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FLUID
P WER BASICS
A compendium
of tutorial articles from
Copyright 2017 by Penton Media,Inc. All rights reserved.

FLUID POWER BASICS
From the Editor

Fluid Power Basics is a comprehensive collection of more than 200 pages of useful
information on hydraulics and pneumatics technologies. It was written by Edgar
(Bud) Trinkel, a consultant and educator in fluid power technology. He developed
this material to use in the classes he taught and gave exclusive rights to Hydraulics &
Pneumatics to edit and republish this valuable information.
Since we first published this e-book on our website more than ten years ago, it has
consistently been extremely popular with readers, who have repeatedly asked for
a version in print. We proudly present this PDF version, which allows you to print Trinkel
individual chapters for your own use.
Unfortunately, Bud passed away in 2009, but his legacy lives on with this compendium of educational
information for those seeking a greater understanding of fluid power components, circuits, and systems.
-Alan Hitchcox
Editor, Hydraulics & Pneumatics
This initial version of the Fluid Power Basics eBook contains only the first 4 chapters. Versions with subsequent chapters
will be released periodically over the several few months until the entire publication is available as a PDF file.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Fluid Power in industrial applications.......... 2 Chapter 10. Directional control valves
Chapter 2: Hydraulic fluids............................................... 8 Chapter 11. Slip-in cartridge valves
Chapter 3: System and machine plumbing................. 12 Chapter 12. Infinitely variable control valves
Chapter 4: ISO symbols................................................... 18 Chapter 13. Flow controls and flow dividers
Chapter 5. Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Chapter 14. Sequence valves and reducing valves
Chapter 6. Hydraulic reservoirs Chapter 15. Fluid power actuators
Chapter 7. Air and Hydraulic Filters, Air Dryers Chapter 16. Accumulators
and Lubricators
Chapter 17. Air-oil systems and intensifiers
Chapter 8. Air and hydraulic pumps(part 1)
Chapter 18. Miscellaneous fluid power items
Chapter 9. Relief and unloading pressure controls
Chapter 19. Moving part air logic controls
Answers to quizzes for Chapters 1, 2, 3......................... 17
1 FLUID POWER BASICS | GO TO HYDRAULICSPNEUMATICS.COM

FLUID POWER BASICS
CHAPTER 1
Fluid power in industrial applications

WHAT IS FLUID POWER? maintain fluid power circuits that originally design, the power source, valves, and
A
ny media (liquid or gas) that flows were designed by a salesperson from a fluid- actuators will run with little maintenance
naturally or can be forced to flow power distributor. for extended times.
could be used to transmit energy in a In most facilities, the responsibility The main disadvantages are lack of
fluid power system. The earliest fluid used for fluid power systems is part of the understanding of the equipment and
was water hence the name hydraulics mechanical engineers job description. poor circuit design, which can result in
was applied to systems using liquids. In The problem is that mechanical engineers overheating and leaks. Overheating occurs
modern terminology, hydraulics implies a normally receive little if any fluid power when the machine uses less energy than
circuit using mineral oil. Figure 1-1 shows training at college, so they are ill equipped the power unit provides. (Overheating
a basic power unit for a hydraulic system. to carry out this duty. With a modest usually is easy to design out of a circuit.)
(Note that water is making something of amount of fluid power training and more Controlling leaks is a matter of using
a comeback in the late 1990s; and some than enough work to handle, the engineer straight-thread O-ring fittings to make
fluid power systems today even operate on often depends on a fluid power distributors tubing connections or hose and SAE flange
seawater.) expertise. To get an order, the distributor fittings with larger pipe sizes. Designing
The other common fluid in fluid power salesperson is happy to design the circuit the circuit for minimal shock and cool
circuits is compressed air. As indicated in and often assists in installation and operation also reduces leaks.
Figure 1-2, atmospheric air compressed
seven to10 times is readily available and PNEUMATICS OR HYDRAULICS?
flows easily through pipes, tubes, or hoses A general rule to use in choosing
to transmit energy to do work. Other between hydraulics or pneumatics for
cylinders is: if the specified force requires
an air cylinder bore of 4 or 5 in. or larger,
choose hydraulics. Most pneumatic circuits
are under 3 hp because the efficiency of
air compression is low. A system that
requires 10 hp for hydraulics would use
approximately 30 to 50 air-compressor
horsepower. Air circuits are less expensive
Fig. 1-2: Basic pneumatic power arrangement. to build because a separate prime mover
is not required, but operating costs are
startup. This arrangement works reasonably much higher and can quickly offset low
well, but as other technologies advance, component expenses. Situations where a 20-
Fig. 1-1: Basic pneumatic power arrangement. fluid power is being turned down on in. bore air cylinder could be economical
many machine functions. There is always would be if it cycled only a few times a
gasses, such as nitrogen or argon, could a tendency to use the equipment most day or was used to hold tension and never
be used but they are expensive to produce understood by those involved. cycled. Both air and hydraulic circuits
and process. are capable of operating in hazardous
ADVANTAGES AND areas when used with air logic controls or
WHO USES AND IS DISADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER explosion-proof electric controls. With
RESPONSIBLE FOR FLUID POWER? Fluid power cylinders and motors are certain precautions, cylinders and motors
Of the three main methods of compact and have high energy potential. of both types can operate in high-humidity
transmitting energy mechanical, They fit in small spaces and do not clutter atmospheres . . . or even under water.
electrical, and fluid fluid power is least the machine. These devices can be stalled When using fluid power around food or
understood by industry in general. In most for extended time periods, are instantly medical supplies, it is best to pipe the air
plants there are few people with direct reversible, have infinitely variable speed, exhausts outside the clean area and to use a
responsibility for fluid power circuit design and often replace mechanical linkages vegetable-based fluid for hydraulic circuits.
or maintenance. Often, general mechanics at a much lower cost. With good circuit Some applications need the rigidity of

CHAPTER 1
liquids so it might seem necessary never make pressure. They only

to use hydraulics in these cases give flow. Resistance to pump flow
even with low power needs. For causes pressure. This is one of the
these systems, use a combination basic principles of fluid power
of air for the power source and that is of prime importance to
oil as the working fluid to cut cost troubleshooting hydraulic circuits.
and still have lunge-free control Suppose a machine with the pump
with options for accurate running shows almost 0 psi on its
stopping and holding as well. Air- pressure gauge. Does this mean the
oil tank systems, tandem cylinder pump is bad? Without a flow meter
systems, cylinders with integral at the pump outlet, mechanics might
controls, and intensifiers are a few change the pump, because many of
of the available components. them think pumps make pressure.
The problem with this circuit could
PASCALS LAW simply be an open valve that allows
The reason fluids can transmit all pump flow to go directly to tank.
energy when contained is best Because the pump outlet flow sees
stated by a man from the 17th no resistance, a pressure gauge
century named Blaise Pascal. shows little or no pressure. With
Pascals Law is one of the basic a flow meter installed, it would be
laws of fluid power. This law obvious that the pump was all right
says: Pressure in a confined Fig:1-3: How Pascals Law affects a cylinder and other causes such as an open
body of fluid acts equally in all path to tank must be found and
directions and at right angles to The pressurized oil is trying to get out of corrected.
the containing surfaces. In other words, if the pump, pipe, and cylinder, but these Another area that shows the effect of
you poke a hole in a pressurized container mechanisms are strong enough to contain Pascals law is a comparison of hydraulic
or line, fluid will squirt out. Figure 1-3 the fluid. When pressure against the piston and mechanical leverage. Figure 1-4 shows
shows how this law works in a cylinder area becomes high enough to overcome the how both of these systems work. In either
application. load resistance, the oil forces the load to case, a large force is offset by a much
Oil from a pump flows into a cylinder move upward. Understanding Pascals Law smaller force due to the difference in lever-
that is lifting a load. The resistance of the makes it easy to see how all hydraulic and arm length or piston area.
load causes pressure to build inside the pneumatic circuits function. Notice that hydraulic leverage is not
cylinder until the load starts moving. Notice two important things in this restricted to a certain distance, height, or
While the load is in motion, pressure in example. First, the pump did not make physical location like mechanical leverage
the entire circuit stays nearly constant. pressure; it only produced flow. Pumps is. This is a decided advantage for many
Fig. 1-4: Comparison of mechanical and hydraulic leverage

CHAPTER 1
mechanisms because most and to make the system more

designs using fluid power take rigid.
less space and are not restricted
by position considerations. A BOYLES LAW
cylinder, rotary actuator, or fluid Boyles Law for gasses states
motor with almost limitless force that for relatively low pressures,
or torque can directly push or the absolute pressure of an ideal
rotate the machine member. gas kept at constant temperature
These actions only require flow varies inversely with the volume
lines to and from the actuator of the gas. This means if a ten
and feedback devices to indicate cubic foot volume of atmospheric
position. The main advantage air is squeezed into a one cubic
of linkage actuation is precision foot container, pressure increases
positioning and the ability to Fig: 1-5: Measurement of gauge and absolute pressure ten times. (10 14.7 psia = 147
control without feedback psia.) Notice that pressure is
At first look, it may appear that stated as psia.
mechanical or hydraulic leverage is capable COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS Normally, pressure gauges read in psi
of saving energy. For example: 40,000 lb No consideration for compressibility is (with no additional letter). Commonly
is held in place by 10,000 lb in Figure 1-4. necessary in most hydraulic circuits because called gauge pressure, psi disregards the
However, notice that the ratio of the lever oil can only be compressed a very small earths atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia,
arms and the piston areas is 4:1. This means amount. Normally, liquids are considered to because it has no effect either negative
by adding extra force say to the 10,000-lb be incompressible, but almost all hydraulic or positive on a fluid power circuit. The
side, it lowers and the 40,000-lb side rises. systems have some air trapped in them. a on the end of psia stands for absolute,
When the 10,000-lb weight moves down a The air bubbles are so small even people and would be shown on a gauge with a
distance of 10 in., the 40,000-lb weight only with good eyesight cannot see them, but pointer that never goes to zero unless it is
moves up 2.5 in. these bubbles allow for compressibility measuring vacuum. Another type of gauge
of approximately 0.5% per 1,000 psi. that shows both negative and positive
WORK AND POWER Applications where this small amount of pressures would have a pointer with an
Work is the measure of a force traversing compressibility does have an adverse effect inches-of-mercury (in. Hg) scale below zero
through a distance. (Work = Force include: single-stroke air-oil intensifiers; and a psig scale above zero. Both of these
Distance.). Work usually is expressed in lb- systems that operate at very high cycle rates; gauges could read pressure or vacuum.
ft and, as the formula states, it is the product servo systems that maintain close-tolerance (They are always found in a refrigeration
of force in pounds times distance in feet. positioning or pressures; and circuits that repairpersons tool kit. Refrigeration units
When a cylinder lifts a 20,000-lb load a contain large volumes of fluid. In this have both vacuum and pressure in different
distance of 10 ft, the cylinder performs book, when presenting circuits where sections of the system at the same time.)
200,000 ft-lb of work. This action could compressibility is a factor, it will be pointed Figure 1-5 illustrates a typical psig gauge
happen in three seconds, three minutes, or out along with ways to reduce or allow and one type of psia gauge.
three hours without changing the amount for it. In the example above, when ten cubic feet
of work. Another situation that makes it appear of air was squeezed into a one cubic-foot
When work is done with in a certain there is more compressibility than stated space, both pressures were given in psia. To
time, it is called power. {Power = (Force previously is if pipes, hoses, and cylinder see what gauge pressure (psig) would be,
Distance) Time.} A common measure tubes expand when pressurized. This subtract one atmosphere from the 147-psia
of power is horsepower a term taken requires more fluid volume to build reading. (147 psia 14.7 psia = 132.3 psig.)
from early days when most persons could pressure and perform the desired work. In To calculate the amount of compression of
relate to a horses strength. This allowed the addition, when cylinders push against a air in a system, always use absolute pressure,
average person to evaluate to new means load, the machine members resisting this or psia, not psig.
of power, such as the steam engine. Power force may stretch, again making it necessary For example: the cylinder in Figure 1-6
is the rate of doing work. One horsepower for more fluid to enter the cylinder before contains eight cubic feet of air at 70 psig.
is defined as the weight in pounds (force) a the cycle can finish. To what will pressure increase when an
horse could lift one foot (distance) in one As anyone knows, gasses are very external force pushes the piston back until
second (time). For the average horse this compressible. Some applications use this the space behind the piston is two cubic
turned out to be 550 lb. one foot in one feature. In most fluid power circuits, foot? It is obvious the pressure will rise
second. Changing the time to 60 seconds compressibility is not advantageous; in four times. At first it might look easy to
(one minute), it is normally stated as 33,000 many, it is a disadvantage. This means it take 70 psig 4 = 280 psig, but this answer
ft-lb per minute. is best to eliminate any trapped air in a is wrong. For the correct answer, gauge
hydraulic circuit to allow faster cycle times pressure must be changed to absolute

