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WTP463
March 2000
Groundwater in Rural
Public Disclosure Authorized
Development
Facingthe CiallevQges
of Supply
and ResourceSus{ainabi/ity
Public Disclosure Authorized
Public Disclosure Authorized
StephenFoster
John Chilton
MiarcusMoench
FranklinCardy
ManuelSchiffler
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Groundwvaterin Rural
Development
Facingthe Chaillenges
of Supply
and ResourceSustainability
StephenFoster
John Chilton
MarcusMoench
FranklinCarc&
ManuelSchiffter
The WorldBank
Washington,
D.C.
Copyright 2000
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
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ISBN: 0-8213-4703-9
ISSN: 0253-7494
Stephen Foster is assistant director of the British Geological Survey and visiting professor of
hydrogeology at the University of London. John Chilton is principal hydrogeologist at the British
Geological Survey. Marcus Moench is president of the Institute of Social and Environmental Transition.
Franklin Cardy is senior water resources management specialist in the Africa Technical Family at the
World Bank. Manuel Schiffler is an economist in the World Bank's Middle East and North Africa Region
Sector Group.
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StakeholderParticipationand Governance......................................... 52
Key ManagementFunctions......................................... 52
ResourcesEvaluation......................................... 52
ResourceValuation......................................... 59
StrategicPlanning......................................... 62
ResourceRegulation......................................... 62
Economic Instrumentsfor GroundwaterManagement......................................... 66
AbstractionCharges......................................... 66
Indirect Influences......................................... 67
Role of Water Markets......................................... 68
MountingGroundwaterManagementActionPlan......................................... 69
Demandversus Supply-SideMeasures......................................... 69
SlowingGrowth in Abstraction......................................... 69
Laying the Groundworkfor Management.......................................... 72
Beginningto Reduce Abstraction......................................... 72
Scopefor ArtificialAquiferRecharge......................................... 73
Option of PlannedMining of GroundwaterStorage.......................................... 74
4. ProtectingGroundwaterQuality............................................... 75
Nature of DiffusePollutionThreat from Agriculture............................................... 75
ProcessesControllingNitrate Leachingand Transport................................................ 76
Risk of PesticideContamination............................................... 77
Controllingthe Leachingof Agrochemicals................................................ 81
PollutionHazardAssessmentand ProtectionStrategy............................................... 83
GeneralApproach............................................... 83
MappingAquifer PollutionVulnerability............................................... 85
DefiningGroundwaterSource ProtectionAreas............................................... 87
UndertakingWellheadSanitary Surveys............................................... 88
References............................................... 94
Boxes
Box 1: GroundwaterOccurrenceand Flow .9
Box 2: VillageWater Suppliesfrom the WeatheredCrystallineBasementin Sub-SaharanAfrica 15
Box 3: Cost Effectivenessof GroundwaterExplorationfor Livestock-WateringBoreholesin the
BotswanaKalahari.20
Box 4: DevelopingSmall-ScaleGarden IrrigationUsing CollectorWells in Zimbabwe.22
Box 5: Diagnosisof BoreholeDeteriorationand RehabilitationNeeds in the Indus AlluvialBasin
of Pakistan.24
Box 6: Natural Contaminationof Groundwaterwith Arsenic in Bangladesh.29
Box 7: CriticalRole and FutureUncertaintyof Groundwaterin Rural India .45
Box 8: Capacityfor IndirectRegulation of GroundwaterAbstractionin Bangladesh.64
Box 9: Policy Optionsfor Stabilizingthe GroundwaterResource Situationin Mexico.70
Box 10: Jordan Mounts a PrimarilyRegulatoryOffensiveto RationalizeAquifer Exploitationin
ExtremelyWater-ScarceRegion.71
Box 11: Leachingof Nitrate from TropicalAgriculturalSoils to Groundwater.78
iv
Box 12: Risk of PesticideLeachingfrom TropicalAgriculturalSoils..................................................
80
Box 13: GroundwaterSource PollutionRisk Evaluationand Managementaround
Managua,Nicaragua.82
Box 14: Rural-UrbanCompetitionand Conflictfor Scarce GroundwaterResourcesin the
Yemen Arab Republic.86
Box 15: WastewaterReuse for AgriculturalIrrigationin CentralMexico: Benefits,
Problems and Solutions............................................. 93
Figures
Figure 1: General Scope, Organizationand Applicationof TechnicalPaper ........................................ xiv
Figure2: General Trend of GroundwaterRechargeRates from Excess Rainfalland Irrigation with
Climatic Type.................................................... 4
Figure 3: Correlationbetween Land Use and GroundwaterNitrate Concentrations................................5
Figure4: Variation of Well Yields and AbstractionRequirementus for DifferentTypes of Rural
GroundwaterUse............................................................ 8
Figure 5: Variationof GroundwaterSupplyDevelopmentOptions/Costswith Aquifer Type.............. 11
Figure 6: Analysisof Actual and Required StakeholderParticipationin Rural Groundwater
Developmentfor AgriculturalIrrigation.12
Figure 7: HarmonizingDesign of Rural Water SupplyWells with HydrogeologicalConditionsin
WeatheredBasementAquifers.18
Figure 8: Variationof BoreholeYield Predictabilityand Drought Security with Principal
HydrogeologicalEnvironments................................................... 25
Figure 9: Major and Trace Elementsin Groundwaterand their H-ealthSignificance.............................28
Figure 10: ProgressiveDeteriorationin OperationalPerformanceof a ProductionBorehole in a Heavily
AbstractedAlluvialAquifer.............................................................. 42
Figure I1: Dewateringof GroundwaterStoragein the TertiaryLimestone of SoutheasternCyprus due to
IntensiveUncontrolledDevelopmentfor AgriculturalIrrigation............................................ 43
Figure 12: HistoricalDevelopmentof the Deccan Traps GroundwaterSystem in Maharastra,India ..... 46
Figure 13: Measuringthe Costs of GroundwaterAbstraction............................................................... 48
Figure 14: GeneralConceptualFrameworkfor the Managementand Protection of
GroundwaterResources.50
Figure 15: SchematicRepresentationand Classificationof Aquifer Recharge and
DischargeProcesses.54
Figure 16: Categorizationof AquiferRecharge in the more Arid Regionsfor Practical Groundwater
ResourceEvaluationand Development.55
Figure 17: IncreasingGroundwaterRecharge to the Shallcw Alluvial-DeltaicAquifer of Bangladeshby
ControlledWater Table Lowering.58
Figure 18: OrganizationSchemefor Use of Numerical AquiferModelingto Inform Groundwater
ManagementPlans.58
Figure 19: Variationof GroundwaterResourceRegulatiornRequirementwith HydrogeologicSetting and
SocioeconomicCircumstances.66
Figure20: GroundwaterNitrate Concentrationsin the Weathered BasementAquifer of Rural Areas of
Central Nigeria................................................................ 84
Tables
Table 1: Statisticson AgriculturalIrrigation,Drainage,and GroundwaterUse for SelectedNations.... 2
Table 2: ComparativeCharacteristicsof Groundwaterand SuriaceWater Resourcesin Relation to
Rural Development................................................................. 3
Table 3: Characteristicsof PrincipalHydrogeologicalSystems............................................................
10
Table 4: Suitabilityof GeophysicalMethods in Differen,tHydrogeologicalEnvironments.................16
Table 5: GeneralSummaryof DrillingMethods and Constrainitsfor WaterwellConstruction............ 17
Table 6: AverageCosts of Rural Water Supply Wells in Weathered CrystallineBasement Regions.. 18
v
Table 7: Guidelinesfor Interpretationof Water Qualityfor Irrigation......................................................... 30
Table 8: Key Factors in the Challengeof GroundwaterSourceMaintenancefor ImprovedEfficiency
and Useful Life.................................................. 31
Table9: Analysisof Factors ReducingWell Efficiencyand Useful Life.................................................. 33
Table 10: The "IntegratedApproach"to CommunityGroundwaterSupply Planning................................ 38
Table 11: Consequencesof ExcessiveGroundwaterAbstraction.................................................. 41
Table 12: Susceptibilityof HydrogeologicalEnvironmentsto Adverse Side effects during Excessive
Abstraction................................................. 41
Table 13: Summaryof GroundwaterResource-ManagementFunctions................................................. 53
Table 14: PrincipalDirect Techniquesused for GroundwaterRecharge Estimation................................... 56
Table 15: Summaryof EconomicMethodsApplied to GroundwaterValuation.. ........................................
60
Table 16: Summaryof Water-QualityGuidelinesRelated to GroundwaterContaminationthrough
AgriculturalCultivation........................................................... 75
Table 17: Summaryof the RelativeImpact of AgronomicFactors on GroundwaterQuality.................... 81
Table 18: PrincipalHydrogeologicalEnvironmentsand their AssociatedPollution Vulnerability..........87
Table 19: Definitionof AquiferVulnerabilityClasses........................................................... 88
Table 20: Systemsof Scoring for Sanitary Risk and ConfirmingFecalPollution Hazard
for GroundwaterSources.89
vi
Foreword
Groundwaterhas been the fundamentalresource underpinning the rapid provision of more reliable, better
quality, low-costwater suppliesfor the rural populationin the developingworld over the past 20 years or so.
Concomitantly,many nations have witnessed an enormous increase in the exploitation of groundwater for
agriculturalirrigation.Access to groundwateris thus a major factor enabling rural populations to achieve
food security,increasetheir productivityand move beyond subsistence.
Whilst these developmentshave provided major benefits in termnsof rural living standards and poverty
alleviation,concernsare arising over certain issues, most notably the operational sustainabilityof individual
water sources, the natural occurrence of groundwater of unacceptable quality in some areas, and, most
importantly,widespreadevidence of degradationof the resource base itself.
The preparation of this paper, which was undertaken by a team, of widely experienced groundwater
specialists,has been coordinatedby the British GeologicalSurvey and involved in-depth consultationwith
numerous World Bank staff. The work was financed by the World Eank and the (British) Departmentfor
InternationalDevelopment.It providesa systematicin-depth review of issues that have emergedin the 1990s
and suggeststhe way forwardtowards more efficient and sustainableutilizationof groundwaterresources in
ruraldevelopment.
The target audienceincludes senior staff of national governnnentsresponsiblefor provision of rural water
supply and sanitation, for promoting agriculturaldevelopment and for managing land and water resources,
togetherwith the staff of the internationalsupportagenciesand nongovernmentalorganizationschargedwith
providing financial and technical assistance in these areas. Numerous World Bank task managers have
reported they are encountering serious groundwater overdraft and pollution problems with increasing
fiequency, and have emphasized the lack of definitive informatiornon effective ways to address such
problems.The hope is that this paper will:
- Raise their awareness of the constraints on and threats to sustainableuse of groundwater for rural
development
* Provide them with a useful guide when considering new project proposals with a groundwater
dimension
* Persuade them of the urgent need for increased investmenitand more appropriate institutional
arrangementsfor the sustainablemanagementof groundwaterresources.
Ashok Subramanian
S-enior Water Institutions Development Specialist
The World Bank
vii
Abstract
Groundwateris of major importanceto rural developmentin many countries of the world. As a result of its
widespreaddistribution,low development-costand generally excellentquality, it has been the fundamental
resource allowingthe rapid developmentof improveddomesticwater suppliesfor the rural population and in
many areas has also supported a major increase of highly-productiveagriculturalirrigation. Groundwater
resources are thus vital for meeting an array of basic needs, from public health to poverty alleviation and
economicdevelopment.
As a result of the high rates of abstraction required for irrigation, however, in some areas there is
significantconcern about sustainabilityof the resourcebase, because of falling groundwatertables and near-
irreversibleaquiferdeteriorationthrough saline intrusion.There are also additionalsustainabilityconcerns as
a result of the increasingincidence of groundwaterpollution from over-intensiveor inadequately managed
agriculturalcultivationpractices.
This paper is based on review of the evolving situation during the 1990s in a substantial number of
developing nations. It aims to raise awareness of the key linkages between groundwater and rural
development,and to identify appropriatetechnicaland institutionalapproachesfor improvingthe operational
reliability of waterwells and the sustainabilityof groundwater resources as a whole. To achieve this will
require recognitionthat hydrogeologicand socioeconomicdiversity necessitatesa flexibility of management
response. The unifying concept of the paper is the definitionof action to reduce the growth in groundwater
abstraction and to constrain subsurface contaminant load, withlin a phased process of institutional
developmentbuilt upon sound technicalevaluationand increasingstakeholderengagement.
ix
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Acknowledgments
The potential value of producing a World Bank Technical Paper on this subject was identified by John
Briscoe (WorldBank-Senior Water Adviser),followingan internal review of the past 10-15 yearsof World
Bank experience with projects on rural water supply and agriculural development with a significant
groundwater-relatedcomponent. This review was undertakenby Stephen Foster (British GeologicalSurvey)
and Franklin Cardy (World Bank-Africa Technical Department) during April-July 1998, having been
instigatedby the World Bank"s Water ResourcesManagement:ThemnaticGroup, led at that time by Ashok
Subramanian.He and Andrew Macoun (of the World Bank-MENARegion), who subsequentlytook over as
coordinatorof this work, are both thankedfor their personal interest and valuable inputs to the productionof
the paper. The work has been encouragedby the interest of John 1Hodgesand Ian Curtis of the (British)
Department for International Development-Engineering Division. The Management Committee of the
Thematic Group (Geoff Spencer, Theodore Herman, and Ashok Subramanian) is to be thanked for their
continuedinterestand support.
The authors wish to acknowledge the practical assistance of numerous World Bank staff in issue
identification,data collection, policy discussionand editorial view, including Keith Pitman, Stephen Mink,
John Shepherd,Lee Travers,Douglas Olson, David Grey, SalmanSalman, Karin Kemper, ChristopherWard,
Adel Bichara, and Ariel Dinar. The authors also wish to thank the following British Geological Survey
colleagues for providing valuable data on groundwater in the context of the development of rural water
suppliesand agriculturalirrigation:Adrian Lawrence,David Kinniburgh,Pauline Smedley,and Jeff Davies.
The first author also acknowledgesvaluablediscussionsand written contributionson the general theme of
this report with Dr Hans Wolter (UN-FAO-Director of Land and Water Development Division),Professor
Ramon Llamas-Madurga (Universidad Complutense of Madrid, Spain), Ing Ruben Chavez-Guillen
(Comision Nacional del Agua-Gerentede Aguas Subterraneas,Mexico), and Prof K. Palanisami of Tamil
Nadu AgriculturalUniversity,India. Ing IgnacioLopez-Cortijo(UN-FAO)provided assistancein abstracting
data from the AQUASTATsystem.
Lastly a very special thank you to Theresa Blackwelland Gill Tyson for their major effortsin handling the
presentationalaspectsof the document,throughits various drafting stages.
xi
Executive Summary
Sink in despairon the red parched earth, An aquifer that is almost alwaysfull,
and then ye mnayreckonwhat water is worth. is almost as badly managed,
Traversethe desert and then ye can tell, as one that is almost always empty.
Whattreasuresexist in the cool deep well.
The utilization of groundwater resourceshas facilitatedthe rapid, low-cost provision of more reliable,good
quality, water suppliesfor the rural population across extensive areas of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
While many key issues in this respect have been addressed,some persistentproblems (such as improvingthe
operational reliability of groundwater sources) and other ermergingconcerns (such as the hazardous or
unacceptablenatural quality of certaingroundwaters)require systematicattention.
In many nations there has been a major increase in the use of groundwaterfor agricultural irrigation.
This has not been restricted to semi-arid regions, but has also occunredin more humid areas, to provide a
greater intensity, or more security, of croppingon existingcultivated land, rather than bringing new land into
production.Moreover,there is increasingevidencethat the use of groundwater can be an importantfactor in
promoting increasedirrigationefficiencyand waterproductivitv.
However,there are concerns about the operationalreliabilityof irrigation wells. As a result of the much
higher rates of abstractionrequired for irrigation,in some areas there is an even greater concern about the
sustainabilityof the resource base itself, including falling groundwatertables, interference with downstream
users and irreversible aquifer deteriorationthrough saline intrasion and ground compaction.An additional
issue is groundwaterpollutionfrom inadequatelymanagedor over-intensiveagriculturalpractices.
The principalobjectives of this paper are thus:
The organizationof the paper is summarizedin Figure 1, which serves as a general guide to its scope and
application.It is importantto appreciatethat in areas wheregroundwater utilization is restrictedto the level of
domestic water supply and livestock watering, interest will be confined mainly to Chapters 1 and 2, and
sometimesto Chapter4.
Chapter 1 (General Introduction) details the importance of groundwater for domestic and agricultural
water supply, and introduces the key linkages between rural development and groundwater resources. A
hierarchy of issues and concerns is defined, which ranges from the constructionaladequacy and operational
reliability of groundwater sources for both domestic and irrigation water supply to resource degradation
issues arising out of the developmentof intensiveirrigated agriculture.The degree of difficulty in managing
xiii
groundwater resources for rural development shows wide variation with environment and this chapter
provides an introductionto hydrogeologicaldiversity, whose appreciation is essential if the development
process is to work with (rather than against) nature. It also identifies the diverse group of stakeholdersin
groundwater use for rural development and analyses the way in which they should be involved in the
promotion,constructionand operation of groundwatersupply projects.
: _~~~I
-
EIII | GENERALINTRODUCTION j
GROUNDWATER SUPPLY:
DESIGN AND INTRODUCTION
1
| |
1!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
DESIGN
AND supply(quantity)
(quality)
2 1 CONSTRUCTION * mitigating
droughtimpacts
OPERATION
AND * technicalproblems
MAINTENANCE * organization
and costrecovery
0
GROUNDWATER RESOURCE |
SUSTAINABILITY 0)
REGULATION
AND * technicaldiagnosis
131 ~~MANAGEMENT
OF o managementfunctionso
3 institutional
arrangements
ABSTRACTION * economicinstruments
RURAL-URBANINTERFACE
(an addendum) L
Chapter 2 (Groundwater Supply: Design and Operation) discusses the issues relating to the provision and
operationof groundwatersuppliesfor rural development,both at a small scale for domesticuse and livestock
watering, and where higher rates of water supply are of interest for piped water supply in rural towns and
villages,and for intensiveirrigatedagriculture.Much progress was made in this context duringthe 1980sbut
there is still widespreadneed to ensurethat:
xiv
* Wellsitinganddesignproceduresbenefitfrombeingmorecloselycorrelatedwithaquifer
* Hydraulicstructureand fromsystematichydrogeological evaluationof the securityof supplyduring
extendeddrought
* Operationalreliabilityof watersupplysourcesis improvedby communityparticipation,initially
throughdefiningthe requiredserviceleveland subsequentlythroughtakingresponsibilityfor both
thephysicalandfinancialaspectsof wellmaintenance
* Natural hydrogeochemical controls on groundwaterquality, and the hazard of encountering
unacceptablequalityforpotablesupplyare appreciated;sincetheseact as a given,constrainingthe
siting,designand cost of new sources,they are dealt with in this chapter(ratherthanlater under
protectinggroundwater frompollution).
xv
Overall, wide hydrogeologic and socioeconomicdiversity represents a major challenge for groundwater
resources management, and it is not possible to be highly prescriptive in this context. Nevertheless,
diagnostic tools can be (and have been) identified to enable resource managers and project planners to
characterizethe key elements of common situations and define a more sustainable way forward. Although
groundwater management and protection appear complex, the actual process of beginning to develop
capabilitiesneed not be. Furthermore,while strategies must ultimately reflect local conditions, the overall
approach to strategy development can utilize common starting points. Where justified this might include
immediateactionto reduce the growthin groundwaterabstractionand/orto constrain subsurfacecontaminant
load within a phased process of institutional development built upon sound technical evaluation, raising
public awarenessand increasingstakeholderinvolvement.In many cases, entry points will exist in the form
of specificregional concernsor local interest groups.They can be used to mobilize stakeholderparticipation,
highlight policy issues and develop pilot activities. Proactive participatory management will represent a
significant cost increment for groundwater development,but this may be a small price to pay for a secure
sourceof reliablewater supply in drought,comparedto the cost of surface water suppliesfor irrigation.
It is recognized that the distinction between rural and urban development is somewhat arbitrary;
nevertheless it is considered valid given the project focus of this paper. Urban groundwater resource
managementissues have been systematicallytreated in World Bank Technical Paper390 (Groundwaterin
Urban Development). As a corollary Chapter 5 deals with some special concerns about groundwater
resources at the rural-urbaninterface and especiallyto three specific aspects:
xvi
1
GENERAL INTRO)DUCTION
In the African and Latin American context, waterwells have also been of primary importance in the
developmentof extensive livestockrearing in the semiaridregions. 'This aspect of agriculturaldevelopment,
however, has not been without its problems. In some areas there has been a tendency in wetter years to
overstock in relation to land capacity during drought, resulting in subsequentheavy over-grazing and soil
erosion in the vicinity of livestock-wateringboreholes.
AgriculturalIrrigation
During the last 10 to 20 years, there has been an enormous increase in the utilization of groundwater
resources for agricultural irrigation, because of their widespread distribution and low development cost
(Clarke and others, 1996).Groundwaterhas been at the heart cf the "green revolution"in agriculture across
many Asian nations, and has permittedcultivationof high-valuecrops in various arid regions.
Groundwater has also provided security against drought in areas where irrigation with surface water
resources has been deficient during dry years. Moreover, the use of groundwater can be a major factor in
promoting increased irrigation water-useefficiency and agricultural water productivity.This is because the
energy costs associated with pumping are often higher than for surface water, providing an incentive to
increase water conservation or to irrigate high-value crops, because groundwater sources are generally far
more reliable during drought and becausegroundwater is sediment-free,readily allowing the introductionof
water-efficientirrigationtechnology.
Furthermore, the scale of groundwater development has facilitat:edtubewell operation at the level of
individualfarmers or small collectivegroups, and this has offered greater flexibility of irrigation scheduling
and much simpler distribution systems, resulting in generalllyhigher crop yields and irrigation water
I
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
productivity. Moreover, it has allowed responsibility for maintenance to be devolved. Such developments,
can, however, result in:
* Poor standards of irrigation well construction, which may comprornise water-source reliability in
unfavorable hydrogeological conditions
* The proliferation of waterwells which may lead to groundwater resource competition and storage
overdraft, in situations where resources are significantly constrained by limited recharge.
