing under
single phase flow conditions.
Inflow performance for oil well
the productivity index method is only applicable for undersaturated reservoirs
(reservoir pressure greater than the bubble point). For two phase flow, multiple
relationships are available.

Vogels method

Reservoir pressure, flowing bottom hole pressure and oil flow rate is estimated
using production test.

Fetkovich method

Value of C and n can be obtained by plotting flow rate Vs bottom hole pressure
data on log-log plot.

An IPR developed by the deliverability equation given by:

Concept of composite IPR

In some cases both single phase and two phase flow may be occurring in the
reservoir. Generally this happens when reservoir pressure is above the bubble
point pressure while flowing bottomhole pressure is less than bubble point
pressure.

In such cases, IPR is divided into two parts i.e. above bubble point which is
straight line and below bubble point which is curved one.
Maximum oil production rate;

When flowing bottomhole pressure is above the bubble point (Pwf>Pb) then,

When flowing bottomhole pressure less than bubble point (pwf<pb) then,

The flow rate at bubble point can be determined from the below given relationship
by keeping flowing bottomhole pressure equal to bubble point pressure,

Productivity Index depends on bottomhole pressure. If bottomhole pressure is

greater than bubble point than then,
If bottomhole pressure is less than bubble point then,

Future performance method

Here n is estimated from Fetkovich IPR. It is considered that value of n doesnt

change with the time.

WELLBORE FLOW PERFORMANCE

Wellbore flow performance relates to estimating pressure-rate relationship in
wellbore as reservoir fluids move to the surface through tubular. Flow path include
flow through perforation, flow through tubing, flow through restriction inside the
tubing, flow through wellhead, flow through tree valve, surface pipelines, facilities
to dispatch line.

The pressure drop experienced by fluid is function of mechanical configuration of

wellbore, properties of fluid and flow rate.

The pressure drop in two points in wellbore can be given by,

Where Z1 & Z2 are the height difference, P1 & P2 are pressure at point 1 & 2, W
is work done by flowing fluid and El is irreversible energy losses in system
including viscous and friction forces.
When no work done by the fluid and kinetic energy correction factor is unity then,

Above equation can be used to find out flowing bottomhole pressure at the
wellbore. The wellhead pressure is assumed to be constant for this calculation.
Parameters such as density, velocity, friction factor can be easily calculated in case
of single phase flow. But in presence multiphase flow knowledge of flow regime is
required in order to calculate these parameters.

Finally this approach will give wellbore flow performance curve where pressure is
plotted vs flow rate. This curve is often referred as tubing performance curve.

Flow through chokes

A wellhead choke controls the surface pressure and production rate from the
well. Choke stabilizes the flow in wellbore by applying back pressure. This
prevents pressure fluctuations on downstream pipelines pressures. This requires
that flow through choke should be at CRITICAL conditions. Under critical flow
condition, flow rate is function of upstream tubing pressure only. To occur this,
the downstream pressure must be approximately equal to 0.55 or less f tubing
pressure.

Sonic flow and subsonic flow

Choke flow models are chosen on the basis of gas fraction in the fluid and flow
regime. When flow of fluid through choke reaches the velocity of sound, the flow
is referred as sonic flow. Under sonic flow conditions, the pressure wave
downstream of choke cannot go upstream through choke because fluid travelling
though choke will have same velocity in the opposite direction. Therefore, pressure
discontinuity exists at the choke. Upstream pressure doesnt affect downstream
and vice-versa.

Whether sonic flow exist or not depends upon the ratio of downstream to upstream
pressure ratio.
If the pressure ratio is less than critical pressure ratio then flow is sonic. If
pressure ratio is equal to or greater than that then flow is subcritical.

The critical pressure ratio is given by,

Where Poutlet = exiting pressure or pressure on downside.

Pinlet= upstream pressure

K= Cp/Cv specific heat ratio

The value of k is about 1.28 for natural gas.

Single phase liquid flow

This equation is application of Bernoullis theorem (from energy balance

equation).
 Typical choke performance curve

Temperature at choke (Concept of Joule Thompson effect)

PRODUCTION SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The pressure drop in a system is sum of pressure drop through various
components in production system.

System analysis based on concept of continuity. At any given point in production

system, there is particular pressure and production rate associated with that point
for a set of conditions. If there is any change in system, there is associated change
in pressure or flow rate at that same point. This concept allows the production
system to be divided at the point of interest for evaluation of two portions of the
system.

The components of upstream of the division point or node comprise of the inflow
section of the system, while components on downstream of node represent outflow
of the system. Conditions for continuity to satisfies is: flow into division points
equal to flow out of division points and the pressure at division point is same in
both inflow and outflow sections of the system.

The intersection of two curves provides the point of continuity required by system
analysis approach and indicates anticipated production rates and system being
analyzed.