CHAPTER 1
pressure. In this case, we must

add one atmosphere to the 70- SEE FIG 1-7
psig reading. (70 psig + 14.7 psia
= 84.7 psia.) Now multiply the The specific gravity of hydraulic
84.7-psia pressure by 4 to see what oil is approximately 0.9, so
the absolute pressure is when multiplying waters 0.433 psi/ft by
the cylinder stops at one cubic 0.9 shows oil exerts 0.39 psi/ft of
foot volume. (84.7 4 = 338.8 elevation. This fraction is usually
psia.) Finally, to return to gauge rounded to 0.4 for simplicity. If
pressure, subtract one atmosphere the water tower were filled to 80 ft
from the absolute pressure. (338.8 with oil, it would exert a pressure
psia 14.7 psia = 324.1 psig.) of 32 psi at ground level. Other
Notice that the correct pressure is fluids would develop a higher or
44.1 psig higher than when gauge lower static pressure according to
pressure is the multiplier. Fig: 1-6: Pressure change as air is compressed their specific gravity.
Temperature was not This pressure is only realized at
considered in either of the preceding components without proper preparation of ground level at the tower. Outlets at other
cases, but notice that the law says kept the unit. levels would be higher or lower according to
at constant temperature. Compressing a their distance below the fluid surface.
gas increases its temperature because the STATIC HEAD PRESSURE Tanks seen on most water towers simply
heat in the larger volume is now packed The weight of a fluid in a container store volume. Pressure does not drop
into a smaller space. The next law says that exerts pressure on the containing vessels rapidly or require frequent pump starts to
increasing temperature increases pressure sides and bottom. This is called static head maintain the fluid level. The size or shape
if the gas cannot expand. This means the pressure. It is caused by earths gravitational of the tank does not affect pressure at the
pressures given are measured after the pull. A good example of head pressure is a base. Pressure at the base of a straight
gas temperature returns to what it was community water system. Figure 1-7 shows 80-ft pipe would be the same, but useful
originally. a water tower with a topmost water level of volume before pressure drop would change
Gauges today read in psi and bar. Bar is a 80 ft. A cubic inch of water weighs 0.0361 drastically. Always remember: it is not
metric, or SI, unit for pressure and is equal lb. Therefore, a one square-inch column the physical size of a body of fluid that
to approximately the barometer reading or of water will exert a force of 0.0361 psi for determines pressure but how deep it is.
one atmosphere. One atmosphere is actually every inch of elevation. This works out to Head pressure can have an adverse effect
14.696 psi, but the SI unit for bar is 14.5 psi. 0.433 psi per foot of elevation. on a hydraulic system because many pumps
For the water tower in Figure 1-7, the are installed above the fluid level. This
CHARLES LAW pressure at the base would be: 80 ft 0.433 means the pump must first create enough
Heating a gas or liquid causes it to psi/ft = 34.6 psi. This pressure is always vacuum to raise the fluid and then create
expand. Continuing to heat a liquid will available, even when no pump is running. even higher vacuum to accelerate and move
result in it changing to the gaseous state Of course, if the water level drops, static it. Therefore there is a limit to how far a
and perhaps spontaneous combustion. If head pressure also will drop. pump can be located above the oil level.
the gas or liquid cannot expand Most pumps specify a maximum
because it is confined pressure suction pressure of 3 psi. At 4- to
in the contained area increases. 5-psi suction pressure, pumps start
This is stated in Charles Law: to cavitate . . . causing internal
The volume of a fixed mass of damage. At 6- to 7-psi vacuum,
gas varies directly with absolute cavitation damage is severe and
temperature, provided the pressure noise increases noticeably. (The
remains constant. Because fluid effects of cavitation are covered
power systems have some areas in fully in Chapter 8, Fluid Power
which fluid is trapped, it is possible Pumps and Accessories.) Axial- or
that heating this confined fluid in-line-piston pumps are especially
could result in part damage or an vulnerable to high inlet vacuum
explosion. If a circuit must operate damage and should be positioned
in a hot atmosphere, provide over below the fluid level to produce a
pressure protection such as a positive head pressure.
relief valve or a heat- or pressure- Many modern hydraulic
sensitive rupture device. Never systems place the pump next to
heat or weld on any fluid-power Fig: 1-7:Pressure measurement for water tower the reservoir so the fluid level is

CHAPTER 1
always above the pump inlet. With this type systems move past. If the tube had been vacuum generator. The device consists of
of installation the pump always has oil at 100-in. tall, the mercury level would still body A with compressed-air inlet B that
startup and has a positive head pressure at have dropped to whatever the atmospheric passes air flow through venturi nozzle C.
its inlet. A better arrangement puts the tank pressure was at its location. The reason The air exhausts at a higher velocity to
above the pump to take advantage of even the mercury does not all flow out is that atmosphere through orifice D. As air at
greater head pressure. Everything possible atmospheric pressure holds it in. increasing velocity flows past opening E
should be done to keep pressure drop low This barometer could have been built near the venturi nozzle, it creates a negative
in the pump inlet line because the highest using another liquid but the tube would pressure and draws in atmospheric air
possible pressure drop allowable is one have been longer because most other liquids through port F. Port F can connect to any
atmosphere (14.7 psi at sea level). have a much lower specific gravity than external device that needs a vacuum source.
mercurys 13.546. Water, with a specific
VACUUM gravity of 1.0, would require a closed-end
The earths atmosphere exerts a force of tube at least 33.8 ft long, while oil, with a
14.7 psi at sea level on an average day. This specific gravity of approximately 0.9, would
pressure covers the whole earths surface, have to be even longer.
but at elevations higher than sea level, it is Vacuum pumps can be similar in design
reduced by approximately 0.5 psi per 1,000 to air compressors. There are reciprocating-
ft. This pressure of earths atmosphere is the piston, diaphragm, rotary-screw, and
source of the power of vacuum. The highest lobed-rotor designs. (See air compressor Fig: 1-9: Cross-sectional view of venutri
possible vacuum reading at any location is types in Chapter 8, Fluid power pumps and vacccum generatior
the weight of the air above it at that time. accessory items.) Imagine hooking the inlet
A reading of maximum vacuum of an air compressor to a receiver tank and A vacuum gauge at port F shows negative
available is given during the local weather leaving the outlet open to atmosphere. As pressure when compressed air is supplied to
forecast as the barometer reading. Divide the pump runs, it evacuates air from the port B.
the barometer reading by two to get the receiver and causes a negative pressure in it. Vacuum generators are inexpensive,
approximate atmospheric pressure in psi. Vacuum pumps are an added expense but can be costly to operate. For every 4
This force could be directly measured if it and normally are only found in facilities cfm of air supply required to power them,
were possible to isolate a one square-inch that use a constant supply of negative they use approximately one compressor
column of air one atmosphere tall at a sea pressure to operate machines or make horsepower. For this reason, venturi-type
level location. Because this is not possible, products. vacuum generators usually are installed
the method used to measure vacuum is Vacuum generators that use plant with a control valve to turn them on only
demonstrated in Figure 1-8. compressed air as a power source are when needed.
Submerge a clear tube with one closed also available. These components have Vacuum is limited to one atmosphere
end in a container of mercury and allow no moving parts but use plant air flowing maximum at any location, and standard
it to fill completely. (The tube must be through a venturi to produce a small supply vacuum pumps only reach about 85%
more than 30-in. long for this example to of negative pressure. Figure 1-9 shows a (approximately 12 psi) of this on average. As
work when mercury is the liquid.) After simplified cutaway view of a venturi-type a result, vacuum is not powerful enough to
the mercury displaces do much work unless it acts on a large area.
all the air in the tube, Many industrial vacuum applications
carefully raise the tubes have to do with handling parts. Large-area
closed end, keeping the suction cups can lift a large heavy part with
open end submerged so ease, as illustrated in Figure 1-10. When
the mercury cant run the lift rises, negative pressure (vacuum)
out and be replaced by inside the suction cups causes atmospheric
air. When the tube is pressure on the opposite side of the part to
positioned vertically, push it up.
the liquid mercury
level will lower to
give the atmospheric
pressure reading in
inches of mercury
(29.92-in. Hg at sea
level). The mercury
level will fluctuate from
this point as high and Fig 1-10: Simplified representation of lifting
low-pressure weather Fig: 1-8: Vacuum measurement with mercury with vacuum

CHAPTER 1
Fig 1-11: Simplified representation of work

holding with vacuum
Industries such as glass and wood Fig 1-12: Simplified representation of plastic-
manufacturing use vacuum to hold sheet forming with vacuum
work pieces during machining or other
operations, as shown in Figure 1-11. The Heated plastic sheet can be vacuum-
pieces are held firmly in place as the negative formed to make some products at a much
pressure under them causes atmospheric lower cost than other types of plastic
pressure to push against them. A resilient forming, as suggested in Figure 1-12.
seal laid in a groove in the fixture keeps Forming heated plastic sheet in a cavity
atmospheric air from entering the cavity or over a shape is quick and positive.
beneath the part. This groove can be cut to When atmospheric pressure tries to fill the
match the contour of the part. In machining negative-pressure area under the softened
operations, the seals can isolate interior sheet, the sheet is forced into the desired
cutouts, allowing them to be removed while shape. Large parts such as pickup-truck bed BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
firmly holding the rest of the piece. liners are formed by this method.
UIZ ON CHAPTER 1. B. earths atmosphere.

C. the size of a pump.
1. Most hydraulic circuits are designed by: 6. Vacuum generators use:

A. mechanical engineers. A. compressed air to create a vacuum.
B. fluid power engineers. B. an electric motor to create vacuum.
C. fluid power distributor salesmen. C. an air motor to create vacuum.
2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 7. Pascals Law states that pressure is produced by the
approximately: pump and motor of a hydraulic system.
A. 14.7 Hg A. True
B. 14.7 psi B. False
C. 30 psi
8. Pressure in a fluid power system comes from:
3. Gauges that read pounds per square inch absolute A. resistance to flow.
(psia): B. motor horsepower.
A. show atmospheric pressure on their scales. C. pump volume.
B. do not show atmospheric pressure on their scales.
C. have nothing to do with atmospheric pressure. 9. A pressure gauge reading of 100 bar would be
equivalent to:
4. Static head pressure of hydraulic oil is equal to A. 2940 psi
approximately: B. 1070 psi
A. .1 psi per foot of elevation. C. 1450 psi
B. .2 psi per foot of elevation.
C. .4 psi per foot of elevation. 10. When a gas or liquid is heated it will:
A. contract.
5. The power of vacuum comes from: B. stay the same.
A. the power of a pump. C. expand.

