Learning and Teaching Geometry, K-12 1987 Yearbook Mary Montgomery Lindquist 1987 Yearbook Eltor Columba Cog Albert F Shulte eral Yearbook ator Cnt Shot onl Megan National Council of Teachers of Mathematicsi Spatial Perception and Primary Geometry John J. Del Grande ana mer ing with ny tie eto of space A are potion of tft a ery Devo eset “spat char ‘cer bene i relngusse eld fet encoutes wy and {Splash wd re eae withthe beet of lngage. ints pero cre’ thinking sows bythe interpretations thy ‘eto experens of seine, bavi, ouch, vn, ees that thie perepons of pce Spl prepa he by to resogize an cine tim in and rm apace att nerpet hse by stating tem ih Meow exper. gh pret lian coming te £5ay om th emoament cnc togh the alt an iso developed esa of many cman xpress. The st of prey fom rooted pono piso and ses he may, hereon, Sunt othe fact tht # era presen denna docs not ea dean change scoring to he sk wha. "ica of nena Sfmiton sold oe Ke fom cosring the elatontp opti percepon an genet. Ae Hae (BT 92) seman. "an evi i ot gta cn ed Sion ve oaeey regs Oe sadn en ue ‘55 venom, i rope Ifa goty Sel ny ‘pace whi opening ots a ng ‘on val pete ‘oarina improves View eomety Coresots Perch Sse ‘The very nature of the mathematical activites involved in primary pe lometty mates them ideal veils for cquiting spatial perception experi ences and gies teachers an excellent opportnity to observe and detect 126 SPATIAL FERCEPTION AND PRIMARY GEOMETRY ww lilden'spereptual problems at an carly age. Thus, a clear understanding ‘of spatial pereption abilities should make ie posible to design geometry Programs and select mathematical sctvies that wil mpove tedent vi tal perception (Del Grande 1986). “The suggestions inthis article dtfer from the usual direction of ivesi- tations where studies are coocered with what spatial pereeption ables re necessary fr succes in geometry Here we shall conser what geome Fie activites might enhance and develop primary chi’ spatial ables, ‘Spatial Ferception Abilities Poychologists were pethaps the fist to concer theanseles with the study of the interaction of the perceiver with his or her environment. Piaget’ Investigations and theories have contibued extensively to what is Known about chil’ s conception of pace geometry ad geomet wansformations (Piaget and Inhelder 1967) But Paget was not, onthe whole, concerned ‘with defining constructs and enumerating abilities. Frostig ane Horne (1968) ‘ere early pioners inthe identineation and testing of pereptua abies Inber book The Visual World o the Cid, Eline Varpill (1976) at only provides a comprebeasive account ofthe growing fed of research in spatial Devcepion but also attempts to lneprate the diferent points of view that have heen recorded. Frosig and Hore (196) produced test material for the first ve ofthe seven spatial abies listed belon, and Holler (977) examined to more ‘bliies, namely, visual discrimination and visual memory. These abilities Seem to ave greatest relevance to seademic development: 1, Bye-motor coordination 2. Figure ground perception Peveptual constancy Position inspace perception Perception of spatial relationships Visual discrimination 1 Viswl memory Eye-motor coordination ithe ability t coordinate vision with movement ‘of the body. Children who have dificalty with sine motor skills and movements have difiulty thinking of anything else s they conoentrate on the tsk a band. For example, ia child i having tube joining dts on _eopape, arranging wooden blocks to make a solid, o sing ruler to draw Aline, the effort slone may be enough to absorb the child completly. Only ‘when such coordination i habitual wil uldeen beable to give thei whole attention othe ato earning oo the perecption of external cbjects, since128 LEARNING AND TEACHING GEOMETRY, K-s2 ‘movements need no longer require great mental concentration. This fact suggest that hing and doing are separate acts, Figure round perepion is the visual sc of identifying a specie figure (the fous) in a picture (the ground), In focsing attention on gue, one ‘nus disregard the extraneous markings surounding and notbe distracted by ivelevant visual stizul. Vurpiot (1976) dacustes the extent to which children four to seven years of age can break down perceptual unt nfo thei components and reassemble them in new form ae embeded figure ‘problems It has been found that 70 percent of fur year-olds can sent ‘overlapping figures. Those children who do not ave figure ground percep ‘on to start are very likely to aogie it rough eppropriate intervention, Perceptual constaney or the constancy of shape and sie, ste aiity to ‘ecogaize that an object has invariant properties suchas size an shape in spite ofthe variability ofits impression at sen fom adtferent