001 ICE2013 Vol. 2 Proceeding Papers 125-280

International Conference of Ecosystems (ICE) Tirana, Albania, May 31- June 5, 2013
Proceeding Book ICE _2013

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PAPER 125
THE STUDY OF SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS DURING DYNAMICS OF OLIVE

FRUITS (OLEA EUROPAEA L.) GROWTH
Erta Dodona1, Hairi Ismaili2

1
Agricultural University of Tirana, Dept. Plant Production
2
Genetic BankAUT, Koder-Kamez, Tirana
Email: ertad2000@yahoo.it
ABSTRACT
During three years (2008-2011), from August to February, in 15-day intervals, were taken samples of fruit and
leaves on cv. Ulliri i Zi, in over 10 randomized olive trees in Gerbllesh, Tirana. The analysis consisted in statistics
estimates according diagnostics and multivariate correlation analysis for: fruit weight, percentage of oil, the
humidity in leaves and fruit, acidity and peroxides no. too determinate physiological correlations. After bonding,
fruits have increased rapidly until endocarp sclerification 17.3 mg/day. In August and September fruits and leaves
are dehydrated (withered), and fruits growth was lower, 11.1 mg/day. Reduction of water in the fruit to 50%
correlates linearly with the leafy content 55%, (r=0.92). As a result, the photosynthesis was reduced, and therefore
oil daily assimilation rate was 0.11%, in linear correlation with leafy moisture (r =0.86). After strong dehydration a
part of leaves and fruits were falling down. By recreating of turgor, growth of mesocarps fruit was 17.1 mg/day, at
the same time as oil synthesis in fruit 0.18 %/day, (r=0.87). At the beginning of December fruits weight=2.31g
(maximum weight) and oil percentage of 19.2% considering the biological correlation. After dehydration of fruit as
a result of further maturation, and decreased weight 18.6 mg/day, while the % of oil has resulted in an increase of
0.1%/day and between these phenomena has been negative correlation (r =-0.17). At this stage the humidity of the
leaves is normal while the value of acidity, and peroxides no. has been associated with the maturity of the fruit.
Key word: olea europaea; pericarp; percentage; olive oil; dehydration.
INTRODUCTION
Following the period of maturation, chemical transformations occur inside the olive fruit. The formation, growth of
fruit and oil synthesis requires more time that lasts 130-210 days and biological characteristics that are specific
according to varietal. During the dynamics of growth, the fruit is in competition with vegetative growth for water
and food element. Olive differentiates many flowers but their connection and the number of grains at the time of
maturation is very small. This disorder has been the subject of various researches, which have experimented with
some aspects of nitrogenous food, and analyzing the needs of fruit for water during its growth dynamics. Many other
authors consider as a limited biology factor, pollen quality, nutritional status, the needs for water, etc. Based on this,
we have studied correlations overview that can occur in fruit growth and formation of oil in relation to physiological
factors, especially the water content in the leaf tissue and reciprocal influences.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
During three years (2008-2011), from August to February, in 15-day intervals, were taken samples of fruit and
leaves on cv. Ulliri i Zi, in over 10 randomized olive trees in Gerbllesh, Tirana. The analysis consisted in statistics
estimates according diagnostics and multivariate correlation analysis for: fruit weight, percentage of oil, the
humidity in leaves and fruit, acidity and peroxides no. too determinate physiological correlations. In 4 flowers
branches in every tree was monitored: flowering, number of fruits and linking up until February (expressed in %),
vegetative growth, based on 20 sprig of each tree measured every 15 days, fruit characteristics, we calculated the
average weight of 100 fruits for each tree for each time period. Oil analysis is performed by the endocarp
sclerification time until the end of January. Oil extraction was carried out through the soxhlet method in high
temperature through ether petroleum as an organic solvent (according to IKU), oil percentage compared to fresh
matter and in % of dried matter, peroxide analysis, acidity.
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Definition of acidity (%): 5-10 ml oil is dissolved in 50-150 ml (ether petroleum + ethyl alcohol), some drops of
phenolphthalein with alcoholic dip of KOH 0,1N until the pink colour remains for 30 sec. The percentage of acidity
was calculated through the formula:
a 0.0282 100
X
p
where: (a)- the quality of the alcoholic dip of KOH 0,1 N (ml), (0.0282)- the quantity in grams of the oleic acid,
which corresponds to 1ml dip KOH 0,1N, (p)- weight of the sample in grams.
Number of peroxides: 5 ml of oil was dissolved in 30 ml dip of acetyl chloroform and was added to 0.5 ml saturated
dip of KJ. After 1 min, 30 ml of warm H 2O was added, titled with Na2S2O3 0,1N and mixed until the yellow colour
disappeared, because O/kg was calculated:
S N 1000
Np
p
(S)-0,1N, (N)- normality of Na2S2O3 (P)- sample weight (gram)
Water content of leaves was measured by the method of determining the humidity with Denver Instrument; grinding
100 g of leaves and the paste obtained in 8-10g, 5-10 min to 130C
Statisticall Analysis Monitoring of biological processes is associated with statistical modeling of variability tests
(alpha = 0.05 level)
Two-factorial analysis for the statistic estimates the relations between the boundaries of the main indicators and
extent of mutual influence. PCA correlation is determined by the amount of impact to the variability of independent
factors and the importance of correlative factors.
RESULTS
Ulliri Zi i Tiranes, realize some reproductive processes conducted by its thermal constants (Kt = t-t). Development
of biological processes, differentiation, flowering, and linking up to the fruit ripening, required temperatures above
2417C biological zero (t-t). Vegetative sprig of previous year has been the biological basis of flower induction
and sugar formation (hydrates). Bloom is differentiated on these main stages, green flowers which have
differentiated the flowers in floors. After flowering and physiological fall in June, fruit developments have been
passed by three important stages: (i) July, the fruit makes an intensive growth and endocarp sclerification. (ii)
August, growth is restrained because of the embryogenesis and becomes the start of pulp formation (iii) September
fruit is growing up again, the pulp is still increasing too as well as the, pericarpic cells volume.
The size of the pulp increased faster achieving fruit caliber D = 21.8mm, 16.2mm, d = D/d = 1:34.
Increasing fruit and oil formation were carried out on different thermal and biological processes were in unity or
contradictions in different stages. In early October, we can see the change of color, red-green-yellow. Fruit
maturation we can see by end October-December. Fruits take the violet color until black.
Vegetation, flowering and fruit formation. As is seen in Tab-1 vegetative growth started in March and lasts until
30 November at constant 2417 C (t-t) to 186 mm, and is characterized for variability between each stage of LM
(HSD lsd.1.78 Tukey-Cramer), Tab-1 and Fig-4. After differentiation of the stitch, a sprig has grown rapidly and has
reduced the rhythm of growth at the time of fruit formation. Vegetative growth has been dominant in two periods:
from March to May (110 mm) and after the endocarp sclerifications (76 mm).
There is no interference between vegetative growth and flowering with each other having r = 0.864, while the
growth of the fruit were competing expressed strong negative correlation coefficient (r = -0103). Biological
processes of vegetative growth and flowering have performed without impeding each other up in linking of flowers
(r = 0.88).
Table 1. Some datas for Ullirin e Zi of Tirana
Period 100 Fruit Oil (%) Acid Peroxides H2O in Flower- Vegetative
(gr) Fresh (%) leaf (%) Fruits Growth
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Weight % (mm)
15/03 - - - - 58 0 2
15/04 - - - - 60 0 37
15/05 - - - - 61 100 71
15/06 - - - - 56 32.3 26
1/07 7 0.1 n - - - - -
15/07 31 0.8 n - - 54 - 9
1/08 58 2.2 m - - 40 - -
15/08 78 3.4 l 5.34 - 39 1.45 6
1/09 113 6.7 k - - - -
15.09 113 7.6 j 3.89 - 38 1.23 20
1.10 128 8.4 I - - - -
15.10 187 15.1 h 1.12 - 50 1.02 14
1.11 207 16.6 g - - - -
15.11 222 17.4 f 0.87 7.63 55 1.00 2
1.12 231 19.2 e - - - 0
15.12 226 20.1 d 0.78 9.47 56 0.99 0
1.01 196 22.2 c - - - 0
15.01 148 23.4 b 2.23 11.1 56 0.78 0
1/02 112 h 25 a 4.5 - - - -
Then, the processes did not favorite the vegetative growth from the first stages of fruit growth until the endocarp
sclerification, due to a competition for water and high average temperature, expressed with weak coefficient (r =
0.234). From August to 15 September, the temperature was very high (<35C) fruits and leaves were dehydrated
(withered), and increase of fruit was very slow (11.1 mg/day).
Reduction of water in the fruit until 50% goes linearly to the leaf content and 38% (r = 0.92) Fig 4 and 5. As a
result, photosynthesis was reduced, and the rate of oil daily assimilation was 0:11%. At this time, to maintain the
state of turgor, part of the leaves and fruits are felled down (Ismail, H.,et. Al, 2012).
After recreating the water content in leaves (<50%), has begun a very fast pericarpic cells growth and it resumes the
strengthened relationship (r = 0.445), oil formation becomes active, and the weak link becomes detrimental to
vegetative growth until the ripening of fruit (r = 0.123).
As it shown in table-1, the period from April to May is characterized from the dominant vegetative growth 1.8
mm/day, then has slowed to zero following the July to August period 0.25mm/day, Table-1 and Fig-4. The growth
became dominating again in September (3 decade) 0.66 mm/day and was later characterized for minimal increase to
zero in December. Includes thermal and constantly vegetation period 1 March to 30 November and t-t = 2417C.
Figure 4 and Figure 5.

Graphical representation of temperature, vegetation and the percentage increase of water in leaf
Increasing fruit and oil formation. There was interdependence between the numbers of grains, fruit weight and
percentage of oil. Comparing the relations between values (0.80 - 0.90), the amount of oil has increased in parallel
with the growth of the fruit. This rule continued until a "peak" when the fruit takes maximum weight Graf-6.
Fruits on the tree, after the moment of meeting peak-oil percentage weight, have lost weight and some oxidation
phenomena have increased the acidity. Percentage of oil when the fruit takes maximum weight constitutes biological
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content. After this peak moment, its obvious that fruit weight reduction while increasing the percentage of oil is a
result of dehydration of fruit. Bio physiological correlations between increased of fruit and the quantity of oil and
water content in the leaves have been different correlative value. Oil quantity and weight of the fruit has been in
function of the number of fruits, water percentage in the leaf and air temperature. The process of formation of oil
within the fruit has come in strong connection with the growth of fruit (R = 0.86), but in contradiction with the
water content in leaf (r = - 0.612) Fig-6. Three physiological correlations are fixed: (i) The relationship of the fruit
until endocarp sclerification; fruit makes intensive growth and forms completely endocarp but synthesis of low oil
formation occur at temperatures average 24.6C (ii) After endocarp sclerification: fruits and leaves are withered, the
increase of fruit was small (or zero) because the water content i leaf was below 45%, as a result, was reduced
photosynthesis of trees. (iii) the growth of the fruit pulp until maturation was accompanied by progressive rates % of
oil and fruit increased up to a limit of connectivity (r = 0.881). (iv) the maximum weight of the fruit is characteristic
corresponds oil percentage (19.2%). This level of ripeness of the fruit means that in its oil ratio between oleic acid
and linoleic acid = 10, the quality is better than at any other stage Tombesi A, et al. 1986. After this time the weight
of the fruit is reduced while the rate of oil rises further due to fruit maturation and dehydration.
As shown in the graph-6 and Table-1, at the first phase, the fruits are grown 17mlg/day, oil 0.07% /day, when the
water content of leaves was about 40% and vegetative growth 0.3-0.9 mm/day. Among these processes has been the
correlation coefficient (r = -0233). Thermal constant of this phenological stage was 470C (t-t) Fig-7.
While in second phase, 11.6 mg increase fruit/day, 0.07% of oil/day and vegetative growth 0:46 mm/day with a
thermal constant 423C (t-t) Table-1.
At the third phase, oil added 0.17%/day, while 15.7 mg progressively fruit/day, and were made with thermal
constant 516C (t-t). In the fourth phase oil added 0.09% /day while fruit lose weight steadily 19.8mlg/day. In this
phase, vegetative growth of fruit becomes zero, dehydration tissue water coming down in weight, while increasing
the percentage of oil was added as a result of dry matter.
Fig.6. Dynamics of fruit growth and oil Fig.7.Thermal Constants in.Ulliri Zi Tirana
Triglycerides start to degrade, (after the peak moment), fatty acids that make them are cracking different mass and
circulating freely in oil, so they are called free acid, and oleic acid is expressed in grams per 100 grams of free oil.
The lowest percentage of free acids in olive oil has been the period of technical ripeness (0.7-0.8%), before and after
this range of acidity percentage is higher. After fruit maturation peroxide number had a negative value because of
decomposition testified about the increase of triglycerides.
With the first rains in September the water level rises and begins to regulate the formation of new cells and to
balance fructification and vegetation. Water traumatic stress reduced synthetic activity, because for higher level of
assimilation have a large amount of water in the leaf level, guaranteeing physiologically effective state of trees, El
Khawaga. AS. 2007 Tombesi A, et al. 1986.
In 15 of September was monitored that oils the percentage in fruits have been 7.6% and its synthesis has been
increased by the end of November. After this time the synthesis of oil was slowly. Fruits are grown in caliber and
weight until the end of November and then lost weight respectively; 19.8 mg/day. There was a linear correlation
between fresh weight, oil percentage and fruit dry matter. Percentage of oil is increasing in parallel with the dry
matter and fresh weight of the fruit until November 30, then went fruit weight reduction due to the over maturation
of fruits and moisture loss, dry substance is added in parallel with the percentage of oil.
Correlations and statistical significance of physiological processes. Biological processes that occur in the fruit,
formation of oil and relations between vegetative growth and some reports have determined bio-physiological
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raports: vegetative growth, differentiation; Vegetative-growth-fructification/linking up - growth, vegetative growth-

endocarp sclerification, vegetative growth - pulp/fruit ripening.
The impact of X factor (vegetative growth) over Y (inputs) is measured by the regression coefficient R, which is
0.70 on average, and which shows how far the group has influence on vegetative growth factorial. The regression
coefficient between moisture content of the leaves (the dependent variable), has affected the weight of the fruit and
respectively the increase of plant production.
Figure 8 and figure 9

Bivariate Fit of Fruit (g)/Vaji (%) and Lognormal Results Statistics Estimates
According to the Diagnostics Cox-Snell analysis residual P-P Plot, Fig.8 and 9, the data of the equation oil/fruit =
0.3753577 + 0.1079574 * Oil (%) - 0.0117441 * (oil (%) -15.3722) ^ 2 - 0.0010027 * (oil (%) -15.3722) ^ 3), and
balances showed physiological links between fruit weight, oil percentage, water content in tissues, acidity etc.. In
Figure 8 and 9 seem that the oil formation started when the fruit is 0.63g and has moved up in weight 2.31g linear
progression (maximum weight of the fruit), then the linear model is regressive. Range that includes all the positive
qualities of oil begins when the fruit is 11.7% to 19.3% oil by oil according to acceptable levels of quality. Variables
line represents the average distribution of biological processes within the deviation value r = 0.942.
CONCLUSIONS
During dynamic growth, fruits represent some physiological correlations, for different processes, the oil formation,
acidity, fruit weight, etc. in linear models for water content and temperature of the environment. Each stage is
characterized for a constant thermal characteristic and different, while the effective temperature sum of the
biological cycle is 2417C
Water content in tissues and turgor situation has an impact on the size of the fruit mesocarp and, at the same time in
oil synthesis and quality indicators.
In early December Ulliri Zi has maximum weight and oil percentage characteristic, regarded as biological
correlation. Then fruits have increased the percentage of oil because they reduce the effect of weight loss of water.
After this phase is normal moisture leaves, while the value of acidity, and have had negative peroxide number which
testified the increasing decomposition of triglycerides.
REFERENCE
Boulouha B. 1994: Croissance, fructification et leur interaction sur la production chez la Picholine Marocaine
1986. Olea. Pp. 41-49
Cimato A., Fiorino P. 1986: Influence of fruit bearing on flower induction and differentiation in olive. Olea pp 55-
61
Damigella, P. 1960: Variabilit dei caratteri biometrici dell'olivo e impiego delle funzioni discriminanti. La Riv.
Scientifica 4:522-530.
El Khawaga. AS. 2007: Inproving growth and productivity of manzanilla olive trees with foliar application of some
nutritients and girdling under sandy soil. Journal of Applied Science Research 3(9): 818-828
Koppen, W. 1923 : Die Klimate der Erde. De Gruyter. pp. 83-123
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Ismaili, H., Veshaj Z., Cakalli A., Xhelili L., 2012: Study of Correlations among vegetative growth, fruit and oil
synthesis in the olive. Yahorina, Sarayeve.
Martin G, Ferguson L, Polito V. 1994: Flowering, Pollination, Fruiting, Alternate Bearing, and Abscission. The
olive trees and fruit pp.51-57
SAS users guide 2008; SAS/STAT, version 2008. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.
Soltani A. 2007: Application of SAS in statistical analysis. Mashad Jahadedaneshgahi press. page 182.
Tombesi A, Proietti P, Nottiani G. 1986: Effect of water stress on photosynthesis, transpiration, stomata resistance
and carbohydrate level in olive tress. Olea. Pp. 35-41
Vilemur P., Delmas J.M. 1978: Croissance, development et alternance de production. Sem.Oleicole. Mahdia
(Tunisie) 3-7/7-7-1978
William H. Krueger. 1994: Carbohidrate and Nitrogen assimilation. The olive trees and fruit. Pp. 39-43
PAPER 132
SOLID WASTE AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION CAUSED BY THEM: PROBLEMS AND SOME
OPTIONS TO REDUCE THE POLLUTION
Majlinda ALCANI, Altin Dorri, Angjelin SHTJEFNI
Department of Energy, FIM, UPT
Email: malcani@fim.edu.al
ABSTRACT
One of the causes of atmospheric pollution is solid waste (SW), mainly those generated in urban areas, which
accounts for the major share of the total SW generated in our country. This pollution depends on the amount of SW
generated and its composition, as well as treatment and final disposal methods. Therefore improving SW
management and by introducing advanced technologies for better handling the atmospheric emissions belonging to
this sector will be reduced considerably. To pass the idea of the degree of atmospheric pollution associated with this
sector, we would like to mention the fact that everything produced today, will be a waste tomorrow and the main
feature of a waste is that it is temporarily in the state of use. One issue regarding this problem is the amount of
municipality solid waste (MSW) generated and on the other hand the different substances which form various
products for which the nature reacts in different ways.
INTRODUCTION
The state of treatment of MSW in our country

In our country the only way of dealing with MSW is to deposit them in dumpsites, except Sharra landfill in Tirana
firstly, in which since 2008 waste is being deposited in a sanitary landfill parcel type, meanwhile work has
continued on constructing other parcels according to engineering requirements, and, secondly, in Bushat and other
projects are in process [1]. These landfill sites are often located in close proximity to residential areas. Atmospheric
pollution, due to landfill sites, is mostly from anaerobic decomposition of waste associated with the production and
release into the atmosphere of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, etc... Another cause is the
burning of waste, often spontaneous caused by the gases produced through decomposition process, but also from
fires deliberately set by people who collect specific fractions of recyclable materials in order to benefit
economically, which is an unauthorized practice in the Sharra landfill. A lot of other materials are included iIn this
burning process, and other pollutants are discharged into the atmosphere, some of which are much more harmful
than those above. Some of the gases are greenhouse effect, for which the contribution from waste has been
increasing [1]. One factor that helps the development of these chemical processes is our country's weather
conditions (climate, generally warm and humid, which accelerates these processes).
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MSW improved management can only be achieved through integrated waste management systems consists of a
number of coordinated actions to recover material and energy and to minimize environmental impact, in the context
of sustainable development, which means considering all phases of management, from reducing the source up to
final treatment, including in the scheme all waste streams, all treatment options and all entities that generate waste.
No treatment method, no matter how advanced, can solve the complex problem of MSW by itself [3]. Thus,
improving the management of MSW through integrated waste management systems, one of the expected results is
the reduction of gaseous emissions into the atmosphere. This new conception of waste management is summarized
in the philosophy of 4R-s: reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, which can be found in the list of objectives,
intended to be achieved through integrated solid waste management in the Environmental Management Plans (EMP)
for the period 2013 to 2020 in our country [1]:
Disposal of waste that go into landfills in the amount of 45%;
Recycling of urban waste to the extent 55%;
Regional waste management plans and the development of regional landfills.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
2. Quantity and Characterization of MSW generated in our country

The bases of study in any given field are the initial data, which in the case of MSW are: quantity and composition of
MSW.
MSW (t)
MSW for all the country
MSW for Tirana
Year
Fig. 1 MSW generated over the years for the whole country and the Municipality of Tirana. [2].
From these data it seems that the tendency of MSW generation is growing for the whole country and the city of
Tirana too, although the figures for the amount of MSW are not yet stable in this sector [1]. A good base for stable
data for the quantity and composition of MSW generated are the initial data, necessary to conduct accurate studies
for various aspects associated with the problem in the management of SW, which can be helpful for authorities
decision making in drafting regional and national plans. The chart shows the weight of the MSW amount generated
in Tirana municipality compared to the total of MSW for all the country. This fact shows that the problems to cope
with their management in this area are larger. But, on the other hand, there are opportunities to implement advanced
technology in order to achieve economies of scale.
Regarding the composition, we are referring to the data for this indication for Tirana. The graph (fig. 2) seems that
composition varies each year for a variety of objective reasons; therefore the composition must therefore be
determined in different specified intervals. There is an increase (in percent by weight of each constituent of collected
MSW ) of the paper and cellulose faction (from 9 to 16.4%), plastics (from 11 to 17.73%), glass and solid materials,
as well as a reduction in the wood and textiles faction, metals (which the latter indicates that these materials are
separated from the rest of the waste beforehand), and a reduction in food waste fraction (from 58 to 44%). Even
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though this faction has seen a fall, its absolute value represents a considerable share of the total generated MSW in
Tirana: about 350 tons of such waste is deposited in the dumpsite every day.
60% 58
2001
Viti 2001
2009
Viti 2009
50
44.1
40
30
20 16.4 17.73
12 11
9 9.41
10 6.34 6
4 4.96
1.06 0
0
paper dhe wood
leter & dru dhe& plastic
plastika glass
qelq dhe & metale
metals organic
mbeturina the others
te tjera
celulo ze textile
tekstile materiale ushqimo re
cellulose inert fraction
te fo rta
material
Fig. 2 Percent by weight of each waste constituent of MSW for Municipality

of Tirana compared for two different years: 2001 and 2009 [2]
RESULTS
3. Problems caused by some specific fractions of SW

3.1 Biodegradable organic waste
Such waste as food waste, paper, cardboard, etc constitute the largest amount of flow MSW sent to landfill, taking
part directly in the anaerobic decomposition of waste and generation of atmospheric pollutant emissions. One of the
methods for their treatment after their selective collection or separation before final disposal is composting, a
process of aerobic biodegradation, whose product is manure. But this treatment method, widely used in many
countries, carries with some limitations, such as [5]:
It is difficult to achieve a selective collection of this faction, separating them at the source, so that it would require a
special plant in the field of storage to be allocated, but by doing so the cost of operating the plant would exceed the
profit would be generated from selling the fertilizer produced;
Public acceptability of this type of fertilizer is generally low; farmers make a sort of resistance towards products
originating from waste products;
The values are limited compared to chemical fertilizers; this compost can be used only for public parks and
according to some certain rules. Lack of demand for this product would cause serious trouble for the manufacturing
company;
A relevant legal framework should be built for this type of product, in order to avoid anomalies that may arise from
its inadequate use. These are some reasons that should be studied very carefully in order to use this method of
treatment for different regions of our country.
Another treatment method more widespread today in many European countries is mechanical-biological treatment of
this faction, in the respective plants in order to produce biogas, a treatment technique in which energy power is
gained and is associated with a lower environmental impact. However the cost of this technique is higher.
3.2. Plastic Fraction
It representative about 17% by weight of waste collected, at 50 to 50 share - thin and thick plastics, which are not
biodegradable naturally. In order to solve the problem of disposing this and other types of SW, we need to think of
solutions that encompass all aspects of materials policy, introducing modifications and corrections, with the
prospect of renewing these policies, starting from manufacturing. The goal is that for every material the most
important features and characteristics are best put to use in order to avoid losses and improper usage.
Plastic is produced by a costly resource like oil which also is more polluting. But it seems that in this case, its
irreplaceable characteristics such as elasticity, plastic, insulation, impenetrability of water, long life are best utilized
in order to produce solid objects. However it is irrational to be used it to produce bags and packaging which arent
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assimilated naturally and fast by nature, intended to be a complete waste after being used briefly to transport
products purchased with them. The second case is more widespread and in this case its best characteristics like being
not biodegradable is not best put to use. Instead other biodegradable materials may be used (as they have begun to
be used for some products which come from natural materials and not from oil, such as wood, paper, etc.).
3.3. Dry fraction: (aluminium, glass, metals, etc.).

Another case is the use of a costly packaging material for beverages as aluminium, which seeks 10 times more
energy to produce than glass and more than three times than plastic [4]. The disadvantage in comparison with plastic
is clear, but also in comparison with glass.
By selecting an appropriate policy for packaging (by attributing responsibility to manufacturing and distribution
companies), by the experience of other countries is seen that in a period of several years (up to 10 years), the amount
of generated MSW is reduced. Likewise we can justify the waste glass, which is increased, and in the majority of
cases are packing.
Currently, the practice is still preserved for glass packaging restitution to any manufacturer, which should be
encouraged and further extended. While aluminium packaging, as well as dry faction: paper, glass, plastics, metals
separate from the rest of MSW in the field of their storage before they undergo depositing in landfill. This process
also affects the reduction of the MSW quantity deposited in landfill [2].
3.4. Used tires

One type of waste, which has often been the subject of concern in some areas of our country, are used tires and their
use as fuels in lime kilns. The tires are produced with petrochemical products, such as styrene and butadiene, which
are classified as carcinogenic to man. Their combustion is accompanied by the release of styrene, butadiene and
some benzene compounds. Some older type of tires may also contain cloropren, with a high probability to produce
dioxins [4]. Some other aromatic compounds, used to give flexibility to tires, are quite carcinogenic and very
difficult to be destroyed by burning, except in very high temperatures, with greater oxygen flow and very long
residence time, and these conditions are difficult to achieve in common burns in lime kilns. In these conditions, large
amounts of combustion products resulting fully unburned, showing that complete combustion is not ever achieved.
In addition, it is difficult to achieve a sufficient flow of oxygen and a uniform distribution of temperature in any part
of the furnace, because of the large amount of solids present during combustion (as in lime kilns) [4].
Another disadvantage of using tires as fuel in cement kilns and lime, is the fact that the material obtained can result
contaminated by heavy metals and, currently, there are no adequate studies on the quality and mechanical
characteristics, physico-chemical product obtained. Another problem is the high amount of lead contained in old
tires, or even other heavy metals.
The process of combustion in the furnace can be done in such conditions that lead to unexpected peak of emission
and can not be detected or captured by normal monitoring techniques and it is difficult to control with standard
techniques used by these kilns, whether are equipped with them. Although a number of measures have been taken by
central and local authorities for their abstinence, this problem still continues to be present in some areas.
3.4.1. Burning tires, leading to a reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases?
Theoretically, the use of tires as fuel leads to saving of fossil fuels. But doesnt happen in the same way related to
emissions, i.e. not lead to a reduction of greenhouse gases. In addition, the use of this waste material as fuel, does
not allow optimization of the combustion process. For the production of synthetic rubber is required more than three
times fossil fuel than can be saved by burning them [4].
What solutions can be used for used tires?
These tires can be used to produce: the recovered tires, special bituminous conglomerates, impermeable
membranes, acoustic barriers, road bases against noise, as materials for foundations (or bases) special insulating
material for building enevelopes, layers for sidewalks for pedestrians, antistatic suports for electrical and electronic
equipment, bases for shoes, parts for industrial machines, conveyor belts, packaging, like plastic material mixed
with other subsoil for sports fields, etc. ..
3.5. Electrical & electronic waste
A different kind of garbage that is put in the focus of planning policies in European countries, are also electrical-
electronic waste, although in the analysis of MSW characterization of Tirana city, this kind of waste currently
occupies a negligible weight (only 0.5% by weight). But the rapid rate of customer requirements changing for these
products, have caused that this kind of waste represents today the fastest growing in Europe, 35% per year (by
weight), which means a doubling every 1215 years.
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On average, an IT equipment changes every three years and the average for other electrical and electronics products
is about five years. These obsolete equipment ends up as waste with a complex composition materials and hazardous
substances, posing a risk to the environment. About 70% of heavy metals in landfills come directly from these
wastes [4]. To these facts should be added too tha fact that production of electrical and electronic equipment requires
10 times the weight of physical natural resources (especially crude oil): a TV set, weighing about 50 kg, consumes
about 500 kg of raw materials. So, according to specialists, sending of electronic waste in landfill sites is an
"environmental crime". Therefore, various countries in Europe and the world too react and develop relevant
legislation. In this framework, in our country this problem is one of the objectives of fulfillment of legislation in
this field and the relevant practices, which will lead to the treatment of this type of waste in an ecological way.
This legislation should provide an intelligent organization of the cycle of waste treatment, collection, dismantling,
extraction and recycling of materials. Currently, private companies do collect electrical and electronic equipment
disposed, but the lack of data for this sector prevents making a thorough analysis of the present situation and
organization of this sector in the future.
Another group of waste are hazardous waste (produced by industries and domestic too) whose management system
is not safe [1]. Their management is very poor and covered by the private sector, with a lack of information on the
quantities and types of new industrial waste generated by this sector since 1992.
4. Policies for MSW technologies
The main conditions to realize the implementation of new technologies for waste treatment and recycling, are:
First, a co-ordinated approach across the country to improve sustainability in waste management practices;
Secondly, the establishment of national standards for the design and management of landfill emissions.
Public awareness on waste management which is currently at low levels.
Referring to legislation on waste and mainly EMP 2013-2020 [1] in the field of waste, seems that these goals have
priority, focusing, firstly, in developing regional sanitary landfills, secondly, sealing and stabilizing existing
municipal landfills and, thirdly, to the transposition of European Community directives for solid waste by setting
targets and deadlines for disposal of waste that go into landfills and recycling, anticipating for 2020 that 45% of
MSW (by weight) to go to landfill and 55% for recycling, planned this objective in years. This target is an ambitious
goal for our country, given the conditions in which MSW management system is, as well as financial support, one of
the main factors for implementation of environmental technologies, required to achieve such a level of management.
This problem requires that managers and decision makers of this sector to have a better understanding of waste
treatment technologies by:
identify emerging innovations, trends and opportunities for waste and resource recovery;
identify market and market barriers for implementation of new technologies and innovations.
However, the application of certain technologies depends on a number of issues, such as the characteristics of
various waste streams, creating markets for these substances recovered, the distance to markets, the financial
situation of local governments and the amount of waste.
4.1. The adapting of the technology to local conditions

Recognizing the experience of other countries, it was noted that some technology used in some places are not
appropriate for use in other locations. This is due to different economic environments, regulatory, technical and
environmental conditions.
So, in Germany there is a very strict law on biological stability of materials sent to landfill (the strongest in Europe)
[7] and also is prohibited to dispose in landfill sites the material with high heating value. This leads to great efforts
to prevent waste disposal in landfills with high heating value and untreated biowaste.
In England, there is a fine punishment law to local authorities that exceed a predetermined amount of waste that are
sending to landfill. This reason and a system of grants to regional councils, have led to the development of a number
of new alternative technologies for waste [6].
Concerns about air emissions from thermal plants in Germany, have directed efforts towards technologies
mechanical-biological treatment, but while there is an active sector "Waste to Energy" that relies on Refuse Derived
Fuel (RDF) instead of mass incineration of waste [7].
On the other hand, the rising cost of landfill, community pressure, too. to avoid landfills and increase of the quantity
of resource recovery - are the driving force for innovation in waste management in some countries. In assessing the
applicability of technologies in the local context, should be taken into consideration not only the particular local
situation to market their output, but also coping and adjustment options of collection and disposal systems
concerned.
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Production of RDF (from paper and paperboard used, plus plastics that are not suitable for use in the highest degree-
recycling, textiles and wood), has been very successful in Germany [7]. RDF can be used being burned along with
other fuel in cement factories, power plants and industrial factories such as paper ones, which require large amounts
of steam and hot water. The data on the composition characterization of Tirana MSW shows that these fractions
have a considerable weight, which favors this treatment technique, but has a high cost relatively treatment other
techniques.
5. Regulations and policies

Even in developed countries constantly are being doing changes in the regulatory environment in order to
incorporate new advances in applied technologies in waste management and to adapt to new conditions of the
current situation; it means to stop treatment and facilities associated with environmental pollution and including
those with lower environmental impact and resource recovery. Thus, in this planning area through the feedback
process, undergoing changes to meet the requirements and objectives in the future, foreseeing any possible surprise.
5.1. Barriers to innovation in waste treatment

One of the most significant barriers to innovation in waste management in our country is low waste cost landfilling
and this phenomenon has happenned and happens in many countries. But this low cost often results mostly because
the engineering requirements for MSW treatment in landfills are not respected and the result of this are the
environmental pollution consequences.
Another important barrier is the lack of an integrated cooperation between different groups of interest, related to
these problems, a distrust of new and untested technologies, the fears and reservations about the technologies that
require a long term commitment, during which it is thought these technologies could become obsolete and
inadequate.
Benefits from economies of scale, i.e the construction of a plant for the region and not for individual municipalities,
makes it possible to cope the problem of MSW disposal with the costs associated with the implementation of new
technologies in waste management. This is typically the case in our country, where excluding Tirana municipality
and some other one, all the other cities can not afford the construction and use of engineering landfill, but only as
cooperating regions, as indicated in the Strategy and National Plan of Integrated Waste Management (EMP) [1].
Innovative new treatments focus on waste management, prevention, minimization, seperate collection at source and
specific technologies for the treatment of specific waste streams. Separation at source is more effective in preserving
resources than rely solely on technologies of the last part of the management chain, which are more complex and
costly to manage growing amounts of mixed waste streams and more heterogeneous. This can be achieved by
providing incentives for efficient collection and transport of materials in locations where they are reproces, to
develop local market and export recovered materials and to encourage the business and community to participate in
these schemes too.
Objectives related to the amount of selective collection and recycling of separate factions, should be in line with
market opportunities to absorb them or to be exported. The experience of MSW selective collection in some cities
(e.g. as in Copenhagen) with special baskets, was originally used only to sensitize the community, because all those
fractions finished together in landfills. This practice is also being used in some cities of our country as in Lezhe,
Pogradec, etc.
Whereas in other countries now are working to improve the materials recovery and reprocessing technologies, in our
country, I think, the main challenge is to create access to these technologies, beginning from the collection and
transportation of waste to respective sites. Another novelty is needed in terms of economic incentives and regulatory
mechanisms to cope with the current obstacles to build or establish new advanced technology in the vicinity of
residential areas that generate waste.
Another element, no less important, is innovative thinking, except waste awareness campaigns, which are needed to
encourage and strengthen the behavioral change in business and personal level.
6. Implementation of technologies locally

Waste management practices to local conditions should be flexible, but not limited only to environmental
conditions, such as hydrology and host environments, but also socio-economic existing models, regulatory
framework (legal) and existing infrastructure.
Technologies that can be applied, must be resolved in accordance with recycling infrastructure, technologies and
management structure for recovered materials, reagents and residues from processes as potentially valuable material.
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But not everything is technological innovation, because we have also considered the role of community related to
recovery models and reuse of waste.
MSW sustainable management through integrated waste management system is accompanied with the relevant
costs, which should be borne by the principle: "who pollutes, pays", i.e by responsible individuals and business But
it is noticed a lack of public information and recognition with the problems arising from mismanagement of MSW.
Therefore, research is needed on:
Attitude of the public and leaders of local authorities related to waste management. Through that study are obtained
and studied community opinions about the consequences of MSW mismanagement, the opinions of people living
near waste landfills compared with opinions of the ones who dont live close to them. These studies should be made
from time to time to see how attitudes of population evolve related to this problem. That study should focus on the
issue of public knowledge regarding the management of waste, such as:
- Which is the method of waste disposal,
- Cost of waste management,
- Possibilities of recycling and waste treatment plants,
- Recognition by local authorities about the MSW amount generated in the future, problems with space available for
landfills, forecast rates of recycling over the years to meet the national targets set in the strategic plan.
These issues should be accompanied by high-level campaigns for awareness of the population.
All these belong to the phase of waste reduction at the source and, on the other hand, with the public participation in
solving such difficult problem in order to pass the "waste" from the end of the product life cycle in its beginning, by
integrating it into the production process of goods, which are destined to become waste as a result of their use,.
A very important issue is the feedback phase in the implementation of a strategic plan set. In this context we are
passing through briefly some facts from the Italian experience related to MSW management.
6.1. The failure of Italian policy regarding MSW

It was thought that the waste problem could be resolved, as was determined by a series of decrees, setting targets for
selective collection and recycling of recoverable materials at rates set and by facilitating and encouraging by any
means the combustion of rest, but these predictions had failed somehow [8].
Thus, the goal set by the year 1995 law to collect and recycle recoverable materials such as glass, paper, plastic,
metals, used oils, was not respected within the set deadline. The following different governments since 1998 had
extended and adapted several times this law also. In addition, the decree "Ronchi" in 1996 decided that the selective
collection to be achived 35%, while the average achived about 8% by weight.
The recycling target for 15% of MSW in 1999 was only achieved by four regions, four others went to near enough,
but the others were too far (from the total of 20 regions).
Further, the target for 25% in 2001 was achieved only by two regions. In 2000, the MSW selective collection was
14.4% by weight (average), whereas the recycling didnt exceed 10% of the materials collected in many cases. In
most of these cases the collected seperated waste ended into RDF scheme to burn further because of lack of a market
for them.
These facts showed that national and regional plans for waste management should be pursued and evolve
continuously, in accordance with the situation of the country, adapting the corresponding actual conditions.
7. Recovery and reuse of objects and materials

Recovery and reduction, in contrast to source reduction, constitute intervention to reduce post-harvest waste. The
experience of other countries shows that although these processes occur after production of waste, those may result
as an incentive for source reduction. A necessary condition for recovery and reuse of MSW is organization and
stabilization of selective collection.
But organizing of a selective collection system, finalized with objects and materials reuse, is certainly more complex
than to realize a waste disposal plant. This is because the system requires a commitment for coordinated planning of
all stakeholders, such as producers, distributors, planners, collection enterprises, the administrators, etc.. But if one
of these entities does not work correctly then the system fails economically.
The fact is that with careful planning, ie the creation of secondary raw materials market, this system offers great
benefits such as environmental management and economically ones, compared with any technological solution to
waste disposal.
In Sweden 98% of PET bottles for beverages are sterilized and reused and due to this practic there are regions in the
world today where half of the amount of MSW is generated [9].
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8. Technologies for the treatment of MNU

Waste processing technologies ranging from composting processes (which consumed energy) to anaerobic
decomposition processes where energy is obtained. Many of these technologies are mature and respective plants are
present in many countries.
The implementation of certain technologies depends on a number of issues, such as waste flow characteristics,
distance to markets, financial situation of local governments and the amount of MSW.
Above we talked about the problems that accompany the process of composting. Besides those, the processing of
mixed waste carries a greater risk than if the organic fraction is collected and treated in a seperated way (food
waste, etc.).
While anaerobic decomposition appears technically more complex than composting because is associated with a
higher cost, but through it is obtained green energy [10].
The alternative of MSW combustion treatment in our country, and especially in Tirana, is considered in strategic
management plans of MSW by authorities as an option to improve the situation in this field, reducing significantly
the amount of waste after treatment [1]. Plants of alternative technologies for the treatment of MSW and recovery of
materials from waste, have a lower environmental impact than landfill and much more against uncontrolled
dumpsites, as happens in almost all over our country. It is proved that in the case of the waste incineration furnace,
equipped with appropriate facilities to reduce emissions, the atmospheric emissions emitted by the combustion of
MSW has been reduced up to 90 99%, resulting in lower emissions also than any power plant with conventional
fuels. There is certainly a higher cost than waste landfilling and, generally, this technology could be implemented
after an integrated management system of MSW has been stabilized.
CONCLUSIONS
Some forms of waste technological innovations, which include "Waste to energy" are associated with some policy
areas, such as waste, energy, the environment and the reduction of carbon dioxide. The current legal framework in
our country promotes some of these technologies, but without addressing in detail, while that is needed to be
improved and developed instruments dealing with plants "Waste to Energy" in particular.
Sustainability of resource recovery options and management, and innovative technological options too, is influenced
by knowledge and information of the public concerning:
- Trend in world goods prices,
- Trend in the prices of environmental assets,
- Landfilling prices for solid waste,
- Access to land and resources.
MSW uncontrolled dumpsites actually cause a serious environmental impact on human health firstly, because of
leichate formation (the polluted effect of which lasts up to 300 years in MSW landfills [11], and, secondly, because
of the biogas generated during decomposition of organic waste. The most common problems encountered in these
cases are: visual pollution, air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, spread of waste, disease and odors.
Therefore the sanitary stabilization of existing dumpsites and closure of some of them, is currently an important
issue to control these negative effects, but this process has of course its cost.
Problems associated with a landfill, even sanitary type, do not end with its closure. It requires attention, care and
cost to meet the problems that accompany it a few years after its closure.
Despite the fact that rehabilitation should be included in regional and national plans of waste management, this
activity also needs a study and a guide on how to be effectively rehabilitated according to engineering requirements,
in order to minimize emissions from leichate and gases generated in landfills.
REFERENCES
[1] MEFWA: State of the Environment Report for: 2001-2010

[2] www.tirana.gov.al
[3] Alcani M, Shtjefni A: "Recovery of energy from combustion treatment of solid urban waste in Tirana-Durres
area: evaluation and comparison of different indicators of alternative strategies", The fifth Conference of the
Thermotechnics Albanian Association, Pristina, 22-23 October 2010.
[4] DEWHA, 2009: Waste Technology and Innovation Study, Final Report.
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[5] M. Alcani et al.: Management of Municipal Solid Waste in Tirana: Problems and Challenges. Technical Gazette,
No. 4, December 2010
[6] www.defra.gov.uk: Review of Environmental and Health Effects of Waste Management: Municipal Solid Waste
and Similar Wastes, 2011
[7] www.bmu.de / wastemanagement: Municipal Solid Waste management report 2006
[8] Alberto Naples: RACCOLTA differenziata in Italy. ANC CONAI: (http://www.conai.org/hpm00.asp)
[9] Pat Franklin: Plastic Water Bottles Should no longer became a wasted resource, May-June 2006 Waste
Management World.
[10] Coelho, Suani Teixeira et al., Landfill Biogas and Its Use for Energy Generation, International Farcross
Scietific of Mechanical Engineering (MEC CO. 2006) [11] Hjelmar et al., 1994)
PAPER 138
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS ON THE

NITRITATION IN A SUBMERGED BIOFILTER
Sukru Aslan*, Ugur Savas Topcu, Hasan Bayrak, Ramazan Aydn
Department of Environmental Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 58140, Sivas, Turkey
* E-mail: saslan@cumhuriyet.edu.tr;
ABSTRACT
This experimental study focused on the effects of DO concentrations and temperature on the ratio of NO 2-N/NOx-N
and NH4-N removal efficiency in the submerged biofilter. The highest NO2-N/NOx-N ratio was achieved at the
temperature of 350C. At the DO concentrations of 4.5 mg/L, the removal efficiency of NH 4-N and NO2-N/NOx-N
ratios were about 91% and 0.52, respectively. Decreasing the DO concentration to about 4.0 mg/L, the removal
efficiency of NH4-N dropped to 73%. However, the ratio NO2-N/NOx-N increased to about 0.62. Increasing the DO
concentrations at the top of the biofilm reactor, enhance the activity of nitrobacter species and NO 2-N was further
oxidized to NO3-N. The highest NO2-N production (0.386 Kg NO2-N/m3.day) and NH4-N removal rate (0.750 Kg
NH4-N/m3.day) were obtained at the DO concentrations and temperature 4.0 mg/L and 35 0C, respectively.
Keywords: Dissolved Oxygen, nitritation, NO2-N/NOx-N ratio, temperature
INTRODUCTION
The discharge of nitrogen compounds (NHx) into the water body causes oxygen depletions and excess amount of
ammonia are toxic to aquatic life. This type of wastewater should not be discharged into the environment without
treatment. There are many methods to remove nitrogen compounds in the wastewaters.
Biological nitrogen removal (nitrification and denitrification) is the most studied process in the wastewater treatment
facilities. Ammonium is oxidized into nitrite during the first step by ammonium-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), and
nitrite is oxidized into nitrate during the second step by nitrite oxidizing bacteria (NOB). In the denitrification
process, nitrate is converted into nitrite, then into nitrogen gas under anoxic conditions (Bock et al., 1986, Bock et
al., 1992).
Biological systems for nitrogen removal (BNR) can be improved by separate treatment of highly concentrated
waters which contains high concentrations of ammonium. Recirculated supernatant produced from an anaerobic
sludge digester contributes to 1520% of the influent nitrogen load of the wastewater treatment plants. The nitrogen
fraction in the organic matter of the digester supernatant is converted to soluble ammonia concentration can vary
between 0.5 and 1.5 g/L (Van Kempen et al., 2001) and it is 20 to 30 times stronger than that of the influent of the
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (Gee et al., 2004). This high level of ammonium makes it difficult to be
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biologically nitrified. Therefore it is desirable to treat ammonium rich supernatant before returning to the head of
WWTP.
Due to the cost disadvantages of the conventional BNR process (oxygen and carbon requirements for nitrification
and denitrification, respectively), one of the novel biological nitrogen elimination methods nitritation and
denitritation have been investigated during the last three decades (Aslan and Dahab; 2008; Fux et al., 2006; Gee et
al., 2004; Jenicek et al., 2004; Ruiz et al., 2003; Ruiz et al., 2006).
Nitritation and denitritation are based on the facts that, since nitrite and nitrate are intermediary compounds in the
BNR processes, the nitritation to nitrite and denitritation from accumulated nitrite, instead from nitrate would be
feasible [8]. The oxygen consumption for nitritation and carbon requirements for denitritation are lower than the
classical BNR processes (Hwang et al., 2006) and the denitritation rates with NO 2-N are 1.5-2 times greater than
with NO3-N (Abeling and Seyfried, 1992).
Nitritation and denitritation processes are carried out with controlling the nitrite oxidation without affecting the
AOB and denitrifying microorganisms must be adapted to high concentrations of nitrite. Due to the NOB has lower
affinity for oxygen than the AOB (Hunik et al ., 1993; Picioreanu et al., 1997; Wiesmann, 1994), NO 2-N
accumulation can be determined by controlling the DO concentrations in the reactor (Aslan et al., 2009; Ciudad et
al., 2005; Jenicek et al., 2004; Jianlong and Ning, 2004; Ruiz et al., 2006).
The maximum specific growth rate of NOB is approximately half of that for the AOB at elevated temperature
(Hunik et al., 1993) and the accumulation of NO2-N could be determined by operating the biological reaction at high
temperature (Bae et al., 2002; Ciudad et al., 2005; Ruiz et al.,2006). Other factors that could be used for control of
nitrite oxidation were pH (Bae et al., 2002; Cecen and Gonenc, 1994; Jianlong and Ning, 2004) sludge retention
time (SRT) (Aslan et al., 2009; Pollice et al., 2002).
Due to the nitrifiers are chemolithotrophs and obligate aerobes (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001), they have slower
growth rates and a relatively long SRT is required to prevent biomass washout from the biological reactor. The
attached growth process provides long retention time and it is more resistant to the shock loadings or shortterm
disturbing effects as compared to suspended growth in flocs (Sudarno et al., 2011; Zaitsev et al., 2008).
The present work describes a laboratory-scale investigation on the role of temperature and DO concentrations for the
NH4-N oxidation and NO2-N accumulation in a submerged biofilter (SB).
Wastewater composition. The synthetic wastewaters contained necessary elements to maintain bacterial growth
was used in the experimental studies. The inorganic medium contained request macro and micronutrients (in mg/L):
(NH4)2SO4 (849), Na2EDTA (4.83), CuSO4 (0.0046), ZnSO4.7H2O (0.023), CoCl2.6H2O (0.0119), Na2MoO4.2H2O
(0.066), MgSO4.7H2O (36.97), NaHCO3 (226), CaCl2.2H2O (36.74), H3BO3 (1.0), FeCl3.6H2O (0.316), and KH2PO4
(1920).
The SB set-up and operation. The experimental set-up of SB consisted of a cylindrical stainless steel, 10 cm in
inner diameter and 20 cm in height, completely submerged and operating in an upward flow mode (Fig. 1A). The
SB had a liquid volume of 1.4 L (total volume 1.5 L) and it was filled with 20 mm diameter pieces of plastic coils
(Fig. 1B) which provided 0.35 m2 resulting in 233 m2 surface area/m3 for bacterial growth. The synthetic wastewater
was pumped continuously to the bottom of experimental set-up using a peristaltic pump (Watson Marlow 520) and
discharged to the effluent tank. An air diffuser was installed directly at the bottom and the DO concentration was
measured periodically at the top of SB by using the DO meter (HACH HQd101). The influent synthetic solution
was stored in 30 l plastic container at room temperature. The outer surfaces of the container and tubes were wrapped
with aluminum foil and transfer tube was washed with acidic solution weekly to prevent microbial growth. The
influent synthetic solution was prepared two times in a week.
Effects of the DO on NO2-N accumulation and NH4-N oxidations were tested at various DO concentrations of 3.5,
4.0, and 4.5 mg O2/L at the temperature of 35 0C 1. The SB was operated at various temperatures of 25, 30, and 35
0
C 1 at the DO concentration of 4.5 mg/L.
Analytical Methods. Samples were withdrawn daily from the SB effluents and filtered using 0.45 m, white, 47
mm radius filters. Samples were analyzed in triplicates and average values were reported in the study.
Concentrations of NH4-N, NO3-N and NO2-N in the clear samples were determined with the Merck photometer
(Nova 60 Model) using analytical kits; NH 4-N (14752), NO2-N (14776) and NO3-N (14773) at an ambient
temperature. The initial pH of feeding wastewaters were adjusted to 7.5 with 10 N NaOH solutions by using the
Cybersan pH meter. The experimental studies were carried out at least one month for each parameters and the data
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used in the figures was taken at the steady state conditions. NH4-N concentrations in the inlet wastewater were
measured daily.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the SB and growth media
RESULTS
Operation of the SB. The SB was operated about five years in order to determine the effects of various operational
conditions such as nitrogen loading rate (NLR) and hydraulic retention times (HRT) on the nitritation (Aslan and
Gurbuz, 2011; Aslan and Simsek 2012) at the temperature of 351 0C. Experimental results show that the highest
NO2-N/NOx-N ratio could be achieved at the HRT and NLR of 5.2 hour (flow rate of 6.9 L/day) and 830 g NH 4-
N/m3.day (initial concentrations of 180 mg NH4-N/L), respectively.
After determining the optimal operational conditions in the previous studies, the effects of temperatures and DO
concentrations on the nitritation was investigated in this study. Operational conditions of the SB were adjusted to the
HRT and NLR of 5.2 hour and 830 g NH4-N/m3.day, respectively.
Effects of DO concentrations on nitritation
During the experimental studies, the initial pH and temperature in the reactor were kept constant at the value of 7.5
and 35 0C, respectively. In order to determine the effects of DO concentrations on the NO 2-N accumulations, the DO
level at the top of SB were gradually increased. The effluent concentrations of nitrogen compounds and NO2-
N/NOx-N ratio are presented in Fig. 2.
At the level of 3.5 mg O2/L, the removal efficiency of NH4-N and the NO2-N/NOx-N ratio were 59% and 0.56,
respectively. High concentrations of the DO in the biofilm reactors are necessary to enhance the activity of nitrifying
bacteria. Increasing the DO level to 4.0 mg/L, the NO2-N concentrations in the effluents and NH4-N removal
efficiencies achieved to 81 mg/L and 73%, respectively. The highest NO 2-N/NOx-N ratio of 0.62 was observed at
the DO concentration of 4.0 mg/L under the operational conditions. When the DO concentration was increased from
4.0 to 4.5 mg/L, the NH4-N removal efficiency improved to about 91%. While the effluent water included about 50
mg NO3-N/L and 81 mg NO2-N/L at the DO concentration of 4.0 mg/L, at the DO level of 4.5 mg/L, the
concentrations of NO3-N and NO2-N increased to about 79 and 84 mg/L, respectively. However, the ratio of NO 2-
N/NOx-N drastically dropped to 0.52, suggesting that a 17% reduction of the NO2-N/NOx-N ratio occurred. Results
indicated that Nitrobacter species are stimulated at high DO concentrations and NO2-N is further oxidized to NO3-
N.
Effects of the DO concentration on the NO2-N accumulation in the effluent water were reported for various reactor
configurations. Denac et al., (1993) about 34 % of NO 2-N accumulation and 40 % of NH4-N oxidation was reported
in a fluidized bed reactor. Garrido et al.(1997) achieved about 50% NO 2-N accumulation at the DO concentration
between 1-2 mg/L in an airlift suspension reactor. About 72 % of NO 2-N/NOx-N ratio was achieved in a fluidized-
bed biofilm reactor by operating at high DO concentrations (4-6 mg/L) (Aslan and Dahab, 2008). Considerable
NO2-N/NOx-N ratio and NH4-N removal efficiencies were observed in the SB.
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0.64 100
NO2-N/NOx-N ratio NH4-N removal eff. (%)
0.62 95
90
0.6
85
NH 4 -N removal eff. (%)