FLUID POWER BASICS
CHAPTER 2:
Hydraulic Fluids
F
or long service life, safety reasons, specifying fluids for a hydraulic circuit. Pour point is the lowest temperature at
and reliable operation of hydraulic Viscosity is the measure of a fluids which a fluid still flows. It should be at
circuits, it is very important to use the resistance to flow, sometimes thought of as least lower than the lowest temperature to
correct fluid for the application. The most thickness. Viscosity is specified by a SUS which the system will be exposed so the
common fluid is based on mineral oil, or SSU designation, similar to the SAE pump can always have some lubrication.
but some systems require fire resistance designation used for automotive fluids. Consider installing a reservoir heater and
because of their proximity to a heat source SUS stands for Saybolt Universal Seconds a circulation loop on circuits that start or
or other fire hazard. (Water is also making (or as some put it, Saybolt Seconds operate below 60 F.
its return to some hydraulic systems Universal). It is a measuring system set up Refined mineral oil does not have
because it is inexpensive, fireproof, and by a man named Saybolt. Simply stated, enough lubricating qualities to meet the
does not harm the environment. the system takes a sample of fluid, heats it needs of modern day hydraulic systems.
to 100 F, and them measures how much Several lubricity additives to enhance
TRANSMIT ENERGY fluid passes through a specific orifice in a that property are added to mineral oil as
The main purpose of the fluid in any certain number of seconds. a specific manufacturers package. These
system is to transmit energy. Electric, Viscosity is most important as it applies additives are formulated to work together
internal combustion, steam powered, or to pumps. Most manufacturers specify and should not be mixed with others
other prime movers drive a pump that viscosity limits for their pumps and additives because some components may
sends oil through lines to valves that control it is best to stay within the limits they be incompatible.
actuators. The fluid in these lines must suggest. The prime reason for specifying a Refined mineral oil also is very much
transmit the prime movers energy to the maximum viscosity is that pressure drop affected by temperature change. In its
actuator so it can perform work. The fluid in the pump suction line typically is low raw state it not only has low lubricity but
must flow easily to reduce power losses and and if the oil is too thick, the pump will be also would thin out noticeably with only
make the circuit respond quickly. damaged due to cavitation. A pump can a small increase in temperature. Viscosity
move fluid of any viscosity if high enough modifiers enhance the oils ability to
LUBRICATE pressure exists at its inlet. On the other remain at a workable viscosity through a
Hydraulic systems require fluid with hand, if fluids are too thin, pump bypass broad temperature range.
good lubrication qualities. Pumps, motors, wastes energy and generates extra heat.
and cylinders need ample lubrication All other components in the circuit could OXIDATION
to make them efficient and extend their operate on any viscosity fluid because they Any of several conditions can cause
service life. Mineral oils with anti-wear only use what is fed to them. However, of oxidation of hydraulic oil. These
additives work well and are available from thicker fluids waste energy because they include contamination, air, and heat. The
most suppliers. Some fluids may need resist movement. Thin fluids waste energy interaction of these outside influences
special considerations in component because they allow too much bypass. cause sludge and acids to form. Oxidation
design to overcome their lack of lubricity. Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a inhibitors slow or stop the fluids
fluids reistance to change in viscosity degradation and allow it to perform as
SEAL with temperature. It is common intended.
Fluid thickness can be important also knowledge that heating any oil makes it Wear inhibitors are additives that bond
because one of its requirements is for thinner. A normal industrial hydraulic with metal parts inside a hydraulic system
sealing. Almost all pumps and many circuit runs at temperatures between and leave a thin film that reduces metal-
valves have metal to metal sealing fits that 100 and 130 F. Cold starts could be to-metal contact. When these additives
have minimal clearance but can leak at as low as 40 to 50 F. Using an oil with are working, they extend part life by
elevated pressures. Thin watery fluid can a low VI might start well but wind up reducing wear.
flow through these clearances, reducing with excessive leakage and wear or cause In most hydraulic systems, fast and
efficiency and eroding the mating surfaces. cavitation damage at startup and run well turbulent fluid flow can lead to the
Thicker fluids keep leakage to a minimum at temperature. Most industrial hydraulic formation of small bubbles known as
and efficiency high. oils run in the 90- to 105-VI range and foam. Anti-foaming agents make the fluid
There are several areas that apply to are satisfactory for most applications. less likely to form bubbles and allow those

CHAPTER 2
that do form to dissipate more rapidly. gravity is different and would shorten the and viscosity considerations. Again,
Moisture in the air can condense in a pumps service life drastically at elevated these are not common fluids because
hydraulic reservoir and mix with the fluid. pressures or high rotary speeds. Some they require special oil and continuous
Rust inhibitors negate the effect of this fire-resistant fluids are not compatible maintenance to keep them mixed well
unwanted water and protect the surfaces of with standard seal materials so seals must and their ratio within limits. Most
the systems metal components. All of these be changed. Always check with the pump manufacturers do not want the problems
additives are necessary to extend system manufacturer and fluid supplier before associated with water-in-oil emulsions so
life and improve reliability. using or changing to a fire-resistant fluid. their use is very limited.
Overheating the fluid can counteract the
additives and decrease system efficiency. WATER WATER GLYCOL
Overheating also thins the oil and reduces Originally, hydraulic circuits used Water glycol is a common fire-resistant
efficiency because of internal bypassing. water to transmit energy (hence the word fluid. This fluid uses water for fire
Clearances in pump and valve spools let hydraulics). The main problem with water resistance and a product like ethylene
fluid pass as pressure increases, causing hydraulics is low viscosity. Therefore, water- glycol (permanent anti-freeze) for lubricity,
more heating until the fluid breaks down. based hydraulic systems generally operate along with thickeners to enhance viscosity.
External leaks through fittings and seals a reduced pressure (500 to 600 psi) or Ethylene glycol will burn, but the energy it
also increase as fluid temperatures rise. require very expensive pumps and valves to takes to vaporize the water present quickly
Another problem caused by overheating prevent excessive internal leakage. However, quells the fire once it leaves the heat source.
is a breakdown of some seal materials. waters low viscosity means it flows with less This means a fire would not spread to other
Most rubber compounds are cured by resistance than oil does, so potentially, it can parts of the plant. Always remember fire-
controlled heat over a specific period operate at higher efficiency. resistant not fire-proof.
of time. Continued heating inside the ISeveral companies have developed Water glycol fluids are heavier than
hydraulic system over long periods keeps reliable pumps and valves for water that mineral oil and do not have its lubricating
the curing process going until the seals operate at pressure to 2,000 psi. There are qualities, so most pump manufacturers
lose their resiliency and their ability to still limitations (such as freezing) to using specify reduced rpm and lower operating
seal. It is best if hydraulic oil never exceeds water, but in certain applications it has pressures for water glycol. In addition, the
130 F for any extended period. Installing many benefits. One big advantage is that water in this fluid can evaporate, especially
heat exchangers is the most common cure there are fewer environmental problems at elevated temperatures, so it must be
for overheating but designing heat out of a during operation or in disposing of the tested regularly for the correct mixture.
circuit is the better way. fluid. Price also is a factor because water Cost is also a consideration. Water glycol
Cold oil is not a problem as far as the costs so little and is readily available is more expensive than oil and requires
oil is concerned but cooling does increase almost anywhere. most of the same considerations when
viscosity. When viscosity gets too high, disposing of it.
it can cause a pump to cavitate and HIGH WATER-CONTENT FLUIDS Always check with the pump
damage itself internally. Thermostatically Some types of manufacturing still use manufacturer before specifying water
controlled reservoir heaters easily water as a base and add some soluble oil glycol fluid to see what changes are
eliminate this problem in most cases. for lubrication. This type of fluid is known necessary to run the pump with this fluid.
as high water-content fluid (HWCF). The Seal compatibility is usually not a problem,
FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS common mixture is 95% water and 5% but always check each manufacturers
Certain applications must operate near soluble oil. This mixture takes care of most specifications before implementing this
a heat source with elevated temperatures of the lubricity problems but does not fluid. In addition, it is imperative to
or even open flames or electrical heating address low viscosity concerns. Therefore, completely flush a system of any other
units. Mineral oil is very flammable. It not systems using HWCF still need expensive fluids before refilling with water glycol.
only catches fire easily but will continue to pumps and valves to make them efficient
burn even after removing the heat source. and extend their life. SYNTHETICS
This fire hazard situation can be eliminated Rolling mills and other applications The other main fire-resistant fluids
by several different choices of fluids. These with molten metals are one area where are synthetic types. They are made from
fluids are not fireproof, only fire-resistant, HWCF is prevalent. Often the soluble oil mineral oil, but have been processed and
which means they will burn if heated past is the same compound used for coolant in contain additives to obtain a much higher
a certain temperature but they will not the metal-rolling process. This eliminates flash point. It takes more heat to start them
continue to burn after removing them concerns about cross-contamination of burning but there is not enough volatile
from the heat source. fluids and the problems it can cause. materials in them to sustain burning.
Generally, the fire-resistant fluids do not These fluids may catch fire from a pot of
have the same specifications as mineral oil- WATER-IN-OIL EMULSIONS hot metal but quickly self-extinguish after
based fluids. Pumps often must be down Some systems use around 40% water for leaving the heat source.
rated because the fluids lubricity or specific fire resistance and 60% oil for lubrication Synthetic fluids retain most of the

CHAPTER 2
lowest level of contamination from most

manufacturers is 25 microns.
Anytime a system needs new fluid, it
is best to use a transfer unit, Figure 2-1,
with a 10-micron or finer filter in the loop.
Another way of filtering new or refill fluid
is with a filter permanently attached to the
reservoir, Figure 2-2. In this arrangement,
the breather or other possible fill points
should be made inaccessible.
The filter cart shown in Figure 2-1 can
also be used to filter any hydraulic unit
in the plant. Instead of this filter unit
sitting idle except when filling systems,
set it up at a machines power unit for a
timed run. Place the suction hose in one
end of the reservoir and the return hose
in the opposite end. This adds a continual
filtration loop to any machine even when
Fig 2-1: Filter cart (used to transfer hydraulic fluids) and its circuit schematic diagram. the machines main pump is shut off. Run
the cart until the fluid is clean and then
qualities of the mineral oil from which Even with the best of care, any hydraulic move is to another power unit. Repeating
they are derived, so most hydraulic fluid should be checked at least twice a this process on a regular schedule can
components specify no operating year. Systems located in dirty atmospheres assist the hydraulic units filters and add
restrictions. However, most of these fluids may need to be checked more often extra life to the fluid and the hydraulic
are not compatible with common seal to see if a pattern exists that requires components. This process may also
materials so seal specification changes are special consideration. Pay close attention show a pattern on machines that have a
usually necessary. Special consideration to the sampling process and packaging contamination problem.
must be given to handling of synthetics procedures recommended by the test Hydraulic fluids should be stored in a
because they can cause skin irritation and facility that will process the sample. Expect clean dry atmosphere. Keep all containers
other health hazards. Also most synthetic a report on the level of contamination plus closed tightly and reinstall covers on any
fluids require protective epoxy paint for all an analysis of the additive contents, water partially used drums.
components in contact with them. content, ferrous and non-ferrous material Never mix fluids in any hydraulic
Of all the fluids discussed, synthetics are amounts, and any other problem areas the system. Make sure all containers are clearly
the most expensive. They can cost up to test facility finds. Use this information to marked and segregated so fluids will not be
five times more than mineral oil. But no know when to change fluids and to check mixed with one another. Mixing fluids can
matter which fluid is chosen, design the for abnormal part wear problems. result in damage to components and some
circuit to work in a reasonable temperature New oil or other fluids from the supplier combinations are very difficult to clean up.
range; install good filters and maintain are not necessarily clean. The fluids are Be especially careful when mineral oils and
them; and check the fluids regularly to see shipped in drums or by bulk, and there synthetic or water-glycol fluids are used in
if they are within specification limits. is no way of knowing how clean these different parts of the same plant.
A good operating temperature range is containers are. Some suppliers offer filtered Fluids are the lifeblood of any hydraulic
between 70 and 130 F with the optimum oil with a guaranteed contamination system and should be selected using the
being around 110 F. A rule of thumb level at added cost. Otherwise, about the utmost care.
would be: warm enough to feel hot to the
touch but cool enough to hold tightly for
an extended period. Overheating hydraulic
fluids is second only to contamination
when it comes to reasons for fluid failure.
Continuous filtration of any hydraulic
system is necessary for long component
life. Fluids seldom wear out but they
can become so contaminated that the
parts they drive can fail. (The filter
section of this book offers some good
recommendations on keeping fluid clean.) Fig 2-2: Hydraulic power unit and circuit diagram of its filter arrangement

CHAPTER 2
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
UIZ ON CHAPTER 2: HYDRAULIC FLUIDS. 6. New hydraulic oil is clean to:

A. 5 m
1. Hydraulic oil is compressible: B. 10 m
A. not at all C. 25 m
B. by a great amount
C. by a small amount 7. Viscosity Index is a measurement of the change of flow
characteristics of a fluid from one temperature another.
2. Viscosity is a measure of the hydraulic fluids: A. True
A. color B. False
B. temperature
C. thickness 8. Hydraulic fluid should be stored:
A. in a damp moist atmosphere
3. Synthetic fluids: B. in a closed and sealed container
A. cost more than mineral based fluids C. in an open container
B. will not burn
C. are compatible with most seal materials 9. A high viscosity number gives:
A. better sealing characteristics
4. The main purpose for hydraulic fluids is: B. poorer sealing characteristics
C. has no effect on sealing characteristics
A. to fill the tank
B. to leak from every opening 10. Refined mineral oil has:
C. transmit energy, lubricate and seal A. excellent lubricating qualities
B. good lubricating qualities
5. Over heating hydraulic fluid: C. poor lubricating qualities
A. makes it last longer
B. deteriorates the additives Notes:
C. makes it smell better