If change is made in upstream component, then inflow curve will change. Outflow
wont be affected and vice-versa. Both inflow and outflow curve will change if
either of the fixed pressure in system is changed.
 COMPLETION SYSTEMS

PACKER

Packer has four key elements:

Slips
Cone
Packing element
Mandrel
Production packers can be classified into two groups; permanent and retrievable

Permanent packers are removed from the wellbore only by milling. While
retrievable packers doesnt required any kind of milling. Permanent packers has
small outside diameter (OD), thus offer large running clearance. The smaller OD
allows easy movement of packer through tight spots.

Retrievable packer can be very basic for low pressure/low temperature

applications.

When selecting a packer for cased hole completion, the differential pressure and
temperature requirement of the application must be considered.

Retrievable tension set packer
Tension set packer has only single
unidirectional slip that grips the casing
when tubing is pulled in tension.
Constant tubing tension is required to
maintain to keep packer set and the
packing element energized. Packers can
be released by means of rotation.

Generally tension packer doesnt have

equalizing valve. However use of
packers without bypass valve should be
avoided in deeper applications as more
differential pressure can prevent packer
from unsetting.

In packers with no bypass feature, the

pressure must be equalized by applying
pressure from top or swabbing the
tubing string.

Tension set packer has best suited

applications in which pressure below
packer is always greater than annulus
pressure. This pressure from below
 boosts the packing element into sleep
assembly.

On other hand, if annular pressure is

more on annulus pressure more, it may
unset the packer.

Retrievable compression set packer with It is recommended for low to medium

bypass feature pressure and medium temperature for oil
and gas wells.

This packer has mechanical interlock

while it is being run into the hole. Once
packer has been run to desired depth, the
tubing string is rotate to initiate the
setting sequence. To restrict relative
motion of tubing w.r.t. hole drag blocks
on the packer are used to hold packer in
a place and provide resistance to set on
it. Once interlock system is released, the
tubing string is lowered to close bypass
seal and set the slips.

The addition of integral bypass valve

makes it easier to equalize the pressure
in tubing and annulus. This valve can
be opened up pulling up the tubing.

Compression set packer are not

desirable in injection wells.

Wireline set- Tubing retrievable packer On top of packer there is special nipple.
The nipple has polished seal surface on
its OD and J-lugs that are used to anchor

Retrievable tension/compression set
Retrievable hydraulic set-single string
packer
seal housing or washover pipe in the
place. Polished nipple also has landing
nipple profile inside. It provides
slickline retrievable blanking plug if
desired.
Packer is set with electronic wireline
setting tool. Once packer is installed, a
seal housing (similar to an overshot) is
run in hole on bottom of production
tubing. The housing has internal seals
that, when landed on the polished
nipple, create a seal b/n tubing and
annulus. The housing also has j-profile
that engages the lugs of nipple and
anchors the tubing string to the packer.
This packer can be set on live well also.
Common application of these packers in
high rate fracture or underbalance
perforation.
Slips are located above and below of
packing element. It is designed hold
axial load from any direction. It has bi-
directional slips.
This tool is more versatile in
applications. It can be used to
production, injection or stimulation
treatment.
Hydraulic set packer has bi0-directional
slips that can be actuated by a
predetermined amount of hydraulic
pressure applied to the tubing string.

Dual string packers
Permanent and retrievable seal bore
packers
The hydraulic packer can be run in a
single packer installation. It can be run
in tandem as isolation packer in singe
string multiple zones as there is no
packer body movement.
Retrieval of hydraulic set packer is
accomplished by pulling tension with
tubing string to shear a shear ring,
located within a packer.
Multiple string packers are generally
hydraulically set because tubing
manipulation required to set a
mechanical packer is not desirable or
not feasible often in dual string
combination.
Dual string packers generally use in
ESP completions.
Sealbore packers have a honed and
polished internal sealbore. A tubing seal
assembly with elastomeric packing
forms the seal b/n the production tubing
and the packer bore. Well isolation is
accomplished by the fit of elastomeric
seals in the polished bore.
The seal assembly may be of locator
type or anchor type. Locator type
assembly allows seal movement
during production and anchor type
seal assembly secures the seal in
packer bore and restricts tubing
movement.
Packer landing conditions

Tubing string attached to the packer by two methods;

It is latched or fixed to the packer by means of anchor seal assembly

Tubing is landed with seal assembly and locator sub in the polished bore of
packer

The landing condition refers to the amount of slack off weight or tension that is
left on the packer when tree is landed and the wellhead is flanged up. Tubing can
be either landed in tension, compression or neutral.
Through tubing operations

Ideally internal diameter of packer should be equal to that of tubing string to

facilitate through tubing operations.

Casing cleanup operations

It is advisable to run casing scrapper or other suitable casing clean out tool and
circulate the well clean before installing the packer to get good wall contact.

Before running any packer on electric wireline, it is advisable to run junk basket
and gauge ring. The gauge ring has slightly more OD than packer and it is run to
ensure that there are no tight spots in the wellbore where packer may get stuck.
The junk basket is designed to collect any debris that is suspended in completion
fluid that otherwise may interface with running the packer.

Before installing the packer, the CEMENT BOND LOG (CBL) should be run to
verify integrity of primary cementing job. If poor cement bond exist in interval in
which packer is to be set, the packers ability to serve as a barrier may be
compromised should a leak in casing string occur. Such a leak allow formation
to communicate above the packer.