Table 1: Statistics on agricultural irrigation, drainage and groundwater use for selected nations
Note: Althoughthe best available,these figuresdo not distinguishsupplementaryfrom near-continuousirrigation,or the type and
value of crops grownfrom differentwatersources,and they also do not adequatelyrepresentconjunctive,use whichis known to be
practicedin numerousareas.
Source:From UN-FAO-LWDDAquaStatdatabase.
2
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
resources for rural development in many nations, but also the illogical approach to groundwater resource
development in some others.
The interaction of groundwater and surface water resources greatly favors their conjunctive use in
irrigated agriculture, since this is capable of:
* Providing greatly increased water supply security during dry seasons and drought episodes
* enabling tail-end users in irrigation-canal command areas to inmprovewater-service levels
* Reducing evaporation losses from surface water impoundments by allowing their storage to be
exploited earlier in the dry season
* Improving drainage and reducing the possibility of rejected groundwater recharge in the wet season.
Hydrogeological
* Storage volumes very large small-to-moderate
* Resourceareas relativelyunrestricted restricted to watercoursesand canals
* Flow velocities very low moderate-to-highfor watercourses
* Residencetimes generallydecades/centuries mainly weeks/months
* droughtpropensity generallylow generally high
* evaporativelosses low and localized high for reservoirs
* resourceevaluation high cost, significantuncertainty lower cost, but still uncertainties
* abstractionimpacts delayed and dispersed immediate
* naturalquality generally(but not always) high very variable
* pollutionvulnerability variablenaturalprotection largelyunprotected
* pollutantpersistence often extreme mainlytransitory
Socioeconomic
Rechargeand DrainageModifications
The importation of surface water and introduction of irrigated agriculture causes major modifications to the
soil moisture regime, and generally results in substantially increased infiltration (Foster and Chilton, 1998).
Not all soil infiltration results in groundwater recharge to deep aquifers, but excess irrigation is a major
3
General Introduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
source of groundwaterrecharge and under arid climatic conditions may reinitiate deep infiltration in areas
where little if any has occurred in decades, centuries,or even millennia. The above also applies when local
groundwateris the major source of irrigationexcept that in this case no net increaseof groundwaterresources
will occur (only recirculation).
Irrigationefficiency is defined as: (water taken up by irrigated plants)/(water supplied for irrigation).Of
the fractionof applied water not taken up by the irrigatedcrop:
In more arid situations(and in the absence of regional aquifer flow systems) excess irrigationis likely to
be the dominant componentof local aquifer recharge (Foster and Chilton, 1998) (Figure 2). The corollaryis
that if irrigation efficiency is increased groundwater recharge decreases, but this obvious fact is often
overlookedin catchment-levelwater managementplanning.
POTIINIAL CONIBIDOWVN
FROMIRRIGATION LOSSES
0c 500 . . . >s (varyingwithproportionof
.~50 irrigatedland, irrigation efficiency
and subsoil
profile)
200
100 0
E
50
20
HUMIDITEMPERATURE
HOT EMI-ARID I AI
~2000 500 200
Note:This refers to well-drainedsoils overlyingan unconfinedaquifer and illustratesthe major significanceof irrigationlosses for
groundwaterrechargein the more arid climates;the quality of this recharge,however, can in some circumstancesbe relativelysaline.
4
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
* Directly from unlined (and in some cases lined but leaky) primary and secondary canals, and even
from some agriculturaldrains
* Directlyfrom irrigationwater distributionsystemsbelow this 'level
* Throughirrigationin excess of plant requirementsat field level.
The potential for groundwater recharge will vary across and along irrigation areas, with higher rates from
unlined canals on alluvialterraces, for example, and with groundwaterdischarge(rather than recharge) to the
agriculturaldrainage systems in some low-lyingareas. Where groundwater is the major (or only) source of
irrigationwater, the areas will normallybe well drained.
In very low-lying areas, or where the soil profile is generally cf low permeability (or has some low
permeability horizons), rising water level or shallow perched water bodies are likely to develop. This
ultimately leads to soil water-logging and salinization through direct evaporation, unless drainage is
introducedto remove excess groundwater.Although this issue is oultsidethe scope of the present paper, it
should be noted that groundwatersalinizationcaused by this process is more extensive worldwidethan that
resultingfrom saline intrusionof aquifers due to inadequateresource mnanagement.
QualityImpacts
The fact that an important proportion of groundwaterrecharge in nmanyareas originates as infiltration on
agriculturalland (especially where irrigation is practiced) also has a negative side - namely the risk of
excessive leaching of nutrients and pesticides (Foster and Chilton, 1998). A close correlation between
agriculturaldevelopmentand groundwaterquality in underlying,shallow phreatic aquifers is widely observed
(Figure 3).
WHOdrinkingwater
guidelineconcentrations
MIXEDFARMING
O AREAS
_ INTENSIVECASH-*
z CROPCULTIVATION
o20 150-
o100 - - - - X-
0
0--
50-- -- _ __ __
0 _ a COCONUT
z GROVES/|
CZ - O >0[CULTIVATED
IUN LAND
c <0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Note: The data shown referto a thin shallowcoastallimestoneaquiferin northwesternSri Lanka that reactsquicklyto land-use
change;the conversionof land to intensiveirrigated"cash crop" cultivationhas clearlyhad a major impact on groundwaterquality
5
General Introduction Groundwater in Rural Development
In practice, the rates of leaching will vary widely with cropping regime, soil type and hydrogeological
conditions(aquifer vulnerability),with irrigation water efficiencyand the continuity of crop coverage being
especially critical factors. In certain monocultureson permeable soil profiles, especiallythose involving soil
ploughing and fallow periods,the leaching losses may be severe.
The principal impact is on the potabilityof groundwaterfor rural water supply, at farm, village and small
town level. It is rare that the level of contaminationis such that it can prejudicethe use of groundwater for
agriculturalirrigationitself, except in a few cases of exceptionallysevere nutrient and/or pesticide leaching
adjacent to an area of cultivationof highly sensitive crops.
Transpirationof water by plants concentratesdissolved salts in the root zone, and periodically there may
be considerableleachingof salts from irrigatedagriculturalsoils. In extreme cases where major groundwater
recirculation occurs, salt fractionation can cause a troublesome quality impact. The situation is further
aggravated where excess irrigation gives rise to leaching of salts held in arid zone soil profiles. Such
processes may be just as widespread as the problems of saline intrusion due to overabstraction of
groundwater,but less commonly recognized. Thus in areas of major development of irrigated agriculture
from groundwaterin arid climates,it is importantto evaluateboth the water and the salt balance.
The process of identifying key issues can be usefully initiated from a "development project focus" by
adopting the followingsubdivision:
i Internal factors within projects (those that can be controlled by the project and which determine its
cost effectivenessand operationalreliability)
* External impactsof projects(side effects caused by projects on third parties and the environment).
Beyond the scope of individual projects is a range of emerging resource managementissues at aquifer level
which require a much broader approach. Thus overall, three major groups of issues have been identified.
These are analyzedin detail sequentiallyin the chapters that follow, but the underlying concepts involved are
introducedbriefly below.
Aquifer Depletion-RelatedEffects
This concept recognizes that all aquifer systems are to varying degree susceptible to such effects as
interference between production wells, diminution of groundwater discharge affecting downstream
riverflows,freshwater wetlandsor brackish water lagoons, the encroachmentof saline water through lateral
intrusion or up-coning, and in certain cases land subsidence. These may threaten the sustainabilityof the
resource base itself (Reisner and Bates, 1990) and the agricultural food production dependent upon it,
although current estimates of the potential impact are not based on sound concepts or data (Postel, 1999).
Sooner or later, and to varying degrees, groundwater abstraction needs to be controlled to avoid or mitigate
the more serious of these effects.
6
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
The question of scale of groundwater exploitation is important, since the extent to which projects have
externalimpacts will vary widelybetween the extremes:
Within this range, there was traditionallya distinctionbetween small-scalegarden cultivationand large-scale
(institutionallypromoted)irrigationschemes.In reality today there is a near-continuumbetween the two, with
much successfulgroundwaterirrigationoccurring at the intermediatescale of multi small-well development
since this allows:
* Private (individual or group) operation of each well, avoiding some of the past problems of
centralizedoperation
* Small water distributionnetworks,avoidingthe high leakage losses of many larger schemes.
The most logical subdivisionof groundwater developmentscale is thus now that summarized in figure 4,
which is based essentiallyon the distinctionbetween manual and motorizedpumping.
Resourceoverexploitationproblemsrelate mainly to grounclwatersupply for agriculturalirrigation,since
in the case of domestic/livestockwater supplies resourcesustainabilityissues are only significantfor shallow
(low-storage)aquifersin arid regions duringextreme drought.
7
General Introduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
WELLYIELD(1/s)
(assumes
appropriateconstruction)
0.1 0.2 0;5 1 2 5 1,0 20 50 100
DOMESTIC
& LIVESTOCK
WATERSUPPLYmany(uno
_exclusively)
GARDENIRRIGATION and-pump
PRIVATE
MULTI-WELL
IRRIGATION
SCHEMES
AND
PIPEDVILLAGE awy ooie
WATERSUPPLIES p ng plant
(dieselenginesor
LARGE-SCALECOMMUNAL eeti-rdpwr
IRRIGATION
SCHEMES
overallandtypicalrangesindicated
Note: Thosewhich do not require motorizedpumpingplant do not threatengroundwaterresource sustainabilityand thus need only
mninimalregulation,appropriatehydrogeologicalinvestigationand engineeringdesign protocols
A general indication of the occurrence and flow of groundwater in major regional aquifers, and its
variation with climatic regime, is given in box 1 (Foster, 1993). A highly simplified classification and
descriptionof the more common hydrogeologicalenvironmentsin the developingworld is given as table 3.
In reality, certain other factors must also be considered, such as the degree of aquifer confinement, the
prevailingclimaticregime, the constraintson groundwaterrecharge,and the natural aquifer discharge.
The hydrogeological environment imposes constraints on the access to groundwater for rural
development.Such constraintscan be absolute in terms of large-scalegroundwaterdevelopmentfor irrigation
in certain environments. There is a clear correlation between groundwater supply development costs and
hydrogeologicalcomplexity (that is decreasing hydrogeologicalpredictability), which varies widely with
hydrogeologicalenvironment;figure 5 gives an indicationof the relativeposition.
From an early stage in rural development projects, it is important that the full range of stakeholders is
specificallyidentified, and their interests in groundwater sketched out in a general way. The actual and
potential role of these various stakeholdersin groundwater project development, system operation and/or
maintenance,and even in resource/environmentalmanagement,is a recurrent and developing theme of this
paper.
8
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
intermittent
(a)humidregions aquifer discharge area major perennial
recharge area discharge area
l unsaturated
zonI artesian
fdischargearea
CEN-WRIES
I LLENNI (low-permeability
strata)
aquiclude(virtually
impermeable strata)
9
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
Hydro-
geological Type of
environment deposits Mode offormation Distributionand thickness
MajorAlluvial Gravels, sands, unconsolidateddetritusdeposited in both areally extensiveand of
Formations silts and clays riverbedsand deltas,primary significantthickness
(a) inland porosity/permeabilityusually high
(b) coastal
(MAF)
Inter-MontaneBasins pebbles, formed by in-filling of faulted troughs less extensivethan most
(a) colluvial gravels,sands in mountainregions and can include alluvialand coastalplain
(b) volcanic and clays; lake deposits; recent lavas and sedimentsbut can be very
(IMB) sometimes pyroclasts also usually highly porous thick
with lavas and (but older volcanicdepositsmore
pyroclastics consolidated)
Consolidated (a) sandstones compactedmarineor continental difficult to generalize,but can
SedimentaryAquifers (sometimes deposits;degree of consolidation form extensiveaquifers of
(CSA) also stratiform increases withdepth/age and reduces substantialthickness
basalts) primaryporosity/permeabilitybut
with significantfracturing
(b) limestones derivedfrom shell fragments/reef difficultto generalize,but can
detritus;compactedand often with form extensiveaquifers of
karstic fissures enlarged by solution substantialthickness
Recent Coastal limestonesand coral limestonesand skeletal detritus limited extension,fringing
Limestones(RCL) calcareous often only looselycemented; porosity/ coastlines or islands
sands permeabilityvery high
The main groups of stakeholders directly involved with groundwater in rural areas, and the normnal
(traditional) timing of their involvement in relation to project evolution is given in Figure 6. The timescale
can be from 1 to 5 decades, as a result of the considerable inertia of the development process, coupled with
the large storage/slow response of aquifer systems to changes in groundwater abstraction and in contaminant
load.
A complexity of interests is revealed and there is obvious need for water users and energy suppliers to be
involved from the project promotion stage, and for development agencies to continue their involvement
throughout (not just up to project commissioning), if sustainability issues are to be fully addressed.
It is necessary also to look beyond those stakeholders benefiting directly from groundwater development
to other groups who become incidentally involved or impacted by the activity (Figure 6). The role of
government is particularly difficult to generalize and present, but the trend (which needs to be encouraged) is
for governments to play more of a facilitating role than a developmental one. However, in reality some parts
of national and provincial government inevitably will be involved with the promotion and construction side
10
General Introduction Groundwaterin RuralDevelopment
of development, while other arms of the same government are involved in resource regulation and
environmentalprotection.These activitiescan come into conflict.
The scale and timing of benefits and disbenefits to the various stakeholdergroups are also indicated in a
general way. It is important that the perspective of these stakeholdergroups on groundwater,in terms of
resource accessibility,ownership, limitations,linkages and externalitiesis fully appreciated.There is also a
need for public awarenessto bring the various groups of stakeholderson to a "common playingfield" so that
they can participatemore equally in groundwater project development, and to develop a consensus among
them for action on groundwaterresourcemanagement.
co)
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
DOMESTIC/LIVESTOCK
|SUPPLY
T SMALL-SCALE
IRRIGATION
r LARGE-SCALE
IRRIGATION
yield of individualwells(I/s)
MAF MajorAlluvialFormations
IMB Inter-Montane
Basins
CSA Consolidated Sedimentary Aquifers
RCL Recent Coastal Limestones
WCB Weathered Crystalline Basement
Note: Thismuch generalizedfigure indicatesboth the overallyield limitationsfor rural developmentof some aquifer types and the
generalway that costsescalate if explorationfor larger supplies is embarkedu:pon
11
GeneralIntroduction Groundwaterin Rural Development
Figure 6: Analysis of actual and required stakeholder participation in rural groundwater development
for agricultural irrigation
PARTICIPATION
OF STAKEHOLDER
IN DEVELOPMENTPHASES
STAKEHOLDER
GROUPIII
PROJECT ODESIGN
& OPERATION& RESOURCE
PROMOTION CONSTRUCTION MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENTt
DIRECTLY-INVOLVED
WATERUSERS
* villagecommunity
* cropirrigators GGGG OG e
* livestockrearers
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
* national/provincial
governmentt
* multilateral/bilateral
funders GO0 DG e
* non-governmental organisations
* privatedevelopers
ENERGYSUPPLIERS
* electricitygridoperators --- 4
* fuel supply/distribution 7 ee 7 e
INCIDENTALLY-INVOLVED
AGRICULTURAL SUPPLIERS _
* seed,fertilisers,pesticides 9 e
AGRICULTURAL MARKETS _
. wholesale/retail
IMPACTED PARTIES
* shallowwellusers
* downstream irrigators
* environmentalconservation
groups eee
* urbanwater-supply
* urbaninfrastructure
- normally
majorinvolvement
in thisphase
normallysomeinvolvementin this phase(shouldbe more)
rarelyadequateinvolvementin this phase
(someshouldbearranged)
@003 scaleandtimingof potentialbenefitsand disbenefits
eee for corresponding
stakeholdergroups
otherbranchesof governmentwill normallybe concemed
with groundwaterresourcemanagement
Note: The horizontaltime-scalemay be from I to 5 decades;both the typical currentsituationand the preferred approachis indicated;
the corresponding
picturefor domesticwater supplydevelopment is less complexbut stakeholder participation is equally necessary.
12
2
Groundwater Supply: Installation, and Operation
During the InternationalDrinkingWater Supply and SanitationDecade (1980s) rural water supply coverage
increased from 30 to 63 percent and the population with basic services decreased from 1613 to 989 million,
despite the large growth in rural populationduring the period (Subrarnanianand others, 1997). The program
dependedheavilyupon groundwaterto meet the demand for dornesticwater supply in rural areas, rapidly and
economically.
Although much has been achieved, the need to meet the demand from steadily expanding populations
remains a major challenge.Moreover,the sustainabilityof establisheclsupplies, through adequate operation
and maintenance,was recognized as a key issue. Full consultation and participation of the "beneficiary
community" is also now regarded as essential, and the importanceof cost recovery, adequate maintenance
and sourceprotectionare seen as criticalto operationalsustainabtility.
The internationalNGOs led the way in helping communitiesdevelop the improvementsin water supply
they wanted. While these organizationswere regarded with suspicion by some governments,much progress
was made in demonstratingthe effectivenessof communityparticipationin the development,operation and
maintenanceof rural domesticwater supply wells.
Large-scalegroundwaterresource developmentfor irrigated agricu:lturehas a relatively short history. The
possibilitiesfor groundwaterexploitationchanged radically with advances in the turbine pump, deep drilling
technologyand geologicalknowledge,notably from the mid 1960sin Pakistan and more widely in the 1970s.
Groundwaterdevelopment itself was often carried out on an indiviclual,or small-scale cooperative, basis
without the paralleldevelopmentof an effective institutionalframeworkfor water provision. Hence there is
now a considerablechallengeto maintain groundwatersupplies operationallyand to promote sustainableuse
of groundwaterresources as a whole.
In order to meet the expandingdemandfor rural water supply, certainhydrogeologicalfactors are critical
to well siting and design. The nature of groundwater occurrence and broad range of hydrogeological
environmentshas been summarizedin Box 1 and Table 3 respectively.The ability of aquifers to store and
transmit (or yield) water exhibits substantial variation frorn place to place and not all the defined
hydrogeologicalenvironments can meet the needs of all users (Figure 5). If the global range of climatic
regimes is superimposed on hydrogeological setting, then the complexity of intrinsic constraints on
groundwaterdevelopmentis accentuated.Some environmentswill provide only modest yields, and then only
if the most favorable locations can be selected. Others will provide moderate-to-highyields from almost
anywherein the aquifer,provided the well is correctlyconstructed.
More specifically, where there is adequate surface water, crystalline basement rocks are often not
consideredto be aquifers, but if rainfallis lower and surface water scarce or intermittent,then the crystalline
basement can form the only economicallyexploitablesourceof rural water supply.
13
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
DomesticandLivestockWellConstruction
During the International Drinking Water supply and Sanitation Decade much effort was concentrated on
improvingruralwater supply in Sub-SaharanAfrica and SouthAsia. Although, with a few notable exceptions
(Arlosoroffand others, 1987;Wright and Burgess, 1992; Van Dongen and Woodhouse, 1994), the technical
experience gained has not been systematicallyreported and disseminated, knowledge of the corresponding
hydrogeological environments has still increased substantially. Thus, for example, the position of the
crystallinebasement rocks in Figure 5, invariably having low-to-moderateyield potential and small volumes
of storage, has been confirmed by extensive bodies of field data (Box 2), collected in rural water supply
projects(Chiltonand Foster, 1995).
Siting and Design Criteria. Exploration for groundwater has been a key task for geologists for many
decades. Early practitionersgenerallyused electrical resistivity geophysics in simple standard ways, having
been assignedto (ratherthan trained in) groundwaterexploration.More recently, with the greater availability
of trained hydrogeologistsand the extension of projects into more difficult terrain, a wider range of siting
techniquesand better interpretationhave been employed.
Groundwater exploration should be phased, employing increasing levels of sophistication. Five
successivelevels of investigationcan be defined:
14
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
Saharan Africa, and their mantle of weathering products _ no. mean no. mean no. mean
forms a shallow but low-productivity aquifer. This boreholedepth(m) 145 23.1 212 17.9 103 25.6
provides a vital source of water-supply for the rural regolih thickness(mn)
water struck (m)
7S
75
21.5
10.2.
101
191
12.0
8.6
25
95
25.1
14.4
population and their livestock who inhabit these areas. saturatedregolith (mi) 80 t .9 192 9.9 97 11.5
water level(m) 139 7.3 185 5.7 97 10.1
* The ancient land surface of the region has been boneh oleld (Is)_ 139 0.75 187 0.73 94 0.43
KEY ISSUES:
* the water-tabledepth and the thickness of weathered basem[entshould dictate the approach
to siting, design and constructionof water-wells.
* the developmentof larger supplies requiresgreater investment to locate the most favourable
zones of highertransmissivityand maximumavailable drawdown
15
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
In the national rural water supply program in India, from the late 1960s to the late 1990s some 2.8-3.0
million hand-pump boreholes were constructed, of which perhaps 80 percent are in the more difficult
hydrogeologicalenvironments(weatheredcrystallinebasement of the "peninsula states" and basaltic volcanic
rocks of the Deccan plateau). In spite of investmentin geophysicalequipment and training, and the gradual
adoption in some states of additionalaids such as aerial photographs and remote sensing,the overall "success
rate", measured against the target hand-pump yield of 0.2 I/s appears to have increased only from 75-80
percent to 85-90 percent. Although site selectionprocedures have improved, this has been partly offset by
progressivemovement into more difficultareas as rural water supply in India approachesfull coverage.
++ verysuitable
+ suitable
o notsuitable
Note: Thisgivesa general ofthemorecommonly
overview usedtechniques.
Source:VanDongen
andWoodhouse,
1994.