FLUID POWER BASICS
CHAPTER 3:
System and machine plumbing
P
oor plumbing practices can in the pipes between the actuator and specifically designated by code.
permanently cripple a fluid power valve is wasted every cycle. These runs To help select pipe size, the chart in
circuit even if it was designed must be filled to make the device move but Figure 3-1 shows flow (in cfm) down
with the best engineering practices and the air it takes to fill them does no work. the left-hand side, length of run (in feet)
assembled with the most up-to-date During each cycle, air in the actuator lines across the top, and minimum Schedule 40
components. Undersized lines, elbows exhausts to atmosphere without helping pipe size in the body at the intersection of
instead of bends, incorrect component cycle time or force. For this reason, always these two.
placement, and long piping runs are a few mount the valve close to the actuator ports. This chart is based on a 1-psi pressure
of the items that strangle fluid flow. Another aspect of plumbing a drop for the run lengths given. The
Other problems, such as using tapered pneumatic system is the in-plant pipe right-hand column shows approximate
pipe threads or lines with thin walls, can installation procedure. To get the required compressor horsepower for the flow
make a circuit a maintenance nightmare amount of compressed air to the point of figures on the left. Using larger than
that requires daily attention. Fortunately, usage requires some planning or the site specified pipe is of little help in reducing
there are numerous publications that may be starved at times. pressure drop, but provides more storage
assist in specifying correct line size and Pipe materials and size: Air systems volume to handle short brief-flow needs.
conductor thickness to give low pressure are normally plumbed with Schedule 40 This chart does not consider fittings and
drop and safe working-pressure limits. black iron pipe. (Galvanized pipe is not valves, but they also must be considered
recommended because some galvanizing when figuring the length of a run. Add 5 to
SIZING PNEUMATIC LINES material may flake off and get into moving 7 ft of pipe length for each fitting or valve
Because pneumatic circuits generally parts.) Several other available plumbing to be on the safe side.
are less complicated and operate at lower materials could be used for air piping Not having enough air to run the
pressures, they are not as vulnerable to because pressure is relatively low. Some equipment is expensive, so never try to
plumbing problems. One important aspect mechanics recommend plastic pipe, but save a few cents at installation by skimping
often overlooked is the length and size of be aware a few synthetic compressor on pipe size. One or two pipe sizes over
lines between the valves and actuators. lubricants attack plastic and cause it to lose minimum add little to cost up front, but
Piping between the valve and actuator strength. This type of damage weakens can make a big difference later. It is less
should be as short as possible and of the the plastic until it can burst, sending expensive to run oversize pipe initially
minimum diameter to carry the required shards of plastic flying everywhere in the than to have to add a line later.
flow. The reason for this is that all the air plant. Never use any piping material not There are three basic compressed-air
Fig. 3-1. Pipe size selection chart (in feet) for plant-air systems

CHAPTER 3
piping layouts that meet the requirements compressor. All air from the receiver goes adds storage and allows flow with low
of most industrial plants. Some facilities to a large header pipe that runs down the pressure drop. It also allows for short
may have two or more of these systems center of the plant or department. Branch bursts of high-volume flow to any section
to handle special needs. In general, lines from the header go to separate areas because flow in the loop is bi-directional.
smaller plants use a modified grid system, where working drops come down to (Another way to get short high-volume
especially when the facility is growing. A specific machines. With preplanning for flows with any of these piping systems is to
unit distribution system offers flexibility, future working drops, this arrangement is install extra receiver tanks at or near areas
but can be expensive up front. A loop very flexible. that need such flow.)
system is best suited to new construction; Figure 3-3 shows a typical loop piping Figure 3-4 illustrates a unit distribution
it provides extra storage capacity and dual system for compressed air. Again, the layout that works well in plants that
supply for short bursts of high flow. compressor and receiver are at a central run departments on different days or
Figure 3-2 shows a typical grid-system location. The oversized loop around the shifts or plants that started out small
layout using a centrally located air periphery of the plant or department and added compressors as business
grew. It is the most expensive
configuration of the three for a
new installation, so is not often
used there. One advantage of
the multiple compressors is
that there is always backup air
available for critical operations
should a single compressor
fail. The disadvantage
besides higher priceis that
some compressors might be
neglected by maintenance
personnel because they are
spread throughout a facility.
Figure 3-5 shows a
typical pipe run layout for
optimum performance from
a compressed air system.
Strict attention to the details
shown here ensures a smooth-
operating and trouble-free air
Fig. 3-2. Typical grid system layout for plant air system.
Individual machines can
be plumbed with any of the
materials recommended for
plant piping. However, because
piping at the machine is usually
much smaller, polyethylene,
nylon, or vinyl tubing with
push-to-connect fittings will
work very well. Such tubing and
fittings come in a variety of sizes
(and colors) and require only a
few tools to install. The push-
to-connect fittings also release
easily for troubleshooting
checks or rework.
PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES

Though many hydraulic
circuits are plumbed using
Fig. 3-3. Typical loop-piping system layout for plant air black-iron pipe with tapered

CHAPTER 3
heat. Tubing is designated

by its OD. As wall thickness
increases, inside diameter (ID)
decreases. (Black-iron pipe
is measured by its nominal
ID, but also has a decrease
in ID with increase in wall
thickness.)
HYDRAULIC HOSE
There are places on many
machines where rigid pipe
or tubing cannot be used
because of their inflexibility.
Rigid lines can cause
problems at cylinders with
pivot mountings, pumps on
noise-isolation mounts, or
connections between separate
units. Hose avoids these
problems.
Fig. 3-4. Typical unit distribution layout for plant air However, wholesale use of
hose in place of rigid lines it
pipe threads, this is not the recommended The recommended plumbing material is not generally recommended. Hose is
way. It is nearly impossible to maintain is steel tubing with straight-thread O-ring expensive, must be replaced on a regular
leak-free operation of a 1,000- to 3,000-psi fittings up to 2-in. outside diameter (OD), basis, and flexes and stretches under
hydraulic system for any period of time Figure 3-6. In sizes larger than 2 in., use pressure surges. This flexing produces
with tapered pipe threads. Even if pipe- steel pipe with welded SAE O-ring-sealed extra volume and adds to cycle time. It
connection compound is used, expansion flange fittings on each end, Figure 3-7. For is never recommended to use hose in a
and shock soon loosen the taper flexible connections, reinforced rubber servo circuit (although there are times it
interference and fluid weeps through the hose is most common; however, some cant be avoided). Servo circuits are for
resulting openings. Another problem with prefer sealed steel swivel joints. actuators that need precise control and
tapered pipe threads occurs on circuits A good reason for using steel tubing is flexing of hose lines can cause these valves
that must be routinely dismantled. Every that it is easily formed to allow for direction to respond slowly and then go into high
time a tapered pipe thread is unscrewed, changes. Instead of installing fittings that frequency oscillations.
it must be tightened past where it was can cause turbulence, use a tube bender to Hose is specified by its ID and, unlike
originally to get a good seal at reassembly. make sweeping turns that eliminate most of pipe and tube, this dimension does not
This can only happen so often before the the pressure drop associated with elbows. change. Thicker walls for higher pressures
pipe and/or valve must be replaced. This produces less pressure drop and less make the OD of hose greater. Pressure is
specified in working and burst
values (similar to pipe). Working
pressure should always be equal
to or higher than maximum
system operating pressure.
Flow rates of hose are slightly
higher than pipe and about
the same as steel tubing due to
hoses smooth bore. However,
many of the end connectors
for hose are restrictive because
they always go inside the inner
liner. These fittings are only
short restrictions, but can raise
pressure drop noticeably in some
Fig. 3-5. Side view of typical compressed-air header and drop arrangement cases.

CHAPTER 3
1
The causes of hose problems are usually

quite evident to someone who works
regularly with hose, even when all he or
she sees is the damaged part.
SIZING HYDRAULIC LINES

Fluid flow is measured in feet per second
(fps), so the type of conduit is irrelevant.
Many books have charts that relate gpm
to fps for all standard piping systems. Use
these charts to pick out the correct size
fluid carrier for the required flow.
Fig. 3-6. O-ring sealed straight-thread fittings
PUMP INLET LINE (SUCTION LINE)
Several factors influence hose service sure the pressure rating of the hose on all Fluid velocity should not exceed 2 to 4
life and each one is controllable by some machines is at or above operating pressure fps. The reason for this recommendation
up-front fact finding and planning. and design out system shock to protect is that the highest possible pressure drop
First: never go under the manufacturers the hose and other hydraulic components. in the pump inlet line is one atmosphere.
recommendation for minimum bend Third: avoid operating at temperatures Actually, no type of hydraulic pump can
radius. Bending hose always causes stress above the rating of the hose. Most hose even come close to this, so most inlet lines
but flexibility is the main reason for using manufacturers make hoses in different never see much more than 3- to 4-psi
it. Standard hose construction entails temperature ratings. Of course, the higher vacuum. Using velocity higher than 2 to
wire- or fiber-braided material laid down the temperature rating, the more expensive 4 fps dramatically increases pressure
when the product is straight. Bending these the hose is, but it is false economy to use causing cavitation and pump damage. It
braided materials puts extra stress on the the wrong hose to save a few pennies. is best to use a suction line equal to or
outside of the bend and bunches up those Fourth: dont install hose where it must larger than the size of the pump inlet being
on the inside. Add the constant expansion twist during each cycle or make it operate plumbed. There are circumstances when a
and contraction from pressure fluctuations in a twist because of poor tightening smaller suction line is satisfactory, but only
during operation and it is easy to see the procedures. Always hold the hose straight do this when absolutely necessary and with
adverse effect. while tightening a connection. Either case the suppliers approval.
Second: dont use hose above its rated stresses the hose and causes premature The suction line should be full size;
working pressure. While maximum failure and its accompanying extra expense. as straight as possible; have no or the
pressure might be set at or below the Hose distributors know of these pitfalls minimum number of fittings; never
hose rating, higher shock pressures could and can help with installation suggestions, include a standard pipe union; and be
be damaging during every cycle. Make as well as troubleshooting hose problems. completely sealed. Using hose in place of
pipe or tube can overcome many possible
suction-line problems. Hose is a viable
alternative and is quite satisfactory if
certain precautions are addressed. Always
use hose designed and specified for suction
(vacuum) use.
Hose normally used for pressure may
be rated at 3,000 psi but is not suited
for suction lines. The reason for this is
pressure hose uses an inner lining like a
tube in a tube-type tire. The outer layers
are strong but they are porous and would
leak high-pressure fluid except for the
inner tube. High-pressure hose as a suction
line sees constant negative pressure trying
to collapse the inner tube. After some
time, it is possible for the inner liner to
be drawn in, restricting flow and causing
pump cavitation. This phenomenon may
not happen immediately, but usually does
Fig. 3-7. Two types of O-ring sealed flange fittings cause problems in time.