0.58
NO 2-N/NO x-N
80
0.56
75
0.54
70
0.52
65
0.5
60
0.48 55
0.46 50
3.5 4 4.5
DO (mg/L)
Fig. 2. Effects of DO concentrations on the NO2-N/NOx-N ratio and NH4-N removal efficiencies
The highest NO2-N production (386 g NO2-N/m3.day, 1.19 g/m2.day) and NH4-N removal rates (750 g NH4-
N/m3.day, 3.38 g NH4-N/m3.day) were obtained under the NLR and SLR of 830 g NH 4-N /m3.day and 3.55
g/m2.day, respectively (Fig. 3).
Results confirmed that the partial nitrification was predominant under the operational conditions in the SB. The
previous partial nitrification experimental studies carried out at the biofilm systems were confirmed this results
(Aslan and Dahab, 2008; Aslan and Gurbuz, 2011; Garrido et al., 1997; Joo et al., 2000; Zafarzadeh et al., 2011).
800
g NH4-N/m3.day g NO2-N/m3.day
700
g /m3.day (NH 4-N and NO 2-N)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
3.5 4 4.5
DO (mg/L)
Fig. 3. NO2-N productions and NH4-N consumptions at various DO concentrations
Effects of temperature on nitritation. The AOB grow faster than the NOB at elevated temperatures and the AOB
is effectively compete with the NOB at temperatures above 25 0C (Brouwer et al., 1996; Hunik et al., 1993). At the
operational temperature of 35 0C, the maximum specific growth rate of NOB is approximately half of that for the
AOB (Hunik et al., 1993). At normal temperatures in the WWTP (5-20 0C) NOB grow faster than AOB which
means that NH4-N is completely oxidized to NO3-N (Hellinga et al., 1998).
The effects of temperature on the NO2-N/NOx-N ratio and NH4-N removal efficiencies are presented in Fig. 4. As
can be seen in Figure, the average NH4-N removal efficiency of 92% was obtained at the temperatures of 25, 30, and
35 0C. However, the ratio of NO2-N/NOx-N was significantly affected from the temperatures. The NO 2-N/NOx-N
ratio was about 0.14 at the temperature of 25 1 0C. Gradually increase the temperature from 25 to 35 0C, The NO2-
N/NOx-N ratio increased to about 0.5.
The NO2-N production rate of about 368 g NO2-N/m3.day (1.66 g/m2.day) and about 750 g NH4-N/m3.day (3.38 g
NH4-N/m3.day) were obtained under the NLR and SLR of 830 g NH 4-N /m3.day and 3.55 g/m2.day, respectively
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(Fig. 5).The nitrification rates reported in the literature for attached growth reactors were between 0.47- 1.6 kg NH4-
Nm3- day for down-flow hanging sponge reactor (Chuang et al., 2007) and 0.9 kg NH4-Nm3- day for the FBBR
(Aslan and Dahab, 2008). The nitrification rate of 0.75 kg NH4-Nm3-day was observed at the temperature of 35 0C
in the SB. Anthonisen et al. (1976) reported that the AOB and NOB were inhibited 10-150 mg/L and 0.1-1.0 mg/L
of FA, respectively and all nitrifying bacteria were inhibited above 0.2 mg/L of FNA. The quantity of free ammonia
(FA) and free nitric acid (FNA) (HNO2) are a function of pH and temperature and could be calculated using the
equation 1 and 2 (Anthonisen et al. 1976).
17 NH 4 N (mg / L) 10 pH (1) 47 NO2 N (mg / L) 2)

FA(mg / L) 6344
HNO2 (mg / L) 2300
14 14
e ( 273T ) 10 pH exp 273T 10 pH
The calculated FA concentrations in the influents were between about 4-8 mg/L which should be favorable to the
NO2-N accumulation throughout the experimental study. The previous experimental results support that the NO 2-N
accumulation was determined by controlling the FA. However, the FA concentration is not the only factor for the
NO2-N accumulation (Aslan et al., 2009). Sinha and Annachhatre (2007) and Kim et al., (2005) reported that the pH
value could not be used on a long term key parameter for NO 2-N accumulation. Because the experimental set-up
was operated about 5 years in the previous experimental studies (Aslan and Gurbuz, 2011; Aslan and Simsek, 2012),
the accumulation of NO2-N could not be solely attributed to the NH3 concentrations in this study.
The NO2-N accumulation in the biofilter effluents cannot be attributed to the FNA, because the observed FNA
concentration was lower than 0.2 mg/L in the effluents waters throughout the experiments.
0.6 100
NO2-N /NOx-N NH4-N removal eff. (%)
0.5 95
NH 4-N removal eff. (%)

0.4 90
NO2-N/NOx-N
0.3 85
0.2 80
0.1 75
0 70
25 30 35
0
temperature ( C)
Fig. 4. Effects of temperature on the NO2-N/NOx-N ratio and NH4-N removal efficiencies
Figure 5. NO2-N productions and NH4-N consumptions at various temperatures
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CONCLUSION
Experimental results showed that the SB was efficiently used to remove high concentrations of ammonium in the
wastewater. In order to achieve considerable NO2-N/NOx-N ratio, the biological reactor should be operated at an
optimal temperature and DO concentrations. Due to the fact that NOB is positively affected by the DO
concentrations, optimal DO concentrations should be determined for the biological reactor. The effluents of partial
nitrification reactor can be connected to the ANAMMOX or denitritation process in order to achieve complete
nitrogen removal.
Acknowledgements: This study was supported by The Research Fund of Cumhuriyet University (CUBAP) under
Grant No. M-395, Sivas, Turkey.
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concentration, Bioresource Technol 100, 659-664.
Bae, W, Baek, S., Chung, J., Lee, Y. (2002) Optimal operational factors for nitrite accumulation in batch reactors,
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PAPER 140
GAS SENSING PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT CALIXARENE DERIVATIVES
Farabi Temel*, Gulsevil Gok, Ayse Gul Ture, Mustafa Tabakci
Seluk University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 42075, Konya, Turkey
*Email:farabitemel42@hotmail.com;gul_sevil-88@hotmail.com;ayse_gul_ture@hotmail.com; mtabakci@secuk.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
This report describes the evaluation of gas sensing activities of some calix[4]arene based films such as 5,11,17,23-
Tetra-tert-butyl-25,26,27,28-tetrahydroxycalix[4]arene(1)5,11,17,23-Tetra-tert-butyl-25,27-bis(4-propargyl)-26,28-
dihydroxycalix[4] arene (2)5,11,17,23-Tetra-tert-butyl-25,27-bis(4-nitrobenzyloxy)-26,28-dihydroxycalix[4]arene
(3) towards volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Calix[4]arene based films were fabricated using drop-casting
method on a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)s gold electrode. The results indicated that current calix[4]arene
based films have a great potential for sensing of organic vapors at room temperature conditions.
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Keywords: Calix[4]arene; VOCs; QCM; Gas sensor
INTRODUCTION
In the field of supramolecular chemistry, calixarenes have generated increasing interest both in fundamental and
applied chemistry. These macrocycles have been used for catalysis, molecular recognition or ion separation, and
sensors (Gutsche, 1998). They are synthetic macrocycles readily available by condensation of p-tert-butylphenol
with formaldehyde under alkaline conditions. From these starting materials, a large number of sophisticated
compounds have been prepared (Erdemir et al., 2007). Calixarenes after crown ethers and cyclodextrins are an
important class of macrocycles widely used in supramolecular chemistry as useful basic skeleton and an excellent
platform for the design of receptor sites for the specific recognition of guests (Memon et al., 2005). The functional
groups at the upper and lower rims of calixarene define their selectivity in hostguest interactions and physical
properties (Ohira et al., 2009; Tabakci et al., 2005). They are promising materials for sensor applications due to their
zeolite-like capacity and selectivity. Thin films of calixarenes have been widely used in chemical sensors. These
materials can be also used as sensor towards gas or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (Filenko et al., 2004;
Richardson et al., 2006; Filenko et al., 2005).
Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) has been applied widely in toxic gas and organic vapors detection owing to its
extreme sensitivity and simplicity (Zhou et al., 1997). Sensor applications of calixarenes have been reported for a
few transducer types such as QCM (Hartmann et al., 1996; Kalchenko et al., 2002; Koshets et al., 2005). QCM
technique can be widely studied for the determination of a variant of acoustic wave micro sensors that are capable of
ultrasensitive mass measurements. Additionally, this technique is a excellent for determining the sensing properties
of materials before manufacturing a sensor device (Okur et al., 2010). In this study, we investigated that the sensor
behaviors of various calix[4]arene molecules towards some VOCs via QCM apparatus.
QCM is based on frequency shift of coated quartz crystal with sensing element due to adsorption of humidity atoms
on the surface of the sensing material. QCM measurement technique is the relation between mass change (m) onto
the quartz surface and frequency change (f). In a simple case it can be described by the Sauerbrey equation
(Sauerbrey, 1959).
(1)
where f = frequency, m = mass, = density of quartz, = shear modulus of quarts and A = active electrode area.
According to the Sauerbrey equation, the frequency shift is directly proportional to the adsorbed mass on gold QCM
electrodes.
Materials and equipments. Calix[4]arene derivatives (Fig. 1) were prepared according to previously published
procedure (Gutsche et al., 1986; Asfari et al., 2004; Tabakci et al., 2004). A time-resolved electrochemical quartz
crystal microbalance (EQCM) was used to measure the frequency change of quartz crystals between gold electrodes
with the model of CHI400B Series from CH Instruments (Austin, USA). Used EQCM in this work is shown in
Fig.2. The oscillation frequencies of QCM changes between 7.995MHz and 7.950 MHz. The density () of the
crystal is 2.684 g/cm3, and the shear modulus () of quartz is 2.9471011 g/cm s2. Using a crystal with a 7.995-MHz
fundamental frequency, a net change of 1 Hz corresponds to 1.34 ng of materials adsorbed or desorbed onto the
crystal surface of an area of 0.196 cm2.
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477
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Fig. 1. Molecular structure of calix[4]arenes
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a typical EQCM instrument. The quartz crystal has a fundamental frequency of
7.995 MHz and is coated with thin gold films on both sides. The gold disk deposited on the top side of the crystal is
in contact with the electrolyte solution and used as the working electrode.
Preparation of calix[4]arene based films. Calix[4]arene based films have been prepared by following procedures:
To prepare 1mM calixarene solutions, calix[4]arene derivatives were dissolved completely in chloroform. Gold
coated quartz crystal electrodes were cleaned by acetone and ethanol liquids, respectively and then dried with high
purity nitrogen. Finally, 5l calixarene solutions were dropped on gold surface of quartz crystal electrodes by using
drop casting method and calixarene-coated electrodes heated at 60oC to ensure dryness of them.
Measurements of VOC vapors. Gas sensing properties of calix[4]arene based films towards VOCs were performed
by using a home-made system (Fig. 2). In experimental studies, calix[4]arene molecules coated crystal was placed to
its chamber to gain frequencies responses vs. time. Placed crystal in chamber was subjected to fresh air and VOCs
by 150s time intervals respectively up to 750s. After measurements, coated crystals is subjected to pure nitrogen due
to performing desorption of calix[4]arenes molecules on crystal about 30s. Before passing second measurements,
frequency responses of calix[4]arene-coated crystal should show about zero. After applying of pure nitrogen,
calix[4]arene-coated crystal should be waited some minutes in fresh air to reach steady state if there is big
oscillation.
RESULTS
It is well known from the literature that the various calixarene derivatives have been used as sensor material
(Talanov et al., 2007; Evans and Nicholson, 2005; Echabaane et al., 2012; Chen and Chen, 2005; Costa et al., 2012).
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478
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In this work, sensitive and selective features of different calix[4]arene derivatives towards VOCs has been examined
via QCM method.
Figure 3 represents the frequency responses of three QCM sensors coated with calix[4]arene (1, 2 and 3) films
during the adsorption and desorption processes under VOCs. As it seen in Fig. 3a, 1 gives similar response towards
acetone and methanol but it gives a few more response to toluene. Sensor 2 gives similar and big frequency
responses towards acetone and toluene exception others, while the response of sensor 3 towards acetone differs from
others significantly. As it seen, parent calix[4]arene 1 is slightly effective as a sensor in comparison to 2 and 3.
a b
Acetone DMF Methanol Toluene
Fig. 3. Frequency responses of calix[4]arene based sensors towards acetone, DMF, methanol and toluene (a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 during the adsorption and desorption processes.
Figure 4 expresses that the frequency responses of QCM sensors coated with 1, 2 and 3 towards same volatiles. As it
is shown in Fig. 4a, 3 exhibits a remarkably difference when it compare with the others for acetone. This may be
attributed to its more rigid functional groups (p-nitrobenzyles) that helps to trap the acetone. This indicates that 3 is
a selective sensor for acetone molecules. On the other hand, Fig. 4b shows that 3 does not give remarkably
responses towards to DMF unlike others. However, 2 gives a bit more frequency responses by comparison with 3.
Fig. 4c and 4d indicates that 3 presents the biggest frequency responses for methanol and toluene volatiles,
respectively.
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479
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a b
Calix 1 Calix 2 Calix 3
c d
Fig. 4. Frequency responses towards (a) acetone (b) DMF (c) methanol (d) toluene of sensors coated with
calix[4]arene based films.
CONCLUSIONS
In this work, three calix[4]arene derivatives has been used as the coating materials to form a film plate on gold
coated quartz crystal electrode by using drop casting method. The results indicates that calix[4]arene molecules are
very promising materials which can be used as sensors for VOCs. Among used calix[4]arene derivatives in current
work, calix[4]arene containing functional p-nitrobenzyl groups 3 can be used as a selective sensor for acetone.
Acknowledgments. The authors thank the Research Foundation of Seluk University, Konya, Turkey for financial
support (Grant Number: 13701142) of this work produced from Farabi Temels Master Thesis.
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Memon, S., Tabakci, M., Roundhill, D.M., Yilmaz, M. (2005) A useful approach toward the synthesis and metal
extractions with polymer appended thioalkyl calix[4]arene, Polymer 46, 15531560.
Ohira, S.I., Wanigasekara, E., Rudkevich, D.M., Dasgupta, P.K. (2009) Sensing parts per million levels of gaseous
NO2 by a optical fiber transducer based on calix[4]arena, Talanta 77, 1814-1820.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Tabakci, M., Tabakci, B., Yilmaz, M. (2005) Design and synthesis of new chiral calix[4]arenes as liquid phase
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Filenko, D., Kazantseva, Z., Ivanova, K., Rabinovych, O., Kukla, A., Shirshov Y., Kalchenko, V.I., Rangelow, I.W.
(2004) Calixarene-coated nanoparticle gold films for chemical recognition system, Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors
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Richardson, T.H., Brook, R.A., Davis, F., Hunter, C.A. (2006) The NO 2 gas sensing properties of
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285.
Filenko, D., Gotszalk, T., Kazantseva, Z., Rabinovych, O., Koshets, I., Shirshov, Yu., Kalchenko, V., Rangelow,
I.W. (2005) Chemical gas sensors based on calixarene-coated discontinuous gold films, Sensors and Actuators B
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Zhou, X.C., Ng, S.C., Chan, H.S.O., Li, S.F.Y. (1997) Detection of organic amines in liquid with chemically coated
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Asfari, Z., Bilyk, A., Bond, C., Harrowfield, J.M., Koutsantonis, G.A., Lengkeek, N., Mocerino, M., Skelton, B.W.,
Sobolev, A.N., Strano, S., Vicens, J., White, A.H. (2004) Factors influencing solvent adduct formation by
calixarenes in the solid state, Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry 2, 387-396.
Tabakci, M., Memon, S., Yilmaz, M., Roundhill, D. (2004) Synthesis and evaluation of extraction ability of
calix[4]-crown-6 cone conformer and its oligomeric analogue, Reactive and Functional Polymers 58, 27-34.
Talanov, V.S., Roper, E.D., Buie, N.M., Talanova, G.G. (2007) A new fluorogenic mono-ionizable calix[4]arene
dansylcarboxamide as a selective chemosensor of soft metal ions, Ti+ and Hg2+, Tetrahedron Letters 48, 8022-8025.
Evans, J.C., Nicholson, G.P. (2005) A self-assembled electrochemical sensor for uranium, Sensors and Actuators B
105, 204-207.
Echabaane, M., Rouis, A., Bonnamour, I., Ouada, H.B. (2012) Characterization of an azo-calix[4]arene-based
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aza-crown, Tetrahedron Letters 46, 165-168.
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ethynylene)s toward nitroaromatic explosives, Sensors and Actuators B 161, 702 713.
PAPER 142
THE ROLE OF PROHEXADIONE-CALCIUM(REGALIS) ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH IN PEAR VAR.

PASSE CRASSANE
Maxhun Shehaj1, Ptrit Rama2, Bari Hodaj 2

1
CNV, Kosoovo
2
Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania
Email: agro36@hotmail.com; ramapetrit@yahoo.gr;
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ABSTRACT
Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) is a shoot growth retardant that inhibits gibberellins biosynthesis The aim of this
study was to evaluate the efficacy of applying Regalis by foliar applications in Pass Crassane pear orchards to
reduce tree vigor or shoot growth, to improve the structure of the canopy, to accelerate the earliness of fruit bearing
and to control the alternate fruit production. Three different dosages were tested: 50ppm, 100ppm 150ppm. Regalis
treatments ranging from 50 to 150 ppm were compared with control, without treatments. The first treatment was
applied 7days after petal fall and the others every 10 days after the first treatment. The data was collected at the end
of the vegetation period on 10 October.The growth vigor of the shoots and the shoot length of node was significantly
difference after the treatment of 150 ppm than the application of 100ppm and 50ppm. The mean number of nodes
per shoot percentage was not significantly different between different treatment (50ppm, 100ppm and 150ppm). The
length of the shoots for non- treated trees was higher than for treated ones.
Key words: prohexadione-Ca, Regalis, Growth retardant. Passe Crassane
INTRODUCTION
Several techniques have been employed to avoid excessive shoot growth as different types of dwarfing rootstocks,
dormant and summer pruning, root pruning, root restriction, stem girdling or sawing, limb bending, breaking or
wounding and restrictive fertilization and irrigation. However, any of these methods is cost-intensive and bears a
high risk of failure. Furthermore, part of trees assimilates are lost.
Alternatively or additionally, plant regulator may be employed for the reduction of shoot growth (7)
Plant growth regulators that inhibit the development and growth of shoots have been used to reduce the amount of
shoot growth and subsequently increase yield. Plant growth regulators modify growth and development in various
ways. They can be well integrated into orchard production systems gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitors have one key
role in cell elongation (5,8).The most used growth retardant is the Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis that has low
toxicity and persistence in the plant.)
The inhibitory effect of Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) lead on the formation of growth-active gibberellin (8) leads
to a reduction of longitudinal shoot growth
There are a number of applications of plant hormones in agriculture, horticulture, and biotechnology. Trials with
Prohexadione-calcium to control vegetative growth of apple, pear and plum trees were demonstrated by other
authors (1,8). Prohexadione-calcium is a new generation gibberellins biosynthesis inhibitor that has low toxicity and
persistence in the plant.
The objective of this research was to quantify the efficacy Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) at three different
concentrations, on three treatment times, on pear cultivar Passe Crassane.
Investigations of (Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) effect on pear tree var.Passe Crassane were carried out at the
region o Peja , municipality of Kline, Republic of Kosova. The orchard was planted in the spring of 2009.Planting
distance were 3x1,5m.Trees were trained as slender spindle A randomized complete block with four replications,
four treatments and two trees per experimental unit was used as the experimental design.
Regalis ranging of treatments were as follow:
Control without treatment
Treatment with 50ppm (a.s) Regalis
The first treatment was applied 7 days after the petal fall
The second 10 days after the first treatment
The third 10 days after the second treatment
The length of shoots, the number of the nodes, the length of internodes and number of leaves of new growth (current
growing season) on 15 randomly selected extension shoots (selected randomly on each tree) was measured at end of
growing season, on10 October. Differences between means of each treatment were analyzed by the Duncan multiple
range test (P < 0. 05).
RESULTS
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Vegetative growth is the parameter most obviously affected by (Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) applications. The
inhibitory effect of the (Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) formation of growth-active gibberelline (8) leads to a
reduction of longitudinal shoot growth .
As a general result, a successful use of (Prohexadione-calcium (Regalis) in pear was more difficult to achieve than
in apple (3,4)
Table 1summarises the results of several experiments with Passe Crassanethe widespread pear cultivar in Kosova,
in which the effects of different dosages of application had been evaluated. Final shoot length was generally reduced
by treatments by approximately 14.5% to 22 % as compared to untreated trees. The length of the shoots was not
significantly different between 50ppm and 100ppm. Our results that the successful use of Regalis in pear was
difficult to achieve have been confirmed by other researchers (3).The treatment of the pome with Regalis both a
single application of 250 g ha1 (a.s). or a split treatment with 2 x 125 g ha1(a.s). led to an average reduction of
shoot growth by approximately 40 %(9).
Table1. Effect of Prohexadione calcium (Regalis) on length of shoot
Treatments r1 r2 r3 r4 Means
V0(control ) 27,536 26,370 27,240 31,545 28,4228c *+
V1 25,818 22,870 23,080 24,042 23,9525a
V2 23,857 26,556 19,500 26,053 23,7415a
V3 24,233 21,500 18,667 21,183 21,3956 b
Means 24,61109 24,07387 21,62167 25,70559 96,01222
* Separation by Duncans multiple range tests, at P< 0.05(+Mean of four replications)

F= 5,567772, F ref= 3,490295
Tab 2 shows that number of nodes was not significantly difference between non-treated trees and treated trees, while
the increase in shoot length in absolute terms was different between treatments. This means that the treatment with
Regalis inhibits growth of the shoots but did not prevent the formation of the buds. For this reason the average
number of the buds is equal in treated trees with Prohexadione-calcium and untreated ones.
Table2. The mean number of internodes per shoot
Treatments r1 r2 r3 r4 Means
V0(control) 7,010 8,507 8,513 8,013 7,898
V1 7,594 7,290 7,360 6,869 7,278
V2 7,455 8,047 6,167 8,684 7,588
V3 8,078 7,414 6,667 7,845 7,501
Means 7,534 7,814 7,176 8,103 30,628
F= 0,707664. F ref= 3,490295
Evaluation of the data of Table 1 with Table 3 shows that the increase of the shoot length is proportional to the
increase of internodes length. This means that the buds formed on the trees treated with Regalis have less
competition from the apical dominance of the growing shoot. Consequently, the possibility of their differentiation in
flowering must be greater. This has been confirmed by other authors. Excessive vigor could be considered to
competitively inhibit flowering through hormonal control (6)
Table3.The mean length of internodes(cm)
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 Means
V0 3,5 3,1 3,2 3,5 3,970a*+

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V1 3,4 3 3 3,5 3,225b

V2 3,2 3,3 3 3 3,125 b
V3 3 2,9 2,8 2,7 2,850 b
Means 3,275 3,075 3 3,175 12,525
* Separation by Duncans multiple range tests, at P< 0.05 (+Mean of four replications)
F=4, 436464 F ref =3.490295
As can be seen in Tab.4 the numbers of the leaves were almost equal in all the treated and untreated trees.
Analyzing Tables 1 2 3 and 4 found that the effect of Regalis was not significantly in the number of nodes and
consequently in the number of buds and in the number of leaves. This confirms that only shoot growth and
internodes length may be controlled by Regalis application.
Table.4 the mean number of leaves per shoot
Treatment s r1 r2 r3 r4 Means
V0 15,699 16,564 15,995 20,991 17,3121
V1 17,870 18,412 16,102 16,999 17,3458
V2 15,975 19,351 12,624 18,907 16,7142
V3 16,611 16,574 15,475 17,386 16,5113
Means 16,539 17,725 14,799 18,821 67,8835
F= 0,163039. F ref= 3,490295
CONCLUSIONS
The use of Regalis reduces the apical dominance of the growth of the shoots and may be promotes the
differentiation of flowers on the lateral buds
REFERENCES
Basak A, Rademacher W: Growth regulation of pome and stone fruit trees by use of Proxadione-Ca: Acta
Horticulturae 2000, (514): 4150.
Buban T, Foldes L, Kormany A, Hauptmann S, Stammler G, Rademacher W:
Prohexadione-Ca in apple trees: Control of shoot growth and reduction of fire blight incidence in blossoms and
shoots: Journal of applied botany 2003. (77): 95102
Costa , C. Andreotti, F. Bucchi, E. Sabatini, C.Bazzi, S. Mallaguti and W. Rademacher: Prohexadione-Ca
(Apogee), growth regulation and reduced fireblight incidence in pear: HortScienc ,2001,( 36:931933.
Costa. G, E. Sabatini, F. Spinelli, C. Andreoti, G Spada and F. Mazzini: Prohexadione-Ca controls vegetative
growth and cropping performance in pear.
Acta Hort: 2004,( 653): 127132.
Luckwill,L.C:.The control of growth and fruitfulness of apple trees: Physiology of Tree Fruit Crops 1970, 237254
Mandemaker,A.J. Dixon.J : Effect of Prohexadione-ca on shoot growth, fruit set and retention in 'hass' avocado in
New Zealand: New Zealand Avocado Growers Association Annual Research Report.
(5) 35 - 42
Miller, S.S: Plant bio regulators in apple and pear culture : Hort. Rev. 1988,(10): 309401
Rademacher,W. 2000. Growth retardants: Effects on gibberellin biosynthesis and other metabolic pathways: Annual
Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 2000,( 51): 501531
Rademacher, K. Van Saarloos, J. A. Garuz Porte, F. Riera Forcades, Y. Senechal, C. Andreotti, F: Impact of
Prohexadione-Ca on the Vegetative and Reproductive Performance of Apple and Pear Trees. Europ.J.Hort.Sci
2004,( 69):221228.
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PAPER 143
THE ROLE OF CYTOKININS (BENZYLAMINOPURINE, BAP) ON ROOT INDUCTION IN OLEA

EUROPEA L.
Adhurim Lazaj1, Petrit Rama2, Bari Hodaj2, Edlira Kukali2

1
Centre of Agricultural Technology Transfer (ATTC), Vlore, Albania
2
Email: adhurimlazaj@yahoo.com; ramapetrit@yahoo.gr;
ABSTRACT
Olive, var. Kokrr Madhi I Beratitis an important table variety for Albania. Also this is one of the major
difficulties with respect to vegetative propagation from leafy stem cuttings. Leafy stem cuttings of olive cv. Kokr
Madhi i Beratit were obtained from 1-year-old olive shoots sampled on 25 April during the 2012 growing season.
The shoots were collected at the same height of crown of the tree to avoid the effect of juvenility on root induction.
To improve the rooting of olive cuttings, different concentrations of BAP (6-Benzyl aminopurine),100ppm, 150ppm,
200ppm and250ppm were tested in combination with IBA (Indol Butiric Acid)4000ppm. After treatments the stem
cuttings were planted in greenhouse equipped with an automatic mist system. At 50 days after the beginning of
rooting treatments, cuttings were scored for the presence of callus, percentage of rooted cuttings, root number per
cutting and root length. BAP inhibits adventitious root formation, but adding it to IBA in a small ratio (1:30-1:40)
improved the rooting. The combination of IBA 4000ppm + 100ppm (40:1) and IBA 4000ppm+150ppm BAP
modified significantly higher rooting of cuttings. Those combinations of growth stimulators induce also a higher
number of roots per cutting in comparison with those treated with IBA alone.
Key words: olive, root, shoot, Benzylaminopurine, Indol Butyric Acid
INTRODUCTION
The propagation of the olive up to now has been realized by various ways, such as seeds, hardwood cuttings, leafy
stem cuttings, spheroblasts, etc. Propagation with leafy stem cuttings, under mist system is the most accepted
method in the world. Olive, var. Kokerr Madhi I Beratit is one of the major difficulties with respect to vegetative
propagation from leafy stem cuttings. This experiment aimed at increasing the rooting ability of olive cuttings cv.
Kokrr Madhi I Beratit using IBA with different concentrations of BAP. GA 3 and BAP inhibits adventitious root
formation, but in some cases stimulate it (7,6.8)
Auxins play a central role during lateral root development (1). Also, has been reported that cytokinins are important
endogenous regulators of lateral root initiation(4).Cytokinins and auxins have been implicated in the regulation of
root development, being the principal players(3). Cytokinins regulate root meristem activity via modulation of the
polar auxin transport. They regulate root meristem activity via modulation of the polar auxin transport. Auxins and
cytokinins modulate the root meristem size, but they differ in concentration range at which they can act either in a
stimulatory or an inhibitory mode (3). The phytohormones auxins and cytokinins are important regulators of the
developmental fate of pluripotent plant cells (5).Cytokinins influence cell-to-cell auxin transport by modification of
expression of several auxin transport components and thus modulate auxin distribution important for regulation of
activity and size of the root meristem (3).
The study reported in this paper was carried out to examine any possible interaction between IBA and BAP which
might influence the rooting activity of stem cuttings in Qlea europea, cv. Kokrr Madhi i Beratit.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Leafy stem cuttings (15-20cm long each) from one year old olive shoots ofKokrr Madhi I Beratit, grown in
Levan village (Fieri district) were conducted to examine the influence of the combination IBA with BAP on the root
initiation. The shoots were sampled in spring (25 Appril) during the 2012 growing season. Leafy stem cuttings with
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four leaves are prepared in the morning and their bases were dipped for 7 sec in solution of 4000ppm IBA, the
appropriate concentration on rooting of olive stems, in combination with different treatment of BAP as follows:
Experiment one:
1st treatment 0ppm IBA
2nd treatment 2000ppmIBA
3rd treatment 4000ppmIBA
4th treatment 6000ppmIBA
5th treatment 10000ppmIBA
Experiment two:
1st treatment 4000ppm IBA+0BAP
2nd treatment 4000ppm IBA+100ppm BAP
3rd treatment 4000ppm IBA+150ppm BAP
4th treatment 4000ppm IBA+200ppm BAP
5th treatment 4000ppm IBA+250ppm BAP
After treatments, the stem cuttings were planted in greenhouse equipped with an automatic mist system. The layout
of experimental design was completely randomized with 4 replications of 100 cuttings per treatment. Cuttings were
evaluated 50 days after planting for percentage of rooted cuttings, primary root number and mean primary root
length. Differences between means of each treatment were analyzed by the Duncan multiple range test (P < 0. 05).
3. Results and discussion
As it can be seen in Table1 the olive var. Koker Madhi i Beratit is one of the major difficulties with respect to
vegetative propagation from leafy stem cuttings. The percentage of rooting without IBA and with different
concentrations of IBA was very low (6,75% maximum). The percentage of rooting was higher in the treatment of
4000ppm IBA, but the difference was not significant however, we supposed the concentration of 4000ppm IBA as
the best, and we used this concentration of IBA in combination with different concentrations of BAP to see the
interaction of these two hormones on the root induction of the olive var. Kokerr Madhi i Berati.
Table 1. Effect of IBA on rooting of Kokerr Madhi I Beratit olive cuttings
Treatments/Replications R1 R2 R3 R4 Means
0%IBA 0 2 1 4 1,75a
2000ppmIBA 4 11 1 7 5,75a
4000ppmIBA 5 6 7 9 6,75a
6000ppmIBA 0 1 8 3 3,00a
10000ppmIBA 5 2 0 1 2,00a
The number (percentage) of rooted cuttings, using of IBA alone and in combination with BAP on rooting of Kokerr
Madhi i Beratit olive cuttings are summarized in Table2.In determining the optimum of benzylaminopurine (BAP)
requirements for rooting, the best result was obtained when 4000 ppm IBA (control) was combined with 100 ppm
and 150ppm BAP (respectively,22% and 24,75 higher than the control).The percentage of rooting was decreased
considerably by increasing the BAP concentration to 200 and 250 ppm. This means that auxins and cytokinins
modulate the root meristem size, but they differ in concentration range at which they can act either in a stimulatory
or an inhibitory mode [3]. The promotion of BAP on rooting appears to be due to stimulation of juvenility in tissues
of cuttings, or perhaps cytokinin regulates root meristem activity via modulation of the polar auxin transport [3].
Also, may be, BAP increased the sprouting buds, and consequently, the synthesis of any rooting cofactor. The
stimulation of rooting by combination of IBA with BAP reported in this paper is shows that the stem cuttings of
olive var, Kokr Madh i Beratit has little or has not at all BAB.
To promote root induction of leafy stem cuttings of olive var.Kokrr Madhi i Beratit must used as root induction
hormones the combination of auxins and cytokinins at appropriate concentration.
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Figure-1: Cuttings planted in mist propagation(40 days after planting) Left (IBA+BAP). Right( IBA)
Table 2. Effect of IBA alone and in combination with BAP on rooting
of Kokrr Madhi i Beratit olive cuttings
Variants?Replication R1 R2 R3 R4 Mean
4000pppmIBA+0BAP 6 7 9 8 7,5a
4000ppmIBA+100ppmBAP 49 36 15 18 29,5b
4000ppmIBA+150ppmBAP 38 16 45 30 32,25b
4000ppmIBA+200ppmBAP 16 9 21 11 14,25c
4000ppmIBA+250ppmBAP 25 3 29 2 14,75c
* Separation by Duncans multiple range test,
at P< 0. 05, +Mean of three replications
(a) (b)
Figure-2: Rooted cuttings(50 days after planting; a- (IBA+BAP) b-(IBA)
CONCLUSION
The stimulation of rooting by combination of IBA with BAP reported in this paper is shows that the stem cuttings of
olive var.Kokr rmadhi i Beratit has little or has not at all cytokinins.
To promote root induction of leafy stem cuttings of olive var.Kokrr Madhi i Beratit must used as root induction
hormones the combination of auxins and cytokinins at appropriate concentration
REFERENCES
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Casimiro I, Beeckam T, Graham N, Bhalerao R,Zhang H, Casero P,Sandberg G, and Bennett M: Dissecting
Arabidopsis lateral root development. Trends Plant Sci.(2003),8:165-171
Goodwin P.B and Morris S: Application of phytohormones to pea roots after removal of the apex, effect on lateral
root production. Aust. J. Plant Physiol.(1979), 6: 195200.
Ruzicka K, Simaskova M, Duclercqa J, Petrasek J, Zasimalova E, Simon S, Frimla J, Montagua V, Benkov: E:
Cytokinin regulates root meristem activity via modulation of the polar auxin transport. Procedings of the National
Academy of the United States of America(2009), 106(11): 42844289
Laplaze L, Benkova E, Casimiro I, Maes L, Vanneste S, Swarup R, Weijers D, Calvo V, Parizot B, Herrera-
Rodriguez MB, Offringa R, Graham N, Doumas P, Friml J, Bogusz D, Beeckman T, Bennett M: Cytokinins act
directly on lateral root founder cells to inhibit root initiation. Plant Cell.(2007), 19(12):3889-3900..
Pernisova M, Klima P, Horaka J, Valkova M, Malbec J, Soucek P: Cytokinins modulate auxin-induced
organogenesis in plants via regulation of the auxin efflux. Procedings of the National Academy of the United
(2008),106(9):36093614
Pawlicki N, Welander M: The effects of benzyladenine and gibberellic acid on adventitious root formation in apple
stem discs. Agronomi 1992,12 (10): 783-788
Rama P, Kukali E: Interactionof GibberelicI Acid (GA3) and Naphtalene Acetic Acid on root induction Olea
Europea: Albanian Journal of Agricultural (2010),9 (3): 39-43
Reeves D. W, Couvillon G. A, Horton B. D: Effect of gibberellic acid (GA3) on elongation and rooting of St. Julien
A rootstock in vitro. Scientia Horticulturae 1985,26(3): 253-259
Wightman F, Schneider E.A and Thimann K.V: Effects of exogenous factors on lateral root formation in Pea Roots.
Physiol. Plant (1980), 49: 304314.
PAPER 146
THE ANALYSIS OF METHYLENE BLUE ADSORPTION WITH USING FACTORIAL DESIGN
A. Ceyhan1, E. zbay1*, O. Baytar1, M. Akaslan1

1
Selcuk University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Konya, Turkey, 42031;
Email: eozbayirtibat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In this study, methylene blue adsorptions were investigated statistically by using Aegnus Angustifalia seeds treated
with formaldehyde for color immobilization. Single and multi-factors effects of the pH of solution, time,
temperature, initial concentration of dye and the amount of adsorbents were analyzed with 2 5 factorial designs.
Regression analysis and ANOVA results were obtained by MATLAB. In this two level five factors design the
effects of parameters, the coefficient of model, values of standard deviation, the model equations and the interaction
graphs were yielded. As a result of the study, the parameters affected on methylene blue adsorption were indicated.
Key Words: Factorial design, Anova, Aegnus angustifalia seeds, Methylene blue adsorption
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the basic compounds for living creatures. Water pollution can be defined as mixing up organic,
inorganic, biological and radioactive materials with water. Agricultural activities, industrialization and urbanization
are the main sources of water pollution. Statistics shows us quantity of water used in the industry is higher than other
areas. Mixing the toxic industrial waste to seas, rivers and lakes cause significantly water pollution. In recent years,
developments of new techniques for purification of water studied in order to solve this pollution are increasing
(Yaln, 1995).
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Active carbon is an amorphous material which is widely used in water purification and it has large internal surface
area and pore volume. Active carbon can adsorb molecular from both gas and liquid phase. The surface area, the
dimension of pore distribution and the characteristic of chemical surface play a significant role in determining the
usage area of carbon adsorbent (Benaddi and friends, 2000).
At the beginning of the study, attribute of performance should be determined to produce the conditions for getting
the best results in active carbon adsorption process. The factors affected to this attribute are considered and the
effects of these factors on performance attribute are examined. Then experiments are performed in order to identify
the factor or factors that have the most distinctive impact and to find the optimum combination of factors, also
uncontrollable factors should be taken into consideration. As a result of experiments, the obtained performance
indicator from the experiments are being evaluated and tried to find out optimum conditions (Scheffler, 1997).
Analysis of the experimental design is a technique which is used in process that measuring the effects of
independent factors also known as a reason of change in dependent factor (Soylak, 2000).
Analysis of experimental design plays a significant role in design of processes and products, improvement of the
production processes. By using statistical methods, the minimization of information belongs to parameters that have
effects on optimization problems which are time consuming and high cost is the main purpose of DOE (Rahman,
2003).
In this study in formaldehyde for adsorption of methylene blue which was modified is examined. Determining the
effects of parameters which has effect on process were examined by analysis of experimental design.
MATERIAL and METHOD
At the beginning of the study spindle beans were ground (Retsch SR 300) and classified according to sizes (Retsch,
AS 200). And then spindle beans were stood up in a %1 formaldehyde solution for 24 hours to provide colour
immobilization and to send away water soluble substances. And then spindle beans were separated by filtration and
washed with hot distilled water in order to remove formaldehyde. Washed spindle beans were dried at 80 for
24hours (Saka and Sahin, 2011). 1000 mg.L-1 stock solution was prepared for methylene blue colouring substance
which was used in experiments. Colouring substance solutions on study concentrations were prepared by diluting
this stock solution. pH adjustments were made with using 0,1m NaOH and 0,1m HCI. At the end of the transaction,
concentration of the solution was determined with measuring the wavelength 664nm by UV-Vis spectrophotometer
(Hitachi U-0080D).
To examine the effects of parameters affecting the adsorption of methylene blue, two level five factorial
experimental designs used. The examined parameters are selected as the solution pH, the initial concentration of
methylene blue, time, media temperature and amount of adsorbent. Upper and lower values of these parameters are
given in Table 1.
Table 1: Examined parameters and values

Factor Symbol Subvalue Top value
pH A 2 10
Initial concentration of methylene blue (mg.L-1) B 50 150
Amount of adsorbent (g) C 0,1 0,3
Time (min.) D 10 120
Media temperature (oC) E 30 50
Adsorption capacity of the adsorbent is calculated with using the following equation 1 (Saka and Sahin, 2011).
q e= eq.1
In the equation 1 the term V shows volume of solution (L), the term M shows the amount of adsorbent (g), and the
term qe shows the adsorbent capacity (mg.g-1) of adsorption. Ci and Ce respectively were determined with the
percentage of dye adsorbed. (%R) equation 2 is the initial and equilibrium concentrations of methylene blue dyestuff
(Saka and Sahin, 2011).
R (%) = eq.2
RESULTS
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The optimum conditions for the adsorption of methylene blue dye have been determined and the results are given in
Table 2.
Table 2: The optimum conditions for the adsorption of methylene blue dye
Symbol A B C D E qe %R
Value 10 50 0,3 120 30 29,95 99,7
Analysis of variance was conducted for parameter optimization. As a result of analysis, five factors which were
examined have effects on the experiment (Table 3).
Table 3: Anova Table

Analysis of Variance
Source Sum Sq. d.f Mean Sq. F Prob>F
time 1258.8 1 1258.83 2.73 0.3466
pH 3.7 1 3.73 0.01 0.9429
temperature 9099.6 1 9099.63 19.71 0.141
adsorbent 4980.4 1 4980.41 10.79 0.1881
concentration 2166.4 1 2166.44 4.69 0.2753
time*pH 39.2 1 19.17 0.08 0.8195
time*temperature 168.6 1 168.62 0.37 0.6539
time*adsorbent 18.5 1 18.52 0.04 0.8741
time*concentration 385.1 1 385.07 0.83 0.5288
pH*temperature 480.7 1 480.71 1.04 0.4936
pH*adsorbent 0 1 0.03 0 0.9947
pH*concentration 247.1 1 247.1 0.54 0.5979
temperature*adsorbent 483.1 1 483.12 1.05 0.4928
temperature*concentration 26.1 1 26.05 0.06 0.8515
adsorbent*concentration 218.5 1 218.46 0.47 0.6164
time*pH*temperature 101.1 1 101.1 0.22 0.7213
time*pH*adsorbent 186.7 1 186.72 0.4 0.6394
time*pH*concentration 271.6 1 271.64 0.59 0.5834
time*temperature*adsorbent 1325.2 1 1325.19 2.87 0.3394
time*temperature*concentration 7.4 1 7.45 0.02 0.9196
time*adsorbent*concentration 347 1 346.98 0.75 0.5453
pH*temperature*adsorbent 288 1 288.02 0.62 0.5744
pH*temperature*concentration 1699.7 1 1699.72 3.68 0.3058
pH*adsorbent*adsorbent 143.6 1 143.6 0.31 0.6761
temperature*adsorbent*concentration 664.6 1 664.56 1.44 0.4423
time*pH*temperature*adsorbent 474.6 1 474.59 1.03 0.4956
time*pH*temperature*concentration 194.9 1 194.88 0.42 0.6332
time*pH*adsorbent*concentration 20.5 1 20.47 0.04 0.8679
time*temperature*adsorbent*concentration 1623 1 1623.02 3.52 0.3119
pH*temperature*adsorbent*concentration 70.6 1 70.64 0.15 0.7626
Error 461.6 1 461.62
Total 27456.1 31
CONCLUSIONS
The dual and triple interactions among parameters were examined and it is indicated that there are interactions
among them. It shows that when similar experiments are conducted parameters cannot be selected independent of
each other. In this type of experiments, while selecting parameters they are considered that variance analysis should
be done and the most suitable parameter set should be selected according to interactions of parameters.
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REFERENCES
Scheffler, E., 1997. Statische versychplaning und austwertung, Eine Einfhrung in die Praxis der statistichen
Versuchplanunug, Deutscher Verlog fr Grund staffindustrie Stuttgard, ISBN 3-342-00366-9, 1-50.
Rahman, A., 2003. Supply chain models for an assembly system with preprocessing of raw materials, PhD Thesis,
Louisiana State University
Soylak, M., Kalite gelistirmede deneysel tasarm ve Taguchi yntemi, Erciyes niversitesi yksek lisans tezi,
Kayseri, 2000
Benaddi, H., Bandosz, T. J., Jagiello, J., Schwarz, J. A., Rouzaud, L. N., Legras, D. And Beguin, F., 2000, Surface
functionality and porosity of activated carbons obtained from chemical activation of wood, Carbon, 38, 669-674.
Yaln, Hayri, (1995), Su Teknolojileri, Gazi niversitesi Mhendislik- Mimarlk Yaynlar, Ankara.
Saka, C. and ahin, ., 2011 Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by using cold plasma and
formaldehyde treated onion skins Coloration Technology. 127, 246-255.
PAPER 147
THE CHURCH OF SAINT KOLLI IN SHELCAN, ELBASAN-A SIGNIFICANT EXAMPLE OF THE

POST-BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
Laura Shumka
Faculty of Forestry Sciences, Agricultural university of Tirana, Albania
Email: microprespa@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this paper we are presenting the detailed description of the architecture, state and conservation demands of the
Church Saint Kolli in village Shelcan of Elbasan. The church itself represents a spectacular example of the Post-
Byzantine architecture. Following the specific typology, particularly longitudinal basilica the church is reflecting
some similarities with other constructions in different parts of the south east Albania. The long time existence and
influence of the weathering conditions. We are highlighting the demands for undertaking the conservation actions in
order to prevent the destruction of valuable cultural elements for the wider area of Elbasan District.
Keywords: Post-Byzantine, Saint Kolli, Elbasan, conservation, architecture
INTRODUCTION
The first examples of this typology (longitudinal basilica) were found on Albanian territory in the area of Sarande
(at the beginning of the XVI century) and in Berat (1526), followed subsequently by the Churches of Saint Kollit in
Kurjan of Fieri (1570) and Saint Todrits Church in S. Todrit and Saint Denises of Vllahernes Church in the Kalaja
of Berati (1578). Further to that in the parallel to these figures some examples of the domed basilica were
constructed, especially in the area of Gjirokaster (Meksi, 1974 and Meksi, 1979).
Against the backdrop of these events the construction of two important Christian churches, the Shn Koll in Shelcan
and the Shn Premt in Valesh, was carried out in 1554. These are two significant examples of post-Byzantine
architecture that were made precious by the extraordinary
artistic participation of the painter Onufri18, who frescoed the insides. The two buildings are modest in size and fall
into the typology of one-aisle basilicaI structures with a wooden apse and covering.
They are in full compliance with the constructive principals of Byzantine architecture. This is the case even though
they are reorganized according to a freer interpretation of models and shapes which should be analyzed within the
context of the limited economic possibilities of the setting in which they were built. On the other hand the internal
decorative display is abundant. It surpasses the Byzantine stereotypes and engineers a real and actual revolution
within the Albanian cultural sphere.
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MATERIAL AND METHOD
The methodological approach is in line with the treatment of churches by space plane conception that is quite
valuable in case after receiving also good indications for the doors and windows as its functional elements of the
interiors. The comparative analyses are based on literature review.
The field visits and literature review are also followed by the documentations by photographing and plan sketches.
RESULTS
The Church of Saint Koll in Shelcan, which was built in 1554 incorporating the pre-existing XIVcentury structures,
constitutes one of the first examples of the basilical typology in post-Byzantine Albanian architecture. The pictorial
frescoed decoration inside the church evolves over different levels and bears the signature of Onufri, perhaps the
most important Albanian painter of the XVI century. In Albania, in Shelcan in fact, the first fresco painting of the
iconostasis wall plan was realized by Onufri. The wall iconostasis displays a superior, uninterrupted, crowning
achievement evolving across its entire width in which Jesus and the twelve apostles are represented in half bust.
The growing role of the Christian community in Elbasan was manifested by the construction of
the Church of Saint Mary of the Dormition inside the kal. It was built in the central area to the north of the Royal
Route, almost pendantly to the not so distant mosque. The first post-Byzantine churches, which were built far from
the city, are basilical models. The Church of Saint Mary of the Dormition, in its present configuration which is the
result of the 19th century reconstruction, is laid out in a longitudinal basilica form covered by domes and vaults, as
well as flanked by porticos on two sides.
This church is remembered as building operating between 1656 and 166122. The actual church of the Dormizione of
Saint Mary that was reconstructed during 1826-33 represents from the architectural point of view, a particularly
interesting example of the Post-Byzantine architecture. But the merits of this building are not immediately
perceivable: it is inserted in the urban layout adapting itself to the closed fronts of the Ottoman residences, timidly
leans out on the road with a rustic stone wall only pierced by some opening, hiding so its true architectural shape
and not disclosing the beauty and the internal articulation with any sign. Also manifesting the identity of the entire
architectural solution (expressed for instance in the porticos, in the supporting roofing of the inside spaces and in the
architectural and artistic decoration), the building clearly presents connections with the eighteenth-century basilicas
of Gjirokaster, Berat and Korca and especially Voskopoje, where the basilicas represent the most meaningful
realizations in the area. It singles out for their dimensions, for the spherical calotte and the artistic decorations.
Figure 1. The Church of St. Koll in Shelcan (Elbasan) and the schemes of church
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Considering the classification commonly used by the researchers of Post-Byzantine architecture which is found on
the plans and on the spatial compositions, we can list the church of Elbasan under the group of the longitudinal
basilicas covered by hemispherical domes and other shapes of vaulted roofs. As a whole, the architecture is
characterized by the simplicity to the outside and the generous use of vaulted structures to the inside: a prismatic
volume, standing out on two sides by the porticos, completely hides the complex articulation of the internal space,
unifying the spaces that compose the parts of the chamber, of the narthex, of the altar area under a single roof.
Typically for the Post-Byzantine architecture the attention is focused on the treatment of the internal space that are
characterized here by a high artistic level. The true shapes and dimensions
are perceived only inside and the generosity of the bent structures and the to show off of the architectural, pictorial
and sculptural decorations. A harmony of the whole is obtained thanks to the application of similar decorative
patterns for the architectural and ornamental parts. The internal space is conceived as an internal world that plays
with the shapes and colors. Symbolic values play a special role in the distribution of space. In short we are in the
presence of a place which represents the eternal Civitas Dei where high-level of Post-Byzantine architectural
manufactured articles joins the preciousness of sculptural and pictorial items.
The longitudinal types of basilicas covered by domes and vaulted roofs was also supposed to be applied in another
church in Elbasan, the Shen Kollit Church. Its original shape, which we only know from a 1942 pictorial depiction,
was recently replaced by a structure that is completely different. Other churches in the city are also buildings from
the last century. The Orthodox Church of St. Thanas, built after 1912, in brick and inside the area of the cemeteries
complex on the spot of the altar of that same Saint, reveals a neo-Byzantine, Greek-type eclecticism. However the
Byzantine Catholic Church of Saint Peter, built during the first decades of the 20th century, freely and with a
modern feel interprets the styles of the Catholic churches, inspired mainly by elements that are characteristic of the
medieval period.
Figure 2. The Church of St. Koll plant, sections
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion following the individuality of architectural solutions, in its configuration of the arcades, the
supporting coverings of the inside space, and in its architectural and artistic decoration, the Church of Saint Mary of
the Dormition constitutes an especially interesting example.
REFERENCES
Dhamo, Dh. 1974: Piktura murale e mesjets n Shqipri, Tirana, p. 14;

Kosta, C., Cikopano,U. 1974: Basilica e Tepes n Elbasan, in Monument, 18, p. 157;
Meksi,A. 1974: Arkitektura palokristiane n Shqipri, in Monument 2, 1985, pp. 13-44;
Meksi,A. 1979: Disa Kapela Bizantine t vendit ton, in Monument, 10, p.83;
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Meksi, A., Ceka, N. 1971: Basilica e Tepes, Buletini Archeologjik, pp. 184-190;
Nallbani, H. 1977: T dhna t reja pr veprimtarin e piktor Onufri t prftuga gjate restaurinit, in Monument,
13, pp. 85-91;
PAPER 148
HE EFFECTS OF FISH DISEASE AND PARTICULARLY SPRING VIREMIA OF CARP ON