METALLURGY

Common use materials for manufacture of downhole equipment:

Low alloy steels with minimum yield strength of 110 ksi are use for
standard service in non-corrosive environment.
Low alloy steels with maximum Rockwell hardness 22 are intended to use
for in both standard service and sour service.
Martensitic steels such as 9% Cr, 1% Mo and 13 % chromium alloy steels
are used in some wet CO2 environment.
22 % Cr and 25 % chromium duplex stainless steel are commonly use in
some wet CO2 and H2S environment.
Austenitic steels cold worked 3 % Mo high nickel alloy steels and
precipitation hardening are suitable for high corrosive environment.
ELASTOMERS

Most common elastomer use in downhole application is Nitrile. It is use in

low-to-medium temperature applications. It has good chemical resistance to
oil based muds, brines and CO2 exposure. It is limited in wells with H2S.
Hydrogenetaed nitrile (HNBR) have comparatively higher temperature
rating and slight better resistance to H2S.
Hexafluorpropylene (Viton) and tetrafluroethylene used in medium to
high temperature applications. Both show excellent resistance to H2S, CO2,
brines and bromides.
Aflas will swell when exposed to oil based fluids and solvents.
Kalrez and Chemraz are recommended for HPHT conditions.
Ethylene propylene is most commonly use in steam-injection operations.

To form a seal around casing, elastomer pressure should be greater than

differential pressure.

Packer to tubing seal stacks:

The bonded packing design comes in slightly larger OD than ID of the sealbore.
Predetermined amount of stress is created when seals are inserted into the
honed packer bore. The elastomer pressure generated by this stress in turns
creates a seal b/n seal assembly and hone packer bore. Nitrile, viton and aflos
are suitable elements for bonded seal stack. These seals have imitations up to
300 deg F.

Chevron seal stacks consist of number of V shaped chevron seal rings

supported by metal. Glass filled Teflon can handle pressure up to 15000 psi
and temperature approaching 550 deg F.
Packer tests
Grade V6
Grade V5 liquid test
Grade V4 liquid test + axial loads
Grade V3 liquid test+ axial loads+
temperature cycling
Grade V2 Gas test + Axial load
Grade V1 gas test + axial load +
temperature
Grade V0 gas test+ axial load +
temperature + zero bubble
Criterion
Packer must set in max. ID casing that
it is recommended for at maximum
temperature. Pressure from top and
bottom at packer applied for time
period of 15 minutes.
Along with liquid test, axial tension
and compression also applied on the
packer
Along with all above tests, cyclic
temperature is applied to it.
Here water is replaced with gas and
axial loads are applied.
Pressure testing with gas with axial
forces and cyclic temperature loading
 Tubing movement calculations must be done to determine packer tubing load
and differential pressure to be encountered in any of production, injection or
treating modes to which completion will be subjected.

FLOW CONTROL ACCESSORIES

WIRELINE RE-ENTRY GUIDE

Wireline re-entry guide is run on the end of the tubing to facilitate re-entry into
tubing strings of electric line or slick line assemblies.

PROFILE SITTING NIPPLES

Profile sitting nipples has a unique machined groove profile with a locking groove
to accept flow control devices that is run on wireline or slickline or coil tubing.
Profile sitting nipples are positioned at strategic locations in the tubing string to
allow accurate placement of valves, slickline plugs, bottomhole chokes, downhole
flow regulators and bottomhole pressure recorders.

TOP NO-GO SITTING PROFILE NIPPLE

Top no-go assembly accepts the lock assembly with no-go shoulder located on the
lock itself. When lock assembly run into the hole, the no-go shoulder on lock
engages on the top of the nipple. One located, the assembly engages into locking
groove and the installation procedure is complete.

One must ensure that there should not be any ID restrictions to run locking
assembly into the hole. When multiple top no-go nipples are use, usually nipple
with largest ID should be at top as to allow locking assembly of subsequent nipples
to pass through it.
BOTTOM NO-GO PROFILE NIPPLE

The bottom No-Go profile, nipple has no-go shoulder at the bottom. As ID of
bottom no-go nipple doesnt allow any flow devices to pass through it, generally it
is always run as the lowermost nipple n the completion.

SELECTIVE PROFILE NIPPLE

Selective profile nipple, an unlimited number of same size and profile seating
nipples may be run in hole because the locking assembly or flow control devices is
able to find and selectively land in any of them.
SLIDING SLEEVES

Sliding sleeves provides means of establishing the communication between tubing

string and annulus, selective production or injection purpose.

The sliding sleeve incorporates a nipple profile and polished sealbore above and
below the ports to allow the landing of various flow control devices or an isolation
tool should the sleeve fail to close.

BLAST JOINTS

Blast joints are thick walled pipes in completion string exactly placed in front of
the perforation to prevent the string from erosion due to high velocities of fluid
from formation and formation sand cutting through tubing size.