Site selection must take account of the views of the commnunitywho will use the supply. Experience has
shown that a strong sense of communityownershipis required from the technologychoice and site selection
stage, if the users of the supply are to operate and maintain it effectively.However, this will tend to slow
down the construction process, and hence add to overall cost. In the World Bank Swajal Project in Uttar
Pradesh, the use of local NGOs as support organizationsto promote community involvement(includingthe
choice of supply technology)has increased the per capita well cost far above the national average,but results
suggest that construction standards are also higher. In early programs, in which social mobilization
components were weak, sites were often chosen far from communities or such that certain people had
preferentialaccess and others were excluded.Exclusion has been such a serious and prolonged issue that the
latest guidelinesfrom the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking-WaterMission for the provision of rural water
supply specificallyallocatedisproportionatefunding to redressingpreviousanomalies.
Finally, the precise choice of site, after hydrogeologicaland community criteria have been satisfied,must
take account of risks associated with local sources of pollution, flooding and erosion, physical accessibility
for constructionandfuture developmentin the neighborhood.
One outcome of the extensive programs in Africa of the 1980s and 1990s was the increased attention
given by hydrogeologiststo the weatheredcrystallinebasement. While reference has already been made to
the impact this had on siting techniques, attention was also tumed to applying sounder design principles.
Traditionally,boreholes were drilled through the weathered zone (regolith) deep into the unweatheredrock
below in the hope of finding water-yieldingfractures. The weathered regolith was cased out, and the fresh
rock left as open hole, resulting in inefficient boreholes with high hydraulic losses allowing entry of fine
materials.As the potentialof the regolithzone became apparentit was evident that the relativeposition of the
watertable and base of the regolith shoulddictate well siting and design (Figure 7). Another outcomewas the
16
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
realization that the choice of drilling equipment was a key issue in relation to cost and success, and that in
many cases simplertechnologywas more appropriate(Table5).
Hand-
Drilling Hand operated Cable-tool Smallair Multipurpose
equipment digging rig l;ig flush rig rotaryRig
Capitalcostapprox(US$K) 1 1-5 20-100 100-250 200-500
Financial and Economic Considerations. The relationship between hydrogeological factors and overall
waterwellcosts is given in Figure 7. For the crystallinebasement rocks, costs can rise relatively rapidly but
with little chance of achievinglarge yields. Consolidatedsedimentaryaquifers will generallyhave relatively
high costs, due to deep drilling and high pumping lifts. Other formations are more unpredictabledue to
greater lithological variability and depth range; within these the lowest overall costs are associated with
shallowwater table situations,which have low drilling costs ancdsmallpumping lifts.
Actual costs would provide a clearer picture, but it is difficult to find country or region comparative
figures because of differing labor costs and differencesover what is included in the costing, and (of course)
because such figures are rarely published. The cost data from a questionnairesurvey of rural water supply
projectsin the late 1980sare shownin Table 6. The explorationcosts (at up to 10 percent)include significant
effort in remote sensing,aerialphoto-interpretationand geophysicalsurvey.
17
GroundwaterSupply:Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
3-11Om 6-1
3-1<LLJ6-12m
2m 1-0 drilledradial 8-12
5-12m collectors ......
I. ,.-. I. ,.4' oi
15-35m open
shole
hole
approximatebase of regolith
'<\' (mantleof alteration _
.
,.products of weatheringof
*,: ystaline bedrock) 30-100m
-'.-''normallyplasticwell screen N
w::..::With
gravel pack water-leveldeepening
Note: Shallowgroundwaterand thick regolith(c)(d) permit simpleapproachesto both design and siting,but a deeper watertable with
thin saturatedregolith(e)requires complexand costly siting of boreholesaimed at locatingbedrockfracturesand thin saturated
regolith(a)(b)requirescareful sitingand increasedwell diameter
* Depth, since the first usable groundwater may be very deep in some consolidated sedimentary and
volcanic aquifers
* Diameter, since this increases significantly if a gravel pack is necessary
* Construction materials, including the need for non-corrosive casing and screen.
In the major alluvial formations high construction costs may be incutred due to the need for high-quality
screens with gravel packs (especially for large yield requirements), which require large diameters and also
high cleaning costs.
18
GroundwaterSupply:Installationand Operation GroundwaterinRural Development
The total arnount to be invested in groundwaterfor rural development,be it for domestic supply or for
livestock watering, is inevitably strongly influenced by the pclitical process and the cost and reliability of
alternativewater supply sources.However,a somewhatmore rigorous process can be definedto help decide
how much of this should be used for a given groundwatersearch or well-sitingmethod.This is illustratedfor
livestock watering in Botswana (Box 3), but a similar approach would be valid for domestic water supply.
The analysisdependsheavily upon havingusable data from national archives on the successrate for so-called
"wildcatdrilling" (withoutsystematicscientificinvestigationor siting procedures).
19
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
* The rearing of livestock is the traditional enterprise where d is the borehole drilling cost, So the wildcat
in many of the world's semi-arid regions. Large tracts drilling success rate and C the cost per borehole of a
of land are normally grazed at low densities, and in given technique.
many cases there is interest in extending and up-
grading grazing areas to increase beef cattle herds.
In this connection, provision of adequate water-supply
represents a major (if not the largest) capital investment. 100i
KEY ISSUES:
* should government subsidise those initiating the groundwater search in any given area, recovering
revenue from levies on late arrivals who benefit from the improved hydrogeological knowledge
* should government tax cattle sales more generally to finance contributions to the groundwater
search and other essential ranching services
20
GroundwaterSupply:Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
Nevertheless, groundwater development (including the necessary hydrogeological studies) will be much
more economicin terms of capital developmentcoststhan new surfacewater irrigationschemes.
The above issues show wide variationwith hydrogeologicalenvironment(which affectsthe availabilityof
supplieseven for the most efficient boreholesand the difficulty and cost of design of acceptableboreholes)
and (interactively)the scale of irrigationwater development(which in tum influencesutilization, ownership,
operationand maintenance).
Only some hydrogeologicalenvironmentsare potentially able to provide the yield potential for larger-
scale irrigation, and for piped water supply schemes in bigger villages or small towns (Figure 5). These
include (among others):
Unfortunately,in Sub-SaharanAfrica, wherethe need for greatar crop productivityis probably greatest, such
aquifers are not widely developed and the emphasis there must be on rational development of the limited
potential for small-scaleirrigation(Box4).
In most favorable environments,hydrogeologicalcriteria are not a major constraintin site selection.The
most importanthydrogeologicalconsiderationis that of borehole design for maximum pumping efficiency,
minimumoperatingcosts, low maintenancecosts and long operating life. The minimumlength and diameter
of open or screened borehole required for a certain design yield can usually be estimated. For all
hydrogeologicalenvironments,the depths and thicknessesof the main aquifers are required for selectingthe
positionsand lengthsof the screened sections.In the unconsolidatedalluvial sediments,adequate knowledge
of the grain-size distribution is also essential for selection of screen-slot opening and gravel-pack size.
Important local siting considerationsare likely to include topographyto command sufficient land of suitable
quality, land ownershipand availabilityof power.
Assembling adequateknowledge of these characteristicsrequires broader groundwater studies of a more
comprehensivenature than the siting investigationsreferredto previously.These normallycomprise:
* Investigation drilling and sub-surface sampling, with down-hole borehole logging to determine
aquifer geometriesand characteristics
* Grain-sizeanalysisof aquifer materialand detailedtest pumping to determire hydraulic properties
* Hydrochemicalsamplingand analysesto evaluate any groundwaterquality constraints.
21
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
* The widespread uptake of small-scale garden * Between 1992 and 1995, the technical, economic
irrigation in semi-arid areas is constrained by the and social factors determining the feasibility of small-
availability of water. The weathered superficial scale garden irrigation using collector wells were
materials overlying crystalline basement areas in Africa examined (BGS-IH-MLWDZ, 1996). Collector wells
and Asia provide a thin but often extensive aquifer. were constructed at 9 locations in south-eastern
Abstraction of groundwater from this aquifer for rural Zimbabwe with unreliable rainfall in the range of 400-
domestic water-supply has been by traditional, hand- 800 mm/a. The yield increase from lateral drilling
dug wells where the water-table is shallow, or by averaged 38%, and at all sites a consistently-adequate
deeper boreholes into the fractured rock below. The supply of water (averaging 26 m3 /d) was obtained for
collectorwelloffersan altemativemodeof groundwater domestic use and small-scale irrigation.
withdrawal, offering potentially larger yields.
* Collector well performance was monitored from
A collectorwell is a shallow large diameterhand- completion. This confirms that the peak water
dug well from whichhorizontalor inclinedboreholes, requirementto irrigatea garden of 0.5 ha and satisfy
(usuallyfour in number),are drilledfrom the base up local domestic needs is 14-15 m3/d. Moreover,the
to 30 m laterally into the aquifer. Research on the wellswere shownto provide reliablesuppliesevenin
hydrogeologyof the weathered material or regolith drieryears of low recharge,and the earliestsuchwell
(Chilton& Foster, 1995) has shown that the base of and garden constructedin 1991 sustainedirrigation
the profile is often the most permeable. Constructing throughthe 1991-92drought,albeitto a reducedarea.
a dug wellof 2 m diameterto the baseof the weathered
materialallowslateralboreholesto be drilledinto this
more permeable zone. * Detailedsocio-economicmonitoringand evaluation
showed the schemesto be economicallyviable, with
Collectorwellscanbe used to optimisegroundwater an average IRR of 19%. The gardens providemajor
abstractionfrom the regolith aquifer. Higheryields opportunities for the marketing of vegetables to
and smaller drawdowns are obtained compared to, surroundingareas in the dry season,and more reliable
conventionalboreholes, utilisingthe storage within suppliesof freshvegetablesto the familiesof scheme
the well. Mean safe yields of 8 collector wells in members. However, experience showed that
Zimbabwe and 20 in Sri Lanka were 2.7 I/s, with implementation was not simple, and many local
drawdownsof 2-3 m, compared to typical yields of community and social factors influenced scheme
0.1-0.7 I/s for drawdowns of up to 30 m in small performance.
boreholes; the construction of the lateral boreholes
increasingthe effectivewell radius. Comparisonof
yields before and after lateral drilling show
improvementsin the general range of 50% to 250%, 1 p
with the occasional much higher figure reflecting the
interception of a fracture by one or more radial.
KEY ISSUES
* althoughthe techniquehas been proveneffective,can constructioncosts be reducedfurther
by the use of more local materialsand by economiesof scale in larger programmes
* can robustinstitutionalarrangementsbe establishedwhich allow more productivewater
use and contributeto the cost of operationand maintenance
22
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
Such studies are costly but, if short-cutsare taken in their implementationor interpretation,technicaldesign
flaws can lead to subsequentproblems,which increase maintenance costs or shorten useful life (Driscoll,
1986) (Box 5). In the worst cases resulting borehole failure produces a major loss of investment and/or
requirescostly rehabilitation.
It has become more widely recognizedthat boreholeownershipat the level of individual farmers is often
preferable,since it offers greater flexibilityof irrigationscheduling,much simpler commandareas and, most
importantly,devolvesresponsibilityfor well operationand maintenance to those with the greatestinterest in
reliable water supplies. However, this can also lead to poorer-quality and lower-cost irrigation well
constructionwhich (for reasons outlined above) may compromise water source sustainability,especially in
unfavorablegroundwaterconditions.
23
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
- Since the mid 1960ssome 13,000public boreholes Even with improved gravel packs design performance
have been installed by the Pakistan Water & Power deteriorationwas still encounteredand it appearedthat
Development Authority (WAPDA) in the alluvial somemust be occurringawayfrom the screen,(perhaps
deposits of the Lower Indus valley. These are used at the interfacebetweenthe gravelpackand the aquifer)
to provide water for irrigationand to controlthe water-or in the aquifer itself (Ahmad, 1990). One cause of
table to prevent waterlogging and salinisation under decline might be damage to the aquifer fabric by re-
a series of Salinity Control & Reclamation Projects alignment of the mica flakes in the formation close to
(SCARPs). the borehole. Hydrochemicalprocesses are important,
particularly as many of the boreholes either penetrate
* The Lower Indus valley is underlainby a sequence into saline water or produce upconing of saline water.
of fine and mediumsandsup to 500 m thick, containing Encrustation may occur at the gravel packlaquifer
some thin lenticular silts and clays. This constitutes interface even when it is not obvious at the screen
a vast, unconfined aquifer with high storage and itself, and chemical alteration of the mica particles in
permeabilitycharacteristics, which is suitable for the response to increasing salinity may cause expansion
abstraction of groundwater from boreholes yielding and permeability reduction.
up to 150 I/s.
* Understandingthe causes of deteriorationis critical
* Monitoring programmes established by WAPDA for assessing rehabilitationprospects and techniques.
have shown that the yield-drawdown characteristics Early attempts to restore boreholes suffering from
of many of these boreholes declined rapidly, even encrustation of mild-steel screens by acidising and
though the designs were apparently based on sound blastingproducedonlypartialshort-termimprovements.
construction principles (Ahmad, 1990). Some have Rehabilitation using acidising, chlorine treatment for
failed completely, with collapsed screens or total iron bacteria, and surging/jetting was somewhatmore
silting-up, while some maintained their operating successful (Inset).
efficiency. The overall result was that prediction of
borehole life, proved problematic.
KEY ISSUES:
* lack of investigation of aquifer site characteristics can lead to inappropriatewell design and
construction,and to significant performance deterioration
* causesof deteriorationare likelyto be complex,but must be adequatelydiagnosedif rehabilitation
methods are to be selected correctly and implemented effectively
24
Supply: Installationand Operation
Groundwalter Groundwaterin Rural Development
:--
y,-.
I II i~~~~~~Propensltyto
_ so--mepx~~ems --
AocAtlngadq}a 1-- 1
i- irt-: -b t.
0I 2 I y ~, IEL
._
o) ctt
L) _ ~0
2 1 4
0 L) I
tr
>~~~~~~~~
l.~~ lit
Ii -ar--
~~ - i-i-;----
yielse; - -1cive
> I v4hhihcf*gt I I a -- 1
WITHMAINAQUIFERTYPES
VARIATION
(seeTable3 forkey)
Note: The weatheredcrystallinebasement (WCB) and some types of minor consolidated sedimentaryaquifers (CSA) show the
highestpropensityto droughtimpacts.
25
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
A useful strategy for addressing the issue of groundwater droughts is the preparation of "drought
vulnerabilitymaps" (Calow and others, 1997) (perhaps better termed "drought propensity maps" to avoid
confusion with other uses of the word "vulnerability").Because drought propensity can be predicted,maps
combiningthe factors of physical vulnerabilityto drought (aquiferrecharge, permeability and storage)can be
combined with the factors of human vulnerability(supply coverage and population demand) to produce an
overall map. Thus, in areas of difficult hydrogeology (with dependence on traditional sources), and where
supply coverageis low but populationdensity high, drought impact could be most severe. Such maps could
be used for:
A problem is that all too often monitoringof groundwater levels is interrupted in droughts,just when it is
most requiredto observe minimumwater table levels and the aquifer response to pumping.
Building an element of "drought resistance" into water- supply programs has included the provision of
extrawell-liningrings for future deepening,drillinga limited number of extra boreholesin favorable strategic
locations to be uncapped and used in emergencies, and ensuring adequate borehole depth. In India,
experienceof droughtimpacts on groundwatersourcesled UNICEF to recommenda minimumdrilling depth
("norm") of 60 m for hand-pump boreholes in the hard-rock areas to allow for large drawdowns in dry
conditions.
IntrinsicGroundwaterQualityProblems
Hydrogeochemistry and Health
Nine major chemicalconstituents (Na, Ca, Mg, K, HCO3 , Cl, S04 , NO3 and Si) make up 99 percent of the
solutecontent of natural waters. These constituentsprovide the hydrochemicalcharacterizationof waters and
their proportions reflect the geological origin (type of rock), groundwater flow paths and history of
groundwater.
Elevated concentrationsof solutescan occur in certain hydrogeologicalenvironments,such as increases in
salinity due to evaporativeconcentration,high sulfate concentrationsassociatedwith weatheringof basement
rocks, dissolution of evaporites in sedimentary sequences, hardness associated with carbonate rocks, and
from association with some types of geothermal activity. The key objective of groundwater quality
monitoringprogramsis to zone areas where groundwateris unsuitable for potable supply. It should be noted
that concentrationof some of the above constituentscan be increased as a result of polluting activitiesat the
land surface, and it will also be important for management to differentiate human impacts from natural
quality problems.
Reactions between rainwater and bedrock during percolation provide groundwater with its essential
mineral composition(Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Rainfall infiltratingthrough the soil takes-upcarbon dioxide
and the resultingweak carbonicacid dissolvessolubleminerals from the underlying rocks. In humid climates
with significant recharge, groundwater moves continuously,contact time is short and only the most readily
solublemineralswill be dissolved.Groundwaterin outcrop recharge areas in such regions is likely to be low
in overall mineralization compared to that in arid or semi-arid regions in which the combination of
evaporative concentrationand slow movement can produce much higher concentrations. Groundwater in
igneousrocks, for example, is often of exceptionallylow mineralizationbecause groundwater movement is
viajoints and fracturesand many such rocks are highly insoluble.
26
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
Minor and trace constituentsmake up the remaining 1 percent of the total, and can sometimesgive rise to
health problems or unacceptabilityfor human and/or animal use/consumption (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Many trace elements are essentialfor humanhealth in small quantities(Figure 9), and are taken in from both
drinking water and food. The desirable concentrationrange is, however, small and some are harmful at
slightlyhigher concentrations.Others are not essentialfor healthbut are also harmfulat low concentrations.
Low concentrations of essential elements in drinking water can cause community health problems,
particularlyif supplementsare not provided by a healthy diet. Perhapsthe most importantproblem associated
with drinkingwater are linked to iodine deficiency.It has been estimatedthat up to 1000millionpeople are at
risk globallyfrom iodine-deficiencydisorders, of whom some 200-30()million are goitre sufferers and some
6 million are affected by cretinism.The rocks of the earth"s crust are relatively depleted in iodine, whereas
the highest concentrationsare found in the oceans. Maritimerain has adequate amounts of iodine compared
to continentalrain and the problem is' largely one of the continentalinteriors.
Fluoride is also an element that is sometimes deficient,but in the provision of rural water supplies from
groundwater,excess is more likely to be a problem. The range of desirable concentrationsof fluoride in
drinking water is relatively small. At concentrationsbelow about 0.5 mg/Q,dental caries may result, and
fluoride is added to many toothpastes and some water supplies to promote dental health. Concentrations
above 2.0 mg/cin drinking water can begin to cause dental flucrosis and above 5.0 mg/Qcan cause crippling
skeletal fluorosis. High fluoride concentrationsin groundwaterare quite extensive. In India, 20-60 million
people are affected,as are those living in some hydrogeologicalenvironmentsof China, East Africa and the
Middle East. High fluoride in groundwateris thus a fairly widespread,and usually underrated,constraint on
the provisionof rural water supplies.
The trace elementof greatest concem, however, is arsenic, which is both toxic and carcinogenic.Toxicity
depends on the form of arsenic ingested, notably the oxidation state and whether organic or inorganic.
Arsenic intake may be larger from food, but drinking water representsthe greater hazard since the arsenic is
present in the inorganic form. The WHO guideline has recently been reduced from 50 to 10 gg/Q.Most
drinking waters have arsenic concentrationswell below this, but concentrationsin excess of 1.0 mg/n are
recorded in some areas. Documentedcases of chronic arsenic poisoninhg are known for a number of different
hydrogeologicalenvironmentsin Taiwan,Chile, Argentina,Mexico, C'hina,India and Bangladesh.The latter,
whichappears to be the most widespread,is detailedin Box 6.
There are also major quality issues linked to soluble iron and nitrates in groundwater. In many places,
especially but not only in crystalline basement areas, high iron concentrations cause water supply
acceptabilityproblems.Under reducing conditions,concentrationsof dissolved iron may reach several mg/a,
and the solubilityis greater at the low pH values which prevail in such regions. As the water is drawn to the
surfaceand encountersoxygen, the dissolvediron is oxidized.
There is also evidence (Lewis and Chilton, 1984; Langenegger, 1994) that the use of galvanized iron
pump componentsor mild steel borehole casing can make the situationworse, by adding iron and zinc to the
abstracted water. Often beneficiariesdo not fully utilize affectad supplies and go back to traditional sources
which have low iron concentrationsbut very poor bacteriologicalquality. The occurrence of elevated nitrate
(and sometimesammoniumor nitrite)concentrationsin groundwatersupplies is normallyrelated to pollution
from agriculturalpractices and/or sanitationarrangementsand as such is dealt with in Chapter 4. However,
elevated concentrationsmay occasionallyoccur in arid regions as a result of natural soil-plantprocesses.
Effects on IrrigatedCrops
The quality of irrigation water quality is judged against criteria based on the adverse effects of the
constituentsof the water on the growth and development of irrigated crops, on the soils which are being
irrigated, on agricultural workers and on consumers of the harvested products. These criteria have been
developed over time from data which have often been empirical rather than scientific.Field experience has
shown that knowledge of the quality of groundwater to be used for irrigation is essential. The main water
quality problems relatedto irrigated agriculture are salinity,constituents that reduce soil infiltration rate, the
toxicity of specificsolutes and miscellaneouseffects such as excessivenutrients (Table7).
27
GroundwaterSupply:Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
,Rb . Li Sr Mga*]
La I Ba B K-i1 I E
W CU Br S [SO4
Se* ELI
Mn'
* . 1T
,As*; U Zn FN0
Cd*
Cod
.L.I.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
W _co
Cu
l |*.
consideredessentialfor
human/animalhealth
Note: The concentrationranges indicatedare the normal levels of occurrence,but much higherconcentrationsmay be encountered
under certainconditions.
Source:Edmundsand Smedley,1995.
Salinity begins to become a problem if salt accumulates in the crop root zone to a concentrationwhich
preventsthe crop from extracting sufficientwater because of the osmoticpressure, and the plant growth rate
is reduced. Because of evaporationfrom fields and remobilisationof soil salts, soil water is usually 2-3 times
(and often 5-10 times) more concentratedthan applied irrigationwater. The recommendedrestrictionson the
salinity of irrigation water (Table 7) refer to typical grain and fodder crops, and vary with the water
application method and the soil type. For certain tree crops (such as citrus, groves and date palms) and
various other crops the salinity limits are lower.
