HBEC2503 Mathematics in Early Childhood Edu

HBEC2503
MATHEMATICS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar
Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar
Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng

Moderator: Dr Azhar Md Adnan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, December 2014

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2014, HBEC2503
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiv
Topic 1 Introduction to Early Childhood Mathematics 1

1.1 Misconceptions of Early Childhood Mathematics 2
1.2 Theories in Early Childhood Learning of Mathematics 4
1.2.1 Piagets Theory of Child Development 4
1.2.2 Lev Vygotsky and the Social Development Theory 8
1.2.3 Six Stage Theory of Zoltan P. Dienes 9
1.2.4 Jerome Bruners Three Modes of Representation 10
1.3 Good Practices in Early Childhood Mathematics 12
1.3.1 NCTM Recommendations for Childhood Mathematics 13
1.3.2 Recommendations from the Australian Association of 13
Mathematics Teachers
1.4 Content Standards in Early Childhood Mathematics 15
1.4.1 Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK) 15
1.4.2 Hawaii Preschool Mathematics Content Standard 19
1.4.3 NCTMs and NAEYCs Proposed Preschool 20
Mathematics Content Standard
Summary 22
Key Terms 22
References 22
Topic 2 The Language of Mathematics 24

2.1 The Role of Language and Language of Mathematics 25
2.2 Developing Mathematical Language Using Songs and 26
Nursery Rhymes
2.3 Useful Words to Guide Learning of Early 31
Mathematical Concepts
2.4 Mathematical Talk and Early Mathematical Concepts 32
2.4.1 Examples of Mathematical Talk 36
2.5 Integrating Mathematics into Childrens Play 37
Summary 38
Key Terms 39
Topic 3 Early Mathematical Concepts: Classifying, Matching, Sorting 40

and Ordering
3.1 Classification 41
3.1.1 The Understanding of Sets 43
3.2 Matching 44

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2.1 Challenging Matching Task 46

3.3 Sorting, Categorising and Grouping 48
3.4 Ordering or Seriation 49
3.5 Informal Learning at Home or at School 51
3.6 Assessment on Classifying, Matching, Sorting and Ordering 52
Summary 55
Key Terms 55
References 55
Topic 4 Early Algebra Concepts: Patterns and Relationships 56

4.1 The Importance of Patterns 57
4.2 Types of Patterns 58
4.2.1 Repeating Patterns 58
4.2.2 Growing Patterns 60
4.2.3 Shrinking Patterns 60
4.3 Creating Pattern Activities 62
4.3.1 People Patterns 62
4.3.2 Patterns with Concrete Objects and Pattern Cards 63
4.3.3 Creating Patterns Using Music 64
4.3.4 Creating Patterns in Art 65
4.4 Number Patterns 67
4.5 Children as Creator of Patterns 68
4.6 Assessment on learning of Patterns 69
4.6.1 Formative Assessment 70
4.6.2 Summative Assessment 70
Summary 71
Key Terms 71
References 71
Topic 5 Early Number Concepts 72

5.1 Developing Number Sense 73
5.1.1 Understanding Number Sense 74
5.1.2 Number Sense Ability in Children 76
5.2 Multiple Conception of Place Value 77
5.2.1 Unique Features of Base Ten System 77
5.2.2 Place Value 78
5.2.3 Base 10 Block Concepts 78
5.2.4 2-Digit Number Concepts 81
Summary 85
Key Terms 85
References 86

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Topic 6 The Process of Problem Solving 87

6.1 Classroom Experience with Problem Solving 88
6.1.1 Everyday Opportunities to Experience 89
Problem Solving
6.1.2 Guidance and Strategies to Foster Problem 89
Solving Skills in Young Children
6.2 Addition and Subtraction 90
6.3 Multiplication and Division 93
Summary 97
Key Terms 98
References 98
Topic 7 Organising Data in Mathematics 99

7.1 Usefulness of Charts 100
7.1.1 Varieties of Charts and Graphs 101
7.2 Early Experience with Graphing 105
7.2.1 Mapping Techniques, from Pre-Graphic to 108
Early Graphic
7.3 Probability 109
Summary 112
Key Terms 112
References 112
Topic 8 Measurement 114

8.1 Measurement 115
8.2 Principles of Measurement 117
8.3 Formal Approaches and Techniques of Measurement 120
8.4 Volume, Weight, Length and Temperature 123
8.5 Informal Measurement: The Concept of Time 129
Summary 131
Key Terms 131
Topic 9 Mathematics Learning Environment for Early Childhood 132

9.1 Managing the Learning Environment 133
9.2 Social And Emotional Structures of Learning 136
9.3 Instructional Strategies for Enhancing Mathematics 138
Learning Environment
Summary 150
Key Terms 150
References 150

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Assessment of Mathematics in Early Childhood 151

10.1 Assessment of Mathematics in Early Childhoohd 152
10.2 Role of Assessment 158
10.3 Assessment Strategy 164
10.4 Assessment Results Analysis 167
Summary 168
Key Terms 168
References 168

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2503 Mathematics in Early Childhood Education is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Education at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course
is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over eight to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners undertaking the Bachelor in Childhood
Education with Honours. As an open and distance learner, you should be
acquainted with learning independently and being able to optimise the learning
modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please
ensure that you have the right course material, and understand the course
requirements as well as how the course is conducted.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Summarise the sequential development of mathematical concepts;
2. Describe how the development of mathematical concepts promotes childrens
thinking skills;
3. Develop strategies which promote thinking and problem-solving skills in
children;
4. Utilise observation and assessment as a basis for planning learning activities;
and
5. Create, evaluate and select developmentally appropriate materials,
equipment and environment to support the attainment of mathematical
concepts.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 gives an overview of the various misconceptions about early childhood

mathematics education by explaining the theories of learning of mathematics in
relation to the learning of early childhood. This topic also suggests, good
practices that help to improve the quality of early mathematics education and
outlines the standard contents for early childhood mathematics.

COURSE GUIDE xi
Topic 2 defines the role of the language of mathematics in childrens learning of

mathematics demonstrated by the use of songs and nursery rhymes to teach
young children in mathematics. Hence it identifies suitable words and terms to
teach mathematical concepts and skills for various topics of early childhood
mathematics. Lastly, it demonstrates the appropriate use of math talk to
facilitate childrens learning of mathematics.
Topic 3 focuses on areas that pre-school children need to learn, such as,
matching, classifying and ordering. It also discusses carrying out assessments on
learning of matching, classifying and ordering. This topic also introduces
children to the understanding of sets, and grouping of numbers and items in
their categories.
Topic 4 covers the relationship between patterns and algebra, while identifying
the different types of patterns that pre-school children learn. Various activities
are created within this topic for teaching and learning of algebra among pre-
schoolers.
Topic 5 discusses the understanding of number sense and how it is introduced to

the pre-schoolers in the form of activities since children learn faster through play.
Later the children are introduced to numbers using the concept of base-10 and its
application. Understanding of place value helps the pupils to master
multiplication, division, addition and subtraction.
Topic 6 discusses the role of a teacher in facilitating problem solving learning

amongst children. The teacher should be able to help pupils move their mind
towards learning, using the concept of computation, and in using the easiest
method of problem solving, and guiding them to use them freely and easily.
Topic 7 gives an overview on what is meant by data, how to organise data and
how to analyse data. This topic teaches children how to construct graphs using
the data obtained. The concept of probability taught in this topic enables children
to make logical thinking in their mathematical calculations
Topic 8 introduces children in early childhood learning to the principle of

measurement namely the standard and non-standard measurement. The formal
approach and the techniques used to measure are also discussed. Through this
teaching, the children are also exposed to the measurement of time; month, day,
hour.
Topic 9 covers methods in mathematics learning for early childhood education. It

helps to identify the structure of social and emotional learning of pupils in

xii COURSE GUIDE
learning mathematics as well as identifying the instructional strategies to

improve mathematics learning among children in the early childhood education.
Topic 10 discusses the purpose of assessment and the basis and foundation of
assessment in relation to pupils age groups. It also identifies the role of
assessment in early childhood education. Besides knowing the different types of
assessment strategies that could be used by teachers in assisting teaching
methods, it is done in order to enhance the quality of pupils learning. Lastly this
topic discusses the evaluation of assessment results.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the

COURSE GUIDE xiii
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Bobis, J. Mulligan & Lowrie, T. (2009). Mathematics for children: Challenging
children to think mathematically (3rd ed.). NSW. Pearson Education.
Davis, G.A. and Keller, J.D. (2009). Exploring science and mathematics in a
childs world (1st ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Smith, S. S. (2009). Early childhood mathematics (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Charles, R. & Lind, K.K. (2007). Mathematics & science for young children (5th
ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning
Yelland, N. , Butler, D, & Diezmann, C. (1999). Early mathematical explorations.
Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Publishing Solutions.

xiv COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic Introduction to
1 Early
Childhood
Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various misconceptions about early childhood
mathematics education;
2. Explain the theories of learning in relation to the learning of early
childhood mathematics;
3. Suggest good practices that help to improve the quality of early
mathematics education; and
4. Outline the content standards for early childhood mathematics.
INTRODUCTION
Early childhood mathematics education is an important aspect of early childhood
education. It plays an important role in shaping childrens future learning of
mathematics. But ironically, unlike other levels of mathematics education, the
development of early childhood mathematics curriculum and the
implementation of teaching and learning practices are still at the infancy stage. It
seems that there is inadequate effort to carry out proper control and monitoring
of early childhood education at kindergartens in the country. Kindergartens are
given the freedom to design their own early childhood mathematics programme.
Mathematics at early childhood may appear to be very easy for teachers,

2 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD MATHEMATICS
educators and even parents. But the teaching of early childhood mathematics
should not be regarded as a simple task. It requires teachers who are well
equipped with pedagogical content knowledge and skills, coupled with the right
attitudes, in order to design effective learning activities for children.
1.1 MISCONCEPTIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

MATHEMATICS
There are many misconceptions about learning mathematics at early childhood.
Such misconceptions may affect our understanding of how early childhood
mathematics should be learned and taught. They may also become obstacles to
the implementation of good practices in early childhood education. Some of these
misconceptions are discussed below:
Misconception 1
Mathematics is too tough a subject to learn for young children.
Mathematics is often regarded as a formal subject that is difficult to teach as well

as to learn. There are often doubts raised on whether mathematics should be
taught and learned in a formal manner in early childhood education. Some
people bring up the issue like why should we be so cruel to involve young kids
in such mind boggling maths activities? and They should be given more time
to play and have fun, not learning subjects like mathematics.
Ironically, mathematics exists everywhere, including in childrens everyday lives.

They play and use mathematics without realising it. For example, when children
arrange their toys or objects in the way they want, they are actually developing
the concept of sorting and ordering in mathematics. When they search for
missing parts of their toys, they are again involved in some form of counting.
Misconception 2
In order to not burden the kids, we should only teach them basic numbers and
basic shapes.
Teachers should never underestimate the inherent mathematical strength and

abilities of children. In fact, there are growing evidences that show that young
kids enjoy solving mathematical problems through play. Early childhood
mathematics can be both deep and broad. It should cover some major
mathematics in a broad range of areas. These areas include numbers and

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD MATHEMATICS 3
operations, geometry (shapes and space), algebra (patterns), measurements,

problem-solving, and even the concept of statistics and data analysis.
Misconception 3
In early childhood, the learning of language is more important than the learning
of mathematics. Therefore our teaching should focus on language skills rather
than mathematical skills.
Both language and mathematics are important. In fact, education in mathematics

is by itself part of the education on language and literacy. When we teach young
children the language of mathematics, we are actually teaching them the skills of
reading, speaking and writing mathematical language so that they are able to
communicate mathematical ideas clearly. The learning of language enhances the
learning of mathematics and similarly, acquiring logical thinking in mathematics
also helps in enhancing language skills.
Misconception 4
It is fine to teach a little mathematics, but it is irrelevant and unnecessary to carry
out assessment on young children.
It is necessary for teachers to assess childrens mathematical knowledge and

skills from time to time. This helps the teacher to understand the individual
childs strengths and weaknesses and thus be able to identify appropriate
remedial activities to help each of them improve. Mathematics evaluation should
consider assessing children in multiple ways, not merely based on observations.
Misconception 5
It is not suitable to teach young kids mathematics using the computer.
Some teachers think that the computer is a bad learning tool for young children.
They feel that the computer is an anti-social media. It is deemed as preventing
children from actively interacting with one another. It is true that wrong use of
the computer may hinder effective and healthy learning. But the problem does
not lie with the computer. It is the teacher who should be responsible for the
judicious use of the computer in helping children learn mathematics. The
computer is inherently a very powerful learning tool, particularly for learning
mathematics. If teachers are able to capitalise on the advantages of the computer
and use the tool appropriately, childrens learning of mathematics will certainly
be enhanced.

ACTIVITY 1.1
As a mathematics teacher, how would you educate the parents about
the misconceptions of mathematics education for pre-school kids?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Why are the teaching and learning of mathematics important at early

childhood or pre-school level?
1.2 THEORIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS
There are many educational and learning theories that focus on how children
learn in the very early stages of life. These theories, which are collectively
referred to as theories for early childhood development may be applied to many
subject areas, including mathematics.
1.2.1 Piagets Theory of Child Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the child psychologists that had spent much
time and effort studying the cognitive development of children. His theory has
its basis in constructivism which emphasises that learning should be constructed
from each individuals experiences. He also believed that that there is a need to
establish the connection between previously learned concepts with newly
acquired concepts for effective learning to take place.
Piaget developed the famous Four-Stage Theory of Child Development. The

theory basically focuses on the different stages of cognitive development an
individual must go through in the growing-up process. Based on his theory,
childrens mental and cognitive development, starting from birth, can be divided
into four different stages as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Piagets Four-Stage Theory of Child Development
The four stages and their relationship to the learning of mathematics are briefly
explained as follows:
(a) Sensorimotor stage

This stage of cognitive development for children starts from birth until they
are about 2 years old. The stage is characterised by childrens progressive
development of the concept of object permanence. Object permanence here
means that children have the ability to look for objects that are out of their
view. For example, a child is able to search and find his toy that may be
placed in a drawer.
At this stage, children rely very much on their five senses (smell, taste, hear,
see and touch). They develop their understanding of ideas or concepts
through concrete experiences. They are usually egocentric and are only able
to see the world from their very own perspectives.
(b) Pre-Operational stage

The development of the pre-operational stage takes place when children are
2 to 7 years old. During this stage of development, the children are still
mostly egocentric. They are also limited in their rational and logical
thinking abilities. They are more comfortable working with concrete
objects. They are now able to develop their language ability. They begin to
understand the concept of sequencing and order and are able to solve one
step logical problems using manipulative materials. It is possible at this
stage to help children develop their basic skills in addition and subtraction.
However, since they are still more comfortable with concrete objects, it is
necessary to incorporate the use of concrete materials such as blocks and
counters as tools for children to explore their basic mathematical ideas.
Since children at this stage are quite confined to one-dimensional thinking,
they are very much influenced by the visual representation of objects that
they see.

(c) Concrete Operational stage

This stage of cognitive development takes place when children are between
7 to 11 years old. It is at this stage that children develop their logical
thinking ability. They are able to classify and arrange objects based on
specific features and characteristics rather than just focusing on visual
representation. They are also able to view things from different dimensions
and can accept that there may be multiple ways of getting an answer to a
problem.
(d) Formal Operational Stage

Children enter this stage of development at about 12 to 16 years old and
from there, continue their cognitive development till adulthood. At this
stage, children do not rely solely on concrete experiences. They are now
able to think in a logical and abstract manner. Therefore, it is now possible
to teach them to analyse, synthesise and hypothesise. From the perspective
of mathematics, children at the stage of formal operations are ready for
abstract and higher order mathematical thinking.
It is important for mathematics teachers of childhood education to understand

the four stages of cognitive development. With such knowledge, a mathematics
teacher would be able to determine the readiness of the children in learning a
particular mathematically related skill. The teacher will also be able to plan
learning activities which are appropriate for the children they teach.
Since early childhood education is normally targeted at children at the pre-school

level or an age range from 3 to 6 years old, it is thus more important for teachers
of early childhood education to have a thorough understanding of the first two
stages of child development, namely, the pre-operational stage and the concrete
operational stage.
Table 1.1 provides a summary of the characteristics of children at each stage of

cognitive development and their implications to mathematics teaching and learning.

Table 1.1: Piagets Four-Stages Theory of Cognitive Development

and Mathematics Ability
Stages of
Mathematics ability that can
Cognitive Characteristic
be taught
Development
egocentric; linking one object to
learn using 5 senses; another;
rely on concrete; linking numbers to
objects;
limited use of words; and
searching for hidden
Sensorimotor understand object objects;
(0 2 years ) permanence.
counting concrete
objects; and
reciting numbers (such
as 1 to 10).
egocentric; one-to-one
basic language skill; correspondence;
learn using 5 senses; and solve one-step
mathematical problems
rely on concrete using manipulative
experiences. materials;
Pre-Operations
classification, order and
(2 7 years) sequence;
basic addition and
subtraction; and
differentiate objects by
shapes and sizes.
logical thinking; advanced seriation and
Concrete classifying based on classification;
Operations features and multiple solutions to one
(7 12 years) characteristics; and problem;
concept of dimensions. basic functions; and
routine measurements.
reasoning, logical, abstract mathematical
abstract thinking; concepts; and
Formal Operations able to form hypothesis; comparing different
(above 12 years) and mathematical situations.
able to view things from
various perspectives.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Present Piagets Four Stages of Child Development and their
implications to learning of mathematics in the form of a mind map.
1.2.2 Lev Vygotsky and the Social Development

Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was another famous child psychologist who is known
for his Social Development Theory. Unlike Piaget who emphasised that
childrens cognitive development is a pre-requisite for learning, Vygotskys
theory focuses on the importance of social and cultural interaction on child
development and learning. To Vygotsky, learning is mainly mediated by
interactions. Interactions here mean social interactions among children and
interactions between the learners and others who are more knowledgeable.
Vygotsky introduced the concept of ZPD, Zone of Proximal Development. He

argues that there is a gap between what a learner is capable of learning on his
own and what the learner can achieve with support and help from peers,
particularly those who are better (in knowledge) than them. Lev Vygotsky
described this gap as the Zone of Proximal Development.
According to Vygotsky, it is possible for children to expand their learning ability

and achieve better understanding if they are allowed to learn in a meaningful
learning environment with proper peer interactions, collaborations and guidance
instead of just being taught by the teacher. This is what is referred to as crossing
the ZPD (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Vygotskys concept of ZPD

Based on Vygotskys Theory, it is thus clear that a teachers role is not just to
teach. What is more important is that teachers should try to make the classroom
to have a rich and an interactive learning community as much as possible.
According to Piaget, children can construct and learn mathematics effectively by

interacting with physical objects. While according to Vygotsky, learning of
mathematics is more effective by giving children the opportunity to interact and
work as a group. In other words, the teacher should always promote and
encourage collaborative learning and group activities, not just the didactic form
of classroom teaching and individualised learning.
1.2.3 Six Stage Theory of Zoltan P. Dienes

Zoltan P. Dienes (1916-2014) was a Hungarian mathematician whose name is
synonymous with the Multi-base blocks (also known as Dienes blocks) which he
invented for the teaching of place value. Dienes believed that to make learning of
mathematics more appealing to young children, we should create an informal
learning environment where children learn mathematics through playing games,
singing songs, dancing, and using manipulative materials. Dienes is also famous
for his Theory of Six Stages of Mathematics Learning. The six stages are:
(a) Free Interaction and Play Stage

At this stage children learn mathematics using a trial and error approach.
They explore and discover by themselves mathematical ideas through
interacting and experimenting freely with objects or situations.
(b) Play by Rules Stage

This stage involves the use of games with rules. Games often come with
rules, and mathematical ideas are often inherent in these rules. Therefore,
the use of games helps children to develop the idea of rules in mathematics.
(c) The Comparison Stage

This involves guiding children to compare different games with similar
rules but using different materials, or games with different rules. Such
comparison helps children to understand the importance of rules and is
also the first step towards introducing children to abstractions and how
rules can be formulated.
(d) The Representation Stage

At this stage, children are guided on diagrammatic representations of rules
and abstractions. Proper use of arrow diagrams, pictures, charts, and tables
help children to understand.

(e) The Symbolisation stage

It is at this stage that children are introduced to the use of symbols, such as
mathematical symbols, to represent the abstractions.
(f) The Formalisation Stage

At this stage, children learn about formulating axioms, theorems, and
writing proofs.
Based on the Six Stage Theory, it is thus clear that initial learning of mathematics
could be carried out in a not-so-formal manner, with activities and games that
motivate children to play and learn.
1.2.4 Jerome Bruners Three Modes of

Representation
Jerome Bruner (1915 - present) is a psychologist who has contributed a great deal
to the theories of cognitivism and constructivism as well as theories related to
childrens cognitive development. To Bruner, teaching of mathematics should not
be just focussed on memorising things like concepts, categories, and the
traditional problem-solving procedures. Children should be allowed to explore,
discover or construct their own knowledge.
Bruner is well known for his proposed Three Modes of Representation. He

hypothesises that childrens cognitive development can be represented by three
different modes, namely, enactive mode, iconic mode and symbolic mode.
Unlike Piagets theory on stages of child development which emphasises the

move of the children from one stage to another as they grow in age, Bruner views
the modes of representation as ways in which children manipulate or organise
their information. Children may progress from one mode to another as they
grow, but the ability to operate in the higher mode does not mean the children
will not think or operate in the other modes.
(a) Enactive Mode (developed in the first year)

In the enactive stage, information on past events is stored in memory and
presented in the form of motor responses. In other words, the ability to do
something is displayed in the form of action such as doing a physical task,
not by imagination or by describing with words. For example, a child might
have learned from past experience that shaking a particular object such as a
plastic bottle containing some sand would produce sound. He will then,
from time to time, shake the bottle to demonstrate his ability to produce the
sound. At this stage, children learn by doing, not by understanding.

(b) Iconic Mode (developed from second year onwards)

At this stage, children visualise and store information in the form of images.
We may describe this as having pictures in the mind. Childrens thinking
is associated with mental images or icons, and the mental images could be
formed through seeing, hearing, smelling or touching the concrete objects.
(c) Symbolic Mode (developed from 7 years onwards)

Entering this stage, children begin to be able to store information in the
form of symbols, or using languages. Languages are in fact powerful
symbols that can be used to organise and describe information. Other
symbols include numbers and music.
The first two modes of representation, the enactive mode and the iconic mode
are confined to concrete experiences with objects that children can see or touch.
The symbolic mode deals with abstract concepts that may not be present
physically but only exist as ideas and can be expressed using appropriate
symbols such as language.
It is possible to relate Bruners theory to childrens learning of early mathematics.

At the early years of development, it may not be appropriate to teach children
symbols. The enactive mode appears to be the pre-eminent mode for young
children. Therefore, learning of mathematics should involve children physically
performing some action. Some examples of action-based activities are as follows:
(a) Moving around;
(b) Touching concrete objects that can be seen or touched;
(c) Counting concrete objects that can be seen or touched;
(d) Categorising objects according to colours; and
(e) Categorising objects according to shapes.
When children are ready to operate at the iconic mode, the use of suitable
pictures and images helps to enhance childrens understanding of mathematics.
Language and mathematics symbols play a very important role when children are
able to demonstrate the symbolic mode of representation. It is at this stage that
children begin to explore mathematical concepts which are somewhat abstract.
From the above discussion, it is thus clear that for effective learning of early
mathematics to take place, we must use suitable resources and employ the
correct teaching and learning approaches that are aligned with childrens
predominant mode of representation. The summary of the theories related to
Early Childhood Learning of Mathematics is illustrated in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Theories in Early Childhood Learning of Mathematics
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Why is the understanding of learning theories important for early
childhood mathematics teachers?
2. What are the implications of Vygotskys Theory of Social
Development on the teaching and learning of early childhood
mathematics?
1.3 GOOD PRACTICES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

MATHEMATICS
As a teacher teaching mathematics at early childhood, it is necessary for us to
know the aims and objectives of teaching early childhood mathematics so that we
are able to plan our instructional activities that are geared towards achieving the
intended aims and objectives. It is also necessary for us to study the various
recommendations for childhood mathematics so that we are clear in our
instructional strategies for giving quality mathematics education to our young
children. We will see the recommendations of good practices for early childhood
mathematics from other countries (USA and Australia) before going through our
National Curriculum.