FLOW COUPLINGS

Flow coupling has usually same OD as tubing couplings and have same ID as
tubing ID as the tubing string with which they run. They are run above and below
of selective nipples and sliding sleeve in which it is turbulence is expected due to
smaller ID of these profiles.

BLANKING PLUG

Blanking plugs may be landed in seating profile nipple or sliding sleeves to

temporarily plug the tubing string, allowing pressure test of tubing, to set hydraulic
packer or permanently shut off the flow from the formation.

SUBSURFACE SAFETY SYSTEMS

In case catastrophic failure of well head, to shut off the well the subsurface safety
valves are used.

Surface controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV)

It is installed in tubing below tubing hanger. This valve is operated by capillary

line that connects to a surface panel. Generally this valve is in close position and
continuous pressure is required to keep it in open position.

SCSSV is available in two models i.e. wireline retrievable and tubing retrievable.
Wireline retrievable valves are set in profile nipples. However these valves have
small ID. So it must removed before any through tubing operations. It smaller ID
causes turbulence flow which leads to increase in pressure drop and erosion of the
tubing.

Tubing retrievable valve has larger internal flow diameter. However it can limit the
size of tubing that can be use due to larger OD of this valve. To service this,
tubing must be retrieved.

Subsurface controlled subsurface safety valve

Subsurface controlled safety valves generally are wireline set in nipple. It comes in
two types. One of them is velocity valve. Generally this valve is in open position
and closes when velocity across the orifice increases. This increases velocity
causes change in differential pressure which is main principle behind valve
operation.
Another type of valve is has-charged or low pressure valve. Generally this valve is
in closed position. Bottomhole pressure must be higher than preset pressure to
valve for remain open.

CASED HOLE APPLICATIONS

Single LPLT wells Retrievable tension packer s use as
tubing weight in shallow wells is not
enough to energize the seal of
compression set packer.

In injection wells, injection of cold

fluids will contract the tubing which
will reduce the set of weight on
compression packer hence packer may
fail.

Wireline entry guide should be run

below tubing but above perforations to
facilitate through tubing operations.

Profile nipple should be placed below or

top of the packer. It can be use for
blanking plugs if a leak occurs.
Single string medium temp/medium A retrievable versatile tension
pressure compression set packer may be used. It
has pressure rating between 3000 psi
to10000 psi. temperature rating between
100 to 300 F.

Moreover this kind of packer has good

sealing elements. It has feature bypass
system which is helpful in equalizing
tubing and annulus pressure. It helps in
tubing retrieval.

Wireline re-entry guide must be use to

 facilitate interventions.

Below packer, profile seating nipple

should be used. It facilitates running of
pressure reorders or tubing retrievable
valve.

Above packer second seating profile

nipple should be run as it facilitate test
and verify integrity of tubing or land
bottomhole choke.
Single HPHT Permanent sealbore packer should be
used . sealbore packers are designed to
accommodate extreme tubing
movement. Seal assembly of packer can
be chose on the basis of tubing
movement calculations.

Wireline re-entry guide should be run to

facilitate the intervention.

Profile seating nipples are run below the

tailpipe for landing bottomhole pressure
recorder and facilitating well control
during workover.

A profile seating nipple can be run

above the packer to test the integrity of
tubing and to run bottomhole choke.
Multiple zone single string selective
completion
Dual zone completion using parallel
string
Monobore completions
MULTILATERAL COMPLETIONS
TAML (Technically advanced multilateral)
TAML 1 Openhole mainbore with multiple
drainage legs existing from it

Junction no mechanical support or no

hydraulic isolation. Integrity of junction
depends on natural wellbore stability.
However it is possible to land land liner
during production to support mainbore
or lateral.
TAML 2 Lateral drilled off and cased. Main
wellbore is cemented. There is hydraulic
isolation between zones but no
mechanical support at junction.
TAML 3 Cased and cemented main bore with
liner in lateral anchored back to the
mainbore. Thus it provides support at
junction and hydraulic isolation is lost.
Zone must be produced commingled.
TAML 4 Mainbore and lateral are both cased.
Good lateral support but it does not
offer pressure integrity at the junction.
TAML 5 Mainbore and lateral cased. Mecahncal
integrity is achieved by using tubing
strings and packers to isolate junction.
Single string packers are used in
mainbore and lateral and connected by
tubing string at dual packer in the
mother bore.
TAML 6 Pre-manufactured junction is assemble
downhole to obtain mechanical and
pressure integrity. Integrity is obtained
by sealing casings at the junction.
All the wells are operated mainly in four modes: producing, shut-in, injection
or treating. All the operational modes should be considered when designing
completion and selection of packer. It is strongly recommended that
anticipated temperature profiles for each operational mode be drawn
accurately when planning various types of completion or major workover.
Also it is recommended that pressure profiles for each operational mode
should be drawn for each step of completion or major workover.
TOPIC: WELLBORE DAMAGE AND CHARACTERIZATION

Mathematically skin effect has no dimension, it moreover like a film coefficient in

heat transfer. Heat coefficient in thermodynamics is proportionality constant
between heat flux and thermodynamic driving force for a flow of heat. The skin
effect is added to ln(re/rw) for steady state, ln(0.472re/rw) for pseudo-steady state
and pd for transient state solutions.