28
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
arsenic concentrations (Inset II) and is being As _ C00054 0030 0.0006 0.003
investigatedas one alternativeoptionfor domestic maximumL;reprsente,d by5 percentilevalue(wherevaluesbelowanalytical
water-supply. detecton lirnit, haltthis limit has been used in statistical analysis)
29
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
Leaching of salts below the soil zone is the key to controlling problems related to the applied water, but
this requires the periodic application of excess low-salt water, which may not be feasible in groundwater
irnigation. In practice, even if some leaching is possible, this may merely displace salt from the soil to
underlying groundwater, and the concentrating effect of continuous recycling of salts is often observed in
groundwater irrigation. In parts of northwestem Sri Lanka, intensive groundwater abstraction from a shallow
sand aquifer has established a series of flow cells in which the abstracted water is applied to the ground and
infiltrates back to the water table. Within this recycling system, groundwater chloride concentrations have
risen by 100-200 mg/l over the 20-30 year period of irrigation (Figure 4).
The two factors which affect the rate of infiltration are the salinity of the applied water and its sodium
content relative to calcium and magnesium (SAR). High salinity water will tend to increase infiltration, but
low salinity water tends to remove salts from the soil, reducing its stability. High sodium-to-calcium ratio
promotes dispersion of soil aggregates close to the surface and smaller particles clog pores reducing water
movement. The potential for these problems to occur is measured by the electrical conductivity (EC) and
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the applied water (Table 7).
MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS
(on susceptible crops)
Nitrate (N03 -N-mgA)* <5 5-30 >30
Bicarbonate (HCO3 -meq/1) < 1.5 1.5-8.5 > 8.5
(overhead sprinkling only)
pH <6.5 6.5-8.4 > 8.4
30
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
Toxicity problems occur if individual constituents from the soil or water are taken up by plants and
accumulate to concentrations which cause crop damage or reduce yields. The degree of damage depends on
root uptake and crop sensitivity. Perennial crops such as trees are mere sensitive to toxicity problems. Ayers
and Westcot (1985) provide considerable detail conceming crop sensitivity to toxic elements: the most
important are Cl, Na and B (Table 8) but problems may also arise as a result of Se, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb and Ni
(mainly in situations where drainage waters are reused for irrigation or where wastewater reuse is involved,
rather than irrigation from groundwater sources directly).
The last group of problems (Table 7) includes the effects of excessive nitrate content in the applied water,
which may cause vegetative overgrowth, crop lodging and delayed maturity. High bicarbonate
concentrations, which are not unusual in limestone aquifers, can cause unsightly deposits on fruit or leaves
from overhead sprinkler irrigation, and low pH can encourage corrosion of distribution systems.
Relativeimportance*
Domestic Irrigation
Factors Consequences/comments wells wells
TECHNICAL
Qualityof Design and . increasesreliabilityof supply *
Construction . reduces need for major maintenanceand
rehabilitation
31
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation GroundwaterinRural Development
Clogging by chemical precipitation can affect the borehole, pump and pipework and the aquifer
immediately around the borehole, reducing borehole capacity and pump efficiency. The most commonly-
reported encrustationsare those of iron oxyhydroxides,(sometimesin associationwith manganesedeposits)
and calcium carbonate. The former occurs (as described above) when anaerobic groundwater becomes
oxygenated,causing conversion from ferrous to ferric iron and precipitation of insoluble ferric hydroxides.
Precipitationof calciumcarbonateis often quoted but less commonlyobserved.The contributionof microbial
processesto clogging, either by enhancingiron reactions or by depositionof sludges or slimes of biological
material(biofouling),is becomingrecognizedas important.
Rehabilitationprocesses for dealing with deteriorationdue to encrustationnormally include the use of
acids to dissolve calcium carbonate and iron hydroxides, including cases where microbial activity has
contributedto the problem. The most effective agent for removing such deposits is hydrochloricacid, which
is made up to 15 percent by volume and left in the borehole for up to 24 hours. For biofouling, biocides such
as strong oxidizingagents and chlorine-basedcompoundsare commonlyused, but physical processes such as
surgingandjetting may be needed to dislodgebiofilmsfrom well screens so that the biocides can reach active
bacteria (Howsam, 1995).
Corrosionof iron, steel and other metals (such as zinc) in aqueous solutions is essentially an electrolytic
process involving anodic and cathodic areas in corrosion microcells. Large numbers of such microcells are
present on metal surfaces due to differencesin surface stresses, surface deposits, metal inclusions and other
non-uniformities.Larger corrosion cells can result from differences in water temperature, flow conditions,
concentrationsof solutes, and also where dissimilar metalsjoin to form galvanic couples. Electrochemical
corrosion affectswell casing and screens,pumps and pipework.
The quality of groundwaterincludes considerationof its pH (acidity) and Eh (oxidation-reduction)status.
Many areas in which groundwateris drawn for rural suppliesfrom the crystallinebasement are subjectto low
pH and low concentrationsof dissolved minerals. Groundwateris generally soft with high concentrationsof
free carbon dioxide. Such waters are indicative of the widespread corrosion problems described by
Langenegger (1994) from several West African countries. In a comprehensive study of handpump
components,70 percent of groundwatersin the region were found to be corrosive. The effect is to impair
mechanicalperformanceby weakeningpump rods and damagingrising mains.The cost-effectivenessof rural
water supply schemescan be significantlyaffectedby hand-pumpcorrosion.Not only will recurrent costs be
increasedby the necessity for frequent repairs, but the investmentin boreholesand pumps may be wasted if
the quality of the water produced renders them unused. Langenegger (1994) suggested that handpumps
drawing water with over 5 mgIQsoluble iron are generally not used for drinking water, and 60 percent of
boreholesin the West African study area had iron concentrationswhich at times exceeded 10 mgIQ.
Corrosion and encrustationprocesses are complex and interactive and, for this reason, no single test or
index is an infallibleindicatorfor predictingborehole life. However,because corrosion of screens and pumps
is such an importantcause of deterioration,some effort has gone into the developmentand use of indices and
tests to assist in selecting construction materials and predicting borehole performance. The main direct
measurementsused are pH, free C02 saturationand stability indices, chlorideand sulfate ratios, together with
corrosion-resistancemeters. The key to overcoming corrosion problems lies in the choice of construction
materials (plastic,fiberglass or stainless steel) for screens, casing and pump components. In the rural water
supply sector,much effort has gone into the developmentof corrosion-resistantrising mains and rods, since
where groundwateris moderately-to-highlyaggressive (pH < 6.5) galvanizing of mild steel does not protect
from corrosion.
32
Table 9: Analysis of factors reducing well efficiency and useful life
_-________________incomplete
-- well development DC/OM
aquifer overexploitation 0 AM
non-vertical borehole DC
Premature Pump Failure pump pitting due to air entrapment (see above for causes)
_ =========== during excessive drawdown
j
progressive _ __i_i
pump corrosion * DC
Note: Primary (.) and secondary (0) causes are distinguishedwhere appropriate.
DC improve future well design and/or construction. DR employ well diagnosisand rehabilitationtechniques.
OM improve routine well operationand maintenance practices. AM improve aquifer management/groundwaterabstraction controls.
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
Maintenance-Functional Sustainability
All waterwells need to be properly operated and carefully maintainedif they are to sustain their yields and
efficiency.Arlosoroffand others (1987) emphasizedthis, saying that "success or failuredepends primarilyon
one factor, whether the new water supply can be maintained." Yet the proper operation and adequate
maintenance of groundwater supplies is frequently overlooked until something goes wrong. When this
happens, it may be too late to retrieve the situation effectively.It is always likely to be more expensive to
resolve than to prevent a problem, and is also likely to take considerabletime during which the water supply
source may be inoperable. A major effort was made in the late 1980s to increase the attention given to
operational sustainabilityissues, and effortsto bring about widespread improvementsare still on-goingwith
varying degrees of success.
Operational sustainabilityinvolves institutional, legal, financial, social and cultural issues, as well as a
broad group of technicalfactors, and the interactionbetween them. The first major challenge is to meet the
cash-flow requirements of operation and maintenance. There are legal and administrative issues to be
resolved,including:
34
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
35
Groundwater Supply: Installation and Operation Groundwater in Rural Development
36
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
Iriigation Water Supply. There is still much variance in t:he prices set for different uses (Dinar and
Subramanian,1997).Irrigation water is typically much cheaper than wvaterfor domestic supply, and there is
often little relationshipbetween the prices set and the actual availabilityof water. Subsidies, direct, indirect
and geographicalare common.
Countrieshave differentreasonsfor charging for water; sormewishto recover costs, some want to transfer
income between sectors through cross-subsidyand others want to use charges to improve water allocation as
a component of an overall water conservation and resource management strategy. Several countries are
exploringunique pricing-relatedissues.Israel and Jordan are consideringscaling prices for irrigationwater of
differentquality (saline,reclaimed wastewater,fresh water),adjustingprices to reflect water supplyreliability
and implementinga resource-depletioncharge. Several countries are considering adjustingcharges to reflect
regionaldifferencesin water supply costs.
There is an argument that prices for irrigation water be set to reflect opportunitycosts. However, a more
realisticimmediateobjectiveis to recover sufficientrevenueto ensurethe viabilityof water entities.Evidence
from the field suggests that farmers are willing to pay for reliable supplies of water, but the practical
problemsof pricingfor irrigationservicesare complex.Fees are often set on the basis of irrigated area, which
is by no means a direct or reliable measurementof the water received. The water drawn from boreholes can
be directly measured,and one way to circumventsome of the problermsof area-based chargingis to measure
the water deliveredto a water-userassociationwhichhas been delegatedresponsibilityfor allocatingamongst
farmers.
The record of non-payment of fees for water reflects two prob:lems:lack of political and managerial
comrnitmentand weak incentivesto collect and limited willingnessto pay because services are poor. Failure
to recover costs and to reinvest in systemsleads to a vicious circle in which service declinesand consumers,
in turn, become less willing to pay for the poor-qualityservice provided.Conversely, higher collectionrates
often reflect decentralizedmanagementand enforcedfinancial autonomy,which in turn deliver a high-quality
service for whichusers are willing to pay.
Concertedefforts are being made to move towardsfull capital-costrecovery so as to establish and sustain
viable water entities, but there is considerable variation in the progress that has been made (Dinar and
Subramanian, 1997). One experience quoted in this paper comes from Korea, were farmland improvement
associations (water-users associations) are responsible for recovering costs from farmers for projects
completed and transferred to them. They set irrigation charges at levels to cover all operating and
maintenancecosts and a share of the capital costs amortized over 35 years, with government providing a
grant for whatever capital costs are not paid for by the farmers. This has been very successful in collecting
charges from farmers and repaying the government loan. Experience elsewhere has shown that water-user
associationsmay be slowto get established,but that once the benefitsare apparentand the water is available,
effectiveparticipationand substantially-improvedcost recoverybecomnepossible.
CommunityAction-Social Sustainability
Community-DrivenObjectives. There is now broad consensus among the developmentalsector that rural
water supplies can only be sustainablewith the full involvementof local people. This raises the question of
how best communitiescan determine their own objectives and achieve these within the range of available
physical, financial and technicaloptions. Groundwaterdevelopmentpresents particularproblems because of
the often invisible and somewhat mysterious nature of the resource. Some communities have good
understandingof groundwaterpotential but for others groundwatermay not even be recognizedas an option,
or there may be little understandingof the special techniques required to operate groundwater supplies on a
sustainablebasis.
The traditional donor approach of sending professionalsito developingcountries to initiate, design and
implement projects resulted in successes, but many projects have not been sustainable because the
beneficiarieswere not fully involved so as to ensure continuationafter disbursementceased. From the 1980s,
as expertise gradually became availablein-country, national professional staff gradually supplementedand
then replaced those from overseas. Even if these new professionalswere potentially more sensitive to local
37
GroundwaterSupply: Installationand Operation Groundwaterin Rural Development
capabilities,both the national institutionalframework and the donors approach meantthat local people were
still rarely involvedand little attentionwas paid to local experienceat community level. It is now clear that it
is the role of the community itselfto determinewhat its priorities are. Outsiderscan provide technicalor other
supportand outlinealternativesfor them, but the decisionhas to be with the community.
Having decided what they want to do, the next task for the community is to realize it. There has been
substantialfunding available in the past from donors and from NGOs to support the constructionand other
capital costs of establishingwater supplies. It is now recognized that the beneficiaries should invest when
(and so far as) possible in the capital costs of source construction and equipping.In this changed situation,
outside support is best provided in the form of training in the process of making appropriatedecisions,and
for technical and administrativetraining within the community, as well as for drillers, plumbers,equipment
suppliersand installers.Tariff barriers on the importationof waterwell constructionmaterials may also need
to be removed.
EffectiveCommunity
Involvement * in design,implementation,maintenance,
financing
* communitieswishesreconciledwithcapacityand
willingnessto pay
* ProvisionforFullRecurrentandCapitalCost . supportof capitalcostsforpoorercommunities
only
Recovery
* MaximumUse of National Servicesand Supplies a in respect of drilling contractors,pumps, spares
* appropriatequality controlto improvereliability
* AppropriateTechnologicalLevel . Compatiblewith human and financialresources
available
* Institutionaland ManpowerDevelopment * Closely mapped to needsof planned water supply
system
* Parallel health/sanitationeducation
In many instances, the NGOs led the way in working at the "grass roots level" helping communities to
develop the type of groundwater supplies which they most wanted, and as far as possible at the locations
which they most preferred. Even though NGOs were sometimes regarded with suspicion by govemments,
they were able to demonstrate the effectiveness of genuine community development based on the wishes and
efforts of the rural people themselves. However, the process takes time and money, so that the rate of
coverage is necessarily slowed down and the per capita cost is higher.
Role of Water-User Associations. The establishment of water-user associations (WUAs) has been
encouraged (or even required by more recent projects) with promising results, particularly in respect of
maintenance of rural water supplies and water allocation within irrigation projects. It has been shown,
however, that obliging people to form water-user groups is often less effective than providing support for a
process of helping the community determine what their objectives really are, within a range of available
options. When the water becomes available for use, then people more readily see the need for a mechanism
for sharing it fairly. Some irrigation projects have had little success in encouraging effective user groups until
the benefits are clearly within reach. On the other hand, there is much less difficulty if the project objectives
have been designed to meet the expressed needs of an established community or user group.
Water-user groups can be set up in a variety of ways, and it is important that their characteristics should be
selectedby the participantsto suit local capacities and culture. Partnerships,co-operatives,stock companies
and bulk-supply companies have all been established in different locations and contexts. The more
38
CroundwaterSupply:Installationand Operation Groundwaterin RuralDevelopment
Since the first modem guidance manual on rural water supply (Arlosoroff and others, 1987) there have
appearedvarious other major referenceworks on this subject(IUTDP-PROWESS,1990;WHO-IWSC, 1993;
D]FID)-WELL, 1998). These deal in depth with most of the technical, financial and social aspects of the
developmentand maintenance of rural water supplies (summarized above) in relation to any type of water
source.
However,none of these guidancemanuals enter into any detail on the investigationand evaluationof the
hydrogeologicalfactors that control the availability of groundwater supplies to wells and springs and that
influence the natural intrinsic quality and the vulnerabilityto pollution of these supplies.Given the general
complexity and dependenceon local detail associatedwith successful vwellsiting, design and protection,it is
essentialto engage a competenthydrogeologistin the early stages of planning groundwater-basedrural water
supply development programs. This, together with the effective databasing of waterwell records and
hydrogeologicaldata, are key roles for governmentaction.
G3overnments also still have a role to play in supportingthe developmentof community objectivesfor water
supplies.Severalare now activelyencouragingthe establishmentof water-usergroups for both domesticand
:rrigationwater supply. Approachesvary somewhatfrom the "top-down targeted style" to a "more subtle and
supportiveline." The latter is likely to be more effective as it involves the people to a much larger extent in a
processwhich they can help design and maintain. Experience has shown this to be the key to operational
sustainability.
39
3
GROUNDWATER RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY
The way in which the latter two factors are interpreted in practice will vary considerably with the storage
volume of the aquifersystem, and its propensityto irreversibleside effects as a result of short-termoverdraft.
Both will be a function of aquifer type and hydrogeologicalsetting. Small (very localized) aquifer systems
with low storativityand rechargerates will give rise to the most immediate concern.
40
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
irreversible aquifer degradation due to ingress of saline or polluted water (Custodio, 1992; Foster, 1992;
Llamas, 1992;Collin and Margat, 1993).hi reality,there is a wide range of exploitation-relatedeffects (Table
11) and it is not always appreciatedthat differing hydrogeologicalenvironmentsshow varying susceptibility
to the side effectsof excessiveabstraction(Table 12). Such sideeffects will,in many instances,be difficultto
predict with precision until some systematic monitoring of aquifer response to abstraction has been
undertaken.
Inter-MontaneBasins
* withlakedeposits ** (someareas) * *
* withoutlakedeposits * (fewareas) * (fewareas) *
Consolidated
Sedimentary
Aquifers ** (someareas) - * (fewareas)
RecentCoastalLimestones * (relatedsolutionfeatures) *
WeatheredBasementComplex - *
Note:Thenumber ofasterisks
givesa relative
indication
oftheseverity
ofpotential
sideeffects,whichmayonlybe ofrestricted
geographical
distribution
in someinstances.
41
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
Significant reversibleside effects (well pumping cost increase and yield reduction) occur if an excessive
number of boreholesare drilled in relation to the availableresourceand its optimumexploitation pattern, and
this can be particularlymarked where the hydraulic structure of an aquifer is such that its most productive
horizonsoccur at shallow depths and are thus prone to early dewatering(Figure 10). While such effects are
essentially reversible in a physical sense, their consequences upon groundwater users mnaybe terminal,
bearingin mind the time scales involved.
More serious are near irreversible side effects, especially those involving the encroachment of saline
water (UN-FAO; 1997).This may intrudelaterally from the sea (Figure 11), if coastal hydraulic gradientsare
reversed,but rather commonly also occurs from above in layered coastal aquifers.Such aquifers often have a
strong upward component of natural hydraulic gradient which may reverse with pumping from deeper
freshwaterhorizonsinducing the ingress of overlyingsaline water.
20
00
0
00
In
20 -0
Eg~ 404 rdcinbrhl
_T oO
_D 0 moeprebehrzni
60 II
productionborehole
Hwell
screen/slotted
liningtubes
CPmorepermeablehorizonin
ac alluvialsand-gravelaquifer
O pumpingtest datapoints
80 b and interpolation
Note: As a resultof dewateringof the most productivehorizon due to excessiveabstraction,maximum, ield decreased
from 60 to 10
UIsduring 1964-84whitepumpinglift increasedfrom 15to 55 m.
42
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
LamacaBay/~ ~ +40
X ~
970 ~ ~ > -o
i Xi ><\U
\, s15 PPER MIOCENEMARLS
-20- (base of aquifer) -20
@ q | st ;/ ~~ ~~~~~~0
3 km
CD-40. 1t t li Jthorizontal scate -40
-*--|| groundwater
table during
-60 year indicated
liootg groundwaterchloride
concentrationin 1980
Nlote:Over a 20-year periodmajorreductionin the saturatedaquiferthickness has occurredas a resultof both watertable decline and
salineintrusion.
The effects are quasi-irreversiblesince saline water, which first invades macroporesand fissures, diffuses
rapidly into the porous aquifer matrixunder the prevailing high salinity gradients (Foster, 1992). It will then
take decades to be flushed out, even after the flow of fresh water has been re-established.The ingress of
saline water is terminal for virtually all uses, and can also result in clamage to overlying soils if farmers
continue to irrigatewith increasinglybrackish water in an attempt to obtain some return on their investment
in wells.
By way of contrast, inland thick alluvial and sedimentary-basinaquifers in the more humid climates
exhibit much less risk of significantexploitation-relatedsideeffects. However,even here there is the potential
problem of increasingsocial inequityif deeper, larger-capacityirrigationboreholes lower the regional water
table and reduce accessto water supply for users of shallow domesticwells.
There are some who have argued that economicconstraints,imposedby free market competition,are the
only effective control over groundwater abstraction (Young, 1992). The larger capital cost of completing
wells of increasingdepth and decreasing yield, and escalating recurrentcost associated with pumping from
ever greater depthswill, it is suggested,rapidlyresult in achievingan optimumlevel of resourcedevelopment
and more efficientuse of the groundwaterproduced.
If the only externalities of groundwater exploitation are hydraulic interference with other groundwater
users, then this approachmay be tolerable.Althougheven here there is failureto recognizethe cost of drilling
a disproportionatelylarge number of wells to greater than optimum depth for the overall yield obtained, and
the range of social and environmental costs associated with groundwater level declines (Foster, 1992).
M4oreover,social inequity may be further aggravated when the access to groundwater supply of those
dependentupon shallowwells is compromisedby water table lowering throughheavy abstractionfrom deep,
high-capacity, irrigationboreholes. The position is likely to be far wCoseif unrestrictedabstraction causes
quasi-irreversibleaquiferdegradation,most notably if increasesin salinityare involved.
43
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
44
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* Groundwater is central to rural development and Nadu EndPunjab) is provided free of charge. Because
food security in India. Over 50% of the irrigated area of these high subsidies, power consumption in
is dependent on groundwater. Agricultural yields are agriculture has grown dramatically. Official estimates
generally 30-50% higher in groundwater irrigated indicatLethat it exceeds 40% of total energy use in
areas. In addition some 85% of drinking water needs many states.
in rural areas are met from groundwater.
*Addressing groundwater overpumping in India is
These statistics, however, understate the critical role complex. Centralised regulatory arrangements have
groundwater plays in the lives of rural inhabitants, existeci since the 1970s, when a model regulatory bill
since access to groundwater reduces agricultural risk was first circulated to state governments by the Central
and enables poor farmers to invest and to increase GroundiwaterFloard. Although a few states have passed
production (Chambers & Shah, 1989; World Bank regulations, it is questionable whether they could be
1998). implemented given the millions of individual well
owners on small land holdings (Dhawan, 1995), the
1968-69 1984-85 inadequate administrative set-up and that reduction in
STATE Private Private! Private Private subsiclies generates strong political opposition.