CHAPTER 3
1
RETURN LINES WORKING-PRESSURE LINES higher velocities but keep in mind this
Fluid velocity in return lines should Medium pressure lines (up to 2,000 practice wastes energy.
be limited to between10 to 15 fps. The psi) should not exceed 15 to 20 fps. Flow Several fluid power handbooks are
pump can push oil returning to tank, in systems that operate above 2,000 available with excellent charts showing
but any backpressure in these lines psi can go as high as 30 fps. Unlike air tubing and pipe in all different wall
must be overcome by extra pressure at systems, there is usually excess pressure thickness, along with flow in gallons
the pump outlet. To maintain a high- capacity in hydraulic circuits when per minute (gpm) for all standard
efficiency circuit, it is important to actuators are in motion. Typically, high sizes. Remember each fitting or valve
keep pressure drop in all lines as low pressure only comes into play when in the circuit has its own pressure-drop
as possible. All energy used to push oil the actuators near the end of stroke. adders and they must be taken into
through the lines is wasted and shows In an effort to keep line and valve sizes consideration as part of the overall
up as excessive heat. small, it is common practice to use these pressure-loss picture.
UIZ ON CHAPTER 3: PIPE, TUBE, AND HOSE. B. black-iron pipe

C. plastic pipe
1. Which type of threads is recommended for plumbing

hydraulic circuits? 6. Always take drop lines in an air piping circuit from the:
A. SAE straight threads A. bottom of the header
B. NPT tapered pipe threads B. side of the header
C. BSP tapered pipe threads C. top of the header
2. What is the minimum size pipe to handle 400-cfm air 7. Elbows are better than smooth tubing bends.
flow for 500 feet? A. True
A. 4 in. B. False
B. 5 in.
C. 6 in. 8. The pipes in an air plumbing system should be:
A. sloped away from the receiver tank
3. What is the recommended fluid velocity for a suction B. sloped toward the receiver tank
line? C. level
A. 2 to 4 fps
B. 10 to 15 fps 9. Hose size is designated by its:
C. 30 fps A. ID
B. OD
4. A grid system for plant air piping requires: C. ND
A. several small compressors
B. several large compressors 10. Velocity in hydraulic circuit return lines should be:
C. one adequately sized compressor A. 2 to 4 fps.
B. 10 to 15 fps.
5. For hydraulic lines up to and including 2 in., use: C. 15 to 20 fps.
A. steel tubing

QUIZ ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER 1.
1. Most hydraulic circuits are designed by: 6. Vacuum generators use:

C. fluid power distributor salespeople. A. compressed air to create a vacuum.

2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to approximately: 7. Pascals Law states that pressure is produced by the pump and
B. 14.7 psi. motor of a hydraulic system.
B. False
3. Gauges that read pounds per square inch absolute (psia):
A. show atmospheric pressure on their scale. 8. Pressure in a fluid power system comes from:
A. resistance to flow.
4. Static head pressure of hydraulic oil is equal to approximately:
C. 0.4 psi/ft elevation. 9. A pressure gauge reading of 100 bar would be:
C. 1450 psi.
5. The power of vacuum comes from:
B. Earths atmosphere. 10. When a gas or liquid is heated it will:
C. expand.
1. Hydraulic oil is compressible: 6. New hydraulic oil is clean to:

C. by a small amount. C. 25 m.
2. Viscosity is a measure of the hydraulic fluids: 7. Viscosity Index is a measurement of the change of flow
C. thickness. characteristics of a fluid from one temperature another.
A. True
3. Synthetic fluids:
A. cost more than mineral based fluids. 8. Hydraulic fluid should be stored:
B. in a closed and sealed container.
4. The main purpose for hydraulic fluids is:
C. transmit energy, lubricate and seal. 9. A high viscosity number gives:
A. better sealing characteristics.
5. Overheating hydraulic fluid:
B. deteriorates its additives. 10. Refined mineral oil has:
C. poor lubricating qualities.
1. Which type of threads are recommended for plumbing hydraulic 6. Always take drop lines in an air piping circuit from the:
circuits? C. top of the header.
A. SAE straight threads.
7. Elbows are better than smooth tubing bends.
2. What is the minimum size pipe to handle 400 cfm air flow 500 B. False
ft?
B. 5 in. 8. The pipes in an air plumbing system should be:
A. sloped away from the receiver tank.
3. What is the recommended feet per second (ft/sec) velocity for a
suction line? 9. Hose size is designated by its:
A. 2 to 4 ft/sec A. I.D.
4. A grid system for plant air piping requires: 10. Velocity in hydraulic circuits return lines should be:
C. one adequately sized compressor. B. 10 to 15 ft/sec.
5. For hydraulic lines up to 2-in. diameter, use:

A. steel tubing.

FLUID POWER BASICS
CHAPTER 4
1
ISO Symbols and Glossary
A
family of graphic symbols has internationally. Both systems have almost today use the ISO symbols as their
been developed to represent fluid the same format (especially since ANSI standard for work with foreign suppliers
power components and systems changed its symbols in 1966 to eliminate and customers.
on schematic drawings. In the United all written information). The following pages go through all
States, the American National Standards Standard symbols allow fluid power standard ISO symbol information as
Institute (ANSI) is responsible for symbol schematic diagrams to be read and it applies to hydraulic and pneumatic
information. The Institute controls the understood by persons in many different schematics. There are still many plants
make-up of symbols and makes changes countries, even when they dont speak the that modify the standards to suit some
or additions as required. The International same language. Either symbol set (ANSI individuals taste. This widespread practice
Standards Organization (ISO) has or ISO) may be -- and is -- used in the may be confusing to novices. Symbols
the same control over symbols used United States. However, many companies have been developed to represent most

CHAPTER 4
of the available fluid power components. up. In such cases, look first in the suppliers standard practices shown here.
However, some parts must be made up of catalog for the symbol they show. If the As the phrase fluid power implies,
combinations of different symbols to show supplier did not make a symbol, the only these symbols cover both hydraulic and
how they function. Other times there is no other option is design one for the new pneumatic components. Any exceptions
standard symbol and one must be made part. Try to design the new symbol using are noted.

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Absolute viscosity - the ratio of shear pressure. ing. Ideally, the lubricating film between
stress to shear rate. It is a fluids internal Air, dried - Air with moisture content two moving surfaces should be thicker
resistance to flow. The common unit of lower than the maximum allowable for a than the combined height of the opposing
absolute viscosity is the poise. Absolute given application. asperities.
viscosity divided by fluid density equals Air, free - Air at ambient temperature, Bactericide - An additive included in the
kinematic viscosity. pressure, relative humidity, and density. formulations of water-mixed fluids to in-
Absorption - The physical mechanism by Air, saturated - Air at 100% relative hibit the growth of bacteria.
which one substance attracts and takes up humidity, with a dew point equal to Bernoullis Law - If no work is done on or
another substance (liquid, gas, or vapor) temperature. by a flowing frictionless liquid, its energy
into its interior. Air, standard - Air at a temperature of 68.8 due to pressure and velocity remains con-
Accelerator - A substance that hastens the F, a pressure of 14.70 pounds per square stant at all points along the streamline.
vulcanization of an elastomer, causing it to inch absolute, and a relative humidity of Beta Ratio - A rating applied to filters (it
take place in a shorter time period or at a 36% (0.0750 pounds per cubic foot). In gas is also known as the filtration ratio. It is a
lower temperature. industries the temperature of standard measure of the particle-capture efficiency
Accumulator -A container in which fluid air is usually given as 60.8 F. producing of a filter element.
is stored under pressure as a source of fluid tiny bubbles that expand explosively at the The ISO 16889 Multipass Test Procedure
power. pump outlet, causing metal erosion and passes fluid through a test circuit to check
Accumulator, hydro-pneumatic bladder - eventual pump destruction. for contaminant retention. A measured
A hydro-pneumatic accumulator in which Air - A gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, amount of contaminant is injected up-
the liquid and gas are separated by an elas- oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, stream of the filter and laser particle
tic bag or bladder. small quantities of neon, helium and other counters record particles in to particles out
Actuator, pneumatic/hydraulic - A device gases. across the filter. When 100,000 particles
in which power is transferred from one Amplification, power - The ratio between are measured upstream of a 10 ( filter and
pressurized medium (pneumatic) to an- the output signal variations and the cor- 10,000 downstream it would have a Beta
other (hydraulic) without intensification. responding input (control) power variation Ratio of 10. (B10(=100,000/10,000=10)
Additive - A chemical added to a fluid to (for analog devices only). A Beta Ratio is of no use alone but is re-
impart new properties or to enhance those Amplification, pressure - The ratio be- quired to find the filters efficiency rating.
that already exist. tween outlet pressure and inlet (control) Efficiency of a filter element is what counts
Adiabatic compression occurs when no pressure. when comparing one filter to another. The
heat is transferred to or from the air during Amplification - The ratio between the out- higher the efficiency, the fewer contami-
compression. put signal variations and the control signal nants get by. Efficiency coupled with the
Adsorption - The physical mechanism by variations (for analog devices only) volume of contaminant retention can make
which one substance attracts another sub- Analog - Of or pertaining to the general a more expensive filter cost less due to its
stance (either solid, liquid, gas, or vapor) class of fluidic devices or circuits whose longer useful life.
to its surface and through molecular forces output varies as a continuous function of Bleeding - Migration to the surface of plas-
causes the incident substance to adhere to its input. ticizers, waxes, or similar materials to form
that surface. AND device - A control device that has its a film or beads.
Aftercooler - A device that cools a gas after output in the logical 1 state if and only if Boundary lubrication - A form of lubrica-
it has been compressed. all the control signals assume the logical 1 tion between two rubbing surfaces without
Aftercooling - The cooling of air after it state. development of a full-fluid lubricating
has been compressed to lower its tempera- Aniline point - The lowest temperature at film. Boundary lubrication can be made
ture and precipitate condensed vapors. which a liquid is completely miscible with more effective by including additives in the
Afterfilter - A filter that follows the com- an equal volume of freshly distilled aniline lubricating oil that provide a stronger oil
pressed air dryer, usually for the protection (ASTM Designation D611-64). film, thus preventing excessive friction and
of downstream equipment from desiccant Anti-foam agent - One of two types of possible scoring. There are varying degrees
dust. additives used to reduce foaming in pe- of boundary lubrication, depending on the
Air bleeder - A device for removal of air. troleum products: silicone oil to break up severity of service.
Air breather - A device permitting air large surface bubbles, and various kinds Boyles Law - The absolute pressure of a
movement between atmosphere and the of polymers that decrease the number of fixed mass of gas varies inversely as the
component in which it is installed. small bubbles entrained in the oils. volume, provided the temperature remains
Air motor - A device that converts pneu- Asperities - Microscopic projections on constant.
matic fluid power into mechanical torque metal surfaces resulting from normal Breakout - The force necessary to inaugu-
and motion. It usually provides rotary me- surface-finishing processes. Interference rate sliding. Expressed in the same terms as
chanical motion. between opposing asperities in sliding or friction. An excessive breakout value indi-
Air, compressed (pressure) - Air at rolling applications is a source of friction, cates the development of adhesion.
any pressure greater than atmospheric and can lead to metal welding and scor- Breathing capacity - A measure of flow