Skin can be created by partial completion, inadequate perforations, by phase

changes (relative perm. To main fluid reduces), turbulence and near-bore damage.

Effective wellbore radius concept:

= .

A positive skin value has effect of reducing wellbore and vice-versa for negative
skin.

Hawkins formula:

= (( ) ) ( )

Hawkins formula is used to characterize the damage near-wellbore.

Components of skin:

Total skin is summation of damage skin (Sd), damage due to partial completion
and slant (Sc+) and perforation skin effect (Sp). Pseudo-skins are phase and rate-
dependant skins.

Rate dependant skin is given by involving non-darcy coefficient in actual skin

value,

= + .

Plotting S Vs q gives value of non-darcy coefficient (D is slope of the plot) and

real skin value (s is intercept).

Horizontal well damage skin effect:

Permeability anisotropy would generate an elliptical shape normal to the well. The
shape of damage depends on the permeability anisotropy index (Iani).

Formation damage mechanics:

1. Particle plugging in pore space

- Cake formation due to large particles
- Surface deposits of adhering particles (fines)
- Plugging type deposits
Fine migration mechanism: fines migration in porous media may occur due
to change in chemical composition in of water in reservoir or mechanically
entrained due to shear forces applied by the moving fluid. Often formation
damage is result of dispersion of clay when salinity of interstitial water I
reduced or ionic composition is changed. Water sensitivity is greatest for
NaCl brines (Na > K > NH4). To prevent clay dispersion because of salinity
change, aqueous fluids comes in contact with formation fluid should have
minimum concentration of monovalent ions (i.e. at least 2 % weight of KCL
is used).

(The primary physical processes associated with high sodium concentrations

are soil dispersion and clay platelet aggregate swelling. The forces that bind
clay particles together are disrupted when too many large sodium ions come
in between them. When this separation occurs, the clay particles expand,
causing swelling and soil dispersion. Soil dispersion causes clay particles to
plug soil resulting in reduced permeability).

Chemical precipitation: organic precipitate from oil and inorganic

precipitate from brine can severely damage the formation. Initially ionic
species in solution are in chemical equilibrium with formation minerals. A
change in composition leads to the precipitation.

Calcium carbonate precipitation occurs when brine with high amount of

calcium ions (CaCl2 as completion fluid) injected into the high bicarbonate
concentration reservoirs. Or removal of CO2 due to reduction in pressure
leads to precipitation of CaCo3.
Ca2+ + 2HCO-3 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Imbalance in any of the side drives the reaction.

Waxes and Asphaltenes are most common species for formation damage.
Waxes are deposited due to reduction of temperature or removal of gases
from crude. Asphaltenes are high molecular aromatic and naphthelic
compounds that are thought to be colliadally dispersed with oil. The
colloidal state is stabilized in presence of resins. Thus removal of resins
leads to precipitation of asphaltenes. Chemical changes in crude oil reduce
resin concentration leading to asphaltene deposition.

Fluid damage:

-formation of oil-water emulsions which has greater viscosity than normal

crude cause blockage. Emulsions are commonly non-Newtonian fluid
requires additional yield stress to mobilize fluid.

- Increase in relative permeability to water causes reduction in permeability

to oil.

Mechanical damage:

- Damage due to perforation (Crushed zone)

- Collapse of weak formation around wellbore

Biological damage:

- Anaerobic bacteria in injection water. Biological damage can be treated

by treating formation with bactericide.

Sources of formation damage:

- drilling damage
Plugging of pores due to drilling solids and filtrate invasion.

- Completion damage
Invasion of completion fluids, perforating, cementing or well stimulation
Completion fluid should be treated well to remove solids sizes greater
than 2 micro-meter
 Cement filtrate contains high calcium ions may lead to precipitation
damage
Perforation damage can be reduced by perforating underbalance

- Production damage
Potential source is fines migration during production.
Velocity of production should be maintained below critical velocity to
prevent fines migration.

- Injection damage
If mixing fluid properties are incompatible with reservoir fluid then
precipitation occurs. Cation exchange of injected water with reservoir
may lead to precipitation of divalent ions in formation water.

TOPIC: PROBLEM WELL ANALYSIS

Comprehensive problem well analysis is usually the least costly part of workover
operation.

Categories of problems

- Limited producing rate

- Excessive gas or water rate
- Mechanical failures

Limited producing rate:

Causes:

- Low reservoir permeability

Generally rapid pressure decline encounters in low permeability
reservoir. If initial geological data or reservoir data doesnt show low
permeability, then to differentiate between formation damage & low
permeability, flow meter surveys or pressure build-up tests can be used.