COMMERCIAL FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE IN ALBANIA
Enkeleda Berberi
Agriculture University of Tirana, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food, Albania
Email: berberi_enkeleda@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
It has been recognized that the Spring viremia of carp (SVC) is an acute systemic viral infection caused by
Rhabdovirus carpio (RVC) virus. The disease was known as infections dropsy of carp till the isolation of the virus
from common carp. There is no studies relation the damages that caused fish disease in general Spring viremia of
carp. The principal purpose of this paper is to highlight the effects of the disease on the freshwater aquaculture and
quantify the damage to the local producers economy. Following various data the commercial freshwater
aquaculture in Albania started at the end of sixties. Warm water freshwater species (originally based on common
carp, to which Chinese carps were introduced at the beginning of seventies) represent the major aquaculture
production in our country. Cold water salmonides, principally Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo letnica are another
important group for aquaculture production in Albania. In the last period of two decades, because of economical and
political changes the production in general declined, while in the last years there is a revitalization trend. Until 1990
the fish farming areas has reached to a total surface area of 215 ha, the production of fingerlings for restocking
purpose arrived at more than 32 millions fingerlings of about 8 - 10 g, each. On the other hand, part of these
fingerlings was used as stocking material in the fattening ponds of the semi-intensive fish farming. There were about
200 ha in, all fattening ponds and the average yield was 2 - 2.5 ton/ ha with a maximum of 5 ton/ha. In 2001, the
carp production was 15 t fish and 5 million fingerlings. Following our analyses in several fish ponds in Elbasan,
Korca, Fier and Shkodra, there is also in between 10-20% of the production that affects local incomes and threaten
the health security of fish systems itself and human population as well.
Key words: Spring Carp Viremia, common carp, fish farming, stocking, disease
INTRODUCTION
Our study was mainly focus on the effect of viral disease and especially the role SVC in aquaculture. During spring
2013 we have visited mainly carp ( or other cyprinid ) aquaculture systems in different region of Albania. So we
have visited fish pond in Elbasan, Shkodra, Fier etc which also have an historical background in aquaculture. Based
on this historical background, FAO date on Fishery and aquaculture in Albania and mainly on what we observed and
samples that we collect we conclude that the total mass of fish infected was approximately 10-20 %. The mortality
rate can reach up to 60% of the infected carp. Our result about the rate of viral infected fish and rate of mortality in a
aquaculture systems match with the date of the literature.
Albania has a long tradition in carp farming and now-days its the most widespread aquaculture practice. According
to FAO Fishery Statistics before 1990 the surface area of fish farming center all over the country was nearly 800 ha
and also the production of fingerlings was more than 32 million fingerlings about 8-10 g each. Furthermore part of
these fingerlings was used as stocking material in the fattening ponds of the semi-intensive fish farming. There were
about 200 ha in, all fattening ponds and the average yield was 2 - 2.5 ton/ ha with a maximum of 5 ton/ha. In 2001,
the carp production was 15 t fish and 5 million fingerlings.
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MATERIAL AND METHODS
Mortality caused by SVC in juvenile carp can reach up to 70% during spring outbreaks. It has been reported that the
disease has a significant impact on yearling carp in Europe, with estimated losses of 1015% for 1-year-old carp,
equivalent to approximately 4,000 metric tons annually (Ahne et al., 2002).
During our work which includes the period spring summer 2013 we have visited different water bodies including
those of aquaculture. Most of the systems are populated by polycultures with domination of common carp, grass
carp and Chinese carp. The site visits and documentation was based on the interviews and observation after
indications for the presence of SVC.
The method was followed with detailed review of historical data in the Albanian fishery and aquaculture, National
action plan for the fishery and aquaculture and FAO reports published periodically for the different countries. The
analyses were primarily focused in several fish ponds in Elbasan, Korca, Fier and Shkodra. We collected samples
from these ponds which mainly consist in Cyprinus carpio species. We observed symptoms like hemorrhages of the
gills and skin, internal hemorrhages of swim bladder wall etc.
RESULTS
Spring viremia of carp (SVC) is an acute systemic and contagious disease affecting cyprinids (Bootsma and Ebregt,
1983; Wolf, 1988; Ahne et al., 2002 and Saad 2005 ), mainly common carp Cyprinus carpio. It is an important
disease because it has a high rate of mortality in affected carp and also for its world-wide distribution. Outbreaks of
the disease are observed during spring and autumn when the temperature of the water is approximately 15-210C. The
disease of SVC was firstly discovered in Yugoslavia 1969 (Fijan et al., 1971), then Czechoslovakia (Tesarcik et al.,
1977), Scotland (Richards and Buchanon, 1978), Malaysia (Armstrong and Ferguson, 1989), Spain (Lupiani et al.,
1989), Indonesia (Glazebrook et al., 1990), Russia (Oreshkova et al., 1995), Brazil (Alexandrino et al., 1998),
Hawaii (Johnson et al.,1999), Northern Ireland (Rowley et al., 2001), United States in North Carolina and Virginia
(APHIS, 2003), China (Liu et al., 2004), Egypt (Saad et al., 2005), Canada (Garver et al., 2007) and Iran (Haghighi
et al., 2008). Affected fish with Rhabdovirus show anatomical and physiological symptoms such as the destruction
of tissues in different organs mainly in kidney, spleen and liver which lead to hemorrhage and loss of water-salt
balance. Furthermore not only carp but even other members of cyprinid family and non cyprinid species are also
affected including Koi carp (Cyprinus carpio koi), Bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella), Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Sheatfish, (Silurus glanis), Orfe (Leuciscus
idus), Tench (Tinca tinca) and Roach (Rutilus rutilus) as stated by Haenen & Davidse (1993), and Oreochromis
niloticus (Abo, E 2008). SVCV causes a high mortalities among carp especially among young carp leading in this
way to a severe economic losses (Richenbach-Klinke, 1973; Oreshkova et al.,1995; Bjrklund et al., 1996; Siwicki
et al., 2003) in countries where aquaculture is an important factor in the economy. The graph below shows total
aquaculture production in Albania according to FAO statistics:
Figure 1: Reported aquaculture in Albania ( from 1950 ) according to FAO Fishery Statistics, Aquaculture
Production
During spring outbreaks when the temperature of the water is between 15-210C the total mass affected in these carp
farms was approximately 10-20 % of the production, that affects local incomes and threaten the health security of
fish systems itself. The mortality rates of affected carp can reach up to 60 %. In affected carp, as showed below
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(Figure 2), in general we can see similar symptoms such as destruction of liver and kidney tissue, swimming blander
tissue, hemorrhage, etc.
Figure 2: Clinical signs of SVC in Cyprinus carpio (sample taken from a carp pond in Shkodra )
The high rates of mortality lead to severe economic losses in aquaculture in Albania.
CONCLUSSION
SVC is a severe viral disease affecting member of cyprinid family mainly Cyprinus carpio . SVCV (spring viremia
of carp virus) has a high rate of mortality among fishes in aquaculture system. The rate of mortality can reach up to
60 % during spring when the temperature of the water in pond is 15-21oC. Causing in this way a great lost in
aquaculture system and a great economic lost especially for countries like Albania where fish farming is a very
widespread aquaculture practice. And for this reason when we have suspicion or we have diagnosed SVC in a pond
it is very important to report the disease to the state authorities. If SVCV is detected in a pond one of the things to do
is to destroy all forms of aquatics life because it is very difficult to eradicate the virus once established in a pond.
But to prevent a viral infection in aquaculture good bio-security and sanitation are very important. Bio-security
means that new fish stock for aquaculture should came from a secure source free of SVCV. Also it is necessary to
maintain a good sanitation of a fish pond which means that we should disinfect the pond, the equipment etc. The
chemical agent used to inactivate SVCV are NaOH (2% for 10 minutes), Benzalkonium chloride 100 mg/L for 20
minutes, Hydrogen peroxide 3 to 5% for 5 minutes, pH >10 for 15 minutes etc. Vaccines for SVCV are not yet
available but also its important to emphasize that there is no indication that SVC is a life threat to human population
REFERENCES
Abo, E., (2007): Some studies on the Spring Viremia of Carp in cultured freshwater fish. M.V.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine,Alexandria University.
Ahne, W., Bjrklund, H.V., Essbauer, S.,Fijan, N., Kurath, G., Winton, J.R., (2002):Spring viraemia of carp (SVC).
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 52:261-272.
Alexandrino, A.C., Ranzani-Paiva, M.J.T. and Romano, L.A. (1998): Identificacion de Viraemia primaveral de la
carpa (VPC) Carrassius auratus en San Pablo, Revista Ceres (Brasil).45:125-137.
APHIS, (2003): USA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Report. Washington, March 25, 2003.
Armstrong, R.D. and Ferguson, H.W. (1989): Systemic viral disease of the orange chromide cichlid Etropus
maculatus. Diseases of AquaticOrganisms. 7:155-157.
Bjrklund, H.V., Higman, K.H. and Kurath, G. (1996): The glycoprotein genes and gene junctions of the fish
rhadoviruses Spring Viraemia of Carp virus and Hirame rhabdovirus: analysis of relationships with other
rhabdoviruses. Virus Research. 42:65-80.
Bootsma, R. and Ebregt, D. (1983): Spring Viraemia of Carp. In: Anderson, D.P., Dorson, M. and Dubourget, P.
(eds) Antigens of Fish Pathogens. Collection Fondation Marcel Merieux, Lyons, France, pp. 81-86.
Fijan, N., Petrinec, Z., Sulimanovic, D. and Zwillenberg, L.O. (1971): Isolation of the viral causative agent from
the acute form of infectious dropsy of carp. Veterinarski Arhiv 41, 125-138.
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Garver, K.A., Dwilow,A.G., Richard, J., Booth, T.F., Beniac, D.R., and Souter, B.W., (2007): First detection and
confirmation of Spring Viraemia of Carp virus in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., from Hamilton Harbour, Lake
Ontario, Canada. Journal of Fish Diseases. 30:665-671.
Glazebrook, J.S., Heasmann, M.P. and DeBeer, S.M. (1990): Picorna like viral particles associated with mass
mortalities in larval barramundi, Lates calcarifer block. Journal of Fish Diseases. 12:245-249.
Haghighi, A., Asl, K., Bandehpour, M., Sharifnia, Z. and Kazemi, B. (2008): The First Report of Spring Viraemia of
Carp in Some Rainbow Trout Propagation and Breeding by Pathology and Molecular Techniques in Iran. Asian
Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 3(4):263-268.
Haenen, O.L.M. and Davidse, A. (1993):Comparative pathogenicity of two strains of pikefry rhabdovirus and
Spring Viraemia of Carpvirus for young roach, common carp, grass carp and rainbow trout. Diseases of
AquaticOrganisms. 15:87-92.
Johnson, M.C., Maxwell, J.M., Loh, P.C. and Leong, J.A. (1999): Molecular characterization of the lycoproteins
from two warm water rhabdoviruses: snakehead rhabdovirus (SHRV) and rhabdovirus of penaeid shrimp (RPS)/
Spring Viraemia of Carp virus (SVCV). Virus Research. 64(2):95-106.
Liu, H. , L. Gao, X. Shi, T. Gu, Y. Jiang, H. Chen (2004): Isolation of Spring Viraemia of Carp virus (SVCV) from
cultured koi (Cyprinus carpio koi) and common carp (C. carpio carpio) in P.R.China. Bulletin of European
Association of Fish Pathologists, 24(4): 194.
Lupiani, B., Dopazo, C.B., Ledo, A., Fouz, B., Barja, J.L., Hetrick, F.M. and Toranzo, A.E. (1989): New syndrome
of mixed bacterial and viral etiology in cultured turbot Scopthamus maximus. Journal of Aquatic Animal
Health.1:197-204.
Oreshkova, S.F., Tikunova, N.V., Shchelkunov, I.S. and Ilyichev, A.A. (1995): Detection of Spring Viraemia of
Carp virus by hybridization with biotinylated DNA probes. Veterinary Research. 26:533-537.
Richards and Buchanon. (1978): Studies on Herpesvirus scophthalmi infection of turbot scophthalmus maximus (L):
Histopathological observation. Journal of Fish Diseases.1:251-258.
Rowley, H., Graham, D.A., Campbell, S., Way, K., Stone, D.M., Curran, W.L. and Bryson, D.G. (2001): Isolation
and characterization of rhabdovirus from wild common bream Abramis brama, roach Rutilus, farmed brown trout
salmo trutta and rainbow trout Onchorhynchus mykiss in Northern Ireland. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms.48 (1):7-
15.
Saad, T.T., (2005): Some Studies on the effects of Spring Viraemia of Carp Virus on cultured Life Science Journal,
2011;8(
Tesarck, J., Macura, B., Dedek, L., Valcek, D. and Smd, B. (1977): Isolation and electron microscopy of
rhabdovirus from the acute form of infectious dropsy of carp (Spring Viraemia of Carp). Zentralblatt fr
Veterinrmedizin (B) 24, 340343.
Wolf, K. (1988): Fish Viruses and Fish Viral Diseases. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
PAPER 149
HEAT WAVES AFFECTING WEATHER AND CLIMATE OVER ALBANIA
Tanja Porja
Meteoalb, Rr. Asim Vokshi, P. 33, Shk.2, Tirana, Albania
Email: tanjaporja@meteoalb.com
ABSTRACT
Many scientists investigate climate changes and try to predict changes up to several years or decades and the best
predictions considerate hindsight analyses and can be assessed on them. Good results are taken for changes on
annual mean air temperatures or rainfall meanwhile not enough studies were done about the past and present events
of extreme weather. In order to improve the future prediction, a better understanding of extreme weather is needed.
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It can be done by studying recent events and compare them with similar past events. Generally, extreme weather
includes severe or weather at the extremes of their historical distribution. The most used extreme weather definition
is based on extreme weather events distribution where extreme events occur at 5% or less of the time. During the
last decades, extreme weather often faced Albania and many countries. A less known of extreme weather is the heat
wave phenomena and analyses of it were done in this study over two important Albanian cities. As a first step,
periods of heat waves were distinguished from the daily temperature records and then analyses of atmospheric
patterns associated were done to point out the shapes of air circulation which bring hot and moist air toward
Albania. Then, analyses and comparison of atmospheric patterns were done for the days when air temperatures
exceed historical records and the results will be used as an attempt for extreme temperature prediction in the short
range forecasting.
Keywords: heat wave, extreme air temperature, atmospheric pattern.
INTRODUCTION
As part of Mediterranean area, Albania has a typical Mediterranean climate with soft and wet winters and hot and
dry summers. The annual mean of rainfall over Albanian territory stays around 1480 mm/year but the rainfall space
distribution shows a high variability from one area to another. The areas with the annual rainfall minimum are
located at the southeast of Albania while the abundant rainfall areas during are located on the Albanian Alps, where
the annual mean of rainfall reaches up to 3000 mm. The precipitations are mainly present during the cold period of
October - March (about 70%) with the richest rainfall month of November. In terms of air temperature, annual mean
air temperatures range from 7 C in mountain areas up to 15 C in the coast. The annual mean of maximum and
minimum temperatures ranges from 11.3C and -0.1C in the mountain areas up to 21.8C and 14.6C in the coastal
and lowland areas. After this normal climate picture, stays the picture of extreme weather events that deviate from
the above climatic features. This study is focused on the analysis of daily maximum temperatures during the hot
season, which very often have exceeded their normal values compared with daily maximum temperatures of the
normal climatic period (1961 1990). Detailed analyses were done for the episodes of several consecutive days
where the daily maximum temperature has exceeded with some degrees from the normal maximum temperature. In
other words, episodes with high temperatures are studied as a consequence of "heat waves" phenomenon. The aim of
this study is to obtain some statistical results about the heat wave episodes over Albania and the atmospheric
patterns associated to these episodes in order to attempt for the extreme high air temperature prediction.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The data used consist on daily maximum air temperatures during the period of 1982 2012 observed for Shkodra
and Tirana locations. Also, the monthly mean maximum temperatures for the period of normal climate (1961 -
1990) are used to estimate the anomaly of daily maximum temperatures observed for the period under the study in
order to select the days affected by the heat wave phenomenon. The heat wave phenomenon is a less known
form of severe weather because it is not visible as other forms are like hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms
Sheridan (2002). The precise criterion for a heat wave is determined by the number of consecutive days with high
air temperatures, by the rate at which the temperature rises but both of criteria depend on the geographical region
and time of year Robinson (2001). But there is no universal definition of a heat wave because of the variation
within temperature values is different geographic locations. In some areas, a heat wave can be an extended period of
days with higher than normal temperatures or also a shorter period but with abnormally high temperatures. In
the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg a heat wave is defined as a period of at least 5 consecutive days with
maximum temperatures over than 25 C (recorded in De Bilt town) provided that on at least 3 days within this
period, the maximum temperature in De Bilt exceeds 30 C Huynen et al. (2001). In Denmark, a heat wave is
defined as a period of at least 3 consecutive days with average maximum temperature across more than fifty percent
of the country, exceeds 28 C while in Sweden, a heat wave is defined as at least 5 days in a row with a daily high
exceeding 25 C. In the US, definitions also vary by region to another but however, a heat wave is usually defined
as a period of at least two or more days of excessively hot weather Frich et al. (2002). In this study, the criterion
used for the heat wave phenomenon is the one recommended by World Meteorological Organization that says
the phenomenon happens when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds by 5C
the average maximum temperature of the normal climate period. After the heat wave affected days are selected,
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analyses of the air mass circulation are done in order to found details and indices of the phenomena. The air mass
analyses are based on the shape of geopotential fields of 500 hPa level because this field shows the origin of air
masses flowing toward an area. Many studies are done by different authors who relate the shape of atmospheric
patterns of 500 hPa fields with the thermal picture Garcia et al. (2002). Nasrallah et al. (2004) examined circulation
patterns associated with heat waves in Kuwait, changes in regional circulation, specifically related to the
northward displacement of the Subtropical Jet Stream and a build up of a ridge of high pressure at the 500 hPa
levels, and were determined to be key factors. In addition, study of the temperature series of the Czech Republic
from Kysely at al. (2003), determined that heat waves that peaked in the 1940s to early 1950s and early 1990s,
were strongly linked to particular synoptic regimes, specifically with a ridge over Europe in the summer season. To
point out the shape of atmospheric patterns of each heat wave episode, the averaged geopotential fields of 500 hPa
level are analysed for each episode. The 500 hPa field are plotted from NCEP/NCAR re-analyses archive, for the
domain between 30N 60N and 15W 35E in order to considerate a major part of the western Mediterranean air
circulation, as it is responsible for at least 70 % of meteorological activity over Albania Porja (2011). The
NCEP/NCAR re-analyses are available four times in 24 hours whereas the averaged field of each episode depends
on the duration of the heat wave days. Averaged fields are good representatives of each single day air circulation
because of some known atmospheric patterns that maintain their shape for many consecutive days Kalnay at al.
(1996). The atmospheric patterns are then classified on southern and south-western origin depending on the
orientation of their symmetrical axis regarding to the Albanian territory location.
RESULTS
During the period 1982 2012, sixty-one heat wave episodes were identified in both Shkodra and Tirana cities
that imply a roughly average of 2 episodes per year and 569 days under the heat wave conditions during this
period (see Table 1).
Tab. 1. Phenomenon of heat wave over Albania, during period of 1982 2012
No. of HW events/month No. of HW days/month

Month Tira Shkod Tira Shkod
na ra na ra
May 5 6 53 49
June 10 12 93 126
July 3 6 25 52
August 6 13 42 129
Total 24 37 213 356
As it can be seen from Table 1 the heat wave phenomenon occurs mainly in June and August and consequently,
the highest number of heat wave days belongs to these months. For each heat wave episode, there are more than
five consecutive days with a daily maximum temperature that exceeds by more than 5C the average maximum
temperature of the normal climate period and many of the episodes, counter from 10 up to 15 or 16 days under the
heat wave conditions. Analyses of the phenomenon distribution during the thirty-one years period show that the
second half-period (after the 1996) is the richest period of heat wave phenomenon with 74% of the total cases. A
fact that shows the phenomenon became more frequent during the two last decades over the Albanian territory (see
figure 1).
Fig. 1. The sixty-one heat wave episodes recorded over Albania, during 1982 2012.
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If we analyse details of the phenomenon distribution for Tirana and Shkodra locations, during the study period, it is
a clear the same trend for both of cities, besides the fact that Shkodra in total counters more episodes (37 episodes)
than Tirana city (24 episodes).
To define the relationship between the air circulation patterns which bring hot and moist air and the heat wave
phenomenon over Albania, the averaged geopotential fields of 500 hPa level are analysed for each episode taking
into account the duration of the heat wave days. After the analyses, result two types of atmospheric patterns
associated with the sixty-one heat wave episodes observed over Albania (see figure 2).
Fig. 2. Types of atmospheric patterns associated with the heat wave episodes over Albania
The heat wave episodes over Albania, observed for the period of 1982 2012 are driven by the presence of ridges
of high pressure at the 500 hPa levels, a specific shape of air circulation that brings stable conditions over the
located area. A southern origin air circulation and a south-western were found to be linked to the heat wave
episodes observed (see Table 2).
Tab. 2. Types of atmospheric patterns associated with the sixty-one heat wave episodes
Type of Air Circulation Southern Type South-western Type

Tirana 33 % 67 %
Shkodra 46 % 54 %
Tirana & Shkodra 41 % 59 %
Following the Table 2, during the days of heat wave over Tirana, the most part of episodes are driven by a south-
western shape of the air circulation (67% of the total episodes). It means that the impact of a south-western pattern
on daily maximum air temperatures for Tirana is clearly bigger than the impact of a southern pattern because the air
masses trajectory over ground surfaces is larger than over sea surfaces. Air masses flowing over sea surfaces take
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water vapour that may increase the air humidity and consequently may decrease the air temperatures. Meanwhile for
Shkodra, the type of atmospheric patterns associated to the heat wave episodes play more or less the same role. A
fact that can be explained by the Shkodra position more in the north that leaves the city in many cases on the
periphery of the heat wave, especially heat wave driven by south-western atmospheric patterns. Looking for a
relation of atmospheric pattern type and the number of days under the heat wave conditions, results that majority
of days with extreme high air temperatures belongs to the south-western type of air circulation for both Tirana and
Shkodra (see Table 3).
Tab. 3. Number of days under heat wave condition in relation to the type of air circulation
Type of Air Circulation Southern Type South-western Type

Tirana (213 days) 28 % 72 %
Shkodra (356 days) 43 % 57 %
Tirana & Shkodra (569 days) 37% 63%
Going deeper into the analyses of atmospheric patterns associated with the heat wave phenomenon results that
extreme values of air temperatures for both Tirana and Shkodra location (respectively on 24 July of 2007, 41.6C
and on 7 August 2012, 42.4C) are observed when there is a presence of a south-western air circulation pattern (see
the Figure1, the right panel). The above extreme high temperatures became the historical records for both of the
cities because they exceeded the former record of 41.5C (on 18 July of 1973 recorded for Tirana and on 3 August
of 1981 recorded for Shkodra).
Comparing the difference between the daily maximum temperature during the phenomenon and the respective
average maximum temperature of the normal climate period, results that Tirana city registered on 25 June of 2007, a
daily maximum air temperature of 39.9C that is 12.6C over the average maximum temperature of the normal
climate period. Meanwhile Shkodra city registered on 7 August of 2012, a daily maximum air temperature of
42.4C that is 12.4C over the average maximum temperature of the normal climate period. The difference on
maximum air temperatures for both cities is clearly very high, more than twice of the difference needed to consider
the episode as a heat wave phenomenon. As a consequence, the south-western air circulation can be considered as
an atmospheric pattern that brings extreme high air temperatures over Tirana and Shkodra.
CONCLUSIONS
During a thirty-one years period, sixty-one heat wave episodes were identified in both Shkodra and Tirana cities,
around 2 episodes per year that counter 569 days under the heat wave conditions.
The heat wave distribution shows that heat wave phenomenon became more frequent during the last two
decades, with 74% of the total episodes, recorded after the year 1996.
The heat wave episodes over Albania are driven by a southern and a south-western shape of the air circulation.
The most part of the heat wave episodes and the highest number of days under the heat wave conditions over
Tirana and Shkodra are associated with a south-western type of atmospheric pattern.
Extremely high air temperatures, exceeding the historical records for both Tirana and Shkodra are reached when
there is a heat wave driven by a south-western air circulation pattern.
The presence of a south-western air circulation shape can be related to the extreme high air temperatures and may be
used as a tool to improve the forecasting of extremely high air temperatures.
REFERENCES
Frich, P., Alexander, L.V., Della-Marta, P., Gleason, B., Haylock, M., Tank, A.M.G.K. and Peterson, T. 2002:
Observed coherent changes in climatic extremes during the second half of the twentieth century. Climate Research
19, 193212.
Garcia et al. (2002) Garcia, R., Prieto, L., Diaz, J., Hernandez, E. and Del Teso, T. 2002: Synoptic conditions
leading to extremely high temperatures in Madrid. Annales Geophysicae 20, 23745.
Huynen, M., Martens, P., Schram, D., Weijenberg, M.P. and Kunst, A.E. 2001: The impact of heat waves and cold
spells on mortality rates in the Dutch population. Environmental Health Perspectives 109, 46370.
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Islami. B., Kamberi. M., Bruci. E., Fida. E., Karadumi. S., Bekteshi. P., Jana. A., Diku. A., Mulaj. T., Mucaj. L.,
Mustaqi. V., Ndini. M., Lako. Th., Laci, S., pendl. R., Zheku. O.: Komunikimi i Dyt Kombtar i Republiks s
Shqipris Drejtuar Konvents Kuadr t Kombeve t Bashkuara mbi Ndryshimet Klimatike, Tiran, Nntor 2009.
Kalnay. E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G.,
Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Leetmaa, A., Reynolds, R., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K. C.,
Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Jenne, R and Joseph, D.: The NCEPNCAR 40-year Reanalysis project, Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society, 437471, 1996.
Kysely, J. 2003: Temporal fluctuations in heat waves at Prague-Klementinum, the Czech Republic, from 190197,
and their relationships to atmospheric circulation. International Journal of Climatology 22, 3350.
Nasrallah, H.A., Nieplova, E. and Ramadan, E. 2004: Warm season extreme temperature events in Kuwait. Journal
of Arid Environments 56, 35771.
Porja. T., Mustaqi. V.: Atmospheric Patterns and Predicting Heavy Rainfall in Albania: AJNTS, Albanian Journal of
Natural & Technical Sciences; 2011, Vol. 30 Issue 1, p23.
Robinson, P.J. 2001: On the definition of heat waves. Journal of Applied Meteorology 40,76275.
Sheridan, S. 2002: The redevelopment of a weather type classification scheme for North America. International
Journal of Climatology 22, 5168.
PAPER 153
DOES THE TROPHY STATE OF POLLUTED AREAS HAVE IMPACT ON THE PRESENCE OF
PICOPHYTOPLANKTON SPS ? CASE STUDY IN MARINE COASTAL WATERS OF DURRES BAY,
ALBANIA
Ariola Bacu, Laura Gjyli, Fatbardha Babani
University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biotechnology
ABSTRACT
The aim of the study was the use of molecular tools for the determination of the presence of picophytoplankton
species, and the evaluation of their distribution in Bay of Durres, were sampling stations represent hot spots of
different origins of pollution, like urban waste waters, portual residues, fuels, etc. The cyanobacteria Synechococcus
and Prochlorococcus are two genera of photosynthetic prokaryotes evolving oxygen as a major component of
oceanic ecosystems. These organisms form phototrophic picoplankton (<3m). The presence of marine
Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus in the Mediterranean coastal waters of Durres, Albania was examined through
PCR amplified intergenic transcribed spacer (ITS) fragments. The sample stations were: Golem Beach, Channel of
Plepa, Hekurudha Beach, Ex-Fuel Quay in Marine Durres Harbour. Two more samples were taken outside Durres
Bay respectively at the Channel of Durres City Waters and Currila Beach. The distribution and ecology of
Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus were studied in relation to biotic and abiotic water factors. Total Chlorophyll a
(Chl a) (biotic factor) was used to classify the stations as oligotrophic, mesotrophic and/or eutrophic. Abiotic factors
as temperature, pH, phosphorous were used to explain the variability of the presence of marine cyanobacteria
populations in the waters of Bay of Durrs.
Key words: Prochlorococcus, Synechococcus, Durrs Bay,16-23S rDNA internal transcribed spacer, biotic and
abiotic water factors.
INTRODUCTION
According to Lavin et al, 2008, in marine ecosystems, environmental clines exist in temperature, light intensity,
spectral composition, and nutrient availability that can affect the distribution, composition and diversity of
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organisms. Prochlorococcus and Syneccococus, the unicellular cyanobacteria, have ecotypes, which have
identifiable geographic ranges (Fuller et al., 2003). According to Lavin et al, 2008, they cooccur in many
oceanographic regions, but Synechococcus tolerates a broader temperature range, it has a broader latitudinal
distribution and usually is limited to shallower depths (less than 100 m). Along trophic gradients, Prochlococcus
abundance shows opposite patterns to Synechococcus abundance, becoming a less important component of the
carbon standing stock from oligo - to eutrophic conditions. The waters of the Bay of Durrs at chosen sampling
stations belong to this range of the level of trophy, and knowing that a lower salinity and higher temperatures
increase the abundance of Synechococcus (Ning et al. 2000), we believe that Synechococcus must dominate
Prochlorococcus in these area waters. Considering the fact that Prochlorococcus are about 0,6m and
Synechococcus 1-2 m (Partensky et al. 1999), the filtering of the sea water was conducted in filters with porosity
0,7 m in order to separate the two species, and presumably catch only the Synechococcus. The amplification of the
16-23S rDNA gene sequence was chosen to identify the presence of Synechococcus.
Considering the above, we aimed testing the presence of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus in the waters of Bay
of Durres, Albania were sampling stations represent hot spots of different origins of pollution, like urban waste
waters, portual residues, fuels, etc., which display an increased level of trophy. In order to explain the results, the
trophic state of the stations was evaluated based on physical and biological parameters. Chlorophyll a, total
phosphorus, total nitrogen and water clarity are generally used as indicators to measure biological productivity of
the water bodies or their capacity to support life. It is already reported a direct relationship between phosphorus
concentrations, chlorophyll a (algal biomass), and clarity of the waters because, phosphorus drives algal growth,
which then affects water clarity. Among the widely used parameters for the study of the trophic state and for a better
understanding of its dynamics, are also the temperature and pH of the waters. Usually the higher the temperatures
and pH values, the higher the level of trophy. In this paper, the phytoplankton nucleic acid content was also used as
an indicator of the level of trophy. According to Marcel J. W. Veldhuis, et al., 2008, the DNA content appears to be
a scaleable cell component covarying with the carbon and nitrogen contents of the phytoplankton cells. This
covariation allows the total DNA content to be used as an accurate, independent estimate of total cell carbon
biomass in unicellular pelagic phytoplankton. The fact that phytoplankton nucleic acid content distribution follows
the same order as the chlorophyll a, is already used to determine the level of trophy in albanian coastal waters
(A.Bacu et al., 2010).
In summary the goals of the current study were to
(1) use molecular analysis to detect the presence of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus in coastal waters of Bay of
Durres at six highly polluted sampling stations;
(2) examine the physical water properties (ph, temperature);
(3) examine the content of chlorophyll a and total phytoplakton gDNA to describe the conditions at six sampling
locations, and explain the results of molecular analysis;
Sampling period was May, June and July 2011. Sampling sites were six; Golemi Beach as intensive rural area, shore
where opens the channel of Plepa with black waters of city of Durrs, Intensive Beach Hekurudha, Ex-Fuel Quay in
Marine Durrs Harbour, shore near the channel of the drinkable waters of the city of Durrs, and Currilaan area
covered with inert building remains.
Samples were collected in a volume of three liters. Two water subsamples (1l) were directly filtered through
Whatman GF/F filter. The material retained on the filters was used for pigment analysis, and DNA extraction in a
1:1 ratio.
Content of chlorophyll a was determined according to the acetone trichromatic methods using the equations based
on the absorption maxima for each component respectively. All absorbance values are corrected taking in
consideration the turbidity of acetone extracts (Jarry & Legendre, 1991, Jeffrey & Humphrey, 1975, Lorenzen,
1967).
The phytoplankton DNA was extracted according to John Paul, 2008. The purity of the DNA was evaluated based
on Sambrook, et al., 1989.
To capture Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus were used filters GF/F with porosity 0,7 m, since they has
dimensions varying from 2-4m. The DNA extracted from the filter contains this way the phytoplanktonic species
of dimensions above 0,7m.
PCR for the determination of the presence of pikocyanobacteria was run on Eppendorf Master Cycler machine.
Primers used to amplify cyanobacterial rDNA were 16S-1247F and 16S-241R according to Rocap et al., 2002. PCR
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was run in a 20 ml solution. Sigma Taq polymerase (0.5U), MgCl2 (2mM,), buffer (1X), deoxynucleoside
triphosphates, and 100pmol of each primer.Temperature cycle was: 94C for 4 min, followed by 40 cycles of 94 C
for 1 min, 52 C for 1min, and 72C for 3minutes. Final step was a 10 min stretch at 72 C. DNA was checked by a
1% agarose gel.
RESULTS
The temperature of the sampling sites

The temperatures during May, June and July ranged from 15-26C.
The Ph of waters remains above 7 at all sampling sites, and is increasing from May to July 2011.
The phosphate content reached the maximum values in July.
Figure 1. Phosphate variations.
Stations from left to right: PG-Golemi Beach; KP-Channel of Plepa; PH-Hekurudha Beach; IPK-Marine Harbour-ex
Fuels Deposits; KUQD-Channel of the waters of the Durrs city; PC-Currila Beach
The examination of the content of chlorophyll a and total phytoplakton DNA showed that during the period May-
July 2011, the six stations under study have high values, which classify them at the eutrophy level, and that there
are considerable differences among stations each month. The only explanation of the situation may arise taking in
consideration the uncontrolled anthropogenic sources of pollution, which are present at the six stations during
different periods of the year. On the other side, were measured the total phytoplankton DNA content at the six
stations during May-July 2011. It results that (Figure 5) total DNA content is increasing from month to month, and
that there is variation from station to station.
Figure 2. Variation of the amount of total phytoplankton DNA during May 2011.
Fuels Deposits; KUQD-Channel of the waters of the Durrs city; PC-Currila Beach.
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Figure 3. Variation of the amount of total phytoplankton DNA during June 2011.
Figure 4. Variation of the amount of total phytoplankton DNA during July 2011.
Figure 5. Comparison of the amount of total phytoplankton DNA during May-June-July 2011.
PCR amplification of the Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus, using the species-specific primer for the
amplification of the 16S-23S ribosomal DNA.
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Total phytoplanktonic DNA extracted from samples taken from the six stations under study were used as templates
for the amplification of 16S-23S ribosomal DNA (Figure 6).
Figure 6. The single product taken from all the samples (six stations), during May, June, July 2011.
CONCLUSIONS
This work aimed the use molecular analysis to detect the presence of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus in coastal
waters of Bay of Durres at six highly polluted sampling stations.
The results prove that these two species are present at sampling areas.The physical water properties (ph,
temperature) showed that the waters of Bay of Durrs are warm and slightly alkaline, which indicates favorable
conditions for the phyplanktonic blooming, expected to grow from month to month during summer time. The data
on the physical parameters of waters, are in accordance to the content of phosphate, chlorophyll a and total
phytoplakton gDNA, which grow at the six sampling points, from May to July. Since the level and sort of pollution
at sampling points differs, we expected also differences among the total phytoplanktonic DNA content, which is
reported from this work in quite identifiable amounts from station to station. In mean time, taking into consideration
a number of publications, which address the establishment of a correlation among the level of the pollution in waters
and the density of phytoplanctonic species, this work aimed the same.
Considering that, summer months (May, June, July) are favorable for the blooming of different genera of
phytoplakton, and that in these specific sampling stations there is also a complex situation of pollution sources
(anthropogenic, industrial, urban) other than natural, it was expected an elevated level of trophy, still remaining
possible the mispresence of picophytoplanktonic species. It seems, from the amplification of the 16S-23S ribosomal
DNA, that at least Synecchococcus and Prochloroccocus, which share a high level of genetic similarity, are present,
and from the results on the amount of chlorophyll a and total phytoplankton DNA that the pollution of the station
has not affected to the extinction the pico-species. Still remains to be further studied the ratio among the amplified
products belonging to each of the two species as well as a possible evaluation of the intraspecies variability. Another
important point to be studied remains the verification of the presence of hydrocarbons or heavy metals inside
picophytoplanktonic species at the sampling stations of Bay of Durres. R.H.Al-Hasan et al., 2001, report that
piccocyanobacteria accumulate hydrocarbons from the water body, but do not biodegrade these compounds. It is
assumed that hydrocarbon-utilizing bacteria were always found associated with all picocyanobacteria in nature, may
carry out the biodegradation of these compounds. Following these logics the presence of both species under study at
Bay of Durres, which has pollutants coming from fuel deposits and other sources, could be explained the same way.
Other discussions arrive from A.I. Kopylov et al, 2010, who report that the quantitative distribution and
relationships of picocyanobacteria and viruses were studied in the mesotrophic Sheksna and mesoeutrophic Rybinsk
reservoirs, and that the share of picocyanobacteria in the sum biomass and production of phytoplankton decreased
along with increase in the productivity in the waterbody. According to them, the abundance of virioplankton
increased in such conditions and the mortality in picocyanobacteria resulted from lysis by viruses, which increased
at the local parts where water was blooming with phytoplankton and at the parts affected by communal pollution.
Since, the sampling stations at Bay of Durres are heavely polluted by communal pollutions, we need to consider the
presence of virioplankton at this water body as another possible modifying factor of the quantity and distribution of
phytoplankton.
According to Weisse and Mindl, 2002, the abundance and photosynthetic activity of picocyanobacteria in the
oligotrophic alpine lake Traunsee, were measured at a station located close to the outlet of industrial soda waste and
at a mid-lake reference station during spring, 1999 through to autumn, 2000. Their results demonstrated that
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picocyanobacteria are highly sensitive bioindicators of contaminant stress, but the overall impact of the emissions
from the industrial outlet on the picocyanobacteria was, however, relatively minor. Another study on the presence of
picophytoplanktonic species at extreme conditions in Adriatic transitional waters shows, that the highest abundances
(close to 109 cells L1) were found at extremely high/low salinity values, even oxygen concentrations close to
hypoxia did not seem to negatively affect PC abundances. According to Paoli et al, 2007, because of their ability in
adapting to extreme conditions, PC may become the prevailing fraction of the phototrophic plankton in these sites
and their role in such ecosystems should not be underestimated.
REFERENCES
Anderson, D.M., D.M.Kulis, and E.M.Cosper. 1989. Immunoflorescent detection of the brown tide organism
Aureococcus anophagefferens, p.213-228 In E.M.Cosper, V.M.Bricejl, and E.J.Carpenter. Novel phytoplankton
blooms causses and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Lecture notes on coeastal and
estuarine studies. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y.
Bacu A., Babani F., Malollari I. 2010. A comparative study on the efficiency of use of different physical and
biological parameters for the evaluation of the level of trophy in the lagoon system of Kune-Vain, Albania.
International Conference on Fishery and Aquaculture-BENA, Galati, Romania. JEPE.
Doblin MA, Popels L.C., Coyne K.J., Hutchins DA., Cary S.C., Dobbs F.C. 2004. Transport of Harmfool bloom
alga Aureococcus anophagefferens by oceangoing ships and coastal boats. Applied Environmental Microbiology,
70(11); 6495-6500.
Gobler C. et al. 2011. Niche of harmful alga Aureococcus anophagefferens revealed through ecogenomics. From the
Selected works of Steven Wilhelm. University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
http://works.bepress.com/steven_vilhelm/21.
Gobler, CJ., Lonsdale DJ., Boyer GL. 2005. A synthesis and review of causes and impact of harmful brown tide
blooms caused by the alga, Aureococcus anophagefferens. Estuaries 28:726-749.
Heisler J, et al. 2008; Eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: A scientific consensus. Harmful Algae, 8:3-13.
Jarry, V.; Frisoni, G. and Legendre, P. (1991), Organisation spatiale et modlisation cologique d'um peuplement
phytoplanctonique de lagune (tang de Thau, France). Oceanol. Acta, 14 : (5), 473-488.
Jeffrey S. W., Humphrey G. F. 1975. New spectrophotometric equation for determining chlorophyll a, b, c1 and c2.
Biochemistry of Plant Physiology, 167, 194-204.
John Paul. DNA extraction from seawater. Marine Microbiology. Textbook 2008.
Lorenzen C. J. 1967. Determination of chlorophyll and phaeopigments: spectrophotometric equations, Limnology
and Oceanography. No12.
Marcel J. W. Veldhuis, Terry L. Cucci, Michael E. Sieracki. 2008. Cellular DNA content of marine
phytoplankton using two new fluorochromes: taxonomic and ecological implications1. Journal of Phycology,
Volume 33 Issue 3, Pages 527 - 541
Sambrook,J.,Fritsch, E.F., and Maniatis,T. 1989. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbour
Lab).
Sunda WG, Graneli E, Gobler CJ (2006); Positive feedback and the development and persistence of ecosystem
disruptive algal blooms. Journal of Phycology, 42:963-974.
A.I. Kopylov, D.B. Kosolapov, E.A. Zabotkina, V. Straskrabova, 2010. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk, Seriya
Biologicheskaya, 2010, No. 6, pp. 661669.
R.H.Al-Hasan et al., 2001. Hydrocarbon accumulation by picocyanobacteria from the Arabian gulf. Journal of
Applied Microbiology, 2001, 91, 533-540.
Alessandro Paoli, Valeri, Chiara Larato, Andrea Bussani, Serena Fonda Umani, Maria Rosaria Vadrucci, Cristina
Mazziotti, Paola Del Negro, , Mauro Celussi. Picocyanobacteria in Adriatic transitional environments. Biodiversity
& Ecosystem Functioning in Coastal and Transitional Waters. Volume 75, Issues 12, October 2007, Pages 1320.
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PAPER 154
STATISTICAL STUDY ABOUT THE LUNG CANCER IN REGIONAL HOSPITAL OF SHKODRA

DURING 2008 - 2012
Zamira Shabani1, Lindita Dibra2, Arlinda Ramaj3

1
University Luigj Gurakuqi , Sheshi 2 Prilli, Shkodr;
2
Regional Hospital Of Shkodra, Shkodr, Department of Pneumology;
3
University of Tirana, Faculty of Medicine, Tirana.
Email: shabanizamira@yahoo.com; linditadibra@yahoo.com; ramajarlinda@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Primary carcinoma of the lung is a major health problem with a generally grim prognosis. The International Agency
for Research on Cancer estimates that there will be over 1.18 million deaths from lung cancer worldwide in 2007,
which will raise to 10 million deaths per year by 2030. Each year, primary carcinoma of the lung affects males and
females, making it the leading cause of cancer death in both men and women. Lung cancer accounts for 29% of all
cancer deaths (31% in men, 26% in women). Lung cancer is responsible for more deaths in the world each year than
breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer combined. More women die each year of lung cancer than of breast
cancer. The aim of this study is to describe the incidence of all the hospitalized cases with lung cancer at the
Regional Hospital of Shkodra during the period of 2008-2012. We have used a descriptive method and the data are
elaborated with Microsoft Word Excel 2007. In this article we have considered all hospitalized cases in Regional
Hospital of Shkodra, diagnosed with lung cancer. We conclude that the rate of lung cancer has increased. This
increase is related to the changed lifestyle of population (tobacco smoking, inappropriate nutrition) and the
improvement of diagnostic skills of doctors. On the other hand the improvement of methods and items in medicine
influenced in an easier discovery of these new cases.
Key words: asthma, cancer, diseases, health, lung.
INTRODUCTION
In 2002, 11 million new cancer cases and 7 million cancer deaths were estimated worldwide. When broken down by
region of the world, ~45% of cases were in Asia, 26% in Europe, 14.5% in North America, 7.1% in Central/South
America, 6% in Africa, and 1% in Australia/New Zealand . Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the most
common cause of cancer death in the world. Its incidence is highly variable, affecting only 2 per 100,000 African
women but as many as 61 per 100,000 North American men. (Kamangar F et al: 2006). It has been estimated that
nine modifiable risk factors are responsible for more than one-third of cancers worldwide. These include smoking,
alcohol consumption, obesity, physical inactivity, low fruit and vegetable consumption, unsafe sex, air pollution,
indoor smoke from household fuels, and contaminated injections. In 2007, primary carcinoma of the lung affected
114,760 males and 98,620 females in the United States; 86% die within 5 years of diagnosis, making it the leading
cause of cancer death in both men and women. The incidence of lung cancer peaks between ages 55 and 65 years.
Lung cancer accounts for 29% of all cancer deaths (31% in men, 26% in women). (Jemal A et al 2007). The
International Agency for Research on Cancer estimates that there will be over 1.18 million deaths from lung cancer
worldwide in 2007, which will rise to 10 million deaths per year by 2030. This represents one lung cancer case for
every 3 million cigarettes smoked. Thus, primary carcinoma of the lung is a major health problem with a generally
grim prognosis. (Jemal A et al: 2007).The degree of smoke exposure, meaning the number of cigarettes smoked per
day as well as the level of inhalation of cigarette smoke, is correlated with risk of lung cancer mortality. Those who
stop smoking have a 3050% lower 10-year lung cancer mortality rate compared to those who continue smoking,
despite the fact that some carcinogen-induced gene mutations persist for years after smoking cessation. Smoking
cessation and avoidance have the potential to save more lives than any other public health activity. The risk of
tobacco smoke is not limited to the smoker. Environmental tobacco smoke, known as second hand or passive smoke,
causes lung cancer and other cardiopulmonary diseases in nonsmokers. (Cinciripini PM 1997). Most lung cancers
are caused by carcinogens and tumor promoters inhaled via cigarette smoking. The relative risk of developing lung
cancer is increased about thirteen fold by active smoking and about 1.5-fold by long-term passive exposure to
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cigarette smoke. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which is also smoking-related, further increases the risk of
developing lung cancer. The lung cancer death rate is related to the total amount (often expressed in "cigarette pack-
years") of cigarettes smoked, such that the risk is increased 60- to 70-fold for a man smoking two packs a day for 20
years as compared with a nonsmoker. Conversely, the chance of developing lung cancer decreases with cessation of
smoking but may never return to the nonsmoker level. The increase in lung cancer rate in women is also associated
with a rise in cigarette smoking. Women have a higher relative risk per given exposure than men (~1.5-fold higher).
This sex difference may be due to a greater susceptibility to tobacco carcinogens in women, although the data are
controversial. About 15% of lung cancers occur in individuals who have never smoked. The majority of these cases
are found in women. The reason for this sex difference is not known but may be related to hormonal factors.
Radiation is another environmental cause of lung cancer. People exposed to high levels of radon or receiving
thoracic radiation therapy have a higher than normal incidence of lung cancer, particularly if they smoke. (Karnath B
2002).
Table 1. Distribution of cancer incidence and deaths for 2007 (the five leading primary tumor) (WHO 2007)
Male Female
Sites % Number Sites % Number
Cancer Incidence
Prostate 29 218,890 Breast 26 178,480
Lung 15 114,760 Lung 15 98,620
Colorectal 10 79,130 Colorectal 11 74,630
Cancer Deaths
Lung 31 89,510 Lung 26 70,880
Prostate 9 27,050 Breast 15 40,460
Colorectal 9 26,000 Colorectal 10 26,180
Table 2. The three leading primary tumor sites for patients dying of cancer based on age and sex in 2004 (WHO
2004)
Rank All Ages Under 20 2039 4059 6079 >80
1 M Lung Leukemia Leukemia Lung Lung Lung
F Lung Leukemia Breast Breast Lung Lung
2 M Prostate CNS CNS Colorectal Colorectal Prostate
F Breast CNS Cervix Lung Breast Colorectal
3 M Colorectal Bone sarcoma Colorectal Pancreas Prostate Colorectal
F Colorectal Endocrine Leukemia Colorectal Colorectal Breast
MATHERIAL AND METHODS
The aim of this study is to describe the incidence of all the hospitalized cases with lung cancer at the Regional
Hospital of Shkodra during the period of 2008-2012. The morbidity of this disease is studied according selected age-
groups and gender . The data are collected at the Statistic Office of Hospital and Statistic Office of Public Health.
The method is simple, descriptive and evidences the incidence of cases. The data are elaborated with Microsoft word
excel 2007
RESULTS
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As we can see at the figure 1, the hospital morbidity per 100000 habitants of cancer diseases during 2008- 2012 in
Shkodra Regional Hospital is increased, on the other hand the number of cases with lung cancer is increased too.
(figure2)
Figure.1. Hospital morbidity rate / 100000 inhabitants of maligne diseases in Shkodra during the years 2008 2012
Figure. 2. The number of cases with lung cancer hospitalized during 2008-2012 in Shkodra Regional Hospital
Figure. 3. The distribution of cases with lung cancer according to gender.
In figure 3 we can clearly see that the most affected patients by this pathology are male. This fact is justified with
their life style: smoking and alcohol abuse. This is a big reason to encourage healthy habits and public education,
hoping to prevent and control this cancer. We are conscious that cigar smoking has increased in the past decade.
Efforts to get people to stop smoking are mandatory. However, smoking cessation is extremely difficult, because the
smoking habit represents a powerful addiction to nicotine (Harrison 2012). Smoking addiction is both biologic and
psychosocial. Heavy smokers may need an intensive broad-based cessation program that includes counseling,
behavioral strategies and pharmacologic adjuncts, such as nicotine replacement (gum, patches, sprays, lozenges and
inhalers) and bupropion. (Cinciripini PM. 1997)
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Figure. 4. The burden of lung cancer among all cancer diseases during 2008-2012 in Shkodra Regional Hospital
The burden of lung cancer among all cancers during 2008- 2012 in Shkodra Hospital is almost the same level in all
this period, but as we can see in figure 4 and in the table 1, according the data from WHO 2007, the burden of this
diseases is higher than the level in the world.
Figure. 5. The distribution of lung cancer according to the age groups
In figure 5 we can see that the most affected people by the lung cancer are they over 55 years old with a pick among
the people over 65 years old. Also in the figure 6, we have evidenced the incidence of lung cancer per 1000 cases
hospitalized. This figure shows the raise of incidence of lung cancer form 1.58 hospitalized cases in 2008 to
2.58 in 2012.
Figure. 6. The incidence of lung cancer per 1000 cases hospitalized during 2008-2012
in Shkodra Regional Hospital
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All these data that describe the situation of this disease underlines the problem of raising the education about health
care and the importance of smoking cessation since teenage. Preventing people from starting to smoke is thus very
important and this primary prevention effort needs to be targeted to children since most cigarette smoking addiction
occurs during the teenage years. Tobacco prevention is a pediatric issue. Counseling of adolescents and young adults
is critical to prevent smoking. A physician's simple advices to avoid starting smoking or to quit smoking and to see
at as a health benefit. Physicians should query patients on tobacco use on every office visit, record the answer with
the vital signs and ask smokers if they would like assistance in quitting. (Cinciripini PM. 1997). Deterring children
from taking up smoking and helping young adults stop smoking is likely to be the most effective lung cancer
prevention. Smoking cessation programs are successful in 5 to 20% of volunteers; the poor efficacy is because of the
nature of nicotine addiction. (Harrison 16th edition). Smoking-related illnesses, premature deaths, and economic
costs can be reduced if current smokers are able to successfully stop smoking and if smoking is not initiated by
children and youths. Because the nicotine in cigarettes is addicting, once daily smoking is initiated, stopping is very
difficult. Almost 90% of adult cigarette smokers began smoking by the time they were 18 years old (CDC 1994).
Public health efforts to reduce the health effects of cigarette smoking should include smoking cessation services, but
should focus on preventing initiation of tobacco use by children and youth. This should include active enforcement
of laws to prevent persons under 18 from purchasing tobacco products coupled with community-based efforts to
assure that this occurs. Laws should be modified to reduce access to tobacco products by children through banning
of tobacco vending machines, at least in places where children are allowed. Adults should band together with
children and youth at the community level to create healthy environments that are smoke-free and that support a
tobacco-free norm for our children and youth. Local communities should be allowed to adopt policies that support
such a tobacco-free norm. Comprehensive school health programs should provide high quality, factual information
to children at all levels. Children and youth should receive clear messages from parents, teachers, and other adults
that they should remain smoke free coupled with realistic information about how few of their peers smoke. Children
and youth should be taught to interpret advertising and promotional messages carefully and to make good personal
choices. Consideration should also be given to increasing tobacco excise taxes as a means to reduce tobacco use by
children and youth who have been shown to be more price-sensitive than adult smokers, and to recover some of the
medical care costs attributable to tobacco. Studies in Canada have shown that a 10% increase in the price of a pack
of cigarettes led to a 7.9% decrease in consumption (Lynch, S. 1994).
CONCLUSIONS
The hospital morbidity per 100000 habitants of cancer diseases during 2008- 2012 in Shkodra Regional Hospital is
increased. The most affected patients by this pathology are male and the patients over 55 years old with a pick
among the people over 65 years old. The incidence of lung cancer is increased from 1.58 hospitalized cases in
2008 to 2.58 in 2012, but the hospital mortality is not so high because the patients with cancer diseases prefer to
die at home. Since this cancer diseases is difficult to heal, we can try to prevent it. Prevention of smoking initiation
must begin early, preferably in the elementary school years. Physicians who treat adolescents should be sensitive to
the prevalence of this problem. Physicians should ask all adolescents whether they have experimented with tobacco
or currently use tobacco, reinforce the facts that most adolescents and adults do not smoke and explain that all forms
of tobacco are both addictive and harmful.Our intervention consist in: of legislation changes, education of the
population to avoid risk behavior and to accept healthy life styles, identification health risks, screening of deseases
at early stages in order to provide more efficient treatment and cure the malignant diseases.
REFERENCES
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1994. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People: A Report of the
Surgeon General. Washington, D.C.: USDHHS, 1994 .
Cinciripini PM, Hecht S, Henningfield JE et al: 1997. Tobacco addiction: Implications for treatment and cancer
prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:1852, 1997 [PMID: 9414173]
Harrison's Internal Medicine 2012 Chapter 78. Prevention and Early Detection of Cancer
Harrison's Internal Medicine 2012. Chapter 390. Nicotine Addiction
Jemal A et al: Cancer statistics, 2007. CA Cancer J Clin 57:43, 2007 [PMID: 17237035]
Kamangar F et al: 2006. Patterns of cancer incidence, mortality, and prevalence across five continents: Defining
priorities to reduce cancer disparities in different geographic regions of the world. J Clin Oncol 24:2137, 2006
[PMID: 16682732]
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Karnath B:2002. Smoking cessation. Am J Med 112:399, 2002 [PMID: 11904115]

Lynch, S. And Bonnie, R.J., eds.1994. Growing Up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and
Youths, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1994.
PAPER 157
BUDDING OF WALNUT ( JUGLANS REGIAL.)
Majlinda Kasmi1, Petrit Rama1, Bari Hodaj1, Edlira Kukali1, Albert Rabeta1
1
Agricultural of University of Tirana
ABSTRACT
The walnut is classified as a strategic species for human nutrition and is included in the FAO list of priority plants.
Walnut, (Juglans regia L.) propagation is more difficult, compared to most fruit species. Due to walnut
heterozygosity, propagation by seeds does not lead to inheritance of the characteristics of a certain varieties. That is
why the propagation technologies are being improved worldwide. The purpose of this experiment was to increase
the inoculation success of the walnut budding var.Franquete. Various methods, as patch budding and chip budding
have been employed. To find the most appropriate season of inoculation, June budding on 28 June (with buds taken
in the current season ), autumn budding on 28 August (with buds taken in the current season) and spring budding on
28 May(with buds collected from the winter dormant period), have been tested. As rootstocks for the June and
August budding, the seedlings of Juglans regia L.of the current year's growth have been employed. For the spring
inoculation the one year old scions have been used. Patch budding was the most successful budding method used for
walnuts. The success of the method of patch budding depends on the season of inoculation. Successful inoculation
percentage in patch budding (about 80%) was achieved by June budding (on 28 June). Cutting off the leaf, 20 days
before the buds were taken for budding, gave highest results (87%) The June budding of the patch method can be
implemented in the production of grafted young walnut trees.
Key words: walnut, budding, rootstock, inoculation
INTRODUCTION
Walnut is one of the main nut crops in Albania. Large populations of Juglans regia (144000 walnut trees exist in
Albania).(7) Most of them are seedlings and notably variable in production and nut quality. Due to walnut
heterozygosity, propagation by seeds does not lead to inheritance of the characteristics of a certain variety (1).
According to governments program, three million walnut trees should be planted in Albania during the years 2012-
2017 year.(7) Planting of the best walnut cultivars required by the market have increased interest in vegetative
propagation of this species. Walnut trees are more difficult to graft than most fruit trees (5). This is due to the
presence of high concentration of phenolic compounds in its tissues and their oxidation by wounding,(1). Many
different types of propagation are used in the walnut nursery industry to create finished propagated trees for orchard
planting including sexual propagation (rootstocks only), micro-propagation, cuttings, budding, and grafting(9).In
Albania for the walnut propagation are using seeds coming from valuable varieties. This type of propagation
produces a large number of plants with various characteristics into the walnut orchards (7).While the main method
for propagation of walnut in Bulgaria is the patch budding, where the grafted plants have grown in the nursery (1).
In Romania utilizing the whip and tongue grafting followed by callusing at the grafting point, the rate of success is
more then80% (2).The results of other researchers also suggest that patch budding produces better callusing, scion
growth and bud-take as compared chip budding (3). Patch budding is the most common budding method used for
walnuts, but to ensure the best buds, the budwood can be prepared by removing the leaves while still on the tree a
few weeks before use (9) Different types of grafting have different optimum time. The success of the method of
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patch budding depends on the season of inoculation (1). June budding creates a tree in only one year. Rootstocks to
be used in June budding are grown in very fertile conditions and typically reach budding size by June, coinciding
with the time current season scion buds develop to a condition suitable for use as budwood (walnut propagation).
Also genotype had highly significant effects on grafting success (6). In this research two type of budding (patch and
chip) and the time of budding were studied. The effect of cutting off the leaf several days before the buds were taken
for budding has been proved on budding success
This study was conducted in a private nursery located in the Peze, a village, district of Tirana. The rootstocks were
Juglans regia seedlings, which had been direct sown on January (20-25 January).For the June and August budding,
the seedlings of the current year's growth have been employed. While for the spring budding (May budding) have
been used one-year old seedlings. Two weeks before budding, the stocks were selected for uniformity of girth
(approximately 10 mm diameter.) Scionwoods of Juglans regia var.Franquette were obtained from an7-years-old
orchard block on the day of budding.
Two budding techniques were employed: 1 -Patch budding. 2-Chip budding
Three budding times were selected at one month interval, as follow:
1-Spring budding, on 28 May (with buds, collected from the winter dormant period).
2-June budding on, 28 June (with buds, taken in the current season)
3-Autumn budding on, 28 August (with buds, taken in the current season).
To study the effect of cutting off the leaves before the buds were taken for budding two kinds of scionwoods had
been used:
a-Scionwoods with the leaves.
b-Scionwoods without leaves (The leaves were cut off three weeks before the buds were taken for budding
The influence of BAP (Benzyl Amino Purine) on budding success has been proved by spraying of the inoculations,
before tying, with 500 ppm BAP.
Experimental design was a randomised complete block with three replicates of each treatment. Each replicate
contained 20 stocks
RESULTS
According to the results, summarized in Tables 2 and 4, the patch budding method, performed during the growth
season has the higher percent of success, compared with chip budding. The high percentage of patch budding has
been reported and by other authors (3). The date of vaccination had highly significant effect on budding success.
Table 1, 2 and 4 shows that the patch budding, performed on 28 June, gave the highest success, of 86 per cent and
on 28 August, it was 29 per cent. Those results, reported in this paper are in accord with other researchers (4). June
budding success may be due to the equality of root pressure with the suction power of the leaves. This balance of the
pressures can avoid the scions damage of the scions from the many liquids coming from the root
Patch and chip budding, performed on 28 May had the lowest success, about 6%
Cutting off the leaf, 20 days before the buds were taken for budding, gave highest results, 87 per cent (Table 2). The
best success has been taken, when the remaining leaf stalks shrivel and fall away.
The lowest success of budding, which has taken place on 28 May (Table1), may be due to low activity of the
cambium of the scion, necessary to enhance the formation of callus of the wounded tissues.(8) As can be seen in
Table 2 and 3, the result of cut of the leaves before inoculation was very important for the success of patch budding.
The percentage of budding success using scions without leaves were significantly higher (87%) compared with those
made with leaves (50%) This can happen for the following reasons:
a-The removing of the leaves can reduce the presence of the high concentration of phenolic compounds in its
tissues and their oxidation by wounding.
b-The bark on the current year's wood is exceedingly tender, and the outer layers are very apt to be rubbed off in
handling, while the leaf removal does the bark of the buds more hard.
c-The removing of the leaves avoids distortion of the bark around the bud, prepared for budding. This helps to
better contact of the bud with the rootstock.
Table 1 Results of different budding performed on 28 May
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Patch budding Chip budding