Dug Public' Dug Public*
Wells Tube Wells Wells Tube Wells
Andhra Pradesh 0.660 0.016 0.982 0.085 * Nevertheless, some states are developing
Bihar 0.225 0.013 0.352 0.411 programmes, The Rajasthan State Government,
Gujurat 0.565 0.002 0.673 0.009 (supported by the World Bank), is preparing a first
Madhya Pradesh 0.610 0.002 1.113 0.008 phase . . . * ma e
Punjab 0.170 0.114 0.091 0.595 phase intiative to uild groundwater management
Tamil Nadn 1.t15 0.026 1.411 0.111 capacity. This initiative combines investments in data
Uttar Pradesh 1.112 0.129 1.130 1.608 collection wit]n groundwater pilot projects to develop
user-based management organisations in a series of
NATIONAL TOTAL 6.110 0.475 8.743 3.43 groundwater resource conservation zones. It also
Inset I: Growth in waterwells (in millions)for selected contains major public education components.
Indian states (*public tubewells rarely exceed 5%
of the category and are decreasing) * Where energy subsidies are concerned, Andhra
Pradesh have taken bold steps to reform pricing
Development of groundwater resources in India structures, which should reduce the incentive for aquifer
proceededrapidly (Inset I), and the number of energised overabstraction. Other measures include:
wells has increased to more than 15 million in 1996 * the prohibitionof drillingdeeptubewellsfor irrigation
(Inset II). Increases in groundwater abstraction have * the mandatoryconstructionof streambedgroundwater
had a major impact on the resource base in many arid rechargestructures
and hard rock regions. Nationwide, the number of * the introductionof economicincentivesfor dryland
administrative'groundwater resource blocks' classified (as opposedto irrigated)cropping.
as fully/excessively abstracted increased to 383 in
1992-93 (CGWB, 1995). The direct cost of
groundwater overdraft in India to the end of the 1980s 30 - + electricalpumpsets
had been estimated at US$ 300 million, (almost - - el dieselpumpsets A
certainly an underestimate). N totalnumberof
al
ak i energized wells A
* The emerging groundwater resource problems are X A A,
closely related to high government subsidies in the 10a A,
agriculture sector. The subsidy on power-supply is r - A E
*
45
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
averagewell est.total
YEAR no.o abstractionabstraction
wells(M) (m3d) (Mm31d)
1960 0.55 70 38
.............................
.......
,.IT
.................
* limitedgroundwaterabstraction(fewwells/animal
power/somediesel pumps)
* significantbaseflowto streams
VV .. , T1 . 1....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* increasedgroundwaterabstraction(additionalwells,
diesel/electricpumps)and manywells deepened
* reducedbaseflowto streams
max
Note: The total abstractionincreased7-foldin a 30-yearperiod as a result of both the spread of motorized pumpingplant and of well
drilling,but this led to intensecompetitionfor the available groundwaterresourcesand virtual eliminationof baseflow to local streams.
46
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
47
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
U)
O OPRTON& wU FOREGONE IN-SITU
E | MOAPIENRTAETNIAONNCE
| ez O | VALUEOF VALUE
O CAPITAL MAINTENANCE m C. ALTERNATIVE (costof saline
ro COSTS (O& M) 0 USES intrusion,land
X CSTS (present/future) subsidence,
COSTSOF 2 droughtbufferetc.)
GROUNDWATER LL
ABSTRACTION - - __ _ _
0 t~~~~~~~~~~~n
uJ CAPITAL O&M O
: COSTS COSTS s
X (credit (energy j I|
c normally normally im .t
o subsidised) subsidised) | = E * frequentlynot
t leviedor donot
_< j coverrealcosts
Note: No relativescaleof full economniccostsis implied,but it is evidentthat in the typical situationthe costs paid by the user represent
only a part of the full economiccost.
Highly dispersed use patterns can have significant aggregate impacts but the problems often arise at
substantialdistance from many users. The migration of a saline water front for example, is often due to
changesin groundwaterflow caused by regionalpumpingpatterns, but the only users affectedare those in the
specificarea where saline water intrudes.
In any one nation or region, there is likely to be significant variability in the hydrogeologicalfactors
controlling groundwater resource availability and the socioeconomic factors affecting their use for
agricultural irrigation. These sets of factors interact and result in a groundwater resource management
context that can change significantlyover time and very greatly between locations. In India, for example, the
national and state policies subsidizingboth groundwaterdevelopmentand electrical energy for groundwater
pumping have had little negative impact on the resource base in areas with adequate wet season rainfall and
only seasonal groundwater use. But in the more arid areas these policies have greatly exacerbated aquifer
overexploitationand lie at the root of unsustainabledevelopmentpatterns.
It is thus necessaryto develop management approachesthat can be tailored closely to specific situations
which will vary with hydrogeologicaldiversity.It also necessitatesthe developmentof adaptivemanagement
which can respondeffectivelyas the larger econormicor social contexts change. These needs conflict with the
macro nature of many key policy tools. They also greatly reduce the chance of success for attempts to
developuniform managementmodels or regulatorystructures.
Limitations of Regulatory Agencies. National and regional regulatory agencies are all too often under-
resourced and weakly empowered when it comes to controlling groundwater abstraction.Moreover, all too
often groundwater resource management remains under the administration of professional engineers who
have been trained mainly in surfacewater resource developmentand tend to think in terms of major hydraulic
structuresrather than influencinglarge numbersof small stakeholders.
Simply increasing funding and empowerment,however, will not necessarily enable them to regulate
groundwaterabstractioneffectively.A change of attitude and perspective is needed. There are also inherent
factorswhich weaken their abilityto introduceeffectivecontrols:
48
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
* The highly dispersed nature of groundwater abstraction,comlbinedin many countries with deeply
entrenchedtraditionsgiving individuallandownersthe right to abstract
* The uncertaintyof most groundwaterresource evaluationdue to natural hydrogeologicalcomplexity
and meteorologicalvariability,and to inadequatemonitoringof system response to abstraction
* The strong pressure for resource development (regardless of long-term consequences)sometimes
exerted by the politicallypowerfullobby of land ownersand/orplantationenterprises
* The high incidenceof corruptionof regulatorsduring considerationof new abstractionsor sanctions
on illegal abstractions
* The lack of public and political awarenessof the potentiallyirreversibleconsequences of excessive
groundwaterabstraction,and thus the absenceof an adequateconsensus for action.
The existence of traditional methods of aquifer development, often involving large numbers of small
abstractorswith shallow wells and limited pumpingcapacity in aquifer dischargeareas, worksin the contrary
direction.Implicitprior rights held in perpetuity by such abstractorscan make it difficult to introduce more
rational use of groundwaterand this tends to sterilizevaluable storage resources against future development
(Foster, 1992).
To make effective progress groundwaterresources managementrequires the effective integration of the key
hydrogeologicand socioeconomicelements that determineand control the interaction between water/land-
use and groundwater systems (Figure 14). For the purpose of groundwater management, the institutional
framework is fundamentaland consists of a set of organizations,social processes and legal agreementsthat
enable management functions to occur. Perhaps the most important set of questions to ask in framing
approachesto groundwatermanagementare:
* What set of functions need to occur to address management needs within the specific context of
concern?
- Are those functions already enabled adequately, either through formal institutions or through
informalsocial processes?
* If not, how might the capacity of existing systemsbe strengthened,or new institutionsbe created, to
enablethese critical functionsto be performed?
49
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
HYDROGEOLOGIC
FACTORS SOCIOECONOMIC
FACTORS l
POLLUTION ECONOMIC
VULNERABILITY INSTRUMENTS
NAote:The key hydrogeologicand socioeconomicelementsthat determinethe level of impact and potential control of water/landuse
activitieson groundwaterare indicatedschematically.
pumping from individual wells). These chains can evolve upward as managementneeds drive communities
to develop higher-levelenablingframeworks (such as legislationto create aquifer management comnmittees)
or they can evolve downwards from basic social principles to specific implementation policies (such as
highly subsidizeddomesticwater supply).
In general, the institutional framework shaping groundwater management options can be viewed as
comprisingfour possiblelevels:
50
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
focused on the public trust concept as a mechanism for balancing public and private interests in water
resources (Koehler, 1995). This enables the state to initiate managementwhile leaving room for private use
rights and water market operations.Furthenmore,because water is being held in trust for the people (rather
than being eitherprivate or sovereignproperty),the conceptenablespublic participationin management.
Third, in most situationsthere is a major gap at the intermediateinstitutional level. National water laws
generallyexist and in many cases articulatebasic principlesclearly(Salman, 1999). State regulatory agencies
also often exist, though their capabilities vary greatly. There is.,however, often a major gap between these
organizationsand the level of communitygroups and local users. This gap is of critical importancebecause
most state organizationsdo not have the implementationcapability essential to manage at aquifer scale. At
the same time existing local organizations generally cover too little area to be effective in groundwater
management and generallylack the necessaryfinancial,technicaland administrativeresources.Intermediate
institutions,such as aquifermanagementcommittees,will thus be needed in many instances.
The establishmentand operationof aquifermanagementcomrinitteeshas a number of critical aspects:
* Defining a sound legal basis for their operationand relationshipwith the regulatory agency and local
government
* Providingan elementof financialsupportfor meeting facilities,,at least in their initialstages
* Promoting balanced representationof the groundwater user community,bearing in mind that even
the agricultural user sector may be heterogeneous in tenns of dependence on groundwater,
cultivationregime and income status
* Developing and funding a technical information and communication system with the regulatory
agency
* Ensuring that the macro level water resources framework does not distort the agenda of the
committee and accidentallyconvert them into a policy lobby group on other water resource issues
(such as subsidizedsurfacewater transfer schemes)or even agriculturalissues (such as subsidiesfor
a given crop).
FlexibleManagementSchemes
The context for groundwater management is dynamic. This implies that institutional frameworks must be
able to adapt to change.The contrastbetween an enablingadaptivefamework and more rigid structuresfor
groundwatermanagementcan be illustratedby the different approachescurrently followed in India and the
westernstates of the USA (Moench, 1994).
In India, model legislationauthorizinggovernment control over groundwater has been in place since the
mid-1970s. This bill (versions of which have recently been passed in several states) essentially creates a
highly centralizedgovernment groundwaterauthorityand provides it with a limited array of regulatory and
enforcementpowers. The top-downregulatoryfocus providesrelatively little flexibilityfor adjusting to local
conditions.
In contrast legislationenabling the formation of groundwatermanagement districts in parts of the USA
authorizes a wide variety of functions and places their implemrentationunder the control of locally-elected
boards of directors.These boards,however, rarely have sole authority,their scope of actionbeing limited:
* On one sideby private rights and the ability of individualsto enforce these through the courts
* On the other sideby state and federal laws, and the powersthese laws give to governmentagencies.
A system of checks and balances emerges in which the elected groundwater district boards often have
broad authoritybut adapt courses of actionto local conditionsand changing circumstances.The effectiveness
of groundwater management is (at best) partial, but the adaptive approach has facilitated substantial
improvements(Krommand White, 1990).
In whatever manner they are achieved, flexible and alaptive institutions are central to effective
groundwater management.As a result, in evaluating existing institutional frameworks (or designing new
51
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
ones), the degree to which they enable implementationto be adapted to local conditions and to evolve as
circumstanceschange shouldbe a major concern.
StakeholderParticipationand Governance
The importance of user participation is increasinglyrecognized for effective water management (World
Bank, 1994). Userparticipationis particularlyimportantin the groundwatercase due to the highly dispersed
nature of resource use and the role individual decisions play in determining management outcomes.
Substantialliteratureis availableon water-userorganizationsand will not be reiterated here. The distinction
between low levels of user participation and roles for users in governance of institutions is, however,
importantto emphasizein the context of groundwaterresources.
In most cases, addressing groundwater over-abstractionrequires demand-side management-changes of
individual use for irrigationthat reduce total abstraction.These changes need to occur in activitiesthat take
place daily and affect both livelihoods and lifestyles. Users must, as a result, play a paramount role in
management and groundwater regulators need to work with them "collaboratively on analysis,
collaborativelyin setting objectives,collaborativelyin creating strategy and collaboratively in formulating
project tactics" (WorldBank, 1994).
Collaborationmust involve a dialogue between groundwater regulators and local stakeholdersin which
both parties have power to determine courses of action, and not one in which regulators encourage
communities to participate by acquiescing to predetermined courses of action. This distinction is of
fundamentalimportance,since in many cases a gulfexists between the approaches advocated by government
authoritiesand the perceptionsof local users. This gulf can become a continuingsource of tension and needs
to be bridged if it is not to underminethe effectivenessof managementinitiatives.
Key ManagementFunctions
Groundwater management is inherently complex. This complexity can, however, be greatly reduced by
systematically identifying what needs to be done for effective management. Once this is clearer, then
identifyingwho should undertake what is generallymore straightforward.This section, thus focuses on the
key functionsthat institutionsmust undertake or enable (Table 13). An indication of the most appropriate
level (or levels) at which the corresponding function should be promoted and implemented (within the
institutionalframework introduced previously)is also given in Table 13. The functions listed should not be
reviewed as mandatory,but more as a check list.
An underlying need behind many of the key functions is that of education. The characteristics of
groundwaterresources are often poorly understood by policy makers and water users alike. Moreover, the
social, economic, political and institutional factors governing groundwater use and the effectiveness of
different institutionalarrangements for resource managementmay not be adequately appreciatedby policy
makersand technicalspecialists.
ResourcesEvaluation
A realistic assessment of the status of groundwater utilization and resources provides the essential
backgroundagainstwhich the need for, and focus of, groundwatermanagementactivitiescan be judged. This
assessmentwill vary widely in its degree of sophisticationfrom preliminary evaluation of the groundwater
balance and state of storage reserves (in cases where only reconnaissance data are available) to detailed
numericalaquifer modeling (in cases where the necessaryinput parameters can be reasonably estimated and
adequatewater level monitoringis availablefor calibration).
52
Table 13: Summary of groundwater resource management functions
Institutional roles
Note:Theneedfor a tieredinstitutionalframework will be evidentfromtherespectiverolesidentified,althoughit is nottheintentionto implythata top-downas suchis preferable;it may
be betterfor componentsofthe resources functionnotto be underregulatoryagencyleadership,sincethismaycompromisetheircredibilityin the eyesof water-users,although
evaluation
thiswilloftenprovedifficulttoavoidinpractice.
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
* Direct (or diffuse)rechargefrom rainfall (excess to soil moisture deficits and short- term vegetation
requirements)which infiltratesdirectly
* Indirect (or localized) recharge, resulting from infiltration through the beds of perennial and
ephemeralsurfacewatercourses,and other forms of runoff.
In practice, a spectrum of processes between these two end members occurs (Lerner and others, 1990;
Simmersand others, 1997).
In Figure 15 a broader conceptualizationof groundwater rechargeprocesses is introduced,distinguishing
those that occur locally within the rural developmentarea underlain by an aquifer system (be they as a result
of natural direct/indirectprocessesor artificialcauses) from those that occur at greater distance,especially in
situationswhere the aquifer systemextends into neighboringhilly terrain.
t t _* aquiTers : DISCHARGE
-_ O + FRESH
7I7.\. .
*011
U_ SURFACE
WATER
BODIES
V- V. ~~~~~discrete
riverbedspring
flow
seepage
VIANATURAL
| 0 i-- _ \ * * 4 x- ,-, --.-. . + ~~vEGETATION
SATURATEDAQUIFER.discrete wetlands
\ t.0 (large storage)
. (/arge
. .storage)
: .
. . ... : .
.
.
.:.extensive riparian
vegetation
(natural
or agricultural)
8semi-permeable
t base . SAUNE AREAS
DISCHAbRGE coastal
waters
I OTHER
OTHER ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~salt
lakes/playas
GROUNDWATER
BODIES
leakageto
deeperaquifers
54
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* There is no doubt that rechargeoccurs,to some extent, even iTI the most arid regions, although areas
of increasing aridity will be characterizedby much decreasecldownward flux to the water table of
much greater temporalvariability(Figure 16).
* As aridityincreases, direct rechargewill become less importantin terms of total replenishmentthan
indirect recharge, and the artificial (or incidental) components of recharge arising from human
activityalso becomeincreasinglysignificant.
* Estimatesof direct rechargeare always likelyto be more reliablethan those of indirect recharge.
For most practicable purposes it would be sufficient initially to estimate recharge rates in the more arid
regions within two of the scale increments indicated in Figure 16, but even this will sometimes prove
difficult.More precisioncan only be achievedthroughthe analysis of carefully-monitoredaquiferresponse to
significantmedium-termabstraction.The actual frequencyof infiltrationevents, and the vadose (unsaturated)
zonetransit time until rechargereachesthe water table, are also importantconsiderations.
DIRECT(DIFFUSE)RECHARGE(D)
frequency
1 in 1 3 10 30 100 300 years
EXAMPLES
BotswanaKalahari
(rainfall300-500 mm/a,
100 ....... .......
------------------------10
........... .. .i
littlesurfacewater)
ILr..<
o stablPeruvian
Atacama
0- ....... - 5--- x . (rainfall <20 mm/a, but with
1* .LJO 0co
00t.
LUJ
important
eivdt ar Andean
ieywt rivers)
numrou
peena 20er flw weesteBtwnKaaaider,lhog cevgcnidependbupo widheraifly,
withnetesv
100 30 10 3 I 0.3,%time
INDIRECT(LOCALISED)RECHARGE(L)
frequency
Note: In the examplesshown,the PeruvianAtacamadesert is a hyperaridregion that fringes a major mountainchain from which
numerous perennialrivers flow, whereasthe BotswanaKalaharidesert,althouighreceiving considerablyhigher rainfall,is an extensive
sand-coveredplain coveredwith well establisheddeep-rootedvegetationwithisignlificantsoil infiltrationbut verylow rates of
groundwaterrecharge
Source:Foster, 1987.
55
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin RuralDevelopment
Hydrological
Data Interpretation
- water table fluctuations D(L) c* . YH
- differentialstream/canalflow L c** * I/E
D/L diffuse(direct)/localized(indirect)rechargedistribution
O onlysuitablefor relativelyuniformsoil profiles
inappropriatefor irrigatedagriculturalareas
* isotopicanalysesincreasecost substantially
** excludingconstructionand operationof basic data collectionnetwork
a = >US$50,000; b = US$10-50,000; c = <US$10,000
E-event, S-season,Y-year, H-hydrologicaltime, G-geologicaltime
Note:Thecostsgivenarefor a typicalareaof about1,0o0km2; it shouldbe notedthatnotall methodsareappropriate for all
anda clearconceptualmodelof possibleaquiferrechargemechanisms
conditions, is a pre-requisiteforselectionof techniqueand for
quantitative
evaluations
basedonfielddata
The applicability and potential accuracy of any given method depends largely on two semi-independent
facets of the ambient conditions (Simmers and others, 1997):
* The superficial geological environment, which determines the spatial variability of the recharge
process and the extent of development of surface runoff
* The vegetation system, whether native or agricultural and with or without irrigation.
Groundwater recharge estimates from individual techniques will nearly always be subject to considerable
error. This will be evident from:
56
Groundwvater
ResourceSustainabilirv GroundwaterinRural Development
Moreover, the necessary database improvement to achieve more reliable recharge estimates will be more
time-consumingthan those required to improve all other factors affectinggroundwater resourcesevaluation,
especiallyif precise results are needed.
There is also a need to break the widelyused paradigmthat average groundwaterrechargeis constant with
time. The evaluation of groundwater resources needs to identify linkages with land-use and surface water,
especiallyin arid regions, where a major proportionof the total rechargemay be derivedfrom irrigated canals
and/or irrigated fields (Figure 15). Modificationsto canal construction and operation, irrigation technology
and cropping regimes can then cause radical changes in groundwater recharge rates. Moreover, in some
hydrogeological conditions major potential infiltration is rejected because of shallow water table, and
rechargecan be increased as a result of pumping for irrigation(Figure 17).
Role of Groundwater Storage and Discharge. It is also of equal importance to elaborate a realistic
conceptual model and quantitativeestimate of the mechanismnsand rates of aquifer discharge (Figure 15).
This, inevitably, is an aquifer specific activity, but the result;sprovide a cross-checkon recharge estimates,
and can also reveal key linkages to elementsof the surfacewater environment which are dependentupon the
groundwaterflux of the aquifer system concerned.It is importantto distinguish:
* Dischargeto freshwater systems, since these may be required to sustain downstreamuses, for water
supply interests and/or other river interests
* Discharge via natural vegetation, including sustaining ecologically and/or economically valuable
freshwaterwetlandsand brackish lagoons
* Dischargeto saline areas including coastal waters, salt lakes and playas.
57
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
II I
L-- DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER - -- I
NORMALPRACTICE NUMERICAL
AQUIFER
MODELLING
OFTENNEGLEC
TED errorsinrechargeandtheireconomic
DEVELOPMENT/MANAGEMENT
DECISIONMAKING
flexibleplaninvolvinglocalised
heavypumpingin representative area
m ~~ ~ ~~_ UIFRMPDING
PUEIAA
Note: An averageof 320 nmTlaof potentialrechargeis estimated to berejected at this location,because
of water table surfacingin the
wet season, andthe figureillustrateshow rechargecouldbe increasedwith pumpingfor agriculturalirrigationin the precedingdry
season. 10~~~~~~~~~dtrnn creassnstviy
ted
12or
OFENGLCE purcageadteicnmpingc
Figure 18: Orgainizationschemefor use of numericalaquifer modeling to informngroundwater
managementplans
potential no potential
recharge
of 320mm rechargerejected
DEVELOEVPMENTN DEVELOPMENT
hydrograheav wumith
iriaon pumpiesngaieae
caactyan
ri ndoakem
bu inathl oaities.n
capaciy
andboundnes, undwtakmagentercsin inaturalih
confthenseucranis
Source:Foster, 1987.