1.3.1 NCTM Recommendations for Childhood

Mathematics
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) of the United States of
America states that high quality, challenging and assessable mathematics
education at the early childhood level (3 to 6 years) is an essential and important
foundation for future learning of mathematics (NAEYC & NCTM, 2002). NCTM
provides many recommendations to guide teachers and key professionals in
classroom practices to achieve high quality mathematics education. Some of the
key ideas extracted from these recommendations are that learning design and
teaching practices of mathematics at early childhood should focus on the
following aspects:
(a) Enhance childrens interest and motivation in mathematics;
(b) Build on childrens pre-requisite knowledge and past experiences;
(c) Focus on childrens cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social-emotional
development;
(d) Ensure the coherence and appropriate sequencing of important
mathematical ideas;
(e) Integrate mathematics with other activities and other activities with
mathematics;
(f) Provide sufficient time, learning materials and teacher support for children
to engage in learning through play;
(g) Employ varying strategies, methods and activities to promote mathematical
ideas and concepts; and
(h) Provide thoughtful and continuous assessments to support learning.
1.3.2 Recommendations from the Australian

Association of Mathematics Teachers
The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers published a position paper
on early childhood mathematics in 2006 (Australian Association of Mathematics
Teachers and Early Childhood Australia, 2006). The paper provides a number of
recommendations for early childhood mathematics educators. Some of the
recommendations which are beneficial to early childhood or pre-school
mathematics teachers can be summarised as follows:
(a) Leverage on young childrens curiosity to assist them in developing their
mathematical ideas;

(b) Use suitable teaching approaches or curriculum that emphasise play,

emergent numeracy, child-centred and child-initiated activities;
(c) Ensure that mathematical ideas to be taught are relevant to childrens
present lives and also form a foundation to their future learning of
mathematics;
(d) Always motivate by recognising and celebrating childrens achievements;
(e) Encourage children to view themselves as mathematicians and be brave in
exploring challenging mathematical problem-solving tasks;
(f) Design a learning environment that promotes social interactions among
children as well as interactions with the teacher;
(g) Provide suitable learning materials, space, time and other resource that
encourage childrens engagement in their mathematics learning;
(h) Place emphasis on the proper use of the language to describe and explain
mathematical ideas;
(i) Recognise individual differences in terms of learning pace and ability and
try to address the different learning needs;
(j) Be sensitive to social-cultural differences among children when designing
games or activities for children;
(k) Encourage children to participate actively in communicating and sharing
their mathematical ideas;
(l) Assess childrens mathematical development using various means such as
observation, discussion, listening to childrens learning stories,
interviewing children, and so on;
(m) Use assessment information not only to track childrens development, but
more importantly, to guide the teacher in planning follow-up interactions,
tasks, activities and interventions which are more effective in terms of
learning; and
(n) Always be prepared to spend time gathering new ideas and explore new
pedagogical approaches to ensure children are provided with quality
mathematics education.
The two sets of recommendations listed above serve as good guiding principles
for teachers and educators who are involved in curriculum planning or teaching
in early childhood mathematics education.

1.4 CONTENT STANDARDS IN EARLY

CHILDHOOD MATHEMATICS
Content standard refers to the set of mathematics contents that should be covered
in the teaching and learning of early childhood mathematics. It represents the
learning opportunities that should be provided to our young children in early
childhood or pre-school mathematics. We will look at samples of our own local
National Preschool Curriculum Standard (KSPK) and a few other countries
proposed preschool curriculum standards.
1.4.1 Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan

(KSPK)
Currently in Malaysia, the Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK)
or National Preschool Curriculum Standard provides initial experience in
Mathematics to pre-schoolers (Table 1.3). KSPK briefly outlines what needs to be
included in early mathematics:
Pre-number concept;
Number;
Basic operations;
Money;
Time; and
Shapes and space.
Table 1.3: Mathematics content in National Preschool Curriculum Standard (KPSK).
Learning Standard
Focus Content Standard
4+ 5+
(ST 6.0) (ST 6.1) (ST 6.1.1) Matching
Pre-number Matching objects objects in pairs
experiences (ST 6.1) Matching not
similar objects in pairs,
such as cup and saucer.
(ST 6.1.3) Matching two
groups of objects:
(a) Similar; and
(b) Not similar
(matching equal and
unequal groups)

(ST 6.2) Comparing (ST 6.2.1 Comparing

quantity of objects amounts to identify
more, same or less)
(ST 6.3) Making (ST 6.3.1) Arranging
seriation of one objects according to
characteristics criteria:
(a) Small to big;
(b) Short to long;
(c) Low to high; and
(d) Thin to thick and
others.
(ST 6.4) Identifying (ST 6.4.1) Recognising (ST 6.4.3)
repetitive patterns repetitive pattern Recognising
and building (ST 6.4.2) Copying repetitive pattern
patterns repetitive pattern using (ST 6.4.4) Complete
objects patterm given
(ST 6.4.5) Creating
repetitive pattern
(ST 7.0) (ST 7.1) (ST 7.1.1) Rote counting (ST 7.1.7) Ascending
Concept of Understanding 1-10 and descending
Numbers numbers 1 to 10 (ST 7.1.2) Recognising numbers 1-10
symbols 1-10. (ST 7.1.8) Writing
(Example: 2-Two) numbers 1-10
(ST 7.1.3) Counting 1-10
(ST 7.1.4) Using dots to
represent numbers.
(ST 7.1.5) Matching
symbols to quantity 1-10
(ST 7.1.6) Tracing
numbers 1-10
(ST 7.2) Recognising (ST 7.2.1) Writing
zero zero
(ST 7.2.2) Say zero
(ST 7.2.3)
Understand concept
of zero (no value)
(ST 7.3) Understand (ST 7.3.1) Counting
number 10-20 on from 1-20
(ST 7.3.2)
Comparing 10 and
11 (11 is more than

10)
(ST 7.3.3) Write 10-
20
(ST 7.4) Understand (ST 7.4.1) Counting
sequence 20, 30, 40 in 10s
and 50
(ST 8.0) (ST 8.1) Understand (ST 8.1.1) Able to
Mathematical addition operation state the sum of
operations within 10 numbers within 10
(ST 8.1.2) Counting
all and counting on
in addition
(ST 8.1.3) Addition
problem solving
(ST 8.1.4) Writing
mathematical
statement
(ST 8.1.5) Able to
say out
mathematical
statement
(ST 8.1.6) Solve
number stories
(ST 8.1.7) Tell
situation in every
life involving
addition
(ST 8.2) Understand (ST 8.2.1) Removing
operation in objects from the
substraction till 10 group and able to
count the balance
(ST 8.2.2) Use
everyday language
to state the
operation of
subtraction
(ST 8.2.3) Able to
write mathematical
statement
(ST 8.2.4) Able to
say mathematical
statement
(ST 8.2.5) Solve

number stories
(ST 8.2.6) Able to
tell situation using
subtraction
(ST 9.0) (ST 9.1) Able to (ST 9.1.1) Able to
Monetary value recognise different recognise different
values of money values of money
(ST 9.1.2) Able to
arrange value of
money in sequence
(ST 9.1.3) Able to
understand
monetary exchange
(ST 10.0) Time (ST 10.1) (ST 10.1.1) Arrange (ST 10.1.3) Able to
concept Understand time events with time state time
with reference to (ST 10.1.2) State the time (ST 10.1.4) Able to
daily activities for an activity state days in a week
(ST 10.1.5) Able to
tell events
(ST 10.1.6) Able to
state months and
days
(ST 11.0) Shape (ST 11.1) Position of (ST 11.1.1) Able to state (ST 11.1.2) Able to
and space object in space object in reference to recognise left and
environment (below, right
above...) (ST 11.1.3) Placing
object in the right
position
(ST 11.2) Able to (ST 11.2.1) Able to (ST 11.2.2) Able to
recognise shape in recognise circle, triangle recognise square,
the environment and rectangle in the triangle, rectangle
environment and circle
(ST 11.2.3) Able to
construct cuboid
from constructions
like lego
Source: Adapted from Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (BPK, 2010)

1.4.2 Hawaii Preschool Mathematics Content

Standard
The Hawaii Preschool Content Standard developed in 2004 by the School
Readiness Task Force, Hawaii Good Beginnings Interdepartmental Council,
described learning opportunities that should be provided for four-year-olds in
early care and education programmes (Hawaii Good Beginnings
Interdepartmental Council School Readiness Task Force, 2004). The standard is
aimed to assist preschool teachers and administrators in their curriculum
planning and lesson design. The mathematics content standard in particular,
focuses on cognitive development of children through learning of mathematics.
A summary of the mathematics content standard is provided in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Hawaiis Pre-School Mathematics Content Standard
Content Scope Covered
1. Numbers, numerals and Recognising numbers

basic numerical operations Counting numbers
Recognising names and symbols of numbers
Count up to 10 objects in meaningful context
Addition and subtraction using fingers or
objects
2. Patterns and relationship Sorting and classifying objects by size,
between patterns number and other properties in meaningful
context
Sorting and classifying objects by colour
Sorting and classifying objects by function
Sorting and classifying objects by colour and
material
Order objects by properties (small to large,
light to heavy, and so on)
Recognising patterns
Creating patterns using manipulatives in self-
directed activities
3. Shapes and Space concepts Recognising 2D and 3D shapes
Naming 2D and 3D shapes
Creating 2D and 3D shapes
Comparing 2D and 3D shapes
Recognising geometric shapes in daily lives

Creating art with shapes and symmetry

Demonstrating spatial understanding in play
4. Measurement concepts and Understanding measurement attributes
use of measurement (length, volume, weight, area, time)
Comparing attributes in meaningful context
Measuring using standard and non-standard
units
5. Representing and Gathering information about themselves and
interpreting data about surroundings
Contributing data for simple graphs
Interpreting and discussing based on graphs
Source: Hawaii Good Beginnings Interdepartmental Council School Readiness

Task Force (2004)
1.4.3 NCTMs and NAEYCs Proposed Preschool

Mathematics Content Standard
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) of The United States of
America put forward a joint position paper on mathematics education in 2002,
and updated it later in 2010 (NAEYC & NCTM, 2002). The paper outlines the
learning path and the teaching strategies that may be used for teaching
mathematics to young children between 3 to 6 years old. The information serves
well as a standard for early childhood mathematics education. A summary of the
learning path and the proposed strategies is provided in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Early Childhood Mathematics Learning Content and Strategies proposed by
NAEYC & NCTM
Content Scope Covered
1. Numbers and operations Counting numbers

Linking items with numbers
Counting 1, 2, 3, 10
Counting groups of 10 up to 100 (10, 20, 30...
100)
Non-verbal addition and subtraction with small
numbers
Addition using counting strategy
Subtraction

2. Geometry and spatial Sorting and classifying objects by size, number

sense and other properties in meaningful context
Sorting and classifying objects by colour
Sorting and classifying objects by function
Sorting and classifying objects by colour and
material
Order objects by properties (small to large, light
to heavy, and so on)
Recognising patterns
Creating patterns using manipulatives in self-
directed activities
3. Measurement Recognising 2D and 3D shapes
Naming 2D and 3D shapes
Creating 2D and 3D shapes
Comparing 2D and 3D shapes
Recognising geometric shapes in daily lives
Creating art with shapes and symmetry
Demonstrating spatial understanding in play
4. Pattern/algebraic Understanding measurement attributes (length,
thinking volume, weight, area, time)
Comparing attributes in meaningful context
Measuring using standard and non-standard
units
5. Displaying and analys- Gathering information about themselves and
ing data about surroundings
Contributing data for simple graphs
Interpreting and discussing based on graphs
Source: NAEYC & NCTM (2002). Early Childhood Mathematics: Promoting

Good Beginnings
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What do we mean by content standard?
2. How are the early childhood mathematics content standards
adopted by other countries useful to us?

Early childhood mathematics education is an important aspect of early

childhood education.
Misconceptions in early childhood mathematics may be an obstacle to

effective planning and implementation of early childhood mathematics.
Thorough understanding of learning theories and theories of childhood

development helps in the teaching of early childhood mathematics.
It is beneficial to study recommendations and good practices in the teaching

of childhood mathematics.
Early childhood mathematics content standards adopted in other countries

serve as a benchmark for us to design our own early childhood
mathematics content.
Content Standard Six Stage Theory

Early Childhood Social Development Theory
Good Practices Theories of Learning
Interactions Zone of Proximal Development
Misconceptions
Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers and Early Childhood Australia

(2006). Early Childhood Mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.aamt.edu.
au/content/download/722/19512/file/earlymaths.pdf
Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum (2010). Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan:
Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan. Retrieved from
http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/index.php?option=com_content&view=art
icle&id=310&Itemid=473&lang=en

Hawaii Interdepartmental Council on Children and Families & School Readiness

Task Force (2004). Hawaii preschool content standards: Curriculum
guidelines for programs for four-year-olds. Retrieved from http://www.
goodbeginnings.org/pdf/SchoolReadiness/HPCS2004.pdf
NAEYC & NCTM (2002). Early Childhood Mathematics: Promoting Good
Beginnings. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/
positions/psmath.pdf

Topic The Language
2 of Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the role of language and the language of mathematics in
childrens learning of mathematics;
2. Demonstrate the use of songs and nursery rhymes to teach young
children mathematical language;
3. Identify and use suitable words and terms to teach mathematical
concepts and skills for various topics of early childhood mathematics;
and
4. Give examples of the appropriate use of mathematical talk to facilitate
childrens learning of mathematics.
5. Justify the importance of integrating mathematics into childrens play.
INTRODUCTION
Adults thinking about mathematics is very different from children. To most
adults, mathematics is about numbers, formulas and calculations. But to children,
mathematics is something (concepts and skills) that allows them to process and
to establish the connections between the different elements or objects that they
perceive with their senses. The use of mathematical concepts and skills such as
comparing, measuring, patterning and ordering helps children to understand
phenomena, appreciate design, and solve problems they face and to make
predictions.
Childrens initial experience with mathematics is basically intuitive. For example,

a child experiences the concept of small and big when he is moved from

TOPIC 2 THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS 25
his cot to his parents bed next to the cot. As children grow, they gradually move
from intuitive thinking to a more organised form of mathematical thinking.
Since mathematics is about thinking, not just about doing, it is important to stress
that leaving children alone playing and exploring with manipulatives such as
blocks or peg boards is not sufficient to develop childrens formal mathematical
thinking. To facilitate the move from intuitive thinking to formal mathematical
thinking, parents and teachers need to provide children with appropriate
vocabulary and dialogues that promote childrens understanding of and
reflection on mathematics. Thus language plays an important role in childrens
development of mathematical concepts and skills.
2.1 THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE

OF MATHEMATICS
Language is a means of communication. We use language to communicate our
ideas and thoughts to other people. Likewise, the language of mathematics is also
a means of communication, albeit means to communicate mathematical ideas
and thought. The language of mathematics is however inseparable from the
language itself. This is because whenever we want to express mathematical ideas,
the language of mathematics we use is always part of the language we use for
our verbal or written communication.
Babies and children rely on their five senses to learn about the world around
them. As they grow, they gradually acquire the concepts about language through
interactions with people around them; and at the same, they also gradually form
mathematical ideas and concepts long before they understand what the four
arithmetical operations are (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).
The ability of children to communicate basic mathematical ideas and concepts
using proper mathematical language provides the strong basis for future learning
of mathematics.
Children learn best when they are at their natural setting. This is true for both the
learning of a language or for the learning of mathematics per se. Children in early
childhood are exposed to a world full of mathematical experiences. They are often
involved in activities like counting, sorting, comparing and selecting as they play
and interact. Throughout childrens play, language is used as a means for children
to express their mathematical thinking. It is therefore important for the teacher to
be able to teach at the right moment using the right language so as to help
children build the connection between daily experiences with mathematical
concepts and ideas. Appropriate use of language enhances childrens mathematical

26 TOPIC 2 THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS
literacy. Similarly, well designed mathematical learning activities, by way of

childrens plays, help to enhance language literacy.
There are various strategies that can be used to develop childrens mathematical
language skills. These include activities like drama, childrens literature, role play,
story-telling, singing songs or rhymes, and many others that you can think of.
2.2 DEVELOPING MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

USING SONGS AND NURSERY RHYMES
Music, songs and rhymes are useful teaching media for young children. Effective
use of songs or rhymes motivates and enhances childrens learning of
mathematics. There are many songs and nursery rhymes that are specifically
written to help teachers teach mathematical language as well as mathematical
concepts and skills to young children.
In this kindergarten lesson, pupils may use the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black
Sheep" to practice non-locomotor skills by acting out the rhyme, or develop
number sense by participating in a number-matching activity.
Math nursery rhymes are an effective way for introducing mathematical ideas
and concepts simply because most young children enjoy listening to music or
songs with nice rhythm. Many nursery rhymes and songs for children are
designed to guide childrens learning in a step-by-step manner. Using songs to
learn mathematics makes learning more fun and interesting. Learning is not
deliberately taught but comes by naturally as children enjoy singing the nursery
rhymes and songs that teach mathematical ideas and concepts. In this way, it is
easier for children to remember numbers and how to count numbers.
Very often, the nursery rhymes or songs demonstrate how mathematics can be
applied in childrens daily activities and in this way, mathematics becomes less
abstract but more meaningful and more interesting to the young children.
The following tables show three popular songs or nursery rhymes and the
mathematical language, concepts and skills that can be taught using these songs
or rhymes:

(a) Baa Baa Black Sheep

Table 2.1: Baa Baa Black Sheep Nursery Rhyme and its Relation to Learning
of Mathematics for Young Children
Song/Rhyme Baa Baa Black Sheep

Baa, baa black sheep have you any wool?
Yes sir, yes sir three bags full
One for my master one for my dame
One for the little boy
Who lives down the lane
Mathematical Number sense
Concepts or Sharing, dividing
Ideas Counting
Have you any
Mathematical Three bags full
Language One for
Down the lane
URL to listen http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBnLuOmYML0

to the song http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBEHFFnV3RY
(b) This Old Man

Table 2.2: This Old Man Nursery Rhyme and its Relation to Learning of
Mathematics for Young Children
Song/Rhyme This Old Man

This old man, he played one,
He played knick-knack on my thumb;
Knick-knack paddywhack,
Give a dog a bone,
This old man came rolling home.
This old man, he played two,

He played knick-knack on my shoe;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played three,

He played knick-knack on my knee;
Give a dog a bone,

This old man, he played four,

He played knick-knack on my door;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played five,

He played knick-knack on my hive;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played six,

He played knick-knack on my sticks;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played seven,

He played knick-knack up in Heaven;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played eight,

He played knick-knack on my gate;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played nine,

He played knick-knack on my spine;
Give a dog a bone,
This old man, he played ten,

He played knick-knack once again;
Give a dog a bone,
Numbers one to ten

Mathematical
Counting 1 to 10
Concepts or
Ideas Relate words (one, two, three, ..., ten) to symbols (1, 2, 3,,
10)

Digits 1 to 10
Mathematical
Give a dog a bone
Language
On my (thumb, shoe, door and so on)
URL to listen http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYAI2b2P30Y

to the song http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmPDYkCBuoY
(c) Hickory Dickory Dock

Table 2.3: Hickory Dickory Dock Nursery Rhyme and its Relation to Learning of
Mathematics for Young Children
Song/Rhyme Hickory Dickory Dock

Hickory Dickory dock,
The mouse ran up the clock,
The clock struck one
The mouse ran down,
Hickory Dickory dock.

The clock struck two
And down he flew,

The clock struck three
And he did flee,

The clock struck four,
He hit the floor,

The clock struck five,
The mouse took a dive,

The clock struck six,

That mouse, he split,


The clock struck seven,
8, 9, 10, 11,

As twelve bells rang,
The mousie sprang,

"Why scamper?" asked the clock,
"You scare me so
I have to go!
Hickory Dickory dock."
Mathematical Telling Time with a clock

Concepts or Counting 1 to 12
Idea Relate words (one, two, three, ..., ten) to symbols (1, 2, 3,, 10)
The clock struck one, two
Mathematical As twelve bells rang
Language Up
Down
URL to listen http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTBRxmvPGus

to the song http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kx3W8qo08XM

ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Search on the Web for childrens songs or nursery rhymes that can
be used to teach mathematical ideas or concepts related to:
(a) Shapes; and
(b) Measurement.
2. Discuss how would you use songs to teach the related mathematical
concepts with your coursemates.
2.3 USEFUL WORDS TO GUIDE LEARNING OF

EARLY MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
It is beneficial for early childhood mathematics teachers to maintain a vocabulary
of words that constitute an important component of mathematical language.
Teachers who are familiar with the use of such words will be able to
communicate clearly their mathematical ideas to the young children. The
following table gathers some of the useful words commonly used when teaching
mathematical language and skills to young children.
Table 2.4: Useful Words in Mathematical Language
Mathematics Topic or Skill Useful Word in Mathematical Language
Number Sense and Concept of big, small, bigger, smaller, biggest, smallest,
Quantity many, too many, how many, few, fewer, too
few, enough, not enough, none, some more,
count, different, more, less, the same, less than,
greater than
Four Operations (+,, , ) sum, total, add, minus, take away, plus, times,
multiply, how many times, how many more,
how many left, share equally, divide
Patterns and Relationship between before, after, next, first, second, third, last,
Patterns above, below, between, biggest, match, list,
pattern, smallest, bigger, smaller, one more, ten
more, one less, ten less, arrange, same, different
Shapes and Space round, sides, corners, flat, box, carton, circle,
square, triangle, tube, stairs, room, container,
more, less, more than, less than

Measurement of Length and Distance long, short, longer, shorter, longer than, shorter
than, longest, shortest, height, width, high, low,
deep, shallow, thick, thin, tallest, , far, near
Measurement of Weight heavy, light, heavier, lighter, heaviest, lightest,
balance, weigh, weigh more, weigh less
Measurement of Time morning, afternoon, evening, day, night, today,
tomorrow, hours, minutes, seconds, long hand,
short hand, fast, slow, faster, slower, fastest,
slowest, long, short, longer, shorter, longest,
shortest, now, soon, early, late, old, older, oldest,
new, newer. newest, takes longer time, take less
time, clock, before, after
Measurement of Money money, coin, price, how much, buy, sell, spend,
pay, change, cheap, cheaper than
Words Used to Make Comparison high low
big small
large small
more less
loud soft
young old
tall short
heavy light
2.4 MATHEMATICAL TALK AND EARLY

MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
From as early as the first year of life, children gradually develop their
understanding of mathematical concepts through everyday experiences, routine
activities and their interactions with people around them, particularly their
trusted parents.
Very often, children acquire the understanding of mathematical concepts or ideas

in an informal way, such as through play. Unfortunately, many adults do not
realise the importance of play in the learning of mathematics. As a result, they
miss the opportunity to help children enhance their understanding of
mathematics during play by using the right maths talk at the right moment.
Another important aspect is the right use of language. This is because if we want
to talk maths effectively to the children, we have to communicate with them
using the language that they understand.