Budded Budded Budded stocks Budded success
stocks success
With BAP 45 2 45 4
Without BAP 45 3 45 3
Table 2 Results of different budding performed on 28 July

Without leaves With leaves Without leaves With leaves
With Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded
BAP stocks success stocks success stocks success stocks success
45 39 45 22 45 13 45 3
Without 45 37 45 19 45 15 45 5
BAP
Table 3 Effect of removing of the leaves on patch budding success
Replicates R1 R2 R3 S M
Treatments
Without leaves 12 15 12 39 13
(-BAP)
Without leaves 13 10 14 37 12,33
(+BAP)
With leaves 9 6 7 22 7,33
(-BAP)
With leaves 4 8 7 19 6,33
(+ BAP)
S 38 39 40 117
Oneway Anova
Analysis of Variance
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Treatmens 3 104.25000 34.7500 9.9286 0.0045*
Error 8 28.00000 3.5000
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Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F

C. Total 11 132.25000
LSD Alpha
2.30600 0.05
Positive values show pairs of means that are significantly different.
Level Mean
Without leaves(-BAP) A 13.000000
Without leaves(+BAP) A 12.333333
With leaves(-BAP) B 7.333333
With leaves(+BAP) B 6.333333
Table 4 Results of different budding performed on 28 August

Without leaves With leaves Without leaves With leaves

With Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded Budded
BAP stocks success stocks succes stocks success stocks success
45 12 45 4 45 1 45 2
Without 45 13 45 6 45 3 45 -
BAP
CONCLUSION
The June budding of the patch method can be implemented in the production of grafted young walnut trees.
Cutting off the leaf, 20 days before the buds were taken for budding, gave highest results.
REFERENCES
Gandev.S: Budding and grafting of the walnut (Juglans regia L) and their effectiveness in Bulgaria. Bulg. J. Agric.
Sci 200,13: 683-689
G.H Achim, I.Botu:Results in walnut propagation by using different methods (ISHS),
Acta Horticulturae544: IV International Walnut Symposium
Ebrahim Aziz, Fatahi Moghadam, M.R,Vahadati. K: The effect of environmental conditions, method and time on
the success of budding walnut. Iranian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2008, 39: 9-18
M.K.Sharma, N.K.Joolka:Comparison of budding techniques in walnut (Juglans regia L) propagation. Ishs acta
horticulturae 696:VII International Symposium on Temperate Z one Fruits in the Tropics and Subtropics-Part Two
Okzka.A, Gumus. A: Effect of different application on grafting under controlled of walnut (Juglans regiaL.).Acta
Horticulturae 2001, 544:515-520
Solgi.M, Shahrjerdi.I,Ebadi.A: Effect of scion genotype, rootstock age and time of grafting of soft grafting method
in walnut Acta horticulturae 2012 (ISHS), 940:119-123
Rama. P: National Study on Actual Situation and Perspective of Nut Trees in Albania Study Summary 2011, Page
54
Rama. P, Kukali. E: Interaction of Gibberelic Acid (GA3) And Naphtalene Acetic Acid (NAA) on root induction in
Olea europea L. Albanian Journal of Agricultural Science 2010, 9(3):227-229
University of California Walnut propagation Agricultural and Natural resources.
December 28. 2012.
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PAPER 159
THE QUALITY OF THE SHARRI CHEESE IN THE MICROBIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

ASPECT
Ilirjana Zymberaj1, Shabani, L., Elshani, M.1 , Jashari, B.1

1
Agency of Food and Veterinary, Pristina-Kosovo
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Tirana, Albania
Email: Ilirjana_z@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Sharri cheese is called so because it is made in the earlier years of Sharr Mountains with an altitude of 800-
1200m. "This type of cheese is produced from a combination of half sheep milk and half cow's milk and the Sharr
flagrance or aroma". "Pathogenic microorganism, if present in untreated milk, thought to be present in the cheese if
the cheese is prepared several months before consuming. Escherichia coli is the most common cause of failure of
cheeses and other foods. The purpose of this paper is to check the microbiological quality of Sharri cheese in a
dairy licensed in the Republic of Kosovo. Work methodology: sampling, transport and analysis of samples in the
laboratory is done according to standards. Samples were taken during 2012. During 2012 samples were taken for the
analysis of physico-chemical microbiology. Our results speak in favor of that 8% of the samples resulted in bacterial
contamination, which is isolated: Escherichia coli, while after the implementation of HACCP no bacterial
contamination has been confirmed. All samples analyzed in terms of physico-chemical standards are in conformity
with what works IKSHP. Implementation of HACCP in the dairy has given satisfactory results. HACCP is an
immediate need to be implemented in all other subjects that deal with food activities.
Key words: sample, contamination, bacteria, hygiene, Sharri, HCCP.
INTRODUCTION
Food is an important factor which health and human life depends on. The term "safe food" food relate to items that
do not contain or contain to the tolerable amounts, pollutants originating biologically, chemically or radiological,
that are dangerous to human health. Food production requires maximum commitment and continuous checks at all
stages in order to prevent the possibility of contamination (2). The most common causes of food poisoning are
different bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphyloccocus, Clostridiae, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, etc..,
Which are in the air, water, work tools, contaminated foodstuff, etc. (8). Sharri cheese is hard cheese which is made
in the region of Gora, Opoja and Shtrpce the Republic of Kosovo. (4). "This type of cheese is produced from
sheep's milk and cow's milk in amounts commensurate with aroma from the Sharr" . The purpose of this research
has been the control of hygiene and safety of Sharri cheese in the bacteriological sphere, in a licensed dairy
Republic of Kosovo, detection, isolation and identification of causes of poisonings with this dairy product, finding
more efficient ways to their prevention and control assessment of the importance of regular sanitary hygiene before
and after application of hygiene measures.
Purpose of the work. The purpose of this study was the quality control of microbiological and physico-chemical
parameters of Sharri cheese in a dairy licensed in the Republic of Kosovo.
For the purpose of determining the hygienic condition and physico-chemical attributes of Sharri cheese in one milk
processing entities in Kosovo, where during 2012 Sharri cheese samples and swabs from work tools, work surfaces,
hands personnel and work uniforms were taken. Samples are taken regularly every month of the year, while swabs
in two stages - before and after the application of the recommended measures. Samples were obtained by standard
methodology for sampling within four hours and sent to the laboratory of the National Institute of Public Health in
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Pristina. Swabs and samples were analyzed for the presence of bacteria that threaten human health (Escherichia coli,
Enterococcus, Klebsiella spp., Citrobacter spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes and Proteus spp.).
All samples were analyzed by standard microbiological methods. The collected data are processed in a descriptive
statistical method.
RESULTS
The results of this study are presented in three parts. In the first part we present the results of bacteriological
analyzes of samples of the cheese, in the second part we present the physico chemical results, while the third part
the swab results of arable land, working hand tools and staff uniforms. The results of the microbiological analysis of
Sharri cheese are presented in Chart 1 which shows that during the period when the survey was carried 25
samples were analyzed for bacterial contamination in Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Coliform bacteria,
Mesophylic bacteria, Proteus spp., Listeria monocytogenes, of which 8% have resulted in contamination with
Escherichia coli, while others have resulted negative. For physical - chemical analysis , 12 samples were taken to
answer all norms and standards by which IKSHPK works according to. In terms of physico-chemical parameters,
the following were analyzed: water, salt, dry matter and fat-free dry matter (chart no. 2). The swabs first results
indicate bacterial contamination of 67%, while after the application of the recommended measures, 20% have
resulted in positive values.
Table nr. 1.
Mesophylic Escherichia Staphylococcus Listeria. Proteus Totally
Nr
bacteria coli aureus monocytogenes spp. samples
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 0 0 0 1
3 0 0 0 0 0 2
4 0 0 0 0 0 2
5 0 0 0 0 0 3
6 0 0 0 0 0 3
7 0 2 0 0 0 3
8 0 0 0 0 0 3
9 0 0 0 0 0 2
10 0 0 0 0 0 2
11 0 0 0 0 0 2
12 0 0 0 0 0 1
Totally 0 2 0 0 0 25
% 0 8 0 0 0 100
In the samples of Sharri cheese we have a fecal contamination with Escherichia coli (4000 cfu / ml) in June
samples, while other samples are without the presence of microorganisms.
Graph. 1. - Results of Sharri cheese samples expressed as a percentage
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Graphic. 1 shows that 8% of Sharri cheese samples resulted positive.
Table no. 2. - Physico-chemical attributes of Sharri cheese

Periudha Kripa Mbetja e Mbetja e that pa
Nr kohore H2O Yndyra % that yndyr
1 janar 62.21 21 1,45 37.79 16.79
2 shkurt 52.6 44 1.63 47.4 3.4
3 mars 71.18 44.5 1.35 73.32 28.82
4 prill 62.69 23.1 1.8 37.31 14.21
5 maj 53.23 28.2 2.34 47.77 3.77
6 qershor 65.28 27.3 1.65 34.72 7.42
7 korrik 61.59 25.4 1.66 38.41 13.01
8 gusht 63.25 28.3 1.88 36.75 8.45
9 shtator 62.58 29 1.65 37.42 8.42
10 tetor 63.59 28 1.86 36.41 8.41
11 nntor 64.55 24.2 1.86 35.45 11.25
12 dhjetor 63.25 25.6 1.87 36.75 11.15
Results of the parameters in the table respond to the norms.
Graph nr 2. Physico-Chemical attributes of Sharri cheese 2012
On the basis of physico-chemical laboratory values for Sharri cheese, which are presented in the table above, we
conclude that all the analyzed samples are in conformity with the standards which works IKSHP.
Graph nr 3. Screening results in the dairy
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From the analyzed swabs, 67% resulted positive with the presence of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp. and
Staphylococcus aureus.
Graph nr 4
The contamination of the Escherichia coli was 45%, with Klebsiella spp. Staphylococcus aureus 11%. Due to the
large presence of Coliform bacteria was found, low levels of hygiene were found in the milk thus measures were
recommended to eliminate factors which favored the low level of hygiene and contamination of equipment, work
surfaces and items food.
The worst swabs were from the hands of the staff, which is the major risk factor with which one can transmit
pathogenic bacteria in food with contaminated hands or surfaces contaminated own gastrointestinal system (bacillus
locomotion) (1).
Graph nr 5. Screening results after the application of the measures
The application of the measures recommended has improved the situation which is observed from the results in
graph No. 5 where positive values are only 20%.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained, we conclude that:

In the licensed diaries in 2012, a of total 25 samples were taken of Sharri cheese and 36 smears of arable land,
vehicles, hand tools and uniforms work for bacteriological analysis personnel.
Sampling was planned, while swabs were taken at random.
Cheese sampling results indicate moderate contamination level of 8%.
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Results of the first swabs where 67% of them resulted in bacterial contamination indicating a low level of hygiene.
Swab results after application of the recommended measures, where 20% of them were positive, show an acceptable
condition.
As a result of the commencement of the implementation of HACCP, we observe a trend of improving results in the
diary.
REFERENCE
Cruickshank, J.G. (1990). Food Handlers and Food Poisoning. British Medical Journal 300, 208;
auevi, Mr, Smajic, A., Corbo, S. (1998): Hrant PROIZVODNJA animalnog porijekla. Drugo medjunarodno
savetovanje struno nauno-o-sigurne mogunostima proizvodnje zdravstveno Hrant. Zbornik radova. Umjetnosti
NAUKA Academy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bugojno. 99-109. Sarajevo;
Dedushaj, I. (2010): General Epidemiology - Principles and Practice. University of Prishtina.
Site.
Babe, A., Muteveli, A., Saric, M. (1992): Animalna PROIZVODNJA was funkciji osiguranja zdravstveno-sigurne
Hrant. Drugo medjunarodno savetovanje struno nauno-o-sigurne mogunostima proizvodnje zdravstveno Hrant.
Zbornik radova. Umjetnosti NAUKA Academy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bugojno.75-92. Sarajevo;
Law on Sanitary Inspection 2003/22;
Law on prevention and combating of infectious diseases 02/L-109 (2007). Pristina.
03/L-016 Food Law (2009). Pristina;
Samardzija, D., Podoreki, M., Sikora, S., Skelin, A., Pogai, T. (2007): organism - uzronici kvarenja mlijeka of
mlijenih proizvoda. Mljekarstvo 57 (4) 251-273;
Administrative Instruction no. 02/2005 on the way to acquire basic knowledge on safety and quality of food and
personal hygiene of people working in manufacturing and marketing of food. UNMIK.
Administrative Instruction no. 08/2005 on the technological standards, to be met by food manufacturing facilities.
UNMIK.;
PAPER 160
ELODEA CANADENSIS AS INVASIVE SPECIES IN LAKE OHRID
Alma Imeri1, Alfred Mullaj2, Sonja Trajanovska3, Marina Talevska3

1
Agricultural University of Tirana Department of Plant Production, Albania;
2
Faculty of Nature of Science, Tirana, Albania;
3
Hydrobiological Institute Ohrid, R.Macedonia;
Email: bioalma_79@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Invasive alien plants present a threat to diversity of native species. Evaluation of potential endangerment of invasive
alien plant species Elodea canadensis was made and results are presented in this paper. The study is based on
literature sources and field survey data, summarized in distribution maps over the time. From the 30 investigated
stations Elodea canadensis was present in 16 stations; it is the most abundant in the depth zone 0-2 meters and
rarely found in 4-10 m. The alien species E. canadensis express its invasive character in macrophyte
communities.The distribution of invasive aquatic plant species Elodea canadensis studied as an indicator of water
quality in Lake Ohrid was discussed. Habitat analysis of well-established stands of E. canadensis showed that its
preferred habitats watercourses flowing, more or less disturbed riparian zone, with moderate presence of retention
structures, and with fine organic matter.
Keywords: invasive alien plants, Elodea canadensis, habitats, Lake Ohrid.
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INTRODUCTION
Since the end of the 19th century the Canadian waterweed Elodea canadensis has spread over most of Europe, and
is known as invasive neophyte species in most of Europe except for the Arctic and most of the islands (Tutin et al.
1980). On the basis of the latest estimations, E. canadensis has established in 26 European countries (Lambdon et al.
2008). Due to their morphological similarities, similar habitat preferences and weedy growth, Elodea species have
been often misidentified (Simpson 1984, 1988; Bowmer et al. 1995), particularly in the early invasion phases. In
Ohrid Lake, it is assumed that the widespread E. canadensis is the only established species of the genus Elodea
being a successful invader. E. canadensis is well studied from various aspects such as the invasion success and
related competitive ability, responses to various environmental variables (Pagano & Titus 2004), ecological life
history (Nicols & Shaw 1986), growth in relation to temperature (Madsen & Brix 1997), phenotypic plasticity
(Simpson 1988), allelopathic activity (Ehrhard et al. 2004; Ehrhard & Gross 2006) and impacts on native aquatic
communities (Josefsson & Andersson 2001). E. canadensis had been accumulated over the last 20-years (Kashta
et.al, 1998; Mullaj A. et alt. 2007) as well as recently this plant species was present in 26 localities Lake Ohrid
(Talevska, 2011).Nevertheless, recently there had not been any published papers on its actual distribution and
habitat preferences in Ohrid Lake, although this could increase our understanding of the invasion phenomena and its
extent in the Ohrid Lake. Assuming the lack of knowledge on the invasion pattern of the particular species, the aim
of our study was to analyze the current spatial distribution, dynamics and habitat preferences of E. canadensis and to
discuss the suitability of this species as an indicator of water quality in Ohrid Lake.
Taxonomy and geographical distribution
The genus Elodea (Hydrocharitaceae Family) is taxonomically difficult in its native range. Phenotypic plasticity
and varying morphological characters are often observed; therefore flowers are necessary for a confident
identification. The American botanist H. St. John recognized 17 species of the genus Elodea in a series of papers
published between 1962 and 1965 (Simpson 1984), but later on his work proved to be unsatisfactory. Recent
revisions of the genus have reduced the number of species to five (Preston & Croft 2001). E. canadensis is a
submerged perennial aquatic plant with dioecious or with hermaphrodite flowers. It has green leaves up to 17 x 4
mm, but usually c. 10 x 2 mm, in whorls of 3 or the lowest opposite, oblong-linear, widest at middle, rounded at the
apex, minutely denticulate, more or less crowded. Sepals of female flowers are 2-2.7 mm; petals white or pale
purple; petals subequalling the sepals. In most parts of Europe male plants are rare or absent (Preston & Croft 2001),
including Ohrid Lake. Reproduction is mainly by vegetative means. Plants of E. canadensis die down in the winter,
regrowing from underground stems in spring. The plants fragment readily, and the fragments produce adventitious
roots (Preston & Croft 2001). E. canadensis is native in North America, where it is commonly occur in lakes, rivers
and canalsthroughout most of the temperate zone in the U.S. and frequent in southeast Canada (Simpson 1984),
mainly in base-rich waters (Bowmner et al.1995).
E. canadensis is first naturalized in Ireland in 1834 and on the continent in 1859 (Tutin et alt. Flora Europaea 1980).
Actually, this specie is naturalized almost throughout Europe, except for the Arctic and most of the islands.
E. canadensis grows rapidly in favorable conditions and can choke shallow canals, ponds and the margins of some
slow-flowing rivers. It was introduced into Ohrid Lake about 1957 through the channel Studencista , and later into
the waters of the river Drini i Zi and springs Tushemishti, Shen Naum, (Mullaj A. et alt. 2007).
Photo 1. Elodea canadensis
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Data on the distribution and habitat types were obtained from following sources: herbaria of the University of
Tirana, Faculty of Nature and Science, Biology Department, literature and field survey data collected by the authors
of this paper. The collection of macrophyte vegetation has been performed in 15 localities, i.e. 10 along the
Macedonian and 5 along the Albanian coastline of Lake Ohrid.Plant communities evaluation is based on qualitative
and quantitative characteristics and are classified through principals of ZurichMontpellie school.
Machrophyte procedure occurred in five different depth zones: 01 m, 12 m, 24 m , 4-10 m, > 10m. By this
procedure depth preferences of single species and changes of maximal depth distribution of macrophytes along the
shoreline could both be evaluated. (Imeri et.al 2012). Within a mapping section and depth zone all macophyte
species (spermatophyta, bryophyta and charophyta) were recorded and abundance estimated on a five-point scale
following (Txen & Preising 1942), where 1=very rare, 2= infrequent, 3= common, 4= frequent and 5= abundant.
RESULTS
Invaded habitats
In Ohrid Lake, E. canadensis grows in different places, especially in Tusheshimsht on the Albania part. Our
observations suggest that the establishment and rapid spread of this invasive species, comes as a result of the lack of
competition of native aquatic plants. Our observations and some notes in herbaria materials suggest that it can form
dense mats and outcompeting native aquatic species, though it is not know whether it is capable to persist as
dominating species in a particular site over a longer time. In lakes, abundance of E. canadensis is limited by higher
competition of native species, water depths and light availability. In most cases, abundance varies from 13 in five-
point scale.
Fig. 1. Elodea canadensis (abundance per depth zone per station)
Fig. 2. Elodea canadensis (abundance, 2-4m)
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Fig. 3. Elodea canadensis (abundance, 0-2 m)
Factors controlling E. canadensis in lakes
In lake Ohrid E. Canadensis grows in alkaline water with pH ranging from 69.5. It can tolerates a wide range of
growing conditions from polluted, nutrient-rich to high quality waters.
In exceptional cases, the species had been found in humic waters suggesting that perhaps moderately acid to acid
environment, albeit not typical, is not limiting its establishment. Either the authors from various European countries
mention that E. canadensis are able to grow in different trophic and acidity conditions: euthrophic (e.g. Walter et al.
2005), calcareous (Bowmer et al. 1995) or even brackish waters of the Bothnian Gulf in the Baltic Sea (Streftaris et
al. 2005). The adaptability to euthropic waters is related to ability to purify water in metabolic process and
accumulate both organic and inorganic nitrogen, thus the species could be used in removing nutrients from
hypereuthropic waters (Kozhova & Izhboldina 1993; Ozimek et
al. 1993). The tolerance against various environmental conditions in a combination with its dispersal strategy had
assured its enormous success in the introduced range.
The above mentioned aspects allow us to propose that the behavior of E. canadensis is different in natural and
human-created or strongly affected aquatic environments. As an unpredictable and tolerant species it is not suitable
as an indicator of water quality though its high abundance and presence of monospecific stands is often related to
anthropogenic impacts. In Ohrid Lake, there is little knowledge on biotic factors which can be crucial in the spread
of the species such as grazing pressure and competition with other plant species.
Options for management
In some European countries, management of Elodea species is being practiced. The biomass can be temporarily
reduced by removing the stands, thus reducing their proliferation. It is advised to prevent the spread by creating
filters downstream before any mechanical treatment is carried out. It is essential to prevent the dissemination of
fragments after removal to avoid accidental introduction to other potentially suitable locations (e.g. Wittenberg
2005). Although attributed with weedy nature and monospecific dominance, thus largely affecting the water
ecosystems as an undesired competitor and producer of large biomass, E.canadensis is completely naturalized in
water ecosystems in Ohrid Lake, and its control in unrealistic and most probably impractical from both conservation
and economical point of view.
CONCLUSIONS
Though there is no evidence of other Elodea species in aquatic environments in Ohrid lake, the intensive trade of
pond ornamentals and aquaria plants might result in unintentional release of new highly invasive plants. The
invasion history of E. canadensis demonstrates the high capability of rapid establishment of some non-native
invaders into natural environments,
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therefore new introductions of risky non-native aquatic plants should be avoided.
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Barrat-Segretain M.-H. 2001. Invasive species in the Rhone River floodplain (France): replacement of Elodea
canadensis Michaux by E. nuttallii St. John in two former river channels. Archiv fr Hydrobiologie, 152(2): 237-
251.
Barrat-Segretain M.-H. 2004. Growth of Elodea canadensis and Elodea nuttallii in monocultures and mixture under
different light and nutrient conditions. Archiv fr Hydrobiologie, 161(1): 133-144.
Barrat-Segretain M.-H. 2005. Competition between Invasive and Indigenous Species: Impact of Spatial Pattern and
Developmental Stage. Plant Ecology, 180(2): 153-160.
Bowmer K.H., Jacobs S.W.L., Sainty G.R. 1995. Identification, biology and management of Elodea canadensis,
Hydrocharitaceae. Journal of aquatic plant management, 33: 13- 19.
Erhard D., Gross E.M. 2006. Allelopathic activity of Elodea canadensis and Elodea nuttallii against epiphytes and
phytoplankton. Aquatic Botany, 85: 203-211.
Erhard D., Pohnert G., Gross E. 2007. Chemical defence in Elodea nuttallii reduces feeding and growth of aquatic
herbivorous Lepidoptera. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 33: 1646-1661.
Gudinskas Z. 1997. Conspectus of alien plant species of Lithuania. 1. Liliopsida (excluding Poaceae). Botanica
Lithuanica, 3(1): 3-23. Haynes R.R. Hydrocharitaceae. Flora of North America, 22, http://www.efloras.org (viewed
11.03.2009.).
Herder F. 1891. Botanisches Centralblatt. Referirendes Organ fr das Gesammtgebiet der Botanik des In- and
Ausland. 12. Jahrgang, pp. 4-5.
Hultn E., Fries M. 1986. Atlas of North European vascular plants: north of the Tropic of Cancer I-III. Koeltz
Scientific Books, Knigstein. Josefsson M., Andersson B. 2001. The environmental consequences of alien species in
the Swedish lakes Mwlaren,
Hjwlmaren, Vwnern and Vwttern. Ambio, 30(8): 514-521. Kozhova O.M., Izhnoldina L.A. 1993.
Spread of Elodea canadensis in Lake Baikal. Hydrobiologia, 259: 203-211.
Kukk T., Kull T., Lilleleht V., Ojaveer H. 2001. Vrliigid Eestis. Keskkonnaministeerium, Tallinn. Lambdon P.W.,
Pyek P., Basnou C., Hejda M., Arianoutsou M., Essl F., Jarok V., Pergl J. Winter M., Anastasiu P., Andriopoulos
P., Bazos I., Brundu G., Grapow-Celesti L., Delipetrou P., Josefsson M., Kark S., Klotz S., Kokkoris Y., Khn I.,
Merchante H., Perglova I., Pino J., Monserrat V., Zios A., Roy D., Hulme P.E. 2008. Alien flora of Europe: species
diversity, temporal trends, geographical patterns and research needs. Preslia, 80: 101-149.
Lehmann E. 1895. Flora von Polnisch-Livland mit besonderer Bercksichtigung der Florengebiete Nordwest-
Russlands, des Ostbalticums, der Gouvernements Pskow und St. Petersburg sowie der Verbreitung der Pflanzen
durch Eisenbahnen. Jurjew (Dorpat).
Madsen T.V., Brix H. 1997. Growth, phytosynthesis and acclimation by two submerged macrophytes in relation to
temperature. Oecologia, 110: 320-327.
Mossberg B., Stenberg L. 1992. Den nordiska floran. Wahlstrm & Widstrand, 696 pp. (in Swedish) Nichols S.A.,
Shaw B.H. 1986. Ecological life histories of the three aquatic nuisance plants, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton
crispus and Elodea canadensis. Hydrobiologia, 131: 3-21.
Mullaj A. et alt. (2007): Invasive Alien Species of Albania, Tirana
Ozimek T., van Donk E., Gulati R. 1993. Growth and nutrient uptake by two species of Elodea in experimental
condition and their role in nutrient accumulation in a macrophytedominated lake. Hydrobiologia, 251: 13-18.
Pagano A.M., Titus J.E. 2004. Submersed macrophyte growth at low pH: contrasting responses of three species to
dissolved inorganic carbon enrichment and sediment type. Aquatic botany, 79: 65-74.
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Rich T.C.G., Jermy A.C. 1998. Plant Crib 1998. BSBI, London, 391 pp.
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Simpson D.A. 1984. Short history of the introduction and spread of Elodea Michx in the British Isles. Watsonia, 15:
1-9.
Simpson D.A. 1988. Phenotypic plasticity of Elodea nuttallii (Planch.) H.St.John and Elodea canadensis Michx in
the British Isles. Watsonia, 17: 121-132.
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Starcs K. 1937. Kandas elodejas 100 gadi Eirop. Daba un Zintne, 6: 193-196. (in Latvian).
Streftaris N., Zenetos A., Papathanassiou E. 2005. Globalisation in marine ecosystems: the story of non-indigenous
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Tutin T.G., Chater A.O., Heywood V. H., Richardson I.B.K., Burges N. A., Valentine D. H., Walters S.M., Webb
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Wittenberg R. (ed.) 2005. An inventory of alien species and their threat to biodiversity and economy in Switzerland.
CABI Bioscience Switzerland Centre report to the Swiss Agency for Environment, Forests and Landscape.
PAPER 161
THE TIME DISTRIBUTION OF LAMBING THROUGHOUT A DAY IN AKKARAMAN EWES
Orhan ZALIK1, Ayhan ZTRK2

1
Provincial Directorate of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 42040 Konya/Turkey
2
University of Seluk, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, 42075 Campus, Konya /Turkey
ABSTRACT
Diurnal distribution of the time of natural spontaneous births was studied in the native Akkaraman sheep kept under
the traditional management system. Data from 288 births were collected from a commercial farm during two
consecutive years to determine the influence of ewe age, year of birth, lamb sex and birth type on time of parturition
in ewes. Time of birth was categorized into 4 sub-groups within a day; namely, 22.00:04.00, 04.00:10.00,
10.00:16.00, and 16.00:22.00 hours. Chi-Square statistic was used in determining the association of birth time with
dam age, sex, birth type, and year at a significance level of 0.05. Over the course of two years, 156 male and 156
female lambs were born from 288 births. The numbers of single and twin born lambs were 264 and 24, respectively.
Generally, 31.2% of all the births were mainly between 16.00:22.00 hours, but 15.6% were between 22.00: 04:00
hours. In addition, 52.9% of sheep gave birth during the day between 06:00 to 18:00 hours and 47.1% gave birth in
the night hours between 18:00 to 06:00. The effects of dam age and birth year on birth time were significant
(P<0.05) but the effects of sex and birth type were insignificant.
Keywords: Sheep, Akkaraman, lambing time, lamb sex, type of birth
INTRODUCTION
Animals can give birth at any time of day. However, it has been reported that certain species can primarily give birth
uniformly thoroughout the day (such as sheep), the night (such as horses), or the daytime (such as goats) (Romano
ve Piaggio, 1999).
Lambing in sheep can be more frequent at certain times (nal and Akapnar, 1994, Aoki and ark., 2006) and the
distribution of births throughout the day has been shown to differ between breeds (George, 1969). For instance,
while lambing in Hampshire and Dorset Horn species are most likely to occur in the early hours of the day, in
Merinos species, lambing occurs typically during the afternoon (nal and Akapnar, 1994).
There is no information on the distribution of time of births throughout the day in Akkaraman species that make up
nearly half of Turkeys sheep population. The purpose of this study is to research the distribution of natural
spontaneous births throughout the day and the factors that influence this distribution.
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The Akkaraman sheep used in this study were from a private farm in Konya's umra district, Taal village and
between the ages of 2-7 years during 2008 (106 births) and 2009 (182 births). The sheep were generally kept out in a
pasture to graze between the months of April and November, and sheltered in a pen during the other months. While
in a pen, they were fed 500-600 g barley meal, 600-700 g dried sugar beet pulp and as an ad-libitum wheat straw per
sheep. Clean drinking water was provided all day. Sheep were bred without any intervention, in which during the
breeding season of August through September, rams were kept with the herd and removed once breeding season was
over.
Lamb births took place between the months January-February. While the same person surveyed all births, lambs
showing signs of labor (sitting-standing, bleating, etc.) were taken to a lambing pen that was set up earlier.
Observations continued throughout the whole birthing process, after which the birth date, birth hour, birth type, sex
of lamb and age of ewe were all recorded. Unnatural, problematic births were not included in the study. Since the
number of lambs of ages six and seven were rather low (total 5), they were put under the same category.
In order to determine the most frequent time frame in which lambings occur, the day (24 hours) was divided into
four time frames: 22:00-04:00, 04:00-10:00, 10:00-16:00 and 16:00-22:00. The chi-square test ( ) was used to
determine whether the age of ewe, sex of lamb, birth type and the year have an affect on the time frame distribution
of lambings (Dzgne and ark., 1983).
RESULTS
During the two years of this study, 52.9% of sheep gave birth during the daytime (between the hours 06:00-18:00)
and 47.1% at night (between the hours 18:00-06:00). Thus, the majority the births took place in the daytime. A
similar result has been reported by Kaulfuss (2002) and Aleksiev (2007). The distribution of births in the four
different time frames is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The distribution of lambings between the years of 2008 and 2009 according to different times of day
Time of Day
Year 22:00-04:00 04:00-10:00 10:00-16:00 16:00-22:00 Total
n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
2008 23 21.7 34 32.1 16 15.1 33 31.1 106
2009 22 12.1 53 29.1 50 27.5 57 31.3 182
Total 45 15.6 87 30.2 66 22.9 90 31.3 288
As seen in Table 1, in the year 2008, 63.2% of 106 births were between the hours 4:00am-10:00am and 4:00pm-
10:00pm; in the year 2009, 60.4% of 182 births were between the hours 4:00am-10:00am and 4:00pm-10:00pm.
Statistically, the years effect on the number of births throughout different time frames show significant importance
in this study. There is currently no data in published literature on the effects of the various time frames throughout
the year on the number of births. Based on the chi-square test ( ) results, the distribution of births observed in
different time frames are statistically significant (P<0.01). Of the total 288 births that took place within a two year
time frame, many were observed to be between the hours of 16:00-22:00. While the second most frequent lambing
after the 16:00-22:00 time frame took place between the hours of 04:00-10:00, the least frequent lambing rate was
observed to be between the 22:00-04:00 time frame. This result shows that lambing in Akkaraman sheep occur most
frequently between specific hours. The various studies that have been made in other countries concerning the
distribution of births in different races and species of sheep throughout certain hours of the day, show similar results
(Lindahl 1964, Rossdale and Short 1967, Estes 1976, Holmes 1976, Tomar 1979, Hudgens and ark., 1986,
Alexander 1993, nal and Akapnar,1994).
The distribution of the frequency and ratio of births based on the age of distinct ewes by different time frames is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The distribution of the frequency and ratio of births based on the age of distinct ewes by different times of
Day
Time of Day
Age of 22:00-04:00 04:00-10:00 10:00-16:00 16:00-22:00 Total
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Ewes n % n % n % n %
2 3 13.64 4 18.18 8 36.36 7 31.82 22
3 12 16.67 15 20.83 13 18.06 32 44.44 72
4 20 16.67 27 22.50 34 28.33 39 32.50 120
5 7 10.94 35 54.69 10 15.63 12 18.75 64
6-7 5 14.71 14 41.18 6 17.65 9 26.47 34
As seen in Table 2, main lambing times for 2-year-old ewes, 3 and 4-year-old ewes, 5 and 6-7-year-old ewes were
observed to be between the hours 10:00-16:00, 16:00-22:00, and 04:00-10:00 respectively. Chi-square test statistics
demonstrate that the mother's age on the time of birth is statistically significant (P<0.01). No other research on the
dependence of birth time to the mother's age has been found in published literature, therefore, these results could not
be compared.
In the course of two years, from the 288 births, a total of 312 lambs were born, of which 156 were female and 156
male. The distribution of male and female births in ewes is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The distribution of male and female births in ewes

Time of Day
Sex of Lamb 22:00-04:00 04:00-10:00 10:00-16:00 16:00-22:00 Total
n n n n
Male 23 48 37 48 156
Female 24 47 34 51 156
Total 47 95 71 99 312
As seen in Table 3, the frequency of the distribution of male and female births throughout the day show
similar results. The findings of this statistical analysis indicate that the sex of the lamb has no significant effect on
time of birth (P>0.05); the distribution of both male and female births within the different time frames throughout
the day were found to be homogenous. There has been no evidence in published literature on the effects of the
lamb's sex on time of birth.
In the first year (2008), 9 out of 106 births; and in the second year, 15 out of 182 births have been observed to be
twin births. In 2008, twin births occurred at a rate of 8.4%, whereas in 2009, it was 8.2%. The hourly distribution of
the type of births is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. The distribution of the type of births at different time intervals

Time of Day
Birth Type 22:00-04:00 04:00-10:00 10:00-16:00 16:00-22:00 Total
n n n n
Single 43 79 61 81 264
Twin 2 8 5 9 24
Total 45 87 66 90 288
As a result, statistically it has been shown that birth type does not have any significant effect on time of birth. This
result is similar to those of other studies (Younis and El-Gaboury, 1978; Aleksiev, 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the finding in this study, it has been determined that the normal, natural birth of Akkaraman sheep occur at
every hour of the day, but the majority occurs between the hours of 4:00am-10:00am and 4:00pm-10:00pm. When
ewes show first signs of labor, it is important to determine the exact time of birth so that breeders can be by the
animals side and intervene if necessary; this will enable breeders to provide better conditions for newborn lambs in
the shortest time possible. As a result, the vitality of lambs will increase, thereby, increasing profits for firms.
REFERENCES
Aleksiev, Y., 2007. Diurnal distrubition of the time of parturition in the Danube Fine Wool Breed of sheep. Bulg. J.
Agric. Sci., 13: 723-728.
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Alexander, G., 1993. The timing of birth in grazing Merino sheep. Aust. J. Exp. Agr., 33: 557-560.
Aoki, M. K. Kimura, Suziki,O., 2006. Influence of feedingregime on timing of parturition in beef cattle and the
relationship of vaginal temperature to parturition. Anim. Sci., J.,77:290-299.
Dzgne, O., Kesici, T., Grbz, F., 1983. statistik metodlar I. Ank. niv. Zir. Fak. Yay. Yay. No: 861, Ankara.
(Statistical methods. Ank. niv. Agric. Fac. Pub. Nu. 861, Ankara)
Estes, R. D. 1976., The significance of breeding synhcrony in the Wildbeest. East Afric. Wildlife J, 14: 135-156.
George,J., 1969. Variation in the time of parturition of Merino and Dorset Horn ewes. J. Agric.Sci.,73:295-299.
Holmes, R. J., 1976. Relationship of parturient behaviour to reproductive efficiency of Finn sheep. Anim. Prod., 36:
253-257.
Hudgens, R. E., Albright, J. L., Penningion, J. A., 1986. Influence of feeding time and diet on the time of parturition
in multiparous ewes. J. Anim. Sci., 63: 1036-1040.
Kaulfuss, K.H., 2002. Duration of pregnancy and diurnal distribution of lambing in sheep with different genotypes.
Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 109(1):3-7.
Lindahl, J. L., 1964. Time of parturition in ewes. Anim. Behav., 12: 231-234.
Romano,J., Piaggio,J., 1999. Time of parturition in Nubian Goats. Small Rum. Res., 33:285-288.
Rossdale, P. D., Short, R.V., 1967. The time of foaling of throughbreed mares. J. Rep. Fer., 13: 341-343.
Tomar, S. S., 1979. Time of parturition in sheep. Ind. J. Anim. Res., 13: 68-70.
nal, N., Akapnar, H., 1994. Koyunlarda davran. Hayv. Ara. Derg., 4 (2): 113-123. (Behaviour of sheep. J.
Anim. Res., 4 (2): 113-123)
Younis, A. A., Gaboury, L. A. H., 1978. On the diurnal variation in lambing and time for placenta expulsion in
Awassi ewes. J. Agric. Sci., 91: 757-760.
PAPER 162
MILK AND WOOL PRODUCTION TRAITS OF AKKARAMAN SHEEP RAISED UNDER SEMI
INTENSIVE CONDITIONS
Birol Da1
1
Seluk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Konya/TURKEY
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to determine milk and wool production traits of Akkaraman sheep raised under semi
intensive conditions of TGEM Gzl State Farm in Konya province. Data were collected from 1043 lactation
records for milk production traits and 244 fleece records for wool production traits. Least squares means
respectively, were determined as 57.8 l for marketable milk yield (MMY), 157.8 days for lactation period (LP),
114.6 days for milking period (MP), 482.1 ml for average daily milk yield (ADMY), 684.0 ml for maximum daily
milk yield (MDMY), 2.24 kg for greasy fleece weight (GFW), 1.57 kg for clean fleece weight (CFW), 11.50 cm for
staple length (SL), 13.98 cm for fiber length (FL), 10.18 for average number of crimps over a length of 5 cm
(ANC), 31.35 for fiber diameter (FD), 6.06 % for medullated fiber ratio (MFR), 2.72 % for kemp fiber ratio
(KFR) and 65.34 % for wool yield (WY). Year had a significant effect on MMY, LP, CFW (p<0.05), ADMY,
MDMY, SL, FL and WY (p<0.01). Birth type had no significant effect on all milk production traits. Except for
ANC and KFR, age had a significant effect on the other traits (p<0.05; p<0.01). Effect of sex on GFW, CFW, SL,
FL (p<0.01) and WY (p<0.05) were significant. Repeatabilities were estimated as 0.276, 0.796, 0.765, 0.450, 0.474,
0.669, 0.710, 0.485, 0.586, 0.693, 0.831, 0.693, 0.816 and 0.651 for MMY, LP, MP, ADMY, MDMY, GFW, CFW,
SL, FL, ANC, FD, MFR, KFR and WY respectively.
Key words: Akkaraman, Lactation, Milk Yield, Fleece Weight, Repeatability
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INTRODUCTION
Sheep population of Turkey consists of about 24000000 heads (Anonymous, 2013). Akkaraman is one of the fat
tailed sheep breeds of Turkey. It has the largest population (above 40 % of the total sheep population) among the
sheep breeds of the country (Erturul, 1997). The Akkaraman breed is distributed throughout central Anatolia. It is
very hardy and strives well under poor feeding and extreme climatic conditions. The husbandry is typically
extensive, with animals kept in simple sheep-sheds during winter, when they are fed on straw. In some flocks,
animals receive some hay and limited amount of concentrates for a short period before and after lambing. Mating
takes place in September and October, with lambing in February and March. Lambs are weaned at about 2-3 months
of age, after which ewes are milked. The milking period is 2-3 months. Lactation milk yield is about 70-130 kg.
Body weights for mature ewes and rams are 50-70 kg and 72-100 kg respectively. Average greasy fleece weight is
about 2.0 kg. Tail weight generally changes from 4 to 6 kg.
Sheep milk is an important product for Turkey. Total milk production of Turkey is about 15 million tons.
Approximately 5.95 % of total milk production is produced by sheep (Anonymous, 2013). Total red meat production
of the country is approximately 943 thousand tons and the share of sheep meat is about 26.83 % (Anonymous,
2011). Akkaraman breed has an important share in these productions. There are few studies on the lactation milk
yields of native sheep breeds of Turkey. The lack of studies on the complete lactation of native sheep breed is
particularly due to the fact that in most sheep production systems are extensive. In these systems, lambs are allowed
to suck for at least 30 days post lambing. Milk recording is difficult and requires extra labor. Generally it is started
after weaning. However in some studies especially carried out in the state farms, milk recording was started at
beginning of the lactation in order to estimate whole lactation milk yield (Gney and Pekel 1981; Grsoy and zcan
1983; Vanl et al. 1984; Akbulut 1986; Dayolu and Akyurt 1988; Torun ve zcan 1991; Akmaz 1994).
Akkaraman sheep has carpet-wool type with a coarse, mixed wool fleeces with long straight outer coats and short
undercoats. Average fiber diameter changes from 29 to 35 microns (Batu and zcan, 1962; Pekel, 1968;
Sandkolu et al. 1968; Teke, 1973; Gney, 1979; Bapnar, 1985). Some of the fleeces is sold at low prices (1
USD/kg) and a small part of it, is used for handmade traditional products.
In recent years, Turkeys sheep husbandry has gradually changed from extensive to semi-intensive management
systems due to the decreasing grassland areas and impoverishment of pastures. Hence, there is a need for
determining the production traits of native sheep breeds of Turkey under raised both intensive and semi-intensive
management systems. This study was carried out to determine milk and wool production traits of Akkaraman sheep
raised under semi intensive conditions of TGEM Gzl State Farm in Konya province.
Data were collected from 1043 lactation records for milk production traits and 244 fleece records for wool
production traits of from a registered Akkaraman flock raised in the State Farm of Gzl in Konya province (38 o
27'N, 32o 22'E and 930 m above sea level). Ewes were classified in eight age groups as 1 (n=6), 2 (n=178), 3
(n=156), 4 (n=273), 5 (n=267) 6 (n=81), 7 (n=52) and 8 (n=30) years old. Mating starts September and lasts for 40
days. Lambing occurs between February and March. Ewes were hand milked twice daily and the first milk test was
performed within the first month after lambing in an attempt to describe the peak yield. All lambs sucked their dams
freely until first milk recordings. They were on a residual suckling regime until 75 days of age, when they were
weaned completely from milk. During the residual suckling period, lambs joined their dams after morning and
evening milking for residue suckling by a period of 30 minutes each. The lactating ewes were grazed from April to
December. They were kept and given food indoors through the winter. Milk yield was recorded fortnightly and
marketable milk yield (MMY) was calculated by using the Holland method; MMYi= /n ] x L where MMYi
is marketable milk yield of ith ewes, is daily milk yield of ith ewes at record i, n is record numbers in a year, L is
milking period of ith ewes.
Sheep were shorn once in a year at the beginning of summer. Fleece weights were measured by hand scales sensible
to 50 g and recorded after shearing. Wool samples were taken from shoulder, side and rump sections of each animal.
After that wool properties were determined (Doehner and Reumuth, 1964; zcan, 1990; Ertugrul, 1991).
Data were analyzed by the least square methods. Milk yield traits were analyzed using the following linear model:
Yijkl= +ai+bj+ck+eijkl where Yijkl: observation on ijklmth trait; : overall mean; ai: effect of ith year (i=1, 2, 3); bj:
effect of jth lambing type (i=1, 2) ck: effect of age (k=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8); eijkl: random error. This model is also
current for wool traits; but in there, bj states the effect of sex instead of lambing type. Differences between the
means were compared by Duncans Multiple Range Test using MSTAT-C Range Program (1989).
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Repeatabilities of milk and wool traits were estimated by Harveys (1987) Mixed Model Least Squares and
Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (LSMLMV.PC-1 Version).
RESULTS
Factors effecting milk production traits and least square means for marketable milk yield (MMY), lactation period
(LP), milking period (MP), average daily milk yield (ADMY) and maximum daily milk yield (MDMY) of
Akkaraman ewes were presented in Table 1.
In the study, marketable milk yield (MMY) of Akkaraman ewes raised under semi-intensive conditions of Gzl
State Farm located in central Anatolia were found as 57.8 kg for a milking period of 114.6 days. This value is higher
than the findings of Pekel and Gney (1974); (31.0 kg) and Gney (1979); (44.2 kg) related to MMY for the
Akkaraman breed raised in the same farm. It can be said that, there were small progresses achieved for the
management conditions. Lactation milk yield can be estimated as at least approximately 80 kg by taking into
consideration of LP, ADMY and MDMY. Lactation milk yields reported for unimproved Awassi sheep are
generally higher than the present studys findings (Gney,1979; Grsoy ve zcan, 1983; Akbulut, 1986; Dayolu,
1987; Grsoy et al., 1992). Values for the milk production traits given in Table1 were in general agreement with
those in the literature reported for Akkaraman and Morkaraman sheep (Yaln and Akta, 1969; Akta, 1970;
Akbulut, 1986).
Effects of year on milk production traits were statistically significant except for milking period. Because of milking
being a routine, it is an expected situation. Milk yield has increased over the years in the study by improving
management conditions. Effect of year on MMY was reported as significant in some studies (Vanl, 1974; Gney,
1979; Vanl et al., 1984; Akbulut, 1986; Rogdakis et al., 1989), but Dayolu (1987) stated otherwise. Although the
twin birth ewes produced 2.5 kg more milk than single birth ewes, the difference was not significant. Similar
findings reported by Akmaz (1994) for Konya Merino ewes. Usually it is reported that twin birth ewes give more
milk than single birth ewes (Rogdakis et al., 1989 in Karagouniko; Peeters et al.,1992 in Flemish, Suffolk, Texel;
Gabina et al., 1993 in Latxa ewes).
Table 1. Factors effecting milk production traits and least square means for marketable milk yield (MMY), lactation
period (LP), milking period (MP), average daily milk yield (ADMY) and maximum daily milk yield (MDMY)
Factors N MMY/l LP/day MP/day ADMY/ml MDMY/ ml
MeanSE MeanSE MeanSE MeanSE MeanSE
Year 1992 247 54.33.2b 160.73.7a 112.93.7 457.217.1B 622.628.5B
ab b AB
1993 541 57.82.8 154.63.3 115.23.3 482.751.1 721.025.2A
a ab A
1994 255 61.32.9 157.93.4 115.73.4 504.815.9 708.426.5A
Lambing Single 760 56.62.7 156.43.1 113.33.1 476.914.4 674.224.0
Type Twin 283 59.12.9 159.13.4 115.83.4 486.315.7 693.826.2
1 6 60.911.1abc 167.712.8a 125.512.8a 457.559.3c 697.598.9bc
e b e c
2 178 51.12.2 152.72.5 108.22.5 458.311.5 638.419.3c
de b e c
3 156 52.52.2 152.92.6 108.62.6 462.411.9 649.619.9bc
cde b ed bc
Age 4 273 54.91.7 154.42.0 110.62.0 477.39.3 662.215.5bc
bcd b cd abc
5 267 57.81.9 158.42.2 115.12.2 482.710.2 676.717.1bc
ab b bc ab
6 81 62.23.2 158.13.7 117.13.7 514.217.1 717.328.6ab
abc ab ab c
7 52 60.33.9 161.44.5 121.84.5 462.221.0 675.635.1bc
ab a ab abc
8 30 62.57.3 166.47.7 121.67.1 496.949.2 743.954.8a
Overall 1043 57.82.7 157.83.1 114.63.1 482.114.2 684.023.6
AB
: Within a column, means with a different superscript are different (p<0.01). abcde : Within a column, means with a
different superscript are different (p<0.05.)
Effects of age on milk production traits were found to be significant (p<0.01). According to MMY of age groups,
there was not a regular relationship among age groups. Except for 1and 8 age groups, milk yield showed a slow
increase up to age 6 and a slight decrease at age 7. First mating age is normally 18 months of age, but sometimes
rapid growing female lambs can mate during the mating season. Also their udders grow well and milk production of
them sufficient for their lambs. Finding high MMY in age 8 can be expressed as keeping the high yielding ewes
until this age culling the low yielding ewes in the farm. It can be seen that there is stable relationship among age
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groups, when the ADMY and MDMY values are investigated. As seen in the Table 1, it is concluded that milk yield
of Akkaraman ewes in the present study increases until the age 6. Maximum milk yield was also reported as 5 years
of age by Finci (1957), Eliin (1970) (in Awassi) and Vanl et al., (1984) (in Morkaraman). Least square means for
greasy fleece weight (GFW), clean fleece weight (CFW), staple length (SL), fiber length (FL), average number of
crimps over a length of 5 cm (ANC), fiber diameter (FD), medullated fiber ratio (MFR), kemp fiber ratio (KFR),
wool yield (WY) and significance of the factor effects were given in Table 2.
Table 2. Least square means for GFW, CFW, SL, FL, ANC, FD, MFR, KFR, WY and significance of the factor
effects
Traits N MeanSE Significance of factor effects
Year Sex Age

GFW (kg) 244 2.240.07 ns ** **
CFW (kg) 187 1.570.07 * ** *
SL (cm) 251 11.500.21 ** ** *
FL (cm) 251 13.980.24 ** ** *
ANC (n) 251 10.180.51 ** ns ns
FD () 227 31.350.65 ns ns **
MFR (%) 227 4.280.64 * ns ns
KFR (%) 227 2.720.62 * ns *
WY (%) 187 65.341.73 ** * *
**:p<0.01; *: p<0.05; ns: non significant
GFW of Akkaraman sheep (2.24 kg) was in general agreement with those in the literature focused on Akkaraman
(Dzgne and Pekel, 1968; Pekel and Gney 1974, Gney, 1979). GFW in the present study is higher than the
findings that reported for Morkaraman sheep (Mftolu, 1974; Vanl, 1974; Akbulut 1986; Dayolu1987 and
zsoy et al., 1990). SL and FL values can change by inter-shearing period. The 11.50 cm SL in the study is similar
to that reported for Morkaraman (11.30 cm) and Akkaraman (11.02) breeds (Vanl, 1974; Gney, 1979).
Akkaraman sheep is a typical carpet wool producing breed, its fleece is composed of coarse-mixed fibers. FD which
is one the most important wool traits was determined as 31.35 micron in this study. This value was found to be
similar to the findings of previous studies above.
Except for GFW and FD, year had a significant effects all the other wool production traits. Vanl (1974) and Torun
et al. (1993) also stated that year had no effect on GFW, but Grsoy (1980), Akbulut (1986), zsoy et al. (1990) and
DellAquilla et al.(1993) reported otherwise. Nutritional status of the flocks, climatologic factors and shearing
season may have changed wool production by the years.
Effect of sex on GFW, CFW, SL, FL (p<0.01), WY (p<0.05) were found to be significant. It is an expected
situation, mature live weight of rams heavier than ewes so the fleece covered body surface area and GFW in rams
more than ewes. However effect of sex on FD, ANC, MFR, KFR were not significant. There are relationships
among these characteristics; in general, FD is getting finer, ANC increases but MFR and KFR decrease. Effect of
sex on these traits was found to be compatible.
Age had a significant effect on wool production traits except for ANC and MFR. But there was not a regular
relationship among ages. Lambs are not usually shorn in the birth year and first shearing is done at the 15-16 months
of age. For this reason, greasy fleece weight of firstly shorn ewes heavier than the others. In general, wool yield
increases proportionally by increasing age and live weight until reaching the mature body size and then decreases
slowly by the advancing ages. Although the effect of age on FD, KFR and WY had significant, its effect on these
traits was found to be irregular. In Awassi sheep, zder and zcan (1990) emphasized the effect of age on FD as
significant, in contrast, Grsoy (1980) and zcan et al. (1983) reported insignificant age effect on FD.
Repeatabilities for milk and wool production traits were given in Table 3. Repeatability of any character is accepted
as upper limit of heritability. Sometimes h2 cannot be estimated from the data set such as in sire uncertainty, and
then repeatability can be considered as the approximate estimate of the upper limit of heritability. Heritabilities for
milk yield production traits in sheep is usually low-moderate and changes between 0.10- 0.35 (Carriedo et al. 1995
(in Churra); Sanna et al. 1997 (in Sarda); El-Saied et al. 1999 (in Spanish Churra); Pollott and Gootwine, 2001 (in
Awassi); Serrano et al. 2001 (in Latxa and Manchega); Othmane et al. 2002 (in Churra)). In the present study,
repeatability for MMY was found as 0.276. It is slightly higher than that reported by Martinez et al. (2011) in
Chilota and Suffolk Down breeds, but, in general it is lower than the repeatabilities those reported in other breeds
mentioned above.
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Repeatabilities for LP, MP, ADMY and MDMY were found to be higher than MMYs repeatability (between 0.450
and 0.796). There are usually positive high correlations between milk yield traits. Especially the correlation between
total milk yield and maximum daily milk yield was reported as higher in some studies (Vanl et al. 1984; Gabina et
al. 1993). It may be concluded that, a selection based on the LP and MDMY could be indirectly enhanced total milk
yield.
Table 3. Repeatabilities of milk and wool production traits
Traits N r Sr Traits N r Sr
MMY 693 0.2760.048 SL 172 0.4850.083
LP 693 0.7960.020 FL 172 0.5860.071
MP 693 0.7650.022 ANC 172 0.6930.056
ADMY 693 0.4500.042 FD 176 0.8310.033
MDMY 693 0.4740.041 MFR 176 0.6930.056
GFW 190 0.6690.065 KFR 176 0.8160.036
CFW 142 0.7100.059 WY 142 0.6510.069
CONCLUSIONS
Wool production traits had moderate to high repeatabilities. Repeatabilities for GFW and CFW in Merino and
Morkaraman reported by zsoy (1974) and Vanl (1974) were lower than the present studys values. In general, the
repeatabilities of the wool production traits given in Table 3 were agreement with the common findings for sheep
breeds reported by Kaymak and Snmez (1992). Also, it is well known that the heritabilities of these traits are
usually higher. As a result, it can be said that, the selection for these traits would be efficient.
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PAPER 163
HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS DURING MECHANICAL PROCESSING OF