- Low reservoir pressure

- Formation damage
 Formation damage may be indicated by well tests. Parameters obtained
from well tests can be compared with offset wells to analyze the problem.
- Tubular plugging
- High viscosity oil
- Excessive backpressure
- Inefficient artificial lift
- Mechanical problems

Excessive water production:

- Fingering of water through high permeable strata

- Water coning
- Water channeling due to faulty cementation

Well diagnostic can differentiate between coning, water block and emulsion
block. Coning can be diagnosed by shutting the well or reducing production
from well. It allows settling of oil-water contact & thus reducing problem of
water coning. If emulsion block exist, then calculated average well
permeability from injected test will be much higher than average
permeability from production test (emulsion acts like check valve).
Temporary shift of relative permeability in favor of water as mobile fluid
causes water blocking. Water blocking is result of circulating or killing well
with water.

Excessive gas production:

Sources of gas in oil well:

- Gas dissolved in oil

- Primary or secondary gas caps
- Gas flow through channels

Mechanical failures:

Common failures in wellbore;

- Cement bond failure

- Casing failure
- Tubing & packer leaks
- Failure of downhole equipment
- Failure of artificial lift
TOPIC: PARAFFINS AND ASPHALTENES

Reasons for paraffin deposition:

- Cooling produced by gas expansion

- Cooling produced heat radiation to surrounding
- Cooling produced by dissolved gas being liberated from solution
- Change in temperature produced by intrusion of water
- Evaporation of lighter components

Paraffin is chemically inert & therefore resistant to attack by acid or bases.

Asphaltenes are cyclic compounds. They are soluble in aromatic solvents BTX,
carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulphide.

Analysis of paraffin and asphaltene:

1. Cloud point- paraffin cloud is visible in solution

2. Pour point- temperature at which crude doesnt pour

Deposition mechanism:

Paraffin deposition-

A nucleating particle is usually present that gathers wax crystal into bushy particle
that is much larger than single crystal. These agglomerate separate out from crude
and forms deposit on wells production system. Asphaltenes are usually act as
nucleating particles.

Temperature reduction reduces the solubility of wax in crude thus reduction in

temperature leads to wax deposition.

Asphaltene deposition-

Asphaltene deposition is may be related to electrical phenomenon. Fluid flowing

though capillaries can develop electrical charge through streaming potential
phenomenon. (Streaming potential- electric current or potential generates when
electrolyte is driven by pressure gradient through channel or porous plug).
Removal of wax deposits:

Mechanical removal Scrappers and cutters are extensively

used.
Solvent removal Carbon disulphide universal paraffin
solvent

Condensate, diesel oil & kerosene are

often use to dissolve paraffin in wells
with less asphaltene content.

Asphaltenes dissolved in toluene and

xylene.
Hot oiling one of the most popular
method for paraffin removal.

Water soluble dispersant cam be used

to remove paraffin deposits.

Preventing wax deposition:

- Crystal modifiers: removal of nucleating agent will prevent

agglomeration of paraffin crystals and prevent deposition.
- Plastic pipe and coatings
- Downhole heaters
TOPIC: SCALE DEPOSITION

Scale deposits are result of crystallization and precipitation of minerals from water.

Causes of scaling:

- Pressure drop
- Temperature change
- Intermixing of incompatible waters
- Exceeding solubility of product

Most common oilfield scales are,

- Calcium carbonate
- Gypsum
- Barium sulphate
- Sodium chloride

Calcium carbonate scaling (CaCO3): generally chemicals are in chemical

equilibrium. Change in equilibrium drives the reaction for minerals. In oil wells,
pressure drop leads to release of CO2 from bicarbonate ions (HCO-3). When CO2 is
release, pH of the solution increases thus solubility of carbonates decreases.

CaCO3 scaling increases with increase in temperature, pH and contact time.

Gypsum scaling (CaSO4.2H2O): pressure drop is one the reason. Intermixing of

water containing calcium ions & other containing sulphate ion causes gypsum
scaling.

Barium sulphate (BaSO4) & strontium sulphate (SrSO4): main cause is

intermingling of waters containing barium or strontium and sulphate ions in other
water. Barium suplhate often deposited in gas wells as hydrates are evaporated.

Sodium chloride (NaCl): main cause is supersatuartion.

Iron scales: Corrosion products.

Scale identification:

- X-ray diffraction
 - Chemical analysis (chemicals elements are analyze using titration or
precipitation)

Scale removal:

a. Water soluble scale

b. Acid soluble scales
c. Chemical soluble scale (other than water and acid)

Mechanical methods include re-perforating of casing to by-pass perforation

sealed with scale. String shots, sonic tools, drilling & reaming are use as other
methods for scale removal.

Chemical removal:

Water soluble scale Most common scale is sodium

Acid soluble scale
chloride. Newly formed gypsum
scale is soluble in circulating water.
Calcium carbonate scale is acid
soluble scale. It readily dissolves in
hydrochloric or acetic acid. Acetic
acid is used when downhole tools are
chrome plated. Use of HCl can cause
severe damage.

Iron carbonate, iron sulphide & iron

Acid insoluble scales
Chemically Inert scale
oxide are acid soluble scales.
Calcium suplphate or gypsum is
only the acid-insoluble scale. KOH
converts gypsum to Ca(OH)2 which
is water soluble.
Barium or strontium sulphate can
be removed by only mechanical
means.
 Scale prevention:

- Polyphosphates gets adsorbed on crystal nucleus and slows further

crystal growth.