Mathematics is actually part of our everyday lives. In fact, mathematics is

everywhere. We apply mathematics and use the mathematical language from
time to time without realising it. For example, when we iron our clothes and then
arrange the clothes into different categories, we are actually using the
mathematical skills of sorting and classifying. When we teach young kids to sing
the ABC rhymes, we are instilling the concept of ordering (A, B, C, ).
Generally, there are six categories of maths talk of which children are involved
in during their free play activities. These six categories are:
(a) Classification;
(b) Magnitude/size;
(c) Enumeration;
(d) Patterns and shapes;
(e) Spatial relations; and
(f) Concepts of part and whole.
(a) Classification
Classification refers to the arrangement of objects into different groups
according to their criteria. For example, children may sort wooden blocks
into groups according to their colours or shapes.
Figure 2.1: Classifying according to colours

(b) Magnitude
Magnitude refers to making evaluation of items or making comparison
between items based on the magnitude. For example, a child may compare
two toys and claim that his toy is bigger than his friends toy.
Figure 2.2: Comparison between items to show difference in magnitude
Some of the common terms in the mathematical language used by the

teachers to help to understand the concept of magnitude are as follows:
long, longer, longest
short, shorter, shortest
fast, faster, fastest
more, less
big, bigger, biggest
small, smaller, smallest
large, larger, largest
some, a lot, little
Can you think of other terms that early childhood mathematics teachers can
use to convey the idea of magnitude to children?
(c) Enumeration
Enumeration here means making numerical judgment or quantification. For
example a child may be taught to say he is 5 years old. Another child may
express that he has more pencils than his friend who sits next to him by
saying I have two pencils. You have one!


teachers to help to understand the concept of enumeration are as follows:
Figure 2.3: Comparison between items to show difference in magnitude
(d) Patterns and Shapes

This involves the exploration of patterns and spatial forms. For example,
children may learn to arrange objects in an orderly manner following a
certain regular pattern. They may also be involved in completing a puzzle
by selecting pieces that match certain shapes.
Figure 2.4: Children may learn to arrange objects according to a certain pattern

teachers to help to understand the concept of patterns and shapes are as
follows:
square, rectangle, triangle, circle, cube, line, box, round

(e) Spatial relations

This involves exploration of relative positions, directions and distances
between objects. For example, a child may describe how the different Lego
bricks should be positioned to form an object by saying that this one
should be on top of that one.
Figure 2.5: Activity involving spatial relations includes playing with Lego bricks and
articulating maths talk.
(f) Concepts of part and whole

The concept of part and whole can be introduced to young children
through free play activities that involve sharing of toys or food.
Mathematics teachers may use the terms like, part, whole and half
when asking children to give some of what they have to their friends. For
example, the teacher may direct a child to give half of the cake to his
partner in a free play activity.
2.4.1 Examples of Mathematical Talk

The following Table 2.5 lists some examples of mathematical concepts that can be
introduced to young children via informal but intentional mathematical
mediated dialogues or in short, maths talk.
Table 2.5: Common Intentional Mathematical Mediated Dialogue
Mathematical Concepts Examples of Mathematical Talk

1. Number Sense Counting 1, 2, 3,
Asking how many ?
Asking which is bigger?
Asking which is more?

2. Number Operations Asking how many all together?

Asking how many left?
Sharing the toys
Asking How many do you get?
3. Patterns and Arrange big-small-big- small
Relationships Arrange from the smallest to the biggest
between Patterns
Move up ,down, up, down
4. Shapes and Space Name the shapes (2D and 3D shapes)
Concepts Ask question like give me a triangle/square/
sphere
5. Measurement Compare the weight/size/length
Concepts Ask which is heavier?
Ask which is bigger?
Ask which is longer?
Ask which is the heaviest?
Ask which is the biggest?
Ask which is the longest?
6. Data Display and Group similar things together
Analysis Count how many in each groups
Draw pictures to show
Initiating mathematical talk judiciously and at an appropriate time help children

not only to acquire the proficiency in the language of mathematics, but also to
achieve a better understanding of the mathematical ideas and concepts inherent
in the language used. It needs to be stressed that even though children normally
learn mathematics in an unintentional manner, through activities that are
enjoyable to them, such learning activities need to be carefully planned by
teachers so as to achieve desirable learning outcomes.
2.5 INTEGRATING MATHEMATICS INTO

CHILDRENS PLAY
Since play is part and parcel of childrens world, mathematics teachers should
smartly leverage on play activities as the gateway to engaging children in
meaningful mathematical inquiry and learning. Mathematics learning
experiences for children can be acquired using two main approaches:

(a) By direct teaching of mathematics; and

(b) By carrying out play activities that involve some form of mathematics.
In this respect, childrens learning of mathematical concepts and skills is not

deliberately carried out and may not appear obvious to the children.
Since play is childrens core activity, it would be better if teachers could design
play activities that integrate mathematics seamlessly into the play environment.
In other words, carrying out play activities may be a better approach for young
children. It needs, however, adequate knowledge and skills for teachers to be
able to create learning environment with appropriate tasks, challenges and
language to support effective understanding of mathematics. It also needs to be
noted that whatever the approach used, childrens play activities must be
designed to suit the ages of the children involved.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Design a play activity that involves children playing directly with
the following mathematical concepts:
(a) Magnitude; and
(b) Spatial Relations.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Why is the use of mathematical language important for childrens
development of mathematical thinking?
2. Why is it that integrating mathematical concepts into childrens
play is more effective than teaching children mathematics as a
subject?
Developing childrens thinking should begin from early childhood.
The use of manipulatives alone is inadequate in developing childrens

mathematical thinking. Teachers should use appropriate vocabulary and
dialogue to facilitate the developing of childrens mathematical thinking.

Both language and mathematical language play important roles in childrens

development of mathematical concepts and skills.
Teachers should identify useful words or terms that help children understand
mathematical concepts of various topics
Childrens world is associated with play. Therefore, it is a better approach to

integrate mathematical concepts and skills seamlessly into childrens daily
play activities as compared to teaching mathematics in a direct manner.
Free play Mathematical talk

Integrate mathematics into play Mathematical vocabulary and dialogue
Language Six categories of mathematical talk
Mathematics Mathematical language
Mathematics Mathematical songs and
rhymes

Topic Early
3 Mathematical
Concepts:
Classifying,
Matching,
Sorting and
Ordering
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify areas that pre-school children need to learn about matching,
classifying, matching, sorting and ordering;
2." Design instructions for the learning of matching, classifying, matching,
sorting and ordering; and
3." Carry out assessments on matching, classifying, matching, sorting and
ordering.
" INTRODUCTION
Children build their conceptual understanding of mathematics in a sequential
manner with one concept built upon another. Initial learning is normally
TOPIC 3 EARLY MATHEMATICS CONCEPTS: CLASSIFYING, 41
MATCHING, SORTING AND ORDERING
acquired through the process of childrens free exploration and concrete

experiences with materials that they come across in their daily activities.
One of the earliest mathematical concepts that children develop is the concept of
attributes. The attributes that distinguish one material from another include
colour, size, shape, height, width, length, and weight. The understanding of the
concept of attributes forms the basis for the learning of many other higher
mathematical concepts. Piaget relates the learning of physical knowledge about
colour, size, shape and texture to childrens construction of logico-mathematical
knowledge which is the basic foundation of mathematical thinking.
The understanding of attributes allows children to observe the differences

between objects. It is with such understanding that they are then able to perform
the tasks of classifying, matching, sorting and ordering objects. The ability to
carry out such tasks is an important foundation for future learning of algebraic
concepts. Besides that, the learning activities related to classifying, matching,
sorting, categorising and ordering also give children the opportunities to develop
their ability to reason, solve problems, make decisions and to function as an
independent learner.
3.1 CLASSIFICATION
One of the early mathematical concepts that children acquire through free or
guided exploration is the skill of classification. To perform the task of classifying
objects, children need to be able to discriminate, match, sort, group or categorise
objects based on their attributes. The knowledge about classification is the basic
foundation to understanding the concept of sets in mathematics. Children need
to use their senses to observe the various sets of objects, and also to identify the
similarities and differences between these objects. Classification requires children
to group objects with one or more common features or attributes.
The following Table 3.1 shows a list of attributes and the attributed values at the
qualitative level.
Table 3.1: List of Attributes and their Qualitative Values
Attributes Attributed Values (Qualitative)

Colour green, red, blue, yellow, black, white
Size big, small, large, little
Shape square, rectangle, circle, triangle
Height tall, short

42 TOPIC 3 EARLY MATHEMATICS CONCEPTS: CLASSIFYING,
Length long, short

Width wide, narrow, thick, thin
Weight heavy, light
In the process of developing the concepts and skills of classification, a child needs
to go through the following logical or Piagetian sequence of learning:
(a)" Learning to discriminate, that is, to decide whether the two items given to
him are the same or different;
(b)" Learning to match and group items based on a specific attribute; and
(c)" Learning to classify or categorise items based on a combination of two or
more attributes.
In view of the importance in establishing the logical sequence of conceptual

development, the teacher should design or create learning environments that
promote learning in the sequential manner. Figure 3.1 shows the suggested
sequence and serves as a guide for the teacher to plan the learning activities for
the young children:
Figure 3.1: Suggested sequence of activity to guide teacher in planning mathematics

learning activities for young children

3.1.1 The Understanding of Sets

A set can be defined as a collection of things or objects with some pre-defined
common characteristics. It is important to define the common characteristics or
criteria clearly so as to be able to determine which objects are to be included in
the set. For example, a set of animals is different from a set of animals with
four legs.
A Venn diagram can be used to group objects into sets and subsets (Figure 3.2),
as well as to describe the intersections and unions of sets.
Figure 3.2: A Venn diagram with subsets
Given two sets A and B, the intersection is the set that contains elements or
objects that belong both to A and to B. For example, set A is the set that contains
all pupils in class Alpha who bring food to school, and set B is the set that
contains all pupils in class Alpha who bring money to school. Then the
intersection of A and B contains pupils from class Alpha who bring both food
and money to school.
Figure 3.3 illustrates the meaning of intersection of sets.
Figure 3.3: A Venn diagram showing intersection of set A and set B
A common mistake made by children in classifying objects or items into different

sets is that they tend to assume that a set can only contain objects which are
identical. In actual fact, objects in a set may not necessarily be identical. The
inclusion of the objects in a particular set depends on the definition of the set.
Therefore, it is important for teachers to make clear to pupils the criteria that
define the set before asking them to carry the task of classifying objects into
different sets.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Collect pictures of 5 different childrens toys that can be used to help
children learn classification based on attributes. Write down clearly
what kind of learning can be acquired for each toy you identify.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What do you understand by union of 2 sets? Can you explain the

meaning of union of sets?
3.2 MATCHING
Matching is the concept of one-to-one correspondence. It is an important concept
because it forms the basis for understanding our number system, noting that we
give meaning to each number (1, 2, 3, ) by matching the number to the quantity
of items represented by that number. Table 3.2 shows some examples of the
activities that can be used to help children learn about matching.
Table 3.2: Samples of Learning Activities to Help Children Learn about Matching
Activity 1: Matching Identical Shapes
Learning Activity Children are asked to place each of the coloured cards provided
into the right hole on the wooden board
Skills Learned 1. Identifying shapes that are similar and shapes that are
different
2. Matching shapes which are identical
Learning Aids
Figure 3.4

Mathematical Ideas 1. One-to-one correspondence

and Concepts 2. Geometrical shapes
Activity 2: Matching Identical Shapes and Colours
Learning Activity Children are asked to move the rectangular strips provided to
the right position of the drawing
Concepts and Skills 1. Identifying identical shapes based on length and width
Learned 2. Matching shapes of the same colour
3. Matching shapes which are identical
4. Recognising shapes and colours
Learning Aids
Figure 3.5
Mathematics Ideas 1." One-to-one correspondence
and Concepts 2." Geometrical shapes
3." Length and width

3.2.1 Challenging Matching Task

The matching task becomes more challenging to children when:
(a)" The items to be matched are identical but they are not symmetrical;
(b)" There are too many items to be matched;
(c)" The two sets to be matched do not have equal number of items; and
(d)" The two items or objects to be matched are not identical.
The following diagrams illustrate each of the above cases.
Figure 3.6: The items to be matched are identical but not symmetrical
Figure 3.7: There are too many items to be matched

Figure 3.8: The two sets to be matched do not have equal number of items
Figure 3.9: The two items or objects to be matched are not identical. Children need to
understand the relationship between the two items to be matched

ACTIVITY 3.2
Describe how you would measure the different levels of achievement of
children in performing a matching task. Write your answer in the
myVLE forum.
3.3 SORTING, CATEGORISING AND GROUPING

Children who have developed the skills of sorting, categorising and grouping
should be able to sort out things or items which are alike, from among a mixed
group of items. They should also be able to group items based on certain criteria.
The idea of sorting, categorising and grouping are important mathematical ideas
that lead to the concept of sets. As such, understanding and acquiring these ideas
and skills will be beneficial to children when they study about sets in their future
learning of algebra. Table 3.3 shows some examples of the activities that can be
used to help children learn about sorting, categorising and grouping.
Table 3.3: Example of Activities Involving Sorting, Categorising and Grouping
Activity 3: Matching Buttons According to Colours

Learning Activity Children are asked to sort out the buttons according to
colours and then group buttons of the same colours together
Skills Learned 1." Identifying colours that are different
2." Sorting out things of the same colours
Learning Aids
Figure 3.10
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of sets
and Concepts 2." Organising data and displaying data

3.4 ORDERING OR SERIATION

Ordering involves arranging three or more objects into a particular sequence
based on certain pattern of arrangement. Some of the factors that determine the
pattern of arrangement include size (from big to small, or vice versa), length
(from long to short, or vice versa), height (from tall to short, or vice versa), colour
(from light to dark, or vice versa) and capacity (from more to less, or vice versa).
Since ordering involves arranging three or more objects, it is a more difficult task
than just making a comparison between two objects. A very young child below
two years old might not be able to seriate or arrange objects at all. Normally, a
two to four year old child who might not be able to see the pattern of order could
make some effort to arrange the objects in a random manner. But a five year old
child might be able to arrange objects in a certain pattern or order through trial
and error. Children of six years or above could possibly be able to arrange objects
through a systematic way. Such changing ability of a typical child is in alignment
with the stages of cognitive development put forward by Piaget.
Ordering is an important concept to learn. It forms the basis of our numbering

system, noting that in our number system, the numbers are arranged in order of
hierarchy from small to big (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, ). Furthermore, well-developed
seriation skills also help to develop childrens higher order thinking skills and
problem-solving skills.
Activities designed for learning about ordering or seriation can range from basic
seriation involving ordering one set of objects, to double seriation involving
ordering two sets of objects, or reverse seriation which involves reversing the
order of arrangement.
Seriation skills can be taught and reinforced using suitable developmentally

appropriate hands-on activities. Some activities that help children acquire the
concept and skills of ordering or seriation are shown in Tables 3.4 and 3.5:
SELF-CHECK 3.2
How do Piagets stages of cognitive development relate to planning

of activities involving matching, sets and classification, and order or
seriation?

Table 3.4: Activity Involving Single Seriation
Activity 4: Putting the smaller cylinders into the bigger cylinders

Learning Activity 1." Children are given a number of hollow cylinders (say,
4) with same heights but different diameters
2." Children are asked to place the smaller cylinder into
the bigger one in the correct order until all cylinders
are inside the biggest one
Skills Learned 1." Identifying objects of different sizes
2." Differentiating and selecting objects according to size
3." Recognise the order of the sizes
Learning Aids
Figure 3.11
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of size
and Concepts 2." Concept of order of size
Table 3.5: Activity Involving Double Seriation
Activity 5: Double seriation

Learning Activity 1." Children are given three similar boxes but with
different sizes
2." By referring to the boxes, the teacher explains and
describes to children the meaning of big, medium-size
and small
3." The teacher asks the children to show the boxes
according to the size specified by the teacher (big,
medium-size, or small)
4." The teacher asks the children to place the boxes one
top of the another in order of size, from big to small

5." The teacher asks the children to place the boxes one
top of the another in order of size, from small to big
(concept of reverse seriation)
Skills Learned 1." Identifying objects of different sizes
2." Differentiating and selecting objects according to size
of big, medium-size and small
Learning Aids
Figure 3.12
(Similar objects with different sizes)
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of size
and Concepts 2." Concept of order of size
3." Concept of reverse seriation
3.5 INFORMAL LEARNING AT HOME OR

AT SCHOOL
Informal learning is always an important part of preschool childrens education.
Unlike formal learning which is very structured and has clearly defined learning
outcomes to be achieved, informal is never organised, and has no pre-set objectives.
Learning acquired through informal learning appears to be unintentional. It is

sometimes described as learning by experience. Nevertheless, it is still possible to
create informal learning environments that allow children experience
mathematics that they need to learn. Parents or teachers can help in creating such
an environment that promotes the learning of classifying, matching, sorting and
ordering by doing the following:
(a)" Make sorting part of the daily routines;
(b)" Involve children in games that require them to perform matching tasks;
(c)" Offer activities that involve classifying; and
(d)" Encourage children to observe similarities and differences between objects
that they come across and be able to make comparisons.

3.6 ASSESSMENT ON CLASSIFYING,

Childrens development of mathematical concepts is sequential. Therefore,
learning activities for children should be planned in such a way that the activities
provide developmentally appropriate learning experiences for them. In order to
ensure that the activities are developmentally appropriate, there is a need to keep
track of childrens progress. In other words, it is necessary to carry out
appropriate assessment from time to time.
Preschool teachers are always concerned about effective assessments that can be
carried out to assess childrens understanding of mathematics. There are two
suggestions.
The first one is to prepare a proper documentation of childrens work. Proper

documentation of childrens work provides teachers with the information about
childrens developmental progress.
The second suggestion is to prepare a checklist for authentic assessment of each

specific area to be assessed. The checklist should contain a list of sequential skills
or learning outcomes that children are expected to achieve. Bhargava & Kirova
(2002) provided three checklists for tracing and assessing childrens development
for three fundamental mathematical concepts:
(a)" Matching and one-to-one correspondence (Table 3.6);
(b)" Sets and classification (Table 3.7); and
(c)" Order or seriation (Table 3.8).
Table 3.6: Checklist for Preschool Early Mathematical Concepts: Matching and
One-to-one Correspondence
1st 2nd 3rd

Concepts/Stages of Development Assessment Assessment Assessment
Date Date Date
Matching similar items
1. Matching 2 similar items
2. Matching two even sets of similar
items with 5 items or more items
for each set
3. Matching two uneven sets with
5 or more items for each set

4. Using appropriate vocabulary

while matching sets (e.g. too
many, not enough)
Matching related items that
are not alike
5. Matching two even sets of related
items with 5 items or more items
for each set
6. Matching two uneven sets of
related items with 5 or more
items for each set
7. Using appropriate vocabulary
while matching sets (e.g. too
many, not enough)
Source: Adapted from Bhargava & Kirova (2002)
Table 3.7: Checklist for Preschool Early Mathematical Concepts:

Sets and Classification
1st 2nd 3rd

Date Date Date
Grouping and classifying
identical objects
1." Sorting objects based on one
physical attribute colour,
shape, size, material, pattern,
texture
2." Classifying based on 2 physical
attributes
3." Classifying based on 3 physical
attributes
4." Describing or explaining what
has been done when classifying
by 1, 2, or 3 attributes
Classifying based on
non-physical attributes
5." Classifying based on common
functions

6." Classifying based on association

has been done when classifying
based on non-physical functions
8." Classifying by numbers
Source: Adapted from Bhargava and Kirova (2002)
Table 3.8: Checklist for Preschool Early Mathematical Concepts: Order or Seriation
1st 2nd 3rd
Date Date Date
1." Comparing opposites (e.g.,
long/short, big/small,
heavy/light, etc)
2." Ordering three objects in
random order
3." Ordering three objects by trial
and error
4." Performing reverse seriation
5." Performing double seriation
has been done when carrying
out tasks like comparing and
ordering
Source: Adapted from Bhargava and Kirova (2002)
The activities designed by a teacher for the purpose of assessment need to match
the knowledge and skills to be assessed. With appropriate activities, the use of
the checklist will then be able to help determine as well as monitor childrens
progress and performance.
It needs to be noted that assessments can be carried out in a formal manner as

well as through observations of childrens naturalistic and informal activities. It
is useful to specify the date of assessment so as to be able to keep a good record
of each preschool childs growth and development in terms of mathematical
concepts and skills. The individual checklist also helps to identify the individual
kids weaknesses so that assistance or remedial help can be provided.

" The concept of attributes forms the basis for the learning of many other
higher mathematical concepts.
" The ability to carry out the task of classifying, matching, sorting and ordering
is an important foundation for future learning of algebraic concepts.
" The learning of mathematical concepts and skills for children follows a
sequential manner, which is in line with Piagets stages of cognitive
development.
" Informal learning is an important part of preschool childrens education.
" Childrens progress and performance in mathematics can be monitored and

accessed via proper documentation of childrens work as well as using
proper assessment checklists.
" Assessment can be carried out in both a formal and an informal manner.
Assessment checklists Matching

Classifying Ordering or seriating
Documentation Sequential learning
Formal and informal assessment Sorting
Kirova, A., & Bhargava, A. (2002). Learning to guide preschool childrens

mathematical understanding: A teachers professional growth. Early
Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1). Retrieved 10 September, 2013
from: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/kirova.html"

T op i c Early Algebra
4 Concepts:
Patterns and
Relationships
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Describe the relationship between patterns and algebra;
2." Identify and explain the different types of patterns that preschool
children learn;
3." Plan activities for teaching and childrens learning of patterns; and
4." Identify suitable assessments on learning of patterns.
" INTRODUCTION
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe
relationships. When pupils in the secondary schools are taught algebra, they
learn to use letters to represent numbers as well as to show relationships between
numbers. For example, 5 + 2 is equal to 7 and 2 + 5 is also equal to 7, then the
following mathematics statement can be formed:
5+2=2+5
Similarly,
3 + 4 = 4 + 3;
2 + 6 = 6 + 2;
1 + 2 = 2 + 1; and so on

TOPIC 4 EARLY ALGEBRA CONCEPTS: PATTERNS AND RELATIONSHIP 57
If pupils are able to observe the above pattern, they will be able to understand
that a + b = b + a where the letters a and b can be used to represent any two
different numbers.
Thus, it can be seen that the basic idea of algebra is all about patterns and
relationships. Knowing that, it is then not difficult for us to understand why we
need to teach young children about patterns and relationships if we want to
expose them to early algebraic concepts.
4.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF PATTERNS

Basically, the first exposure of young children to the concept of algebra is pattern.
Pattern plays an important role throughout the mathematics curriculum in
childrens education. NCTM (2000) highlights the importance of patterns in the
following statement:
Patterns are ways for young children to recognise order and to recognise their
world and are important in all aspects of mathematics at that level. Pre-schoolers
recognise patterns in their environment and, through experiences in school,
should become more skilled in noticing patterns in arrangements of objects,
shapes and numbers, and in patterns to predict what comes next in an
arrangement (NCTM 2000, p. 91)
Patterns exist everywhere around us. Patterns exist in various forms. One
example is the use of regular geometric shapes to form repeated patterns or
tessellations for tiling purposes (refer to Figure 4.1)
Figure 4.1: Tessellations formed by repeated patterns

58 TOPIC 4 EARLY ALGEBRA CONCEPTS: PATTERNS AND RELATIONSHIP
Other examples are the use of numbers or attributes such as colours to form
patterns (refer to Figure 4.2)
Figure 4.2: Patterns formed by numbers or colours
Before children are introduced to the concepts of patterns, they are exposed to
activities like classifying, matching, sorting and ordering. These activities,
together with patterning, form the basis for analytical and logical thinking, which
are the essence of mathematical thinking.
Engaging children in discovering patterns, recognising patterns, finding

relationships between patterns, as well as forming patterns are learning and
problem-solving experiences that are fun and interesting to children. Such
learning experiences will certainly arouse the curiosity of children and engage
them in the active learning process.
4.2 TYPES OF PATTERNS

Basically, there are three types of patterns that young children can learn. They are:
(a)" Repeating patterns;
(b)" Growing patterns; and
(c)" Shrinking patterns.
4.2.1 Repeating Patterns

A repeating pattern is formed by continuous repetition of a core unit that is made
up of a set of elements. In other words, it has a pattern unit that repeats over and
over again. Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 illustrate the meaning of
repeating patterns.

Figure 4.3: A repeating pattern with a core unit of two elements
Figure 4.4: A repeating pattern with a core unit of three elements
Figure 4.5: Another repeating pattern with a core unit of three elements
In designing activities to help children understand the meaning of repeating

patterns, the teacher needs to focus on helping the children to do the following:
(a)" Identify the number of elements in each core unit;
(b)" Recognise the elements or objects in each core unit; and
(c)" Determine the relative position of each element in the core unit.