viewpoint. Forexample, person with porcopual constancy wil engnize a ce seh fiom an obiqu ange as a Cube, evea though the eye gee a lierent image ‘when the cube is viewed from squarely infront or directly abore. Thus perceptual constancy asst «person in adjusting tothe environment and Stables hs or her worl by empbsiing the permanent quality of objets ‘athe than ther coninully changing appearence a they are moved celative to the observer. Frostig and Horne (1964) found that the development of ‘peteeptual constancy depends in part om learning ad experiences that ate [ovided by activities of geometre natue, Positonn-spaceperespton i the ability to determine the relationship of ‘one object to another object aad tothe server. The lack of postin i= spac ability ests in reversals, which poses a dilemma for mathematics ceucators. On the one hand, we want eilren to se thet two figures are the sate (ie, congruent) if one i the image ofthe other under @ sie, fip, or twin. But on the ther hand, we sy that by dy py and q are all itferent, focus on the motions that move ove figure omto another may hep cre resolve thi dius, Perception of pail relationships isthe ability to se two of more objets in relation to oneself o in relation to eich ther and i closely related fo ostion-inspace perception for some tasks. For example, a person with sch an ability ses tha figures are congruent to eachother when one isthe image ofthe otber after 2 sde, fp, or turn, Visual asriminavion is te ability co dsingsish similarities and ifr ences between objects (Hoffer 1977). The activities of sorting and classifying bjects and geometric shapes such as attribute blocks asst clren in tearing visual dscrimination. The cidren can use pictures and abttoc ‘ons as they develop thet visual discrimination by making visual an verbal comparisons ofthe things they see SPATIAL FERCEPTION AND PIMMARY GEOMETRY ww ‘urpilt cations thatthe dificulies young tlre have in diferent ing between orientations in activities involving several gures may be inber ent in the task ite. Comparing several figures involves the exploration of Sil alternatives presented and then comparing them one ty one withthe ‘orginal this involves a strategy that a young child may not possess bu ean be taught Visual memory i the bility to recall sccrately an object 0 loger in view and then to relat it characteristics lo other Sbjct ether in ew oF ‘ot in view (Hoffer 1977). Most people retain small amounts of visual Jnformation—about fe 0 seven items-—for short periods of time, Hoffer stats that to remember great amounts of information ie must sore the {information in long-term memory through abstractions and symbolic think ing. Growing citenacguie spatial pereption through experiences encoun- tered in thet environment. Spatil perception not ony helps children get to school but isesental in enabling thom to ead, te, pel do arithmetic an geometry, pain, play sports, draw maps, and read msc. Spatial Perception Activities: Ina balanced primary program, memati should be integrated with cher aeites ofthe my si supa Tented to at geogrpiy and cre reading and wing ‘Sintec ints section an be med ore el ofthe ee ote, tnd niggetons wil be made froughout to help ache thse. Verbal intone ae regen nes or one hen ‘jehand coordination can tro atts suchas drevng with and wahoo gateines and tracing and coloring sated in the two ex fies in ge IL.80 “LEARNING AND TRACING GEOMETRY “Teachers can design many silat activities where the elfort required is suitable fr chides of a given grade level. For example, joining two dots nay be a good exercise for children in grade 1, eres jn many Jos ‘would be more appropriate for children in grade 3 Instructions sould be verbal when necessary, and a discussion with studen-cteated “stories sould be encouraged. Figure ground perception isan itmpotant abit that, i not acquired, can handicap children. Activities in figure around perception include thove that involve intersecting lines, intersecting igures, hidden figures, overlapping ‘igures, figure completion, igure asseaby similarities and ferences, and {hs sonal ut nd ound To sample ais ae sown in sure + De & Bue pa round he etal Fish be ng Bok te, 1 Satori fe ange |= Rez Figureassemby activites involve filing 2 Aigure sing a numberof geo- ‘meric igures such ss those found in parqucty blocks, pattem blocks, tangzams, or felt cutouts. For example, the students are given fie igures giving childeen more sade tea to eatdbard shows tele in Sure I an te required to fl the out in of the gure on the ‘right. This activity cam be ‘made more difficult by LY >> poor tan neces fo magne <] SX ing tem te itrcion, “Coe a8 many pices = fens yoneed't the fe Perceptual constancy, oF constancy of shape