WOOD IN ALBANIA
Arben Bejtja1, Arben Boari2, Holta ota1

1
Agricultural University of Tirana , Faculty of Forest Sciences, Wood Industry Department, Tirana, Albania;
2
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Economy & Agribusiness, Departement of Mathematics &
Informatics,Tirana, Albania;
E-mail: arbenbejtja@yahoo.fr; bbocari@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
During the processing of wood, in various types of machinery and mechanical processing lines, a large amount of
waste in the form of sawdust, shavings and dust is created. The fast removal of these types of dust is necessary not
only for the normal running of the processing, but for the creation of appropriate hygiene conditions on the ward as
well. Tiny particles of dust, flying in the air and continuously falling on equipment, walls and columns enter humans
during breathing. Inhalation of large quantities of wood dust causes illness and cancer. Therefore the fast and timely
removal of dust and waste directly during wood processing is a problem with a significant environmental impact.
Key words: dust, wood, mechanical processing, environment, pollution, human health.
INTRODUCTION
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Classification of trees. Wood is part of the tree which is found under the bark. Trees are relatively complex and
heterogenic material. They are composed by a number of same elements for all species as well as by specific
components regarding to any particular class of them.
Some of them are toxins (flavonoids, quinones, tannins, terpenes, etc.). In addition to these, other waste chemical
products added by human being for protection purposes, against parasites etc, can also be found in wood.
According to their compactness, trees are divided into hardwood and softwood, without having a distinguish line
between them In general hardwoods contain more organic polar components rather than other category (softwood).
In IARC volume 62/1995 "Monographs on the Evaluation of carcinogenic risk to humans, wood dust and
formaldehyde" a summary can be found of hardwoods and softwoods.
The dust obtained from harvesting activities in the forest and first breakdown in the sawmill are not defined as
cancerous. One particularity, which is considered as dangerous, remains the exposure to bacterial and fungal spores.
Dusts from hardwoods. Dust is a particle with an aerodynamic diameter less than 100 m. Wood dust is formed
during wood processing in various types of processing machinery. The amount of dust produced and its size depends
on the type of material processed, the type of machinery, the used cutting tool, the cutting speed etc. This dust is
scattered from cutting tool with a certain speed and stays suspended in the air for some time that mainly depends on
the size and weight of the particles and the circumstantial conditions of the work environment. The larger particle is,
the faster it loses terminal velocity and the faster it falls.
A piece of dust can be inhaled by the operators in the work environment. When the dust is inhaled it is deposited in
the nose, in the upper and lower respiratory ways. The amount of dust deposited within the respiratory ways depends
on the size, shape, density and the velocity of the inhalation. Inhalable particulate fraction is that fraction of a dust
cloud that can be breathed into the nose or mouth. Inhaled particles are particles with a diameter less than 100 m.
Those over 25 m diameter are most of the time deposited in the nose. Particles with diameter greater than 10m are
deposited in the thorax, while particles with diameter less than 10 m are (respirable particles) deposited on the
lower respiratory system (alveolar area).
According to many studies, the exposure or inhalation of saw dust gives an amount on health effects such as:
Dermatological disorders related to irritation or sensitization of the exposed parts, largely hands.
Irritative effects at the level of 'respiratory system (upper airways and deep regions)
Asthma(Thuja Plicata)
Chronic bronchitis
Extrinsic allergic alveolitis (from mold contamination of the timber).
Cancer of nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. According to studies, this tumor a affects 5 to 10,000 workers per year,
who are exposed to hardwood dust, while it affects 1 person in 1 million, who is unexposed to it.
To workers who are exposed to wood dust, these tumors occur at ages 50-60. The first symptoms may include: a
feeling of a closed nose and nasal bleeding which occurs to one side generally.
In 1995, the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) has classified wood dust in group 1 which
provides:
Group 1. The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of
carcinogenicity in humans. (IARC MONOGRAFS Volume 62)
Based on the above data and the above classification, the IARC has fixed a limit value for exposure to wood dust:
5mg/m3 (inhaled fraction) measured in a period of 8 hours, which should fit in the presence of any wood dust
mixture containing hardwood.
In 1999 the EU directive 1999/38/CE cites oak dust and beech dust as confirmed cancerous sources.
The directive 2004/37/CE of the European Union has fixed a limit value of 5mg/m3 for wood dust as an average
value of 8 working hours per day.
Different countries have set limits to the amount of air dust.
The NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) [NIOSH, 2000] has fixed a limit of 1mg/m3
value for all types of wood dust, underscoring the cancerous danger.
The ACGIH (American Conference of Industrial Hygienists), has set in 2010 a value limit of 1mg/m3 for all types
of powders of trees and gave a value of 0.5mg/m3 limit for the western red cedar (with the sensitizing effect and
asthma). In addition, the ACGIH has registered the cancerous effects of oak and beech dust (class A1) and its
suspicion on the cancerous effects of mahogany, teak, betula and juglans dust (class A2.). Where:
A1: Known carcinogens: the agent is carcinogen towards humans, based on the results of epidemiological studies.
A2: Suspected carcinogen: the data collected by studies are questionable or insufficient to classify the agent as
carcinogen towards humans, or the agent is carcinogen towards animals as shown in experiments.
Germany has set a value limit of 2mg/m3 for all types of wood dust [DFG, 2004].
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In Italy (2008) the limit value is defined as 5mg/m3 for hardwood

In France (2007) the limit is 1mg/m3 for hardwood.
Given the importance of the problem and the requirements above, we thought of undertaking a study where we
collected data on the situation of wood processing industry in Albania. To conduct the study we proceeded as stated
below:
The development of a complex questionnaire, which included a variety of topics on the current state of
manufacturing entities in timber industry.
Data collection for the biggest possible number of subjects distributed in many regions of the country with the
survey method
Additional data on the number of subjects on Wood Processing and the number of workers, by INSTAT.
Data on imports of materials like particle board, MDF, plywood, boards, etc. by the Albanian Customs.
Extraction of data on the amount of timber that is processed by internal resources, in discussion with the Association
of Wood Processors of Albania.
Scientific and statistical processing of data.
The sections of the questionnaire used for data collection includes the following main aspects:
General information on business and legal form.
Data and other main activities
Data on the number of employees and those directly engaged in production.
Materials and raw materials used and their storage conditions.
Machinery used.
Cutting tools and their treatment.
Working conditions and environmental pollution. (Notice that it was impossible to ask directly how many workers
are exposed towards dust because for some this question was stated as sensitive.
Waste and their management
In presented paper, we are focused on some data regarding health of workers and environmental pollution resulting
from residues of wood processing industry.
Classification of subjects by number of employment. According to the Association of Wood Processors for the year
2012, in Albania the wood processing industry included 1793 business with over 11,000 employees. Despite our
intention, the Albanian Institute of Statistics has not been able to provide us reliable data for the sector.
Tab. 1 Number of business according to number of employees*
Total Number of business according to number of employees.

business
1-4 5-9 10-30 31-50 Over 50
1793 1312 345 67 46 23
*Businesses that produce sawmills are excluded.
Most of them are small businesses (73%) and remain part are considered as large businesses. Almost all small
businesses are family business with a limited number of employees. These businesses conduct their activities within
their urban or rural residence or in the ground floors of urban buildings. The materials used are laminated
particleboard, MDF, less plywood and almost no lumber.
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Classification of subjects according to the main activity. Despite our countrys large imports of furniture, it is
noticed that the production of such items is an important percentage. The chart below shows that 78% of these
businesses deal with furniture manufacturing, 12% in manufacturing doors and windows, 8% in manufacturing
upholstery and 2% with wood panel products.
Types of raw material used. Data from the General Directorate of Customs and information from the Association
of Wood Processors, the consumption of wood materials for 2011 and 2012 are as in the table below
Tab. 2 Consumption of wood materials for 2011-2012
Consumption of wood materials for 2011-2012
Material Particleboard MDF Plywood Imported and Albanian sow mill products
Year Beech Oak Fir Others
2011 75200 50881 1712 73750 18540 5460 5008
2012 75915 48287 2082 66930 13890 7815 4428
Note: In others these species are included: Prunus species, Acer, Fraxinus, Teak, Palisander, Iroko, Obeshe,
Mahogany, etc.
The data of table expressed as % are given in the chart below:
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As seen from the data above, the most commonly used materials include wood from beech, oak; dusts of which are
classified as cancerous.
The dust of the wood species marked on table 3 are considered dangerous for human health.
Tab. 3 Common wood species
Softwood Hardwood Tropical hardwood

Species Common Species Common Species Common
name name name
Abies Fir Acer Maple Agathis australis Kauri pine
Chamaecyparis Cedar Alnus Alder Chlorophora Iroko
excelsa
Cupressus Cypress Betula Birch Dacrydium Rimu, red pine
cupressinum
Larix Larch Carya Hickory Dalbergia Palisander
Picea Spruce Carpinus Hornbeam Dalbergia nigra Brazilian
rosewood
Pinus Pine Castanea Chestnut Diospyros Ebony
Pseudotsuga Douglas fir Fagus Beech Khaya African
menziesii mahogany
Sequoia Redwood Fraxinus Ash Mansonia Mansonia,
sempervirens bete
Thuja Thuja Juglans Walnut Ochroma Balsa
Tsuga Hemlock Platanus Sycamore Palaquium Nyatoh
hexandrum
Populus Poplar Pericopsis elata Afrormosia
Prunus Cherry Shorea Meranti
Salix Willow Tectona grandis Teak
Querqus Oak Terminalia Limba, afara
superba
Tilia Lime Triplochiton Obeshe
scleroxylon
Ulmus Elm
Classification of subjects according to the level of mechanization of internal transport. An important indicator
of the progress of technology and the creation of favorable work conditions is the mechanization of internal
transport. Internal transport, depending on the work process, can be accomplished simply with arm strength, with
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simple tools (platform trucks, hand pallet trucks) with different cranes (forklift truck, gantry cranes, bridge cranes,
etc.) with various rollers with belt conveyors, roller conveyors, lifting tables etc. and by systems of suction.
The data is given in the following chart.
The use of waste in form of dust, sawdust, and chips. From the study made, it has been stated that there is no
consistent approach to the use of waste. In general, all small firms throw waste by mixing it with others. There are
some that sell it for burning in kilns and bedding for livestock. There are very few businesses, mainly large ones to
making technical exploitation of their waste using them in furnaces for heat production or to produce wood pellets
or wood briquettes.
But there is worse. In some districts, the waste in the form of sawdust and dust are thrown into rivers and streams,
destroying their fauna.
Data from measurements. The Measurements made of sawdust particles (Cota. H) in the drilling process on different
wood and wood based panels are carried out through device ParticleScanPro.
The evidence shows that around 80% of the particles are smaller than 1m in diameter, with the concentration 0.3-
0.5 m.
With data on the number of particles for each diametrical group, it was calculated their content in mg/m3 air.
For each diametrical group, we have determined the average terminal velocity.
It is noted that the terminal velocity is very small and very small air currents can distribute particles from where they
are produced, in the whole working space.
RESULTS
After 1990 wood processing in Albania by a state industry organized in several factories and plants, was developed
into the form of small and medium businesses where the majority includes small businesses with a limited number
of employees. Almost all small businesses are located within residential areas.
Most of these businesses have imported used machinery and equipment, manufactured before 1998, from countries
around Albania. There are few businesses that have refurbished by introducing modern machinery technology with
contemporary parameters. They generally use as raw materials planks: beach, querqus, particle board, MDF,
plywood and fewer planks: fir, poplar and exotic woody. The different studies confirm that dust produced from the
processing of these materials constitutes a serious risk to the health of persons exposed.
From field surveys, almost all small businesses do not use general and local exhaust systems of suction.
The data collected from tests showing that air pollution from dust exceeds 20 times the allowed rate. The amount of
dust that can be inhaled without suction systems and personal protection constitutes a serious risk to health.
Even the big businesses that have suction systems do not provide proper air cleaning. It is noted that they are
intended merely for the purpose of waste disposal without taking into consideration the factors discussed above.
There are plenty aspiration systems ending with cyclones and no filters to clean the air. This brings environmental
pollution outside and beyond.
CONCLUSIONS
To improve this situation must be done:
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Adoption of laws and procedures from the legal framework of the European Community (the Acquis
Communautaire).
To force all appropriate entities to use general and local exhaust systems of suction.
To force employees to keep personal protective device.
Organizing workshops on employee orientation regarding the risk of exposure from dust and ways to use systems of
suction ventilation. Everyone should understand that he is responsible not only for himself but also for the society.
Update existing systems of suction in the all constituent elements, in order to improve the effectiveness of air
cleanup in relation to hygienic norms.
The Ministry of Health and Institute of Public Health should force dependant institutions to keep records on
occupational diseases which are observed on woodworking workers who are in direct contact with dust.
According to stabilized European norms (1998) for wood machines (e.g. for EN860/1998 thickness planner, EN
940/1998 combined machines) the constructor must supply the vehicle with collection devices and indicate the
aerodynamic parameters necessary for appropriate links with the suction device. The suction systems should provide
an air velocity of no less than 20m/sec for dried materials and 28m/sec for non dried materials. So the first step
when buying new machinery is that it must match these standards or older machineries must be adapted to these
norms. Capture devices should be constructed and placed in such a way that they can ensure that batches of chips
and dust produced from cutting device enter directly into it.
This should be associated with installations of ventilation systems for fresh and warm air. Installations within the
unit should only be suctioning
The air filters should be calculated taking into account not only the amount of air they filter, but also the small
fractions of particles that are inhaled by man
Sanding vehicles should be connected to independent systems of suction
REFERENCES
IARC (International Agency For Research on Cancer).Vol 62 1995.

NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health) Cincinnati, OH, 2000.
SCOEL (Scientific Committee for Occupational Exposure Limits). Recommendation from the SCOEL: risk
assessment for wood dust. 2003
Dahlqvist M., Johard U., Alexandersson R., Bergstrme B., Ekholm U., Eklund A., Milosevich B., Tornling G.,
Ulfvarson U. Lung function and precipitating antibodies in low exposed wood trimmers in Sweden. Am. J. Ind.
Med. 21: 549-559. 1992.
ACGIH (American Conference of Industrial Hygienists) Cincinnati, Ohio. 2010
Harper M., Akbar M.Z. and Andrew M.E. Comparison of wood-dust aerosol size distributions collected by air
samplers. J Work Environ Health., 6(1), 18-22. 2004.
Harper M. and Muller B.S. An evaluation of total and inhalable samplers for the collection of wood dust in three
wood products industries. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 4(5), 648-656. 2002.
ota H. Study on the air dust level during drilling processes of wood and wood based panels. 1998.
Gitte Jacobsen, Respiratory diseases and exposure in the Danish Furniture Industry: A 6 year follow-up, 2007
F. Nerozzi , N. Rosini, A. Innocenti, C. Ciapini, U.F. Prevenzione, Igiene e Sicurezza Luoghi di Lavoro U.S.L. 3
(Pistoia)
Report on Carcinogens Twelfth Edition 2011 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service
National Toxicology Program
Hazard Prevention and Control in the Work Environment: Airborne Dust WHO/SDE/OEH/99.14
ISO (1995). Air Quality - Particle Size Fraction Definitions for Health-related Sampling.
ISO Standard 7708. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Geneva.Teschke K, Demers PA, Davies HW, Kennedy SM, Marion SA, Leung V (1999). Determinants of exposure
to inhalable particulate, wood dust, resin acids, and monoterpenes in a lumber milling environment. Annals of
Occupational Hygiene 43(4):247-255.
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PAPER 164
RESULTS OF THE IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF COVERAGESCALE ON SEVERAL INDICATORS OF

GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO L.1758) WAS CULTIVATED IN PLANT
KLOS (ELBASAN-ALBANIA)
Vasjar Shermadhi1, Vladimir Spaho1, Anila Hoda, Enkeleda Sallaku, Fidel Gjurgji
Agriculture University, Faculty of .Tirana , Albania
E-mail: vasjarshermadhi@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Nowadays functional freshwater, semi-intensive aquatic culture are essential elements of human activity in
many aspects which needs to be more recognized. The paper presents the growth of some different phenotypes of
species of carp fish, Cyprinus carpio L.1758) cultivated in breeding place Klos, Elbasan (Albania). In this study are
estimated some grown aspect and survival feature of four phenotypic forms of this specie that change depending
on distribution of its scales.During our study we note that: the phenotypic form known as scaled was represent
with higher value of average weight (621.33 38.295 g), while the phenotypic form known as mirror leather
was represent with lower value of average weight. Are obvious significant differences (P<0.05) , during a
comparison beetwen couples, scaled withlinear mirror, scaledwith mirror leather, and the couple
scattered scaled and mirror leather, For the wild phenotypic form of carp was estimated the higher average
value of Specific Growth Rate (SGR) (0.571 0.010%), while the lower value was encountered for mirror
leather phenotypic form (0.564 0.0073%). We conclude also for SGR the same difference beetwen
phenotypic form as the difference of average weight. Based on Allometric Coefficent b on relation weight-
length, both phenotypic forms, Linear mirror, and mirror leather were represent with negative value. While
the scaled had the higher value of b (b=3.1056; r=0.984), the higher value of index of survival (96.119.42
%) , and the higher rendiment (yield) (43.0 kv/ha). As the result the wild carp (scaled phenotypes) under semi-
intensiv condition has a good performance of growth and productivity.
Keywords: Common Carp, Scales Growth Rate, Scattered Type, Mirror Type.
INTRODUCTION
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) is a cultivated specie that has the longest history domestication STEFFENS
(1980). In China, this type is cultivated in ponds from around 3000 years ago Hoffman (1934). Europe has started to
cultivate carp before 100 years ago Hickling (1962).
Are known several types of coverage scales in carps Kirpichnikov (1967). Moreover, there are variability in the
morphology of scales, color and shape of the body, that usually occur in wild populations as well as those cultivated
Haynes (2009). In wild populations are dominant forms that have the body completely covered by scales. According
to Nguyen Huu Ninh (2009), natural selection has largely favored the forms of carp that are completely covered by
scales. The reduction of the number of scales is the result of some domestication effects, such as the protection
against physical injuries and artificial selection.
Mirror carp is commonly found in cultivated populations of this kind. However, the phenotype "mirror" is also
found in wild populations of the European and the Asian carp Kirpichnikov (1981). Approximately 5% of wild carp
in Australia waters belongs to two variants of the phenotype "mirror" Koehn ( 2000). The scales in phenotype
"mirror" are larger and brighter than the usual scales and in the majority of cases, they do not cover the whole body
Kirpichnikov (1981). the reduction in the normal number of scales has been a target of artificial selection for fish
domestication, in order to facilitate cleaning before cooking Michaels (1998). According Kirpichnikov (1981), the
inheritance scale coverage is controlled by genes S and N. Depending on the combination of these two genes, the
phenotype of carp may be "scattered scale mirror", "linear mirror with a raw of scales placed on the body ,
without scales or "naked" and completely covered by scales of normal size, which is known as the "scales"
phenotype or the "wild" phenotype Kirpichnikov (1981). There is evidence that the frequency of degree of scales
presence in phenotype "mirror" is not defined entirely by two mentioned genes. Nicolescu (2004), for example,
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found that the phenotype "naked" is manifested even in the absence of allele N and probably it might be an extreme
variant of the phenotype " scattered scale (ssnn). Not long time ago Rohner et.al (2009) have proved that the gene
s/'s in C.carpio, which is involved in the occurrence of phenotype "mirror", was identical to the one paralog of the
receptor (fgfr I) fibroblasts growth factor. The gene product N / n, which is involved in the occurrence of the
phenotype "naked", has not yet been identified. The type of scale coverage of common carp is affected by
pleyotrope phenomena Gomelsky, et al. (1992), Gomelsky et al. (2012). These authors have found that diploid carp
"naked" genotype ssNn and triploidi "naked" sssNnn genotypes differ from each other from the degree of reduction
of the scales number, forming thus respectively groups with" strong reduction " and groups with "weak reduction".
It is clear that the four alternative of carp phenotype differ from each other, not only by their specific morphological
and anatomical features, but also by some features that have special commercial value, such as survival and growth
rate Golovinskaya (1971).
The goal of the present paper is the impact assessment of the type of scales coverage of carp on some indicators of
growth performance and survival levels, in terms of cultivation in semi-intensive systems.
The study was undertaken in Klos fish farm (Elbasan;Albania). This fish farm is a private property with surface 20
Ha and is located 10 km south-east of Cerrik City. In the fish farm, breeding is processed in five fish species of
carp family (Cyprinidae), production of Frying and Fattening growth of common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Big head (Aristichthys nobilis), Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) and Bream (Megallobrama amblycephala). Cultivation is done in earth ponds by
applying semi-intensive technology and multiple culture . Taking into consideration the type of scales scattering ,
the cultivated carp belongs to four phenotypic traits of this kind; forms of "scaled" (genotypes SSnn and Ssnn),
forms " scattered scale" (ssnn), forms of "linear mirror" (SSNn and SsNn) and forms of "mirror leather" (ssNn).
Tests to evaluate the survival and growth indicators were carried out in four ponds. Every pond has an area of 1 000
m and the average depth is 1.2 m. In the four versions of the same test is applied cultivation technology. Growth of
fish is mainly based on the exploitation of natural food resources present in the pond ecosystem . For stimulate
growth of plankton and the creatures benthos is applied, according to the relevant technical protocols, and
distribution of organic fertilizers Knud-Hansen (1998). Concentrated food is given in the first two months of
cultivation and in periods when it is observed reduction of biomass consumed by the creatures of carp. Fingerlings
of carp ponds were distributed in the 25 October 2011, applying density 0.6 individuals / m (720 individuals in each
pond). Fingerlings average weight was 10.2 GU applied four variants, everyone scales by type of coverage, in each
variant entered only one "race" of carp. Cultivation continued until 30 September 2012.
The period of sampling was taking in considerate specific condition of dinamic grownth in different breeding
stage. For the five first sampled the temporal interval was every 30 days, while for other four sampled this interval
was 45 days.
All the individuals were sampled from our artificial lake at the same depth using a net with mesh 12 mm.
Aproximately, more than 30 individual were encountered in each sample and after morphometric measurement are
released back.
All the growth parameters are estimated based on average values of total weight (Wg) and total length (L cm) of
all individuals of samples.
After assessment of allometric parameter b of relation length weight Ricker (1975), and assessment of
specific growth index Brett et al. (1979) were analyzed the general growth features.
Calculation for both parameters (1), (2) are as below:
W= a Lb (1)
Where Wg and Lcm are average value of total weight and total length of each individual.
b- represent allometic coefficient ( 2.5-3.5).
(2)
Where : SGR Specific Growth Rate (% W / day)

W1 the fresh weight in time 1
W2 the fresh weight in time 2
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(t2 t1) is interval of time between two measurement.
Is estimated also for each sample survival parameter of populate and is achieve to determinate all the dynamic of
carp specie in this farm fish. The calculation formula is below:
Where:
M percentage of survival
n total number of organism collected
N total number of fingerlings introduced in the lake, or the number of individuals observed from the last
sample ( taking in considerate assessment of survival dynamic).
For all the evaluated parameters are estimated: Average value (M), Standard Deviation (SD) and average of
standard mistake (m). The variability coefficient of weight is determine based on formula:
[ CVw (%) ] = 100 * (Standard Deviation / Average Weight)
Analyze of variances ( ANOVA ) and Duncans Multiple Range Test Steel and Bashcaut. (1996) post hoc are
applied during comparison of their average value of four variant. Was used a computer software known as
MSTATS for estimation of data and their statistical analyze.
RESULTS
The results of average weight (Wg) and Specific Growth Rate (SGR) in four scaled morph of common carp.
Following the diagram on figure 1 are obvious that: Average values of final weight and average values of specific
growth rate (SGR %) for four types of common carp ( Cyprinus carpio L) distributed according to the
distribution scales.
Fig. 1. The values of final weight (g) and Specific Growth Rate (SGR%) in different scale morphs of common carp
(Cyprinus carpio)
Average values of final weight (Wg) and Specific Growth Rate

(SGR%) in four types of scale cover of common carp reared in
Klosi semiintensive plant
630 0.572
620
Average weight (Wg)
0.57
Average SGR (%)
610 W(g)
0.568
600
0.566 SGR(
590 %)
0.564
580
570 0.562
560 0.56
Scaled Scattered Linear mirror Leather
mirror
Scale cover type
The expected average values estimated for final individual weight (Wg SD) were:
Scaled" 621.33 38.295 g (min.533.5-max.675.5)
"Scattered" 602.57 35.474 g (min.529.4-max.665.2)
"Linear mirror" 588.38 30.949 g (min.528.5-max.642.6)
"Leather mirror" 581.11 29.712 g (min 525.9-max.619.8)
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In a comparison between average final weight show us the presence of significant changes in pairs of variants:
The pair and value of types of carp were: scaled linear mirror ( t =3.55; P< 0.05); scaled leather
mirror (t =4.53; P< 0.05); scattered leather mirror ( t=2.54; P<0.05). Werent shown significant changes
in comparison between pairs, scaled scattered ( t=1; P>0.05), scattered linear mirror (t=1.65; P>0.05)
and linear mirror leather mirror ( t= 1; P>0.05).
While average Values of Specific Growth Rate ( SGR % SD) were as below:
Scaled" 0.571 0.010% (min.0.552-max.0.585)
"Scattered" 0.568 0.009% (min.0.552-max.0.583)
"Linear mirror" 0.566 0.0075% (min.0.551-max.0.578)
"Leather mirror" 0.564 0.0073% (min.0.551-max.0.573)
The situation of SGR parameter confirms the same changes between pairs as the weight parameter. Are found this
significant changes values of morph of carp for SGR: scaled - linear mirror (t=2.05: P<0.05); scaled
leather mirror (t =2.91; P<0.05); and scattered leather mirror (t=2.0; P<0.05). Werent encountered
significant changes of SGR between carp types scaled scattered (t=1.11; P>0.05); scattered linear
mirror (t=1.0; P>0.05) and linear mirror leather mirror (t=1.05; P>0.05).
Allometric coefficient b values in relation Length Weight (curve slope).

In the all diagram of figures 2, 3, 4 and 5 are shown equations of regression for relation length weight for all
types of scaled carp. The equation coefficients are estimated based on average values of length and weight, taken
by nine subsamples for a sample.
All the allometric coefficient b values estimated in this study are as below.
Length-weight relationship in scaled type of C.carpio reared

in Klosi plant
700
600 W = 0.0041L 3.1056
R2 = 0.9701
500
Weight (Wg)
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Total length (TLcm)

Fig. 3.Length-weight relationship in scattered type of common carp (r=0.981)
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Length-weight relationship in scattered type of C.carpio

reared in Klosi plant
700
3.0532
600 W = 0.0046L
2
R = 0.9632
500
Weight (Wg)
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Total length (TLcm)
Fig. 4. Length-weight relationship in linear mirror type of common carp (r=0.983
Length-weight relationship in linear mirror type of C.carpio

700
600 2.9404
W = 0.0067L
500 2
Weight (Wg)
R = 0.9664
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Total length (TLcm)
Fig. 5. Length-weight relationship in leather mirror type of common carp (r=0.977)
Length-weight relationship in leather mirror type of C.carpio

700
2.8982
600 W = 0.0077L
2
500 R = 0.9553
Weight (Wg)
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Total length (cm)
Taking in considerate the interval value of b coefficient (min. 2.5; max. 3.5) we carry out that: the scaled type
carp represents positive value of allometric coefficient, the linear mirror and leather mirror types represent
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negative value of allometric coefficient, while scattered type allometric value is higher than isometric
parameter (b=3.0).
The survival analysis of four phenotypic form of common carp.

From all measurements of four phenotypic form performed during the intermediate sample and in the final fishing
were found these average values of survival (SD) as below.
Scaled" 96.119.42 %
"Scattered" 95.8910.57 %
"Linear mirror" 93.6115.44 %
"Leather mirror" 94.8611.61 %
Based on the values above is obvious that the survival index represents higher value for scaled types and lower
value represents linear mirror types. Even thought during a comparison between all the pairs in four variant
of samples are never found significant changes of this index (P>0.05).
In final fishing, in accordance with the individual average weight values, survival average value we have reach to
see an efficiency production (kg/ha) for four variant of samples as below:
Scaled" 43.0 kv/ha

"Scattered" 41.5 kv/ha
"Linear mirror" 39.8 kv/ha
"Leather mirror" 39.7 kv/ha
Werent found difference in production level during comparison between phenotypes, linear mirror leather
mirror, while were found low difference in comparison between phenotypes scaled scattered. The
production represents higher difference between pairs scaled phenotype and both mirror phenotypes.
CONCLUSIONS
All different phenotypes of carp (Cyprinus carpus L) are distinct by their scales. This typical nomenclature related
to scales is used only in aquaculture, but usually in common taxonomic aspect all four types of carp are result of
recombination of both genes into a same specie according to Mendel law of heritage. Has many hypothesis that
support this fact , wild types of carp with all body covered by scales is favorite under natural selection thus is
better adapted in cultivated condition in extensive or semi-extensive aquatic system. Reduction of scales is a new
adaption that accompanied domestication phenomena, thus the species is protected by physical damage, Nguyen
(2009).
This artificial breeding point has approximately similar condition as natural environment because intensifying
interventions consist in enrichment of its water using mineral and organic biogenic element. Under these condition
all the results prove that reactions of individuals of four phenotypes were different.
Both types, scaled and scattered carp without N allele in their genome represent with higher value of survival
index in report with two other types where this allele is present.
During our study are proven some quantitative index that characterize the growth performances of different
phenotypes of carp that have had average values of scaled type.
This situation is proved when we estimate individual average weight ( Wg), Specific Growth Rate (SGR %) and
Allometric coefficient (b).
According to Golovinskaya (1971) carps with scaled phenotype, scattered phenotype, linear mirror
phenotype and leather mirror phenotype represent changes not only in extensor features but are related and
other features that distinct commercial value such as survival and growth. Based on systematic distribution of
scales in scaled phenotype this author accept that fact, the damage of position of scales in wild types indicates
negative on survival index and growth.
According to Rebensburg (2010), when we study behavior of scaled phenotype and mirror phenotype are
detect for first phenotype exploratory behavior expressed and consist active during search of food for a long
time in report with second phenotype. Also this author confirm that mirror carp phenotype doesnt present high
variability in behavior parameters in report with scaled phenotype. This hypothesis is supported by Price (1984).
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As in natural condition and in modified artificial condition genotypes that express high activity in search of food
represent more adaptive than alternative genotypes within a species. In this line behavior of allele usually directs
and values of growth index.
When we make a assessment of growth intensity our study is also in accordance with thesis of Golovinskaya
(1971) and the results follows this order: scaled, scattered, linear, and leather phenotype. If we refer
weight in standard condition of nutrient and if percentage of scaled types is 100% the weight for others group
are 95%, 85% and 80%. In unfavorable condition that usually characterize extensive and semi-extensive cultivation
this difference may increase.
During study the annual cycle of cultivation of carp applied in our monoculture semi - intensive system has been
very typical in production levels. Having highest growth index scaled type and scattered type prove highest
production in report with two other covered types. This results is published by Golovinskaya (1971).
We conclude that the weight of scaled carp at the same age is the largest than scattered phenotype. This change
is evident in extensive cultivation system where are used only natural nutrient. Related with that one of the reason
of growth reduction in linear mirror and leather mirror is reduction of faring teeth consequently and
difficulties obtaining food as result of gene N action. This results is published also by Kirpichnikov V.S.
(1981).
At the end gene s has negative impact on the growth and organogenesis. Differences on floating vesicle structure
incurring by pleyotrop effects of gene s. In presence of this gene the posterior part of vesicle represent shorter
than anterior part (scattered type), while in presence of S gene the results are inverse. (scaled type). This
results is supported also by Probst. (1953).
REFERENCE
Brett J.R.and Groves T.D.D.1979 Physiological energetics.In:Fish Physiology,Vol III Bioenergetics and Growth
(ed.by W.S.Hoar,D.J.Randall and J.R.Brett).pp 280-352.Academic press,New York.USA.
Golovinskaya K.A.1971 Breeds of carps and other fishes. Seminar/study Tour in the USSR on genetic selection and
hybridization of cultivated fishes. Rep. FAO pp 187-198.
Gomelsky B.,Schneider J.K.Glennon P.R.and Plouffe A.D.2012 Effect of ploidy on scale-cover pattern in linear
ornamental (koi) common carp (Cyprinus carpio).Journal of Fish Biology (2012);31-39.
Gomelsky B.I.,Emelyanova G.V. and Recoubratsky A.V.1992 Application of the scale cover gene (N) to
identification of type of gynogenesis ans determunation of ploidy in common carp.Aquaculture;106,233-237.
Haynes G.D.2009 Population genetics of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in the Murray-Darling basin.Doctor of
Philosophy Thesis.University of Sydney.pp 164.
Hickling, C., 1962. Fish culture. Faber and Faber, London, 287 p.
Hoffman, W.E., 1934. Preliminary notes on the fresh-water fish industry of South China, especially Kwangtung
province. Lingnan University Science Bulletin 5, 77 p
Kirpichnikov V.S. 1981 Genetic Bases of Fish Selection, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, New York, USA,
Springer-Verlag.
Kirpichnikov, V.S., 1967. Homologous hereditary variation and evolution of the wild carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).
Genetika 3, 167-180.
Kirpichnikov, V.S., 1971. Genetics of the common carp and other edible fish. Seminar/study Tour in the USSR on
genetic selection and hybridization of cultivated fishes. Rep. FAO/UNDP, 186-201.
Knud-Hansen, C.F. 1998.Pond fertilization ecological approach and practical application. Corvallis, USA, Pond
Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP. 125pp.
Koehn J.,Brumley B.and Gehrke P.2000) Managing the Impacts of Carp, Canberra, Australia, Bureau of Rural
Sciences (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry).
Michaels V.J. 1998 Carp Farming, Farnham, United Kingdom, The Dorset Press.
Nguyen Huu Ninh 2009 Communal or Separate Rearing of Families in Selective Breeding of Common Carp
(Cyprinus carpio L.).Doctor of Philosophy Thesis. Institute of Aquaculture,University of Stirling,Stirling, Scotland,
UK.pp 266.
Nicolescu C. 2004 The phenotypical expression of the common carp's scale cover pattern in accordance with the
genotypic structure and the gene dose. Buletinul Universitatii de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina Veterinara Cluj-
Napoca, Seria Zootehnie si Biotehnologii 60, 78-83.
Price, E. O. 1984. Behavioral Aspects of Animal Domestication. The Quarterly Review of Biology 59(1): 1-32.
Probst, E., 1953 Die Beschuppung des Karpfens. Mnch Beitr.Abwass- Fisch.u.Flussbiol., 1:150227.
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Rebensburg Ph.2010 Assessment and evaluation of temperament traits in carp (Cyprinus carpio L.), with contrasts
between mirror and scaled morphological phenotypes.Diploma Thesis.Free University of Berlin.pp 88.
Ricker, W.E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populastions. Bull. Fish. Resh.
Board Can., 191: 203-233.
Rohner N.,Bercsenyi M.,Orban L.,Kolanczyk M.E.,Linke D.,Brand M.,Nusslein-Volhard C.and Harris M.P.2009
Duplication of fgfr I permits Fgf signalling to seve as a target for selection during domestication.Current
Biology;19;1642-1647.
Steel, R. G. D., J. H. Torrie and D. A. Dickey, 1996.Principles and Procedures of Statistics. A biometrical approach.
3-rd Ed. McGraw Hill Book Company Inc., New York, USA.
Steffens, W., 1980. Der Karpfen, Cyprinus carpio. 5. Auflage. A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt.
PAPER 165
EFFECTS IN ENVIRONMENT OF NOX AND DUSTS DISCHARGED FROM CEMENT

MANUFACTURING IN CEMENT FACTORY - SHARRCEM IN HANI I ELEZIT
Besa Veseli1, Ilir Kristo2, Nexhat Balaj3

1
Kosovo Chamber of Commerce, Prishtina, Kosovo
2
3
European College Juridica- Faculty of Public Policy and Management, Prishtina, Kosovo
Email:besaveselii@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of our work was the study of effects in Environment of NOx and dusts from cement manufacturing in
cement factory sharrcem and its impact on air quality in Hani i Elezit region.The cement industry contributes
significantly to the imbalances of the environment in particular air quality. The key environmental emissions are
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and grey dust. Industrial plant smokestacks from cement and
construction companies are some of the biggest contributors to poor air quality, especially in urban developments.
As air pollution sources, except KEC, Trepca, Ferronikel,Sharr-cem, public heating facilities and other industries,
traffic is considered a significant air pollution sector. Major impacts on the environment from cement factories are
the impacts on air from the rotary kiln, as a result of the physical and chemical dissolution of raw materials, and the
process of burning in the oven at temperatures up to 1450 C. Sharrcem makes periodical measurements by an
external contractor. Monitored parameters are: dust, SO2, NOx, and CO. From our study shows that throughout the
years, the maximum allowed values were exceeded. It is indicated that from 2006, there is a decrease of dust emitted
as a result of investment in the electro filters, whereas in 2011 there is again an increase of the dust emissions.
During the all years of monitoring represented in this study, the NOx values were under the maximum allowed value
(800mg/Nm3).
Keywords:environment, air quality, dusts, SO2, NOx
INTRODUCTION
Cement production is a key supplier to the concrete industry. The most important environment, health and safety
performance issues facing the cement industry are:
Greenhouse gas emissions
Atmospheric releases, primarily of NOx, SO2 and particulates;
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Stakeholder concerns over the potential for dioxin releases, particularly the perceived association with use of
alternative fuels;
Health and safety performance, in particular associated with accidents and worker exposure to dusts.
The cement industry contributes significantly to the imbalances of the environment; in particular air quality. The key
environmental emissions are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and grey dust (Albeanu et al).
Cement production is a major source of emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2). As much as 5% of
global carbon dioxide emissions originates from cement production.
Industrial plant smokestacks from cement and construction companies are some of the biggest contributors to poor
air quality, especially in urban developments. As of 2007, the cement industry alone was reported to produce 5% of
total greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere (Air Quality Resources). The principal aim in pollution control in the
cement industry is to minimize the increase in ambient particulate levels by reducing the mass load emitted from the
stacks, from fugitive emissions, and from other sources (clentechindia.com).
Cement is produced from raw materials such as limestone, chalk, shale, clay, and sand. These raw materials are
quarried, crushed, finely ground, and blended to the correct chemical composition .
Major impacts on the environment from cement factories are the impacts on air from the rotary kiln, as a result of
the physical and chemical dissolution of raw materials, and the process of burning in the oven at temperatures up to
1450 C. Cement manufacturing is a high volume process and correspondingly requires adequate quantities of
resources, that is, raw materials, thermal fuels and electrical power. The main environmental (air quality) impacts of
the manufacture of cement in general are related to the categories discussed below. Carbon dioxide is released
during the production of clinker, a component of cement, in which calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) is heated in a rotary
kiln to induce a series of complex chemical reactions (Conneely et al). Specifically, CO 2 is released as a by-product
during calcinations, which occurs in the upper, cooler end of the kiln, or a precalciner, at temperatures of 600-
900C, and results in the conversion of carbonates to oxides.
Additional air pollutants emitted include such materials as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides generated from the
kiln and drying processes. Sulphur dioxide is generated from the sulphur compounds in the ores and the combusted
fuel and varies in amount produced from plant to plant.
The efficiency of particulate control devices is inconclusive as the result of variables such as feed sulphur content,
temperature, moisture, and feed chemical composition, in addition to alkali and sulphur content of the raw materials
and fuel. The combustion of fuel in rotary cement kilns generates nitrogen oxides from the nitrogen in the fuel and
incoming combustion air.
Dust emissions originate mainly from the raw mills, the kiln system, the clinker cooler, and the cement mills. A
general feature of these process steps is that hot exhaust gas or exhaust air is passing through pulverized material
resulting in an intimately dispersed mixture of gas and particulates.
The main current air pollution sources in Kosovo are: KEC that includes thermal power plants (Kosova A and
Kosova B) and lignite mines in Obiliq, Industrial complex in Mitrovic, Ferronikeli in Gllogovc, Cement factory -
SharrCem in Hani i Elezit, etc.
The purpose of our work was the study of effects in Environment of NOx and dusts from cement manufacturing in
cement factory sharrcem and its impact on air quality in Hani i Elezit region. The cement industry contributes
significantly to the imbalances of the environment in particular air quality. Measurement campaigns were carried out
in several area, at two different points, and four different periods in cement factory sharrcem We have measured
(dust, SO2, NOx) on number and mass concentration during the year 2003-2011.
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Fig.1. Cement factory - SharrCem in Hani i Elezit
RESULTS
Assessment of air emissions from Sharrcem
Cement is produced from raw materials such as limestone, chalk, shale, clay, and sand. These raw materials are
quarried, crushed, finely ground, and blended to the correct chemical composition.
Technological process of clinker production, in the cement factory of Sharrcem in Hani i Elezit, is largely followed
by emissions of pollutants affecting the environment. Major impacts on the environment from cement factories are
the impacts on air from the rotary kiln, as a result of the physical and chemical dissolution of raw materials, and the
process of burning in the oven at temperatures up to 1450 C.
Figure 2. show that throughout the years, the maximum allowed values were exceeded. It is indicated that from
2006, with 100 mg /Nm3, there is a decrease of dust emitted as a result of investment in the electro filters, whereas in
2011 there is again an increase of the dust emissions 130 mg /Nm3.
Fig. 2. Annual average values of dust for 2003-2011 from Sharrcem, mg /Nm3
Concentration of emitted Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
SO2 emissions arise from oxidation of volatile sulfur present in raw materials such as organic sulfur, or inorganic
sulfides. Some may also arise from sulfur in the fuels. If the volatile sulfur content of the fuel and raw materials is
low, SO2 emission can be very low.
Much of the SO2 produced can potentially be captured within the process due to strongly alkaline conditions.
Emissions of SOx are of concern as they can detrimentally affect air quality and human health, some examples of
which are the production of acid rain, reduced atmospheric visibility (smog) and aggravation of respiratory systems.
As seen from the above presented figure 3, the concentration of emitted SO2 is almost at all times under the
maximum values allowed (400mg/Nm3), with the exception of 2003 from 450 mg/Nm 3 . From 2010 -2011 there is a
considerable decrease (180-50 mg/Nm3) of SO2 values.
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Fig. 3. Annual average values of SO2, mg/Nm3 for 2003-2011 from Sharrcem
Annual average values of NOx for 2003-2011 from Sharrcem
NOx forms by the reaction of nitrogen with oxygen at the high temperatures generated during combustion of
fuel.Emissions of NOx are of concern as they can detrimentally affect air quality and human health, an example of
which is its role in the production of ground-level ozone, which can aggravate respiratory systems.
Fig. 4. Annual average values of NOx for 2003-2011 from Sharrcem
During the all years of monitoring represented in this study, the NOx values were under the maximum allowed value
(800mg/Nm3).
CONCLUSIONS
Cement production is a major source of emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2). As much as 5% of
global carbon dioxide emissions originate from cement production.
The cement industry contributes significantly to the imbalances of the environment in particular air quality. The key
environmental emissions are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and grey dust. The main current air
pollution sources in Kosovo are: KEC that includes thermal power plants (Kosova A and Kosova B) and lignite
mines in Obiliq, Industrial complex in Mitrovic, Ferronikeli in Gllogovc, Cement factory - SharrCem in Hani i
Elezit, etc. Shows that throughout the years, the maximum allowed values were exceeded. It is indicated that from
2006, there is a decrease of dust emitted as a result of investment in the electro filters, whereas in 2011 there is again
an increase of the dust emissions.
As seen from the above presented figure, the concentration of emitted SO2 is almost at all times under the maximum
values allowed (400mg/Nm3) 8, with the exception of 2003. From 2010 -2011 there is a considerable decrease of
SO2 values. During the all years of monitoring represented in this study, the NOx values were under the maximum
allowed value (800mg/Nm3).
REFERENCES
1.Albeanu G, Madsen, Popentiu F, Thyregod P. (2004) Computer Aided Statistical Modeling and Optimization for
Pollution Control in Cement Plants
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2.Air Quality Resources. (2011) Concern for the Environment: air Quality in the Cement and Construction Industry
cleantechindia.com/eicimage/2102_42/PPACI.htm. 2004
3.US Environmental Protection Agency. (2010) Available and Emerging Technologies for Reducing Greenhou Gas
Emissions from the Portland Cement Industry, North Carolina, USA.
4.Karstensen K.H. (2006) Formation and Release of POPs in the Cement Industry, Second Edition, World Busines
Council for Sustainable Development
5.Conneely D, Gibbs M.J, Soyka P. (2001). Emissions From Cement Production Good Practice Guidance and
Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
6.Woodard F. (2001) Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook, ButterworthHeinemann,USA.
7.Valaiya KS (1990) Environmental Impact of Mining activities. In: SC Joshi, G Bhattacharya (Eds.): Mining and
Environment. Delhi: Kalinga Publica-tions, pp. 87-95.
PAPER 166
THE PALYNOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME PLANTS OF ASTERACEAE

(COMPOSITAE) FAMILY IN ALBANIA
Dauti A.1, Kapidani G.2, Pupuleku B.1, Kallajxhiu N.1, Turku S.1, Jane A.1
1
University Aleksandr Xhuvani, Elbasan, Albania, FNS, Department of Biology and Chemistry
2
University of Tirana, Albania, FNS, Department of Biology
Email: dauti.anxhela@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Asteraceae (Compositae) comprise the largest family of vascular plants. The family has more than 1100 genera and
about 25.000 species (Lewis et al. 1983, HEYWOOD 1978). The family is divided in two subfamilies: Asteraceae -
Cichoroideae (synonym of Compositae Liguliflorae / Lactuceae) and Asteraceae - Asteroideae (synonym of
Compositae - Tubuliflorae). (W. Punt, P. P. Hoen The Northwest European Pollen Flora, 69). The plants of this
family are economically important, they are used in medicine, they are very good honey plants, but and they also
cause the beginning of allergy. The pollen grains of Asteraceae plants have a thick exine and they are preserved well
as fossil. This article includes the palynomorphological study of six plants of Asteraceae family: Scolymus
hispanicus, Bellis sylvestris, Sonchus asper, Sonchus arvensis, Centaurea solstitialis and Achillea millefolium. The
plants are collected in fresh conditions in their habitat in Elbasan city and in some areas around it. By the study, the
pollen grains of above plants are distinguished from some morphological features such as: the aperture three furrows
three pores, three pores and thick echinate exine. The shape of pollen grains according to the outline vary from
prolate spheroidal to oblate spheroidal at Sonchus arvensis, Sonchus asper ,Scolymus hispanicus , Centaurea
solstitialis and spheroidal at Bellis sylvestris and Achillea millefolium. According to this study, the sculpture of
exine is echinate. The spines are acuminate and they vary from spinules to microspinules. The exine sculpture of
Sonchus arvensis, Sonchus asper and Scolymus hispanicus is from a particular type called fenestrate.
Key Words: Asteraceae, pollen grains, exine, spinules, fenestrate
INTRODUCTION
Asteraceae (Compositae) comprise the largest family of vascular plants. The family has more than 1100 genera and
about 25.000 species (Lewis et al. 1983, HEYWOOD 1978). The family is divided in two subfamilies: Asteraceae -
Cichoroideae (synonym of Compositae Liguliflorae / Lactuceae) and Asteraceae - Asteroideae (synonym of
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Compositae - Tubuliflorae) (W. Punt, P. P. Hoen The Northwest European Pollen Flora, 69). In Albania Asteraceae
is a well represented family, with about 100 genera and more than 400 species (Flora e Shqipris Vol. 4, 1999 ).
Literature on pollen grains of Asteraceae is comprehensive and the number of publications large. The first important
pollen grains morphological studies were made by Wodehouse (1926, 1928a, 1928b, 1935). His studies were mainly
based on American material and moreover, on fresh not acetolysed material. Another important publication at that
time was by Stix (1960). She studied 235 species of Asteraceae from all over the world. The other publications such
as Faegri and Iversen ed.4 (1989); Fgri and Iversen (1975); Moore et al.ed.2 (1991); Skvarla and Larson (1965);
Skvarla and Turner (1966); Nilsson et al. (1977); Skvarla et al. (1977); Perveen, 1977; Yang and Ai, 2002; Meo
and Khan, 2003; Jafari and Ghanbarian, 2007; Blackmore, 1982; Blackmore et al., 1984; Blanca et al., 1991;
Breitwiser and Sampson, 1997; Cusma Velari,1983; EL-GHAZALY, 1980; SAAD, S, 1961; TOMB, 1975;
Osman, 2006; have contributed on the knowledge of pollen grains of Asteraceae.
This article includes the palynomorphological study of six plants of Asteraceae family: Scolymus hispanicus, Bellis
sylvestris, Sonchus asper, Sonchus arvensis, Centaurea solstitialis and Achillea millefolium. The plants are collected
in fresh conditions in their habitat in Elbasan city and in some areas around it. This article is fragment of the study
about the palynomorphological characteristics of general members in Asteraceae family in our country.
In order to accomplish the quantitative analysis of palynomorphological features, 31 pollen grains are taken in
consideration. This study is focus on the type of pollen grains, shape, size, characteristics of furrow, sculpture of
exine etc. For the study of pollen grains is used light microscop Motic B1series. The measures are realized with
1000X power and the photos are taken with 1000X power.
The material for study is taken in fresh conditions in the region of Elbasan. To achieve the study of pollens
morphological characteristics we have used three analytical methods.
Acetolysis of Erdtman method (Erdtman, G., 1956).
Acetolysis of Avetisjan method (Avetisjan, B.M., 1950).
Basic fuchsine method of Smoljaninov, Gollubkov S. (1953).
The fixing of pollen grains is is made with glycerin gelatin prepared according to Kisser method (1937). Sladkov
A.N. (1967)
The palynomorphological dates in this study regard the material acetolysed. The terminology is based on that
recommended by Punt.et al.(1994) and Kapidani. (2005)
The method of acetolysis according to Erdtman
The flower or leaf-bud is developed in an alcohol 96 in order to separate the other parts of the flower which can be
separated inside distillated water. The bags of pollen grains with their pollen grains are dried in a thermostat, and
then wetted with an acetolysis mixture (anhydrite acetic and sulfate acid concentration and with pure chemicals in a
9:1 ratio), which is done every time in a repeating way. The test-tubes together with pollen grains and acetolysis
mixture are placed in bathroom at a temperature 70-80 C. The length-time of pollen grains staying in bathroom
varies from different kinds. Then, the test-tubes are centrifuged where as the are cleaned several times with
distillated water. Pollen grains are placed on slide and are observed with a microscope by dropping one dot from
glycerin solution and water in a ratio 1:1. If the pollen grains are darken a lot then the material is separated in a test-
tube by adding 1-2 sodium chloride 1-2 concentration sulfuric acid drops until the material becomes lighter. Then, it
is done the second shower with distillated water. Through separation and centrifugation the material is taken and it is
ready to become a preparation.
The simplified method of acetolysis according to Avetisjan
Pollen grains are placed in slide. Then, we dropped some ethyl alcohol (96%) drops on the slide composite. All fat
substances of pollen grains created after the alcohol actions are cleaned with blotting-paper. The mixture of
acetolysis is prepared every time frequently.
The slide composite is treated with 1-2 acetolysis solution drops and then it is warmed up in a thermostat or on the
alcoholic lamp flames. The composite is controlled with a microscope continuously during the warming phase so it
cannot get darker more then what is allowed. After the desired color is reached the wash-up with alcohol (70 %) is
done. Then the composite is washed from all other remains and then sealed with glycerin gelatin prepared according
to Kisser method (1937).
The colored method of basic fuchsine according to Smoljaninov, Gollubkov
Pollen grains are placed on the lama and then we add some alcoholic concentrated drops. In case the alcohol
evaporates quickly we add an extra drop again. After that, we observe that the fat composite of pollen grains is
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spreader from alcohol toward the slide side. This fatness composite is taken away from the slide with blotting paper.
After the slide is washed away from remains with blotting paper we add to it the colored solution of basic fuchsine
which is prepared in two variants listed below:
1) Basic fuchsine, alcohol 75 % and phenol in this ratio 1:700:100
2) Basic fuchsine, ethyl alcohol 96 % and xylol in the ratio 1:600:800
Phenol and xylol are used in the transparency growth of markers and are necessary as antiseptic. After the color
materials are fixed with gelatin, glycerin which is prepared according to Kisser method.
RESULTS
Morphological description of pollen grains
Bellis sylvestris Cry . , Pl. Rar. Neap. 2:22 (1792)

It is an herbaceous perennial plant, which grows mainly in meadows, grassy areas, etc. Blooming from february to
november (Vangjeli et al., 2000)
The pollen grains are three furrows three pores and with oblate- spheroidal to spheroidal outline. It is difficult to
distinguish the furrows, because of the presence of exine sculptural formations.
The pollen grain has a three-layer thick exine, with echinate sculpture. The spinules are conical and rare. The
spinules length varies 2-3. The width of spinules could reach 2. The distance between spinules varies from 1.5-
2.
The exine thicknes with the spinules reaches up to 5, ektexina (sexina) is 3, mezexina 1, endexina (nexina) is
1. The polar axis of pollen grain varies from 24 30 (26.7) and equatorial diameter varies from 25 31
(27.25). Fig. 1 and 2.
Fig. 1. Polar view (magnification 1000X) Fig. 2- Equatorial view (magnification 1000X)
Centaurea solstitialis L. , Sp. Pl. 917 (1753)