4.2.2 Growing Patterns

In a growing pattern, the first unit is the core element. The subsequent units
grows or becomes larger in a predictable manner. In other words, the pattern
grows larger in the same way over and over again. Figure 4.6, Figure 4.7 and
Figure 4.8 illustrate the meaning of growing patterns
Figure 4.6: A linear growing pattern
Figure 4.7: A non-linear growing pattern
Figure 4.8: Another non-linear growing pattern
4.2.3 Shrinking Patterns

Shrinking patterns are essentially the opposite of growing patterns. In a
shrinking pattern, the first unit is the core element. The subsequent units
shrinks or becomes smaller in a predictable manner. In other words, the
pattern grows smaller in the same way until it reaches the smallest possible unit.
Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 are examples of shrinking patterns.

Figure 4.9: A shrinking pattern
Figure 4.10: Another shrinking pattern
In designing activities to help children understand the meaning of growing

patterns or shrinking patterns, the teacher needs to focus on helping the children
to do the following:
(a) Observe the change between each unit and the subsequent unit; and
(b) Compare each unit and its subsequent unit to investigate the relationship
between them.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Prepare an activity sheet with exercises for children to extend each of
the following patterns:
(a)" Repeating pattern;
(b)" Growing pattern; and
(c)" Shrinking pattern

4.3 CREATING PATTERN ACTIVITIES

As mentioned earlier, patterns can be found everywhere. But unless we are able to
guide children to recognise patterns, it is difficult for them to explore and discover
on their own the different kinds of patterns that exist around them. In guiding
children to recognise patterns, we need first to make them understand that a set of
objects or things that they have can be arranged in a repeated sequence. We need
also to guide them to discover that there is not just one way, but a number of ways
in arranging a set of objects of things or objects in repeated sequence.
Through suitable classroom or outdoor activities, kids can be guided to create

their own patterns. Patterns can be created with the help of children themselves
or with the use of concrete objects. The teacher can also prepare and use
manipulatives or pattern cards as teaching and learning aids. But there are many
more ways to introduce children to patterns. Patterns can also be discovered
through movements, sound, songs, music and art. Some of these will be
discussed in the following sub-sections.
4.3.1 People Patterns

People patterns include patterns formed by arranging the people. For example,
we can get children (Boys B and Girls G) to position themselves in a line
following various patterns. Some examples of patterns that can be formed are
illustrated in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11
Patterns can also be created using peoples movements or actions. Simple

movement patterns such as up, down, up, down . . . or left, right, front,
back . . . encourage children to use spatial orientations or physical movements
as the repeating features.

Some examples of actions and movements that form patterns are as illustrated in
Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12
4.3.2 Patterns with Concrete Objects and

Pattern Cards
There is a wide range of categories of concrete objects that we come across every
day that can be used to create patterns. Some examples of the categories of
objects are:
(a)" Cookies;
(b)" Fruits;
(c)" Boxes (of different sizes);
(d)" Blocks (of different colours);
(e)" Toys; and
(f)" 2D geometric shapes.
Alternatively, we can create cards of various attributes (size, colour, shape, etc.)
to form pattern cards.
Figure 4.13 shows an example of the use of 2D geometric shapes to form a

pattern. Figure 4.14 shows the use of numbered-cards to form patterns.
Figure 4.13: Using 2D-shapes to form patterns

Figure 4.14: Using numbered cards to form patterns
In kindergartens, children are often taught to recognise patterns. Asking children

to identify missing elements or objects in a pattern is a way to assess their ability to
recognise the given pattern. Another way is to ask the child to extend a pattern by
continuing to build the sequence in the same manner. However, to encourage
creativity, children should be encouraged to create and form patterns of their own.
4.3.3 Creating Patterns Using Music

We can look at the role of music in the teaching and learning of patterns in two
ways. Firstly, music and songs are built upon rhythms and thus follow certain
regular patterns. As such, the learning of music and songs is an effective way to
instil into children the idea of patterns. Secondly, many song writers for nursery
rhymes and childrens songs deliberately include some regular patterns in the
lyrics to make them easier for children to learn.
Let us look at the following childrens songs and try to analyse how the songs
can be used to help children develop the understanding of patterns (refer to
Figure 4.15 and 4.16).
Figure 4.15: Childrens song: Old MacDonald had a farm

Source: YouTube - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_mol6B9z00

Figure 4.16: Childrens song: AAB Pattern

Source: YouTube - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o36gSj7AdZQ
ACTIVITY 4.2
Search the Web for two other songs that can be used to teach children
about patterns. Then, design a learning activity that uses the two songs
for learning about patterns.
4.3.4 Creating Patterns in Art

There are many connections between mathematics and art. In fact, mathematical
principles have often been applied in the creation of art. Involving children in
exploring and discovering patterns in art helps to promote creativity among
children. Such learning activities also educate children towards appreciating the
beauty of art.

The following are examples of art patterns that children can form with the guide
of the teacher:
Figure 4.17: Art pattern form using a single shape
Figure 4.18: Art pattern formed with a single shape but two colours
Figure 4.19: Art pattern formed using two geometric shapes, each with two colours

Figure 4.20: Another art pattern formed using shapes of octagons and squares
It is interesting to note that the use of a single regular or a combination of regular

shapes to form a pattern is the foundation of the creation of tessellations.
Tessellations are patterns formed when we cover a surface with flat shapes such
that there are no overlaps or gaps. The creation of complicated tessellations
requires a good knowledge and understanding of geometric principles and
properties. Therefore, involving children in such art pattern activities represent a
useful early exposure of geometry to children.
4.4 NUMBER PATTERNS

It is fine to expose preschool kids to number patterns. Initial exposure should
however focus on the number pattern itself rather than teaching children how the
patterns are formed and the relationship of the numbers in a number pattern.
The initial concept of a number pattern is somewhat similar to their
understanding of sequence in alphabets.
For example, when preschool children are guided in counting 1 to 10, the focus is
on the order of the numbers, that is, the number 2 is after 1, and the number 3 is
after 2, and so on. It is similar to childrens understanding that the letter B is after
the letter A, and that the letter C is after the letter B, and so on. Children can only
understand the relationship between numbers in a number pattern if they
acquired the understanding of number sense and the basic operations such as
basic additions and subtractions.

4.5 CHILDREN AS CREATOR OF PATTERNS

According to Piagets Theory of cognitive development, childrens ability to learn
is generally limited by their stages of cognitive development. The theory implies
that when we provide learning for children, we should design it in such a way
that they learn in stages, from easy to difficult. However, it may not be wise for
us to rigidly put a threshold on what children should learn. In fact, the theory of
constructivism emphasises that each child should be given sufficient opportunity
to explore, investigate, discover, construct their own learning and grow at a pace
that is suitable for him or her.
After children have acquired some knowledge and skills about classifying,
matching, sorting and ordering, they can actually be guided to apply such
knowledge and skills in investigating and understanding the concept of patterns.
Following that, children may then be guided to create patterns of their own.
Before asking to create their own patterns, it may be good to ask children to
extend patterns that we have started. In starting a pattern, we need to follow the
following basic tips:
(a) A pattern can only be regarded as a repeating pattern if it is shown to be

repeated twice or more; and
(b) The exposure of patterns to children must be from simple to complex.
(i) For example, the following are two examples of AB AB patterns

(ii) And the following are examples of more complex patterns:

ABC ABC pattern
AABB AABB pattern
Children need to be given the opportunity to read or tell others the pattern
that they have discovered or formed. They should also learn to tell others the
relationship between patterns and relationship between objects within patterns
that they have discovered. It is necessary to always encourage verbalising their
thought through dialogue with peers as well as with the teacher. This, to the
children, is an initial step towards concretising their mathematical thinking.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Discuss the different activities you can use to encourage children to

create the following patterns:
(a)" AABC AABC pattern; and
(b)" XYYX XYYX pattern.
4.6 ASSESSMENT ON LEARNING OF

PATTERNS
In assessing childrens understanding of patterns, it is necessary to find out
whether children are able to carry out the following tasks:
(a)" Recognising patterns;
(b)" Describe patterns;
(c)" Copy patterns that others have made;
(d)" Extend patterns that other people have created;
(e)" Identify the missing elements in a pattern;

(f)" Create their own patterns; and

(g)" Compare and talk with others about patterns.
Assessment of childrens learning of patterns can be carried out in both the

formative and the summative way.
4.6.1 Formative Assessment

Formative assessment can be carried out from time to time in an informal manner
through observation while interacting with the children, or by assessing
childrens activity sheets. The teacher needs to be certain on what to observe and
what to find out. In particular, the teacher needs to look for the following
information:
(a)" Are the children able to extend patterns?
(b)" Are they able to identify the similarities and differences between patterns?
(c)" Are they able to create patterns by drawing, colouring or even writing?
(d)" Are they able to use proper language to describe and explain patterns?
(e)" Are the materials to make patterns being used properly?
(f)" The teacher should prepare suitable checklists or record sheets for
assessment purpose.
4.6.2 Summative Assessment

Summative assessment is normally carried out upon completion of learning of a
certain topic or a number of topics. For conducting summative assessment on
childrens learning of patterns, the teacher may do the following:
(a)" Conduct both oral and written assessments to determine childrens levels of
achievements;
(b)" Prepare assessment assignments with exercises or activities ranging from
simple to complex; and
(c)" Keep a record of the individual childs performance in each area in the form
of an anecdotal report.

ACTIVITY 4.3
Prepare an assessment checklist to assess childrens understanding
of repeating patterns.
The study of patterns and relationships is fundamental to learning of algebra.
Activities like sorting, classifying, ordering and patterning form the basis for
analytical and logical thinking, which are instrumental for mathematical
thinking.
There are three types of patterns that young children can learn: i) repeating
patterns, ii) growing patterns and iii) shrinking patterns.
Children learn to form patterns using people, pattern cards, concrete objects,
sound, songs, music and art.
Both summative and formative assessments can be carried out to assess

childrens learning.
Analytical and logical thinking Formative and summative assessment

Anecdotal report Growing pattern
Assessment checklists Pattern
Create pattern Repeating pattern
Extend pattern Shrinking pattern
NCTM (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, Va.:
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Topic Early Number
5 Concepts
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Explain what is meant by number sense;
2." Recognise activities that could be done daily by children that involve
numbers;
3." Explain the concept of base ten and its application;
4." Describe the use of place value in multiplication and addition; and
5." Demonstrate how to teach multiplication, subtraction and addition in
2-digit numbers as well as in multi-digit numbers.
" INTRODUCTION
The foundation and basis of teaching mathematics to young children is knowing
the concepts of number sense. Understanding number sense is critical in
developing mathematical problem-solving skills. These involve counting skills,
knowledge of numbers, estimation and the ability to use mathematical problem-
solving strategies.

TOPIC 5 EARLY NUMBER CONCEPTS 73
5.1 DEVELOPING NUMBER SENSE

Children are exposed to numbers and the use of numbers in their everyday
activities. There are many daily activities that we may not realise involve
numbers. These are some activities that are frequently done by children in their
everyday life that involve numbers:
(a)" Arranging 4 candles on a birthday cake and blowing it one by one;
(b)" Memorising daddys and mummys or friends phone numbers;
(c)" Changing TV channels using remote control to choose their favourite
channel. For example, 103 to view TV3 or 611 to watch Disneys;
(d)" Memorising mums and dads car registration numbers and also the
teachers car number when she came for home tuition;
(e)" While cooking with mum in the kitchen, mum asks to break 5 eggs in a big
bowl, add 2 tablespoons of flour and a teaspoon of vanilla;
(f)" Knowing objects that exist in pairs such as eyes, ears, legs, hands, shoes,
spectacles, pants and earrings;
(g)" Children are exposed to songs that involve numbers, such as Baa Baa Black
Sheep, One Two Buckle My Shoe and Over in the Meadow; and
One Two Buckle My Shoe
One, two, buckle my shoe.

Three, four, shut the door.
Five, six, pick up sticks.
Seven, eight, shut the gate.
Nine, ten, a big fat hen.
(h) Children normally will start counting down the number of days to their
holiday trip promised by their father or mother.
Number sense is the ability to recognise numbers, ways of representing numbers,

relationship among numbers, and how to use those numbers so that every number
has its value.

74 TOPIC 5 EARLY NUMBER CONCEPTS
5.1.1 Understanding Number Sense

Teachers should use the inquiry-based approach when teaching number sense to
young children. As for children from a lower achievement group, explicit teaching
of number sense is essential. The method of number sense guides the children to
think wisely and not make drastic judgements which might be inappropriate.
Having a developed number sense gives a person the ability to use and
understand numbers such as:
(a)" Knowing their relative values;
(b)" Knowing how to use them to make judgments;
(c)" Knowing how to use them in flexible ways when adding, subtracting,
multiplying or dividing; and
(d)" Knowing how to develop useful strategies when counting, measuring or
estimating.
Let us discuss an example.
A 10 year old pupil is 1.5 metre tall. How tall will he be when he is 20 years old?
Many children would answer 3 metres even though logically the tallest man on
earth is found to be 2.51m tall (Guinness World Records, 2011). The reason
children give such an answer is probably because:
(a)" The children have less experience or none at all with the metre ruler; or
(b)" The children do not have the chance to learn while in the classroom and are
not given the chance to ask questions.
Number sense is very much related to problem solving. Children that are
encouraged to use them daily and given the opportunities to play with numbers
will gradually develop mathematical thinking and an enthusiasm for mathematics.
Number sense involves the knowledge on quantity and place value. Let us look at
two different representations of the quantity of eight. Figure 5.1 shows eight boxes
placed side by side.

Figure 5.1: Eight boxes
One pupil may say, "There are eight boxes because I started counting from left to
right and I count from 1 to 8 and stop.".
Figure 5.2: Eight circles in two rows
Figure 5.2 shows 8 circles placed in 2 rows. A more advanced pupil would
exclaim;
There are eight circles. The upper row has five circles and the bottom row has
three. When I add 5 to 3, it gives me 8. If I have another 2 more circles than there
will be 10 circles altogether. I also saw 6 circles in the first three columns and 2
more circles in the last two columns making them 8 circles altogether.
A ten-frame easily shows the arrangement and organisation of the basic-ten

number system. The system provides pupils with the flexibility of individually
counting each shape, or see the quantity of shapes as a combination of small
groups of shapes. Children can also see a certain quantity related to ten. Most
importantly, children are able to develop a range of strategies to calculate the
quantity and understand the relationship between them.
A pupil who is good in number sense usually:

(a)" Excel in mental arithmetic and estimation;
(b)" Are skilled and flexible with numbers;
(c)" Are able to understand what the numbers mean;
(d)" Are able to see the world and make comparisons; and
(e)" Do not rely on algorithms.

5.1.2 Number Sense Ability in Children

The development of children's cognitive mathematics has fascinated psychologists
for years. Calculations and the relationships between numbers grow slowly in the
early years. Children in preschool count manually without the use of any gadgets
such as the calculator or any other means of counting instrument. This ability has
three initial principles, namely:
(a) Stable Order Rule

Some children can count the number in correct sequence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
and so on. Later counting becomes unstable, 25, 40, 12. Yet a large number
of preschool children are able to count from 1 to 10 (Baroody in Bideaud,
Meljac & Fischer, 2013)
(b) One-To-One Rule

Children only need to specify one number, for example, when asked "What
number?" Children will answer, "15"
(c) Abstraction Rule

Children know that they can count different objects such as various farm
animals, cows, sheep, chickens, and ducks. These objects, however, need
not to be the same and similar.
The children also learn that they can count objects in sequence either from top to
bottom, left to right or vice versa, in a circle or in a straight line. What is important is
as long as no objects are added or reduced, the number remains the same.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1." Discuss with your friends how children use and practice numbers in
their everyday lives. Do they memorise numbers or use objects in
translating mathematical concepts of numbers?
2." Outline an activity that makes use of 2 or 3 pieces of board that had
been divided into 10 equal squares on each board. Discuss and create
an activity that will help children to be more proficient with numbers
of either two digits or multi-digits.

5.2 MULTIPLE CONCEPTION OF PLACE VALUE

Pupils build understanding of place value by understanding the structure and
sequence of the base ten system. In the base ten system, all the digits are
organised in a particular way that is in multiples of ten. Understanding place
value, however is more than knowing how to break numbers into hundreds, tens
and ones but is linked to the knowledge of how a number is composed and its
relationship to many other numbers.
5.2.1 Unique Features of Base Ten System

In preschool, the benchmark for place value refers to the use of numbers and
operations in base ten beginning with 11 until 19. For beginners in preschool, the
pupil needs to know that number 1 is not just a number 1 in the number 12, since
1 represents the place value 10 while 2 represents the place value of unit 1.
This may seem to be a simple concept, but for a child to absorb the concept of place
value in numbers, it might take more effort for the teachers to explain to them.
Practically, Base 10 refers to the number system being used together. Let us take
a number, 475 as an example. In the base 10 system, 5 refers to base one (unit), 7
is in place value ten (10s), while 4 is in place value hundred (100s). Every number
is always ten times to the number next to the right of it.
To simplify Base 10 let us refer to Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Simplification of Base 10

5.2.2 Place Value

Place value is used to determine a place of a number, whether the number should
be at the hundreds, tens or at the unit place (ones). As the pupils proceed to a
higher level, they will be learning more place values such as thousands, ten
thousands and so on.
The ability to understand place value is of great importance in assessing the

mathematical skills in early childhood learning. Although there is a disagreement
whether a child is capable of addressing problems in learning about place value,
we insist to continue teaching them because of the following:
(a)" Children are normally more attracted to big whole numbers such as 40, 60,
200, 900 and often ask about these numbers;
(b)" The numbers that are often heard and used by children do not reflect the
basic structure of the place value;
(c)" Children who know counting up to the number 9 will not have difficulty
understanding the value of these quantities; and
(d)" Quite a number of children, who are hesitant in mathematical calculations
when reaching higher levels of education, lack hands-on experience in the
system in a more concrete way.
5.2.3 Base 10 Block Concepts

Base 10 blocks are often used in early mathematics education to help pupils
understand numbers. Base 10 has a cube to represent a strip of ten cubes to
represent ten, and 100 blocks of cubes to represent 100. Base 10 also represents
the power of the base 10. See Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Base 10 Blocks

Source: http://math.about.com/od/glossaryofterms/g/Definition-Of-Base-10.htm

Example of Instructional Strategies
Materials needed:
Marker pens and a few pieces of paper with different numbers between 10 and 19.
Activity:
(a)" Ask pupils to make dots on the paper to represent numbers.
(b)" (11 dots, 12 dots, 13 dots, 14 dots or 19 dots).
(c)" Then ask them to circle every 10 dots as shown in Figure 5.5.
(d)" Pupils will find that 16 is comprised of a group of 10 and 6, while 15 is
comprised of a group of 10 and 5.
Figure 5.2 Group of ten

Source: http://math.about.com/od/glossaryofterms/g/Definition-Of-Base-10.htm
(a) 4 Unique Features of Base 10 System

There are four unique features in the base 10 system, namely:
(i) The system uses the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. Zero (0) is a
value that occupies a space. For example, 506 shows that there is no
value in the tenth (10s) place or as representing a set of zero (null
set/empty set).
(ii) Base 10 is a ranking system. The 'unit is to the right. The next position
is the base (b), and then the base (b) is multiplied again by the base
(b). This sequence is repeated. (b = 10)
......b4 + b3 + b2 + b + 1

Example:
432 = 4(102) + 3(10) + 2.
(iii) The total value of the number is the sum of its parts of the value
assigned to each figure.
(iv) We use this system to make all the basic computation using a
procedure referred to as algorithms. This operation consists of the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Base
10 decimal system is well used in the metric system for measuring.
To assess the pupils' understanding, teachers may conduct classroom

activities that can be made by the children themselves. Below is an example
of an activity.
Example of Classroom Activity
Materials needed:
5 transparent plastic bag measuring approximately 15 cm 10 cm.
A bowl of any big sized beans (about 60 beans).
Questions (from teacher):

Dania has 5 plastic bags. Dania puts 10 beans in each plastic bag. After filling all
plastic bags with 10 beans, Dania has 6 extra beans. How many beans does Dania
have altogether?
Teachers instruction:
Pupils must do the activity by using the materials provided to count the number
of beans.
Childrens solution:
Children put 10 beans in all five plastic bags with 10 beans each.
Children count that there are 50 beans from the plastic bag, which is 10 +10 +10
+10 +10.
Children count the 6 beans extra outside the plastic bag and add to the total of 50.
Children find out that Dania has a total of 56 seeds.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Discuss strategies that could be used in the classroom to explain the
concept of Base Ten and Place Value with your classmates in myVLE.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Write the importance of introducing the base 10 system to the preschool

children in a short essay.
5.2.4 2-Digit Number Concepts

Any whole number greater than 9 and less than 100 is a 2-digit number. For
example, 11, 34 and 99 are all 2-digit numbers. The smallest is 10, and the largest
is 99. 100 belongs to a 3-digit number.
Fuson et al. (1997) have reported their findings and concluded that, there are five
concepts in 2-digit numbers that children use.
We will use the number 56 as an example to understand more about these 5

concepts.
(a) Unitary multi-digit

Children count the numbers one by one:
One, two, three, ...., ,
, , five-four, five-five, five-six, which means 56.
(b) Decade and ones

Children are aware that it involves numbers in tens such as 30, 40, 50.
However, after counting to the number 29, the child gets confused and
begins mixing such numbers as 29, 41, 31, 60, 50. Children see 50 and 6 as 56.
(c) Sequence tens and ones

Children calculate in 10s, that is: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and later in ones, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 56. From here we could see that the understanding of place value
is building up.

(d) Units of tens

Children use the method of counting in units of tens, such as:
(i)" one tens (1 x 10s);
(ii)" two tens (2 x 10s);
(iii)" three tens (3 x 10s);
(iv)" four tens(4 x 10s); and
(v)" five tens (5 x 10s).
And later start counting and adding a unit or sometimes even without
mentioning the word twenty-something like, one, two, three, four, five, six.
Fifty and six is 56 shows a good understanding of 2-digit value.
(e) Integrated sequence - separate tens and ones

Children are fast in applying the concept of ten and unit. For example:
Teacher: Miss Maria has 56 pieces of biscuits. She puts the cookies in a
box that can fit 10 cookies in each one box. How many boxes can
be filled with 56 pieces of biscuits?
Child: Five.
Teacher: How do you count it?
Child: I know that 5 boxes will hold up to 50 pieces of biscuits.
The ability of children to solve problems depends on their ability to write and
understand the concept of numbers when solving mathematical problems. There
are two ways children could calculate the value in addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. They are through:
(a) The traditional approach; and
(b) The childs own creativity.
Table 5.1 shows the mathematical problems involving two-digit numbers using
the traditional approach and the creativity of a child.

Table 5.1 Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication in 2digit numbers
Approach Calculation with 2-digit Numbers

Addition (+) Subtraction () Multiplication ()
Traditional
59 51 33
+ 26 25 45
85 26 165
132
I add 9 and 6 I will have to 1485
making it 15. I borrow 1 from 5
place 5 at the (10 since 1 comes I will multiply 33 to 5
bottom and bring from the ten place to get 165, then again I
1 up to be added value), added to 1 will multiply 33 to 4 to
to 5 which gives now making the get 132. Lastly I will
me 6 then I add 2 number 11 and add 165 and 132 to get
to the number 6 then only I a total of 1485
and that gives me subtract 5 to get a
8. balance of 6. At
the place value
tens I now have a
4 and I subtract 2
and that gives me
2, thus my answer
is 26.
Childrens 59 51 33
Creativity + 26 25 45
85 26 1485
50+20 = 70 25+25+1 = 51 30+3 = 33

9+6 = 15 + 40+5 = 45
85 Then, I will take
I will start my
25+25+125 = 26 multiplication as such:
25-25 = 0
25+1 = 26 3040 = 1200
35 = 15
403 = 120
305 = 150 +
1485

Table 5.2 shows the operation of addition using multi-digit numbers using the
traditional approach and the creativity of a pupil.
Table 5.2: Addition of Multi-digit Numbers
Approach Calculation of multi-digit numbers

Traditional 753
+ 261
1014
I add 3 to 1 and obtain 4.