and siz, includes sctivies ‘thane shape constancy, size constancy, consaney of shape with gute. ‘round perception, apparent size compared to ea size, and comparison of the ize of three or more figures. Two ofthe any examples thet strate perceptual constancy are given in figure 1.4. SESTTAL PSRCEFTION AND FRUMAIEY GEOMETRY 1h ‘+ 10 the squares in ive + 3 figges bso cant ted ‘ogee makes eure Sie beeen te oe Ma te ples whan o= Peas Poston i space stvties inca reversal and rotations of whole Agures, change of postion of detail, and miror patterns. Two examples are given in igure 1S tte et [4 | * essence «EEE : + Lon te otra the bor AR gp) * seeatergsarte Ph Pp gbd Ad Pp d dg Pise LEARNING AND TEACHING GEOMETRY, K-12 Wii citron are doing some of these activites, i is intresting to observe the problem solving strategies used, For example, in rotating the ‘square in he ist activity (ig. 15), some chideen my se their Hinges to Place the back tingle, whereas others may sit tn the pes. Activities that involve slides, ip, and tums, such at ientiying the retin, identifying images, drawing images, at drawing patterns wig he ‘motion, could also be included in this category. Two examples ae given in fiaure iL + Loksatta box Gitecmbatenae + Sree em wo &9OIE IZ ISG ‘+ Thetisitwo tars of pat ae shown 1 UBstipn tn ctw sense ngs pati Sa Perception of spatial reladonship activites ince relating the poston of ‘wor more objects, noting similarities and diferences, nding the shortest patho goa, competing a igure, connecting dots, completing a sequence, and assembling parts. An early activity might involve replicating 4 cube structure such as the ene shown in igure IL. Pace 3 cubes ona teas shown teen SPATIAL PERCEPTION AND FRIMARY GEOMETRY 13 '* "Put your cabes together ike mine and then place them on ep of my cubes" (no color match i requited) © “Pat your cubes together lke mine and then place them beside my cubes” © Give the child more cubes s0 that he or she can now match colors and ‘hen repeat the previous activites. Similar activites canbe designed using colored rods, Popsicle sticks, beads, for pattem blocks. Two other adits forthe perception of patil relation ships appear in gure 1.8. 1 ton dots 2 py to toe GEE] + Qiertetqusins pox edb CED) a ore are te ae ce reat Pow Visuat discrimination involves identifying a par of object tat are the same, par of objects that are diferent, one object tht i diferent fom the oilers, and several objects tht are the same but diferent from the thers. Two activites exemplifing this spatial ably are showa in figure LD. The actos with igure that are “the same” also involve constancy ‘of shape an visual memoryBt LEARNING AND TEACHING GEOMETRY, K-12 1 oe fae i tesnt rom he est 1 Chelan tere GLARUMYM “wo tues er eacty he same cle em, KRER Fes Visual memory activities involve rezling one object from two of more objects, one object with reversal, ofthe position of many objects. Furtber setts also include drawing figures fom memory or completing a gure ‘fom memory. For example, i gute S110, eilren are shown a picture of 8 shelf with foys and then asked to remember the placement ofthe toys alter the pictures hidden. This activity can be made easier by reducing the ‘number of tos used or harder by adng toys that donot belong. SPATIAL PERCEPTION AND PRIMARY GEOMETRY 1s Another set of wel activities consists of (1) showing gute drawn on sot paper for ten seconds, (2) hiding the gure, and (3) aking children to feproduce the gore from memory on det paper. Such activites can be designed tobe very casy o very hard by varying the complet of the gure to be remembered and changing the number of dts used. Implications Porceptal abilities are important for besining school success and hive aston influence on te stability ofthe child, Esty schoo adjustment std ropress are enkanecd if» chi’ spatial perception abies are equal (0 the tasks the child encounters. The visual world isthe result ofa slow process tha creates a world of objects, similar or different, interdependent, “and meaning "Builders of geometry curricula should take into account dhe development ot the cile’s understanding of space and procesing of rial information, “Those involved withthe teaching of primary mathematics must be share of the spatial abilities ofthe students they teach and attempt to adjust instue- tion to those abilities. research provides more information, those each 15 wll be able f0 do a more effective job of adapting instruction to the reeds and abilities oftheir tents Spatial perception activities will be elective ony if they are integrated into welhrounded program and take into account the chk’ total dew ‘opment ee Series SSeS Sno Se ee Yr ln, Te Vina Wor fhe Oi Leeson Geog Alle & Ui,