58
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
Since all groundwater flux in an aquifer must be discharged somewhere,the question of the safe yield for
groundwaterexploitation arises (Bredehoeft, 1997; Sophocleous, 1997). This should be recognized as an
essentially subjective concept. Safe yield is obviously bounded at the upper level by the long-term active
aquifer rechargerate. However,it should (but all too frequentlydoes not) involve valuejudgements about the
importance of maintaining (at least a proportionof) some of the dischargesfrom the aquifer system.This is
not straightforward,but it is obviously essentialthat the groundwaterresource evaluation process should at
least identify all downstreamlinkagesand dependencies.
Another key aspect of groundwater resource evaluation is assessing the volume of exploitable aquifer
storage and the susceptibility of the aquifer system to adverse effiscts if subjected to either short-term
(temporary) or long-term overdraft due to excessive pumping. It is important for cost-effectivegroundwater
and land management to diagnose this susceptibilityadequately. In many ways the vast storage of many
groundwatersystemsis their most valuableproperty,and this needs to be exploitedin a strategicfashion. The
key question is how to use (but not to abuse) this storage resource. Iri some cases the social, environmental
and economic value of the services provided by maintaining groundwater levels close to their natural
fluctuation should logically preclude the full exploitation of groundwater storage. However, in others it
should be possible to physically engineer or economicallycompensate for impacts on groundwater-level-
related services,allowing a fuller developmentof deeper grouncdwaterstorage.
Groundwatermonitoringand data collectioncan be costly and time consuming. Informationrequirements
must always be carefullytargeted towards managementdecisions,but long-term sustainabilityissues should
not be lost sight of. It is also extremely importantthat synoptic data of aquifer evaluation and groundwater
resource status are regularlyand systematicallydisseminatedin a suitableformat to the principal stakeholders
and the generalpublic.
Resource Valuation
The value of groundwatercan vary from next-to-nothingto being priceless. It is next-to-nothing in a deep
aquiferbeneath a remote sparsely-populatedarea with abundant surfacewater resources. It is almost priceless
in a wellfield which is the sole sourceof drinking water for a town in the desert. Most "real world cases" lie
between these two extremes.Valuations are urgently needed to inforrn the developmentand implementation
of managementpolicies for groundwaterresources (Young, 1996). But how can the value of water actually
be assessed?
A clear distinctionmust be made from the outset between the benefits of using water (eithertoday or in
the future) which determine its value, from the costs of providing the water supply, which is a different
concept . If this cost is high it could be an indicator of high vadue,but it is equally possible that the costs of
water supply exceed the benefits of water use and that the water is merely misallocated. Logically
groundwaterabstractionshould only be undertakenif the net benefits (defined as the benefits from water use
minus those that would have accruedby conservingits natural state minus the water supply costs) are positive
(Schiffler,1998).
A last distinctionthat needs to be madein valuingwater is tetween the benefits of a unit of water supplied
and the benefits of a unit of water stored. Usually the valuation of water is applied to the value of a unit of
water-supplied.The same valuationcan be applied to future use. By discountingthe value of future flows and
dividing it by the present water stock, the value of a unit of water stored can be estimated. This method
allowsestimationof the option valueof using water stocks in the future rather than now.
A furtherdifficultyin groundwaterresource valuationis seasonal variation in the value of water. In many
cases, duringthe wet season groundwateris usually abstractedfor irrigation in only small quantities,because
of the availability of other water sources.The value of groundwaterat that time is always close to zero. In
contrast during the dry season, the value of groundwatercan vary depending on crop demands and weather
conditions.These variationscan actuallybe observedwhere well owners sell water on a daily basis to farmers
in areas withoutadequatewater supply.
Valuations obtaineddirectly from competitivemarket transfers (the revealedpreference method) can be
relied upon to assess the benefits derived and thus the economic value of most other goods, but are rarely
59
Table 15: Summary of economic methods applied to groundwater valuation
Valuation
Revealed Preference direct observationof how much water * extractivevalue for domestic water * gives upper limiting value if
users actually pay to water vendorsor supply or irrigatedagricultureas limited quantities traded, since
in water markets providingsupply appropriate cannot be assumed that insensitive
competitively to quantityprovided
Water Productivity traded value of goodsmeasuredby the * extractivevalue in irrigated * method discreditedbecause often
Residual Value gross margin (turnovernet of taxes agriculture(data widely available) erroneouslyassumes all benefits
minus materialinputs)divided by imputedto water (ignoring land,
amount of water used labor, etc.)
* can be distorted by substitution of
capital investmentfor water-use
O Water Rent as for water productivitybut also * extractivevalue in irrigated * measurement and valuation of
ResidualValue subtractingcost of labor,capital and agriculture(additionaldata not so family labor difficult
land, reflectingmore closely true readilyavailable) * hypothetical rental value of land
opportunitycost (without water) problematic
* interest rate applied to capital is
subjective and discretionary
Land Price price differentialbetween identical land * extractivevalue in irrigated * various other characteristics(soil,
plots with/withoutgroundwater source agriculture topography,access, etc.) affect
multipliedby market interestrate value of land
divided by annual water use on plot * too few land transactionprices may
concerned be available
Contingent Valuation survey by interviewof willingnessto * extractivevalue for domestic water * still controversial,since prone to
pay for given water supply or supply or in-situ value for bias according to interviewees
preservationof groundwater-fed maintainingecosystems expectation/knowledgeincome-
ecosystem level/gender
of somemethodsmaybe seriouslyquestioned
Note: It is evidentthatthe application and/orinadequatedataavailabilityfor theiroptimum
as a resultof excessivesimplification
application.
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
available for water. A number of alternative techniques (Table 15) are being employed by economists for
evaluationof groundwater(NRC, 1997; Schiffler,1998).
Extractive versus In-Situ Values. In the case of groundwater resources it is not sufficient to estimate the
extractive valueof the groundwaterfor use in a given economicactivity alone, but an estimate of the forgone
benefits resulting from the groundwaternot having been maintainedin-situ in the aquifer are also extremely
important. In some instances,the in-situ value can be calculated directly by an analysis of the environmental
damages resulting from groundwaterabstraction,such as those causeclby land subsidence.However, while
these damages can be estimated in a relatively straightforwardmanner ex-post, it is considerably more
difficult ex-ante,becauseof hydrogeologicaluncertaintyin the aquiferresponse to groundwaterdepletion.
Other componentsof the in-situ value can in some circumstancesbe obtained by the residual value and
land price differentialmethods (Table 15). For example, if it is estimated that a portion of a coastal aquifer
could become completelyunusable through saline intrusion for a period of 10 years, and subsequentlyits
water could only be used to irrigatea very limited range of crops for a further 20 years, then the in-situ value
of the groundwater can be estimated by comparing the net present value of the water rent over the period
concernedwith the correspondingvalueover the same period of time from an undamagedaquifer.
Average versus Marginal Benefits/Costs. Average benefits/costs ara determined by estimating the total
benefits/costsassociatedwith a water abstractionduringa specific time period and dividing them by the total
amount of water abstractedin the same period.This averagingapproachcan, however, be misleading.On the
benefit side, if only a limited amount of water is available, it is normldly used for high-value uses, while as
more water becomesavailable, it is used for lower-valueuses. 'rhe more meaningfulconcept is of marginal
benefits/costs,where only the benefits of additionalwater made available (or the loss of benefits incurred if
water supply is reduced) would be considered. The marginal costs differ widely according to whether
additionalcapacity is needed or not. If spare capacity exists with existinginstallations,the marginal costs are
limited to additional energy to run pumps and are often referred to as the short-run marginal costs. If,
however, additionalcapacity is needed,the marginalcosts increase sharply (becauseof the capital cost of the
new infrastructure)and are then referredto as long-run marginalcosts.
Capital costs usually account for a large share (50-90 percent) of total long-run marginal (incremental)
costs of water supply.These capital costs can be estimatedin two differentways:
Financial versus Economic Benefits/Costs. Both the benefits and costs of using water can be estimated
either in financial or in economic terms. In financial terms, all lpricesare expressed in market prices actually
paid, while in economic analysis prices are expressed in shadow tenns, which reflect actual scarcity value
after excluding any so-called transfer payments (such as taxes, imnportduties, fees and subsidies) and
correctingfor any price distortions(arising from price controlsor overvaluedexchange rates).
Usingfinancial costs, which for many non-economists seems to be the easiest way to proceed, can lead to
a serious misallocationof resources.For example, consider a country which subsidizesenergy prices and the
cost of capital while it supports agricultural prices. By doing so it lowers the financial costs of a water
abstraction and increases the financial benefits from irrigation. A financial analysis of a water
abstraction/supplymay show that there are net benefits but an economic analysis,which excludes these price
61
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
distortions,may show that it is more beneficial to keep groundwaterin its natural state or that net benefits are
higher if water is used for other purposes at a differentlocation.
If water use is consumptive (incorporated in a product, transpired or evaporates) the benefits/costs of
return flows can safely be excluded from economic analysis. In many cases, however, part of the water
supply is not used consumptively, but retumed to the environment as domestic effluent or agricultural
drainage.If these return flows are significant,their value has to be assessed;they can be positivebut are often
negative as a result of quality deteriorationduringuse.
Strategic Planning
Because groundwaterresources managementoptions are affected by a wide variety of technical, social and
economic considerations,integratedanalysis and strategicplanning is a key function providinga foundation
on which progress can be made. Moreover, it is essential to coordinate actions with those responsible for
policies affecting energy tariffs, crop prices, fertilizers and pesticides subsidies, and so forth, since
interventionshere can have a major impact on groundwater resources. Another key aspect will be macro-
planning on the scopefor and implementationof conjunctiveuse of surfaceand groundwaterresources.
At the regional level it is extremelyimportantto undertake clear identificationof priorities. This process
will include:
Such zones may not need to address entire aquifer systems, since it is important to recognize that many
problemscan be addressedsuccessfullyat more local scale. While their boundaries need to be consistentwith
the hydrogeologicalregime, it will be necessaryfrom a politicalperspectiveto reflect social or administrative
boundaries,since these may well effect the viabilityof managementactions. These zones are also important
from a common-propertyperspective, since they define the boundaries within which management actions
will be taken, and help to limit the array of water users and other stakeholdersthat needto be involved.
Equally important for the clarification of management priorities is deciding what are the key services
provided by groundwaterresources(such as irrigationof certain types of crop, provision of domestic water
supply, environmentaldischarges, and so forth), because this is what society cares about. In some ways this
forms part of resource valuation,but inevitablyon a qualitative basis. In other ways it is a social exercise to
clarifythe wider objectivesthat society wishesto achieve through groundwatermanagementand is therefore,
a key prerequisiteto shaping regulatorytargets.
Resource Regulation
The regulation of groundwaterresources is a many-facettedprocess (Salman, 1999) which is best carried out
on a flexible and adaptive basis though the collaborative efforts of some form of local regulatory
agency/authority,aquifer management committees and local water-user associations. Amongst the key
activities which may be needed are the establishment/consolidationof a register of abstractors and the
organizationof water abstractionrights, togetherwith the establishmentof some form of abstractioncharging
or water markets.
Regulatoryfunctionsare central to groundwatermanagement in all situations where the characteristicsof
the groundwaterresource are not such as to be effectivelyself-regulating(Figure 19), and especially where
the risks of irreversibledegradation are significant (Tables 11 and 12). The nature of this function and the
institutionallevel at which it needs to occur, however, can vary considerably.In some cases, regulation will
be a high-level function governing the operation of the water-rights system and the operation of water
62
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
markets. In others, it may be a more localized procedure such as codes of practice on permissible well
spacing or irrigationtechnology(Box 8).
Direct regulation of groundwater use is often extremely difficult because of the large number of
geographically dispersed abstraction points involved. Additionally, unless broad social support exists for
regulation, enforcement is often politically sensitive and problemratic.Thus while a broad regulatory
framework is required to provide the platform on which other management approaches operate, it is rarely
effective on its own.
63
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
* However, shallow tubewells with suction-lift pumps * Policy reforms were also being implemented in the
can only lift water from depths of 6-8m (Inset). The late 1980s to deregulate the importation and purchase
absence of a significant monsoon in 1983 (believed of tubewell pumps, engines and fertilisers for
to be a l-in-25 year event) led to failure of shallow groundwater irrigation, so as to stimulate further
tubewells in some areas and raised doubts about the development of privately-owned shallow tubewells.
appropriateness of this technology, (Pitman in Kahnert Moreover, it is hoped that improved hydrogeological
& Levin, 1993). knowledge of the storage properties and dynamic
water-table fluctuations of the alluvial-deltaic aquifers
* Under natural (pre-development) conditions the will help refine the mapping of areas appropriate for
complex layered alluvial-deltaic aquifer of Bangladesh groundwater exploitation by the different tubewell
has groundwater levels virtually at surface during the technologies.
Inset: Dtfferent types of water-supply borehole technology operating in Bangladesh with their yield and lift constraints
64
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
Licensing of New Production Boreholes. In the case of direct water administration by an agency of
regional/localgovernment, experience suggests that regulation of groundwater abstraction has been more
successfully achieved by exercising control over the construction of waterwells themselves - their numbers,
depthsand diameters.In this situationthe normal legal requirementwould be that any individual or company
wishing to drill a borehole, dig a well or capture a spring to exploit groundwater resources requires a
constructionpermit. The detailed procedure will vary to some degree with the state-of-knowledgeof
groundwaterresourcesin the given area.
It is helpful for the regulatory'agencyto be in a position to offer technical advice to the applicant, since
this will build better relations and will ensure the return of reliable data on the well drilled. This technical
adviceshould includeopinions on:
The second stage is the issuing of a licensefor abstractiononce the new installationis constructed.The
regulatoryagencywould normallyreach a decision on permissib]Le yield on the basis of:
Whileit is desirablefor all water supply installationsto require aLdrilling permit, since this is the only way in
which the regulatory agency can effectively control exploitation and avoid irrational development, many
exoneratesmall-scaleusers from the need to obtain an abstractionlicense.
T'hereare various ways by whichyield may be controlled:
Abstraction rights and regulationshave little meaningunless they ralate to actual practice on the ground.
Some form of periodic inspection in the case of large abstractions (and occasional spot-checks in case of
smaller ones) are necessaryto enforce abstractioncontrolpolicy. Monitoring of complianceis an important
function, which can take place either in a formalized way by the regulatory agency or (as is the case with
most traditional water rights systems) at the community level[.The related enforcement function can be
achieved through a variety of informal and formal social processes, with police powers being only one
(relativelylimited)avenue.
Sanctionsfor Non-Compliance.For any policy to be effective some form of legal penalties against those
who construct waterwells without permit or exceed the licensed abstraction are required. These normally
include such actions as temporary (or even permanent)prohibition on the use of the well, depending on the
scale of the offenceand its effect on third parties or on the aquifer resource itself. Monetary fines may be
zonsideredbut these are not norrnallyconsidered appropriate.
65
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* - WCB --
VARIATION WITH IMB
MAIN AQUIFER TYPES CSA -
* fullregulationincludeswater rightsallocation,water-userparticipation
and
economic instruments
** aquiferresponsecharacteristicor ratiooftransmissivity
and storativity
(can vary in large range froml 0+1 m/d to 10+8m/d)
aquiferstoragecharacteristicor ratioof specificstorage and averagerecharge
(can vary in range 10 to 10+5)
Note: Onlya qualitativeindicationof prioritiesis possible sincelocal circumstanceswill exert importantinfluence.It also shouldbe
noted that well registersand generalconstructionguidelinesare recommendedin all situations.
There is an array of economic instruments for groundwater management, among which well licenses and
abstractionfees are best known.However,there are a number of policy issues in other sectors whichcan have
more pronouncedimpact on groundwater abstraction,but which are seldom considered as instruments for
groundwater management. Among these are energy tariffs, import restrictions and duties for agricultural
products,subsidiesfor drillingwells and buying pumps or to purchase water-savingtechnology.
The most appropriateinstrumentdepends partly on the local social and institutional situation. Wherever
water users own wells and pumps (eitherindividuallyor collectively)they should generallybear the full costs
of operating,maintaining and replacingthem. Moreover, governmentsneed to consider levying a resource
managementcharge,which can also reflectresource scarcity and external impacts.
AbstractionCharges
Groundwaterabstraction chargesin the form of a volumetric charge on actual abstraction(as opposed to a
fee whose level is based on licensed abstraction)are not very common throughout the world. Since the 1960s
66
GroundwaterResource Sustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
they have been mainly introduced in industrializedcountries with a humid climate, where groundwater is
mostly used for municipal and industrial uses. Notably, in the few developing countries which have
introducedgroundwaterabstractioncharges (Jordan, Mexico, C'hinaand India), agriculture (which is by far
the largestgroundwateruser) is still exempt from (or pays nominal)charges.
Control of Revenues. If the revenues from groundwater abstraction charges go to the general budget of
central or local govemment,there will be temptationto use the charge for fiscal purposes. It is far preferable
to use this revenue to cover the administrative costs of regional water-management agencies and/or local
water-user associations.If these entitiesare under the scrutiny of their constituents and act in a transparent
manner,the revenuesare likely to be spent efficientlyand will not be an undue burden for water users.
If the charges are not sufficientlyhigh to constrain groundwater abstraction,they should be increased
beyond the level necessaryto cover administrativecosts. Water users should, however, have a say in the use
of surpluses generated from these charges. One possibility would be to subsidize the purchase of water-
savingequipment.
Indirect Influences
Energy Prices. Energy prices in developing countries are widely subsidized. In remote areas (without
electrification)diesel pumps are still used to pump groundwaterand diesel prices may be fixed at low levels.
It may be politicallydifficult to increase the price of diesel, because of its impact on transport costs and the
prices of many other goods.
In some countries,electricitytariffs for agriculturalpurposes are seitat low levels, and sometimesflat-rate
tariffs (independent of consumption) apply. Changing these tariffs could provide a major incentive for
reducing groundwater pumping and economizingon water use. The level and the structure of rural non-
domestic electricity tariffs might even be differentiated according to local groundwater resource status.
However, in areas characterized by traditionally low electricity tariffs, any increase may be politically
problematic.
67
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
resources. The exploitation of fossil aquifers in Saudi Arabia and some Gulf states for growing wheat
illustratesthe relationshipbetween market protectionismand groundwaterabstraction.
The trend towards liberalizationof agriculturalmarketscan be expected to continue, and trade will shift
agriculturalproduction from high-cost producers to low-cost producers. To the extent that the pricing of
groundwater reflects its scarcity, agricultural production will shift from water-scarce areas to areas with
rainfedproduction or with irrigationfrom more abundantwater resources.
Subsidized Credit. Subsidized credit has been widely used throughout the world to promote rural
development. In some countries a large share of this credit has been used to drill deep wells and to buy
turbine pumps and irrigation equipment. Subsidized credit channeled through agricultural banks, and often
supportedby internationaldonors, has thus often exacerbated groundwater overexploitation.The problem is
somewhat less virulent today, as many countries have phased-out subsidized credit, mainly because it has
failed to reach the poor and has not been financiallysustainable.The main current issue in rural finance is to
give farmers access to formal credit at cost-coveringinterestrates. Such credits may be used to drill or deepen
wells, but shouldpreferablybe invested in more efficientirrigationtechnology.
68
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* Public education. A prerequisite-this should be focused on overdraft problems and their potential
implicationsfor water users. However, the informationprovided needs to be clear, consistent and
closelycorrelatedwith the water-usersexperience.
* Impositionof drilling moratorium.This is often much more easily done than regulating abstraction
itself, especiallywhere drilling rigs (particularlythose capable of drilling to considerabledepth) are
government operated. Even where they are not, the number of operators involved tends to be
relatively small.
69
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
Inset: Keyfactorsingroundwater
resources
management
* The aquifers are mainly either of the: * A comprehensive study of the factors entering into
* intermontane valley-filltype,comprisingsequences groundwaterresourceoverexploitationin general,and
of alluvial,coalluvial,
lacustrineandvolcanicdeposits the incentives and disincentives for individual
whichare susceptibleto settlementresultinginland stakeholdersin particular has been undertaken(Inset).
subsidenceand associatedinfrastructure damageif
subjectedtomajorloweringof thegroundwater This, togetherwith hydrogeologicand socioeconomic
piezometricsurface modelling of various management scenarios,has led
* coastalalluvialtype,susceptibleto salineintrusion to the following proposals (World Bank, 1998):
if thenaturalseawardhydraulicgradientis reversed * strengthening of aquifermanagement committees,
by groundwater abstraction. throughfinancingmechanisms, capacitybuildingand
transferralof CNAfunctions
* The Mexican Water Law (1992) and subsequent * buildingpublicawarenessof thegroundwater
regulations, give extensive powers to the CNA to resourcesituationto builda consensusfor action
Various
stps in the improvinggroundwatermonitoringnetworks(selective
tackle aquifer overexploitation. Various steps in the abstractionmetering,aquiferpiezometric
levels,water-
process taken during 1993-98have included (World use patterns) to provide more useful data.