5 is then added to 6 to get 11 and I write 1 below and another 1
is carried to the top to be added to 7 which makes it 8.
Then, I add 8 to 2 and that makes it 10.
My final answer is 1014
Childrens Creativity 753 + 261
753 = 700 + 50 + 3
261 = 200 + 60 + 1
700 + 200 = 900

50 + 60 = 110
3+1 = 4+
1014
If children are given the freedom to choose their own working strategy and
approach to solve mathematical problems, they will be more confident and will
make a more accurate calculation when dealing with large numbers. Carrol and
Porter (1998) felt that children should be given the opportunity to calculate the
use of alternative approaches and create their own way. Children should be
encouraged to count without over reliance on the calculator.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What are the 5 concepts that children could use in a 2-digit number and
how can these concepts be used in the multi-digit number?

" Number sense is the fundamental concept of teaching mathematics to

children. Having a sense and interest of numbers is critical in mathematical
problem-solving skills. Skills in conducting basic operations in mathematics
will improve the learning of mathematics.
" The ability to understand and use the number system is a very important
asset in the development of numbers. Place value determines the value of a
digit and the position of the number. The place value can be hundreds, tens
and unit. As children proceed to a higher level in their education, they will
encounter place values such as thousands, hundred thousands, millions and
so on. Each one is 10 times greater than the next starting from the unit value.
" The concept of base-10 blocks teaches the pupils to make a collection in
groups of ten. For example, 15 is composed of 10 and 5, 25 is made up of two
tens and five (10 + 10 + 5). Childrens calculation will be faster and more
efficient with a much more sound knowledge of the base-10 concept.
Furthermore, the place value also uses the base-10 concept.
" The choice of selecting the appropriate approach to solving mathematical

problems should be given to the children themselves. Understanding and
frequent practice are better than memorising. Both approaches to addition,
subtraction and multiplication for 2-digit numbers and multi-digit numbers,
either traditional or by the creativity of the children themselves will empower
the child.
2-digit number One-to-one rule

Abstraction rule Place value
Algorithm Sequence tens and ones
Decade and ones Stable order rule
Integrated sequence separate tens Unitary multi-digit
and ones
Units of tens
Null set

Bideaud. J., Meljac, C., & Fischer, J.P. (2013). Pathways to number: Children's
developing numerical abilities.
Guinness World Records (2011). Tallest Man Living. Retrieved from:
http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/size/tallest-man-
living

Topic The Process of
6 Problem
Solving
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Describe the role of a teacher in teaching problem solving to young
children;
2." Explain learning problem solving using the concepts of subtraction,
addition, multiplication and division;
3." Demonstrate guiding young children to apply the easiest method of
problem solving; and
4." Suggest ways in guiding young children to learn problem solving
through multiple mathematical operations.
" INTRODUCTION
Solving problems is part of the thinking process which is the foundation of
young childrens learning. Regarded as the most complex intellectual function,
problem solving has been defined as a high-level cognitive process that requires
the modulation and control skills which are more routine or fundamental
(Goldstein & Levin, 1987). Problem solving is a form of relief method involving
certain processes that young children should learn in their early years of
education. Thus, it must be valued, promoted, provided for and sustained in the
early childhood classroom.

88 TOPIK 6 THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING
The process of problem solving is fundamental to the learning process of

children in preschool mathematics. This foundation must be maintained in each
classroom of early childhood learning. This process is found in almost all
mathematical problems such as: seriation, classifying, shaping and arranging the
sequence. This process is required because without it children may fall behind in
learning to apply mathematics in their daily lives. They may fail to see the
relationship between mathematics and their everyday life events.
Teachers should focus on solving problems as part of understanding

mathematics as children need to:
(a)" Build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving;
(b)" Solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts;
(c)" Apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; and
(d)" Understand the process of solving mathematical problems.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Discuss with your colleagues how learning mathematics can be applied

in our daily lives, especially for children in preschool.
6.1 CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE WITH

PROBLEM SOLVING
Many parents and teachers agree that the teaching of problem solving is a good
start in the school curriculum. This curriculum fosters children to make decisions,
to provide a framework for integrated learning, facilitates cooperative learning
projects and organises work through themes and units. In instilling problem
solving skills, teachers must trust childrens attempts to learn through problem
solving and maintain the classroom environment as one that encourages problem
solving amongst the children. What are the strategies to employ in fostering
problem solving in young children? What kind of classroom experience must
teachers provide for these children to acquire problem solving skills? In this
section, we will explore further about this.

TOPIC 6 THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING 89
6.1.1 Everyday Opportunities to Experience

Problem Solving
Pre-schoolers learn best when they are given frequent opportunities to solve
problems that are meaningful to them what happens in their everyday lives.
What teachers and parents need to do is to:
(a)" Provide an opportunity for hands-on investigation. Offer children interesting
materials to explore (like a magnet), finding objects and exploring
malfunctioned (but safe) equipment can be interesting problem solving
activities for the children. Change the materials frequently to ensure their
minds are always engaged.
(b)" Foster critical and creative skills to encourage children to use the items in
new and different ways. Strands of coloured beads, for example, can become
the reins for horse racing, dolls hair, measuring tools or a tool to press into
plasticine to make designs can also be used.
(c)" Encourage children to give suggestions and brainstorming by asking
open-ended questions: "What can you do with ... ?" or "How many ways
can you ... ?" Listen carefully to the ideas of the children.
(d)" Allow the child to find their own solutions. Offer assistance when they
become frustrated, but do not solve the problem for them.
(e)" Use literature as a stepping stone in your method of teaching. Share a book
showing how the characters solved a problem. For example, the story in the
book titled King of the Playground by Phyllis Naylor and Caps for Sale by
Esphyr Slobodkina. Children are easily fascinated by their heroes that they
learn and read about through story books or stories narrated by the elderly
people.
6.1.2 Guidance and Strategies to Foster Problem

Solving Skills in Young Children
Teachers can foster young childrens problem solving skills by providing enlarged
blocks of learning time, rearranging classroom spaces to facilitate cooperation and
providing a variety of materials.
Nurturing a child to become a great problem solver is not difficult. There are four
strategies that may be used as guidance for teachers to foster problem solving skills
in children:
(a)" Help children see mathematical problems around them, not only in the form
of numbers, but also in the form of picture arrangements and cross-word
puzzles, giving and following directions, and measuring and creating

patterns. Game cards which involve a spinning wheel and dice are a good
practice for children.
(b)" Make sure there are a lot of modifiers, such as small blocks or coloured
plastic materials that could be used as mathematical models in different
situations. Fingers are also a good variable. In addition, children above 5
years should be given the opportunity to solve problems that arise daily.
(c)" Whether or not they use fingers, painting or mental strategies, ask the
children how did they solve the problems. Use questions like, "How do you
know?" "Can you show it to me?" and "Why?
(d)" Offer assistance only when necessary. A good strategy is to keep from
helping too much as this would limit opportunities for children to solve
problems. Use directions, instructions and gifts to encourage them.
If a child shows desperation, start by offering a little guidance such as "What do

you think you can do?" It is surprising how a simple command like this can
motivate children. If the guidance does not work, try giving instructions such as,
"What did you do the last time we tried to measure how many scoops of cereals
you eat for breakfast?" or "Do you think you can count the number on your other
hand?" If necessary, communicate with the children by showing them strategies on
how to solve the problems together.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Among the four problem solving strategies, which do you think is
most effective and why?
6.2 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

We can teach children addition and subtraction by several kinds of methods,
models and diagrams. The first step is to make sure the child knows how to
count 1-10, 11-21 and able to tell the difference between numbers which are
before and after, 10 is greater than 11 or 11 is smaller than 10. Next, knowing the
sequence of numbers 5, 10, 15, 20, .... 100 is very useful when the children have
started learning problem solving.
The following are examples of mathematical problems for learning in early


Mathematics problems involving addition:

(a)" Anna has 5 pieces of candy. She received an extra 26 pieces of candy from
Hannan. How many candies does Anna have now?
(b)" Mariam has 2 nuts. Julia has 30 nuts. If Julia gives all her nuts to Mariam,
how many nuts does Mariam have now?
(c)" Haris has 53 marbles. He is given another 16 more marbles by Shuib. How
many marbles does Haris have now?
(d)" Mother bought 12 apples, 5 oranges, 6 mangoes and 10 pears for Faiz and
his sisters. Daddy came home and brought 4 oranges and 10 apples. How
many fruits are there altogether that Faiz and his sisters have?
Mathematics problems involving subtraction:

(a)" Danial took 5 bananas out from a box containing 46 bananas. How many
bananas are left now?
(b)" Nani has 75 apples. She gave 52 apples to her best friend, Nina. How many
apples are left with Nani?
(c)" Rozi weighs 32kg, Amirul weighs 40kg while Nazmi weighs 42kg. What is
the difference in weight between Rozi and Nazmi?
Examples of mathematics problems shown above are in clear order. However,

there are also more complex problems known as mixed order, which includes the
operations of addition and subtraction. Below are some examples of problems in
the form of 'mixed order':
(a)" There are 54 bottle caps in a box. Nurul has 8 bottle caps that she collected
from school. She then put all her bottle caps in the box. Mawi came and
took 10 bottle caps out of the box. How many bottle caps are left in the box
now?
(b)" Mark has a huge box that is filled with 6 of his toy cars. He also has a small
box that is filled with 3 of his toy cars. Mark decided to give away 4 of his
toy cars to his brother Danny. How many cars are left in Marks
belongings?
(c)" Sheila has 10 strawberries. She gave 2 strawberries to her sister Susan.
Sheila went back to her fathers farm to collect 12 more strawberries. How
many strawberries does Sheila have now?
Teachers usually choose the questions that challenge the minds of pupils.
However, teachers must also not forget to wisely choose the questions that
interest the children. When they read the question, children will feel excited to
try and resolve the problem either by themselves or in groups. Avoid making
questions that are stereotypes because children are easily bored if asked to do the
same thing.
There are four mathematical characteristics of equality in the operation of

addition and subtraction (refer to Table 6.1):
Knowing these characteristics can help teachers gather information about what is
contemplated by the children while they attempt to provide answers to
mathematical problems.
Table 6.1: Mathematical Characteristic and Pupil's Rationale
Mathematical characteristics and pupils rationale

Mathematical characteristic Pupils rationale
(a) Identity element If I have a million balls and I add 0 (zero)
balls to my collection, I still have a million
0 is the identity element for addition:
balls.
a + 0=a; 0 + a=a.
(b) Commutative property If I know that 7 + 4 =11, thus I also know

that 4 + 7 = 11 because both follow the
Any 2 factors a and b can be added
commutative property.
and written in any order and will still
give the same answer: ( a+b = b+a).
(c) Associative property What is 6 + 8 + 2? Yes, by using the

associative property I can first add 6+8=14,
Whenever there are 3 or more whole
and I add 14 to 2 which gives me 16 or I can
numbers, any two of the numbers can
add 8 to 2 and get 10 thus I add 10 to 6 and
be added first and after obtaining the
get 16.
total the third whole number can be
added to it (a+b)+c=(b+c)+a. *Children will use the associative property
when there is a need to solve a series of
values. They know where to begin and
which number to add first and to add later.
(d) Transitivity of equality There are various ways in adding two digit
Any variable that has the same total numbers and getting a sum of 6. When I
number are similar to each other. For build a block design, I find that 4+2, 5+1,
any set of whole numbers a,b,c,d,e,f, if 6+0, 3+3 all sum up to 6.
a+b=c and d+e=f, therefore c=f. If c
and f are the same whole numbers
(5+2=4+3).
Source: Reading Brick Mathematics for Early Childhood Education , OUM

It should be noted that the identity element for subtraction is 0 (zero). There are
two ways to prove the role of zero value in subtraction: 50=5 and 55=0.
Children should be widely exposed to the identity element to avoid confusion
during the later years of their math learning.
For example, if I have 5 pieces of biscuits and I ate 0 pieces, I still have 5 pieces of
biscuits. If I have 5 pieces of biscuits and I ate all 5 biscuits, I am left with 0
biscuits. Obviously 0 (zero) plays a dual role in this subtraction problem.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What is meant by problem solving and how can a teacher teaching the
pre-schoolers in early childhood learning nurture and encourage the
pupils to excel in problem solving in mathematics?
6.3 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Multiplication and division operations in mathematics is interesting and quite
challenging to the minds of the pre-schoolers until they proceed to a higher level.
This process is linked to the problems experienced by pupils in their everyday
lives. Thus this opportunity gives an option for children to be creative in their
learning. Broad understanding of multiplication and division operations
provides opportunities for teachers to encourage more problem solving in
mathematics. The concepts of multiplication and division are not only
interrelated but closely linked with addition and subtraction strategies as well as
early fraction learning.
According to Pepper & Hunting (1998) in Anderson and Thauberger, preschool

children have the ability to understand the concept of dividing equally or
dividing a collection into groups of same amounts. Children experience doing
distribution or accumulation processes in their everyday lives.
For example, one class has 33 pupils, the teacher asks the pupils to form the class
into 3 equal groups. Pupils will begin to line up in three rows and each leader
will count the number in each row. When there is a surplus in a row of pupils,
the surplus pupil will be asked to move and occupy the row which is short of
pupils. In mathematical learning amongst pre-schoolers, children will
understand things much easier when it is done hands-on.

Multiplication is the operation used to obtain results when two factors are
known, example, (2 x 4) = 8. The operation is shown in diagrammatic form in
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1: Multiplication (2x4=8)
Children benefit from the experience in classifying objects such as buttons or sea
shells. For example, teacher may give this problem to pupils:
I have a bowl of blue buttons. In my bowl I have 6 blue buttons. If there
are 3 bowls which contain as many buttons as mine, how many buttons
do I have altogether?
Interaction between teachers and pupils will make pupils become excited and
learning becomes fun.
Dividing operation is used when a child becomes skilled in multiplication.

Division takes the total divided into several small groups. See Figure 6.2 for an
illustration of a dividing operation.
Figure 6.2: Divide operation (8 2 = 4)

In Figure 6.2, 8 buttons are being divided into 4 groups where each group
contains 2 buttons.
Figure 6.3 lists examples of mathematics problems involving multiplication and

division operations.
Figure 6.3: Maths problems involving multiplication and division operations
Each child thinks differently to solve a problem even when they are given a
similar problem. Here is an example of some mathematics problems and the
types of solutions:
Each bag contains 7 oranges. How many oranges are there in 6 bags?
(a) Direct model: The children use direct calculation by counting from 1
onwards until all items are counted.
The child counts 7 oranges. Next the child starts counting from the first
set until all the 6 sets are completed with a total of 42 oranges.
(b) Counting strategies:

The children use skip counting or skip counting in combination, to find a
solution.
The child counts following the multiples of 7, such as, 7, 14, 21, 28,...while
using the fingers. She/he stops at his/her 6th finger which is 42.

(c) Derived facts: The child uses multiplication factor that he/she already
knows to solve the problem.
I know that 75 is 35 therefore I just add another 7 oranges to give me a
total of 42 oranges altogether, whereby 76=42.
(d) Standard mathematics facts: Children are able to use the facts given in a
very efficient manner and are able to explain how the problem of a certain
fact is interpreted. (Anghileri, 1989; Carpenter, Ansell, Franke, Fennema, &
Weisbeck, 1993; Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999;
Kouba, 1989)
"I know 76 is 42, so if there are 6 bags and each bag has 7 oranges, then
the amount of oranges in all the 7 bags is 42", explained a child who
uses a standard method of multiplication.
The thinking of a child is different for every child even of the same age. The level
of intelligence of a child is subjective and difficult to measure, until they begin to
enter a real school. At this stage of development the mind is evolving and
growing. The latest technology has helped and played a key role in children's
cognitive development. At an early age of 1 years old children have already
been exposed to iPads. The era of technology allows the impossible to be made
possible and real.
Table 6.2 describes the characteristics of mathematics and how it is being used by
children. Mathematical properties include (i) identity of element (ii) commutative
property (iii) associative property and (iv) distributive property
Table 6.2: Mathematical Characteristics and Pupils Rational
Pupilss Rational Using

Mathematical Characteristic
Identity Element
Identity Element Number 1 is the identity element If I multiply or divide any whole
for multiplication and division. number by 1, I will still get back
1a=a; a1=a; a1=a. the same whole number. (61=6;
16=6, or 61=6.)
Commutative When there are 2 factors, its If I know that 65=30, thus I also
Property arrangement during the process know that 56=30.This can be
of multiplication is not proven by making a sketch
important. The answer will using objects or by seriation of
remain the same (47=28; objects.
74=28.)

Associative In multiplication operation If the volume of a box is 3cm4

Property involving 3 or more factors, two cm5cm which is equal to
factors can be multiplied 60cm3, I can multiply 3cm4
together before multiplying the cm=12cm2 and later multiply
answer to the next factor. As 12cm25cm=60cm3
when a, b and c represent whole Or I can muliply 5cm4cm=20
numbers, therefore: cm2, then 20cm23cm=60 cm3.
a(bc)=(ab)c.
Distributive In multiplication and division, If I can multiply 523 to give me

Property we can treat the first factor as an 115, I can also multiply 520
addition to the next factor. =100, and 53=15. Later, I will
As when a, b, and c represent add 15 to 100 and I will get 115.
whole numbers, therefore
a(b+c)=(ab)+(ac).
Source: Reading Brick, Mathematics in Early Childhood Education, OUM
SELF-CHECK 6.2
How is the process of multiplication and division linked to each other?
" Mathematical solutions which occur in many classrooms are meant to teach
children to think critically and logically.
" Various strategies and methods are used in solving mathematical problems in
preschool, depending on the suitability of the pupils themselves and their
level of understanding. There are pupils who are more comfortable using
fingers to count and there are those who use blocks and objects to solve
mathematics problems.
" Pre-schoolers are introduced to simple addition and subtraction problems.

These are called clear order problems. Sometimes they are introduced to
more complex problems which are combinations of both subtraction and
addition and are called mixed order problems.

" When the children are well versed in the problems involving multiplication,
the children will be able to solve division problems. Knowledge in
multiplication and division operations provide many advantages for teachers
to teach mathematics to solve problems.
Addition Division
Associate property Identity element
Clear order Mathematical standard facts
Cognitive process Mixed order
Commutative property Multiplication
Counting strategy Subtraction
Direct model Transitivity of equality
Distributive property Variables
Early math: How children problem solve. Retrieved from: www.scholastic.

com/.../early-math-how-children-problem.
Goldstein F. C., & Levin H. S. (1987). Disorders of reasoning and problem-solving
ability. In M. Meier, A. Benton, & L. Diller (Eds.), Neuropsychological
rehabilitation. London: Taylor & Francis Group

Topic Organising
7 Data in
Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Explain data and data organisation;
2." Demonstrate guiding young children; and
3." Show assisting young children to apply the concept of probability in
everyday life.
" INTRODUCTION
In the early stages of learning mathematics, pupils begin to learn about data and
probability. This involves gathering information, organising information and
analysing information. Pupils should begin learning to record data by using tally
charts. There are two types of data: grouped data and ungrouped data.
Children learn to record data and represent information in the form of tables,
graphs and pie charts. Children will learn a variety of charts, graphs and tables.
The graph used at this stage is a pictograph which uses pictures to present data
values. Children will also be asked to interpret the data.
Data does not only exist in the form of numbers and values. Data can also be
collected in the form of an object that is being researched on. For example, a
collected data about colours of balloons being released on TV3 Carnival: red,
green, blue, white, black, yellow, purple, orange and gray.

100 TOPIC 7 ORGANISING DATA IN MATHEMATICS
When probability is introduced to young children, they will be asked to compare

the data using mathematical vocabulary, such as, maybe, maybe not,
possible or not possible. Questions on probability that could be asked
include; "Is it going to rain this afternoon?" or "Can birds fly?"
In this topic, we will see how you, as an early childhood teacher can introduce to
children data and its organisation, the concept of probability and its application in
daily life, as well as nurturing logical and mathematical thinking in young children.
7.1 USEFULNESS OF CHARTS

Charts and graphs are an important teaching tool in the management of data.
Data can be transformed into charts to show patterns that could be easily
discussed in classrooms. Children will begin to understand the process of
analysing data when they interact with their surroundings. Children love to play
games and they will spontaneously calculate and lay out their game, indirectly
making mathematical calculations and data collection.
Children should be given a variety of tools to synthesise, analyse and

interpret information. Charts foster childrens skills to make comparisons and
obtain information.
When calculating involving a huge collection of data, we need a way to interpret

the data and the values obtained. The most effective and easy way to understand
is through the use of charts and graphs. Among the advantages of the use of
charts are:
(a)" Simplifying calculation and rounding off numbers;
(b)" Decisions can be made quickly and accurately recorded;
(c)" Able to make conclusions based on the percentage;
(d)" Efficient and creative;
(e)" The quick way to see and evaluate objectives whether in the form of
increasing numbers or decreasing values;
(f)" Clearly emphasise key points;
(g)" Convincing;
(h)" Compact way to present information; and
(i)" More interesting than just talking or printing.

TOPIC 7 ORGANISING DATA IN MATHEMATICS 101
Nevertheless there are also some disadvantages in the learning method when
charts and graphs are used, such as:
(a)" It takes a long impoverished time because decisions must be made in
advance to make a sketch, choose colours and materials;
(b)" It is more technical because pupils need knowledge to interpret and
understand; and
(c)" It is expensive as it requires the use of tools such as manila cards, pieces of
letters and others.
The original purpose of the use of charts and graphs are:

(a)" To demonstrate and compare changes;
(b)" To demonstrate and compare relationships; and
(c)" To state facts that become realities.
7.1.1 Varieties of Charts and Graphs

As discussed in the introduction, there are various ways to present data using
charts and graphs. Especially for young children, attractive visuals interest them,
thus the use of colours in charts and pictures in pictographs could entice them.
The following are examples of charts and graphs used in the preschool
mathematics learning based on an example of the data presented in Figure 7.1
regarding numbers of pupils and the total number of marbles collected.
Figure 7.1: Data for number of pupils with the amount of marbles collected

(a) Vertical Bar Graph
Figure 7.2: Vertical Bar Graph
(b) Horizontal Bar Graph
Figure 7.3: Horizontal Bar Graph
Vertical and horizontal column charts show that the longest column
represents the number of pupils who collected the most marbles and the
shortest column represents the number of pupils who collected the least
number of marbles.

(c) Pie Chart
Figure 7.4: Pie Chart
A pie chart is also called a circle chart because of its round shape. A pie
chart is often used to interpret data in terms of percentages. In this example,
we mentioned that one student collected about 40 green marbles (32%), 20
red marbles (16%), 30 blue marbles (24%) and 35 purple marbles (28%).
A pie chart collects and stores information in a way that impresses children.
Although children do not see the numbers on the pie chart, they can see the
breakdown of colours of the least and most abundant in the divisions of the
circle. For example, in Figure 7.4, the child will interpret that the student
collected the most blue marbles and least red marbles.
(d) Pictograph
A pictograph helps children to analyse information easily from the chart. A
pictograph is a form of a chart that uses pictorial objects to represent
numbers. Figure 7.5 shows an example of a pictograph about varieties of
apples in a food store.

Figure 7.5: Pictograph
No doubt reading and interpreting charts and graphs would be a new

challenge to the children. However, a graph plays a very significant role in
the overall mathematics curriculum, providing a visual way of conveying
information, for example, in functions or a set of data. Visual
representations provides a picture frame and statistical information by
combining symbols, points, lines, coordinate system, numbers, shading and
colour with the purpose of conveying information fast and efficiently.
Among the challenges faced by children in interpreting charts are their

inability to interpret accurately due to their creativity in interpreting.
Another difficulty is when pupils use software applications to create
graphs. The software application is designed to enable pupils to visualise
data to make arrangements of favourable information in space. However, a
few non-interactive graphics software often produce graphs that are absurd
and useless. Thus, as a teacher it is best to teach the children to use
techniques that are suited to them rather than using the software package.
Creativity in children builds their minds and thinking skills as well as helps
them in problem solving.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Discuss with friends how graphs could be used in early childhood

classes.

