Energy Transfer
When two objects of temperatures T1≠T2
Chapter 11
Energy in Thermal Processes
(Part 2)
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Heat and Specific Heat
„ Q = m c ∆T
„ c is the specific heat
„ ∆T =Tf-Ti
„ When the temperature increases,
∆T>0 and ∆Q>0, and energy flows
into the system
„ When the temperature decreases,
∆T<0 and ∆Q<0, and energy flows
out of the system
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Internal Energy
„ Internal Energy, U, is the energy
associated with the microscopic
components of the system
„ Includes kinetic and potential energy
associated with the random translational,
rotational and vibrational motion of the
atoms or molecules
„ Also includes any potential energy bonding
the particles together
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„
are placed in thermal contact, the
temperature of the warmer decreases and
the temperature of the cooler increases
„ The energy exchange ceases when the
objects reach thermal equilibrium, T1=T2
„ Heat Q is the transfer of energy between a
system and its environment due to T1 ≠T2
Calorimetry
„ Conservation of energy applies to the
isolated system
„ For several materials in thermal
contact:
ΣQ = 0
„ Each Q = m c ∆T
„ Negative sign keeps consistency in the sign
convention of ∆T
Phase Changes
„ A phase change occurs when the physical
characteristics of the substance change from
one form to another
„ Solid to liquid – melting
„ Liquid to gas – boiling
„ Phases changes involve a change in the
internal energy, but no change in temperature
„ During a phase change, the amount of heat is
given as
Q = ±m L
„ L - latent heat
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 Graph of Ice to Steam Methods of Heat Transfer
„ Need to know the rate at which
energy is transferred
„ Need to know the mechanisms
responsible for the transfer
„ Methods include
„ Conduction
„ Convection
„ Radiation

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Thermal Conduction Conduction example

„ Most closely associated with a „ The molecules vibrate
temperature difference about their equilibrium
positions
„ The transfer can be viewed on an „ Particles near the stove
atomic scale coil vibrate with larger
„ It is an exchange of energy between amplitudes
microscopic particles by collisions „ These collide with
„ Less energetic particles gain energy during adjacent molecules and
collisions with more energetic particles transfer some energy
„ Rate of conduction depends upon the „ Eventually, the energy
characteristics of the substance travels entirely through
the pan and its handle
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Conduction, cont. Conduction, equation

„ In general, metals are good conductors „ The slab allows energy
to transfer from the
„ They contain large numbers of electrons that
region of higher
are relatively free to move through the metal
temperature to the
„ They can transport energy from one region to region of lower
another temperature. The rate of
„ Conduction can occur only if there is a energy transfer:
difference in temperature between two
parts of the conducting medium Q ∆T
P= ∝A
∆t ∆x
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2
 Conduction through a rod Quick Quiz 11.4
Two rods of the same length and diameter, made from
Th − Tc
„
different materials
P = kA „ In which case the rate P
is larger:
L a) rods are in series; b) rods are in parallel; c) same in both
cases
Th − Tc
„ P is in Watts (J/s) P∝
„ Uniform insulated rod of L
length L, with the cross-
sectional area A
„ k is thermal conductivity,
depends on the material
„ Steady-state equation
13 a) b) 14

Example: Problem #59 Home Insulation

„ Substances are rated by their R
„ Same L and A values
„ T1 = 80.0oC „ R=L/k
„ T2 = 30.0oC „ See table 11.4 for some R values
„ For multiple layers, the total R
value is the sum of the R values of
„ Tjunction - ? Th − Tc each layer
P = kA Wind increases the energy loss by
L „
conduction in a home
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Conduction and Insulation

with Multiple Materials Example: Problem #38
„ Each portion will have a specific thickness and a „ Thermopane window
specific thermal conductivity
„ Lglass = 0.5 cm
„ The rate of conduction through each portion is air
equal „ Lair = 1.0 cm
„ The rate through the multiple materials will be „ Tinside = 23oC
Q T − Tc T − TC „ Toutside = 0oC
= A h = A h A = 1.0 m2
∆t Li
∑i ki ∑i Ri „
glass
A∆T
„
P thermopane - ? P=
„ TH and TC are the temperatures at the outer R
extremities of the compound material „ P glass - ? R = ∑ Li ki
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 Convection Convection example
„ Energy transferred by the „ Air directly above
the flame is
movement of a substance warmed and
„ When the movement results from expands
differences in density, it is called „ The density of the
natural convection air decreases,
„ When the movement is forced by a and it rises
fan or a pump, it is called forced „ The mass of air
convection warms the hand
as it moves by
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Convection Current
Example Radiation
„ The radiator warms „ Radiation does not require physical
the air in the lower
region of the room contact
„ The warm air is less „ All objects radiate energy
dense, so it rises to continuously in the form of
the ceiling
„ The denser, cooler
electromagnetic waves due to
air sinks thermal vibrations of the molecules
„ A continuous air „ Rate of radiation is given by
current pattern is set
up as shown
Stefan’s Law

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Radiation example Radiation equation

„ Stefan’s Law

P = σAeT 4
„ The power is the rate of energy transfer, in
Watts (J/s)
„ The electromagnetic waves carry the
„ σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
energy from the fire to the hands
„ A is the surface area of the object
„ No physical contact is necessary „ e is a constant called the emissivity
„ Cannot be accounted for by conduction „ e varies from 0 to 1

or convection „ T is the temperature in Kelvins

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4
 Energy Absorption and
Emission by Radiation Ideal Absorbers
„ Objects radiate and absorb energy „ An ideal absorber is defined as an
„ The net energy rate object that absorbs all of the
energy incident on it
„
P = σAe(T 4 − T04 ) „ e=1
„ T0 is the surrounding temperature. „ This type of object is called a black
When an object is in equilibrium with body
its surroundings, it radiates and „ An ideal absorber is also an ideal
absorbs at the same rate
radiator of energy
„ Its temperature will not change

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Ideal Reflector Applications of Radiation

„ An ideal reflector absorbs none of „ Clothing
Black fabric acts as a good absorber
the energy incident on it „

„ White fabric is a better reflector

e=0
Thermography
„
„
„ The amount of energy radiated by an object
can be measured with a thermograph
„ Body temperature
„ Radiation thermometer measures the
intensity of the infrared radiation from the
eardrum

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Applications of Radiation:
Thermogram of a House Resisting Energy Transfer
„ Dewar flask/thermos bottle
„ Designed to minimize
energy transfer to
surroundings
„ Space between walls is
evacuated to minimize
conduction and convection
„ Silvered surface minimizes
radiation
„ White and yellow - areas of greatest energy loss
„ Neck size is reduced
„ Blue and purple - areas of least energy loss
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 Example: Problem #43 Global Warming
„ Greenhouse example
d
„ d = 70 cm „ Visible light is absorbed and re-
„ h = 2.0 cm emitted as infrared radiation
T = 100 oC h
„ „ Convection currents are inhibited by
„ e = 0.8 the glass
„ σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2.K4 „ Earth’s atmosphere is also a good
transmitter of visible light and a
„ P -? good absorber of infrared radiation
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