This is a biennial plant, grown in dry places, street sides, etc. It blooms during june- august and it is considered a
weed plant for the agriculture (Vangjeli et al., 2000).
The pollen grains are three porate and three furrowed(or colpate). In polar view pollen grain has prolate spheroidal
to spheroidal outline and in equatorial view it has elliptic outline. The polar axis of pollen grain varies from 25
30 (28.33) and its equatorial diameter varies from 25.5 31.5 (28.1). The exine appears thick and three
layered. The exine thickness varies from 5 6, ektexine varies from 2-3, mesexina 1.5, endexina 1.5. The
exine sculpture is with microspinules or scabrate. The furrow length is 25.06 , and its width is 9.6 . The pore is
9.3 long and 6.9 wide. Fig. 3 and 4.
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Fig. 3. Polar view (magnification 1000X) Fig. 4. Equatorial view (magnification 400X)
Scolymus hispanikus L. , Sp. Pl. 813 (1753)

This is two or perennial herbaceous plant, which grows in dry and stony places, in uncultivated lands, etc. It blooms
during june september (Vangjeli et al., 2000).
The pollen grains are 3 pororate with prolate spheroidal to spheroidal outline. The polar axis of pollen grain varies
from 45 56 (50.5), and its equatorial diameter varies from 45 55 (50.1). The pollen grain exine is thick and
three layered. The exine thickness with spines varies from 9 10 , ektexine 7.6 , mesexine 1 , endexine 1 -2 .
The exine sculpture is echinate and of a special type called fenestrate. The spines length varies from 2 -3 and the
width in its base varies from 1.5 2.The pore is quasi- circular and it is 11micron in diameter. Fig. 5 and 6.
Fig. 5. Polar view (magnification 1000X) Fig. 6. Polar view (magnification 1000X)
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. , Herb. ,Brit 1:47 (1769)

This is an annual herbaceous or biennial plant that grows in cultivated areas, walls, etc., and it blooms during march
october. It is a food plant and a good plant for honey(Vangjeli et al.,2000).
The pollen grains are three colpororate with oblate spheroidal to spheroidal outlines.. The polar axis of pollen grain
varies from 30 33 (31.45), and its equatorial diameter varies from 31 34 (31.7). The pollen grain exine is
thick and three layered. The thickness of exine with spinules varies from 5 7 , ektexine 3 -4 , mesexine 1 ,
endexine 1 -2 . The exine sculpture is echinate of a special type called fenestrate. The spinule length is 2 , and its
width in the base varies from 1 -1.5 .
The furrows are not distingushed, as a consequence of the sculptural elements of exine, and the pore observed in the
equatorial view appears circular and its diameter reaches 3 . Fig. 7 and 8.
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Fig. 7. Polar view (magnification 1000X) Fig. 8. Polar view (magnification 1000X)
Sonchus arvensis L. , Sp. Pl. 793 (1753)

This is a herbaceous perennial plant that grows in grassy areas, cultivated lands, street sides, etc. it blooms during
june september. It is considered a weed plant for the agriculture and a good plant for honey (Vangjeli et al., 2000).
The pollen grains are three colpororate with oblate spheroidal to spheroidal outlines. The polar axis of pollen grain
varies from 31 35 (32.3) and its equatorial diameter varies from 30 35 (33.1), The exine is thick and three
layered. The exine thickness varies frome 6 -7 , ektexine varies from 4 5, mesexine 1, endexine 1. The exine
sculpture is echinate and fenestrate. The spinules length reaches up to 2 , and its width in the base is up to 1 .
The furrows are not detecteble because of the sculptural formations of the exine. The pore in equatorial view of
pollen grain appears circular with a diameter of 3 . Fig. 9 and 10.
Fig. 9- Polar view (magnification 1000X) Fig. 10- Fuxine view (magnification 1000X)
Achillea millefolium L. , Sp. Pl. 899 (1753)

Achillea millefolium pollen grains are used for new preparations in order to make new pictures, but the data about
taxonomical features are taken from Albanian literature (Kapidani, 1996).
The pollen grains are three furrowed three pores with spheroidal outline. The furrows are not visible, and the pore
has a diameter of 3 . The pollen grain exine is two layered, with spinules and microspinules sculpture. The spinules
length is 2 and its width in the base is 2 . The distance between the spinules in the base is 3 4 . The exine
thickenes is 4.5 , ektexine is 3.5 , endexine 1.5 . The pollen grain diameter varies from 20 21.3mikron (20.6)
. Fig. 11 and 12.
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Fig. 11- Polar view (magnification 400X) Fig. 12- Polar view (magnification 1000X)
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of palinotaxonomical features of Achillea millefolium, Bellis sylvestris, Centaurea solstitialis, Scolymus
hispanicus, Sonchus arvensis and Sonchus asper show that:
The palinotaxonomical features of two species in the genus Sonchus L. are very similar between each other.
The exine of Scolymus hispanicus, Sonchus arvensis and S. asper has a particular type of structure called fenestrate,
which makes these different from the other three species taken in consideration.
The exine sculpture of Centaurea solstitialis belongs to the type mixed microspinules or scabrate.
The pollen grains of Scolymus hispanicus are three pororate.
The exine is thick and mainly three layered.
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Mc.Graw-Hill, New York and London, 574 pp.
PAPER 169
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE SOCIAL

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SHEBENIKU JABLANICA NATIONAL PARK
Dorina Grazhdani
Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania.
Email: d.grazhdani@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to assess the environmental situation and opportunities for sustainable development of
Albanian part of Shebeniku Jablanica National Park. The ecosystems within the Park basin are of global
significance and harbour endemic floral and faunal species. Despite the contribution of a range of services to human
wellbeing, these ecosystems are facing numerous challenges, stemming for the existing practices in many areas that
directly or indirectly affect the lakes. The region is also remarkable for its cultural values, and examples of
traditional architecture. Current resource management practices including land-use planning, agriculture, and
forestry are failing to maintain and restore the health of ecosystems within the Park. Productive sectors are failing to
incorporate ecosystem health objectives into their daily management practices and protected areas are under threat
and can barely serve as biodiversity refuges. There are a number of different stakeholders and resource users in the
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Park. The most important consumptive resource use with regard to extend and potential conflicts with the Park is
livestock breeding (grazing of animals and looping of fodder) and the extraction of firewood. Non-consumptive
resource users (tourism, honey production, private landowners and settlements) do currently not exercise any
particular severe pressure on Park resources except for general problems of communities (solid waste, waste water
discharge). There are no marketing and processing capacities inside the Park. Almost 100% of dairy products and
80% of meat is used for home consumptions. Small quantities of milk and cheese are sold to neighbours and 20% of
meat is sold to traders at the farm gate and within the community (lamb and kid within the community and calf to
traders).
Key words: National Park Shebeniku Jablanica, sustainable development, ecosystem, environment, opportunities
INTRODUCTION
The Shebeniku - Jablanica area is declared a National Park by the government on May 21, 2008. It is located in the
northeastern part of the Librazhd District, Elbasan Prefecture in central Albania. The park is one of Albanias
newest, created in 2008. Within the park region dwell a number of different species that are fast becoming rare in
Albania, including the brown bear, gray wolf and the endangered Balkan Lynx. Further, the park is home to a
number of endemic and rare plants. Local economic conditions are poor, conditions are tough and the quality of life
is of a low standard. There are many social problems. The majority of the local population in the Park basin is
occupied in the primary sector - agriculture, animal breeding, and forestry. Most of the households in Park
Communes are engaged in agriculture (farming, and livestock production). Farming is labour intensive. Livestock
husbandry is integral to the farming system. On average, households cultivate all of their land growing wheat,
maize, potato, alfalfa, and vegetables. Almost all of households hold one or two cows mainly for milk, ten to fifteen
chickens and few sheep and goats. Poor farming methods, timbering, overgrazing and soil erosion have damaged
severely some gently sloping to sloping soils, many of which are today abandoned to brush. Based on the fact that
currently the measures for the protection, administration, rational use and sustainable management of the natural
resources is still far from being satisfactory in order to fulfil the criteria including biological, economical and socials
- the identification and assessment of the environmental indicators and sustainable development will serve as a tool
for the sustainable development.
Survey has been found by us to be almost the only practical means of collecting data about a large number of
farmers. Because the farming units were large, our survey was based on samples, which were taken following the
strategy to meet statistical reliability objectives. The sample size must be sufficiently large so that statistical
interferences can be made with reasonable reliability. This study is built also on the collection of secondary data
pertaining to the study area. This includes local and international published materials, local and international reports
and unpublished local information.
After a preliminary analysis of the secondary data, we collected primary data by conducing farmer interviews and
making both technical and socio-economic observation of the farming system. Then we analyzed both primary and
secondary data, described the farming system in the survey area in terms of biophysical and socio-economic setting,
and drafted the on-farm survey background.
The chairman of the village provided a list of all households. A sample of 200 farm households was randomly drawn
from the villages. Samples were selected using a table of random numbers. However, some of selected farmers were
not available and the next number in the random table was selected as a substitute. The head of each household was
interviewed during September-October, 2010.
RESULTS
Abiotic Environment. The Shebeniku - Jablanica National Park covers an area of 33927.7 hectares and shares a
border with the Republic of Macedonia. Elevations in the park vary from 300 m to over 2200 m at the Rreshpes
peak of Shebeniku mountain (2262 m), which, along with Jablanica give name to the park. It is a new park, and thus
underdeveloped. The Shebeniku - Jablanica zone lies within the Green Belt of Europe (Bruner, 2006; Riecken et
al., 2006) and is part of a wider and complex geographical zone spreading at the boundary regions of Albania and
Macedonia. The area will serve as an example for trans-boundary protected areas. The terrain of the Park is mostly
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foothills leading up to mountains which reach over 2200 m high. Two rivers flow and multiple smaller water sources
flow through the parks area including the Qarrishte River and Bushtric River, both of which are 22 km long. The
area is home to at least 14 glacial lakes, the highest of which are around 1900 m. There are numerous hiking trails
throughout the park of varying difficulty with markings of varying quality. The climate of most of the park falls into
the Mediterranean climate, with average annual temperatures between 70C and 100C. Annual average precipitation is
between 1300 mm and 1800 mm dependent on location within the Park.
Biotic Environment. The protected area it is an area internationality known for its ecological importance. Protected
area is a place of exceptional beauty. It can look forward to a future of ecotourism. This area it is known for its very
high biodiversity, extremely rich flora and fauna, abounds in rare animal and plant species. Shebeniku - Jablanica
area is distinguished for its rich and diverse flora. There are 1857 species of flora in the district representing 57% of
the total species of flora inhabiting Albania. This is due to favorable phytoclimate conditions (three phytoclimatic
zones are met inside the area: Quercetum, Fagetum and subalpine/alpine meadows and pastures), as well as diverse
geology and orography, creating a variety and diversity of microclimates and habitats. Apart from tree species above
mentioned that dominates the forests (beach, fir, pines, oak), other rare tree species are met inside the park, such as
Populus tremula, Salix purpurea, Acer platanoides, Betula pendula, etc. It is worth to mention there the presence of
the white fir (Abies alba) with an extension at the northern slopes of the Park area.
There are a number of rare and endemic plant species such as Albanian rock rose (endemic species), greenwed
(subendemic species), Albanian pansy (subendemic species), Dukagjini pansy (subendemic species) and Rock
grevillea (subendemic species). Amongst the herbaceous plants the most notable species endemic to the district are
Leontopodium alpinum and Sideritis Rhoeseri. Of particular interest is a carnivorous plant species called Pinguicula
Hirtflora (known locally as Luletlyni).
Shebeniku - Jablanica National Park is considered to be one of the main nucleuses of the critically endangered
Balkan lynx (Lynx lynx martinoi) in Albania. Other important faunal elements of the area include the presence of
other large mammals such as brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), wild
boar (Sus scrofa), etc., for which this area represents a significant habitat and natural corridor. In the crystal clear
waters of Qarrishta and Bushtrica rivers the presence of otter (Lutra lutra) is recorded. Among the threatened birds
nesting in the area we can mention the Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), hazel hen
(Bonasia bonasia) and the area represents a good potential habitat for vulture species records of which have been
confirmed in the past.
Land use in protected area is as follow: total land area is 15390 ha. Of which: forest land 7381 ha (~ 48%) and
shrubs 1340 (8.7%); grassland land 5027 ha (~ 32.7%); arable land 792 ha (~ 5.1%), and other land uses, 850 ha (~
5.5%), which include build up areas, roads, canals, rocks etc. Here are includes also the part of the farm area
currently not cultivated. The category of permanent crops represents only a small percentage of the arable land (~ 3
%). Grasslands include permanent meadows and pastures. Pine, oak, beech, and juniper are dominant species of
natural forests. Vineyards, apple, and plum are the principal planted fruit trees species. Sheep fescue is widespread,
as well as gramineae. The dominant cereals are: wheat, maize and barley. Most of the arable land occurs on mainly
flat or gently sloping areas.
Protected area has a total agricultural land area of 792 ha, of which 768 ha is suitable for crop production, and the
rest of 24 ha are fruit orchards, and vineyards. The cultivable land is located in Strblev (452 ha), Qarishte (139
ha), Sknderbej (119 ha), and Bardhaj (91 ha) villages.
The dynamics of the area destined for agriculture, forest and grassland in period 1990 2010 have not changed
much. The data show that an area of about 150 ha has changed from the category others to forests. Although it
is small area, this change significantly illustrates the development of the communal forests.
Anthropogenic Environment.
a.Social Economic Indicators of Sustainable Development. Since 1992 there has been a total change in the structure
of land ownership and management. The Agricultural Cooperatives have been privatized and its land distributed to
those who worked there. Land ownership is generally not of a single contiguous piece of land. In the interests of
equity the new farmers each received two or more parcels on land of differing quality. The average size farm unit in
protected area is about 2 ha. There are 397 units, of which about 20 percent are less than 1 ha, 65 percent range from
1 to 2 ha, and 15 percent are greater than 1.5 ha. Farm holdings are fragmented into some smaller plots. The vast
majority of landholdings are owners operated. Although the land has been redistributed, secure ownership rights and
title have not generally been established and a free market for sale or rental of land is not yet functioning.
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Approximately 15000 people live in the Park basin: in six Communes (Steblev, Lunik, Qendr, Hotolisht, Quks
and Rrajc), and in 12 villages (Borov, Steblev, Llang, Zgosht, Letem, Kosharisht, Qarrishte, Gizavesh, Dorz,
Skroske (Peshtan), Rrajc Sknderbej dhe Rrajc Bardhaj). Four villages compound protected area: Strblev,
Qarishte, Rrajc Sknderbej, and Rrajc Bardhaj, with a total population of 2325 inhabitants in 2010 (Table 1).
Administratively the territory of Protected Area is organized into three Communes: Commune of Strblev,
Commune of Qendr and Commune of Rrajc, which are administrative part of the Librazhd District. All these
Communes are units of Elbasan Prefecture.
The recent trend of population is growing at a rate of about 1 percent per year. The population distribution is not
uniform among the villages (Table 1). About 65 percent of the population is categorized as a labour force and about
70% of them are over 30 years old. About 70 percent of labour force is working in the agricultural sector. The labour
force data indicates the availability of human resources for future development. The main characteristic of the
agricultural farms is domination of the family labour. About 95% of the farms satisfy their job needs from their
family. The household in protected area consists of about 6 persons, showing a declining trend in years. The area is
dominated by families with 4 6 members, which represent 72% of the total member of the families. The population
is still dominated by the young population. About 23 % of the population is less than 15 years old, 67% is between
15 and 65 years old and only 10% is older than 65 years.
Table 1. Demographic data, 2010
Commune or Village Number of families Population

1. Commune of Strblev 362 1578
Strblev village 67 208
2. Commune of Qendr 2221 11 632

Qarishte village 77 537
3. Commune of Rrajc 2370 10665

Rrajc Sknderbej village 148 693
Rrajc Bardhaj village 105 889
Protected Area 397 2325
The average age of the heads of farm households is about 45 years. The average farmers work is about 25 hours per
week and the education level of most farmers is at the middle school level. There is concern that younger are less
likely to stay on family farm. There is expected to be increased rural to urban migration, which will be encouraged
as the industry and services sector recover.
These demographic trends, coupled with the development of a market for land renting and sale, which will be fully
functioning in a few years as the land registration process is completed, are likely to lead to increasing farm sizes
and larger contiguous cultivation units.
Fortunately there is not an employment shortage at present. According to the data provided by the Communes, about
23% are unemployed. The agricultural farm is the main source of employment. So, 74% of the working force is
employed in agriculture (full or part time), 6% is employed in non agricultural businesses (private, 2% and state
sector, 4%) and about 20% in emigration.
Low income from farming has made farmers to look for other income sources. Many farmers go for non-farm part
work. Here below are given some direction for employment of working labour force of protected area.
Promotion of integrated farming. Integrated farming combines crops and animals. Based on the economic
justification, as well as on the sustainable development policy, the protected area have to be oriented in the
development mainly of the fruit trees, ecological vegetables and fodder crops for livestock. Individual farmers have
started now with the cultivation of new wine yards and restoration of former one. A combined conservation program
for the preservation and restoration of still existing orchards is still not introduced. These efforts have to be linked
with a special marketing program for the fruits, for the certification and license of the production sites, which is
unknown for the area of concerns.
Promotion of organic agriculture. Protected area with its geographical position with its young rural population and
with low level use of external originated inputs on the farms, traditional features of agriculture, offers great
opportunities for development of organic agriculture. The organic agriculture has to be seen as a rural model of
sustainable agriculture and as a contribution to sustainable rural development. Protected area has another great
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advantage in applying organic farming. This advantage holds on the fact that labour force is abundant. Labour force
has the key role in applying organic farming. According to our survey a number of households are practicing organic
farming including nature or ecological farming (reduced use of agro-chemicals and fertilizers). This is 1.2 percent of
total farm households. Organic farms produce mainly vegetables, wine and honey.
Development of ecotourism. The sustainable rural development is one of the main objectives of Albanian policy,
where the ecotourism development is a long-term target. Development of eco-agriculture fits well within overall
strategic priorities of Albania. The increasing of tourism activities requires a demand from the traditional products
from agriculture and livestock. Variety of goats cheese and yoghurt, kid and lamb meat and the famous goats
preserved meat called pasterma will have their influence in the development of agro tourism in protected area.
Meanwhile, this region has good possibilities to offer special, natural and qualitative agricultural and livestock
productions.
Establishment of marketing system. One major source of off-farm employment is the establishment of the marketing
system. Of course, the marketing system also serves as a link between rural and urban migration both permanent and
cyclical.
Development of food industry activities. In this framework may be encouraged the Dairy Products.
Development of wood processing and handicraft activities. The people of the protected Area posses a special artistic
spirit and numerous crafts have been practiced here for centuries. Today these traditional skills are still performed in
the original manner. In their family you can watch the master-women creating beautiful works of sheep and goat
wool. Woollen blanket, carpets and cope, socks and bags may serve as wonderful souvenir from protected area. The
traditional lacework, handed down from one generation to another, creates works of arts made of simple thread.
Master woodcarvers are still working and passing their skills to young apprentices.
Cultivation and sustainable use of medical, tanning and oil bearing natural plants. The medicinal plants from the
protected Area, which are harvested with sustainable methods and traded with a fair price, would allow local people
an adequate income as well as the conservation of their nature.
It is difficult to ensure that the data on farm incomes is reasonably accurate, particularly when much of agricultural
production is consumed on farm. The average annual household income, including cash and non-cash sources in the
protected area is 3000 . Per capita annual income is about 500 , with approximately 40 percent of the population
having an income below 400 . About 5% of the households realize a monthly income up to 50 ; 53% have
monthly income varying from 50 to 150 , 28% from 150 to 250 and 13% from 250 to 400 . Only 1% of the
households make an annual income of more than 4000 .
The destination of agricultural production shows that the cash incomes in farm are still low in comparison with the
interior consumption, although the average income during 1997 2004 was increased by about 2.5 times. The sold
production, in 2002, was about 30% of total production as compared to about 15% in 1997.
Types of households: agricultural households, part time agriculture, non agricultural households are given in below
table 2.
Table 2. Types of households (%)
Full time in agriculture Part time in agriculture Non agricultural

30 65 5
The majority of farm households have income from non-farm activities, and these sources provide about 65% of the
households cash income (Table 3).
Farmers think that a combination of farmer training, improved markets for crops and technical and financial
assistance, is needed to improve their income.
The cost of material expenditure of the agricultural and livestock production amounts to about 40% of the income.
About 60% of the material expenditures are provided at farm level and 40% of them are purchased. In 2004, the
material expenditures for agriculture represent 45% of total expenditures. Expenditures for fertilizer purchase and
land tillage make up for 50% of the material expenditures in agriculture. The on - farm produced forages amount to
75% of the total expenditures for the livestock.
Table 3. Income structure (in %)
On-farm Off-farm Emigration

35 35 30
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From the taken data, we can draw the following conclusions: The farms continue to be considered as subsistence-
oriented, although during last years an increase of the revenues realized from sales has been noticed; and the major
part of the agricultural production is used for family consumption.
b. Agriculture Sector. Three main problems faced by agriculture are: First, the existence of an agricultural farm with
minimal size, fragmented, closed in itself and oriented towards the fulfilment of the family needs; second, the
existence of a considerably large family which needs to operate in the micro farm; third, the lack of irrigation
system.
The future development of agriculture in protected region is based mainly in the long traditions and experience of
the local people in combined traditional crop farming with livestock farming, and collecting from nature. Further,
there are suitable agro-climate conditions and low level of the environmental pollution for the implementation of
different environmentally sound agro-activities, like fruit yards, vineyards, orchards, etc.
Mean cropping structure (in percentage of total farmer cropping area) in catchments area is as follows: Wheat -
20.2 %, Corn 15.2 %, Dry beans - 5 %, Alfalfa 21.1 %, Vegetables 7.8 %, and Others 35.7 %. In table 4 are
given the planted area.
Table 4. Area planted
Crop Area planted (ha)

Wheat 160
Corn 120
Barley 43
Rye 57
Potatoes 54
Dry beans 39
Alfalfa 75
Forage 92
The small farm size and the even smaller average size of each parcel, constrain the development of mechanization
and the productivity of the crop production sector. Despite the demand for agricultural land, it is still utilized with
inefficiency. All arable land has not been intensively cultivated. Of total agricultural land, the maximum land
utilization is only about 85% to be grown one crop a year. There are not cultivated areas devoted to second crops
because the irrigation is not available. Productivity and yields for most agricultural crops showed a declining trend.
Whereas, the agricultural sector in Protected area has features, which provide substantial opportunities: Area of good
agricultural land on gentle slopes. (These soils will respond well to irrigation and fertilizers application with
minimal problems); an agro-climatic zone permitting cultivation of a wide variety of agricultural products; a
population with a high level of agricultural education and literacy who have demonstrated their commitment to
farming in the new economic environment; access to Macedonian market, with potential comparative advantage
arising both from location and from a low cost base.
However there are at present many constraints on the exploitation of these opportunities, some of which are already
being addressed. Of particular importance are: The lack of irrigation system; the poor state of transport infrastructure
(particularly the roads), which impedes produce marketing; inadequate seed supply; weak credit availability;
ineffective agricultural extension service; inadequate supplies of mechanical equipments; the lack of an effective
market for land (sale or rental); the small size and fragmentation of agricultural holdings; serious erosion from
upland areas, largely aggravated by uncontrolled grazing of animals on highly erodible areas.
Based on field level surveys, it has been determined that the major factors which would best contribute to increased
growth in the crop sector include: Providing a timely and assured irrigation water supply; improving the delivery
and availability of quality seeds, fertilizer, insecticides, agricultural extension, credit, and machinery; furthering
farmer education, and improving the rural infrastructure, particularly roads, and communications.
The field survey provides the following overall indications: Cropping intensities are low, despite the fact that a half
of the area is planted to winter wheat, offering an opportunity for a second crop on at least part of this area;
production of fodder crops for livestock is of major importance, with alfalfa and maize being two main crops grown;
reported crop yields are quite low. Crop yields are smaller than the district averages. This reflects both the low levels
of water and input use; most farms are mixed crop and livestock enterprises. Almost all farms own cattle, goats,
sheep and poultry and many also horses and pigs.
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c. Livestock Production. As for livestock production, goats and sheep are predominant and cattle plays important
role. Actually the animal production is taking priority in the total agricultural production. In the future this tendency
will become most important. Even now livestock has an important economic value.
Regardless of a slight livestock number decrease, especially of goats and sheep, there is a tendency towards
livestock production increase. Livestock continues to be the most important sector of the agricultural production
contributing to more than 45% of the total agricultural income in 2010. According to the data provided, the livestock
number is given in table 5.
Table 5. Stockbreeding structure in the Park
Communes or Village Livestock number

Cattle Sheep Goats Poultry Bees
1. Commune of Strblev
Strblev village 150 500 50 300 50
2. Commune of Qendr
Qarishte village 250 900 250 200 120
3. Commune of Rajc
Rrajc Skandrbej village 480 1000 800 400 30
Rrajc Bardhaj village 410 900 750 350 40
Protected Area 1290 3300 1850 1250 240
The breeding systems for small ruminants are still traditional: exploitation of the summer and winter meadows and
low forest, grazing in the considerable area of non cultivated agricultural land, tree lopping and a relatively limited
use of concentration and dry feed (about 110 days a year only during winter season).
Feed resources have declined over the last decade. The major sources for the collection of livestock fodder are:
Forage production; grazing of alpine and sub alpine pastures and meadows; tree lopping.
One of main source for livestock fodder is the forage production. This is not sufficient to meet the needs for
livestock food even and in the summer time because the lack of water for irrigation.
Pastoral capacity is unable to fulfil the pastoral needs of livestock. Since 1992 is evidenced a tendency of local
people to keep small flocks of goats near their houses. So, to assure the wintering of the livestock, needs for food are
provided also and by tree lopping mainly for goats, where the most damaged and overused is the oak belt. Despite
the efforts of the Local Forest Service administration to make limitations, these efforts are actually too weak toward
the pressure from livestock keepers.
The livestock sector has increased its relative importance. According to the data provided by the Directory of
Agriculture in the region, the comparison between the data of 1985 with current ones, the number of the cows, pigs
and bees is increased.
The livestock numbers has been changed according to the system changes. Until 1950 the livestock sector was
private, where each family owned some sheep and goats, cattle, a horse, a pig, some bees, etc. After yr. 1991 these
cooperatives were privatized and the large flocks were distributed to the private villagers. The total number of small
animals actually is decreased to about 5150.
Climate, water and soil favour quick development of forest and brushwood preferable by smaller animals. Certainly,
the forest damaged so much during these years, less by the overgrazing and more by the cutting without criterion
should rehabilitate gradually, but never damaging the livestock, which should have the place that has ever had in the
past in the region. Livestock isnt an activity incompatible to the preservation and conservation of natural
biodiversity values. This should be well understood especially when speaking about goat. The economic importance
of this specie, adapted so well to the conditions of the region, should not be undervalued. With a methodical
development of forest and goat arrangement, the goat can be a very important economic factor, as long as it eats the
spontaneous natural vegetation during the all year.
The habitants of protected area use to grow-up those kinds of domestic animals that can better adapt to the
environmental conditions in the area. Among them the most important are goats. During centuries there has been
consolidated a very interesting goat, with a robust constitution, able to cover kilometres in slope rocks every day in
search of fodder. Its weight is 35-40 kg, annual milk production, 100-120 l and reproduction, 120 %. Its fodder base
is the oaks leaf. There are no interventions aiming to improve the race.
The sheep arrangement continues to be still one of the main livestock activities. Until the year 1960 the common
type small body and rough wool dominated the region. In the 60-ies began the crossbreed of the region sheep with
races half-rough wool, like Cigaja and Rude and was done a severe selection of the sheep with black wool because
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of the very poor industrial value. From 1991, when race improvement stopped to be applied, there is a
predomination of sheep with half-rough wool, but there are also any with black wool, sign of the presence of the
ancient genetic material. Its weight is 25-30 kg, annual milk production, 50-70 l and reproduction, 120 %.
The habitants have also arranged and cows. The cows are used for milk, meat and work. The cow type of the region
represents an animal grey in colour, colour which became deeper on neck and on head, very resistant and adopted to
the climate of the region, similar to cow living in the mountain areas. The annual production is: milk, 1000 l and
meat, 100 kg. During these last 30-40 years there have been efforts to crossbreed it with Jersey, Oberental and
others, but couldnt assimilate the cow of the region.
d. Forestry. Forest is another important income source in protected area. Poor farming methods, timbering,
overgrazing and soil erosion have damaged severely some gently sloping to sloping soils, many of which are today
abandoned to brush.
In 2010, forestry occupied a total area of 7381 ha (Table 6). The forest ecosystem until 1950 was in the very good
condition without degradations and visible problems creating damages. The situation was good also and before 20-
30 years where the oak and beech forest have been in a good vegetative stages creating a real forest with reach
habitats and wild fauna have been presented within a high number of birds and mammals.
Table 6. Forest area (in ha) in Shebeniku Jablanica National Park
Commune/ village Forest Shrubs Grassland Total

Rrajc 3554 724 2840 7118
Strblev 2 031 135 444 2610
Qarishte 1796 481 1743 4020
Total 7381 1340 5027 13748
The notorious local energy shortage continues to have detrimental effects on the forest ecosystems of the protected
area and its surrounding area, as firewood is the major source of energy for the population of the region. The second
most serious threat to the forests is tree lopping for the collection of winter fodder, mostly for goats. Livestock
grazing inside the already-degraded mountain forests poses another threat to forest integrity. This causes soil erosion
and compaction, and the destruction of natural tree regeneration.
As a result of this extensive over-utilization, most local forests have deteriorated into unproductive shrub
communities of low commercial and biodiversity values. This is presumably associated with a reduction in species
diversity and loss of biodiversity. A concerted effort is needed to successfully rehabilitate the forests of the Park and
support zone. This may only be achieved in close cooperation with local villagers, the root cause of the
environmental problems.
Considering this extreme situation in this part of the region, which represent at first view a big contrast with the
another parts in neighboring country, the restoration of forests represent an imperative task of top priority, in order
to improve the natural habitats, manly in core and buffer zones of the Park. By this, the scenic beauty will be
regained and the attractiveness for the visitors will be increased. But this may only be achieved in close cooperation
with local villagers, providing and supporting them with suitable alternatives to firewood production, suggesting and
supporting activities that will led on reducing livestock numbers, reducing goat populations, and eliminating tree
lopping.
Since 1992 the policy of forest management has been changed from exploitation to conservation forestry and to
expand reforestation area. Under this policy, annual forestry production decreased and forest reserves increased.
All over the region wood is an important energy source for heating and cooking. Also, both local people and people
from the surrounding villages have been based on that source of power permanently without restriction.
e. Tourism. Here below are given the main features of protected area which support the tourism development: Stone
houses and barns, orchards and vineyards, grandmothers layered in traditional clothing, shepherds and their dogs
tending flocks of sheep and goats, donkey laden with hay traipsing down narrow trails and up cobblestone streets,
and the striking architecture and serenity of the village church filled with burning candles, ancient murals, and icons
of the orthodox saints, and everywhere there are friendly people eager to offer you priceless insights into their
timeless existence. Here you will find mountain slopes, and the peace of wild and undiscovered country.
Favourable sunlight, climate and soil provide a bountiful harvest. Bees make delicious honey from a multitude of
wild flowers, and sheep and goats grazing in high pastures make delicious cheeses. Lots of meat, mostly pork or
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veal, and the regional speciality, pastrma, andllukanik, are characteristic of Protected area. The specialities of
protected area are characterized by their mild flavours: mostly lamb, potatoes and dairy products.
Vegetables are of high quality. Amongst the most popular vegetables is the red pepper. Every garden in the region
grows red pepper. In the autumn, they are picked, roasted, skinned, pulped, and made into the best red pepper paste
you can imagine. An added delight is the decorative sight of the red peppers hung out to dry on every veranda for
use in winter cooking.
Vineyards and the talent of the local people to enjoy life and to make life enjoyable for their guests have produced
the fine wines of protected area. Robust and very palatable red and white local wines are served from bottles or
straight from the barrel in restaurants and homes. The grape spirit, rakija, drunk in small doses ensures good
digestion and a warm heart.
Prices for all these fresh and tasty delights are low. So even on the most meager of budgets the tourist can eat well
while enjoying the ambience of restaurants with beautiful views of the lake, old urban architecture or listening to
traditional music or dancing a local step.
CONCLUSIONS
In Park agriculture is chiefly practiced at a subsistence level. Mixed farming (i.e. agriculture and livestock breeding)
covers the main needs of the households. From an environmental point of view, the areas forests are under high
pressure mainly due to high practice of tree lopping and illegal wood cutting (wood for heating). Also, agriculture,
the way it is practiced, causes environmental problems, as in many cases it is based on monoculture systems,
although it should be mentioned that as far as agrochemicals are concerned, their use is still at a low level.
The low industrialization of the areas agriculture in comparison with the shortages of basic infrastructure (i.e.
irrigation, transportation etc.) and services (e.g. land market, credit availability, extension services etc.) form the
main restrictive factors for the areas rural development. Under these circumstances, there is no link with the market
or it is very low and almost the whole of the production is destined for own-consumption.
Based on the possibilities for the sustainable social economic development of the Albanian part of Park and the
rational use of the natural resources in order these to be of benefit for both nature and local economy it is required:
Promotion of the balanced and well planed development for all the branches and activities of production including
tourism; promotion of the activities that generating a contribution to nature protection or will reduce the negative
impacts to the environment; promotion of the resolution policy towards improvements of the nature resources
management and particularly water quality; ecotourism development; improvement of the infrastructure;
enforcement of the local human and labor capacity and increase of the local GDP; wide use of the local productions,
animal races and plant varieties; increase the local human and labor capacities through training and assistance;
promotion and support of the business entities; subsidiary system for the locally based population; protection of the
cultural values like monuments, traditional buildings, human traditional activities and cultural elements that will be
of help for the sustainable management of the natural resources.
REFERENCES
Bruner, R. (2006) Transboundary cooperation - a European Challenge. In the Green Belt of Europe, from the Vision
to reality. IUCN Publications, UK.
MoEFW. (2007) State of Environment Report, Tirana.
Riecken U., Ulrich, K., Lang, A. (2006) A Vision for the Green Belt in Europe. In the Green Belt of Europe, from
the Vision to the Reality. IUCN Publications, UK.
Shumka, S., Trajce A., Shuka, L., Schwadere, G., Spangenberg, A. (2008) Albanian Alps, Krabi Mountain Range
and Shebenik-Jablanica Range the New Backbone of the European Green Belt. Proceeding of International
Conference on Biological and Environmental Sciences.
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PAPER 170
FACTORS LEADING TO IMPLEMENTATION OF AGRICULTURAL BEST MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES ON THE AL-PRESPA BASIN
Dorina Grazhdani
Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania.
Email: d.grazhdani@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The water quality problems in the Albanian part of Prespa Park (AL-Prespa) basin are well documented. As a result,
state and local leaders have searched for viable solutions to nutrient loading in the AL-Prespa. One of the leading
sources of this pollution comes from agriculture, and one of the solutions to this problem lies in finding adequate
management techniques, often called Best Management Practices, or BMPs. This study statistically analyzes
economic and other factors that contribute to farmer adoption of six different agricultural best management practices
in the AL-Prespa basin. For this reason, a logit model is applied to a sample of farms in the AL-Prespa basin in
southeastern Albania. The data come from farmers living in the AL-Prespa basin, and reflects the characteristics of
the farmers, their farms, and their perceptions concerning environmental issues. The results of this study shows that
any policy aimed at improving BMPs implementation in the AL-Prespa basin should take a flexible approach. The
two most important factors in participation in BMPs are farm size and financial assistance. This study should give
policy makers a better understanding of which farmers adopt agricultural BMPs in the AL-Prespa basin and what
policies can effectively improve future BMP implementation. The study should also show that factors contributing
to BMP adoption in the AL-Prespa basin are not uniform across conservation techniques. Future studies should
focus on determining factors of BMPs intensity in the region. With the proper analysis of participation and intensity,
nonpoint source pollution policy formulation should become more effective. Knowing who to target should lead to
the most effective and efficient way to improve water quality on the AL-Prespa.
Key words: AL-Prespa, BMPs, nonpoint source pollution, logit model, management practices
INTRODUCTION
Several studies, starting with Ervin and Ervin (1982), have developed economic models that have dealt a number of
decisions related to BMPs use. Lohr and Park (1995) find that participation decisions are affected by factors only
indirectly related to on - farm returns. These factors include environmental concern, contact with government
agencies, and household and farm characteristics. In Traore, Landry, and Amaras (1998) probit model variables
include farmer characteristics such as education, membership in producers organizations, experience, participation
in government programs, and ownership status; farmer perception variables which include perceived health threat
from farm chemicals, adequacy of information on conservation practices, and expected crop loss to pests and weeds;
and farm characteristic variables which include size of operations and share of potato revenues in total farm income.
This study puts less emphasis on financial aspects than other reviewed studies. Ramirez and Shultz (2000) find
several different factors that contribute to BMP implementation in developing countries. They find that participation
in community organizations is positively related to adoption. Other factors, such as access to credit, labor
availability, education, farm size, and type of cropping system also seem to influence adoption. One interesting
outcome was the finding that higher farm net income and the existence of incentives do not appear to have a positive
impact on adoption.
In his multinominal logit model for tillage adoption, Fuglie (1999) includes the commonly used farm and farmer
characteristic variables such as experience, farm size, and technical experience. Fuglie also adds other variables such
as a variable for those farmers with a college education, farm owners, those who comply with conservation
practices, as well as various erosion and soil related variables. An interesting aspect of Fuglies model specification
is the inclusion of variables representing conditions that would lead to erosion problems.
The studies above are all varying methods for analyzing aspects of BMP implementation in developed countries.
Ramirez and Shultz (2000) study the implementation of BMPs in developing countries. They find several different
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factors that contribute to BMP implementation in developing countries. They find that participation in community
organizations is positively related to adoption. Other factors, such as access to credit, labor availability, education,
farm size, and type of cropping system also seem to influence adoption. One interesting outcome was the finding
that higher farm net income and the existence of incentives do not appear to have a positive impact on adoption.
This study statistically analyzes economic and other factors that contribute to farmer adoption of six different
agricultural best management practices in the AL-Prespa basin.
2.1.Empirical Model
The model used in this study is an example of a Bernoulli or binary response model, which is a binary logistic
regression model, the major benefit of which is that it can be derived from a latent variable model that satisfies the
classic linear model assumptions (Wooldridge, 2000). By this model are estimated the agricultural best management
practices implementation for six different BMP types (i = 1,,6): fertilizer or nutrient management(i = 1),
controlled drainage (i = 2), cover crops in rotation (i = 3), grasses or legumes in rotation (i = 4), conservation or
reduced tillage (I = 5), and integrated pest management (i = 6).
The variables estimated in this model are included in two groups. First group includes the following basic
demographic variables: education, work experience, income, farm size, and percentage of farm sales from livestock,
percentage of income from farming, and a financial assistance dummy. Second model group includes the variables
representing the perception of the farmer concerning AL-Prespa water quality conditions and the expected effect of
these variables on implementation. These variables include the following: a dummy variable for those rating the
water quality poor, a dummy variable for those who have heard or read a lot about problems facing the AL-Prespa, a
dummy variable for those who have talked with someone about the problems on the AL-Prespa, a dummy variable
for those who do not think water quality on the AL-Prespa is important at all, and a dummy variable for those
respondents who feel that the AL-Prespa is not safe for recreation.
2. Data Collection
The data come from a 2012 survey of households from twelve villages in the AL-Prespa basin. Table 1 shows
demographic information for the 298 observations and the expected effect of these variables on implementation. The
average income (Income) of the farmers surveyed is 879.41. The average farm size of the respondents (Farm size)
is 1.413 ha. The average percent income received from farming (Percentage) is 49 percent. Also 18 percent of
respondents receive financial assistance for BMPs (Finasst). Other averages for demographic variables include
education (Education), experience (Experience), percentage of total farm sales from livestock (Animals), age (Age),
and gender (Female). Education is measured in years of schooling. Experience is a proxy for potential work
experience (Age Education 6). Age is measured in years.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics: Demographics
Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. Expected Sign

Education 298 10.82 3.878 7 22 +
Experience 298 36.75 4.215 0 73 +
Income 298 879.41 21.327 300 2000 +
Animals 298 27.86 4.597 0 100 -
Farm size 298 1.413 0.823 0.8 3.4 +
Financial assistance 298 0.178 0.354 0 1 +
Percentage 298 48.973 23.14 0 100
Age 298 52.43 13.89 21 84 -
Female 298 0.123 0.213 0 1 +
Table 2 shows perceptions held by the respondents, and the expected effect of these variables on implementation.
WQPOOR gives the percentage of the number of respondents who felt the water quality was poor in their
communities. WQIMPORTN gives the percentage of the number of respondents who felt the water quality was not
at all important to them personally. READALOT shows the percentage of respondents who felt they have heard or
read a lot about problems facing the AL-Prespa. TALKSOME represents the percentage of respondents who have
talked with other people about the problems on the AL-Prespa before the survey. NOTSAFE shows the percentage
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of respondents who felt the lakes is not safe to use. CURREGAS gives the percentage of respondents who disagree
that the current regulations are sufficient to protect water quality in the AL-Prespa. BOATABLE shows the
percentage of respondents who feel the AL-Prespa is safe for boating. TRIPS shows the average number of trips the
respondent would take to the AL-Prespa for swimming, fishing or other recreational purposes in the next 12 months.
NONPOINT gives the percentage of respondents who have heard of nonpoint source pollution.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics: Perception
Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. Expected Sign

WQPOOR 298 0.541 0.37 0 1 +
WQIMPORTN 298 0.058 0.031 0 1 _
READALOT 298 0.876 0.231 0 1 +
TALKSOME 298 0.897 0.356 0 1 +
NOTSAFE 298 0.359 0.123 0 1 +
CURREGAS 298 0.378 0.157 0 1 +
BOATABLE 298 0.273 0.313 0 1 +
TRIPS 298 7.321 12.587 0 97 +
NONPOINT 298 0.412 0.531 0 1 +
Table 3 gives the percentage of implementation for the six agricultural best management practices: fertilizer or
nutrient management (BMP_Fnma), controlled drainage (BMP_codr), cover crops in rotation (BMP_Rot1), grasses
or legumes in rotation (BMP_Rot2), conservation or reduced tillage (BMP_Till), and integrated pest management
(BMP_Ipms).
Table 3. BMP descriptive statistics
Variable N Mean Std Dev

BMP_Fnma 298 0.861 0.427
BMP_codr 298 0.835 0.371
BMP_Rot1 298 0.771 0.329
BMP_Rot2 298 0.556 0.257
BMP_Till 298 0.339 0.165
BMP_Ipms 298 0.641 0.421
Fertilizer or nutrient management involves accounting for all fertilizer or nutrient inputs so to meet the needs of
crops or livestock, while reducing potential runoff. These plans deal with feed management, manure handling and
storage, land application of manure, nutrient management, land management, record keeping, and acceptable
alternatives for use or disposal of excess nutrients produced or imported onto the farm. These plans are usually site
specific and are written to meet the goals of the farmer. 86 percent of the farmers surveyed implemented this BMP.
Farmers use controlled drainage to manage water flow to and from water sources. This management technique often
uses water control structures and pumps to better manage water flow on a property. Controlled drainage leads to
more efficient water use for crops as well as reduction of polluted runoff. 84 percent of the farmers surveyed
implemented controlled drainage on their farms.
Some farmers use different cover crops in their rotations for seasonal purposes. These cover crops prevent erosion
and increase soil organic matter. In some cases these crops in rotation are grasses or legumes. Grasses can be used
for forage for livestock or for human consumption. Legumes can be extremely important for the nitrogen fixation
process, which can increase the productivity of other crops. 77 percent of the farmers used cover crops in their
rotations and 56 percent of the farmers used grasses and legumes in their rotations.
Conservation and reduced tillage practices involve leaving different amounts of plant residue from past crops on the
fields all year round. This practice helps prevent soil erosion and can increase the soils integrity through increases in
organic matter. 34 percent of the farmers used conservation tillage practices.
The last management technique assessed in this study is integrated pest management. Integrated pest management
involves using a multifaceted approach to pest management. With integrated pest management, farmers deal with
weeds, diseases, insects, and other pests utilizing avoidance, prevention, monitoring, and suppression strategies.
Integrated pest management uses this multifaceted approach so to minimize negative environmental effects that may
occur from overuse of one type of pest control. 64 percent of the surveyed farmers used integrated pest management.
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RESULTS
The logit regression coefficients for the implementation of the six best management practices are presented in table
4. Table 5 presents the marginal effects and odds ratios for the logit model. The model is significant at the 0.01 level
according to the chi-square statistics.
There are several common factors that did influence the implementation of almost six BMPs studied. The two most
important factors in participation in BMPs are farm size and financial assistance. Farm size has a significant,
positive relationship with adoption of BMPs. So, there is a positive relationship between the percent of income from
farming and the implementation of controlled drainage at the 0.05 level. The mean percentage point increase for
implementation of these BMPs is 16.5.
The fact that farm size plays an important role shows the potential for some selectivity in producing the most
effective policy. The only best management practice that is not affected by farm size is fertilizer or nutrient
management. When farm size affected implementation of the BMPs, the magnitude of the increase diminished as the
size of the farm increased.
In each case, there was a specific farm size after which BMPs implementation did not increase. This suggests that
medium sized farms have the lowest average costs for implementation of BMPs. In order to provide more incentives
for small farms to adopt BMPs, small farms could receive higher per ha payments to address the higher costs of
BMPs implementation. The higher payments would balance out the higher per ha cost of BMPs implementation that
occurs with smaller farms.
Financial assistance in BMPs adoption also had positive impacts on implementation of most BMPs in the study. The
only BMPs that were not significantly affected by financial assistance were rotation 1 and integrated pest
management. The mean positive effect of financial assistance in this data set is roughly 20 percentage points. So,
there is a significant positive relationship between farmers who receive financial assistance and the use of grasses
and legumes in rotation at the 0.01 level. There was also proved to be a significant positive relationship between
farmers who receive financial assistance and implementation of controlled drainage. This relationship is significant
at the 0.05 level. As the number of ha of farmland increase, farmers in the AL-Prespa basin are more likely to
implement integrated pest management. There is a significant, positive relationship between farmers who receive
financial assistance and implementation of reduced till. This relationship is significant at the 0.01 level.
The impact of financial assistance amplifies the importance of proper funding in the implementation of such
policies. The odds ratio indicates those farmers receiving financial assistance for implementation of BMPs are over
3 times more likely to adopt fertilizer or nutrient management, and 2.16 times more likely to implement controlled
drainage. Farmers also increase implementation by 1.6 percentage points when an additional ten percent is added to
their total income gained from farming. Farms that receive financial assistance for BMP implementation are 2.5
times more likely to implement conservation or reduced tillage than those farms that do not receive financial
assistance for BMP implementation. Farms that receive financial assistance for integrated pest management
implementation are 1.66 times more likely to implement this BMP than those farms that do not receive financial
assistance. Farms that receive financial assistance for rotation 2 implementation are 2.9 times more likely to
implement buffers than those farms that do not receive financial assistance for BMP implementation. Farmers also
increase implementation by 1.5 percentage points when an additional ten percent is added to their total income
gained from farming.
The implementation of cover crops in rotation, fertilizer or nutrient management, and grasses or legumes in rotation,
was all affected by the percentage of income from farming. The effect was not constant, however. There is a positive
relationship between the percent of income from farming and the implementation of fertilizer or nutrient
management at the 0.01 level. The implementation of grasses or legumes was negatively affected by the percentage
of income from farming. The implementation of cover crops in rotation, and fertilizer or nutrient management, had
positive affects of around 2 percentage points per 10 percent increase in income from farming. There is also a
positive relationship between the percent of income from farming and the implementation of controlled drainage at
the 0.05 level and rotation 2 at the 0.1 level.
Table 4. Estimated logit coefficients for the implementation of the best management practices
Type of best management practices

Fertilizer Controlled Rotation 1 Rotation 2 Conservation Integrated pest
Variable drainage Tillage management
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Estimate (Std Dev)

Intercept 1.1502** -0.5646 0.4155 -0.7645 -0.3406 -0.5671
(-0.0262) (1.2345) (0.9960) (0.8777) (1.0081) (0.8480)
Education -0.0578 0.0577 -0.0600 -0.00094 -0.00930 -0.0252
(0.0535) (0.0565) (0.0467) (0.0407) (0.0466) (0.0392)
Experience -0.0170 0.0127 0.00261 -0.0132 -0.0104 -0.00753
(0.0135) (0.0142) (0.0118) (0.0102) (0.0121) (0.00987)
Income 0.00164 -0.00053 0.00254 -0.00123 0.00374 0.00401***
(0.00276) (0.00288) (0.00256) (0.00206) (0.00255) (0.00201)
Animals 0.00394 -0.00912** -0.00556 0.0102* 0.000579 0.000722
(0.00155) (0.00471) (0.00349) (0.00332) (0.00370) (0.00310)
Farm size 0.00148* 0.00819* 0.00710* 0.00608* 0.0107* 0.00508*
(0.00212) (0.00243) (0.00231) (0.00175) (0.00212) (0.00167)
Financial 1.1717* 0.7710** 0.4938*** 1.0702* 0.9128* 0.5045**
assistance (0.3760) (0.3957) (0.3079) (0.2515) (0.3269) (0.2384)
Percentage 0.0138* 0.0117** 0.00893** -0.00610*** 0.00620 0.00518
(0.00510) (0.00508) (0.00414) (0.00363) (0.00418) (0.00341)
WQPOOR -0.4007 0.2213 -0.1439 -0.5415** -0.3056 0.2360
(0.3096) (0.3215) (0.2866) (0.2482) (0.2882) (0.2365)
WQIMPORTN -0.4649 -0.2365 -0.5118 -0.6111 -1.3412** -0.6758
(0.5773) (0.6832) (0.5744 (0.5572) (0.5620) (0.5385)
READALOT -0.2578 -0.7298*** 0.1949 0.5283** 0.0753 -0.3188
(0.3597) (0.4009) (0.3371) (0.2857) (0.3277) (0.2726)
TALKSOME -0.0826 0.4155 0.4807 0.6749** 0.1748 0.4345
(0.3944) (0.3830) ()0.3447 (0.3076) (0.3383) (0.2823)
NOTSAFE 0.0898 -0.3984 0.0134 0.2560 0.1736 -0.3814
(0.3271) (0.3356) (0.3090) (0.2726) (0.3072) (0.2619)
CURREGUST -0.0904 -0.3289 -0.2165 0.0527 0.4567 -0.2123
(0.2905) (0.3143) (0.2789) (0.2453) (0.2850) (0.2303)
BOATABLE 0.1765 0.3632 0.4249 0.2215 0.2832 -0.1181
(0.6059) (0.4129) (0.3694) (0.3104) (0.3565) (0.2579)
TRIPS 0.0107 -0.00924 -0.0107** -0.00467 0.00497 0.00936
(0.0107) (0.00639) (0.00531) (0.00544) (0.00998) (0.00784)
NONPOINT 0.2851 0.3114 -0.2576 0.6541** 0.3755 0.3688
(0.3701) (0.4067) (0.3327) (0.2889) (0.3456) (0.2707)
Wald (global 34.6539* 44.0898* 56.5204* 70.1185* 64.3593* 43.4146*
McFaddens R2 0.1157 0.1685 0.1833 0.1767 0.1629 0.0964
* Significant 99% confidence; ** - significant 95% Confidence, *** significant 90% Confidence
Several BMPs were positively affected by the percentage of total sales from livestock. Implementation is increased
between roughly 1 and 2 percent for every 10 percent increase in the percentage of total sales from livestock.
Table 5. Estimated logit marginal effects for the implementation of best management practices
Type of Best Management Practices

Fertilizer Controlled Rotation 1 Rotation 2 Conservation Integrated pest
Variable drainage Tillage management
Estimate (Odds Ratio)
Intercept 0.2615** -0.1261 0.0772 -0.19034 -0.0655 -0.1415
Education -0.00423 0.0071 -0.01115 -0.00023 -0.0018 -0.00629
Experience -0.00282 0.0017 0.00048 -0.00033 -0.0020 -0.00187
Income 0.00031 -0.00053 0.00045 -0.00031 0.0007196 0.001000**
Animals -0.00072 0.00126** -0.00103 0.00254* 0.00011 0.00018
Farm size 0.00022 0.00123* 0.00132* 0.00151* 0.00206* 0.00126*
Financial 0.1761* 0.1062*** 0.0918 0.2664* 0.1756* 0.1259**
assistance (3.227) (2.162) (1.639) (2.916) (2.491) ()1.656
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Percentage 0.0021* 0.0013** 0.00166** -0.00152** 0.00119 0.0012