ACTIVITY 7.2
A group of 100 pupils were selected to answer the question of whether

they like outside of the classroom activities, do not like or are not sure.
Data collected is as following:
Like outdoor activities 62

Do not like outdoor activities 25
Not sure 10
No answer 3
Present the following data into the form of vertical bar graph and pie
chart.
7.2 EARLY EXPERIENCE WITH GRAPHING

Before graphs can be constructed, children must learn how to collect data. Data
can be obtained by questionnaires given to respondents and their feedback
provide us with data that we need. As shown in the following example, there are
various forms of charts and graphs that could be drawn from the data. Example 1
shows the first step in making graphs beginning from data collection.
Example 1
The following is an ungrouped data that shows the number of books brought to
school by a child in Year 1 from Kelas 1 Permata in a class of 30.
4 5 6 4 6 4 7 4 5 7 6 5
5 3 1 5 6 5 7 4 5 6 6 6
7 6 5 4 2 5

Step 1: Gather the collected data and group the data collected using tally
charts (see Table 7.1) to form a frequency table.
Table 7.1: Tally Chart

Total tally chart (total
Number of books brought
Tally chart number of pupils
by a pupil
bringing books)
1 I 1
2 I 1
3 I 1
4 IIII I 6
5 IIII IIII 9
6 IIII III 8
7 IIII 4
Total number of pupils 30
Table 7.2: Grouped Data
Number of books each pupil Number of pupils carrying a

carry certain number of books
1 1
2 1
3 1
4 6
5 9
6 8
7 4
Step 2: After acquiring the collected data, the children can begin to build a
graph, chart or pictograph with the help of the teacher.
Figure 7.6 shows a vertical bar graph, showing the number of pupils who bring
the various number of books to school, and constructed using Microsoft Excel.
Whereas Figure 7.7 is the same data displayed through a pictograph.

Figure 7.6: Bar Graph
A pictograph is a painting or a photograph in place of a value in a graph. In

Figure 7.7, a picture of two books represents 2 books while a picture of a book
represents a book.
Figure 7.7: An example of a pictograph

7.2.1 Mapping Techniques, from Pre-Graphic to

Early Graphic
Young children aged 3-5 years old spend most of their time playing games and
indirectly games involving activities such as collecting, counting, classification,
and sometimes even the children in their own way make tally calculations.
Teachers or parents can make use of this opportunity to get children to translate
their activities to graphic presentations of numbers. Mapping techniques can be
used to guide children in doing this.
(a) Mapping techniques for early childhood learning

A child can make the transition from the pre-graphic to an early graphic by
using the strip boxes. Strip boxes are boxes representing a table that will be
filled with graphics or pictures as counted by the child. Figure 7.8 shows an
example of an empty strip box.
Figure 7.8 Rectangles drawn in 7 columns and 2 rows to make a strip box
Mapping technique
Equipment:
(i) Manila card;
(ii) Sea-shells; and
(iii) Beans
Method:
(i) On the manila card draw a rectangle with seven columns and two
rows (see Figure 7. 8)
(ii) A child is then given a pile of sea-shells and beans.
(iii) The child has to separate the sea-shells and place each of the sea
shells in the drawn box on the manila card (see Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9: Six shells and seven beans arranged in rows

.

(iv) Once all the shells and beans have been filled in the boxes, the
children need to answer the questions that are asked by their teacher.
Questions that might be asked by the teacher can be:

(i) What object is collected the most?
(ii) What object is collected the least?
(iii) How many sea-shells are there?
(iv) How many beans are there? or
(v) How many sea-shells are there more than the beans?
From the above example, the child will begin to learn ways of mapping
and how to analyse and interpret data.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Data collection is an important branch of mathematics. Discuss with

your friends the benefits of collecting data during an investigation.
7.3 PROBABILITY
Probability is the likelihood that an event will occur or not occur. In statistics,
probability of an event ranges from 0 to 1. 0 means that the event is certainly not
going to happen, and 1 the event will definitely occur. Sometimes we measure
probability in percentages. For example, "Chances that it will rain is 10% or you
can use words such as impossible, unlikely, likely, chance, and sure. It is likely to
rain in the evening.
In the early learning of mathematics for children, probability allows a child to

think about the truth of an event. These are some examples of questions that
involve probability and possible answers given by the children (see Table 7.3).
Table 7.3: Probability Questionnaire
Questionnaire Probability
Will tomorrows weather be bright and (a) Maybe
sunny? (b) Sure
(c) Not sure

Is RM1.00 sufficient for a primary student (a) Maybe

to spend? (a) Might not
Can a 3 year old child drive a car? (a) Impossible
(a) Not sure
Cats like to eat durian. (a) Not sure
(a) Maybe
(a) Impossible
Tigers like to eat vegetables. (a) Impossible
(a) Maybe
(a) Not sure
There are 101 green beans in the jar. (a) Not sure
(a) Maybe
(a) Yes
Questions involving probabilities can only be ascertained after the survey and
calculation is conducted. Only then will a definite answer be known whether we
have made a right or wrong assumption or hypothesis. The topic of probability, if
taught using a proper technique is fun, and will be beneficial to pre-schoolers.
Understanding probability will help children to think more critically and help
them with other subjects.
In Table 7.4 we are going to see some examples of using the concept of
probability compatible to the early mathematical learning in pre-schoolers.
Table 7.4: Activities on Probability
Activity Probability
A pupil throws a dice. Perhaps number 1 will appear, or
Perhaps number 2 will appear, or
Perhaps number 6 will appear.
A pupils flicks a 50 cent coin. Perhaps a tail will appear or perhaps
a head will appear.

3 books A, B and C are put on the Maybe book A is the heaviest

table. By simply looking at the books, Maybe book B is the heaviest
call the pupils one by one to guess
Maybe book C is the heaviest
(without touching the book) which
book is the heaviest book and which Maybe book A is the lightest
is the lightest book. Maybe book B is the lightest
Maybe book C is the lightest
Sometimes, the most effective way to teach children is through games. Here is
one example of a game involving probability.
A black box is filled with several different marbles of different colours. Cut open
at the top of the box a hole big enough for a child to put his hand inside to pick
the marbles. Ask a child to put his hand inside the box, but before he takes out a
marble, ask him what colour he thinks the marble that he is going to pick out
from the box would be. Is it a white? blue? red? yellow? green? or an orange
marble? A confident child might answer, I am sure it is blue or if feeling
unsure the child might answer, I think it may be a yellow marble. In
probability, anything can happen. A 100% yes means the probability is 1 and a
totally wrong answer will have a probability of 0. Sample space is the different
coloured marbles in the box.
Another example that can explain the meaning of the sample space is:
If in a kindergarten there are 500 pupils, but only 10 children are taken and asked
to obtain their weights. Thus, 10 is the sample space taken at random.
The concept of probability can also be introduced to children in the form of

matching with the correct information as shown in Table 7.5 below.
Table 7.5: Matching Probabilities
Match with the correct answers

Maybe o o Elephants can fly
Not impossible o o Its going to rain tomorrow morning
Sure o o All children like to eat chicken
Not neccessary o o 10 pupils will fail the final exam
Impossible o o Aeroplane lands on the railroad
o Ships sail in sea and land
o The kitten likes to eat vegetables

SELF-CHECK 7.2
Probability provides an opportunity for children to play with the
questions and find the right answers after every investigation. Give
some examples of questions that relate to the topic of probability in
mathematics.
Children can learn to record data and represent information in the form of
tables, graphs and pie charts.
Children who learn how to collect and organise data would be able to
construct simple graphs such as bar graphs, pie charts or pictographs.
Probability in mathematics deals with a likelihood of an event. The

probability ranges from 0 to 1. 0 (zero) means that the event is not likely to
occur at all, and 1 means that the event is sure to happen.
Bar graph Pie chart

Events Probability
Grouped data Sample space
Likelihood Tally chart
Pictograph Ungrouped data
Graf dan gambarajah Scribdml. Retrieved from: http://scribd.com/doc/

13265011/Graf-Dan-Gambarajah
Mastura Badzis (2012). Reading brick mathematics in early childhood education.

Mastura Badzis & Norzaini Yang. (2012). Study guide mathematics in early
childhood education. Open University Malaysia.
Math in Children's Literature, Data Gathering and Analyzing. Retrieved from:
www.carolhurst.com/subjects/math/datagather.html
Watson, J., & Fitzallen, N. (2010). The development of graph understanding in
the mathematics curriculum.

Topic Measurement
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Define measurement;
2. Differentiate standard and non-standard measurement;
3. Identify techniques in teaching measurement to young children; and
4. Demonstrate guiding young children to measure time.
" INTRODUCTION
Measurement is the process of measuring the physical properties of an object by
comparing it with a standard unit of measuring attributes such as length, width,
weight or volume of an object or a quantity that is not physical in nature such as
time, temperature, or the value of money
Measurement can be done using non-standard means or standard measuring

tools. Examples of measuring using non-standard means are using pencils,
hands, legs or blocks to measure. These can be used as long as the tools used are
not changed or altered. Examples of measuring using standard tools includes
using a ruler, measuring tape and weighing balance. These tools use units of
measure such as metre, centimetre, inch and others.
Preschool is a good time to start learning simple measurement. To begin with,

teachers could teach children about classifying things, for example, big, small,
long, short, followed by using simple measuring tools. In this topic, we will
explore how measurement is taught to young children.

TOPIC 8 MEASUREMENT 115
8.1 MEASUREMENT
In early childhood education, pupils use direct and indirect measurement and
estimation skills to describe, compare, evaluate, plan and construct. The terms
non-standard and standard are often used when describing prescribed
learning outcomes for measurement. Standard measurement uses ruler,
measuring tape and other means of measuring devices with units such as
centimetres or metres, feet or yards or inches. Non-standard measurement uses
blocks, pencils, hands, feet, etc. as long as they remain unchanged. For example if
we use an unsharpened pencil then the pencil should remain unsharpened
throughout the process. Table 8.1 shows attributes in measurement in early
Table 8.1: Attributes in Measurement
Attributes in Measurement Description

Comparative language for common Use and respond to language associated with
attributes the attributes of length (long, short, tall),
capacity (full, empty), mass (heavy, light) and
time (before, after, oclock, days of the week)
Use and respond to the comparative
language of:
length (My dog is short)
capacity (I have more water than you
because my cup is bigger)
mass (A brick is heavier than an egg)
time (We have lunch before we go to play)
Choose units to match the attribute Some objects/events are better to use as units
to be measured than others (for length choose a unit that has
length like pencils, for capacity choose a unit
that is easy to use such as a cup) things are
measured for a purpose (measuring the
ingredients for a recipe)

116 TOPIC 8 MEASUREMENT
Non-standard units are used to Non-standard units can be used to

measure length, mass and capacity measure:
how long (use hand spans, paperclips,
popsticks, straws)
how heavy (use blocks, marbles, counters,
washers)
how much something holds (use cups,
cans, jugs)
Directly compare length, mass, Use the same units when comparing objects or
capacity, time and area events (use popsticks when comparing the
length of a desk with the length of a bookcase)
Use the same units when comparing objects or
events (to find out how heavy each rock is, use
the mass of a marble as the unit and count the
marbles needed to balance each rock and
compare)
Strategies to directly compare objects and
events by different attributes:
length, width, height by lining up one end
mass by lifting (holding one object in each
hand to determine which is heavier)
capacity by pouring
time by starting at the same time (find who
can pack up the blocks the fastest)
area by placing one region over the other
Identify and sort objects according to
comparative language (put all the small
animal counters together; find which rock is
heavier; arrange three paper fish from smallest
to largest)
The same object can be ordered differently
according to different attributes (a beach ball
may be larger than a basketball but a
basketball is heavier)
The same objects can be ordered
differently according to different attributes (a
long glass is taller than a shorter glass, but
may not necessarily hold more water than the
shorter glass)
Time is measured Particular things happen at particular
times (After lunch we have a rest;
before bed we read a story)

Clocks are used to tell the time and the hands

move or digits change as time passes. Read key
times (oclock, half past, 9 oclock school
starts, 12 oclock is lunch time and 3 oclock is
home time) on analogue and digital clocks
Everyday language of Everyday language associated with
approximation when judging size approximation (nearly, about, just over)
make size judgements in everyday
situations:
I think I am tall enough to reach the light
switch (length)
ask Who do you think could balance you
on the see-saw? (mass)
choose a piece of paper from the front of
the room that is big enough to cover a
desk (area)
choose a box that all of the balls will fit
into (volume)
Estimate length by looking (this pencil looks
longer than that pencil), compare by lining up
the ends
Find things that are clearly bigger or
smaller than the object (I am taller than the
bookcase and shorter than the door)
Source: Department of Education and Training Western Australia, Early Childhood
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss with your colleagues on how to devise an activity on
measurement for young children.
8.2 PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT

Measuring an object requires knowledge of the procedures and standard units
and the properties of estimates. Measurement will explain the concepts of
numbers which are not rational, the characteristics of circles, formulas for area
and volume.

There are several measurement principles that should be known when

measuring, such as:
(a)" When taking measurement of an object, make sure the measurements are
done repeatedly to ensure accuracy for each measurement. This would
eliminate errors due to the measuring instrument or error done by the
person himself;
(b)" Measurements usually start from the starting point (0). If measurements
begin in the middle of a tape measure or ruler, we must reject the values
which are not used;
(c)" Formal and standard measurements use different units, metres are used to
measure the length of a high jump pole, the centimetre unit is used to
measure the length of a pencil. A two-dimensional shape, example a square
or a rectangle, uses unit square (cm2 or m2) for its measurement of area.
Volume of a 3-dimensional cone is measured and the unit used is cubic unit
(cm3 or m3);
(d)" Two pieces of strings may be tied up together and its length is then
measured. Example, the first string measures 20cm while the second string
measures 15cm, thus after tying the two strings together the new length
recorded is 32cm. However we should not be adding two different objects
with different volumes. For example, a cup of sugar and two cups of water
does not make 3 cups of sugar or 3 cups of water;
(e)" During each measurement there will be some slight error, but to obtain zero
error a more precise unit and measuring device is used. Example, recording
the running time of a runner. We record the time in units of minutes,
seconds and hundredths of seconds. Runner A might have a time of 2
minutes, the same as runner B, but runner A shows a time of 2 min. 15
seconds. Without the second measurement of time, runner A seemed to
be running with the same time as runner B; and
(f)" Measurement is transitive. For example, if a book (object A) is 11cm long,
a pencil (object B) is 11cm and the length of a piece of paper (object C) is
also 11cm. Since all objects have the same size (11cm), so we can assume
that the measurement of A = B, A = C and B = C. Through measurement,
it can tell us that objects A, B and C have the same size without the need
to organise the objects next to each other to find out whether the objects
are of the same length.
Undoubtedly, children are able to acquire knowledge measurement as early as in

preschool until they enter standard 1 and begin to learn the techniques of
measurement in a more complex way.

In fact, children have a high level of imagination. Parents and teachers should not
prevent children from exploring their imagination but must also help develop their
imagination towards betterment.
Some examples of preschool children's imagination:
(a) A child pretending to be a doctor:

"Your forehead is hot, you're sick. I will give you some medicine."
(b) A child pretending to be a shopper in a supermarket:

"I want to buy a kilo of beef. How much is a kilo of beef?"
(c) A child pretending to be a mother:

"This milk is hot, wait until its cold then only you can drink it ".
(d) A child pretending to be a chef:

"Put 500gm wheat flour and a quart of milk."
At this age, childrens imagination should be allowed to grow and not be

constrained, as in time children will learn to recognise and relate to the concept
of measurement. Spontaneous games are more meaningful than those taught and
instructed by teachers.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Discuss in detail the principles of measurement and try to explain

what error may occur during activities of measuring.

8.3 FORMAL APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES

OF MEASUREMENT
Young children might find it difficult to count and calculate and are more prone to
learning the concept as a game. Thus, as an introduction to measurement, children
could use simple techniques with wood blocks or fingers. Figure 8.1 shows how
blocks are used to measure the length of a scissors. In the figure, the scissors
measures 9-blocks. The same block is also used to measure the width of a book.
Figure 8.1: Measuring using blocks
The use of standard measuring tools and real materials train the children to
practice the correct way to measure other objects, making assumptions on the
size of an object seen or used.
We use measurements not only to measure the length or width of the object, but
also to measure and calculate area and volume of objects, time and temperature.
Table 8.2 shows classification of the types of tools to measure different objects
and the units used.

Table 8.2: Classification of Tools and Unit Measurement of Objects
Measuring Unit of
Object Measurement
Instrument Measurement
Pencil length ruler cm
Paper area ruler cm2
Box volume ruler/measuring tape cm3
Car length measuring tape m
Room area measuring tape m2
Liquid (water) volume measuring cylinder l/ml3
Book weight weighing machine g/kg
Children weight weighing machine kg
Ice/hot water temperature thermometer C
cm= centimetre
cm2= centimetre square
cm3=centimetre cube
m=metre
l=litre
ml=mililitre
g=gram
kg=kilogram
C= degree Celsius
Measurements are divided into two categories:

(a) A quantity which consists of length, width, height, area, volume, capacity,
weight, and mass; and
(b) A qualitative attribute which consists of the measurement of time,
temperature, and money.

Figure 8.2 are examples of tools of quantitative measurements.
Figure 8.2: Examples of measuring instruments
Despite the excitement of a child to learn the techniques of measuring and

calculating the values of the measurements, there are some difficulties
encountered by children. This could be due to several reasons such as:
(a)" Children are easily deceived by looks. An object is said to be heavy just
because it is big. A large ping-pong ball is said to be heavier than a small
rubber ball;

(b)" The next difficulty that may arise is the concept of units, and how to use the
unit. Children do not realise that using a smaller unit will increase the
number of units in measurement of a fixed quantity. For example, a piece of
string measuring 1 metre length is 100cm, 2 metres is 200cm (centimetres).
Nevertheless 1m=100cm and 2m=200cm;
(c)" The error can also occur when the child does not place the object at point '0
on the ruler;
(d)" Complexity also occurs because children are not able to distinguish
measurements of area and perimeter;
(e)" Although measurement is a technique of measuring objects to discover its
inequality between objects, children are more likely not to use the correct
measuring devices , but more to just making comparisons. For example, I
have a bigger cake than you, I'm taller than you, My pencil is longer
than your pencil; and
(f)" The illustrations in textbooks are rather vague and confusing for pupils in
the early childhood learning especially in the use of units such as cm and
inches.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Formal approach of measurement uses instruments such as a
thermometer, weighing scale, measuring tapes and stop watch.
How can the children be taught the techniques of measurement in a
formal way.
2. What are the constraints that might occur when using a formal
approach in your teaching of measurement to young children?
8.4 VOLUME, WEIGHT, LENGTH

AND TEMPERATURE
Volume, weight, length and temperature are quantitative measurement. In early
learning of mathematics, children use informal measurement with only the
fingers, paper clips, blocks or pencils. For example, the length of an exercise book
is 15 paper clips.
Even before rulers could be introduced to children, teachers must ensure they are
familiar with numbers from 1 to at least 50. Rulers are used to measure length,
width and height. Once these measurements are obtained, they can calculate
areas, perimeters and volumes.

(a) Area and Perimeter
Figure 8.3: Measuring area and perimeter of a rectangle
Figure 8.3 shows a rectangle measuring 5cm long and 3cm wide. The area
of this figure is obtained by multiplying its length and its width. (5cm
3cm) which gives a yield of 15cm2.
The perimeter of Figure 8.3 can be obtained by adding all the

measurements around the rectangle. In a rectangle, the length of AB is
equal in length to the length of the CD, as well as the length AC = BD.
Therefore , the perimeter is the total when adding all sides (5cm +5cm +3cm
+3cm) which is equal to 16cm.
(b) Volume
We can calculate volume for 3-dimension objects such as cubes or cuboids.
Figure 8.4: Measuring volume of a cuboid
The solid cuboid in Figure 8.4 has a length of 5cm, 2cm width and 3cm
height. The volume of this block can be found by multiplying the values of
length, width and height to produce the volume. [(5x2x3) cm = 30cm3].
Therefore the volume of the cuboid is 30cm3.
Pre-schoolers may be confused with the concept of calculation on volume.

To facilitate learning of volume amongst children, small cubes can be
inserted into the block and then count the number of cubes.

When told that a bottle contains 1 litre of mineral water, young children
will only give a blank stare. Why? Because 1 litre does not carry any
meaning to a child. A more practical and easy way for children to
understand is by getting the children to make a comparison. Compare a
bottle of mineral water 1000ml/1 litre, with 500ml milk (half litre) and a
bottle of 'VITAGEN' 25ml. Set up three plastic containers of the same size
and shape. Pour the mineral water in the first container, milk in the the
second and finally pour 'VITAGEN' into the third container. Children will
notice that the amount of mineral water (1 litre) is more than milk (500ml)
while VITAGEN '' (25ml) is very little compared to the rest (refer to Figure
8.5).
Figure 8.5: Different Volumes of Liquid
(c) Weight
Young children often hear adults say 'heavy'. "Basket is heavy, do not lift",
"Hanis school bag is heavy, let mummy carry it to your class", "How heavy
is this papaya?". Teachers can create their own scales using hangers and
paper cups (refer to Figure 8.6). Children will be excited to use these scales.

Figure 8.6: A simple weighing device or scale

Source: http://www.howdonkey.com/pics/52/make-a-balance-scale-for-kids.jpg
Teachers should explain to the young child that the cup contains the object
tilted down because it is much heavier than the object in a second paper
cup. Encourage children to use a variety of objects and record the weight of
the two objects that are weighed. Through this activity the children will
realise that a large object does not necessarily weigh more than the smaller
object and small objects might be heavier than bigger objects.
If the child is able to read and recognise letters and numbers, the actual
scales can be used. There are various tools to consider, depending on the
type of the object to be weighed (refer to Figure 8.7).

Figure 8.7: Types of weighing machines
(d) Temperature
Teachers are encouraged to make a chart for weather and temperature, and
paste it on the walls or notice boards in the classroom (refer to Figure 8.8).
Figure 8.8 Example of a weather chart

Source: http://res.cloudinary.com/demo/image/fetch/w_120,h_200,c_scale/
http://www.adaycare.com/Images/WeatherChart2.jpg
In the early stages, the young children will be taught whether the weather
is hot, cloudy, rainy or windy. Later, they are taught that the temperature

during hot weather is higher than the temperature when the weather is
cloudy or raining.
As the children begin to understand the differences in weather and

temperature and the different environmental conditions, the teacher may
introduce tools that measure temperature, that is, the thermometer. There
are 3 types of thermometers:
(a)" Clinical thermometer to measure the temperature of the human body;
(b)" Laboratory thermometer to measure the temperature of the liquid in
the laboratory; and
(c)" Room thermometer to measure the room temperature and the
surrounding environment.
Figure 8.9 Different types of thermometer
To make learning more interesting for the children in the classroom, teachers
could bring a clinical thermometer to the children. A simple activity can be
conducted. The teacher randomly chooses some pupils and take the temperature
of their bodies. A special thermometer placed on the childs forehead, is used. An
example of the childrens temperatures is recorded in the data in Table 8.3

Table 8.3 Data on childrens body temperatures.
Pupils name Temperature (C)

Amirah 37.0
Faizal 37.3
Amin 37.0
Aaron 37.2
Abigail 38.0
Our normal body temperature is 37C. From the data obtained, we may notify the
pupils that Abigails body temperature is 38.0C, a little higher than the normal body
temperature. Thus, there is a possibility that Abigail is having a slight fever.
Every day on television, weather reports display data for the states in Malaysia
and overseas. Young children should be encouraged to watch it, and parents
should try to explain the concept of temperature to their children.
8.5 INFORMAL MEASUREMENT:

THE CONCEPT OF TIME
Young children can feel how heavy a bag of peanuts weighing 500g and a box of
raisins weighing 100g are. They can easily tell which object is heavier and which
is lighter. Children can know which pencil is longer and which is shorter but they
find difficulty in understanding the concept of time and need adults to assist
them on the time concept.
Learning through songs about the days of the week is one of the ways to learn about
time. Children love to sing! Learning becomes fun and easy through music and
poetry. Children learn faster when the days are noted on the calendar while singing
songs or reading a poem.
Thus, encourage children to have their own calendar. A variety of information

can be recorded on the calendar each day. Parents would be surprised to see
many activities, and plans made by their children.
In the concept of physics, time is categorised as a qualitative and informal

measurement. Time involves a period, or how long and a sequence. Two aspects
of measurement that will be discussed are time and day. Children are taught to
tell time and specify the period of time.