CHAPTER 4
rate through an air breather.Bulk modu- compressive stress to the resulting com- power into linear mechanical force and
lus - The measure of a fluids resistance pressive strain (the latter expressed as a motion. It usually consists of a movable
to compressibility. It is the reciprocal of fraction of the original height or thickness element such as a piston and piston rod,
compressibility. in the direction of the force). Compression plunger or ram, operating within a cylin-
Cavitation - A localized gaseous condi- modulus may be either static or dynamic. drical bore.
tion within a liquid stream that occurs Compression ratio - The ratio of the ab- Cylinder, adjustable stroke - A cylinder
where the pressure is reduced to the liquids solute discharge pressure to the absolute equipped with adjustable stops at one or
vapor pressure, often as a result of a solid intake pressure. both ends to limit piston travel.
body, such as a propeller or piston, mov- Compression set - The amount by which a Cylinder, area, piston, effective - The area
ing through the liquid. Also, the pitting or rubber specimen fails to return to original upon which fluid pressure acts to provide a
wearing away of a solid surface as a result shape after release of the compressive load. mechanical force.
of low fluid levels that draw air into the Compressor - A device that converts me- Cylinder, area, piston rod - The cross-
system. chanical force and motion into pneumatic sectional area of the piston rod.
Charles Law - The volume of a fixed mass fluid power. Cylinder, bore - The internal diameter of
of gas varies directly with absolute tem- Condensation - The process of changing the cylinder body.
perature, provided the pressure remains a vapor into a liquid condensate by the ex- Cylinder cap - An end closure for a cylin-
constant. traction of heat. der that completely covers the bore area.
Circuit, meter-in - A speed-control circuit Conditioner, air - An assembly compris- Cylinder capacity - The volume of a theo-
in which the control is achieved by regulating a filter, a pressure-reducing valve with retically incompressible fluid that would be
ing the supply flow to the actuator. gauge, and a lubricator, intended to deliver displaced by the piston during a complete
Circuit, meter-out - A speed-control compressed air in suitable condition for its stroke. (For double-acting cylinders it must
circuit in which the control is achieved application. be given for both directions of stroke.)
by regulating the exhaust flow from the Conductor - A component whose primary Cylinder capacity, extending - The vol-
actuator. function is to contain and direct fluid. ume required for one full extension of a
Circuit, open - A circuit in which return Contaminant - Any material or substance cylinder.
fluid is directed to the reservoir before that is unwanted or adversely affects the Cylinder capacity, retracting-Volume (an-
reciprocation. fluid power system or components, or nular) absorbed by one full retraction of
Circuit, regenerative - A circuit in which both. the cylinder oscillation of an output shaft.
pressurized fluid discharged from a com- Control - A device used to regulate the Cylinder, cushioned - A cylinder with a
ponent is returned to the system to reduce function of a component or system. piston-assembly deceleration device at one
input power requirements. Controller - A device that senses a change or both ends of the stroke.
Circuit, sequence - A circuit that estab- of fluid state and automatically makes ad- Cylinder, differential - A double-acting
lishes the order in which two or more justments to maintain the state of the fluid cylinder in which the ratio of the area of
phases of a circuit occur. between predetermined limits, e.g., pres- the bore to the annular area between the
Circuit - An arrangement of intercon- sures, temperatures, etc. bore and the piston rod is significant in
nected components and parts. Copolymer - A polymer consisting of two circuit function.
Cold flexibility - Flexibility following expo- different monomers that are chemically Cylinder, double-acting - A cylinder
sure to a predetermined time. combined. in which fluid force can be applied to
Cold flow - Continued deformation under Corrosion inhibitor - An additive that the moveable element (piston) in either
stress. protects wetted metal surfaces from chemi- direction.
Compatibility, seal - Ability of an elasto- cal attack by water or other contaminants. Cylinder, double rod - A cylinder with a
mer to resist the action of a Polar compounds wet the metal surface single piston and a piston rod extending
fluid on its dimensional and mechanical preferentially, protecting it with a film of from each end.
properties. oil. Other compounds may absorb water Cylinder, dual stroke - A cylinder combi-
Compressibility - The change in volume of by incorporating it in a water-in-oil emul- nation that provides two working strokes.
a unit volume of a fluid when subjected to a sion so that only the oil touches the metal Cylinder, duplex - A unit comprised of
unit change in pressure. surface. Another type of corrosion inhibi- two cylinders with independent control,
Compression efficiency - The ratio of the tor combines chemically with the metal to mechanically connected on a common axis
theoretical work required (in a given pro- present a non-reactive surface. to provide three or four positions depend-
cess) to the actual work required to be done Creep - The progressive relaxation of a ing on the method of application.
to compress and de-liver the air. Expressed given rubber material while it is under Cylinder force, theoretical - The pres-
as a percentage. Compression efficiency stress. This relaxation eventually results in sure multiplied by the effective piston area
accounts for fluid-friction losses, leakage, permanent deformation or set. (ignoring friction). For double-acting
and thermodynamic variations from the Cushion - A device that provides con- cylinders, the value must be given for both
theoretical process. trolled resistance to motion. directions of stroke.
Compression modulus - The ratio of the Cylinder - A device that converts fluid Cylinder, piston-type - A cylinder in
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CHAPTER 4
which the piston has a greater cross-sec- displacement compressors. formation of a stable mixture...or emulsion
tional area than the piston rod. Displacement, volumetric - The volume ..of oil and water.
Cylinder, plunger (ram) - A cylinder in absorbed or displaced per stroke of a cylin- Emulsion - A homogeneous dispersion
which the piston has the same cross-sec- der or per cycle of a pump or motor. of two immiscible liquids, generally of a
tional area as the piston rod. Dissolved air - Air that is dispersed at a milky or cloudy appearance.
Cylinder, rotating - A cylinder in which molecular level in hydraulic fluid to form a Entrained air - A mechanical mixture of
the piston and piston rod, plunger or ram, single phase. air bubbles having a tendency to separate
is permitted to rotate with reference to the Dissolved water - Water that is dispersed from the liquid phase.
cylinder housing. at a molecular level in hydraulic fluid to Expectancy, life - The predicted work-
Cylinder, single-acting - A cylinder in form a single phase. ing period during which a component or
which the fluid force can be applied to the Dither - A low-amplitude, relatively high- system will maintain a specified level of
movable element in only one direction. frequency periodic electrical signal, some- performance under specified conditions.
Cylinder, tandem - An arrangement of at times superimposed on a servovalve input Sometimes expressed in statistical terms as
least two pistons on the same rod moving to improve system resolution. Dither is a probability.
in separate chambers on the same cylinder expressed by the dither frequency (Hz) and Filter - 1. A device whose primary func-
body allowing the compounding of force the peak-to-peak dither current amplitude. tion is the removal by porous media of
on the piston rod. Droop - The deviation between no flow insoluble contaminants from a liquid or a
Cylinder, telescoping - A cylinder secondary pressure and secondary pressure gas. 2. Chemically inert, finely divided ma-
with two or more stages or extensions, at a given flow. terial added to the elastomer to aid in pro-
achieved by hollow piston rods sliding Dryer, compressed air - A device for re- cessing and improve physical properties.
one within the other (may be single- or ducing the moisture content of the working Filter, strainer - A coarse hydraulic filter,
double-acting). compressed air. usually of woven wire construction. This
Cylinder, tie rod - A cylinder with head Durometer - 1. An instrument for mea- may be in the form of a complete filter or
and cap end closures that are secured by tie suring the hardness of rubber. It measures just an element.
rods. the resistance to the penetration of an in- Filter, bypass (reserve) - A filter which
Cylinder, rotary actuator - A cylinder that denter point into the surface of rubber. 2. provides an alternate unfiltered flow path
translates piston reciprocation into oscilla- Numerical scale of rubber hardness. around the filter element when a preset dif-
tion of an output shaft. EP additive - A lubricant additive that ferential pressure is reached.
Darcys Formula - A formula used to de- prevents sliding metal surfaces from seiz- Filter, spin-on - A filter with spin-on ele-
termine the pressure drop due to flow fric- ing under conditions of extreme pressure ment sealed in its own pressure housing for
tion through a conduit. (EP). At the high local temperatures as- independent mounting to the filter.
Deliquescent -A special hygroscopic com- sociated with metal-to-metal contact, an Filtration ratio (bm) - The ratio of the
pound with absorptive properties that can EP additive com-bines chemically with the number of particles greater than a given
separate moisture. metal to form a surface film that prevents size (b) in the influent fluid to the number
Demulsibility - The ability of an oil to the welding of opposing asperities, and the of particles greater than the same size (m)
separate from water. consequent scoring that is destructive to in the effluent fluid.
Density - The weight of a given volume of sliding surfaces under high loads. Reactive Filter, strainer - A coarse hydraulic filter
air, usually expressed in lb/ft3 at standard compounds of sulfur, chlorine, or phos- usually of woven wire construction. This
temperature and pressure. phorus are used to form these inorganic may be in the form of a complete filter or
Desiccant - A material that tends to re- films. just an element.
move moisture from compressed air. Efficiency - The ratio of output to the cor- Fire-resistant fluid - Hydraulic oil used es-
Dew point - The temperature at which responding input. pecially in high-temperature or hazardous
vapors in a gas condense. For practical Elasticity - The property of a material that applications. Three common types of fire-
purposes, it must be referred to a stated tends to return to its original shape after resistant fluids are: (1) water-petroleum
pressure. deformation. oil emulsions, in which the water prevents
Dewaxing - Removal of paraffin wax from Elastomer - Any synthetic or natural mate- burning of the petroleum constituent; (2)
lubricating oils to improve low-temper- rial with resilience or memory sufficient to water-glycol fluids; and (3) non-aqueous
ature properties, especially to lower the return to its original shape after distortion. fluids of low volatility, such as phosphate
cloud point and pour point. Elongation - Generally means ultimate esters, silicones, polyolesters, and haloge-
Digital - Of or pertaining to the general elongation or percent increase in original nated hydrocarbon-type fluids.
class of fluidic devices or circuits whose length of a specimen when it breaks. Fitting - A connector or closure for fluid
output varies in discrete steps (i.e., pulses Emulsion, oil-in-water - A dispersion of power lines and passages.
or on-off characteristics). oil in a continuous phase of water. Fitting, compression - A fitting that
Displacement - The net volume swept by Emulsion, water-in-oil - A dispersion of seals and grips by manual adjustable
the moving parts of a compressor per unit water in a continuous phase of oil. deformation.
of time. This term applies only to positive- Emulsifier- An additive the promotes Fitting, flange - A fitting that utilizes a

CHAPTER 4
radially extending collar for sealing and of a fluid to permanent changes caused by to isolate the pressure gauge from the fluid
connection. chemical reaction with oxygen. pressure if this pressure exceeds a prede-
Fitting, flared - A fitting that seals and Fluid, anti-corrosive - A fluid containing termined limit. The device can usually be
grips by a pre-formed flare at the end of the metal corrosion inhibitors. adjusted to suit the range of the pressure
tube. Fluid, aqueous - A fluid that contains gauge.
Fitting, flareless - A fitting that seals and water as a major constituent besides the or- Gauge, bourdon tube - A pressure gauge
grips by means other than a flare. ganic material. The fire-resistance proper- in which the sensing element is a curved
Flash point - The temperature to which a ties are derived from the water content. tube that tends to straighten out when sub-
liquid must be heated under specified con- Fluid, fire-resistant - A fluid that is dif- jected to internal fluid pressure.
ditions of the test method to give off suffi- ficult to ignite and shows little tendency to Gauge, diaphragm - A gauge in which the
cient vapor to form a mixture with air that propagate flame. sensing element is relatively thin and its in-
can be ignited momentarily by a flame. Fluid, hydraulic - A fluid suitable for use ner portion is free to deflect with respect to
Flip flop - A digital component or circuit in a hydraulic system. its fixed periphery.
with two stable states and sufficient hys- Fluid, Newtonian - Fluid having a viscos- Gauge, instrument - An instrument or de-
teresis so that it has memory. Its state is ity that is always independent of the rate of vice for measuring, indicating, or compar-
changed with a control pulse; a continuous shear. ing a physical characteristic.
control signal is not necessary for it to re- Fluid, pneumatic - A fluid suitable for use Gauge, pressure - A gauge that indicates
main in a given state. in pneumatic systems . . . usually air. the pressure in the system to which it is
Flow characteristic curve - The change in Fluid, rust protection - Capacity of a fluid connected.
regulated (secondary) pressure occurring to prevent the formation of rust under Head - The height of a column or body
as a result of a change in the rate of air flow specified conditions. of fluid above a given point expressed in
over the operating range of the regulator. Fluid - A liquid, gas, or combination linear units. Head is often used to indicate
Flow rate - The volume, mass, or weight of thereof. gauge pressure. Pressure is equal to the
a fluid passing through any conductor per Force motor - A type of electromechanical height times the density of the fluid.
unit of time. transducer having linear motion used in Head, cylinder - The cylinder end closure
Flow, laminar (streamline) - A flow situa- the input stages of servovalves. that covers the differential area between
tion in which fluid moves in parallel lami- Free air - Any compressible gas, air, or va- the bore area and the piston rod area.
nation or layers. por trapped within a hydraulic system that Head, friction - The pressure required
Flow, output - The flow rate discharged at does not condense or dissolve to form a to overcome the friction at the interior
the outlet port. part of the system fluid. surface of a conductor and between fluid
Flow, turbulent - A flow situation in which Free water - Water droplets or globules in particles in motion. It varies with flow, size,
the fluid particles move in a random fluc- the system fluid that tend to accumulate at type and condition of conductors and fit-
tuating manner. the bottom or top of the system fluid de- tings, and the fluid characteristics.
Flow - Movement of fluid generated by pending on the fluids specific gravity. Head, pressure - The pressure due to the
pressure differences. Frequency response - The changes, under height of a column or body of fluid.
Fluid capacity - The liquid volumecoin- steady-state conditions, in the output vari- Head, static - The height of a column or
cident with the high mark of the level able that are caused by a sinusoidal input body of fluid above a given point.
indicator. variable. Heat exchanger - A device that transfers
Fluid friction - Friction due to the viscos- Full-fluid-film lubrication - The presence heat through a conducting wall from
ity of fluids. of a continuous lubricating film sufficient one fluid to another. (Typically to cool a
Fluid logic - A branch of fluid power as- to completely separate two surfaces (as system.)
sociated with digital signal sensing and distinct from boundary-layer lubrication). Heater - A device that transfers heat
information processing, using components Full-fluid-film lubrication is normally hy- through a conducting wall from one
with or without moving parts. drodynamic lubrication, whereby the oil fluid to another. (Typically to warm up a
Fluid miscibility - Capacity of fluids to be adheres to the moving part and is drawn system.)
mixed in any ratio without separation into into the area between the sliding surfaces, Hose, wire-braided - Hose consisting of
phases. where it forms a pressure or hydrodynamic a flexible material reinforced with woven
Fluid power system - A system that trans- wedge. wire braid.
mits and controls power through use of Gauge damper (snubber) - A device Hose - A flexible line or conductor whose
a pressurized fluid within an enclosed employing a fixed or variable restrictor nominal size is its inside diameter.
circuit. inserted in the pipeline leading to a pres- Hydraulic amplifier - A fluid device that
Fluid power - Energy transmitted and con- sure gauge. It prevents damage to the gauge enables one or more inputs to control a
trolled through use of a pressurized fluid. mechanism caused by rapid fluctuations of source of fluid power and thus is capable of
Fluid stability - The resistance of a fluid to fluid pressure. delivering at its output an enlarged repro-
permanent changes in properties. Gauge protector - A device inserted in the duction of the essential characteristics of
Fluid stability, oxidation - The resistance pipeline to a pressure gauge and arranged the input. Hydraulic amplifiers may utilize