WQPOOR -0.0590 0.0305 -0.0267 -0.1348** -0.0588 0.0589
(0.670) (1.248) (0.866) (0.582) (0.737) (1.266)
WQIMPORTN -0.0695 -0.0479 -0.0951 -0.1521 -0.2580** -0.1687
(0.628) (0.706) (0.599) (0.543) (0.262) (0.509)
READALOT 0.0385 -0.1005*** 0.0362 -0.1315*** 0.0145 -0.0795
(0.773) (0.482) (1.215) (1.696) (1.078) (0.727)
TALKSOME -0.0123 0.0572 0.0894 0.1680** 0.0336 0.1084
(0.921) (1.515) (1.617) (1.964) (1.191) (1.544)
NOTSAFE 0.0134 -0.0508 -0.0054 0.0637 0.0334 -0.0952
(1.094) (0.692) (1.030) (1.292) (1.190) (0.683)
CURREGUST 0.069 -0.0453 -0.0402 0.0131 0.0879 -0.0533
(0.914) (0.720) (0.805) (1.054) (1.579) (0.808)
BOATABLE 0.0018 0.0500 0.0790 0.0551 0.0545 -0.0294
(0.012) (1.438) (1.529) (1.248) (1.327) ()0.889
TRIPS 0.0016 0.0013 -0.0019** -0.0419 0.0010 0.0581
(1.011) (0.991) (0.989) (0.845) (1.005) (1.009)
NONPOINT 0.0426 0.0429 -0.0479 0.1629** 0.0722 0.0920
(1.330) (1.365) (0.773) (1.923) (1.456) (1.446)
* Significant 99% confidence; ** - significant 95% Confidence, *** significant 90% Confidence
One of the aims of this study was to determine if water quality related perceptions impacted adoption of best
management practices. In some cases, perceptions appeared to have little or no influence on implementation. Neither
permanent vegetation strips nor integrated pest management had any water quality related perception that influenced
their adoption. Fertilizer and nutrient management and rotation 1 BMPs only had one significant water quality
related perception impacting adoption. Rotation 2 appeared to be most influenced by water quality related
perceptions.
Rotation 2 was influenced by those who thought water quality is poor on the AL-Prespa, reading a lot about water
quality issues on the AL-Prespa, talking with someone about water quality issues on the AL-Prespa before the
survey, disagreeing that farmers will do the right thing for water quality if given the chance, and knowledge of the
word nonpoint as a proxy for scientific knowledge. Those who feel the water quality is poor in the AL-Prespa are
1.72 times less likely to implement rotation 2. Those farmers who felt they had heard or read a lot about problems
facing the AL-Prespa were 1.69 times more likely to implement legumes or grasses in rotation. Those farmers who
have talked with other people about problems on the AL-Prespa before the survey were 2 times more likely to
implement grasses or legumes in rotation.
The fact that implementation of these best management practices had such varied relationships to perceptions
indicates that the issue may deserve more study. It would be difficult to formulate effective policy related to
farmers water quality related perceptions due to the variability of results.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, voluntary participation in six different agricultural best management practices is characterized by
farmer and farm characteristics, financial characteristics, and varying categories of farmer perception concerning
water quality. The implementation of these six best management practices has been shown to decrease the amounts
of pollution reaching surface waters.
Future studies should focus on determining factors of BMPs intensity in the region. With the proper analysis of
participation and intensity, nonpoint source pollution policy formulation should become more effective. Knowing
who to target should lead to the most effective and efficient way to improve water quality on the AL-Prespa.
REFERENCES
Ervin, C. A., and Ervin, D. E. (1982) Factors Affecting the Use of Soil Conservation Practices: Hypothesis,
Evidence, and Policy Implications. Land Economics 58, 277-92.
Fuglie, K. O. (1999) Conservation Tillage and Pesticide Use in the Cornbelt. Journal of Agricultural and Applied
Economics 31(1), 133-47.
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Lohr, L. and Park, T. A. (995) Utility-Consistent Discrete-Continuous Choices in Soil Conservation. Land
Economics 71(4), 474-90.
Ramirez, O. A., and Shultz, S. D. (2000) Poisson Count Models to Explain the Adoption of Agricultural and Natural
Resource Management Technologies by Small Farmers in Central American Countries. Journal of Agricultural and
Applied Economics 32(1), 21-33.
Traore, N., Landry, R., and Amara, N. (1998) On-farm Adoption of Conservation Practices: The Role of Farm and
Farmer Characteristics, Perceptions, and Health Hazards. Land Economics 74(1), 114-27.
Wooldridge, J. M. (2000) Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Michigan State University: South-
Western College Publishing
PAPER 171
YIELD, YIELD COMPONENTS AND PROTEIN CONTENT OF DURUM WHEAT AS AFFECTED BY

DIFFERENT SEED RATES AND PLANTING TIME
Foto Kashta, Agim Canko, Pellumb Harizaj, Nikollaq Bardhi, Isuf Kaziu
Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Agricultural University of Tirana, Kodr
Kamz, 1029, Tirana, Albania
Email: foto_kashta@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of planting date and plant densities on yield and yield quality of
durum wheat. The experiment was laid out according to randomized complete block design with split plot
arrangements and four replications. Two genotypes of durum wheat (Creso and Line 5/11-1) were planted on 5 dates
from 15 October to 15 December, with 15 days intervals at 4 densities (300, 400, 500 and 600 plant / m 2). The
results showed that planting dates and population densities significantly affected grain yield ha-1. It was observed
that wheat yields and other characters for both cultivars responded differently to planting dates and plant densities.
Highest yields for 5/11-1 were recorded under 15th November and 1th December planting time, whereas for Creso
the highest yields were achieved under 1th and 15th November. The optimum seeding rate was different for the two
genotypes. For line L-5/11-1 the highest and lowest grain yields were obtained at densities of 500 and 300
plant/m2 respectively, and for Creso at 400 and 300 plant/m2 respectively. Planting time and density did not show
significant effect on protein content, wet gluten and vitreous of kernel. However, highest values of these traits were
obtained from lowest and highest densities when yields were the lowest, showing that these differences are
influenced by those yield values.
Key words: durum wheat, density, planting time, yield, protein, wet gluten, vitreous
INTRODUCTION
Yield potential of a crop is dependent upon genetic and environmenta1 factors. The environmental factors can be
manipulated to exploit the maximum yield potential of a variety. Seeding density and planting time are limiting
factors for plants to capture environmental resources (Stoppler et al 1990). They are considered of the most
important production factors for higher grain yield as well as for quality crop (Benvenuto et al 1973, Xhomo A.
1982). Changes in seeding density have special importance in wheat crops since they have a direct effect on grain
yield and its components (Ozturk et al., 2006) according to the cultivation environment
It can affect ground cover competitive ability with weeds, light interception, lodging and the development of an
optimum number of productive tillers to maximize grain yield. Unfortunately, there is no single recommendation for
all conditions, because the optimum plant density varies depending on environmental factors such as soil fertility,
moisture supply, genotype, planting date, planting pattern, plant population and harvest time (Shirtliffe, S.J et al
2002Gonzalo et al., 2006).
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Planting date is one of the most important agronomic factors involved in producing high yielding small grain cereal
crops, which affects the timing and duration of the vegetative and reproductive stages. Seeding earlier increases
chances of disease and insect problems. Seeding later reduces chance of survival, tends to reduce germination count
and number of tillers unit area-1, generally delays maturity, increases disease chances, and reduces yield potential.
(Blue et al., 1990 Soomro et al, 2009;). Many results showed that optimized sowing time and sowing rate has the
potential to improve yield of winter wheat and radiation use efficiency. Determining suitable planting date plays an
important role in conformation of plant growth stages with desirable environmental conditions which results in
maximum yield.
In view the importance of seeding density and planting time, the present study was designed to determinate the best
seeding density and planting time for productivity and some quality traits
of two genotypes of durum wheat
The two genotypes of durum wheat (Creso and L-5-11-1) were sown at the experimental field of ATTC Lushnja
(Albania), during 2008-2009, 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 growing seasons
The experiment was laid out according to randomized complete block design with split plot arrangements and four
replications. Main plot included five planting times (15 October to 15 December, with 15 days intervals) and sub
plots contained four densities (300, 400, 500 and 600 plants/m2) The area of sub plot 10 m2 (5 x 2 m) was
established to accommodate 11 rows with 20 cm row spacing. Standard cultural practices were performed uniformly
for all the experimental units in order to reduce experimental error. Phosphorus (80 kg/ha), potash (60 kg/ha) was
applied at planting time while all the doses of nitrogen (150 kg/ha) was applied during vegetative period in four
times. Six rows were harvested for grain yield and threshed. After threshing the grains were cleaned, dried and
weight to record the grain yield which was calculated per hectare basis. The values of protein content (Nx5.7), wet
gluten and vitreous were calculated, using known methods
All the data collected during three years were subjected to statistical analyses using ANOVA. Least Significant
Difference Test at 5% probability was used to test the significant differences among mean values of each treatment
Steel and Torrie, (1997).
RESULTS
Grain yield. The effect of seed rate and planting time on grain yield (kv ha-1) of wheat was highly significant
(p<0.05) during all the years of study. The yield in 2010-2011 was significantly higher (p<0.01) than the other years
mainly because of favorable weather conditions. Optimum rainfall received caused increase in grain yield. The three
years average data showed that grain yield was maximum (53.9, and 53.5 kv ha-1) at seed rate of 500 and 600
plant/m2 for L-5/11-1, and 52.0 and 52.5 kv/ha) at seed rate of 400 and 500 plant/m2 for Creso
(without significant differences) as against the minimum grain yield of 50.4 and 48.3 kv/ha respectively for L-5/11-1
and Creso at seed rate of 300 plant/m2 (Table 1). This might be due to the fact that more number of plants emerged
m-2, more well filled spikes and plump seed, which in return yielded more grain yield
Maximum grain yield (57.0 and 55.1 kv/ha) was produced by L-5/11-1 planted on 15th November and 1th December
compared to this genotype planted on 15 th October (44.0 kv/ ha). Maximum grain yield (55.4 and 55.8 kv/ha) by
Creso was achieved when it was planted on 1th and 15 th November as compared to15th October and 15 th December
which produced minimum grain yield (46.0 kv/ha). Each day delay in sowing of L-5/11-1 after 1th December
onward decreases grain yield at the rate of 24 kg ha-1 day-1, while for Creso this decrease was higher.
Our results supported by provided by Xhomo (1982), who reported that planting dates and seeding rates had
significant effect on the grain yield. However, Paul (1992), reported non-significant effect of seed rate on grain
yield.
The data also indicated that interaction between seed rate and planting date was significantly (P < 0.01) affected.
Sowing of wheat on 1th December with seed rate of 500-600 plant/m2 (D4S4), resulted in the highest, 57.8 and 57.9
kv/ha, which was statistically similar to D3S3, , where as sowing of wheat on 15th October with seed rate 300
plant/m2 (D2S1), resulted in the lowest grain yield 42.7 kv/ha, for L-5/11-1 genotype. Similar results was obtained
also for Creso
As noted the higher yield was achieved in different seed rate and planting date for two genotypes. These differences
are explained because of the differences in morphological, physiological and biological characteristics between
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them. L-5/11-1 is characterized by erectofil position and it is almost alternative biological type. This is why L-5/11-
1 gave higher yield in higher plant density and on later planting date then Creso.
Table 1. Grain yield (kg ha-1) as affected by seeding rate and planting time in wheat.
Seeding Planting time (L-5/11-1) Planting time (Creso)

rate S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Mean S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Mean
(D1)300 43.1df 50.1c 51.2c 55.9a 51.6c 50.4b 43.2f 53.3bc 53.8b 47.5d 43.8f 48.3c
f bc b a c b cd a a c d
(D2)400 42.7 52.9 54.4 56.5 51.4 51.6 47.4 57.5 58.9 49.7 46.5 52.0a
d bc a a ab a cd a a c c
(D3)500 45.9 52.1 57.9 57.8 56.0 53.9 48.1 57.9 57.1 50.7 48.8 52.5a
d b a a b a cd bc bc c d
(D4)600 44.3 53.8 56.8 57.9 54.6 53.5 47.4 52.9 53.3 50.7 46.9 50.4b
d b a a b d a a c d
Mean 44.0 52.2 55.1 57.0 53.4 - 46.5 55.4 55.8 49.6 46.5 -
LSD0.05 (Seed rate) = 1.18
LSD0.05 (Planting time) = 2.12
LSD0.05 (Seed rate x planting time) = 2.84
Means followed by different letter(s) in a column and rows are significant at 5% level of probability.
Protein content, wet gluten and vitreous
Beside the aim of achieving high grain yields, grain quality plays an important role since quality requirements
influence prices. Grain protein concentration and composition have long been recognized as major traits determining
cereals end-use value.
Analysis of the data presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4, indicated that protein content, wet gluten and vitreous were not
significantly affected by different seed rates and different planting times. However, increasing the number of
plants/m2 leads to relative decreases of protein and wet gluten, while vitreous was less influenced by these factors.
This fact is more evident for L-5/11-1 as compared with Creso.
If we observe the values of these traits concerning with planting time, we can see that at first and last planting time
the protein content, wet gluten and vitreous level was higher. This fact happened because of lower yield achieved in
these planting times and due to the strength effect of yield on grain protein. Individual variety yield was inversely
proportional to grain protein across all plots. The overall effect of interaction between seeding rate and planting time
on protein averaged and other studied traits, however, was different at plots which achieved high grain yield,
compared with the plots of lower yield. In generally, lower protein was observed at plots that achieved maximum
yield
However the new higher yielding line (L-5/11-1) consistently recorded good proteins and other values across
numerous plots.
Table 2. Protein content as affected by seeding rate and planting time in durum wheat.

(D1)300 16.26 15.38 15.37 15.92 15.96 15.8 14.31 14.23 13.54 12.61 14.92 13.9
(D2)400 16.03 15.04 14.93 15.53 15.97 15.5 13.90 13.23 13.69 13.53 14.64 13.8
(D3)500 15.78 15.20 15.10 15.67 15.43 15.4 13.99 13.32 13.44 13.93 14.11 13.7
(D4)600 15.53 15.11 14.68 15.21 15.40 15.2 13.36 12.70 13.23 12.92 13.89 13.2
Mean 15.9 15.2 15.02 15.6 15.7 - 13.6 13.4 13.5 13.3 14.4
LSD0.05 (Seed rate) = ns
LSD0.05 (Planting time) = ns
LSD0.05 (Seed rate x planting time) = n.s
NS = Non-significant
Table 3. Wet gluten as affected by seeding rate and planting time in durum wheat.

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(D1)300 30.12 27.39 29.08 33.75 30.67 30.2 27.34 26.03 26.46 24.28 28.14 26.5
(D2)400 30.16 28.93 28.85 30.39 28.91 29.5 26.01 25.16 25.82 26.29 27.45 26.1
(D3)500 30.66 29.64 27.39 29.08 28.47 29.1 26.16 24.39 25.00 25.37 27.41 25.7
(D4)600 28.86 27.59 25.99 28.20 29.57 28.1 24.95 23.61 24.74 25.11 26.31 25.0
Mean 29.9 28.9 28.0 30.3 29.4 - 26.1 25.0 25.6 25.2 27.4 -
LSD0.05 (Seed rate) = n.s
LSD0.05 (Planting time) = n.s
n.s = Non-significant
Table 4. Vitreous as affected by seeding rate and planting time in durum wheat.

(D1)300 80 82 93 95 91 88.2 90 91 92 93 93 91.8
(D2)400 70 94 88 93 93 87.6 89 97 91 93 95 93.0
(D3)500 76 92 84 92 94 87.6 93 82 83 81 94 86.6
(D4)600 78 90 90 96 94 89.8 91 76 80 94 90 86.2
Mean 76.0 89.5 88.6 94.0 93.0 - 90.8 86.5 86.5 90.2 93.0
LSD0.05 (Seed rate) = n.s
LSD0.05 (Planting time) = n.s
NS = Non-significant
CONCLUSIONS
From this study it can be concluded that the seed density and planting time affected yield of durum wheat.
Increasing plants population increased seed yield per unit area. L-5/11-1 gave higher yield at a higher plant density
(500-600 plants/m2 ) than Creso (400-500 plants/m2 ), because of differences in their morphological, and
physiological characteristics. The optimum planting time was different for two genotypes in the study. L-5/11-1
gave higher yield when it was planted on 15th November and 1th December while Creso on 1th and 15th November
planted date. This difference occur because these genotypes are different in their biological characteristics. Protein
content, wet gluten and vitreous were not significantly affected by different seed rates and different planting times.
However, increasing the number of plants/m2 leads to relative decreases of protein and wet gluten, while vitreous
was less influenced by this factor.
REFERENCE
Benvenuto A., Bonari E., Miese S. 1973. Il ruolo della fertilizzazione e dello investimento sulla produtivita di
Triticum durum (Riv. Di Agronomia 2-3
Blue E.N, Mason SC, Sander DH (1990). Influence of planting date, seeding rate and phosphorus rate on wheat
yield. Agron. J., 82: 762-768.
Gonzalo, M., T. J. Vyn, J. B. Holland, L. M. Mcintyre (2006): Mapping density response in maize: A direct
approach for testing genotype and treatment interactions. Genetics (GSA), 173: 331-348
Ozturk, A., O. Caglar and S. Bulut, 2005. Growth and yield response of facultative wheat to winter sowing freezing
sowing and spring sowing at different seeding rates. J. Agron. Crop Sci., 192: 10-16
Paul SR (1992). Effect of pre-sowing seed treatment, seed rates, fertility levels and surface soil compaction on
growth and yield of late sown rained wheat in Assam. Ann. Agric. Res., 13(4): 410-411.
Shirtliffe, S.J. and A.M. Johnston, 2002. Yield density relationships and optimum plant populations in two cultivars
of solid-seeding dry bean grown in Saskatchewan. Can. J. Plant Sci., 82: 521-529.
Somro, U.A. , M. U. Rahman, E. A. Odhano, S. Gul and A. Tareen 2009 Effects of sowing method and seed rate on
growth and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum) World J. Agric. Sci., 5: 159-162
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Steel R., R.G.D. and J.H. Torrie. 1997. Principles and procedures of statistics. A Biometrical Approach. McGraw
Hill, New York, USA
Stoppler, H., E. Kolsch and H. Vogtmann. 1990. The influence of sowing date, seed rate and variety on agronomic
characteristics of winter wheat. J. Agron Crop Sci. 90: 28-38
Xhomo A. 1982 Koha e mbjelljes dhe dendesia e bimeve elemente te rendesishem te teknologjise se grurit. SH.P.B.
Tirane
PAPER 172
ORGANIC SOLVENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON HUMAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT- A CASE
STUDY
Hilal Kivraka, Mohammad Shahriarib,c, Erol Pehlivana, Arif Kivrakd

a
Chemical Engineering Department Selcuk University, Konya, 42031, Turkey
b
Competent Center for HSE & Ethics Faculty of Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
c
Product and Production Developmet/Production System, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gteborg,
Sweden
d
Department of Chemistry, Yuzuncu Yl University, Van, 65080, Turkey
Email: hilalkivrak@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of study is to assess the risk which exists with working in a school laboratory. The study is focused on a
laboratory located at University A in Turkey. Risk assessment tools and methodologies help to identify hazards of
organic solvents and to decrease the health and safety risks in school laboratories. There are various risk assessment
methods such as WHAT - IF Checklist, Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP), Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
(FMEA), Fault Tree Analysis. In this paper, What-If/checklist method is used to identify the risk factors of organic
solvents in a laboratory. Checklist method uses a set of pre-written questions developed by experts mainly through
what-if technique to stimulate discussion and evaluate the potential hazards exist in a workplace. It is a broadly-
based assessment technique that combines the creative thinking of a selected team of specialists with the methodical
focus of a prepared checklist. What/If questions were focused on human errors, experimental procedure error and
equipment failures. On the basis of this method, some accidents with serious consequences could be dentfed. In
order to prevent the accidents or reduce the effects of them appropriate safeguards have been proposed.
Keywords: organic solvents, risk assessment, what-if and checklist
INTRODUCTON
The study is focused on a laboratory located at University A in Turkey. Risk assessment tools and methodologies
were used to identify hazards of organic solvents and also to manage the risks in the laboratories. There are various
risk assessment methods such as WHAT IF, Checklist, Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP), Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis (FMEA), Fault Tree Analysis. In this paper, What-If/checklist method is used to identify the risk
factors of organic solvents in a laboratory. Checklist method uses a set of pre-written questions developed by experts
mainly through what-if technique to stimulate discussion and evaluate the potential hazards exist in a workplace. It
is a broadly-based assessment technique that combines the creative thinking of a selected team of specialists with the
methodical focus of a prepared checklist. What/If questions were focused on human errors, experimental
procedure error and equipment failures. On the basis of this method, some accidents with serious consequences
could be identifed. In order to prevent the accidents or reduce the effects of them appropriate safeguards have been
proposed.
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METHODOLOGY
Risk assessment tools and methodologies help to identify hazards of organic solvents and to decrease the health and
safety risks in school laboratories. Herein, the What-If/checklist method is used to identify the hazards and risks
associated with organic solvents. The study focused on a laboratory located at University A in Turkey. It was
carried out by a team consisting of four members. The members are academic staff. In addition, some interviews
were performed with those who have been involved with the laboratory experiments.
RESULTS
What/If questions can be formulated around human errors, process upsets, and equipment failures. These errors
and failures can be considered normal experiment operations, design and construction, maintenance activities, as
well as debugging. An example of what if questions as incident scenarios, their consequenses, likelihoods, and
severities are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1: What/if questions and consequences

What/if consequences Likelihood Severity
What if is not there Volatile organic solvents can spread through the air Quite possible Very
any hood in lab or is it (Poisoning or irritation). As a result, student or serious
not working? employees inhale the organic solvents, which may lead
to poisoning by some volatile toxic ones. For instance,
Once students set up the acetone distillation, acetone
may leak from the adaptors. Eyes, nose, and throat of
the students will be irritated when acetone is inhaled.
Furthermore, a strong headache will follow these
symptoms.
What if does not hood Volatile organic solvents spread through the atmosphere Quite Very
have laminated safety of laboratory (Poisoning or irritation). On the other possible serious
glass? hand, explosion during the experiment may occur as a
result of un-controlled pressure increase inside the
flusk. The resulting explosion send broken glass flying
in all directions. Students can be injured if there is not
any laminated glass of hood (injuries).
What if chemicals are Toxic chemical bottles can be broken and toxic Quite possible Very
not stored properly in chemicals can spread around. Furhermore, some these serious
the lab? materials could be flammable, resulting with a fire.
What if there is not a Some chemicals could be very toxic and flammable Quite possible Very
designated, approved when they are mixed due to the fast exothermic serious
waste solvent reaction, resulting with an explosion of the waste
containers? container. This could be very harmful and students
could die or injured seriously.
What if are not The sun light or for fire can lead to burm of the Quite possible Very
flammable liquids flammable liquds which leads to serious and deadly serious
kept away from fire or fires in chemical laboratories.
sunlight?
What if chemicals are Students can be confused and mix two organic solvents Quite possible Very
not labeled properly? which can be give highly exothermic reaction leads to serious
serious injuries and fires.
What if lab rules are (Contact lenses, smoking, gloves, googles, closed shoes, Quite possible Very
not followed by lab coat, eating and drinking in the lab food serious
students? prohibited from laboratory ovens and refrigerators. )
Students could be seriously injured because of the
explosions and can be poisoned due to toxic chemicals.
What if is there not If there is not any good drainage, this could lead to Unlikely Minor
any good drainage? floods in the laboratory. organic solvent bottles can be
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broken. harmful and toxic chemicals can dispose the

water (disposal of water by toxic chemicals).
CONCLUSIONS
Most organic solvents are flammable. Therefore, these solvents should be kept away from fire. Students should be
informed about the use of organic solvents. Moreover, the storage of organic solvents is important to reduce their
risks. Each substance should be separated according to the chemical and physical properties (flammability, vapor
pressure, hazard symbols, etc.) before storing. Then, each group of solvents should be placed in the safe cabinet.
These cabinets must be made from fire-resistant material and well ventilated. Moreover, gloves, disposable suits,
and goggles as protective equipments should be used while working. The suitability of these protective equipments
for use with the particular chemical solvents should be evaluated to ensure safety while working. The accidences
with serious consequences could be minimized when the chemicals and solvents used properly. It should be known
what to do when an unwanted event is occurred. Students spend considerable amount of time in laboratories. They
might be exposed to toxic solvents. Laboratories should contain safety equipment such as safety shower, eye washer,
blanket, first aid supplies, and fire extinguishers. Students should follow the instructions and well supervised by
their teachers. To prevent exposing to chemical substances, all of the possible ways should be safeguarded.
PAPER 173
THE SPREAD OF GEOMORPHOLOGIC RISKS IN ALBANIA, ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS AND

THEIR MANAGEMENT
Qamil Lirza1, Linert Lirza2

1
Department of Geography, University of Aleksander Xhuvani, Elbasan, Albania
2
Department of Law, Aleksander Moisiu University, Durres,Albania
Email: liptongreg@yahoo.com; linert_lireza@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The main aim of this paper is to present the spread of geomorphologic risks in Albania, causes of origins and their
development, the consequences in the natural environment and human economic activity. These risks are caused as a
result of natural factors and social ones. The over controlled human activity on the environment stimulate the
intensity of the action of geomorphologic processes. Through this paper is presented an overall assessment of natural
hazards and human intervention with high intensity in the natural environment. As a result, it is important to have
complex studies to analyze natural and human factors over environment. Further, this paper presents the types of
geomorphologic risks in Albania, geographical coverage, favorable factors, the evolution and consequences in the
natural environment and social-economic activity. A detailed analysis is made of erosion as the main form of land
degradation. Albania is among the Mediterranean countries characterized by high levels of erosion. As a result, it is
necessary to take protective measures for a good environmental management. Refers to the principle, it is easier to
prevent risks rather than cure "scars", which often turn into "chronic", through this paper are presented the
measures and recommendations that aim to prevent these risks in origin.
Keywords: Geomorphologic risks, erosion, sliding, environmental consequences, measures.
INTRODUCTION
During the last decades of this century, the intervention of humans on the environment has taken enormous steps; his
activity is spread not only on the surface of the earth but also on the inside. As a result, the geomorphologic risks are
augmented, because its generation and its development, not rarely intensive, now it is stimulated from the
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intervention without a criterion of the human society on different components of the natural environment. The
damages caused from the natural risks even those of the geomorphologic character, constitute one of the most main
reasons, which obligated the humans to try to look for more commitment for their recognition. On the basis of this
recognition, the scientists determined some of the preventive and protective measures, and showed the courses
which should have been followed to diminish the damages of geomorphologic risks, or their probable evidence. It
must be stressed that apart from the achievements in this direction, there is still no possibility to totally vanquish all
the geomorphologic risks; still their economical, material, environmental risks are great, and frequently cause human
victims.In these conditions this would need more complex studies which would be focused not only on the natural
causes of the geomorphologic risks but also on the actions of the social and economical factors, on the consequences
of the overuse of the land, of the vegetation, and of the other natural richness, on the consequences of the extension
of the cultivable land on the chutes of mountains and hills, on the environmental consequences of the intensification
of agriculture, on the augmentation of the urban constructions, roads and highways, of the hydrotechnical and
industrial constructions, and the exploitation of mines.(Bega. E 2001; Kovai. V 1998). The dimensions, the scale
and the intensity of these risks in different places are different. This depends not only on the natural factors, but also
on the scale and the manner as man intervenes in the natural environment. Even though there are some achievements
in the management of the natural risks in generally, and especially in those of geomorphologic risks, the humans still
havent got the possibility and strength to totally dominate those forces of nature. But those damages and
geomorphologic risks still continue to be great.
Geomorphologic risks are defined as the third group of natural risks. They are related with the outer processes that
continually model the surface of earth. In those geomorphologic risks are included the sliding, collapses,
demolitions, and other erosive forms. It is applied the methodology of direct observation in practice to identify the
geomorphology risks in Albania. Through this paper are presented some of the most developed slidings in the last
decade. These geomorphologic risks are identified in the national road sector Librazhd - Prrenjas, in the national
roads Bulqiz - Dibr, Fier - Ballsh -Tepelen, Berat - orovod, Prmet - Leskovik - Ersek etc. In the last years,
in some motorway sections as in the motorway Ballsh - Tepelen, arshov - Leskovik, Tepelen - Uji i Ftoht,
Librazhd - Quks etc, there have been several fallings.
In analysing of erosion as a geomorphologic danger, we do not refer only to that of the flawing waters, but also to
the erosion caused by the activity of the wind, the activity of the chemicals, sea abrasion etc.
These processes are accompanied with environmental consequences and economical damages, risking different
works created by the humans, the farming land, and even the humans life.
RESULTS
Sliding is one of the most noted geomorphologic processes of the inclines, with evident consequences on the
environment and with great damages on the economy. They are caused by two main factors: the great content of
argil in the ingredients of the inclines, and because of water which after getting in contact with the argil transforms it
from a rigid into a mass of a small stability. In this way it is created the possibility of the failure of balance and
sliding appear even in those places which have a low incline of (5 %). The destruction of this equilibrium can be
stimulated by different factors; natural or artificial. The first factors are really a lot, for example the tectonic
breakings, seismic movements, and especially the in-depth and collateral erosion of water leaking in the inclines, the
sea and lake abrasion on the high coasts.The second factors are of different kinds. Like all the Mediterranean
countries even in Albania, the inclines of mountains, hills and valleys are in different periods of their evolution. The
economic activity of the humans has always inclined, and so have also the geomorphologic processes of the incline
like slidings, [Photo 1] erosion, and the degradation of many other elements of these environments.
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Photo 1: Sliding
The stimulation of the sliding is related to the indiscriminative human activity on the environment; the opening of
new lands and use of lands in the clay inclines with taking any measure for the regulation of the superficial waters,
the building of artificial water-carriers, irrigative canals etc.The slidings caused in Albania are innumerable, but we
would present only some of the most developed in the last decade.The slidings are numerous in the national road
sector Librazhd Prrenjas, those are almost constantly happening in the wet season. Often there are activated even
the old slidings, blocking the road and the traffic. The same thing has happened in the years 2001 - 2002 in the
national roads Bulqiz Dibr, Fier Ballsh -Tepelen, Berat - orovod, Prmet Leskovik - Ersek etc. Often
the mass of soil sliding from the inclines passes the hundred m3. The last example in (2003) has been in the national
road Ballsh Gjirokastr where the slidings created after the intensive rains have blocked it in different sectors (
Bega.E 2001). In those last ten years as a result of the evacuation of peasantry population toward the flat zones and
cities, there are created many sliding as a result of the abandonment of whole primary habituated zones. There are a
lot of occasions when the habitants have moved from one place to another, and have built their houses near or within
the old sliding. As a result we can mention that slidings are a great danger for the constructions around the city of
Tirana, Burrel, Durres etc. In the villages and in the abandoned lands the erosive denudes processes have been
enliven, and as a result in the whole country there are damaged over 4000 hectares, and 150.000 hectares are in front
of this danger. (Qiriazi.P 2001). One of the greatest dangers in Albania is that of Monglica formed in the southern
incline of Lenie Mountain. It has started on February of 1977 and continued for a couple of months. It has a surface
of 1.5 km2, (Qiriazi P 1998)] while the volume of this mass reaches in 150 million m 3. This sliding has destroyed the
village of the same name, put out of function the hydro plant of this village with a capacity of 200 Kw and its supply
with water; has damaged and degraded the lands and the agricultural cultures planted in them.
This erosion and many others are not a phenomenon of the moment, but a result of the combination of all the
causing factors and natural and artificial stimuli, and the changes that this erosion brought to the zones landscape
were so enormous that the inhabitants of the village Moglic, themselves, found it difficult to be oriented.
Another form of erosion is that of Crruja which is included in the group of those complexes in which considerable
damages were caused; damaging the houses, lands, trees, etc. This erosion is re-activated several times, starting from
the year 1999, then in 2000, and recently in 2004. The village that underwent this erosion was very poor and the
natural disaster lead this poverty into misery; that is why the population asked for help to the government and other
humanitarian organizations which lay their activity in Albania. The state and the Red Cross gave their first
emergency aid, and the specialists of geology witnessing the phenomenon, stated that the best choice was making
the population remove from Cerruja. Now, the removed families are credited by the state and given the permission
to buy land for building.
It is widely accepted from those who study this danger that it is very difficult, if not possible, to stop erosion after it
has started. That is why there are needed precaution measures:
- There should be given a special attention to geo-morphological dangers in order to have a better administration of
the hilly-mountainous territory. A full and scientific acknowledgement of them would ask for detailed and
specialized studies, accompanied with the hart- graphic display of geomorphologic dangers.
- Changing the way of the side usage. To have a lower water infiltration in its depth, it is needed the organizing of
the waters and rain, so that these waters come out from the body of erosion. For this reason, there are needed
protective channels of superficial waters in the front part of the erosion, and drainage channels in its body.
- In sides where erosion has taken place there should be planted as fewer agricultural plants as possible which need
watering. It would be better that instead of them are planted plants with greater transpiring capability and with deep
root systems.
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- Avoid as much as possible the placement of heavy buildings, streets, which are expected to have an overload of
cars, because later on it becomes the cause of the re-activation of old erosions, even of the creation of new ones.
The fallings and collapses are other geomorphologic dangers, which damage geographic environment and economic
activity of the man. These dangers are related to the favourable conditions that exist in Albania: geologic building
(lime and magmatic) which under physical and chemical metamorphosis are broken; steep relieved, climatic
conditions (temperatures changes, raining, freezing, etc), the lack of natural plants. Just like erosions, the fallings
are caused because of the intervening of man in relieve, flora, lands, etc.
Related to the newest fallings and collapses favoured from the misuse of land and natural flora, we can mention
some cases in Albania. In the zone of Mokrra and Labinot - Mal, superficial erosion has favoured the falling and
eradiation of rocks with a volume of some tens m3. During the spring of the year 1998 the falling of a mass of rocks
of some tens m3 caused even a victim (Qiriazi. P 2005). In the last 2-3 years in some motorway sections as in the
motorway Ballsh - Tepelen, arshov - Leskovik, Tepelen - Uji i Ftoht, Librazhd -Quks etc, there have been
several fallings, which have had a lot of economic damages. In steeps and rock edges with a hight that reaches tens
and hundreds of meters, are encountered great fallings and eradiation, which are seen in Albanian Alps, in the edge
of the western side of ika, Grib, ajupi, Tomorri,etc.The same thing should be said even for the presence of this
phenomenon in the deep deciles of rivers such as: in those of Klcyra, Shkopeti, Miraka, Skavica etc.
As a result, it is nesscary to be taken some measures in order to prevent the fallings and collapses. The building of
defensive walls, betoning or controlled falling of rocks ready to fall, the placing of wire system and iron rods in
escarpments is some of the most used measures up to now in Albania. The latter are widely used in the left
escarpment of the highway Librazhd - Quks. Concerning to geomorphologic dangers in general; it is better to
prevent the risk than to repair their damage. From this viewpoint, the mans intervening on geographic environment
asks for maturity and special respect of the characteristics and real possibilities that this or that territory has, where a
certain economic activity will be placed.
Erosion is another geomorphologic danger, which cannot be seen, but which goes on and on and has very negative
effects to its physical environment and economic activity of the man. This danger is conditioned from natural and
anthropogenic factors. In the first group there are included: the building of the territory from mild rocks, the lack of
flora, the conditions of the Mediterranean climate, etc, while in the second group are included: the mans misuse of
the covering of flora and lands, the development of extensive agriculture, over-exploitation of the land, the usage of
wrong technologies in tills, of watering and unsuitable structures of agricultural cultures.
Erosion, nowadays, is one of the main forms of degradation and wasting of agricultural lands. Nowadays, rightfully,
it is being considered as one of the natural processes which is menacing humankind(Kovai. V 1998; Sala. S
1995).When we talk about erosion as a geomorphologic danger, we do not refer only to that of the flawing waters,
but also to the erosion caused by the activity of the wind, the activity of the chemicals, sea abrasion etc. Albania is
one of the Mediterranean countries that is distinguished for its high rates of erosion. (Kovai .V 1998;Qiriazi .P
200;Leka. I 1996) Besides the above mentioned factors, this phenomenon is highly favoured even by the dominance
of a hilly and mountainous relieve where 70% of the surface has a great slope (Sala .S 2003; Sala. S 2004; Janicot.
S 1999; Lireza.Q 2001). Among other factors that have strongly stimulated erosion in Albania we can mention:
massive deforesting made during the 1970s 1980s, the increase of the watering surfaces with self flowing. The
data show that in Albania every year 54 million materials or 20 hectares are eroded (Kovai. V 1998, Neboit. R
1983; Lireza. Q 1996) while the medium level of the erosion reaches 2.3mm a year. According to the data of the
erosion map of Albania (Sala.S 1994) it results that the non-eroded territories occupy 48% of the entire surface; the
territories with low levels of erosion occupy 16% of the surface; territories with medium rates of erosion occupy
12% of the surface; territories with high rates of erosion occupy 14% of the surface; and finally territories with great
rates of erosion occupy 10% of the entire surface. (Bega. E 2001, Leka. I 1996). Among the most typical zones we
can mention the hills of Krraba, The Reservoir Pond of Tomorrica, of Zaranika, The Highland of Dangellia
(Neboit.R 1983, Qiriazi.P 1990) in which the eroded territories occupy nearly half of the surface. Observations show
that this surface is likely to grow at a great speed in the future. [Photo 2]
Albania is included in that group of countries which have a small agricultural surface per person, nearly 0.2
hectares/person, thus we can state without hesitation that erosion remains a potential risk. According to the data
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published in Albania 20% of the lands is inclined towards the process of erosion, where the superficial value of
erosion is over 50/t /hectares in a year (Leka. I 1996; Kova.V 1998).
Photo: 2 Erosion zone.
Land erosion has continuously reduced the surface of the agricultural land. In 1982 the surface of the tillage in the
entire Albanian territory was 714000 hectares, while in 2001 it was 669000 hectares (Kova. V 1998; Qiriazi P
1992). It is being exposed to the processes of erosion, which continuously impoverishes the land from the
oligomineral elements, humus, and other nursing materials. Based on these negative effects of the destruction of the
agricultural land in 1970 and afterwards considerable measures against erosion were taken which gave the first
positive effects in this direction. Mountainous regulations and forestation were some of the essential actions taken
against erosion. Only in 1970 up to 1980 there were made 340000 ml wires, 630000 m 3 walls (Qiriazi P 1992). etc.
There were also forestations especially with pines, acacia etc.
CONCLUSION
There measures were accompanied with a reduction, even elimination of the floods of lands, and other inhabited
centres. For the limitation of the further degradation of the landscape we recommend that should be made detailed
studies in order to identify the zones with the highest rate of degradation, useful for agricultural use, and those which
require a quick intervention. Scientific criteria should be defined for the grazes and forestation, which should start
immediately.
Agricultural plantation, which responds to the type and possibility that the land has in particular and the slope in
general, should be encouraged in order to protect the land from erosion. Based on the recognition and scientific
control of the state and the defining of the level of damage of the system land- water- flora- animals- man, chemicals
of different types should be used in a controlled way. Albanian authorities must guarantee the right of everyone to
receive environmental information that is held by public authorities, including information on the state of the
environment, but also on policies or measures taken. As a result, the public reaches awareness in purpose to
participate in environmental decision-making.
REFERENCES
Bega E. 2001.The impact of natural and economic factors in the growth of degraded soils in Albania. Geographical
studies. Nro 13. Tirana;
Janicot S. 1999. Le point sur la desertification;
Kovai V. 1998. Erosion, the damages and the problems that require solutions. National Seminar. Tirana;
Leka I. 1996. Erosion, the specification and its dimensions in Albania. Geographical studies Nr o 8. Tirana;
Lirza Q. 2001.Geomorphologic map of Skrapar district. Monography. Tirana;
Lirza Q. 1996.The prolifite pastures in promoting of process of erosion. Geographical Studies Nro 8. Tirana;
Neboit R. Lhomme et Ierosion. Paris, 1983;
Qiriazi P. 1986. The sliding of Moglice. Summary of studies. Publication of the faculty of history and philology,
Tirana;
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Qiriazi P.1990. Geomorphologic problems of degraded soils in the district of Tirana. Geographical studies Nr o 4,
Tirana;
Qiriazi P. 1992. Map of the intensity of erosion in Albania. Tirana;
Qiriazi P. 2001. Physical Geography of Albania. Tirana;
Qiriazi P. 2005. Geographic Studies Nro 15, Tirana;
Sala S. 1994. Some data of stony streams and their geomorphologic activity. Geographical Studies Nr o 5.Tirana;
Sala S. 2003. Geomorphologic risks in our country. The management of risks. Tirana;
Sala S. 2004. Geomorphologic features of Krraba hills. Monography. Tirana;
PAPER 174
THE INCREASE OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A FARMER AND THE ROLE OF THE

AGRICULTURAL PRICES ON ITS INCREASE
Jerina Vukaj1, Jonila Brahimi2

1
The Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania
2
The Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania
Email: jerina_1989_vukaj@hotmail.com; jonibrahimi@gmail.com;
ABSTRACT
In our country it's noticed a tendency of the increase of the number of small farms and this fact constitutes a problem
for the future development of agriculture and especially for the integration of the farms into the market. From the
study made ,we conclude that the price market of the agricultural products is not organized. The way of how a farm
organizes has importance in the increase of the effectiveness of the farm. The organization and the function of the
agricultural products' prices contributes in the avoidance of high costs for local farmers in the monitoring and
coverage of the borrowings that operate in the informal sector therefore they make this sector of the market inactive
for the agricultural producer. The main principle of price operating for the agricultural products is the difference
between the selling price and the total costs of the products. According the data taken from the statistical observation
during a year, the average income for the farm in monetary value of the agricultural activity have been $1219 or
1000 Euro. In 2004 the world production of the grains was 1.038.325 thousands ton while in 2006 this production
fell in the value of 932.527 thousands ton. We have understudied the retail market of a specific product, of which
there are taken 137 records through different periods in the region of Tirana. The used data are taken from the
Statistical Bureau and from the Informative System of the Market(SIT). This material is based in the collection of
the agricultural products' prices .Note, these data are analyzed and commented according the needs of the
Agricultural Ministry, Rural Development etc.
Keywords: organized, SIT, inactive, price ,total costs
INTEODUCTION
This material comes into help to readers who get information regarding the agricultural products' prices and the
influence they have in the increase of farms incomes,the influence they have in the development of the rural areas
and of the whole country. We have a summary of the agricultural products' prices and continuing further on with a
situation analyses,price variation and the conclusions. According (Richard Pomfret) the margin of the production
capability describes what an economy can produce therefore we have to evaluate the merchandise . The price
variation of the merchandise or better say their increase, is a phenomena we face often. The increase of the grocery
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prices is the basis effecting in the falling of the life standards and the reduction of the purchasing power. The macro
economical balances of a government are complex and we can summarize further on. The balanced regional
economical development,balanced pays as price sustainability .These are the main problems of a country in
development like Albania. It's very important for the achievement of these objectives to unite the good power for
more effective results. The last years of the market economy of our country have proved that the agricultural
products' prices,livestock prices and the groceries with main agricultural consistence are controlled from the
spontaneous market mechanisms. The problems identified in our market of agricultural and livestock products are:-
The restriction and the avoidance of permanent subsidies;-The increase of the foreign markets competition. The
weakness and the destruction of the relationship of the country with the processing industry. - The liberalization of
the prices. The creation of the monopolies in the input and output markets. One of the main duties of the ATB is the
support of the initiatives or different forms that have in substance the marketing of the farms' products. ATB might
have as well the duty of the of the import of the agricultural products directly or through other licences firms.
The importance of agriculture related to prices. The global warming ,the use of the agricultural products for non
feeding purposes, the variation of the request and the consumers structure in the field of the grocery has been
commented a lot the last years for the sensitive influence that has brought in the agricultural products and food
market. The product prices published according to FAO have had and considerable increase. In 2006 they increased
with 9% compare to the previous year and in 2007 increased with 23%. The comparison of 2006 with 2007 had an
average increase index of 37% in an international scale. The concern everyday more has influenced the political
levels and the main economical institutions. Albania as well faces these difficulties. Year 2007 was a difficult
agricultural year ,however comparing to the previous year the general agricultural production increased. The private
investments in agriculture increased with 10 million dollars and in the agro-industry with 13 million dollars. The
latest developments in the food markets ,the doubling of their prices in many regions around the world and many
other factors ,oblige us to create a better perspective for agriculture. We lack the policies connected to agriculture
but the newest concept towards that in the created circumstances had to bring full definitions related to this
sector.1.Agriculture remains the main sector of the economy. It gives more than 1/5 of GDP of the country ,engages
at work more that half of the population and secures them the majority of the daily consumables. Agriculture
remains the main economical activity that secures the most development of the regions. Todays world ,including
Albania are characterized from huge shifts of the population toward the urban areas. For the first time in 2007 in the
world scale ,the population of the rural and urban areas has been at 50% with 50%. Agriculture is the sector with the
biggest advantages and disadvantages of the integration processes of the country. In 2008 is noted the first year of
the farmers pay with 6% VAT with condition ,the products to be sold at the subjects with tax invoices. Matriculation
in agriculture is a very important investment that dates from 2008 with our budgetary funds . This consists the most
important step in the development of this sector. The placement of the prices for these agricultural products seen in
the theoretical aspect seems simple but in reality it isn't because the agricultural products have a seasonal character.
The price establishment is done according to some criteria.
-all the agricultural products costs the transport throughout the markets -the imposition of the prices in the place
where they are being sold. - competition with other actors in the market taxation
Given that the price is the main element of the mixed marketing that determines the incomes of the farms. The main
factor that affect the price establishment are : The cost,not only the production but those imposed from it's market as
well and export that relates to value exchange ,modification and the packaging. The market requirements for lots of
consumables ,the income per person is a good indicator of the purchasing power .
The increase of the local production when there is a decrease of agricultural products' prices.
In the agricultural markets of the country during this period ,the product's prices noted a considerable decrease. The
Ministry of Agriculture ,Food and the Consumer Protection in it's periodic report for the markets , analyzing the
statistical data we notice that more than 80% of the needs of the agricultural products are completed from the
Albanian farmers even smaller prices. According to the Ministry of the Consumers Protection in 2007 the food
consume in our country reached the report of 500 million dollars food from import and 400 million dollars produced
in the country. During 2008 this report narrowed again because of the increase of the local production ,especially
wheat ,vegetables,fruits and the processed agro-industrial products.
METHODOLOGY
The data used here are taken from Statistics Bureau and the Informative System of the Market (SIT) and this
material is based in the accumulation of the agricultural product's prices in Albania. Since the data used during the
analyses of the prices progress are taken from the Statistics Bureau and the price index is calculated according the
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standards that the Bureau has in use. These data are analysed and commented in the first sequence for the needs of
the Ministry of Agriculture ,Forests and the Rural Development as well as for all the other interested people. During
the analyses and the comments of the products prices and the derivatives they diverge into 4 main groups . First
group consists of the cultures. -Second group vegetable cultures.-Third group fruit trees cultures .-Fourth group is
the group of the livestock products and the derivatives. In the end of each category they will to the analyses and the
comments for the price progress . In the following chart we will see the progress of the prices for some of the
agricultural products that the Statistics Bureau exploits including the mechanisms and the other agricultural inputs.
RESULTS
In this chart we have included the price index of the consumer.
Table.1
Groups Weig 04- 05- 06- 07- 08- 09- 10- 11- 12- 01- 02- 03- 04-
hts 09 09 09 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10
Total 100.0 103.9 103.1 102.5 101.8 102.4 103.2 103.6 104.1 105.8 106.8 107.8 108.0 107.6
Food and soft- 39.3 107.3 105.8 104.0 101.9 103.5 105.2 105.7 106.5 110.5 112.0 114.7 114.7 113.0
drinks
Food 37.2 108.2 106.0 104.1 101.9 103.6 105.4 105.9 106.8 110.8 112.4 115.2 115.2 113.5
Bread and 6.0 111.9 111.5 111.3 110.7 110.4 110.4 110.3 110.4 110.1 109.9 109.8 109.8 109.3
cereals
Meat 8.9 110.3 110.2 109.1 109.1 109.4 109.8 109.8 109.9 110.8 111.1 111.1 111.5 111.7
Fish 1.4 110.5 109.7 107,6 109.0 109.8 110.0 110.2 110.8 112.4 112.6 111.2 112.5 112.0
Milk, cheese 6.4 101.9 102.5 100.8 100.7 101.2 101.7 103.2 103.5 103.8 103.6 103.1 103.6 103.5
and eggs
Oil and fats 2.9 102.7 101.3 100.2 99.9 99.6 99.8 99.6 99.7 100.5 100.6 100.1 100.2 100.5
Fruits 3.5 116.0 116.3 111.4 104.2 106.2 113.8 116.8 107.2 110.3 110.6 112.6 115.4 117.0
Vegetables 5.5 107.8 95.0 89.2 79.4 85.9 91.9 91.1 101.9 124.5 134.5 152.3 148.7 136.5
including
potatoes
Sugar,jam, 2.2 103.0 103.0 103.1 103.2 106.5 109.8 111.4 112.3 114.0 114.2 117.5 117.8 117.8
honey, syrup,
chocolates,and
sweets
Other food 0.5 103.7 104.1 104.8 105.0 105.3 105.6 105.6 105.5 105.5 105.8 105.7 105.9 106.1
Soft-drinks 2.1 101.1 101.2 101.2 101.2 101.5 101.8 101.6 102.1 104.0 104.4 104.5 104.9 104.5
Coffee, tea, 0.7 101.5 101.5 101.5 101.5 101.6 101.6 101.1 101.3 101.1 101.4 101.4 101.8 102.1
cocoa
Mineral water, 1.4 101.0 101.1 101.1 101.1 101.4 101.9 101.8 102.5 105.4 105.9 106.1 106.4 105.7
soft-drinks,
Alcohol and 3.6 103.4 103.4 103.2 103.5 103.8 104.5 105.5 106.6 106.5 107.1 107.4 108.1 108.9
cigarettes
Alcohol 1.8 104.2 104.3 104.1 104.3 104.3 104.3 104.6 104.6 104.8 104.6 104.9 105.2 105.3
cigarettes 1.8 102.6 102.5 102.2 102.7 103.3 104.6 106.4 108.5 108.3 109.6 109.8 110.9 112.4
The comment for the chart. The grocery products of the daily consumables have a slight decrease in September 2009
comparing the previous month August 2009. But if the prices were compared with September of the previous year
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we notice more stabilized prices. Inflation in September 2009 results to be lower than the one of the previous year.
The data from INSTAT show a significant increase of the fruits and vegetables. Whereas other food products
,clothing and fuel have a slight increase compare to August 2009. According to INSTAT the price index of the
consumers in September 2009 reached 103.2% against December 2007(December 07=100) marking an increase of
0.8% compare the previous month. The annual difference in September is 2% . The previous year this difference
was 2.7%. The index of the group food and soft drinks marked an increase of 1.7% with influence of 0.7% in the
total of monthly difference. Within this group ,the biggest Increase of 6.9% is noticed in the derivative of
vegetables,including potatoes. Here we can mention the price increase of the peppers by 18.8% almonds by 17.3%
aubergines by 14.3% tomatoes by 6.9% potatoes by 5.0% etc. The index in the fruits derivative marked an increase
of 5.2% where we can mention the price increase of watermelon by 34.7% melon by 24.8% oranges by 16.5%
peaches by 5.8% apples by 2.6% etc. During September 2009 prices have gone up nearly in all the other derivative
food groups with distinguish to the increase of derivatives sugar,jam,honey etc. 3.1% milk ,cheese ,eggs 0.5% beef
0.3% etc. The index of the alcoholic drinks group and the tobacco marked the increase of 0.6%.Within the tobacco
price marked the increase of 1.3%.
Table 2.1.2
Groups 04-09 05-09 06-09 07- 08- 09- 10- 11- 12-09 01-10 02-10 03-10 04-10
04-08 05-08 06-08 09 09 09 09 09 12-08 01-09 02-09 03-09 04-09
07- 08- 09- 10- 11-
08 08 08 08 08
Total 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 4.1 4.4 3.9 3.5
Food and soft- 4.2 5.0 5.9 5.6 5.6 5.1 4.7 5.4 6.8 6.7 7.5 6.1 4.8
drinks
Food 4.4 5.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.3 5.0 5.7 7.0 6.8 7.8 6.2 4.9
Bread and 4.4 2.9 1.4 0.7 -2.1 -4.4 -4.6 -4.6 -4.3 -3.2 -3.5 -3.2 -2.3
cereals
Meat 10.3 10.1 8.8 8.9 7.7 5.0 4.2 3.9 3.3 3.5 2.2 1.5 1.3
Fish 8.7 7.6 5.3 6.5 4.4 4.3 4.7 3.6 4.5 4.0 2.9 2.5 1.3
Milk, cheese 1.7 1.4 1.0 1.3 0.4 -0.4 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 1.5 1.5
and eggs
Oil and fats -6.5 -7.4 -7.5 -7.7 -8.1 -8.6 -8.5 -7.6 -6.2 -3.8 -4.6 -3.2 -2.2
Fruits 6.1 6.2 8.8 8.8 13.9 20.7 24.8 19.0 14.0 10.2 6.9 4.0 0.9
Vegetables 2.3 12.2 28.0 26.8 30.6 30.1 22.9 33.0 42.4 35.3 44.3 33.9 26.7
including
potatoes
Sugar,jam, 3.8 4.2 3.7 3.9 6.6 9.0 9.0 9.7 10.8 11.6 14.3 14.0 14.4
honey,syrup,
chocolates,and
sweets
Other food 3.1 3.7 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.2 3.2 2.2 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.3
Soft-drinks 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.4 0.9 0.7 1.0 2.8 3.2 3.3 3.7 3.3
Coffee, tea, 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
cocoa
Mineral water, 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.8 0.7 1.3 4.0 4.7 4.7 5.3 4.7
soft-drinks,
Alcohol and 3.1 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.5 2.8 3.9 5.0 4.1 3.9 4.1 4.5 5.4
cigarett
Graphic 1.1 The annual variation of the price index.
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Looking at the graphic 1.1 we notice a variation of monthly price index comparing the basic year 2008 with the
following year 2009.We have a comparison of the 4 fist months of 2009 with the 4 first months of 2010.The price
index from (04-2008 - 04-2009 until 10-2008 10-2009) has a variation with decreasing and increasing of the index
during these months,which is a period relatively long and this variation I small shown on the graphic above. During
this period that we have surveyed we have a maximum on 06-208 and 06-2009 while the lowest level of the price
index is on 04-2008 ,04-2009 and at the end of this period that we are studying thus 09-2008 and 09-2009. After this
period we notice a movement in increase of the price index from 10-2008 -10-2009 until 02-2009-02-2010 where we
have the highest level ,where the price index arrives at the level 4.4. After this period where the price index has
always known a gradual increase ,we have decrease that comes at the end of this period we commented above. So
this decrease happens from 03-2009,03-2010 until the end of the graphic we have shown.
Reports of the prices of the retail and wholesale. This report enable the graphical display or chart of the progression
of the prices on time series according the filtration criteria that you see bellow. Analyzing two products the tomato
and the orange and looking at the price progress in the wholesale and retail aspect variation in the market of the area
of Tirana.
Graphic 1.2 The retail price for the orange (money/kilogram)
In the graphic above we have a display of the Retail market for the orange. We have taken in consideration a period
of 4 months that varies from the second month of 2010 until the sixth month of 2010. In this study of the retail
market of a specific product ,in this case the orange ,there are taken under examination 137 registration s that have
happened in different periods in the area of Tirana during this time line. In the beginning of February we had a price
that has fallen constantly by 90 lek . After this short one week period we have an immediate decrease of the orange
price in the level of 80 lek. Following we have an increase in the level of 95 lek . Later the price was under
continuous monitoring with unchangeable price for a period of two weeks. We notice a variation that characterizes
the whole period we have taken in consideration where the price varies from 80 lek/kg to 100 lek /kg . And at the
end of this period that we have studied ,the price remains in the level of 100 lek/kg where comparing with the
beginning of this period we notice a price increase.
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Graphic 1.3 The wholesale market for the orange (money/kilogram)
In this graphic we are studding again the orange but in the wholesale price point of view. Here we have a period of
six months taken in consideration from 10-12-2009 until 17-06-2010.In the beginning of this period it has been a
price of 70 lek /kg and until the end of this period we have the reach of a price of 100 lek/kg of the orange. Compare
to the retail market price it has been bigger in the wholesale market.
Graphic 1.4 . The retail price for the tomato.(money/kilogram)
From this graphic we have studied the retail market of the tomato for a period of 2 months from 31-10-2009 until
08-12-2009. From this period we are studying we have 19 registration s taken. The price of the tomato at the
beginning of this period it has been 60 lek/kg. The maximum price it's been achieved in the middle of the first month
where during a whole week it has been in the level of 80 lek/kg. This variation with decrease increase continues to
characterize this graphic till the end of it where the tomato price goes at 72 lek/kg . In total from this two months
period taken in consideration we have an increase of the retail price on the level of 12 lek/kg.
CONCLUSIONS
In our country it's noticed a tendency of the increase of the number of small farms and this fact constitutes a problem
for the future development of agriculture and especially for the integration of the farms into the market.
-From the study made ,we conclude that the price market of the agricultural products is not organised.
-The limited options for securing the income and the scale of needs of family farms fulfillment ,it makes the villages
to have lower living standards.
-For the increase of the efficiency of the farm activity the form of organizing is very important.
-From the analyses taken in this study we have concluded that referring the conditions in our country ,the
agricultural product's prices according the placement in the markets have seasonal character which would be more
acceptable from the farmers.
-The organizing and the function of the prices contributes the avoiding of the high costs for the local farmers in the
covering and monitoring of the borrowings that operate in the informal sector ,who make this segment inactive for
the agricultural producers .
-The situation here shows that the agricultural products' prices and the manufacturing and marketing activity is
always closed and is controlled from the lenders who give the loans ,the merchants who sell agricultural inputs as
well as their mediators and other subjects who buy agricultural products.
--But opposite to this development model in this work it's been concluded that the system of the agricultural
products' prices is important in the triangle of the agricultural operators.
-A very important duty of Ministry of Agriculture Food and Protection of Consumers is the one to help in the
achieving the efficiency of the farmers through their policies for the agricultural products' prices.
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-The managing of the price systems has to be leaded from a single criteria. Including all the costs for the agricultural
products ,direct and indirect costs.
-The main principle of the price operation for the agricultural products is the difference between the selling price
and the total cost of the product.
-The objective of the price activity is the clarification of the small farmers from the functional point of view for the
achievement of a high efficiency for the farmers.
-The Agency of the Agricultural Market where the organizing and functioning of the prices is based ,are
the information that serve to farmers for the farm's progression.
-The level of the benefits of the members in a farm is much more smaller of the members in another business line.
This as a result of the small credits that farmers take and the repayment of the profit from the investments done.
-We don't have a good coordination in all the farms in our country for the agricultural products.
-The biggest attempts are required towards the distribution of the information related with the price of the
agricultural products.
-The facilitation of the procedures and the best possibilities to get a credit from the farmers.
-We even notice that the institution for the regulation of the agricultural products prices in Albania don't function
properly.
REFERENCE
Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2012. Albania. www.mbu.gov.al

World Bank. 2012. www.worldbank.org
INSTAT, 2012. Albania;
PAPER 175
A STUDY OF BASIL TYPES IN THE COASTAL PLAINS OF ALBANIA
Nefruz eliku1, Nikollaq Bardhi2, Zydi, Teqja2, Qatip Doda3, Dilaman Nelaj4, Agim Rameta5
1
Ministry of Agriculture , Forestry and Water Economy, Republic of Macedonia;
2
Agricultural University of Tirana;
3
Agriculture and Food Department of Dibra prefecture;
4
Agriculture and Food Department of Kukesi prefecture;
5
Agriculture and Food Department of Durres prefecture;
ABSTRACT
Basil is a plant of Lamiaceae family, with wide spectrum use in food industry, perfumery, as fresh spice, flavoring
different environments, as well as in medicine. This is why basil is considered both a spice and a medical herb.
These values are resulted from high content of ocimol in all plant organs (leaves, flowers, fruits, seed and roots. The
fact that Dioscorides mentions that herb early in the first century, as a medicinal plants for the disinfection of
premises, mouth and teeth, shows the values and its recognition since Antiquity. In Albania it is a known and
cultivated plant, in families, gardens, and it has synonyms by area. For essence production, it begins to be cultivated
in the 60s and, nowadays the demand is growing. Basil studies are limited in technology and comparisons of
subspecies and varieties. A study of five subspecies in coastal plains of Albania (Toshkz-Lushnja) is presented in
this paper. The differences found are statistically significant.
Key words: essence, spice, cultivation
INTRODUCTION
Basil plant is of the wide spectrum of use and also, the wide variation of species and cultivars, which are been
rajonized through different ecological zones, in compliance with particularities and their biological requirements.
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Since it is the plant that is little studied in Albania, the experimental study was undertaken for five types of sweet
basil. The aim of this study was to define the most appropriate type and the higher productive type of the leaves, the
flowers, the stalks and herbs.
In this study are included five types of basil. The seeds are been brought from Italy and they are as follows:
Limonez, Napolitan, Red basil, Temines (fino Greco basil), Basil genovez.
The experiment was set up according to the randomized block scheme, with five variants and four repetitions with
variant size of 28m2 (2.4 m x 11.7 m).
2 1 3 4 5 4 5 3 2 1
1 2 4 5 3 1 3 4 5 2
Scheme No. 1. The experiment set up.
There was mowing in the full flowering phase by making the separation in accordance of the organ:
Fresh leaves
Fresh blooms
Fresh herbs
It is realized drying in the shade, separately for each body, up to 10% humidity and there are been identified the
weights for the three organs:
Leaves
Blooms
Stalks
These are done separately for the three scythes, and have become amounts to three scythes and the three organs, and
the total, too (leaves + blooms + stalks).
RESULTS
The experiment was set up in Toshkez - Lushnja, according to randomized block scheme, as the methodology had
provided.
Table 1. Inter-distances of saplings
No. Types Inter-distance No. of plants Area m2

1 Limonez 60 x 50 88 28
2 Napolitan 60 x 45 105 28
3 Red basil 60 x 45 106 28
4 Temines (Fino verde) 60 x 55 85 28
5 Genoves 60 x 55 88 28
The preparation of saplings and planting in the field. The saplings are produced in greenhouses with central
heating by sowing seeds in polystyrol seed pans, with 250 holes, placing two seeds for each hole. Before planting
the seeds are placed in warm water, to provoke their uniform and completed germination. Seeds are planted at a
depth 0.3 - 0.5 cm. In every 3-4 hours it is realized automatically irrigation, with the amount of water 10 mm.
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During vegetation there were made fertilization, for 52 days sapling was ready for planting in the field. The soil
tillage is made in September 2010, at 31-35 cm depth. In the spring it is carried the soil milling. Planting in the field
is realized with workforce. Planting is done with pins in the inter-distances provided in Table no. 1. The mowing is
done in mass flowering stage.
Table 2. The weight of fresh leaf (gr)
No Types of basil Mowing Sum

I II III K (1-3)
1 Limonez 4157.5 8812.5 1948.75 14908.75
2 Napolitan 4152.5 11487.5 1730 17370
3 Red basil 1110 2617.5 612.5 4340
4 Fino verde 1240 3662 963.75 5866.25
5 Genoves 1245 5087.5 1096.25 7428.75
DMV 0.05 231 634.5 149.3
0.01 324 712.3 187.9
The leaves are plant organs that are used for many purposes and they take the brunt of basil production. Among the
types of basil are been observed changes in production that testify to the morphological and plant development
characteristics. The higher production of leaves is taken from Neapolitan and the Limonez basil. The second
mowing gives the highest production for all types of basil. The leaves of Fino-verde basil are in small amounts, but
they are rich in essence and find wider use, especially in the production of tomato sauce. Just, for this reason it is
introduced in the study field.
Table.3. The weight of fresh blooms (gr).