Scales and mineral names:

Scale mineral name

Sodium chloride halite

Calcium carbonate calcite

Calcium sulphate anhydrite

Calcium sulphate gypsum

Barium sulphate barite

Iron carbonate siderite

Iron oxide hematite

Iron oxide magnetite

TOPIC: WELL SERVICING & WORKOVER

Conventional production rigs:

Rig selection:

- Depth or load capacity

Rig capacities are commonly spoken in terms of depth rating. Rig
capacity depends on braking capacity, derrick capacity & draw-works
capacity.
- Braking capacity
Braking capacity is primary consideration in rig selection. Considerable
energy is developed while lowering pipe. This energy converted to heat
by braking system. Heat must be dissipated.
Braking effort is function of brake area. Larger the brake area, more the
heat dissipation. Shallow rigs generally use air cooling system. Rigs use
for deeper depths uses water as cooling system or spray. For wells deeper
than 10,000 ft auxiliary brake may require.
- Derrick capacity
Two types of mast use with production rigs. Conventional pole types
mast & self-guyed structural mast. The foundation under the derrick legs
must support hook load and weight of derrick.
- Draw-works horsepower
Draw-works horsepower basically determines the speed at which pipe
can be pulled from hole.

Non-conventional work-over system:

- Concentric tubing workover rigs are smaller version of production rigs

with higher degree of hydraulic control. Concentric tubing use small tube
macaroni is run inside existing tubing. For higher pressure well, tube
can be snubbed in well without killing the well.

Primary equipment required are hoisting and rotating unit, blowout

preventers, macaroni workstring & high-pressure low volume pump. In
blow-out preventers, twin-ram manually operated preventer containing
 two-sets of pipe ram is usually sufficient with the conventional hoist unit.
Strippers are necessary where workover string run under pressure.

Work string: various size of macaroni tubing with different connections

is available. Integral tubing joint connections must be used where
string is run through stripper. Most economical string is 1 J-55 with
API NU or EUE (inside 2 7/8 tubing). For 2 3/8 tubing, 1 macaroni
NU tubing is employed.

- Long-stroke hydraulic snubbing unit

- Coil tubing units

Primary components of coil tubing units are injector-hoist unit,

continuous tubing, and storage reel and blow-out preventer stack.

Injector hoist:

This consists of friction gripper blocks mounted on endless chain driven

hydraulic motor system.

Continuous tubing: sizes are 1, 1 or 1 inch. Coil tubing can only

use where circulation is required.
- Small diameter short stroke snubbing unit
- Pump down system
- Through tubing electric line or wireline systems
- Tubing extension system
Rigless workover systems: most well interventions are remedial operations
performed on producing well with intension to increase or restoring the production.
12 major categories are identified in downhole applications:

- Well logging
- Well perforating
- Cleaning
- Fishing
- Fluid displacement
- Through tubing sand control
- Remedial cementing
- Selective stimulation
- Thru-tubing completions
- Artificial lift services
- Re-entry drilling
- Surface controlled subsurface safety valve repair

Rigless technique for well intervention are wireline, coil tubing and
hydraulic workover services that do not use conventional workover rig and
have capability of performing under pressure wells. Pulling of tubing is
major workover job which requires production rig.

Hydraulic workover uses cylinders to push jointed sections of pipe into the
well, in contrast continuous tube is used in coil tubing. The pipe can be
inserted either under pressure or after killing the well.
TOPIC: WORKOVER PLANNING
Work over planning to alleviate
formation damage
Check bottom using through tubing
tools or with regular tubing to feel any
debris. If debris fill, run bailer to obtain
sample. If no fill, then run through-
tubing flow meter to locate partial or
completely plugged zones. Cleaning
out, re-perforating, fracturing or
acidizing use to treat or by-pass the
damage.
Plugged perforations- wash perforations
with double cup perforation washer with
appropriate spacing between wash cups.
Perforations may be broken down by
ball sealers.
Scaled damage wells- for scaled tubing,
acidize, chemically remove or ream out
the tubing as required. Flowline can be
cleaned with pig or scrapper. Scale
in casing perforations, re-perforate &
remove remaining scale by acidizing. If
excessive build up in casing, then drill
& re-perforate.
Paraffin or asphaltene plugging- wax
can be reamed out, hot oil circulation,
hot water or dissolved solvent.
Emulsion or water blocks- for sandstone
wells, HF-HCl acid-surfactant treatment
is preferred to remove emulsion
damage.
For matrix damage in carbonates, the