The curriculum of early childhood education begins to teach the children to look
at pictures of clocks and tell the time shown in hours: 1 oclock, 2 o'clock, 3
o'clock and 12 o'clock, besides describing the concept of night and day which
uses the same count. Once the child is able to read the time on the clock
according to the count of the hour, children will be taught how to count and read
the movement of the minute which is calculated every 5 minutes.
Now, in modern technology, children are exposed to a digital clock where they
only need to read the numbers displayed on the screen to tell time. For example,
3.47am or 4.19pm.
The activities in many classrooms provide opportunities for pupils to learn the
concept of time effectively. Some examples of activities are shown below:
Example 1
By using a stopwatch, the teacher tells the pupils to close their eyes for 1 minute.
After the one minute, stop the stopwatch and asked the pupils to open their eyes.
This activity is designed so that pupils can feel the duration time of 1 minute. The
same activity can be repeated for 2 minutes or 3 minutes.
Example 2
Children are given a drawing of an object to be coloured or painted. Before
starting to colour, the children were asked to look at the clock and note the time .
Once the children have finished colouring, they will be asked to note down the
time. The children will learn and notice how long they took to finish colouring.
Example 3
All children are given a checklist for them to make a note of the time taken while
making a number of activities, daily for a week, as set out in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Checklist on time taken for activities
Activity Time taken (hours/minute)

Journey to school from home.
Doing school homework at home.
Watching Doraemon on television.
Helping mother wash dishes after dinner.
Going to the zoo with family members.

With such a schedule, the child will always feel excited to create activities and
constantly think about time.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Children sometimes have difficulty in doing the process of measuring.
What are the techniques that could be used when measuring liquids
using informal measurement?
" There are two types of measurement for young children; standard and non-
standard measurement.
" Standard measurement uses specific measuring instruments and devices

following National Standard Unit. Non-standard measurement uses either
fingers, elbows, blocks, pencils or even paper clips to measure objects and
uses the technique of comparing the differences in lengths or weights of two
or more different objects.
" Teaching measurement using proper techniques avoids significant error

when measuring area, perimeter or when measuring the volume, weight,
temperature and time.
" The concept of time is very important to preschoolers because it involves our
everyday lives, no matter how young or old. Time affects our lives and
children can be trained to appreciate time and use it well.
Centimetre Stop watch

Error Temperature
Measuring cylinder Thermometer
Measuring tape Volume
Standard measurement

Topic Mathematics
9 Learning
Environment
for Early
Childhood
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify the structure of social and emotional learning of pupils in
learning mathematics;
2." List various instructional strategies to employ in mathematics
learning amongst young children; and
3." Apply suitable and effective methods in mathematics learning for
early childhood education.
" INTRODUCTION
Developmental stages in children gradually develop and expand as they grow
older and maturity in thinking increases.
Learning mathematics is not conducted only in formal schools but should begin
in preschool. This is because the effective learning of a child develops at an early
age, and will form a strong foundation of learning that will help them to continue

TOPIC 9 MATHEMATICS LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD 133
learning at a higher level. Based on lessons planned by teachers, children as

young as pre-schoolers can become fascinated in the learning of mathematics.
Therefore, teachers should play a role that will attract children to gain interest in
mathematics, and not let that interest fade away as they grow older.
A strong basic knowledge in mathematics is important, as our society is moving

towards a developed nation founded on Science and Technology. Our pupils
should have a strong understanding of basic mathematical concepts that will
enable them to pursue their studies at a higher level. To ensure the future of our
nation, we need to review and adopt a more effective method and strategy in
teaching children the basics of mathematics in their early schooling.
9.1 MANAGING THE LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT
The classroom is one of the most conducive places for learning activities. A lot of
time is spent by teachers and pupils in the classroom. The environment in the
classrooms that is created and encouraged by the teacher determines whether
the pupil's ability to learn is increasing or decreasing, and whether it is conducive
for the children to learn and play.
Some things that teachers can consider in managing the learning environment
include:
(a)" Building an environment that is able to provide effective teaching and
learning;
(b)" Strengthening the role of teachers in the mathematics learning environment;
(c)" Developing the integration of technology in teaching and the learning
environment; and
(d)" Organising teaching strategies to improve the learning environment.
Apart from having a comfortable and conducive learning centre, the materials in
teaching mathematics in early childhood learning must also be carefully
designed to diversify teaching, in order to attract the attention of children.

134 TOPIC 9 MATHEMATICS LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
Other than that, the learning environment is also affected by factors such as:
(a)" The belief of teachers teaching mathematics;
(b)" Teaching expertise in mathematics and an understanding of how pupils
learn mathematics;
(c)" Past experiences of pupils;
(d)" Expectations of parents; and
(e)" School policies.
The activities in mathematics learning also plays an important role. Activities

must be appropriate with the learning environment. Activities that may be
conducted include the following:
(a) Activities in the classroom

Activities in the classroom should involve all pupils doing the same
activity. Normally the activities are based on information presented by
teachers through instruction and narration, while question and answer
sessions will be done at the end of the sessions.
(b) Group activities

Group activities are very important because through this activity children
learn to share and take turns to participate. When conducting a group
activity, the teacher must make sure that every boy and girl is involved.
Groups should be in small numbers so that all children are able to engage
or participate. Teachers can choose same or different activities for each
group. The main objective is to develop the child to work together and
cooperate with one another in solving the problem given.
(c) Individual Activities

In addition to the activities in the classroom and in groups, the teacher
should also provide individual activities. There are times when individual
activities are suitable for children because they provide the opportunity for
children to be independent, and to allow teachers to give instruction to the
individual child.
Each activity must be planned so as to avoid wasting time and can thus provide
the maximum benefit to the pupils. The teacher should plan learning activities in
the classroom which should last for half an hour (30 minutes). Plan activities
which involve the number concept. Table 9.1 shows an example of activities
suitable for 5 year old pupils at the kindergarten.

Table 9.1: Example of a Mathematics Lesson Plan for 5-year old Pupils
Lesson Plan
Subject: Mathematics
Total number of pupils: 20 pupils
Age : 5 Year old
Time: 9am until 9.30am. (1/2 hour)
Time Learning Module
9.00am-9.05am Induction
Introducing cube, cuboid and concept of numbers.
Teacher explains while showing the block.
9.05am-9.15am Provide sense of numbers and experience to the children on the
concepts of number and quantity. Children are exposed to using
blocks of various shapes. Let the children hold two blocks, one
on the left hand and one on the right hand, saying "a block".
Every time they show the block, they will be repeating the words
but the number will be increased, two blocks, three blocks,
four blocks, and so on. Over time, the child can arrange the
blocks in accordance with the characteristics of the other.
9.15am-9.25am To develop the ability to count in sequence and in a position
such as first, second, third and so on. Children take a few pieces
of the block. Each person count the blocks one by one. Other
children will be watching.
1. Several pieces of blocks arranged in a row and the children
will be counting the blocks.
2. The blocks are compiled into a tower. Children count the
blocks used to make the construction.
3. The blocks are arranged in a straight line. Children are asked
to show the position of the first block, second, third, and so
on. These activities are conducted after the child is familiar
with the concept of numbers. In the initial stages do not
exceed the number 5 then 10.
9.25am-9.30am Giving a sense of fun to learn mathematics. Teachers sing with
children a song that has numbers in the lyrics while using
fingers. Over time the child can count with the fingers while
singing.

ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Plan activities in the classroom suitable for children aged five years.
Describe in detail how you plan to execute the plan in your own
classroom. Write your answer in myVLE forum.
2. What preparations should you do as a teacher teaching mathematics
to preschool children?
9.2 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL STRUCTURES OF

LEARNING
Social and emotional learning provide an opportunity to advance education
towards a positive approach, rather than a punitive one to promote healthy
adolescent behaviour. Moreover, learning is also intended to develop a more
robust learning ecosystem to appreciate emotional and social intelligence. An
excerpt from School-Based Social and Emotional Learning Programmes
identifies some elements of emotional learning skills. The elements are listed in
Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Socio-Emotional Learning Skills
Elements of Socio-
Examples
Emotional Skill
Self-Awareness Recognising and knowing one's emotions
Understand the causes and circumstances of a person
Recognising and knowing the emotions of others
Recognising the inner strength, and stir positive feelings
about self, school, family, and support network
Knowing the needs and values of a person
Looking at the requirements and values of a person
Believing personal effectiveness
Have a sense of spirituality
Value diversity
Social Awareness Showing respect for others
Listen carefully and accurately
Increase empathy and sensitivity to the feelings of others
Understanding the views and feelings of others

Responsible for decisions Analyse the situation perceptively and identify the problem
clearly
Practice social decision making and problem solving
skills
Respond constructively in solving interpersonal problems
Engage in self-assessment and reflection
Face up to personal responsibility, morality, and ethics.
Relationship Management Managing emotions in relationships, harmonising the
various feelings
Demonstrate sensitivity to social-emotional cues
Expressing feelings effectively
Communicate clearly
Involve others in social situations
Build relationships
Collaborate
Practicing self-tendencies, leadership, and persuasion
Manage conflict, negotiation, and refusal
Preparing and looking for help
Self-Management and Expressing and dealing with anxiety, anger, and
Organisation depression
Controlling impulses, aggression, and self-destruction
and antisocial behaviour
Manage personal and interpersonal pressures
Focus on existing tasks
Setting short and long term goals
Plan carefully and thoughtfully
Modifying performance based on feedback
Mobilising positive motivation
Activating hope and confidence
Work towards optimal performance
Source: School-Based Social and Emotional Learning Programmes
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1." Give examples of how negative emotions and stress can affect
learning of a pupil.
2." What are the elements of socio-emotional learning skills and the
effects on the learning of the pupil?

9.3 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR

ENHANCING MATHEMATICS LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
The learning in any subject will change from time to time in accordance with the
development of technology. Now, use of computers and high-tech materials have
dominated the market and become one of the teaching materials and mode of
learning. As such, various methods have been developed by experts in education
so that the level of education in Malaysia is on par with other developed
countries in the world.
The following are some instructional methods and strategies that can be
employed by teachers to enhance mathematics learning environment:
(a) Induction method

Induction is used to obtain conclusions, facts or general characteristics of
research on some specific mathematical model. In this method, pupils
should study mathematical examples, make comparisons and analysis
before arriving at conclusions.
Figure 9.1 shows the learning process through method of induction which
could be practised to enhance the learning of mathematics.
Figure 9.1: Learning process through induction method
(b) Deduction method

Deduction method encourages the use of formulas, laws or mathematical
theorems that have been studied, to arrive at a conclusion or new
mathematical generalisation. With this method, pupils can gain vast
experience and knowledge of mathematics enough to arrive at the formula,
law, or new mathematical theorem.
Figure 9.2 shows a deduction method used in obtaining theorems from

formulated mathematical laws.

Figure 9.2: Learning process through deduction method
(c) Inquiry discovery method

This method includes the planning of all activities, investigating, analysing
and recording findings. The objectives of this method are to:
(i) Help pupils know the things they want to know;
(ii) Expand pupils' knowledge; and
(iii) Promote critical and creative thinking among pupils.
Figure 9.3 shows steps used in the inquiry-discovery method starting from
identifying the problem until a summary or solution is achieved.
Figure 9.3: Inquiry-discovery method

(d) Discussion method

Discussions encourage children to communicate with one another and to
learn to work well in groups. This enhances their collaborative skills and
also nurtures them to be team players. These are the objectives of using the
discussion method:
(i)" To challenge ones thinking;
(ii)" To stimulate attitudes and beliefs;
(iii)" To build skills of interacting with others;
(iv)" To promote mental development; and
(v)" To train pupils to think more thoroughly.
At the beginning, the teacher will start a discussion and ask questions
related to a topic. During the discussion, pupils are encouraged to give their
views while the teacher acts as an observer, stimulating pupils to give
opinions and help pupils make the conclusion. Focus areas in discussions
that teacher must take into consideration are:
(i)" The relevance of the discussion;
(ii)" Accuracy of facts;
(iii)" Relevance and fitness of ideas presented; and
(iv)" Mode of discussion.
(e) Questioning method

Questioning children can encourage critical thinking in them. The
objectives of the questioning method are to:
(i) Assist pupils to recall and reinforce concepts or skills they have
learned;
(ii) Guiding pupils to participate actively in learning;
(iii) Guiding pupils to use their brain power to solve problems;
(iv) Generate interest and curiosity in pupils; and
(v) Helping pupils revise their mathematics.

This method is powerful in probing childrens understanding of what have

been learnt. However, the teacher must use certain questioning techniques
to gain quality responses, and for positive learning experience. Below are
some guidelines that may help mathematics teachers in mastering
techniques of questioning efficiently and effectively:
(i) Using mathematical language appropriate to the level of achievement
of pupils;
(ii) Build simple, accurate, clear and contained questions only for a
concept or a fact;
(iii) Use questions that encourage pupils to think; and
(iv) Use the right questions according to teaching objectives.
Figure 9.4 shows four characteristics in the questioning method that can be
used by teachers.
Figure 9.4: Characteristics of questioning method

Table 9.3 elaborates the characteristics of the questioning method.
Table 9.3: Characteristics of the Questioning Method
Characteristic of Questioning Descriptions

Frequency Refers to how often and frequent the questions posed
by the teacher during the learning and teaching process
The frequency of questioning encourage more pupils
to participate and improve their study achievement
Equal distribution Teachers should not ignore the weak pupils and focus
only on the smart ones
Teachers should avoid questioning all pupils at one
time
Teachers are not encouraged to call the pupil's name
before asking, for fear that only pupils whose names
are called will be thinking
Initiator Teachers ask questions or give commands, to get
information or answers from pupils who have failed to
respond or respond incompletely
Waiting time This is a quiet scene while waiting for a reply
Waiting time for an answer to be given should be
quite a short; less than one second
The benefits of waiting time are:
The lesson can run smoothly and is focused
Quality and quantity of pupils responses also
increases
Failures to answer decline because pupils who
voluntarily participate to answer increase

Figure 9.5 shows the stages of questioning according to Blooms Taxonomy.
STAGES OF QUESTIONING
Figure 9.5: Stages of questioning according to Blooms Taxonomy

Table 9.4 shows the examples of questions that could be used in the process
of questioning based on the levels of Blooms Taxonomy.
Table 9.4: Examples of Questions According to the Levels of Blooms Taxonomy

Levels of Blooms
Pupils activity Examples of questions
Taxonomy
Knowledge Memorise What ....?
Fact List ....
Terminology Name ....
Definition Define
Concept Describe .....
Principle
Understanding Understanding of the meaning Explain ...
of material Simplify ...
Give an example ...
Translate ...
Predict ....
Usage Choosing a concept/skill and Solve ....
use to solve problems Use ....
Construct ...
Calculate ....
Analysis Dividing the material into How can these data be used?
sections and explain its Why ...?
relevance How? ...
Linked with ...?
What is the difference ...
Between ... and ...
Assessment Making a decision based on the Criteria for ...?
criteria before the proof What results can you do ...?
Compare and contrast ...
Criteria for ...?
Synthesis Produce something pure after How do these data support ...?
dividing materials into specific What can be predicted as a
components result of data
(f) Practical work

Practical work is normally done by the children who are given tools to
carry out their own experimentation while the teachers act as facilitators,
facilitating and guiding the children while the children undertake the
practical work.
Through this method, children can discover the principles, mathematical

theorems with resources or tools of mathematics. For example, pupils may
be asked to build mathematical models that will give them a concrete

mathematical concept that is abstract.
(g) Expository
Expository is a way of delivering education through information,
storytelling or demonstration with the aim of teaching. Teachers provide
information in advance and pupils listen carefully to understand and
remember them.
Figure 9.6 shows the stages of delivering information to the pupils in the
expository method.
Figure 9.6: Expository method
Table 9.5 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of using the

expository method in teaching.
Table 9.5: Advantages and disadvantages of expository method
Advantages Disadvantages
Teachers save time, easy to control Boring
discipline
Effective in conveying information, Becomes a long lecture if used in the
concepts and principles of mathematics whole of teaching and learning concept
(h) Laboratory
When children study mathematics, they need concrete activities to
understand the symbols and signs of abstract mathematics. In the
laboratory method, pupils use mathematical resources or tools available in
the laboratory to experience concrete activities while discovering the
principles, laws and theorems of mathematics.
For example, to find out the relationship between the measurement of units
such as 1kg = 1000g, 1L = 1000ml, 1m = 100cm, children may get hands on
experience by using measuring instruments such as scales during
laboratory sessions.

(i) Demonstration
It is a technique that involves teachers demonstrating how to do an activity
or steps in front of the pupils. Demonstration starts with teachers
demonstrating what needs to be done while pupils hear, observe and
attempt to do the activity. For example, a teacher can demonstrate how to
draw an angle using a protractor.
Some of the advantages of using the demonstration method are:

(i) Pupils will be able to emulate techniques or skills accurately and
easier, when trying on their own;
(ii) A good demonstration strengthens pupils memories on the steps to
be taken;
(iii) It facilitates pupils understanding and creates interest in learning;
(iv) Pupils will undergo practical training to build a strong and precise
skills;
(v) The teacher is able to correct any mistake as it happens and thus,
pupils performance can be enhanced;
(vi) It enables pupils to be more confident to perform an individual
demonstration;
(vii) Ideas, principles or concepts can be illustrated during demonstration;
(viii) It reduces time consumption compared with a trial and error method;
and
(ix) Pupils will not perform unguided activities and thus avoid accidents.
(j) Cooperative and collaborative learning

Cooperative and collaborative learning is a teaching strategy in which
pupils interact in a small group, with a purpose and a common goal. Pupils
work together to learn and are responsible for the learning of their team
mates, in addition to their own learning.
Collaborative learning is based on cooperative learning. To create a

collaborative classroom, one easy way is to conduct cooperative learning
where the teacher can control more variables in the class. When pupils
become more familiar with how to work together, depending on each other
to acquire knowledge, then they will grow to be collaborative learners.

Similarities between cooperative and collaborative learning are:

(i) Emphasises active learning;
(ii) Teachers act as facilitators;
(iii) Teaching and learning experienced by pupils and teachers; and
(iv) Enhances the cognitive skills;
Pupils are required to take responsibility for their own learning:

(i) Allows pupils to present their ideas in small groups;
(ii) Develops social skills and team building;
(iii) Helps increase pupils success and knowledge memory; and
(iv) Utilises pupils diversity.
Table 9.6 shows the differences between cooperative and collaborative

methods.
Table 9.6: Differences between Cooperative and Collaborative Methods
Cooperative Collaborative
Pupils receive training in teamwork It is assumed that the pupils have the social
and social skills skills required. They need to develop their
Activities are structured where each existing skills to achieve learning goals
pupil plays a specific role Pupils make discussion and self-organise
Teachers monitor, listen and The group activity is not monitored by
intervene in group activities if teachers. If any questions arise, questions are
necessary answered by the group itself. Teachers only
Pupils need to submit their work for guide pupils toward resolving the question
assessment at the end of the lesson Pupils keep working draft for further tasks
Pupils evaluate the performance of Pupils evaluate the performance of
individuals and groups under the individuals and groups without the
guidance of teachers guidance of a teacher
(k) Teacher-centred approach

In this method, teachers are the main source of instruction and information.
Pupils passively receive information with the goal of acquiring information
passed by the teacher. The teacher controls the situation and act as the
leader. The focus of teaching or activity is monopolised by the teacher.

Some examples of teaching strategies that are used in teacher-centred

approach are:
(i) Story telling;
(ii) Lectures; and
(iii) Demonstration.
Figure 9.7 shows the characteristics of teacher-centred approach in teaching

and learning.
Figure 9.7: Characteristics of teacher-centered approach
(l) Pupil-centered Approach

This approach focusses on:
(i) Active learning and increase pupils involvement;
(ii) Pupils have the freedom to engage in activities with teachers;
(iii) Teachers act as facilitators and are responsible for the pupil; and
(iv) Learning emphasises in independent learning, self-discovery and
inquiry-discovery method.

Figure 9.8 shows the characteristics of pupil-centred approach as a way to

increase the pupils involvement in learning.
Figure 9.8: Characteristics of pupil-centred approach
(m) Media-centred approach

In media-centred approach, teachers use many media or materials such as
books, building blocks, painting materials, scientific equipment, computers,
resource, self-access centres and others in carrying out the teaching. Use of
materials in the learning and teaching techniques should be based on
several factors such as learning objectives, pupils needs, instructional
strategies and abilities of pupils.
Various types of media or materials used during learning and teaching are
able to improve the learning and teaching techniques and can enhance
critical thinking and mental skills.
Some of the types of teaching and learning media are:

(i) Slides and filmstrips;
(ii) Transparency projectors;
(iii) Tape recordings and television;
(iv) Three-dimensional models such as globes and human skeletons;
(v) Organised modules; and
(vi) Learning packages using computer.

SELF-CHECK 9.2
What are the instructional strategies used to enhance the learning

environment in mathematics?
Learning mathematics in the early stage of schooling needs to be planned

carefully as at this stage, the child will begin to recognise numbers and
looked forward to learning mathematics.
The activities must be arranged according to the age of the child, and have a
variety of activities and presentations that are interesting for further learning.
Social and structured emotional learning aims to develop a more robust

learning ecosystem to appreciate the emotional and social intelligence.
A number of strategies are used to enhance the learning of mathematics

among pupils, such as, induction, deduction, inquiry-discovery, questioning,
expository, laboratory and cooperative and collaborative methods.
Cooperative and collaborative Induction

Cuboid Laboratory
Deduction Self-awareness
Demonstration Self-management
Expository Social and emotional learning
School-Based Social and Emotional Learning. Retrieved from: http://www.rci.

rutgers.edu/~melias/Handbook%20of%20 Child%20Psych.pdf

Topic Assessment of
10 Mathematics in
Early
Childhood
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the purpose of assessment;
2. Explain the foundation of assessment in relation to pupils age group;
3. Describe the role of assessment in early childhood education;
4. Select suitable assessment strategies to assist teaching in order to
enhance the quality of childrens learning; and
5. Define evaluation analysis results.
INTRODUCTION
In the normal schools, assessments and evaluations are done every semester to
assess the childrens competency. In preschool, evaluations and assessments are
also conducted on the early childhood learners to determine their achievements
and progress, so as to diagnose any problems in the child or any problems that
might arise in the method of teaching and learning. It will also help in making
decisions on matters related to the curriculum. In doing so parents will be
notified of their childrens progress

152 TOPIC 10 MATHEMATICS ASSESSMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
Mathematical foundations found in preschool include communication, social

skills, and other positive skills from the aspects of physical, cognitive, emotional,
spiritual and aesthetic values. Mathematics in preschool is not just a study where
the children are asked to memorise numbers, but understanding the value or
meaning of the numbers. During the assessment of mathematics, several contents
are identified such as concept of numbers, identifying numbers and figures, and
plus and minus operations. Children are tested on their understanding of the
problems in mathematics and ways of solving the problems.
Assessment for early childhood must be developed and practiced in the best
interests of children and their future in the learning of mathematics in particular.
Evaluation is important because it can assess the cognitive development of the
intellectual, emotional, language and communication and behaviour of a child.
10.1 ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICS IN

EARLY CHILDHOOHD
Children of similar ages often know different things. For example, some young
children in kindergarten do not recognise any numeral from 0 to10 but, about
one third of these children already recognise all these numerals. Some even know
many two-digit numerals.
Most children beginning Grade 1 count by ones accurately, and know a few skip
counting sequences, but some children are still coordinating one-to-one counting
of objects. The way to determine childrens learning needs is to assess what each
child already understands in mathematics, and to find areas where each child
begins to experience difficulties.
Table 10.1 is an extract from Early Childhood Assessment in Mathematics

Manual.
The development of mathematics in a child occurs gradually as they grow from

age 4 to 9, and each child will develop a different skill from another child of the
same age group. A child who has typically mastered counting small numbers
will respond to some addition problems such as 2+2, 3+3 or a 4+4.
Assessments are done based on the foundation of learning of numerical and

different stages of mathematical strands. The strands used in this interview are
separate. This is because children often have different combinations of
understandings in mathematics. One child may be very strong in Numeration,
but has only an early understanding of Geometry. Another child of similar age

TOPIC 10 MATHEMATICS ASSESSMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 153
may have a strong understanding of Geometry, but is less advanced in

Numeration.
Table 10.1: Foundations for Assessments
A . Early Childhood Counting Development

Childhood Development Descriptions
(a) Beginning These children are just beginning to learn the
counting by ones sequence. They can recite small
sections of the counting sequence. When counting
objects, they are just beginning to coordinate one
object with each number name.
(b) Early counting These children are confident counting to ten.
They can recite the counting sequence beyond ten,
and can coordinate counting objects with number
names to at least ten. They can use materials to show
a given number less than ten.
(c) Counts objects These children are proficient at counting objects by
ones. They know the counting sequence to at least
thirty. They can coordinate counting objects with
numbers names beyond twenty.
(d) Counts one by ones These children can mentally manipulate the counting
by ones sequence. They can start the counting
sequence at numbers other than one, and count one
by ones. They can count backward by ones from ten.
(e) Skip counts These children are beginning to count in various
intervals (skip count). They can skip count forward by
twos, fives and tens. They can count backward by
ones from twenty.
(f) Facility with counting These children are proficient with counting in various
intervals. They can skip count by various numbers,
and can count by fives and tens starting at any
number. They can count backward by ones from
larger numbers.