Bank, 1998):
KEY ISSUES:
* addressingthe needfor progressivereductionof water rightsin many 'over-allocatedaquifers',
includingthe need forfinancialsupportof water-savingtechnology
* re-targettingthe electricalenergysubsidyto eliminateany incentiveforaquiferoverexploitation
* imposingmorerealisticmunicipalwater-pricingto provideincentivefor reductionin systemleakage
losses,constrainingconsumerdemand,increasingwastewaterreuseand aquiferartificialrecharge
70
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
* Jordan provides an important example of an arid is difficult to estimate or to verify, because of the thick
country, with low unreliable rainfall (50-600 mm/a) vadose zone. It is now put in the range 15-35
and evidence of extensive overdraft of its aquifers Mm 3 /a,even after eliminating most flow to the
(Inset I), attempting to get to grips with the management important Al Azraq oasis.
of its limited groundwater resources.|
* In 1995 government embarked on a comprehensive
* The country possesses 12 aquifer basins but rapid water-sector review and subsequent action plan to
growth in well drilling in the 1980s has led to a total confront the water resources crisis, which is amongst
abstraction rate of 465 Mm3 /a. Many of the aquifers the most severe in the world (World Bank, 1997). It
are being heavily overdrawn with groundwater levels was decided that both demand and supply side
falling at 1-4 m/a and salinity rising steadily; management measures were urgently needed and in
additionally many of the oases have been largely lost respect of groundwater the following have begun to
(World Bank, 1997). be implemented:
* agriculturalsectorinvestmentshave been targetedon
ESTIMATED AcnJALABSTRACTInN improving irrigation water-use efficiency, and effecting
G M:tN SAFE-YIELD
T
(-TIaP/21) real water savings through drip technology, and not
(W Ia) 19i 1 1993 1 1997 on extension of irrigated lands
Amman-Zarqua 87 156 1t 137 * detailed groundwater basin studies have been
Dead Sea 57 82 92 86 undertaken as a precursor to defining management
Yarmouk 40 72 67 52 criteria and establishing basin protection units'
Al Azraq 24 37 50 54 * by 1997some2050 waterwellshad been registered
Jordan Valley 21 40 42 36 and around 1100 abstraction permits issued
* much rnore severe constraints were imposed in relation
Inset I: Trends in estimated groundwater abstraction from to issuing of permits for new waterwells and the
selected Jordan aquifer replact ment or modificationof existingones (InsetII)
* by 1999meters had been installed at about75%
Almost 80% of its population of 4.4 million are coverageon operatingwells,but resistanceis being
urban dwellers, but agriculture uses 70% of the encounteredfrom a significantminority of private
groundwater resources to generate about 25% of groundwaterusers,becauseof fear of escalatingwater
national productivity and employment. Urban pnces or severeconstraintson future abstraction
*there hiasbeen a public campaign of denouncement
householders have on average spent more than US$500 thegal welloperatoru.
each on roof and ground storage tanks because of o
intermittent supply during 6 months/annum. This 2 ne
iell
represents a huge, and viewed globally unproductive, dinll replacement or
investment. Economic analysis suggests that aquifer D 200 rehabitation
storage depletion is best reserved for future urban use
(and not for agriculture), since willingness to pay is r,o50 l
rising rapidly with higher incomes and population E
pressures (Schiffler, 1998). m. 100| L well.
o r1 1 1 7 | deepening
In the northeastern desert, development of the Al se- i L -
Azraq aquifer is illustrative of the groundwater .... .
resources problems expenienced. The aquifer has been
exploited at levels of 20-25 Mm 3 /a for Amman urban M t ||
water-supplyand 30-35 Mm3 /a for irrigated agriculture. l
However, recharge through intermittent wadi infiltration Inset II: Trends in issuing of waterwell permits in Jordan
KEY ISSUES
political difficulty has been experienced in relation to groundwater abstraction charges for
agricultural irrigation although charges of US$ 0.35/m3 for industrial abstractors and the concept
of a levy of US $0.35/m3 on irrigation well owners who exceed their licensed abstraction have
been introduced
resistance has also been encountered to reducing agricultural abstraction from the entirely fossil
Qa Disi Aquifer, and to reserving its storage for high-value urban and industrial uses
71
Groundwater Resource Sustainability Groundwater in Rural Development
* Reducing subsidies supporting abstraction. Many countries provide subsidies for well drilling,
pumping equipment and agriculturalpower, and reduction or removal of these subsidies can help
slow the growth in abstraction.
In additionto the above,more intrusivemeasures such as impositionof well spacing and capacity regulations,
water extractioncharges, well registration/licensing,restrictionson crop type and/or irrigationtechnique,and
other regulatory,economic and institutionalinterventions could be used to limit the growth in abstraction.
These more intensive management interventionsare, however, often only feasible in the context of a full
managementprogram.
* Expand public information campaigns. These are required to strengthen social support for the
implementationof managementinitiatives,which can be a slow process. Irrigators,in particular,will
need to be deeply convinced on the need for reducing their pumping, especially where it is
supporting highly-profitable agricultural production. The dissemination of scientific information
needs to be clear, transparent, frank about uncertainties and not over-alarmist, otherwise its
credibilitywill be jeopardized.
* Establishment of stakeholder involvement. If stakeholdersare to own managementapproaches,their
involvementis needed before any major decisionsare taken.
i Development of strategic plan. Strategic planning consists of a systematic review of available
informationto identify broad areas where action is needed, of the identity of key stakeholdersand of
the approach that will be taken to addressing overdraft concems. It should link the sets of actions
requiredfor managementwith the institutionsthat will be responsiblefor implementingthem.
* Establishmentof legalbasisfor management.This involves legislation enablingthe declarationof
resource conservation zones and the formation of regulatory agencies and aquifer management
committees,as necessary.
Wellregistrationsystem.Establishment of a system for registering all wells is important as the
foundation for any subsequentactivities to evaluate and monitor abstraction,establish water rights,
regulateuse, and so forth.
* Improvements in basic data collection. In many countries groundwater data collection systems are
sufficientto determinethat overdraft may be occurring but insufficientto actually identify solutions.
Investmentsin improved data collection targeted on particular regions of concem are importantin
this early phase.
Beginningto ReduceAbstraction
Once a solid basis for resource administrationexists, initiatives to reduce abstraction on a relatively large
scale can, if necessary, be taken. Because the results of strategic planning will reflect local needs and
conditions,approacheswill diverge increasinglyin different contexts. As a result, the elements indicated are
likelyto differ greatly in detail between locations.
Overall,however,they would typically include:
72
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* Consolidation of regulatory system. Potential regulatory approaches beyond the initial ones
designedto slow the growth in abstractionshould have been idLentified. The most common approach
Is to require permits for new well construction above a aertain capacity or depth, and place
limitationson well spacing,drillingdepth, well diameter and pump capacity.
* Initiation of water rights reform. The strategic planning exercise will probably have identified a
large set of water rights and allocationissues. Resolutionof these issues would typically be a major
activityduringthis phase and would consist, for example, of participatoryprocesses to reform water
rights and of legal measuresto establish regulatorybodies andJorwater markets.
* Improvement of water-use efficiency. Promulgation of efficient water-use technologies and other
approachesto reducing water consumption(such as low water-usecrops) would be a major activity.
It would involve the establishment of extension capabilities, demonstration activities and
collaborative research to develop and disseminate technologies. It will be important to focus
primarilyon those changeswhich are likelyto maximize "real-watersavings".
* Establishment of resource conservationzones. This consists of identifying zones for management
and setting up the organizations such as aquifer managennentcommittees that will implement
management activitieswithin them. In most cases, this would be done initially on a pilot basis in
areas where both managementneeds and options are clear. Governmentsoften want to address the
most problematicareas first, but this can be a recipe for failure because problems are so entrenched
that politically and socially viable reductions in abstraction will have little impact. Strategically,it
may be better to focus on areas whereproblems are not too advanced, technicallyviable options are
readily available,and there is strong social supportfor management.
* Implementation of economic incentivesfor conservation. A variety of economic incentives for
water conservationwill have been identified in the strategic planning process. These might consist,
for example, of water abstractioncharges, pump taxes, energy price increases, subsidies for water
conservation equipment or imposition of taxes on water intensive crops and can be implemented
locallyor at the macro state level.
The option of aquifer rechargevia boreholesis not considered economic in the rural context, because of the
high level and cost of operationaltreatmentrequired.
There is little doubt that improvedsoil tillage and terracing.,together with modifiedcultivation regimes at
field level can much reduce soil erosion and enhance grotndwater recharge. In some hydrogeological
conditions(especiallypermeablehill country and on alluvial outwash fans), small check dams constructedon
surface watercoursescan provide an increased rate of riverbed recharge, although there is little data to prove
the efficiency of this method and some question about sustairnabilitydue to silting-up.In view of their low
capital cost, however, such measures should generally be encouraged, using detailed local hydrogeological
knowledgeto improve their siting and design.
The scope for larger-scaleartificialaquifer recharge schemes using infiltrationbasins will be determined
by a number of factors:
73
GroundwaterResourceSustainability Groundwaterin Rural Development
* The availability of land for the construction of infiltration basins in areas with suitable
hydrogeologicalconditions, and in proximity to the proposed source of excess surface water (this
land requirement will include the need for pre-recharge sedimentation basins of appropriate
dimensions)
* The availability (volume and duration) of excess surface water of acceptable quality for aquifer
recharge
* An institutional and organizationalstructure capable of promoting and operating such a scheme,
bearing in mind that it is not always easy to recovercosts directly from groundwater users, and these
(at best) would have to be levied via groundwaterabstractionpermits.
The design of artificial aquifer recharge schemes is not straightforward and requires significant
hydrogeological site investigation, followed by a pilot-scale operation with detailed monitoring and
performance appraisal. The factors described above limit considerably the geographical area potentially
suitable for such schemes, but more emphasis nevertheless needs to be put on their investigation and
promotion,especiallyin areas where there already exists a considerableoverdraft on aquifer storage.
74
4
PROTECTING GROUNDWVATERQUALITY
IN R URAL AREAS
Over the past few decades there has been a radical evolution in agronomicpractice in many regions of the
world associatedwith (largelysuccessful)attemptsto increase agriculturalproductivity.The intensificationof
production from agricultural land has been sustained by the application of ever-increasing quantities of
inorganicfertilizersand a wide spectrumof syntheticpesticides,In the more arid regions, croppingfrequency
has been increased and additionalland has been brought into production through new irrigationschemes and
increasingirrigationefficiency.A common trend is the replacementof traditional crop rotations by intensive
and continuous cultivationof high-valuecrops, selected accordLing to prevailing market conditions.In many
instances,near monoculturesacross extensivetracts of agriculturalland have resulted.
In many nations the principalrecharge areas of lowland aquifers form valuable tracts of farmingland and
are now almost completely used for intensive crop cultivation. In such cases the bulk of replenishable
groundwaterresources originateas excessrainfall and excess irrigationinfiltratingthis land (Figure 2). As a
consequence,these resources are vulnerable to contaminationby cultivation practices. The large extent of
agriculturalactivitiesmakes the impactall the more significant.
There is a risk of elevated rates of nutrient, salt and pesticide leaching to groundwater from cultivated
soils with the correspondingpotable water-qualityguidelines (Table 16) being exceeded. This is especially
the case in areas of well-drained(thin and/orsandy) soils widelyfounclin aquiferrecharge areas.
Prior to the late 1970s there was widespread complacency about such risks. Environmental regulators and
agricultural administrators have been slow to recognize the scale of potential problems, due to a number of
contributory causes:
75
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
* Generally slow average rates of vadose zone transport of contaminants leached from cultivated soils
(which even for non-reactive pollutants do not normally exceed 2 m/a and 5 n/a beneath non-
irrigatedand irrigatedland respectively)and the resultantdelayedimpact (or legacy) for groundwater
quality
* Lack of consciousness among groundwater specialists about the level of influence of changes in
agriculturalland-usepractices,due in part to limitationsin samplingfrom the vadose zone
* Preoccupationin the agriculturalsector with problems reducing agriculturalproductivity (such as
waterlogging and soil salinity due to rising groundwater table), but not with groundwater quality
deterioration.
Agriculturalsoils contain large, but widely varying, quantities of nitrogen in organic form, often amounting
to more than 2000 kgN/ha/a. This is oxidized by soil bacteria to soluble nitrate (at rates varying with soil
temperatureand humidity),which is then susceptibleto leachingbelow the root zone. Inorganic Nfertilizers
are added to increase the inmmediateavailability of nitrate for plant growth, while manures (which also
contain large quantities of less readily available nitrogen) are applied primarily to replenish soil organic
matter.
The nitrogen in plant nutrients appliedto the land is subjectto complex soil processes.It may be taken up
directly by the growing crop, incorporatedinto the soil N pool, reduced and lost in volatile from (as NH3 or
N2 gas) or as nitrate by soil leaching or in surfacerun-off. Thus while only a small proportion of the nitrate
leached in a given year is derived directly from inorganic fertilizers, the overall rate of nitrogen
mineralizationand leaching normallyrelates in a generalway to fertilizerapplicationrates.
The leachingof nitrate from dryland agriculturalsoils is dependenton a complex interactionof soil type,
cropping regime and rainfall infiltration, which cause significant uncertainty when estimating the average
rates of loss (Vrba and Romijn, 1986; Foster, 1989;Spalding and Exner, 1993). Some leaching from the soil
will occur when no nitrogen is applied and/or the land is fallow. In some arid climates the concentrationsof
nitrate leached from beneath natural vegetationare also high.
In-situ natural denitrificationin aquifer systems has been the subject of considerable research (Korom,
1992),because it results in removal of nitratefrom groundwater.If active on a widespreadbasis, it can have a
major beneficial effect on groundwaterquality. Clear evidence of denitrificationcomes from some confined
aquifers (Lawrence and Foster, 1986). The process is likely to be bacteriologically mediated, and clear
evidence of appropriatebacteria has been found; but it could also be chemical, accompanyingthe oxidation
of disseminatedpyrite found in many geologicalformations.
In the vadose zone, the generallyaerobic conditionsand persistenceof high nitrate concentrationsto depth
imply that denitrificationcannot be widely active, despite the presence of potentially-denitrifyingbacteria,
but it may be more significant in the zone of water table fluctuation. However, where the unsaturated zone
includes stratarich in organic carbon,the processmay becomemore predominant.
Sources of nitrate can be distinguishedby the analysis of nitrogen isotopes and of associated elements
(such as Cl) in groundwater.Naturally-mineralizedsoil organicnitrogen, inorganic fertilizers,human/animal
wastes and precipitationhave distinctivebut overlappingisotopic (d'5 N) signatures, and this has been put to
use with varying successin a number of studies.Groundwaternitrate originatingfrom inorganic fertilizersis
clearly distinguishedfrom that deriving from organic sources,but it is not possible to distinguish between
human and animal sources.Moreover,the isotopic signaturescan be modifiedby ammoniavolatilizationand
denitrification,although by using both the '5N and 80 isotopic signatures of N03 it is possible to investigate
both the origin and fate of nitrate in groundwatersystems.
Where irrigation is practiced, there exists the possibilityof controlling soil moisture so as to maximize
nutrient uptake and to restrict deep percolation, thereby controlling the leaching of agrochemicals.This is
most practicablewhere virtuallyall plant moisture requirementsare provided by irrigation and where the wet
season is confined within a few months each year. It is less feasible where irrigation is required mainly to
76
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
secure a second crop, but even here the maximizationof nitrate uptake can be assuredby providingoptimum
moisture levels at times of rapid plant growth, and thereby reduce soil nutrient residues. Moreover,
denitrification losses become more significant in irrigated cultivation, at least on finer-grained soils.
However, many irrigation practices remain relatively inefficient with excess moisture applied by each
irrigation lamina. On freely-drainingsoils especially, regular soil leaching and deep percolation of nitrate
results, and this has been judged the cause of steadily-increasingconcentrationsof groundwaternitrate in
many irrigatedareas (Foster, 1989;Foster and Chilton,1998).
In northwesternSri Lanka, for example,intensiveirrigated horticultureis being carried out on permeable
sandy soils over a shallowercalcareoussand aquifer.Triple cropping with applicationsof up to 500 kgN/ha/a
is producing significant nutrient losses (Figure 3), with hligh ni.trate and occasional ammonium in
groundwater. A close correlation is observed between land-use and nitrate concentrations in the underlying
groundwater.More detailed research in this area suggested that equivalentto 70 percent of the fertilizer N
applicationwas being lost from agriculturalsoils, after taking azcount of the recyclingof nitratein irrigation
water.
Although there has been relatively little detailed investigationof nutrient leaching to groundwaterunder
cultivation practices typical of humid tropical regimes, a more favorable picture emerges from some
extensive irrigated cultivationon less permeable soils (Box 11). Since pasture is less prone than cultivated
land to nitrate leaching, it offers a useful option for controlling aquifer nitrate pollution. However,detailed
investigationhas demonstrateda constraint in that leaching rates from.pasture on well-drainedsoils increase
abruptly and unpredictablyto elevated levels when grasslandproductivityis intensifiedby heavy applications
of nitrogen fertilizerand by high densitygrazing.
Where highly efficient irrigation techniques have been introduced, greater control over leaching is
possible,but groundwaterrecharge will become progressively more saline (Foster, 1989). Nutrient leaching
will be much reduced, but nitrate concentrationsmay remain high because of the much smaller volume of
deep percolation. While controlled precipitation of CaCO 3 and CaS(4 in the vadose zone is theoretically
possible, field evidence suggests that with increasing irrigation efficiency, salinization of groundwater
rechargecan cause severe problems in arid regions, especially those where groundwateritself is the only
sourceof irrigationwater and recirculationwith progressivefractionationoccurs.
T1hisis not the only way in which irrigatedagriculturecan cause groundwatersalinization(Chilton, 1995).
Other processesinclude:
* Inefficientirrigation with imported surface water over semiconfined aquifers with relatively low-
permeability surface strata, which can lead to rising water table, soil water-logging, phreatic
evapotranspirationand, in consequence,salinizationof soils and shallow groundwater,where soils
become water saturatedwith sodium in excess of 60 percent of the cation exchange capacity, their
alkalinitycan rise to pH 9-11 and degradationby compaction often results
* Leaching of natural saltsfrom desert soils (and the vadose zone) by infiltrating excess irrigation, this
has occurred in some parts of the Yaqui Valley in Sonora-Mexico (with post-irrigationrecharge
containing more than 1000mg/Q)and in the Murray River basin of South Australia (but in this case
increasedinfiltrationwas caused simplyby clearing of natural semi-aridvegetation).
77
Protecting Groundwater Quality in Rural Areas Groundwater in Rural Development
GROUNDWATERTABLE
8 - AT 5-8m DEPTH
-55 6 :$ (below 3m of superficialclay)
z
E
0
78
Protecting Groundwater Quality in Rural Areas Groundwater in Rural Development
Investigationsto appraise adequately the level of pesticide leaching to groundwater require analysis of
samplesfrom the water table in aquiferrechargeareas, and this is proving costly and problematicbecauseof:
* The wide range of pesticide compoundsin common use, many of which also break down to toxic
derivatives (metabolites)
* The need to work at very low concentrationsbecauseof the high toxicity of many compounds,which
necessitates the collection of large sample volumes and careful handling to avoid compound
modificationand volatileloss.
In view of these difficulties, an essential prerequisite is to iclentifythe most likely types and sources of
pesticide contamination and the most probable mechanisms of transport from the land surface to
groundwater. Such information is essential for the specification of sampling protocols and monitoring
networks,and to prioritizeand rationalizeinvestigationwork (Box 12).
Rates of agriculturalpesticide applicationare generallyin the range 0.2-10.0 kg/ha/a of active ingredient.
Many pesticide compoundshave water solubilitiesin excess cf 10 mg/Qand this is not a limiting factor in
leachingfrom soils. Of greatest importancein this respect is their mobility in soil solution. This will vary with
affinity for organic matter and/or clay minerals, and can be expressed by the corresponding partition
coefficient,which is normally available in manufacturer listings, but only for adsorption onto soil organic
matter. An important anomaly in respect of subsurfacepesticide mobility is the fact that some, otherwise
strongly-adsorbed,compoundscould be mobile in fissured or coarse-grainedformations in the sorbed phase,
if attachedto colloidal particles.
Both the mode of application and action of the pesticide are impoitant factors in relation to soil leaching,
since those targeted at plant roots and soil insects are much more mobile than those acting directly on plant
vegetation(Foster and Chilton, 1998). Chemical reactivity of the coimpoundwith the soil matrix may also
play an importantrole in reducingthe risk of pesticideleaching, as a result of the generation of less soluble
residues,for example,throughneutralizationof acidic compoundsin alkalinesoils.
The degradabilityof pesticide compounds in the soil horizon, as a result of bacteriologicaloxidation or
chemicalhydrolysis,will normallybe significant.Soilhalf-lives for most compoundscurrentlyin widespread
use range from 10 days to up to 10 years, but for the more rmobilecompounds are normally less than 100
days. However, given the timing of applications,they are sufficiently persistent to remain in the soil for
significantperiods when leaching may occur. Moreover, some derivaLtives of partial oxidation or hydrolysis
(metabolites)may be equally toxic and/or mobile as the original pesticide compounds themselves (Kolpin
and Goolsby, 1995).
Pesticide compounds leached from permeable soils into the vadose zone enter an environment which
contains a much smallerproportionof clay mineralsand organicmatter, and has a greatly reducedpopulation
of indigenousbacteria.Thus the mobilityand persistenceof all pesticidecompoundsshouldbe expectedto be
many times greater in the vadosezone than in a typical agriculturalsoil.
Nonetheless,under the vast majority of conditionsit is unlikely that downward matrix transport rates in
the vadose zone will exceed 1 m/a and for many compoundsthey would be very much slower than this value.
Since few pesticide compounds have been in regular widespread use for more than 10-20 years, most
pesticidesleached from agriculturalsoils would be expected to have been degraded or still to remain in the
vadose zone, if this was the only transport mechanism operative, except in areas of shallow groundwater
table.
79
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas GroundwaterinRural Development
water-supplyboreholesin c|
4.0 - Hamptoncatchment 0
* Belle calchment 0 20 40 60 80
3.0- time (days)after applicaton
o* in mainwet (maha)season
S 1\ / / \ / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~during
thisperiodl
@ 2.0 insoildrainage
0
* Research has also been undertaken on the * Given the widerange of pesticide compounds in use
northwestern coast of Sri Lanka on the fate of in agriculture, and their many toxic metabolites, an
carbofuran (Foster & Lawrence, 1995), which was approach to groundwater pollution risk assessment
applied at 6 kg (ai)/ha to horicultural crops. The parent based on the key properties of the pesticide compounds
compound is highly mobile and was rapidly leached (mobility, solubility) and of the geological media
from the soil with concentrations of 200-2000 pg/l in (propensity to preferential flow in vadose zone) is
the soil drainage of a lysimeter and peak concentrations needed to target monitoring.
in excess of 50 pg/l in the underlying shallow
igroundwater within 20 days of application (Inset II). * In general terms, a significant additional element of
Carbofuran was, however, subject to rapid degradation protection for drinking water-supplies will be provided
and in part transformed to its more persistent (but less if their intake is at a considerable depth below the
mobile) metabolite, carbofuran-phenol. This remained water-table, and the sanitary integrity of upper section
in the shallow groundwater for more than 50 days. of solid well casing is sound. This will generally
provide additional aquifer residence time for pesticide
Although available research and monitoring is very degradation before entry to the waterwell concerned.
sparse, there is sufficient to demonstrate the risk of Those wells most vulnerable to contamination by
leaching of agricultural pesticide to shallow agricultural pesticides will be shallow dug wells
groundwater in highly vulnerable aquifers, and the providing domestic supplies to isolated rural farmsteads
potential persistence of toxic compounds in these in areas of intensive cultivation.