Work over planning for low
permeability well
Work over planning for wells with
partially depleted pressure
Work over to reduce water production in Run production log to check integrity of
oil and gas wells
usual approach is to bypass damage by
acidizing or hydraulic fracturing.
Clay or silt damage in formation matrix-
in sandstone reservoirs, damage can be
removed by HF-HCl acidizing or
hydraulic fracturing & propping.
Loss of mud in fractures: pump water at
high rates in order to displace mud into
far formation. Sidetrack & frack the
well if above approach doesnt work.
Effective artificial lift is preferred for
low perm oil well. Hydraulic fracturing
can be good option very low tight
reservoirs. Acidizing can be good option
in carbonate reservoirs.
For partially depleted oil reservoirs,
effective artificial lift should be planned.
Pressure maintenance or EOR can good
options.
Since low pressure reservoirs has low
driving energy, damage can be bypassed
by acidizing or fracturing.
cement. If production logs show flow
behind casing from water zone, low
pressure low volume cement squeeze
should be conducted. Re-perforate the
well in desired interval.
Fingering water in stratified layers: run
production logs to estimate the water cut
& volume of flow from each interval.
For perforated casing completions, low

Work over to reduce gas production in
oil wells
Work over for sand control
pressure low volume cement squeeze
should be conducted & re-perforate the
section.
For open hole completions, plug back
the zone if water zones is down. If water
zone is above the reservoir then it is
necessary to run cement liner to shut-off
water zones and re-perforate desired
interval.
Water coning: plug back the zone and
re-perforate as high above oil-water
contact as possible.
Shutting the well for months allow
contact to re-equilibrate.
In stratified or layered reservoir, zones
can be squeezed off. If gas flow is due
to channeling behind casing then low
pressure squeeze required.
If reservoir has large gas cap, then it is
advisable to initially produce from
structurally lowered wells to conserve
reservoir energy.
Gas cap expansion into oil zones can be
prevented by pressure maintenance by
water injection. Thus gas cap will retract
and reduce the work-over to shut-off
job.
Gravel packing is preferred method for
sand control in long zones.
Sand consolidation with plastic is

Work over to repair mechanical failure
Increasing production in high viscosity
wells
preferred method in perforate short zone
multiple completions.
Injection of plastic coated sand is
preferred method in medium length
zones.
Primary cement failure, casing failure,
tubing failure, packer failure, valve
failure etc.
Thermal stimulation applicable in high
viscosity oil reservoir. Steam
stimulation can be used to remove
damage by wax. Flow line heating for
highly viscous oils.
TOPIC: COMPLETION & WORKOVER FLUIDS

Parameters considerations for fluid selection:

Fluid density Enough to control formation pressure

Solid content Ideally fluid should be solid free.
Filtrate Less filtrate to minimize formation damage considering swelling,
characteristics dispersion of clays, wettability change & emulsion stabilization.
Fluid loss Use pf bridging particles like calcium carbonate is good approach
to fluid loss control.
Viscosity Fluid should enough viscosity to lift solids from wellbore or to
related carry solids into the wellbore.
characteristics
Corrosion Fluid should be chemically stable so that reaction of free oxygen
products with tubular steel is minimized & iron in solution is sequestered.
The reasonable limit for corrosivity is 0.05 lb/ft2. For packer fluid,
1 mil per year is considerable but 5 mils per year is considered as
upper permissible limit.

Formation damage can be prevented by complete solid removal. Fluid in contact

must not contain solid larger than 2 micron size. All possible solids can removed
by surface filters. If solids are removed then its not possible to get the viscosity of
greater than 1 cp. In such cases maximizing annular velocity is only the solution.

Complete fluid loss control: to control fluid loss, workover fluid particles should
be properly sized so that they can bridge quickly. These formation face plugs can
be removed by back-flow or calcium carbonate particles can be treated with acid.

Oil fluids: oil is excellent packer fluid in standpoint of minimizing corrosion and
gel strength can be provided to solid settling. Loss of oil to the formation also
doesnt create any clay disturbance. Crude used in system always checked for
presence of paraffin or Asphaltenes. Crude used also should be checked for
possibility of emulsions with water. If stable emulsion is formed, suitable
surfactant should be used.
Diesel oil: diesel oil can be used where clean fluid is requirement for operations
such as sand consolidation.

Clear water fluids:

Formation salt water: formation salt water is most common workover fluid.

Salt water (brine): brine used in formation should theoretically match the formation
water cation type. To prevent clay swelling, 1 % kcl or 2-5 % NaCl, 1 % CaCl2
should be added to limit clay swelling.

Workover fluid for sandstone formations where productivity is important should

contain the proper surfactant to prevent any possibility of emulsion formation and
to leave for formation around wellbore strongly water wet.

Viscosity control: completion fluid viscosity builders are long chain polymers. To
name few guar gum, starch, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC) and bio-polymer (Xanthan gum) are the widely used polymers.
Guar gum is natural hydrocolloid which swells when comes in contact with water,
building viscosity and fluid loss control. Starch is primarily use as fluid loss
control agent. Bio-polymer xanthan gum provides good viscosity and fluid loss
control.

Fluid loss control:

Calcium carbonate is easily available material. Sizes above 200 mesh should be
used. CaCO3 is completely soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Oil soluble resins:

Crystallization temperature: it is temperature at which salt crystals form when

brine is cooled.

Perforating fluids: salt water or oil, acetic acid

Packer fluid: protection from corrosion & limit settling of solids.