CHAPTER 4
sliding spools, nozzle-flappers, jet pipes, the forces opposing that movement. compression.
etc. Hydrokinetics - The engineering science Joint - A line-positioning connector.
Hydraulic fluid - The fluid that serves as that pertains to the energy of liquid flow Joint, rotary - A joint connecting lines that
the power transmission medium in a hy- and pressure. have relative operational rotation.
draulic system. The most commonly used Hydro-pneumatics - The combination of Kinematic viscosity - The absolute viscos-
fluids are petroleum and synthetic oils, hydraulic and pneumatic fluid power. ity of a fluid divided by its density at the
oil-water emulsions, and water-glycol mix- Hydrostatic transmission - The combina- same temperature of measurement. It is
tures. The principal requirements of a pre- tion of one or more hydraulic pumps and the measure of a fluids resistance to flow
mium hydraulic fluid are: proper viscosity, motors to form a unit. under gravity.
high viscosity index, anti-wear protection Hydrostatics - The engineering science Leakage rate - The rate at which a gas or
(if needed), good oxidation stability, ad- that pertains to the energy of liquids at rest. liquid passes through a barrier. Total leak-
equate pour point, good demulsibility, rust Ideal gases - Gasses that follow the perfect age rate includes the amounts that diffuse
inhibition, resistance to foaming, and com- gas laws without deviation. There are no or permeate through the material of the
patibility with seal materials. Anti-wear real ideal gases, but they provide a com- barrier as well as the amount that escapes
oils are frequently used in compact, high- mon starting point for calculations and around it.
pressure, and high-capacity pumps that corrections. Line, return - A conductor (pipe) to return
require extra lubrication protection. Immiscible - Incapable of being mixed the working fluid to the reservoir.
Hydraulic motor - A device that converts without separation of phases. Water and Line, working - A line that conducts fluid
hydraulic fluid power into mechanical petroleum oil are immiscible under most power.
force and motion. It usually provides rotary conditions, although they can be made Line - A tube, pipe, or hose for conducting
mechanical motion. miscible with the addition of a proper fluid.
Hydraulic motor efficiency, hydro-me- emulsifier. Lubricator - A device that adds controlled
chanical - The ratio of the effective torque Indicator, differential pressure - An or metered amounts of lubricants into a
to the derived torque. indicator that signals a difference in pres- pneumatic system.
Hydraulic motor efficiency, overall - The sure between two points in a fluid power Lubricity - The ability of an oil or grease to
ratio of the output power to the effective system. lubricate (also called film strength).
power. Inhibitor - Any substance that, when pres- Magnetic plug - A plug that attracts and
Hydraulic motor efficiency, volumetric - ent in very small proportions, slows, pre- holds ferromagnetic particles.
The ratio of the derived output flow to the vents or modifies chemical reactions such Manifold - A conductor that provides mul-
effective input flow. as corrosion or oxidation. tiple connection ports.
Hydraulic motor, fixed displacement - A Intensification, ratio of - The ratio of the Maximum inlet pressure - The maximum
hydraulic motor in which the displacement secondary pressure to the primary pressure rated gauge pressure applied to the inlet
per unit of output motion cannot be varied. or of the primary flow rate to the second- port of the regulator.
Hydraulic motor, flow, input - The flow ary flow rate. Mechanical efficiency - The ratio of the
rate crossing the transverse plane of the Intensifier, double-acting - A unit that indicated horsepower to the actual shaft
inlet port. magnifies the secondary fluid pressure horsepower.
Hydraulic motor, gear, external - A motor regardless of the direction of flow of the Memory - The tendency of a mate-
having two or more external gears. primary fluid. rial to return to its original shape after
Hydraulic motor, gear, internal - A motor Intensifier, single-acting - A unit that only deformation.
with an internal gear in engagement with magnifies the fluid pressure in one direc- Miscible - Capable of being mixed in
one or more external gears. tion of flow of the primary fluid. any concentration without separation of
Hydraulic motor, gear - A motor in which Intensifier, single shot - An intensifier in phases; e.g., water and ethyl alcohol are
two or more gears act in arrangement as which the continuous application of pri- miscible.
working members. mary fluid at the inlet port can only give a Modulus of elasticity - One of the several
Hydraulic motor, vane - A motor in which limited volume of secondary fluid. measurements of stiffness or resistance
the fluid under pressure acting on a set of Intensifier - A device that converts low- to deformation. Often incorrectly used to
radial vanes causes rotation of an internal pressure fluid power into higher-pressure indicate specifically static tension modulus.
member. fluid power. Modulus - Tensile stress at a specified
Hydraulic stepping motor - A hydraulic Inter-cooling - The process of cooling air elongation. (Usually 100% elongation for
motor that follows the commands of a between stages of compression to liquefy elastomers.)
stepped input signal to achieve positional condensed vapors and save power by re- Moving parts logic - The technology of
accuracy. ducing the temperature of air entering the achieving logic control by means of fluid
Hydraulics - The engineering science that next stage. devices having moving parts.
pertains to liquid pressure and flow. Isothermal compression - A compres- Muffler - A device for reducing gas flow
Hydrodynamics - The engineering science sion arrangement in which the tempera- noise. Noise is decreased by backpressure
that governs the movement of liquids and ture of the air remains constant during control of gas expansion.

CHAPTER 4
Newt - A unit of kinematic viscosity in the Permeability - The rate at which a liquid which an oil or distillate fuel is observed
English system. It is expressed in square or gas under pressure passes through a to flow when cooled under conditions
inches per second (see Stokes). solid material by diffusion and solution. prescribed by test method ATM D 97. The
Newtonian fluid - A fluid, such as a In rubber terminology, it is the rate of gas pour point is 3C (5 F) above the tempera-
straight mineral oil, whose viscosity does flow expressed in atmospheric cubic centi- ture at which the oil in a test vessel shows
not change with rate of flow. meters per second through an elastomeric no movement.
Non-Newtonian fluid - A fluid, such as material one centimeter square and one Power unit - A combination of pump,
a grease or a polymer containing oil (e.g. centimeter thick (atm cm3/cm2 cmsec) pump drive, reservoir, controls and con-
multi-grade oil), in which shear stress is Petroleum fluid - A fluid composed of pe- ditioning components to supply hydraulic
not proportional to shear rate. troleum oil that may contain additives and/ power to a system.
NOR device - A control device that has its or inhibitors. Pressure, absolute - The pressure above
output in the logical 1 state if and only if Pipe - A conductor whose outside diam- zero absolute, i.e., the sum of atmospheric
all the control signals assume the logical 0 eter is standardized for threading. Pipe and gauge pressure. In vacuum related
state. is available in standard, extra-strong, or work it is usually expressed in millimeters
NOT device - A control device that has double extra-strong wall thickness. of mercury (mm-Hg).
its output in the logical 1 state if and only Piston rod - The element that transmits Pressure, atmospheric - Pressure exerted
if the control signal assumes the logical 0 mechanical force and motion from the by the atmosphere at any specific location.
state. (The NOT device is a single-input piston. (Sea level pressure is approximately 14.7
NOR device.) Plasticizer - A substance -- usually a heavy pounds per square inch absolute. 1 bar =
Oil swell - The change in volume of a rub- liquid -- added to an elastomer to decrease 14.5 PSI).
ber article due to absorption of oil or other stiffness, improve low-temperature proper- Pressure, back - The pressure encountered
fluid. ties, and improve processing. on the return side of a system.
OR device - A control device that has its Pneumatics - The engineering science per- Pressure, break loose (breakout) -
output in the logical 0 state if and only if taining to gaseous pressure and flow. The minimum pressure that initiates
all the control signals assume the logical 0 Poise - The standard unit of dynamic movement.
state. viscosity in the centimeter-gram-second Pressure, burst - The pressure that causes
Out-gassing - A vacuum phenomenon (CGS) system. It is the ratio of the shear- failure of and consequential loss of fluid
wherein a substance spontaneously releases ing stress to the shear rate of fluid and through the product envelope.
volatile constituents in the form of vapors is expressed in millipascal sec. (equals 1 Pressure, charge - The pressure at which
or gases. In rubber compounds, these con- centipoise). replenishing fluid is formed into a fluid
stituents may include water vapor, plasti- Polar compound - A chemical compound power system.
cizers, air, inhibitors, etc. whose molecules exhibit electrically posi- Pressure, control range - The permissible
Output stage - The final stage of hydraulic tive characteristics at one extremity and limits between which system pressure may
amplifications used in a servovalve. negative characteristics at the other. Polar be set.
Oxidation inhibitor - A substance added compounds are used as additives in many Pressure, cracking - The pressure at which
in small quantities to a petroleum product petroleum products. a pressure-operated valve begins to pass
to increase its oxidation resistance, thereby Polymer - A material formed by the join- fluid.
lengthening its service or storage life. Also ing together of many (poly) individual Pressure, differential (pressure drop) -
called an anti-oxidant. units (mer) of one or more monomers. The difference in pressure between any two
Ozone resistance - A materials ability to Synonymous with elastomers. points of a system or a component.
withstand the deteriorating effect of ozone Polytropic compression - A process that Pressure, gauge - The pressure differen-
(which generally causes cracking). occurs when heat is transferred to or from tial above or below ambient atmospheric
Packing - A sealing device consisting of air at a precise rate during compression so pressure.
bulk deformable material of one or more that PVn is constant. Pressure, induced - The pressure gener-
mating deformable elements, reshaped by Port - A terminus of a passage in a com- ated by an externally applied force.
manually adjustable compression to obtain ponent to which conductors can be Pressure, inlet - The pressure at the appa-
and maintain effectiveness. Packing usu- connected. ratus inlet port.
ally uses axial compression to obtain radial Port, differential pressure - A port that Pressure, intensified - The outlet pressure
sealing. provides a passage to the upstream and in a fluid power cylinder required to slow
Pascals Law - A pressure applied to a con- downstream sides of a component. the piston rod extending under regulated
fined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal Post cure - The second step in the vulcani- pressure introduced at the cap end.
intensity throughout the fluid. zation process for the more exotic elasto- Pressure, maximum inlet - The maximum
Permanent set - The deformation remain- mers. It provides stabilization of parts and rated gauge pressure applied to the inlet.
ing after a specimen has been stressed in drives off decomposition products result- Pressure, nominal - A pressure value as-
tension for a definite period and released ing from the vulcanization process. signed to a component or system for the
for a definite period. Pour point - The lowest temperature at purpose of convenient designation.