The hydraulic characteristics of many aquifers are, however, such as to present high probability of the
development of so-called preferential flow in the vadose zone, especially (although far from exclusively) in
consolidated fractured formations. Preferential flow is of major importance in the consideration of pesticide
transport into aquifers (Foster and Chilton, 1998). Where developed, it would provide routes for deeper
penetration of readily-leached pesticide compounds and would be characterized by much more rapid
80
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
pollutant transport, providing less opportunity for retardation through molecular diffusion into the
microporousmatrix and associatedadsorption,chemicalreaction, and biodegradation.If preferentialflow in
fissures of larger aperture occurred,the possibilityof transportof less mobile pesticidecompounds adsorbed
on colloidalmaterialwould also arise.
There has, as yet, been very little research and monitoringof the leaching of agriculturalpesticideresidues
and derivativesunder tropical conditions,but some limited availabledata are given in Box 13.
Note:It is difficultto be more prescriptivethan this due to the wide rangeof agriculturalregimes and hydrogeologicalconditionsunder
potentialconsideration.
* concentration not load since latter also requires consideration of recharge volume
** whereapplicable
(+)+ tendsto increaseconcentration
0 minimaleffect
(-)- tendsto decreaseconcentration
Source:Foster and Hirata, 1988.
81
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas GroundwaterinRural Development
BOX 13: Groundwater Source Pollution Risk Evaluation & Management around
Managua, Nicaragua
* Groundwater is of the utmost importance for stations and waste disposal sites, only one industrial
domestic, industrial and agricultural water-supply in site with underground storage tanks has been classified
the region around Managua, which has a population as having high potential contaminant load.
well in excess of 1.0 million. Water is extracted from
deep municipal and private boreholes in the major * The capture area is more predominantly agricultural
volcanic aquifer system located south of Lake and it is considered that the frequent use of mobile
Managua, (deposited by eruptions of the Masaya pesticides (such as the carbamate insecticides) poses
Volcano,whose crater is situated some 20 km southeast the major pollution threat, and control over agricultural
of the city). activity will be needed in the interests of municipal
water-supply.
* The volcanic formations include lava flows from
the volcano (last major eruption 1792), interbedded
with pyroclastic deposits. There is little soil Inset: Groundwaterpollutionassessmentmappingfor
development on the most recent flows and no surface Managuagroundwatersystem(easternarea)
run-off with high rates of rainfall infiltration/
groundwater recharge. The area is classified as highly-
vulnerable, despite the relatively deep water-table
(ranging from 25 m bgl to more than 100 m bgl close 5 km a
to the volcano), except where alluvial-volcanic deposits nua
of lower permeability occur at the surface.
82
Protecting Groundwater Quality in Rural Areas Groundwater in Rural Development
General Approach
Improvingthe protection of groundwateragainst seriouspollution is a complextask, involving concepts that
are not widely understood. Two interrelated but independent components should be recognized, namely
protectionof:
The latter is normally considered as supplementaryto the forner, but a realistic balance between the two
needs to be struck, accordingto local circumstances(Fosterand Skinner, 1995).
Aquifers are naturally (but variably)protected against pollution of their groundwaterby the vadose zone or
the confiningbeds which overlie them. For groundwaterprotection policy not to be unnecessarilyrestrictive
on human economic activity, this natural attenuation capacitv must be utilized. This can be achieved by
zoning the vulnerabilityof the underlyingaquifer to pollutional:the land surface, and thus enablingpriorities
for pollution control to be logically assigned. Controls would be sought over existing and new activities
involvingpotentialhazards to groundwater,accordingto their location in relation to suchzones.
83
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
200-
100- WHO
drinkingwater
* * j guidelines
50-__
0
z0
0) 20
- *
2-
Note: The uninhabited areas were in use for low-intensity dryland cropping and animal grazing; the increase in groundwater nitrate
concentrationsnear habitationis due to in-situdisposal of human and animal excreta
Source:Langenegger,1994.
In areas with intensive agricultural development, the zones would serve to define the priority for
establishing an inventory of hazardous chemicals, for estimating subsurface contaminant load due to soil
leaching and for designingan aquifer monitoringnetwork (Chiltonand others, 1990).Such actions would be
required beforethe implementationof pollutioncontrol measurescould be rationallyjustified.
The need to achieve maximum aquifer protection will also vary with the utilization (actual or designated)
of groundwater resources. Protection measures should normally be intensified around public water supply
sources. Thus in the assessment of groundwater pollution hazard and the formulation of groundwater
protectionpolicy,the basic prerequisiteis both:
These tasks are discussed further technically in succeeding sections. In socioeconomic terms they are
effective vehicles for initiating the involvement of all stakeholders (including water supply interests and
potentialagriculturalpolluters),which will be essentialif progress on groundwaterquality protection is to be
made (Box 14).
84
Protecting GroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
The emphasis placed on one or other of these approaches will depend on the resource development
situationand prevailinghydrogeologicalconditions(Fosterand.Skinner, 1995).Source-orientedstrategiesare
best suited to more uniform, unconsolidated,aquifers exploited by a relatively small and fixed number of
high-yieldingpublic water supply boreholeswith stable pumping regimes. They are particularlyappropriate
in sparsely-populatedregions where their definition can be fairly conservative without producing serious
conflict with other interests. They cannot be so readily applied where there are rapidly growing numbers of
individual abstractions and seasonally-variablepumping, since this will render consideration of individual
sources and the definition of fixed zones impracticable. Data deficiencies and scientific uncertainties,
especiallyin heterogenousaquifers,can also render the estimationof protection zones inadequate.
Aquifer-orientedstrategiesare more universallyapplicable,but it has to be recognizedthat there may be
limited parts of aquifers which do not justify protection because their water quality is naturally too poor or
has already sufferedexcessive deterioration.A furthercomplicationarises wheregroundwater
systemsare thick and layered, and it will be essentialfrom the outset to be clear about which aquifer is being
considered.
85
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin Rural Areas Groundwaterin Rural Development
BOX 14: Rural-Urban Competition & Conflict for Scarce Groundwater Resources
in the YemenArab Republic
* The water resource situation in the Yemen is The situationatAl Himaand Habeercontrastssharply
*
extremely serious with many aquifers heavily withthe water markets throughwhich most residents
overdrafted and population growing at close to 4% of Taiz meet their basic water needs (World Bank.
pa, leadingto escalatingdemand in bothurbancentres 1996). Well owners adjacent to the city sell water on
and agricultural areas (WRAY-35, 1995). a daily basis, eitherdirectly to urban users or to tanker
operatorswho retail to consumers.This informalwater
* The situationin the area aroundTaiz,the thirdlargest market is highly structured with consumers paying
city, is illustrativeof growing competitivepressures. different rates for water of different quality (Inset).
Municipal water-supply (provided by NWSA) is The intense and violent conflict that characterisesAl
extremelyerratic,withbreaksin supplyoftenexceeding Hima and Habeer is absent, and rural populations are
10 days (WorldBank, 1996). In response, informal able, at least, to increaseincome through water sales.
watermarketshave evolvedand manyurbanresidents
meet their needs by purchasing from tankers. WATER WHOLESALERS/ WATER
PRODUCER RETAILERS CONSUMERS
* Governmentis desperately seeking to improvethe
municipal water system and a new wellfield was (indicative equivalentcost)
constructed in the Al Hima wadi (some 25 km Well Owners Irrigated
upstream),followingnegotiationswitha private land (US$0.004/m3 - Agriculture
3
owner. The areawas originallyswampyandgenerated pumpingcosts) (US $0.030/m)
a significant baseflow, which was utilised for Well Owners CommercialUsers
3
agricultural Irimgation. (US $0.004/m - (with own tankers)
pumping costs) (hotels, poultry
* In the reconnaissancestudy groundwaterresources farms,industrial
were grossly over estimated and neither the upper premises,irrigated
3
alluvial aquifer nor the underlying volcanic and (USl$0140/rn )
sandstoneformationsprovided the sustainableyields .
forecast. By 1995total groundwaterproduction had Well Owners WaterTanker SmallerUsers
declined to 2.6 Mm3 /a from an initial yield of more (US$0.004/m3 - Operators (homeowners,
than 4.0 Mm 3 /a, and even this was at the cost of pumpingcosts) 3
(US$0.140/m) hostels,
eliminating all irrigated agriculture and eradicating restaurents,
construction
the lush vegetation. Most of the rural population now industry)
survive through rainfed subsistence agriculture and (US$0.210/m3 )
casual labour in Taiz. Compensation, although
promised,has not yet been paid. Well Owners Retail Shops IndividualUsers
3 3
(US $0.004/m - (US $1.000/m ) (mainly purified
* In 1995,the proposalfor a secondemergencyurban pumpingcosts) drinkingwater)
(up to US $
water-supply drilling program at Habeer, further TreatmentPlant 2.000/m3)
upstream of Al Hima,was (not surprisingly)strongly Operators
opposedby the local ruralpopulation. Severalwomen (withowntankers)
3
(US$0.004/mn -
were shotand injuredduringprotestsaimedat stopping pumping costs)
the drilling. Nevertheless, a new wellfield was
completed in 1997 and is experiencing similar Inset: Summaryoftransactionsandpricesofinformal
problems; compensation has been offered. groundwater markets in Taiz, YemenAR
KEY ISSUES
* should governmentformaliseand rationaliseexistingwater markets, which cut across strongly
held culturalnorms on the commonnatureof water rightsand the interpretationof some that
water sale should be forbidden
* althoughsuch marketsappearto representa mechanismto reduce conflict and to maintain
some income in rural areas, they will not addressthe deep-seatedproblem of groundwater
overdraft and can impose a very high burden on the urban poor
86
ProtectingGroundwaterQualityin RuralAreas Groundwaterin Rural Development
Naturaltraveltimeto
Hydrogeologicalenvironment saturatedzone Attenuationpotential Pollutionvulnerability
MajorAlluvial unconfined weeks-months moderate moderate
Formations semi-confined years-decades high low
Weathered
Crystalline unconfined days-weeks lowv-moderate high
Basement
Note:Thisgivesaverygeneralguideto thetypicalsituation,
andtherewillbe muchvariation
atlocalscalewithdetailed
variations
in
thehydrogeology.
87
Protecting Groundwater Quality in Rural Areas Groundwater in Rural Development
Integratedvulnerabilityclass Practicalsignificance
Extreme vulnerableto mostwaterpollutantswithrelativelyrapidimpactin manypollution
scenarios
Note:Thisovercomes
thoseobjections
to theintegrated
vulnerability
concept
basedontheneedto specify
individual
contaminants.
Source:FosterandSkinner,1995.
In practice an inner protection zone based on the distance equivalent to a specified average aquifer
horizontalflow-timehas been widely adoptedfor the prevention of pathogeniccontaminationof groundwater
sources,from (for example)the spreadingof wastewater and slurries on cultivated land. The flow-timeused
has varied significantly(from 10-400days) between regulatory agenciesin differentcountries and regions. A
review of published case histories of groundwater contamination by pathogens (Lewis and others, 1982)
concludedthat the horizontal distance between the borehole/springand the proven source of pollution was
equivalent to no more than the distance traveled by groundwater in 20 days, despite the fact that some
pathogens are capable of surviving in the subsurface for 400 days or more. A value of 50 days was thus
considereda reasonablyconservativebasis with which to define the inner protection zone, and conforms with
existingpracticein many cases.
Special problems arise with the definition of recharge capture areas in situations where the groundwater
divide is at a great distance,the regionalhydraulic gradientis very low, and/or there are surface watercourses
flowing across unconfined aquifers. A further practical complication with all source protection areas is that
they vary position or have complex shapes if numerous sources are in close proximity.In the case of heavily
developed aquifers, it is more practical to coalesce individual source protection zones into a larger multi-
source protection area. However, if a significant proportion of the abstraction is for non-potable uses
(especiallyirrigation)a furthercomplicationarises.
The definitionof source protection areas can be achieved by using suitable computer models; provided
these models are used properly they should give reliableresults, within the limits of parameteruncertainty.A
valuable first phase in the implementationof source protection areas is to estimate their extension and to
consider their implications based on calculations using existing hydrogeological data, and it is strongly
recomrnendedthat this planning exercise is undertakenby all water companieswith rurally sited sources as a
matter of priority.
88
Protecting Groundwater Quality in Rural Areas Groundwater in Rural Development
Table20: Systemsof scoringfor sanitary risk and confirmiingfecal pollutionhazard for groundwater
sources
ConstructionHazards (on-site)
* well-casingleaking or not penetratedto sufficientdepth,inadequatesanitary seal aroundcasing
* well-casingnot extended aboveground or floor of pump room, or not closed at top
* leaks in systemunder vacuum
* wellhead,pumpingplant suctionpipes, or valve boxes locatedin pits valnerable to flooding
scoresof 4-6 indicateintermediate-to-high,and 7+ veryhigh, potentialpollutionrisk
GRADE FC RAW WATERCOUNTS CONFIRMEDPOLLUTIONRISK
(mpnor cfu/100ml)
A 0 none
B 1-10 low
C 11-50 intermediate-to-high
D 50-1000 high
E >1000 veryhigh
Note: Thecombination
of simple(butclearlyprescribed)visualinspection
coupledwithmicrobiological
surveillance
providesan
effective(butlowcost)approachtofecalpollutionhazardassessment.
Source:Lloyd and Helmer, 1991.
89
5
THE R URAL- URBAN INTERFACE: AN ADDENDUM
In many senses the rural-urban interface is characterized by some of the greatest groundwater resource
anomalies and conflicts. It is often the area with:
It is not the intentionin this addendumto enter into detaileddiscussion of urban groundwaterissues, nor the
evolution of groundwater exploitation in urban and periurban areas, since this was dealt with in an earlier
companion World Bank Technical Paper on "Groundwater in Urban Development" (Foster and others,
1998). Discussionhere, therefore, is restrictedto considerationof those issues which most impact upon the
status of groundwaterresources and/or the rural communitythemselves:
* Competitionfor available groundwater resources between urban and rural users, resulting from the
pressureto transfer water suppliesto neighboringurban areas
Potentialconstraints imposed on the agriculturalcommunityby policies aimed at protectingpotable
groundwaterquality in the vicinity of municipalwellfields
* The potentialimpact on potable groundwaterquality of the reuse of urban wastewaterfor agricultural
irngation.
90
The Rural-Urban Interface: An Addendum Groundwater in Rural Development
In other situations the increased pressure of groundwater resources will come from private abstractors
providingurban services,includingthe provisionof tankeredwater supplies.
The situation is frequently further complicatedby inadequate characterizationof the local groundwater
system, and misconceptions,for example, about the degree of hydraulic independence of deeper aquifers
under exploitation for urban and industrial supplies,and shalloweraquifers providing the water supply for
agriculturalirrigation.
All too often there is inadequate investigation of the potential impacts of new urban wellfield
developmentson existingagriculturalgroundwaterusers. Moreover,there is no acceptanceof the concept of
paying compensationfor interferencewith pre-existingwater rights nor existence of a transparentsystem by
which such compensationshould be estimated.
On the other side, there is often a long history of not levying any charge or realistic charge for
groundwater exploitationfor irrigation,leading to an entrenched situation as regards the undervaluationof
groundwaterresourcesand consequentlytheir inefficientuse in agricuLture.
An example of the level of resource conflict that can arise, and potential solutions in terms of resource
management,is given in Box 14. What is apparentis that the way out of the more deeply entrenchedrural-
urban groundwater resource conflictslies in establishing and registeringgroundwater abstractionrights and
then using economicmechanismsto constrainand to allocateavailableresources more effectively.The latter
may involve greatly increased abstraction charges to reflect resource scarcity, but it may be easier to
introduce economic measuresby establishing water rights markets for which the regulatory agency acts as
broker.
MunicipalWellfieldProtectionIssues
Another potential dimension of the urban-rural groundwaterresource conflict is the pressure that may arise
for land-use controls in the vicinity of urban wellfields.A rational component of the developmentof a new
municipalwellfieldis to mobilize actionsto protect the asset: first through the definitionof a protection zone
correspondingto all or part of the source capture area and seccindby controls on land-use activity within the
protectionzone accordingto the pollutionvulnerabilityof the aquifer system involved (Box 13).
Sooner or later it may be recognized that some control ever the application of agriculturalfertilizers,
pesticides,and slurries,or on livestockgrazing densities may, in fact, be needed to protect the potability of
the groundwater supply.In extreme cases more radical changes in cultivationregime may be sought. Where
the latter involves actual land purchase by the municipal watiercorapany, an element of compensation to
those individualsin the agriculturalsector is implicit.However, where constraints in agriculture are imposed
followingrepresentationsto the regulatoryagency,conflictsmay arise.
This type of land-use/waterquality interaction issue is, as yet, far from finding adequate institutional
resolution,and introducespotential inequitiesbetween neighboring ifarmersin a relatively small land area.
The questionof compensationbeing paid to affected farmers arises, and whether the revenue should be raised
from charges imposed on the municipal water-users.There is no need for the regulatory agency to act as a
broker in this respect,but it is usefulfor the brokerage system to involve the regulatoras registrar.
91
The Rural-UrbanInterface:An Addendum Groundwaterin Rural Development
pathogens and nitrate load. As a result wastewater still normallyhas a major potential to pollute underlying
aquifersif the local streams/riversare influent(infiltrateto groundwater).
In climates which have an extendeddry season or are generallyarid, urban wastewateroften provides the
bulk of riverflowdownstreamof major conurbationsfor many months in the year and is likely to be used for
irrigationof agriculturalcrops on downstreamalluvial tracts (Box 15). Indeed, some urban water utilities are
in the process of offeringpartially-treatedwastewaterand financingimprovementsin irrigationtechnologyto
farmers in exchangefor groundwaterabstractionrights to reduce periurban groundwaterresource competition
and overdraft.
However, given the normallyhigh suspendedsolidsand organic mattercontent of wastewater,application
is by flood irrigationand resultsin high rates of infiltrationto groundwateron permeablealluvial-terracesoils
(Foster and others, 1994). The degree of groundwater pollution hazard involved varies widely with the
aquifer pollutionvulnerabilityand the characteristicsof the wastewater(especially its salinity and content of
toxic organicchemicalsand heavy metals).
At the same time it must be noted that it is possible to use some wastewatersfor groundwater recharge,
effectingtertiary-leveltreatment by infiltrationthrough the vadose zone. This process is capable of producing
groundwater of sufficient quality to allow safe irrigation of high-value horticultural crops subsequently.
However, the infiltration process will not alone regenerate water of potable quality since various
contaminantssuch as nitrates and syntheticorganic(communityand industrial)chemicals at least will persist
and only be reducedby dilution.In less favorable circumstancesthere may also be residual contaminationby
some fecal pathogens,excessivesalinity and/or other chemicals.
Thus, while wastewaterreuse is much needed in the urban-rural interface and around major conurbations.
At whateverlevel it is practicedthere is a need for:
Carefulplanning
* Operationalcontrol
* Systematicmonitoring.
At present, it rarely receives adequate attention. All too often it is practiced on an anarchical basis which
threatensthe well-beingof agriculturalworkers, the health of those consuming their products and the long-
term quality of groundwaterin the underlying aquifer which may be an important source of potable water
supply.The larger is the wastewaterirrigationarea, the proportionof wastewater to freshwaterin the area and
the salinity of the wastewater itself, the greater will be the overall impact on groundwater quality and the
potential problemof locating and protecting groundwatersupplies of potable quality in the area concemed.
92
The Rurat- Urban Interface: An Addendum Groundwater in Rural Development
* The city of Le6n-Guanajuato (population 1.2 * It is tius not necessarily the most toxic component
rmillion) is one of the fastest growing cities in Mexico, of an effluenrl which poses the main threat to
and is highly dependent on groundwater for public groundwater, and this example highlights the
supply. Groundwater is abstracted mainly from importance of understanding pollutant transport in
aquifers downstream, including areas where city the subsurface. Future management therefore needs
wastewaters are used for agricultural irrigation. Le6n to address the problem of rising salirity, while trying
wastewater is of relatively high salinity and chromium to contijnue to rmaxirmise the reuse of wastewater in
content because of the major leather processing and agricultre.
shoe manufacturing industry.
0waslewater
extent of . 0te
* However, salirity problems are beginningto affect irrigationD LE N
a number of production wells in the wastewater
irrigated area. In the most seriously affected well, .
the chloride concentration rose from 100 mgAlto 230
mg/A in 2 years (even though the boreholes in this
wellfield are screened from 200- 400m depth) and it
is predicted that they could rise to 400mg/A by 2010
in all the neighbouring wells if no remedial action
is taken. There is also evidence of increasing nitrate
concentrations.
KEY ISSUTES:
* address rising salinity (more urgently than conventional wastewater treatment) through
separate collection/treatment of saline industrial effluenits (altlhough substantial time-lag before
benefits felt as improved groundwater quality)
* shallow groundwater pumping for irrigation in existing wasl:ewater reuse area to intercept
and recycle saline recharge; this may have implicationis for aLgricultural production and soil
fertility, and wir also imply extending reuse area
* remove affected municipal production wells from supply to reduce downward leakage of saline
recharge, which will also require demand management measures (mains leakage control and
private use constraints) in view of reduced supply
93
REFERENCES
(Key worksin relationto the developmentand perusalof this paper are in bold type)
94
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