B. Early Childhood Numeration Development

(a) Beginning These children are just beginning to recognise
numerals.
They may name some numerals from zero to ten.
They do not yet understand the order of these
numbers.
(b) Understanding to 10 These children know all numerals from zero to ten,
and understand the correct order of these numbers.
(c) Exploring to 100 These children are beginning to recognise and
compare many two digit numerals. They may
confuse similar sounding numbers such as thirty
and thirteen. They can tell the number that comes
after a two-digit number.
(d) Understanding to 100 These children are beginning to understand the
place value of a two-digit number. They
understand that ten ones are grouped to form one
ten. They can order two digit numbers, and can tell
the number before a given two-digit number.
(e) Understanding to 999 These children are able to recognise three-digit
numerals. They have a growing understanding of
the place value of three-digit numbers. They can
compare and order numbers to 999.
(f) Understanding 1000 and These children can recognise and order numerals
beyond beyond 1000. They show a solid understanding of
place value.

C. Early Childhood Addition and Subtraction Development

(a) Beginning These children are just beginning to understand the
concepts of putting small collections together, or
taking a small amount from a collection. They are
not yet successful in finding sums or differences.
(b) Count all strategies These children are just beginning to understand the
concepts of putting small collections together, or
taking a small amount from a collection. They are
not yet successful in finding sums or differences.
(c) Count on/count back These children are beginning to use short-cuts to add
strategies two small collections, or to take a small amount from a
collection. They only need part of a model, and either
count on to find a sum, or count back, count
down to, or count up from to find a difference.
(d) Initial addition/ These children are beginning to use short-cuts to
subtraction strategies add two small collections, or to take a small amount
from a collection. They only need part of a model,
and either count on to find a sum, or count
back, count down to, or count up from to find
a difference.
D. Early Childhood Multiplication/ Division Development
(a) Beginning These children are just beginning to understand
how to make small equal groups, and how to share
a small amount equally. They are not yet successful
in finding products or dividends.
(b) Full model/count all These children can make small equal groups, and can
share small amounts equally. They can find products
by counting all objects by ones from one. They see a
group of objects only as a collection of ones.
(c) Full model/count sets These children can make small equal groups, share
small amounts equally, and divide a collection into
groups of a given number. They use skip counting
or repeated addition to find products. They see a
group as one unit as well as a collection of ones.
(d) Part model/count sets These children need only part of a model to find
products or dividends. They use skip counting or
repeated addition to find products and dividends.

(e) Multiplication strategies These children are able to multiply two numbers,
using thinking strategies such as multiplying by
tens, doubling, repeated addition, or turning
numbers around. They are able to mentally
multiply small numbers without making a model.
(f) Division strategies These children are able to divide a number equally,
using thinking strategies such as dividing by tens,
halving, and using repeated addition or
subtraction. They are able to mentally divide small
numbers without making a model.
E. Early Childhood Geometry Development
Beginning These children are just beginning to match very
simple two-dimensional figures shown in
conventional orientations.
Whole shapes These children can name and match simple two-
dimensional figures shown in conventional
orientations. They match shapes to common
prototypes, e.g. isosceles or equilateral triangles
only. They attend to the whole of the shape, and do
not yet describe any part of a shape.
Exploring shape parts These children are beginning to attend to the parts of
a shape, and typically describe the numbers of sides
and corners a figure has, after counting these.
They can visualise rotations of some simple shapes.
Understand shape parts These children attend to many parts of a shape, and
are able to fully describe a figures properties.
They recognise examples beyond common
prototypes, e.g. scalene and right triangles. They
can visualise rotations and reflections of some simple
shapes.
Shape families These children understand how shapes belong to
families, e.g. a square is a special type of rectangle,
and also a special type of rhombus. They attend to
parallel lines, angle and perpendicular lines. They
are able to visualise rotations and reflections of many
shapes.

F. Early Childhood Length Measurement Development

Beginning These children are just becoming aware of the
attribute of length. They can find the longest object
perceptually.
Compares objects These children can compare the length of two or
more objects. They know how to align objects to
compare their lengths. They can identify the longest
and the shortest object.
Uses informal units These children can use informal units to measure
and describe the length of an object. They
understand how to repeatedly use a constant sized
unit without gaps or overlaps.
Uses formal units These children can use one system of formal units
to measure an objects length (either Standard or
Metric, but not both). They are able to reasonably
estimate a length.
Facility with formal units These children can use both the Standard and the
Metric systems to measure an objects length. They
understand fractions of these units.
G. Early Childhood Time Measurement Development
Beginning These children are just beginning to read numerals
on clock faces.They do not yet link these numerals
to units of time.
Hours/ days/month These children can tell time to the hour. They know
the days of the week and the months of the year.
Half hours/dates These children can tell time to the half hour, and
can find dates on a simple calendar.
Tells time These children can tell time to five-minute
intervals, and can use a calendar to predict dates.
Facility with time These children can calculate using hours and
minutes.
Source: Early Childhood Assessment in Mathematics Manual

ACTIVITY 10.1
Discuss in a group how an evaluation system is able to improve the
teaching of children in the early childhood environment.
10.2 ROLE OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is important because it encompasses all the decisions that we make
on our children when we teach them. All the overall results of the evaluation will
lead and transform the learning outcomes of children. The assessment should be
part of the learning process and is carried out continuously for the benefit of the
children as well as the educators, where information on the development and
progress of children are gathered using a variety of methods. This assessment is
intended to identify the various intelligence and potential to be strengthened and
enhanced. The assessment of the progress of every preschool child in the
cognitive domain, affective and psychomotor should be accurately and clearly
recorded continuously.
Studies from several previous research defined evaluation as the systematic

process of determining educational objectives, and collecting, using, and
analysing information on the learning, to make decisions about programmes,
individual pupil progress, or accountability. Therefore, evaluation is not just a
test at the end of every instruction given by the teacher but a guide to the teacher
in decision-making patterns and techniques. Most of all, assessment should bring
benefit to the child. There are 6 roles of assessment that will allow the child to be
evaluated fairly and in a most efficient way, including:
Assessment should benefit the children. Gathering accurate information from

children is difficult and potentially stressful. Assessment must have a clear
benefit either indirectly to children or in improving the quality of educational
programmes.
Assessment should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reliable, valid,

and just for that purpose. The assessment which is designed for one purpose is
not necessarily valid if used for other purposes. In the past, a lot of test abuses
against children have occurred because of misuse of assessment techniques.
Policy evaluation should be designed upon realising that the reliability and
validity of assessment increases with the age of the child. It is quite difficult to

make an accurate assessment of a child who is of a very young age until the child
reaches the age of 6.
Thus, some kind of assessment should be postponed until the child is more
mature, while other types of evaluation can be performed, but with more
caution.
Assessment should follow the appropriate ages in the content and methods of
data collection. Assessment of young children should include early learning and
development network, that fully includes physical well-being and motor
development, social and emotional development, approach towards learning,
and development of language and cognition, and general knowledge. The
method of assessment should recognise that children need to be able to exhibit
normal context of their abilities. Tasks that require the use of paper-and-pencil
can be difficult for children to demonstrate their abilities and understanding.
The assessment should use appropriate language. This is because regardless of

whether the assessment is designed to measure early reading skills, knowledge
of colour names, or learning potential, the results might easily fail due to
language proficiency. This is especially for children who have limited exposure
to the English language if the evaluation is done in English or otherwise. Early
language development and second language of every child should be taken into
account, when determining the appropriate valuation methods and in
interpreting the results.
Parents should be an important source of assessment information, as well as

people around them. Direct actions can cause errors in the evaluation, therefore,
the assessment should include multiple sources of evidence, particularly reports
from parents and teachers. Results of the assessment should be shared with
parents as part of an ongoing process that involves parents in their child's
education.
Evaluation of teaching and learning is as important as teaching and learning

itself. The main goal of the assessment is to improve teaching and learning. Thus,
valuation or assessment should be conducted to enable teachers to:
(a) Detect the development of children as a whole and assess the extent of
pupils' understanding of the subject;
(b) Look at the changes in the development of each child;
(c) Make the planning and renovation of instructional activities to help
enhance the growth and development of children;
(d) Study the needs of each child;

(e) Detect the effectiveness of activities, routines, and strategies used;

(f) Identify the strengths and weaknesses of pupils in their learning from time
to time;
(g) Provide accurate reports to parents, health experts, teachers and monitoring
officials;
(h) Appreciate the work of children;
(i) Make immediate follow up;
(j) Evaluate the effectiveness of instructional techniques that were presented
by the teacher;
(k) Make basic decisions about what is and is not suitable for children; and
(l) To determine the effectiveness of programmes and services that the child
received is beneficial and appropriate.
The teachers must be sensitive to the various technologies that are available for
evaluation purposes in a variety of situations. These technologies can help
teachers in developing the test, making the screening test and review the results.
Evaluation is important because it can assess the cognitive development of the

intellectual, emotional, language and communication and behaviour of a child.
This assessment includes assessing standard, alternative evaluation, detection
evaluation, detection diagnostic, assessment development, performance
assessment and psychological assessment. This assessment can be done to a child
from birth to the end of their life. Evaluation can be done step by step.
The types of evaluation can be categorised as shown in Table 10.2
Table 10.2: Types of Evaluations
Types of Evaluation Explanation

Standard Assessment Standard tests used to compare data across class,
school, district and state levels. Many standardised
tests have norms and is a formal assessment of the
pupils progress.
Alternative Assessment Measurements can also be achieved through
alternative assessments. Known also as the
performance or authentic assessment, this
assessment often occurs from time to time, and
require pupils to generate products or to perform
and not responding to the format of multiple-choice
objectives or questions which are true or false. A few
examples of alternative assessment are: essays,

journals, assignments, group projects, portfolios,

observations, interviews, examination, self-
assessment and peer and class presentations.
Detection evaluation Evaluation is defined as the detection of an
assessment conducted informally by parents,
teachers, caregivers through observation or checklist
for children under the age of 7 years. Done to collect
information for record keeping process and also
help in the detection during the earlier stage. In
addition, the evaluation of detection is also used to
help teachers and parents to be able to evaluate and
track the progress of children.
Diagnostic Evaluation Diagnostic evaluation is a process of evaluation of
the child to diagnose the inability of a child. The
diagnostic evaluation of children is usually done by
a psychiatrist or teacher. It aims to make a
preliminary assessment of the inability of the child
and gather information for the placement of children
according to their capabilities, and also to provide
information to parents, teachers and paediatricians.
It is important to determine the inability of children
so that teachers are able to plan their teaching and
learning methods.
Development Assessment According to Rozumah Baharuddin (1984), the
development is the change that happens in terms of
quality but cannot be measured in quantity, although
it can be seen by comparing the properties of the
former with the nature of one which is being formed.
This process is a complicated process that takes place
directly from the early childhood to the end of life.
Assessment of child development is measured in five
aspects: evaluation aspects of motor, language,
mental, social and self-management. The main
purpose of evaluation is to assess the level of
development of a child's development in terms of the
development, whether there is a problem in achieving
the level of development, or he/she cannot develop
as a normal child. The assessment is also intended to
detect deficiencies and advantages found in the
children to improve the development of children, and
to intervene early if there is a deficiency found in the
child.
Performance Evaluation According to the Kamus Dewan Bahasa, this
evaluation is the process of assessing the
achievements made on what has been achieved

otherwise known as performance. Performance

assessment is usually performed on children at age 7
years and above by the teacher to determine
whether the pupil needs inclusive learning or not.
This assessment is conducted to evaluate the
efficiency and skills through observation and
written tests. This assessment is divided into two
types, somantic assessment and formative
assessment. The purpose of this performance
evaluation is carried out to assess the level of
achievement of children, and analyse the strengths
and weaknesses of the pupil. It enables teachers to
know whether the objective of teaching and learning
module had been achieved by the pupils or not, also
to identify the learning needs of pupils and make
the pupils placements according to their needs.
Psychological Assessment This assessment is intended to help evaluators
control the behaviour of children with special needs
in terms of mental, emotional and behavioural
problems. The methods most commonly used for
normal children may not be able to help the
development of their behavioural, emotional, and
mental needs. Thus the evaluators have to master
themselves in the knowledge and skills to enable
them to identify the special needs, and will be able
to provide treatment and early intervention that fits
well to help assess, investigate and make
observations about the behaviour of children with
special needs.
Assessments can and should be done anywhere preferably in small groups either
at the playground, or done individually where teachers just need to talk to the
pupils to get the information and feedback, or in a large group when children are
doing leisure activities in the playground. We suggest that the assessment be
made while the child is learning to apply mathematics to solve a problem in their
daily activities. Evaluation should also be periodic and consistent with the child's
learning.
Example 1 describes how assessment can be conducted. This type of group

interaction will normally occur in a kindergarten class.

The above evaluation involved pupils in a group and the questions posed are the
basis of mathematics. Through this assessment, the teacher can assess a pupils
agility in responding to the questions given on the spot. Pupils will not feel
pressured by this group interview evaluation.
The teacher's role in making an assessment of the pupils is a responsibility that

should be noted accordingly. Teachers must be alert in observing and listening to
the answers of the pupils which gives a high significant impact on the results of

analysis. The use of audio and video recordings during the assessment is also
encouraged and recommended. A planned and systematic observation with the
aid of technology (audio and video) helps to make a valid and objective
assessment. Moreover, it can be a proof to the parents whenever assessments are
conducted on their children.
In example 1 above, the teacher should observe the pupils behaviour when
counting the number of pupils in the classroom to ensure that the pupil calculate
in a correct manner. The teacher should take note that the pupil doing the
counting is using his/her finger and pointing to the correct person that he/she is
counting.
ACTIVITY 10.2
As a teacher who teaches children in their early childhood education,
how do you report the achievement of children to their parents?
10.3 ASSESSMENT STRATEGY

Assessment strategies during the learning of mathematics in early childhood
education are meant to enhance the understanding of mathematics and promote
skills that will benefit pupils throughout their lives. The ability to see the big
picture, develop oral and written reports and the ability to work with their
friends are skills that are encouraged.
Table 10.3 displays the types of strategies that can be applied when making
assessment. Every type of evaluation has its unique advantages and some
combine more than one type of strategy. There are some strategies which are
unsuitable for young children because they are not yet able to write well and
interact smoothly yet.
Table 10.3: Assessment Strategy
Strategy Definition
Classroom Presentation The presentation in the classroom is an evaluation
strategy that requires pupils to express what they have
learned, choose and submit examples of their work
and arranged for topic to be presented. It can be a basic
provision for project evaluation or pupil essays.
Conference Conference is a formal or informal meetings
between a teacher and a pupil for the purpose of
exchanging information and sharing ideas. A
conference may be held to explore ways a pupil
thinks and recommend measures that will take

place; assess a pupil's level of understanding of a
particular concept or procedure; review and clarify
the extent that pupils already know and have done.
Essay Essay is a written sample in which pupils build an
answer to a question, topic, or a brief statement, and
supply supporting documents or arguments. Essay
allow teachers to evaluate, analyse and synthesise
the information given by the pupils.
Exhibition/Demonstration Exhibition/demonstration is a presentation in a
public environment, in which pupils describe and
apply a process, procedures, etc., in a concrete way
to demonstrate achievement of the individuals
skills and specific knowledge.
Interview Interviews are a face-to-face conversation in which
the teacher and pupil interact with each other to
investigate and share their knowledge and
understanding of a topic or problem, and can be
used by teachers to explore the pupils' thinking,
assess the pupils understanding of a concept or
procedure and gather information, seek clarification,
position, and probe for motivation.
Learning Log Learning log is a continuous record kept by the
pupils and recording of what he was doing or
thinking when they perform certain tasks. It can be
used to assess pupils progress and developments
from time to time.
Observation Observation is a process of systematically observing
and recording the pupils while they work, for the
purpose of programming and instructional
decisions. Observations can occur at any time and in
any setting. It provides information on a pupils
strengths and weaknesses, learning styles, interests,
and attitudes.
Portfolio Portfolios are collections of pupils work samples,
which is focused, selective, reflective, and
collaborative. It offers visual demonstration of a
pupils achievement, ability, strengths, weaknesses,
knowledge, and specific skills from time to time and
in a variety of contexts.
Verbal Questions and Answers In the verbal question and answer strategies,
teachers ask questions and pupils respond orally,
not in writing. This strategy helps teachers to
determine whether pupils understand what is being,

or has been forwarded, and help pupils to extend

their thinking, generate ideas, or solve problems.
Quiz, Test and Examination Quiz, test, or exam requires pupils to respond
spontaneously to demonstrate their knowledge (oral
or written) or skills (eg, through performance).
Quizzes are usually short; examination usually takes
a longer time. Quizzes, tests, or examinations can be
customised for exceptional pupils and to repeat the
lesson and redo the test.
Journal Response Journal response is the pupils personal records
containing writing material, reflective responses to
material read, sees, heard, or discussed. The journal
can be used as an assessment tool in all subject
areas.
Response Options Some of the quizzes, tests, and exams, selected
response requires pupils to correctly identify a
response strategy. It can take the form of multiple
choice or false or true format. Selected response is
formal that commonly uses procedures to collect
objective evidence about the pupils learning,
particularly in memorisation and comprehension.
Pupil Self-Assessment Self-assessment is a process where pupils gather
information that reflects their own learning. It is the
pupil's own assessment of personal progress in
terms of knowledge, skills, processes, or attitudes.
Self-assessment gives the pupils greater awareness
and understanding of themselves as learners.
Implementation of Duties Implementation of task includes assignments,
homework, quizzes, class presentations and creating
products. Job implementation will help teachers
access pupils achievement by providing marks in
point form.
Pupils Writing / Self-Assessment Pupils writing include diagrams, pictures and
charts. It provides a way to record the ways of
thinking and assessing pupils achievement concept.
Sample essay is easy to store and will form a larger
evaluation that is the portfolio. Writing techniques
in mathematics is possible through journals,
investigation reports, problems of mathematics,
problem solving, and later writing self-assessment.
Source: Adapted from: The Ontario Curriculum Unit Planner;

Assessment Strategies Companion, Queens Printer for Ontario, 2002

ACTIVITY 10.3
There are five evaluation strategies that are considered uncommon,
namely: observation, interview, job performance, and pupils' writing
portfolio. Elaborate each of these strategies.
10.4 ASSESSMENT RESULTS ANALYSIS

All data collected from each pupil needs to be analysed to compare the
information to meet the standards. This allows the teachers to monitor
instruction, evaluate teaching strategies, track pupils progress and identify
pupils with special needs who need guidance or extra service. However, the
instructions should be given according to the needs and mental strength of each
individual and teachers need to constantly monitor and observe a child's
development while trying to modify any of the techniques in adaptation to the
individual pupil.
The teachers sensitivity in analysing assessment results will help improve the
performance of each pupil to the optimum level. Among the advantages of
conducting analysis on each of the assessment results are:
(a) Pupils excellence in achievement can be reinforced and enhanced through
challenging activities. Lack of pupils achievement can be helped through
proper guidance;
(b) The development and progress of pupils can be monitored fairly through
individual, group, and class learning process;
(c) A pupil who has mastered the level of achievement should be supported
and given more consolidation activities to improve achievement;
(d) Pupils who have not mastered the level of achievement should be given
guidance and support activities that are appropriate to the level of pupils
mastery; and
(e) Teachers should also inform parents of their child's proficiency level to gain
extra support at home.

The assessment is designed to identify a wide range of intelligence and

potential to be strengthened and improved.
Assessment plays an important role in the development of children's

learning. Assessment must be tailored by age and level of children's minds
and conducted in stages.
Among the 15 strategies of evaluation, five are more frequently used; the
strategy evaluation observations, interviews, implementation of tasks, and
the pupils' writing self-assessment and portfolios.
Each assessment must be analysed in order to achieve high standards and to

be fair to both sides, that is, the assessment that is made has to be rational and
can help develop children's learning.
Alternative assessment Response journal

Conference Response option
Learning log Self- assessment
Portfolio Standard assessment
Psychological assessment
The Ontario Curriculum Unit Planner (2002). Assessment strategies companion.

Queens Printer for Ontario.

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar

Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng

Moderator: Dr Azhar Md Adnan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, December 2014

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Topic 1 Introduction to Early Childhood Mathematics 1

Topic 2 The Language of Mathematics 24

Topic 3 Early Mathematical Concepts: Classifying, Matching, Sorting 40

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3.2.1 Challenging Matching Task 46

Topic 4 Early Algebra Concepts: Patterns and Relationships 56

Topic 5 Early Number Concepts 72

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Topic 6 The Process of Problem Solving 87

Topic 7 Organising Data in Mathematics 99

Topic 8 Measurement 114

Topic 9 Mathematics Learning Environment for Early Childhood 132

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Topic 10 Assessment of Mathematics in Early Childhood 151

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 gives an overview of the various misconceptions about early childhood

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Topic 2 defines the role of the language of mathematics in childrens learning of

Topic 5 discusses the understanding of number sense and how it is introduced to

Topic 6 discusses the role of a teacher in facilitating problem solving learning

Topic 8 introduces children in early childhood learning to the principle of

Topic 9 covers methods in mathematics learning for early childhood education. It

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learning mathematics as well as identifying the instructional strategies to

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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1.1 MISCONCEPTIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Mathematics is often regarded as a formal subject that is difficult to teach as well

Ironically, mathematics exists everywhere, including in childrens everyday lives.

Teachers should never underestimate the inherent mathematical strength and

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operations, geometry (shapes and space), algebra (patterns), measurements,

Both language and mathematics are important. In fact, education in mathematics

It is necessary for teachers to assess childrens mathematical knowledge and

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Why are the teaching and learning of mathematics important at early

1.2 THEORIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

1.2.1 Piagets Theory of Child Development

Piaget developed the famous Four-Stage Theory of Child Development. The

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Figure 1.1: Piagets Four-Stage Theory of Child Development

(a) Sensorimotor stage

(b) Pre-Operational stage