CHAPTER 4
Pressure, outlet - Pressure at the apparatus Pump, piston, radial - A pump having size and shape after deformation.
outlet port. several pistons arranged to operate radially. Reyn - The standard unit of absolute vis-
Pressure, override - The difference be- Pump, piston - A pump in which the fluid cosity in the English system. It is expressed
tween the cracking pressure of a valve and volume is displaced by one or more recip- in pound-seconds per square inch.
the pressure reached when the valve is rocating pistons. Reynolds Number - A numerical ratio
passing its rated flow. Pump, screw - A hydraulic pump having of the dynamic forces of mass flow to the
Pressure, peak - The maximum pres- one or more screws rotating in a housing. shear stress due to viscosity. Flow usually
sure encountered in the operation of a Pump, vane, balanced - A pump in which changes from laminar to turbulent between
component. the transverse forces on the rotor are Reynolds Numbers 2000 and 4000.
Pressure, pilot - The pressure in the pilot balanced. Ring, O- A ring that has a round
circuit. Pump, vane, unbalanced - A pump in cross-section.
Pressure, precharge - The pressure of which the transverse forces on the rotor are Ring, piston - A piston sealing ring. It is
compressed gas in an accumulator prior to not balanced. usually one of a series and often is split to
the admission of a liquid. Pump, vane - A hydraulic pump having facilitate expansion or contraction.
Pressure, proof - The non-destructive test multiple radial vanes within a supporting Ring, scraper - A ring that removes mate-
pressure -- in excess of the maximum rated rotor. rial by a scraping action.
operating pressure -- that causes no perma- Pump, variable-displacement - A hydrau- Rotation - The direction of rotation is al-
nent deformation, excessive external leak- lic pump in which the volume displaced ways quoted as viewed looking at the shaft
age, or other resulting malfunction. per cycle can be varied. end. In dubious cases, provide a sketch.
Pressure, rated - The qualified operating Pump-motor - A unit that functions either Seal, cup - A sealing device with a radial
pressure that is recommended for a com- as a pump or as a rotary motor. base integral with an axial cylindrical pro-
ponent or system by the manufacturer. Pump - A device that converts mechani- jection at its outer diameter.
Pressure, shock - The pressure existing in cal torque and motion into hydraulic fluid Seal, dynamic - A sealing device used be-
a wave moving at sonic velocity. power. tween parts that have relative motion.
Pressure, static - The pressure in a fluid at Pumping or surge - The reversal of flow Seal, elastomer - A material having rub-
rest. within a dynamic compressor. It takes place ber-like properties; i.e., having the capac-
Pressure, surge - The pressure resulting when insufficient pressure is generated to ity for large deformation, with rapid and
from surge conditions. maintain flow. substantially complete recovery on release
Pressure, system - The pressure that over- Quick-disconnect coupling - A compo- from the deforming force.
comes the total resistance in a system. It nent that can quickly join or separate a Seal, rod (shaft) - A sealing device that
includes all losses as well as useful work. fluid line without the use of tools or special seals the periphery of a piston rod.
Pressure - Force per unit area, usually ex- devices. Seal, static (gasket) - A sealing device used
pressed in pounds per square inch or bar. Refrigerated dryer - A device that sepa- between parts that have no relative motion.
Pump, fixed-displacement - A hydraulic rates moisture by lowering the air tempera- Sensor - A device that detects and trans-
pump in which the volume displaced per ture by means of refrigeration compressor mits changes in external conditions.
cycle cannot be varied. and heat exchanger. Separator - A device whose primary func-
Pump, gear, external - A pump with two Regenerative dryer - A dryer that restores tion is to isolate contaminants by physical
or more external gears. its own capacity to separate moisture -- properties other than size. (Separators
Pump, gear, internal - A pump with an without replacing the drying compound. remove gas from liquid media or remove
internal gear in engagement with one or Regenerative circuit - see Circuit, liquid from gaseous media).
more external gears. regenerative. Servovalve - A valve that modulates output
Pump, gear - A pump in which two or Regulator, air line pressure - A regulator as a function of an input command.
more gears act in engagement as pumping that transforms a fluctuating air pressure Servovalve, electrohydraulic - A servo-
members. supply to provide a constant lower pressure valve that is capable of continuously con-
Pump, hydraulic - A device that converts output. trolling hydraulic output as a function of
mechanical force and motion into hydrau- Reinforcing agent- a material dispersed an electrical input.
lic fluid power. in an elastomer to improve compression, Servovalve, electrohydraulic, flow-
Pump, multiple-stage - Two or more hy- shear or other stress properties. control - An electrohydraulic servovalve
draulic pumps connected in series. Reservoir (tank) - A container for storage whose primary function is control of out-
Pump, piston, axial - A pump having of liquid in a fluid power system. put flow.
several pistons with mutually parallel axes Reservoir, hydraulic - A reservoir for stor- Servovalve hysteresis - The difference in
that are arranged around and parallel to a ing and conditioning a liquid in a hydraulic the servovalve input currents required to
common axis. system. produce the same output during a single
Pump, piston, inline- a pump having Reservoir, pressure-sealed - A sealed res- cycle of valve input current when cycled at
several pistons with mutually parallel axes ervoir for storage of fluids under pressure. a rate below that at which dynamic effects
arranged on a common plane. Resilient - Capable of returning to original are important.

CHAPTER 4
Servovalve null leakage - The total in- Strainer - See filter, strainer. the head.
ternal leakage from the valve in the null Surface tension - The surface force of a liq- Transducer, flow - A device that converts
position. uid in contact with a fluid by which it tends fluid flow to an electrical signal.
Servovalve, pressure-control - A hydrau- to assume a spherical form and to present Transducer, pressure - A device that con-
lic servo valve whose primary function is the least possible surface. It is expressed in verts fluid pressure to an electrical signal.
the control of output pressure. pounds per foot or dynes per centimeter. Trunnion - A cylinder-mounting device
Shear rate - The rate at which adjacent lay- Surfactant - A surface-active agent that consisting of a pair of opposite projecting
ers of fluid move with respect to each other, reduces interfacial tension of a liquid. A cylindrical pivots. The cylindrical pivot
usually expressed as reciprocal seconds. surfactant used in petroleum oil may in- pins are at right angle or normal to the pis-
Shear stress - The frictional force over- crease the oils affinity for metals and other ton rod centerline to permit the cylinder to
come in sliding one layer of fluid along an- material. swing in a plane.
other, as in any fluid flow. The shear stress Surge - A transient rise of pressure or flow. Tube - A conductor whose size is its out-
of petroleum oil -- or other Newtonian Swell - The increased volume of specimen side diameter. Tube is available in varied
fluid -- at a given temperature varies di- caused by immersion in a fluid (usually a wall thickness and material.
rectly with shear rate (velocity). The ratio liquid). Vacuum - Pressure less than ambient at-
between shear stress and shear rate is con- Switch, float - An electric switch that is mospheric pressure.
stant; this ratio is termed viscosity. responsive to liquid level. Vacuum pump - A device that uses me-
Shrinkage - The decreased volume of a Switch, flow - An electric switch operated chanical force and motion to evacuate gas
seal, usually caused by extraction of soluble by fluid flow. from a connected chamber to create sub-
constituents from fluids, followed by air Switch, pressure-differential - An electric atmospheric pressure.
drying. switch operated by a difference in pressure. Valve - A device that controls fluid flow
Silencer - A device for reducing gas flow Switch, pressure - An electric switch oper- direction, pressure, or flow rate.
noise. Noise is decreased by tuned resonant ated by fluid pressure. Valve actuator - The valve part(s) through
control of gas expansion. Standard pressure and temperature - which force is applied to move or position
Snubber-See gauge damper. Generally defined as 68 F and 14.70 psia flow-directing elements.
Solenoid, digital - An electronically en- with a relative humidity of 36%. Valve, air - A valve for controlling air flow
ergized device that generates on and off Synthetic fluid, silicate ester - A fluid direction, pressure, or flow rate.
signals. compound of organic silicates. It may con- Valve, cartridge - A valve with working
Solenoid, proportional - An electrical tain additives. parts contained in a cylindrical body. The
device that reacts proportionally to the Synthetic fluid - Fluid other than mineral cylindrical body must be inserted into a
strength of electrical signals. that has been artificially compounded for housing for use. Ports through the body
Sorption - The term used to denote the use in a fluid power system. cooperate with ports in the containing
combination of absorption and adsorption Temperature, ambient - The temperature housing.
processes in the same substance. of the environment in which an apparatus Valve, directional-control - A valve whose
Specific gravity, liquid - The ratio of the is working. primary function is to direct or prevent
weight of a given volume of liquid to the Tensile strength - The force in pounds per flow through selected passages.
weight of an equal volume of water. square inch required to cause the rupture Valve, directional-control, 3-way - A
Squeeze - The cross-sectional diametrical of a specimen of a rubber material. directional control valve whose primary
compression of an O-ring between the sur- Terpolymer - A polymer consisting of function is to pressurize and exhaust a
face of the groove bottom and the surface three different monomers chemically port.
of the other mating metal part in the gland combined. Valve, directional-control, 4-way - A
assembly. Tie rod - An axial external element that directional control valve whose primary
Stage - A hydraulic amplifier used in a ser- traverses the length of the cylinder. It is function is to pressurize and exhaust two
vovalve. Servovalves may be single-stage, pre-stressed at assembly to hold the ends ports.
two-stage, three-stage, etc. of the cylinder against the tubing. (Tie rod Valve, directional-control, check - A di-
Standard - A document, or an object for extensions can serve as mounting devices.) rectional control valve that permits flow of
physical comparison, for defining product Torque motor - A type of electro-mechan- fluid in only one direction.
characteristics, products, or processes; ical transducer having rotary motion used Valve, directly operated - A valve in which
prepared by the consensus of a properly in the input stages of servovalves. the controlling forces acting on the element
constituted group of those substantially Torque - Rotary force transmitted by the directly influence the movement of the
affected and having the qualifications to driving shaft of a motor or pump. control elements.
prepare the standard for voluntary use. Torr - A unit of pressure equal to 1/760 of Valve, electrohydraulic, proportional - A
Stokes - The standard unit of kinematic an atmosphere. valve that responds proportionally to input
viscosity in the CGS system. It is expressed Torricellis Theorem - The liquid velocity signals.
in square centimeters per second; 1 centi- at an outlet discharging into the free atmo- Valve, flow-control (flow-metering)-a
stokes equals 0.01 stokes. sphere is proportional to the square root of valve whose primary function is to control

CHAPTER 4
flow rate. in which a relatively small flow through an Viscosity index (V.I.) - An empirical,
Valve, flow-control, bypass - A pressure- integral vent line relief (pilot) controls the unit-less number indicating the effect of
compensated flow-control valve that regu- movement of the main element. temperature changes on the kinematic
lates the working flow, diverting surplus Valve, pilot - A valve applied to operate viscosity of an oil. Liquids change viscosity
fluid to the reservoir or to a second service. another valve or control. with temperature, becoming less viscous
Valve, flow-control, deceleration - A flow Vapor pressure - The pressure of a con- when heated. The higher the V.I. of an oil,
control valve that gradually reduces flow fined vapor in equilibrium with its liquid at the lower its tendency to change viscosity
rate to provide deceleration. a specified temperature; thus, a measure of with temperature.
Valve, flow-control, pressure-compen- a liquids volatility. Volume change - A change in the volume
sated - A flow control valve that controls Viscosity - The measurement of a fluids of a seal as a result of immersion in a fluid
the rate of flow independent of pressure resistance to flow. The common metric -- expressed as a percentage of the original
fluctuations. unit of absolute viscosity is the poise, volume.
Valve, flow-dividing, pressure-compen- which is defined as the force in dynes Volumetric efficiency - The ratio of the
sated - A flow-dividing valve that divides required to move a surface one square actual volume of air admitted (at a speci-
flow at a constant ratio regardless of differ- centimeter in area past a parallel surface fied temperature and pressure), to the full
ence in resistance of the branches. at a speed of one centimeter per second, piston-displacement volume- obviously for
Valve, flow-dividing - A valve that divides with the surfaces separated by a fluid film reciprocating compressors only. Volume
the flow from a single source into two or one centimeter thick. In addition to kine- (annular) absorbed by one full retraction of
more branches. matic viscosity, there are other methods for the cylinder.
Valve, hydraulic - A valve for controlling determining viscosity, including, Saybolt Vulcanization - A thermo-setting reac-
liquid flow direction, pressure, or flow rate. Universal viscosity, Saybolt Furol viscosity, tion involving the use of heat and pressure,
Valve, needle - A flow-control valve in Engier viscosity, and Redwood viscosity. resulting in greatly increased strength and
which the adjustable control element is a Because viscosity varies inversely with elasticity of rubber-like materials.
tapered needle. Its usual purpose is to ac- temperature, its value is meaningless until Efficiency is figured by the formula:
curately control the rate of flow. the temperature at which it is determined Efficiency = (1 1/Beta ) 100
Valve, pilot-operated (indirect) - A valve is reported. Efficiency10= (1 1/10) 100

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From the Editor

Answers to quizzes for Chapters 1, 2, 3......................... 17

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Fluid power in industrial applications

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liquids so it might seem necessary never make pressure. They only

Fig. 1-4: Comparison of mechanical and hydraulic leverage

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mechanisms because most and to make the system more

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pressure. In this case, we must

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Fig 1-11: Simplified representation of work

UIZ ON CHAPTER 1. B. earths atmosphere.

1. Most hydraulic circuits are designed by: 6. Vacuum generators use:

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lowest level of contamination from most

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BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

UIZ ON CHAPTER 2: HYDRAULIC FLUIDS. 6. New hydraulic oil is clean to:

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System and machine plumbing

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PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES

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heat. Tubing is designated

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The causes of hose problems are usually

SIZING HYDRAULIC LINES

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BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

UIZ ON CHAPTER 3: PIPE, TUBE, AND HOSE. B. black-iron pipe

1. Which type of threads is recommended for plumbing

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1. Most hydraulic circuits are designed by: 6. Vacuum generators use:

QUIZ ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER 2.

1. Hydraulic oil is compressible: 6. New hydraulic oil is clean to:

QUIZ ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER 3.

5. For hydraulic lines up to 2-in. diameter, use:

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

ISO Symbols and Glossary

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