I II III K (1-3)
1 Limonez 1555 6782.5 1157.5 9495
2 Napolitan 1255 1240 758.75 3253.75
3 Red basil 997.5 2137.5 266.25 3401.25
4 Fino verde 1550 2345 421.25 4316.25
5 Genoves 1110 3885 461.25 5436.25
DMV 0.05 231 532.8 167.2
0.01 324 589.4 201.5
Bloom organs are rich with ocimol and used in the distillation of qualitative essence. Between subspecies of basil
there are verified differences in the production of fresh blooms. Between the species under study, Neapolitan and
Fino-verde basil have the highest yield production of blooms.
14000
12000
10000
8000 I
II
6000
III
4000
2000
0
Limonez Napolitan I kuq Fino verde Genoves
Chart No. 1. The weight of fresh herbs (gr)
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Meanwhile, the fresh herb production presents verified differences between types of basil. The higher production of
fresh herb gives Neapolitan basil.
Table 4. The weight of dry leaves (gr).
I II III K (1-3)
1 Limonez 682 1541.25 327.5 2550.75
2 Napolitan 952.5 2201.25 297.5 3451.25
3 Red basil 270 558.75 116.25 944.95
4 Fino verde 233.75 718.75 165.25 1117.75
5 Genoves 267.5 685 186.25 1138.75
DMV 0.05 53.2 132.4 41.7
0.01 78.4 162.5 53.7
The performance of the dried leaf mass presents the same nomocracy as to fresh leaf, but Fino-verde basil gives a
small proportion to the fresh and dry mass, which goes up to 3.5:1.
Table 5. The weight of dry blooms (gr)

I II III K (1-3)
1 Limonez 373.5 1565 188.25 2125.7
2 Napolitan 317.5 287.5 123.75 728.75
3 Red basil 275 325 50.5 650.5
4 Fino verde 464.75 666.25 77.25 1208.25
5 Genoves 239.5 873.25 83.25 1196
DMV 0.05 34.7 43.87 28.7
0.01 46.3 54.95 38.3
Dry bloom gives the same nomocracy, and the higher production of basil subspecies gives Limonez and Fino-verde
basil.
3500
3000
2500
2000 I
II
1500
III
1000
500
0
Limonez Napolitan I kuq Fino verde Genoves
Chart 2. The weight of dry herbs (gr)
The production of dry herb follows the same nomocracy as to the fresh herb, with minor changes that are increasing
to Fino-verde basil.
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Chart No. 3. The fresh mass yield (q/ha)
Analysis of the performance of the fresh mass highlights that Neapolitan and Limonez basil provide higher
production and are included in the same group for Dmv 0:05 and Dmv0:01 are differentiated. So, Limonez basil
gives the greatest amount of fresh herb.
18
16
14
12
10 Leaf
8 Blooom
Herb (Leaf + Flower)
6
0
Limonez Napolitan I kuq Fino verde Genoves Dmv 0.05 Dmv 0.01
Chart No. 4. The yield of fresh mass (q/ha)

The performance of the fresh herb presents differentiations, drawing in the first place only Limonez subspecie. This
is because the leaf of Napolitan basil is pulp and it has the highest content of moisture, increasing the dry mass/
fresh mass ratio.
CONCLUSIONS:
From the second year of the study can derive some conclusions:
Among the subspecies are been marked differences in the yield of fresh mass of plant organs.
The dry mass of plant organs presents the major differences that affected by the ratio between the fresh mass and dry
mass, which is different for subspecies of basil.
Given the amount of production is economically viable cultivation of two subspecies: Limonez and Napolitan, and
for the value of the specific uses for the production of essence and in the food industry is Fino-verde basil.
REFERENCES
1.Ahmataj.H- Kultivimi I bimve aromatike e mjeksore.

2.Bardhi.N.- Leksione 2011
3.Gjoni.Z.- Vjelja dhe grumbullimi I bimve mjeksore t Dibrs
4.G.Milesi Ferretti, L.Massih Ferretti- La coltivazione delle Piante aromatiche e medicinali
5.Hasrama.S.- Kultivimi I bimve mjeksore
6.Kutrolli.F.- Kultivimi dhe Prpunimi I bimve aromatike e mjeksore.
7.Shabani.A- Mjekimi me bim dhe fruta mjeksore.
8.Rusinovci.I, Bardhi.N, Mero.Gj- Bimt vajore.
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PAPER 176
THE IMPACT OF HARVEST WAY IN THE SAGE PRODUCTION AND ITS QUALITY
Qatip Doda1, Nikoll Bardhi2, Zydi Teqja2, Dilaman Nelaj3, Agim Rameta4
1
Agriculture and Food Department of Dibra Prefecture,Albania;
2
Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania;
3
Agriculture and Food Department of Kukesi Prefecture,Albania;
4
Agriculture and Food Department of Durres Prefecture, Albania;
Email: bardhi.nikoll@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Sage (Salvia officinalis) is a typical Mediterranean plant, and its origin is from Adriatic and Ionian coast, where the
plant covers dry limestone mountain slopes, 150-1200 m above sea level, expanding almost entire Albanian
territories. In Albanian spontaneous flora, the gender Salvia contains 15 plant species, where the more economic
value and research interest presented 8 species, while more national interest are 3 types, Glutinous Sage (Salvia
glutinosa L.), lilac sage (Salvia verticellata L.) and common sage or medicinal sage (Salvia officinalis L.). Albania
and its territories produce 80 % of world production of essence, which in Albania has been started in 1956. The
content of sage essence is 1.8 2.67 %. The sage of Northen Albania has the higher content, and the Leskoviku,
Skrapari and Permetis sage has the lower essence content. It contains up to 32 chemical compounds with medicinal
value, as terpenes, Sesquiterpenes. The plant parts, bouquets of leaves, are used for many purposes in medicine and
the treatments of some diseases (cough, rheumatism, against paralysis, epilepsy). It is used in cosmetics and
perfumery industry, as well as a honey plant.Two different harvesting methods are used: one with bouquets (7-9
leaves), cutting them by hand and the other by mowing. Hand harvesting does not damage the buds and
consequently the yield is 40-50% higher.
Keywords: Sage, essence, medicinal, aromatic, cosmetic, harvesting
INTRODUCTION
One of the disturbing problems in sage production is the harvesting manner which affects the quantity and quality of
yield. The manner used so far is that of mowing. This manner decreases the production per plant, due to its harming
the buds, new bunches, and sprout, thus delaying the subsequent growth of new offshoot bunches and sprouts. Also
the production gets mixed with leaves of various ages (of big difference), with impurifying stems and herb
fragments with lower contain of chemical ingredients and essence. For this reason an experimental study was carried
about two harvesting manners: mow harvesting and bunch harvesting (bunches with 7-11 leaves, hand harvesting for
a few times) with 7-9 leaves. This later mannes protects the buds and sprouts and helps accelerate the continuous
blooming of buds. Bunch harvesting is made in a few times (three times for each harvesting).
a c
b M 2 50 m2 M1 50m2 M1 50 m2 M2 50 m2
M1 50 m2 M2 50 m2 M 2 50 m2 M1 50m2
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a=10 m b= 5 m c= 0.8 m The surface of manner = 50 m 2

For each manner were sown 20 lines 5 m long, providing 250 plant for each manner.
M1 = Mow harvesting. M2 = Bunch harvesting.
The saplings were produced in central heating greenhouses, by sowing the seed in styrofoam seed pans. The sowing
was made by labor in the distance 50 x 35 40 cm, thus providing 50 000 plants / ha. They were cared for
simultaneously and equally throughout the experiment with special care to avoid putrefaction (watering, liquid
manuring etc.).
Table 1 Sage production according to harvesting manner (Second harvest). 1-st year
Repeated
No Harvest Harvesting manner Average Yield
Kg/manner kv/ha
1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th
1 II- Autumn Mow 6.9 7.3 7.2 6.98 7.095 14.19
2 Bunch 14 14.3 14.8 14.37 14.3 28.60
In the first year only one mow harvest was made, on 20.09.2010 (only one mowing) while three hand of bunch
harvesting were made, respectively on 20.07.2010; 20.08.2010 and 20.09.2010. As can be seen at the table above, it
results that productivity has doubled with bunch harvesting and the product purity is better. The drying is more
uniform and of better quality, in color and odour.
Table 2. Sage production according to harvesting manner. 2-nd year
No Harves Harvesting manner Repeated Average Yield

Kg/manner Kv/ha
1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th
1 Mow 5.3 5.6 5.7 5.5 5.525 11.05
2 I Spring Bunch 11.36 11.6 11.4 11.17 11.443 22.886
3 II Mow 8.8 9.6 9.4 8.9 9.175 18.35
4 Autumn Bunch 11.8 12.0 11.8 12.08 11.92 23.84
I + II Mow 14.1 15.2 15.1 14.4 14.7 29.2
Bunch 23.16 23.6 23.2 23.25 23.3025 46.605
In the second year 2 harvests were made, with two mowing, respectively on 10.06.2011 and 20.09.2011 and
practically six bunch harvests (three for the first harvest: 20.05.2011; 05.06.2011; 20.06.2011 and three for the
second harvest: 26.07.2011; 20.08.2011; 20.09.2011) The first mowing of the second year is lower than the second
mowing of the first year, changing by 3.14 kv / ha. The yielded herb is purer and more uniform.
The second mowing and second harvests have a difference of 7 kg/ manner or 14 kv/ha. This clearly shows that the
second mowing was influenced by the harvesting manner, by not harming the vegetative organs of growth. The
bunch harvesting shows its difference during the period after mowings by not harming the vegetative organs.
Table 3. Sage production according to harvesting manner. 3-rd year

Repeated Yield
No Harvest Harvesting manner 1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th Average kv/ha
Kg/manner
1 I Spring Mow 6.9 7.3 7.2 6.98 7.095 14.19
2 Bunch 14 14.03 14.8 14.37 14.3 28.60
3 II Autumn Mow 11.96 12.44 12.12 11.86 12.095 24.79
4 Bunch 15.46 16.10 16.39 15.72 15.918 31.835
I + II Mow 18.86 19.74 19.32 18.84 19.19 38.38
Bunch 29.46 30.4 31.19 30.09 30.218 60.435
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In the third year when the plant is much more developed, we will see that the effect is much clear and effective from
the first harvest, resulting in 60 % 65 % more yield than the mowing manner and with much purer and more
uniform production. This because there are more sprouts and buds on the plant that form full bunches with 7-11
leaves. Two harvests were made, on 15.06.2012 and 30.09.2012, with three hands of bunch manner for the first
harvest: 18.05.2012, 07.06.2012, 24.06.2012 and three for the second: 28.07.2012, 29.08.2012 dhe 30.09.2012.
Meanwhile, the pace of bunch growing in the mowing case is much lower. The lapse between the harvests is 105
days.
YEARS
Table 4. The yield according to time and harvesting manner in years.
No Harvesting manner
I II III 3 Years
1 Mow - 11.05 14.19 25.24
I Spring
2 Bunch - 22.886 28.60 51.486
Table 5. The yield according to time and harvesting manner in years.
No Harvesting manners Years
I II III Three years
1 Mow - 11.05 14.19 25.24

I Spring Bunch - 22.886 28.60 51.486
2
3 Mow 14.19 18.35 24.79 57.33
Bunch 28.60 23.84 31.836 84.276
II Autumn
4
5 Mow 14.19 29.40 38.98 82.57
(I + II)
6 Bunch 28.60 46.726 60.436 135.762
The data of three years show a yield of 53.9 kv/ha more and of much better quality. Some processes are also avoided
like the cleaning of foreign herbal and non herbal elements. Economically 65% more yield is made for three years,
respectively 14.41 Kv / ha for the first year, 17.205 kv / ha for the second year and 22.05 kv/ha for the third year.
Tabela Nr.6 Sage yield according to harvesting manner (for three years).
No Harvesting manner Repeated Average Yield

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th Kg/manner Kv/ha
1 Mow 39.86 42.24 41.62 40.22 40.985 81.97
2 Bunch 66.62 68.1 69.47 67.092 67.8205 135.641
Comparing the data of three years production, the result is a clear difference of 53,671 kv or 65% yield and income.
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Graphic1 The productivity reached with the first harvest (spring) according to the harvesting manner by mow and
bunch.
Graphics 2 The productivity reached with the second harvest (autumn) according to the harvesting manner by mow
and bunch.
160
140
120
100
80 Kositje
Me buqet
60
40
20
0
Viti I Viti II Viti III (Tre vitet)
Graphics 3. The productivity reached with both harvests, spring and autumn, according to the harvesting manner: by
mow and bunch.
CONCLUSION
From the agronomic analysis of productivity, production quality and spenditure, we reccomend the bunch harvesting
and the avoiding of mowing, with cultivated sage as well as natural sage. In this manner the increase and quality is
much higher.
REFERENCE
Ahmetaj H. & eku K., 1988. Kultivimi i bimve etero-vajore e mjeksore.

Asllani U,2000. Chemical composition of Albanian sage oil (Salvia officinalis L.). J. Essent. Oil Res. 12, 79-84.
Asllani U. 2002. Esencat e bimve aromatiko-mjeksore t trevave shqiptare, p. 218-235
Bardhi.N, 2013. Bimt aromatike e mjekesore ( Leksione).
Shyti.M, Bardhi.N - Dmtuesit dhe smundjet e bimve aromatike e Mjeksore.
Baricevic & Zupancic, 1999, Conservation of genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in Europe, Report,
Finland.
Basker D., & Putievsky E., 1999, Seasonal variation in the yields of herb and essential oil of some Labiatae species,
25-40.
Bezzi A. & Pirola M., 1997, Moltiplicazione vegetativa di Salvia officinalis.
Demiri M., 1979. Bimt e egra t dobishme dhe t dmshme t Shqipris, Tiran.
Elezi.,Kambo.Q,Sokoli.G,eku.K - Prodhimet e dyta pyjore dhe kulturat eterovajore
George E. F., 1996,- Plant propagation by tissue culture, Part I, Technology, 6791.
Haska H., Bacu A. & Marko O., 2005 - Sherbela (Karakteristika dhe prdorimi).
Hyso M. & obaj P., 2005, Prmbledhje mbi punn e br n kuadr t Programit t Vlersimit dhe Koleksionit t
Gjermoplazms: 25-52.
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Instituti i Krkimeve Pyjore dhe Kullotave, 1988, Inventarizimi i bimve etero-vajore e mjeksore n Shqipri, 20,
30, 55.
Kongjika E, Zekaj. Zh. aushi E. & Stamo I., 2002, Bioteknologjia e bimve Kulturat in vitro, 97 187, 242
256.
Marko. O. & Dishnica. T., 2002, Studimi dhe ruajtja e materialit gjenetik bimor pr kulturat e kultivuara etero-
vajore dhe ato spontane q jan n rrezik zhdukje, pr qllim prodhim fare dhe fidansh (Raport shkencor).
Ndoja. H. Mjeksia popullore, kultur e lasht n shrbim t shndetit.
Paparisto K., Demiri M., Mitrushi I. & Qosja Xh., 1988. Flora e Shqipris, v. 1, Tiran.
Vangjeli J., Ruci B. & Mullaj A., 1995, Libri i Kuq, Bimt e krcnuara dhe t rralla t Shqipris, Botim i A. Sh.,
p. 49, 53, 55.
Vangjeli J., Ruci B., Mullaj A., Qosja Xh., Paparisto K., 2000, Flora e Shqipris, v. 4, Tiran.
World Bank, October 2002. An Agricultural strategy for Albania.
PAPER 177
A STUDY OF SOME MAIZE HYBRIDS, IN THE WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS OF ALBANIA
Nikollaq Bardhi1, Artan Sota2, Ndoc Vata3, Krenar Xhela4, Agim Rameta5, Dilaman Nelaj6.
1,3
Agricultural University of Tirana,
2
Scientific research activity,
4
Agriculture and Food Department of Fier prefecture,
5
Agriculture and Food Department of Durres prefecture,
6
Agriculture and Food Department of Kukes prefecture.
ABSTRACT
The maize is the most prevalent crop in the world. It is considered a green mine, because for a short time, 100-135
days, it gives a dry mass production (grain and green mass), that cant be completed by any other plant. It has high
and diverse values of use. Studies in maize plants are numerous, and they continue for different aspects: genetics,
breeding, improving of technological parameters and its processing. Study of hybrids and their suitability in an area
and micro-area constitutes a permanent field of study to increase the maize production and improving its quality.
Based on this principle, a study of some maize hybrids in western coastal plains of Albania, and specifically in
Toshkz-Lushnja is undertaken. For the hybrids under study (from Italy, France, USA) plant indicators (height of
plant, number of leaves, height of ear), production indicators (ear length, number of rows, number of grains in row
and ear, production per plant and grain yield) and stages of plant development were evaluated.
Key words: Maize, hybrid, technology, indicator, yield.
INTRODUCTION
Study of the suitability of hybrids is one of the possibilities of increasing the yield of maize in different ecological
zones. In Albania are been planted the hybrids from different countries of the World and Europe. For determining
the appropriate hybrids, especially for the coastal plain west of Albania (Myzeqe) is set up field study of ten hybrids
with different plant period, mainly late. For all hybrids are made estimates for indicators of the spikes, the grain and
the yield. In the end, the final conclusions are drawn, which have defined hybrids with higher performance and more
appropriate for this area

The scope of work was to evaluate the morphological, biological and the production indicators of some maize
hybrids in terms of Western Plain of Albania.
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As a basic material in this scientific research has been used a number of foreign hybrids and synthesized by the ex-
Institute of maize and rice in Shkodra, namely:
Pioneer firms (USA): Hybrid PR 31 A 34
Experimental Institute of wheat and maize, Bergamo (Italy): H 604,
H 605, H 606, H 702.
Limagreen firms (France): Hybrids OH 634.
The Maize Institute Zemun Polje (Serbia): ZP 684, ZP 718B, ZP 735.
Ex-Institute of Maize and Rice Shkodra (Albania) R-685
The place, time and manner of implementation of the study

The study was conducted in the village- Toshkez (Lushnja district), in the land of Artan Sota (land owner), in
2011.The land where the experiment was set up is of sub-clay composition with deep subsoil. The pre-crop was
wheat.
The soil tests are: pH 7.55, humus 2.7%, 0.18% nitrogen, phosphorus 17.7 ppm, 12.5 ppm potassium, calcium 9.07
ppm.
The experiment was set up according to the randomized block scheme, in four repetition and ten variants. The
surface of each variant was 18 m2.
Scheme. 1. Randomized block. A. Protective zone of 3.5 m experiment.; B. The buffer zone between repetition 1 m.
The phonological, morphological and production indicators that are measured.

The phonological indicators
Germination male flowering (day)
Germination female flowering (day)
Germination full mature (day).
The biometric indicators in plant, spikes and grain.
b1. The biometric indicators of plant:

Plant height
Height of the first spike
The number of leaves.
B2. The biometric indicators of spikes
The spikes length
The row number in a spike
The grain number in a row
The grain number in a spike
The spike thickness
The cob thickness
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The cob weight.

B3. The biometric indicators of production
The weight of spike grains
The weight of 1000 grains.
The yield q/ha.
There are predetermined 20 plants in 4 repetition, in which are made biometric measurements. The data are been
made the mathematical calculating for analysis of variance and the smaller certified difference.
THE RESULTS
First, the phonologic indicators are been analyzed, and then continue with biometric indicators according
methodology.
Interpretation of phonological indicators. The period of full germination-male flowering includes the time from
germination till when 75% of panicles are been flowered. It is favourable that this period came as soon as conditions
allow biological plant. This is because, in this way, pollination falls in time when temperatures are lower, it is fresh,
pollen has its best ability to pollinate ( June - beginning of July).
Table 1. Data phonological of the main stages

No. Hybrid OriginGermination- Duration Germination- Duration Germination-
male (d) female full mature
flowering (d) flowering (d)
1 PR1A34 USA 62 56-63 65 58-66 127
2 R-685 ALB 61 56-63 63 58-65 123
3 H 605 ITA 59 54-61 62 56-64 120
4 H 702 ITA 60 56-63 63 58-65 125
5 ZP 684 SRB 59 54-61 61 56-63 112
6 ZP 735 SRB 61 56-63 63 58-65 125
7 H 606 ITA 61 55-63 63 58-65 120
8 ZP 718B SRB 61 56-63 63 58-65 120
9 OH 634 FRA 61 54-62 63 58-65 120
10 H 604 ITA 62 56-63 64 58-66 125
Average 60.7 54-63 63 56-66 127.7
If we will analyze carefully the data in this table, we see that hybrids, although coming from different countries,
pose no major changes between them. Specifically, this period varies from 59 days at ZP 684 and H 605 hybrids, till
62 days at H 602 and PR 31 A 34 hybrids. If we will see an extension of this period within each hybrid, it varies
from 7 days to most hybrids, up to 8 days to OH 634 hybrid. Even in duration of the female flowering, it is kept the
same law as in male flowering. The duration of this phase is 7-8 days. Of interest is to interpret the results of the
period germinating- full maturing. By the data, we will see that this period varies from 112 days at the earliest
hybrids, which are presented by ZP 684 hybrid, up to 127 days to PR31A34 hybrid, with an average 121.7 days for
all hybrids of the experiment.
First, the fact that for the period of vegetative is been noticed a significant difference, means that these hybrids do
not belong to the same class.
Thus, hybrids with a period of 125 days, are of 700 class, (late); those of 120 days cycle are of 600 class; and those
with 112 days period, are of 500 class.
Secondly, the fact that, hybrids dont represent a wide variation is explained by genetic variability between these
hybrids. This means that these hybrids are the product of junction lines (parents) similar and / or approximate.
The interpretation of biometric data for the plant. The main indicator is the height of the plant. This, not only
forms the basis Architecture plant, but during the height, are placed the important vegetative organs, such as: leaves,
that are the place of important process for photosynthesis. Hybrids between them represent differences for this
indicator.
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Table 2.Morphological indicators
Height of Height of Number Height of Number

Nr Hybrids Origin plant spikes of leaves spikes of rows
(cm) (cm) (cm) in a spike
1 PR31A34 USA 301.4 105.4 15.7 21.6 17.2
2 R-685 ALB 275.0 107.9 16.3 16.3 17.4
3 H 605 ITA 297.5 104.9 14.9 19.5 15.6
4 H 702 ITA 302.95 117.6 14.6 19.7 15.8
5 ZP684 SRB 283.4 115.5 14.7 17.8 14.2
6 ZP 735 SRB 311.5 118.4 15.5 17.15 16.1
7 H 606 ITA 282.6 95.9 14.5 18.45 16.9
8 ZP 718B SRB 309.25 119.2 14.2 18.5 16.0
9 OH 634 FRA 274.05 94.7 14.6 18.7 17.9
10 H 604 ITA 300.6 115.6 14.5 18.8 16.6
Average 293.795 107.7 14.95 18.65 16.37
There are differences on the height of first spike of the maize hybrids to the experiment. The lowest values are at
634 OH hybrid, and highest to ZP718B hybrid. The most important are the indicators of the leaf (number, length and
width of the leaf). Here are been analyzed the data of leaves number of hybrids.
The data shows that between repetitions there arent great differences, which indicates that the tested hybrids
represent the visible similarities and uniformity to the climate and technology. While in terms of this indicator show
that in different hybrids, we dont see very large differences. Thus, this indicator varies from 14.2 leaves to hybrid
ZP 718 B, to 16.3leaves at R.685 hybrid, which is a hybrid with a lot of leaves. Average number of leaves per
hybrids studied is 14.95.
Interpretation of data for indicators of spikes. Analysis of data for indicators of the spike occupies an important
place. Spike indicators are important elements of production, therefore are been treated carefully. According to the
methodology, the attention was focused on the ear dimensions: length, thickness, number of rows, number of grains
in a row, the number of grains in the spike, the spike grain weight, thickness of cob, and grain/cob ratio. From the
data it can be seen that hybrids are characterized by a proven variation. From examination of the data is resulted
that, with smaller numbers of rows in the spike is presented hybrid ZP 684 with 14.2 lines, with the largest number
is presented OH634 hybrid, with 17.9 lines. The number of row, and the row of grains are two of the key elements
of the production of maize, so referred as a selection and evaluation object. From the data is shown that the number
of grains in a row in proved hybrids varies from 38.3 grains to hybrid ZP 735, The data show that the number of
tablets in a row in untested hybrids varies from 38.3 grains to hybrid ZP 735, the hybrid H605 to 45.3 grains to
H605 hybrid. The average of grains for all hybrids is 40.64 grains in a row.
Table 3.The parameters of spike
Number Number Thickness Thickness Weight

No. Hybrids Origin of grains of grains of spikes of cob of cobs
in rows in spikes (cm) (cm) (gr)
1 PR31A34 USA 43.2 740.45 5.1 3.0 54.4
2 R-685 ALB 40.1 708.7 5.3 3.1 44.1
3 H 605 ITA 45.3 704.6 5.2 3.1 55.1
4 H 702 ITA 39.6 628.8 5.1 3.1 61.0
5 ZP684 SRB 39.9 566.2 4.8 2.9 47.6
6 ZP 735 SRB 38.3 617.1 5.2 3.1 48.4
7 H 606 ITA 40.3 685.2 5.1 3.0 44.8
8 ZP 718B SRB 41.1 664.5 5.0 2.9 54.0
9 OH 634 FRA 39.2 701.2 5.2 3.1 49.1
10 H 604 ITA 39.4 652.4 5.2 3.1 48.8
Average 40.64 666.915 5.12 2.94 50.73
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The number of grains in the spike generally ranges from 600 to 700 grains. With smaller number of grains in the
spike is presented ZP 684 hybrid to 566.2 grains, with the largest number of grains is present RP 31 H 34 hybrid to
740.45 grains. Meanwhile, the average for studied hybrids is 666.915 grains.The thickness of the spike is a valuable
indicator, too. The spike thickness for tested hybrids varies from 4.8 cm to ZP 684 hybrid, to 5.3 to R685 hybrid.
Average thickness of spikes for tested hybrids is 5.1 cm.The data for the thickness of cobs at tested hybrids appear
with minor differences, is so well for the thickness of cobs there is no proven difference.It is known that the spike is
consist of grains and the cob where the grains are been placed. At the overall weight of spike is intended that cob
weight to be as small as possible. Usually, the ratio grain/cob is expressed in percentage. The cob weight ranges
from 44.1 gram at R 685 hybrid, to 55.1 gram at H 605 hybrid. The average weight of cob to the studied hybrids is
50.73 gram.
Interpretation of the biometric indicators data of the grain. With interest is the study of biometric indicators of
grain. In this respect were studied two indicators, the weight of grains in spike and weight of 1000 grains. From the
data we can observe that there is significant variance among hybrids. Specifically, this indicator ranges from 214.5
grams to hybrid ZP 684, up to 282.5 at PR31A34 hybrid. The average weight of grains per spike for tested hybrids is
245.7 grams (DMV 0:05 = 18.75 and 0:01 = 22:47).The weight of 1000 grains is an important indicator as it has to
do with the size of grains, which is related to the production. From the data we observe that hybrids represent a wide
variation between them. Specifically, this indicator varies from 327 grams at R-658 hybrid, to 604 grams to H 415
hybrid. The average weight of 1000 grains for studied hybrids is 374.1 grams.
Table 4.The data of grain, cob and their ratio
Weight of Weight of Weight Grain/cob

Nr. Hybrids Origin 1000 grains grains in of cob ratio
(gr) spike (gr) (gr)
1 PR31A34 USA 411 282.5 54.4 84:16
2 R-685 ALB 327 230.4 44.1 84:16
3 H 605 ITA 357 259.8 55.1 82.5:17.5
4 H 702 ITA 348 231.2 61 79:21
5 ZP684 SRB 370 214.5 47.6 82:18
6 ZP 735 SRB 387 233.2 48.4 83:17
7 H 606 ITA 342 244.3 44.8 84.5:15.5
8 ZP 718B SRB 378 242.6 54 81.8:18.2
9 OH 634 FRA 415 359.3 49.1 84:16
10 H 604 ITA 406 253.2 48.8 83.8:16
Average 370.1 245.1 50.73 82.9:17.1
Ratio grain/cob represents small differences, where the best value was at 606 H hybrid (84.5:15.5); the value has
diminished at H 702 hybrid (79:21).
The interpretation of the data yields (q/ha). It is understood that in a comparative study, the main indicator and
the most important is, undoubtedly, yield q / ha. Hybrids represent various differences in performance. In this case,
hybrids are grouped by production capacity starting from the highest to the one with the lowest.
200
150 P1
100 P2
50 P3
0
P4
Mesatarja
Chart 1. Yields data (q/ha); P. 005=11.3 q/ha; P.001= 13.8 q/ha

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Hybrids represent a significant variance for yield. Specifically, it varies from 127 875 q / ha to ZP 718B hybrid, to
150.1 q / ha to PR31A34 hybrid. It appears from the analysis of variance tables, in which significant variation
between hybrids are been observed, where f-factual is greater than f-critical. While for repetition, there arent
observed significant variation, which means that there is no yield difference from a repetition to another.
CONCLUSIONS
For all biometric indicators of plant, spike and grain there are differences between hybrids which materialized to
achieve production for each hybrid.
Referring to the performance indicators, hybrids can divide into three groups:
The first group hybrids: PR31A34, H 702, ZP 735, H 606, OH 634 which provide the highest performance for both
levels of security.
The second group: R-685 and H 605 which provide the highest performance for one security level (0,01).
The third group: ZP 684, ZP 718 B, H 604 that dont have good results.
REFERENCES
Hajkola K, 2000, Prmiresimi gjenetik i misrit , hibridet Rozafa dhe vlera e tyre. Konf. Komb. e zhvillimit t shk.
Biol. Tiran.
Hajkola K, 2000, Rezultate t provave t krahasimit t hibrideve t misrit me pjekje t von. B.SH.B. 4, 47-52.
Hajkola K, Rexha A, 2000, Hibridet Rozafa dhe kultivimi i tyre, Broshur IMO.
Hallauer A R, Russell A, Lamkey K R, 1988. Corn breeding. In Corn and corn improvement.
Laej H ,Dionisi Gj 1986 Metodologjia e prdorur dhe rezultatet e arritura n krijimin e linjave t misrit n vendin
ton. BSHB,Nr 1,Tiran
Laej H 1980 Rezultate t puns gjenetiko seleksionues me misrin n vendin ton,BSHB, Nr 4, Tiran.
Osja A, Deva A,2000, Misri n Shqipri, arritje dhe perspektiva. Tiran.
Prmeti M, Xhepa S, Salillari A.1987, Linjat baze t prmiresimit gjenetik t bims s misrit. Tiran .
Russell .A, S.A Eberhart 1975, Hybrid prfomance of selected maize lines from reciprocal selection and test cros
selection programs, Crop sci. 15, 1-4.
Salillari A 1990 Studime n fushen gjenetike dhe prmiresimit t misrit.Disertacion pr graden shkencore Doktor i
Shkencave. UB,Tiran.
Salillari A 1997 Misri nj minier bimore. Tiran.
Salillari, A. Gjeta Z. Rusinovci I, 2000. Kultivimi i misrit.
PAPER 178
A STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF BASE DRESSING OF NEW ALFALFA PLOTS
Nikollaq Bardhi1, Elda Pajo2, Ndoc Vata3, Artan Sota4, Agim Rameta5, Dilaman Nelaj6.
1,3
Agricultural University of Tirana;
2
Agriculture and Food Department of Tirana prefecture;
4
Agriculture and Food Department of Fier prefecture;
5
Agriculture and Food Department of Durres prefecture;
6
Agriculture and Food Department of Kukes prefecture;
ABSTRACT
The forage production development, in the context of the agriculture development, has been and remains a
permanent task that is dictated by the need to increase the livestock production. In the Albanian agriculture, alfalfa is
the main forage plant and occupies the first place on the planting surface. In the structure of forage plants, alfalfa
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occupies over 50% of the planted area, and increase of its production constitutes one of the main targets for
increasing of forage production. It is considered as the most important chain and as the bridge between agriculture
and livestock. From statistical data, alfalfa plant is the main crop of Albanian farms, and as such, the care for
implanting of its cultivation technology is increased. So, in our farms it is invested more for seeds, processing and
storage of hay. From the other side studies on finding optimum level of nutrients and alfalfa fertilization have been
scarce in Albania, and for this purpose this study was conducted, aiming at finding links between nutrient level and
biomass. Alfalfa has a considerable demand for nutrients because of its active growth, and for each harvest a
considerable amount of nutrient from the soil is gone. It is being investing for nutrients, but there is not yet any
experiment study for the fertilizers that have the greatest influence, both in production as well as in alfalfa plots
lifetime. It is this reason that this study was undertaken for three years, experimenting in time and space, thus
obtaining results for each year of alfalfa plots lifetime. The result of this study showed that base dressing has a
statistically significant effect.
Keywords: Fertilization, dry grass, farm, forage, technology.
INTRODUCTION
Alfalfa is the more prevalent and important forage plant in Albania and also, the most important crop for livestock.
It is widespread in the whole Albanian territory, because it has a very good ecological adaptation. Among the factors
affecting at the achievement of higher yields is the fertilization. For several years, there are been noted the effect of
fertilizer minerals and there are extracted the best conclusions of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers. The
studies on organic fertilization were hypothetical. Therefore, an experimental study was undertaken for the impact of
organic fertilization at the production of alfalfa.
The experiment was set up according to the randomized block method with 4 repetition and 6 variants, each variant
has a surface of 20 m2, the type of soil SAM, with medium fertility. The study duration was two years.
Variants of the experiment are:
Decaying organic fertilizers 400 quintals / ha, distributed before plowing.
Superphosphate with 18% active substance, the dose of 8 quintals / ha, by spreading half before plowing, and the
half before the last drills.
D.A.P. 4 quintals / ha, distributed half before plowing and the other half before the last drills.
Organic manure and superphosphate at doses: 200 quintals / ha manure and 4 quintals / ha superphosphate, manure
is distributed before plowing, fertilizer before last drill.
Organic fertilizers and animal manure 200 quintals / ha distributed before plowing and DAP 2 quintals / ha
distributed before the last drill.
Without using any kind of fertilization.
There are made the observations and measurements in the field:

The date of planting
The date of germination
The plant height
The date of mowing
Yield q / ha.
All the other care are conducted at the same time and equally to all variants of the experiment.
The Agro-technology
The pre-plant has been the wheat. The applied technology has been of the applicable level for the farmer, and
indicators are been according to methodology. The plowing of soil is done at a depth of 31-35 cm. It is prepared a
good and loamy bed through drilling for planting of the seeds. Then, are distributed the manure of based fertilizers,
according to variants of the method.
The services were performed after planting: roller and drainage, irrigation were conducted with rain-launcher
equipments. The mowing is made in the beginning of the flowering stage, for all mowing and for two years.
Results and their discussion
In this paper will address two years of study, those of the first year and second year.
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The data from the first year are:

During the experiment records are maintained in accordance with the methodology, the dates of sowing, the
germination, the plant height, the number of plants per m2, the mowing dates and yield.
The data obtained from field observations for planting and germination is reflect in Table No.1
Table 1. The data of germinations
No. Variants Date of Date of No. of

planting germination plants/m2
1 Organic fertilizer (40 q/dy) 5/3 18/3 580
2 Superphosphate (80 kg/dy) 558
3 DAP (40 kg/dy) 605
4 Organic fertilizer + superphosphate (20 q /dy 560
+ 40 kg / dy)
5 Organic fertilizer + DAP (20 q /d + 20 kg /d) 574
6 Without fertilization 610
As seen, the providing of plants number for all variants has no significant changes, indicating that the start of the
study on the impact of fertilizer in the production of alfalfa will give results influenced by external factors in
productivity for each variant.
Results for the number of mowing and plant height for each mowing.
Table 2.The mowing date and the plant height
No Data of each Variant 1 Variant 2 Variant 3 Variant 4 Variant 5 Variant 6

mowing
1 Date of mowing I 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5
Height cm
44-54 36-44 41-49 43-53 42-53 35-43
2 Date of mowing 9/7 9/7 9/7 9/7 9/7 9/7
2
Height cm 65-75 63-65 58-67 64-73 63-74 48-56
3 Date of mowing 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8
3
Height cm 30-33 28-30 30-35 25-28
4 Date of mowing 1/11 1/11 1/11 1/11 1/11 1/11
4
Height cm 30-32 28-31 30-34 30-32 31-34 26-30
From the data presented in the table above we come to the conclusion that the first year yield has been very good.
Higher productivity have given variants with organic fertilizer, and DAP was the best chemical fertilizer.
800
Mowing I
600
Mowing II
400
Mowing III
200 Mowing IV
0 Total yield
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Variety I Variety II Variety III Variety IV Variety V Variety VI
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Chart 1. Yield realized by mowing and final yield for the first year
II - The data of alfalfa plots in the second year

There are been kept records of the date of spring awakening, the number of plants per m 2, for the extinction of the
plants, according to the variants. The data obtained are shown in the Table No.3.
Table 3. The data of spring awakening, number of plants and the extinction of plants in first year
Date of spring No. of % of plant

No. Variants awakening plants.m2 extinction in
first year
1 Organic fertilizer (400 q/ha) 06/02 240-251 45-50
2 Superphosphate (8q/ha) 12/02 230-241 50-53
3 DAP (4 q/ha) 12/02 228-235 48-51
4 Organic fertilizer + superphosphate 08/02 250-258 43-48
(200 q/ha + 4 q/ha)
5 Organic fertilizer + DAP (2q/ha + 2 08/02 228-238 45-50
q /ha)
6 Without fertilization 15/02 225-230 50-53
As seen, the variants with organic fertilization have the early awakening in the spring. In terms of life expectancy
impact of plant (thinning of plants), variants with organic fertilizers have a positive impact, too.
Yield q / ha for each mowing in the second year. In the second year have not been specific services, but to the
experimental plot was made drainage, mowing and protection from violations. Mowing for all cases is made in the
flowering stage. In each mowing, first, there were made the measurements for plant height, and after each mowing,
for each variant were made the weight of fresh mass. The data for each mowing and for each indicator are shown in
the table below:
Table 4.The data of mowing and the indicators of yields (q/ha) in the second year
No Data of each Variant Variant Variant Variant Variant Variant

mowing 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Date of 13/5 13/5 13/5 13/5 13/5 13/5

mowing I
Height cm 55-62 43-52 45-56 54-60 56-65 38-43
2 Date of 18/6 18/6 18/6 18/6 18/6 18/6
mowing 2
Height cm 65-76 63-73 65-75 65-75 68-78 45-56
3 Date of 16/7 16/7 16/7 16/7 16/7 16/7
mowing 3
Height cm 35-42 33-38 35-42 34-41 36-45 32-38
4 Date of 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8 15/8
mowing 4
Height cm 28-32 25-28 25-30 25-30 30-35 23-25
5 Date of 30/10 30/10 30/10 30/10 30/10 30/10
mowing 5
Height cm 30-34 28-31 28-33 28-32 30-34 25-30
Mowing is done on the same date as the beginning of the flowering stage was on the same date. The plants with
greater height are in the variants with organic fertilizers and combined fertilizers (organic and chemical fertilizers).
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1000
900
800
700 Mowing I
600 Mowing II
500 Mowing III
400 Mowing IV
Mowing V
300
Total yield
200
100
0
Variety I Variety II Variety III Variety IV Variety V Variety VI
Chart 2.Yield realized in the second year of cultivation.
The highest yield was realized in VI, V5 and V3, so to variants with organic fertilizers and DAP.
CONCLUSIONS
From the data obtained and the argued, for each year and for each result, we conclude that the basic fertilization
experimentation of new alfalfa plots out more positive. The data obtained are putting down thoughts that alfalfa
should not fertilizes with organic fertilizers. By multilateral analysis we reach in these conclusions: The best results
have given variants of composting with organic fertilizer, with an additional output about twice the variant without
fertilizers. has come up with The best option has come up the combining of organic fertilizer DAP. Among
fertilizers, better results gave DAP, while superphosphate is effectively lower in the experiment. The increase of
alfalfa production, from the first year in the second year, according to variants, ranges from 13% to 23%. Positive is
the fact that in two years, variants with organic fertilizers have given higher yields. For all these reasons manage to
advise: Best variants of this study are transferred to the farmer to have their effectiveness in production. Effectively,
with better economic result are the combined variants, with organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer, so that we have
to extend the study to other areas, to be demonstrated and proven in production these conclusions.
LITERATURE
Carter.P.R. etj-Alfalfa response to soil water deficit crop.

Clarence. H. Etj Alfalfa Science and tecnology. American Society of agronomy.New York 1980.
Nesturi . D. Jonxha dhe trifilet shumvjeare.
Nesturi.D. Jonxha n Shqipri
Torleto. A. Particoltura de vicenda nel Italia meridionale. Revista di Agronomia. Nr.2 Viti 1985.
Selami.A. Jonxha. Viti 2007.
Shundi. A. Livadhet artificiale.B.SH.B. Nr.3 Viti 1988.
PAPER 179
PRESENCE OF HEAVY METALS IN RIVERS SURROUNDING INDUSTRIAL ZONE IN MITROVICA

TOWN
Afete Musliu, Seit Shallari, Mihone Kerolli, Alma Shehu, Afrim Qela
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Tirana, Albania;

University of Zagreb, Faculty of chemical Engineering and Technology, Croatia;
University of Prishtina, Faculty of Geosciences and Technology, Mitrovica, Kosovo;
Email: afete-musliu@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
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Mining and metallurgical activities are among the main factors of the atmospheric pollution in the earth, as in the
recent past and also nowadays, especially considering the rapid technical and technological development and the
need ever larger underground resource. The town of Mitrovica, has the largest complex metallurgy and mining in
Europe known as "Trepca", known for exploitation of lead, zinc and cadmium, which town has been, and
unfortunately continues to be, one of the most polluted cities in Kosovo as in air, soil and water, in particular in its
industrial complexes surroundings. The purpose of this paper is to make research of the impacts of the mining and
metallurgical processes on the degree of pollution with heavy metals of rivers in Mitrovica town. The methods used
to determine the impacts of industrial processes on the rivers pollution are as follows: Reviews of scientific
materials related to field of study: Laboratory Research, with sophisticated equipment - AAS (Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry).
Keywords: Mitrovica, Trepca, Water pollution, Heavy metal.,
INTRODUCTION
Mines "Trepca" originates from ancient times, but massive exploitation begins in the twentieth century when the
English company "Selection Trust Ltd." exploited mine from 1926 to 1941. In 1938 starts activity in Zvecan lead
smelter. New flotation is built in 1983 in the Tuneli i Pare. The main products are flotation concentrate of Lead (C /
Pb), zinc concentrate (C / Zn), concentrate pyrites (C/FeS2) and concentrate Pyrrhotite (C / FES). As a result of ore
concentration of Pb - Zn with flotation and hydrometallurgical processes, in and around the "Trepca" complex we
have no less than 8 + 2 landfills and flotation water discharging point into the river Trepca that flows into the river
Sitnica which connects to river Iber. In this case we have two ways of rivers contamination: direct discharging of
the industrial waste waters (Fig. 1) and storm water runoff as a result of rain water which either dissolves the
contamination or carries contaminated soil particles into the river.
Fig. 1 Industrial waste water discharging point of Trepca flotation
MATERALS AND METHOD
To reach the results of the impact of Trepca processes in running waters in the Mitrovica rivers, samples were taken
at four points (Fig. 2) on the river Sitnica and at the discharging point of the Trepca river:
- The first sample was taken in the village Frashr, approximately 300 meters before the Industrial Park of Mitrovica
(IPM)
- The second sample was taken at the beginning of the IPM
- The third sample was taken at the end of IPM's
- The fourth sample was taken in "July 2" Street, approximately 700 m from the bridge of Sitnica.
Samples are marked with serial numbers as per sampling site. In samples was determined concentration of heavy
metals: Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe, and pH.
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2
1
Fig 2. Sampling locations in river Sitnica
Analytical method for the determination of heavy metals in water samples
From each sample were taken 100 ml, and are set in erlenmajer which priory is filtered in order to eliminate the
insoluble substances. Each sample was added 1 ml of concentrated HNO3, and boiled (2-3 minutes). Samples were
then cooled. Samples are placed in the dish and leveled with distilled water. In this way samples are prepared for the
analytical method with Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Taken samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry (AAS), by which can be determined about 70 elements (Fig. 3). For the determination of most
elements, the boundaries of the survey are part of billion (ppb), using the electro-atomization technique, and for
some elements, parts per million (ppm), using flame as a atomic technique.
Fig. 3 - Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
Determination of the elements of Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu and Fe in the river Sitnica with SAA, flame - method
Preliminarily, for each element are adapted to the conditions for analysis as: wavelength, lamp position, burner
position, type of flame and spectral cleavage width. Afterwards is measured absorption of standard liquids,
construction of calibration curves and calculation of parameters of heavy metals Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu and Fe.
In table 4 are shown values of presence of cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Zinc (ZN), Iron (Fe) and Lead (Pb) in all
four samples and allowable standard values.
Tab. 1 - Vlerat e metaleve t rnda n lumin Sitnic
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Standard
allovable Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
limits
pH 6-9 7.65 7.65 7.81 7.65
Cu mg/L 0.1 0.158 0.1152 0.0755 0.1130
Cd mg/L 0.01 0.0046 0.0059 0.0053 0.0039
Zn mg/L 1 0.018 0.0376 0.5211 1.3568
Pb mg/L 0.1 0.0298 0.1788 0.0672 0.6287
Fe mg/L 1 0.0897 0.6947 0.081 0.0315
Fig. 4 - Concentration of heavy metals in the samples taken in the river Sitnica
RESULTS
Based on the analysis of the water samples taken at surface waters of river Sitnica, we see that these waters are
highly contaminated and in most cases exceed the pollution norms. We found greater pollution with heavy metals in
the river Sitnica near the IPM landfill where the industrial water is discharged from the landfill, storm water runoff
from IPM as well as the consequence of the river Sitnica which passes along the Trepca industrial park.
Based on the obtained results, pH values, cadmium and iron, in Water samples taken in Sitnica River are within
allowable limits, while copper does not exceed permissible limits only in the third sample with 0.1 mg/L, being
present in the first sample with 0.1445 mg/L, in the second sample with 0.1145 mg/L, and in the fourth sample at
0.1145mg/L.
Lead is found in the second sample valued from 0.1746 mg/L, reaching a value of 0.6277 mg/L in the fourth sample,
which exceeds six times allowed value of 0.1 mg/L.
Water pollution in the river Sitnica with Zinc exceeds the value of allowing only on the fourth sample, where zinc is
present with 1.3536 mg/L. From the figure we see that the number 17 in the four samples of pH value is within the
allowed values.
Discharging contaminated industrial waters causes direct damage to rivers flow up to their spill in large rivers or
seas (Rashani.Sh. 2007). As we can see from the results obtained from the water samples analyses, river Sitnica is
highly contaminated with the heavy metals, especially in and around the IPM but also in the areas of the industrial
landfills and damps, and remedies and preventive measures are deem necessary in order reduce the amount of
pollutants to the extent that water can be returned to the environment without causing harm to aquatic life,
surrounding environment and the residents in the area.
This is achieved by treating the discharged industrial waters before the flow into the river, in this case river Trepca
which joins Sitnica river in Mitrovica, as well as protection of slopes of the edges of the perimeter of the landfills
and damps, near the river, with the geo-plastic layers by leveling and compacting dangerous surfaces, in order to
prevent the erosion of toxic waste in the river flow.
CONCLUSIONS
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According to some studies conducted in 1988 (ZUP Prishtine 1988), river Iber, which also percolate Mitrovica town,
before entering the town and joins the river Sitnica, can be used for many purposes, but after passes the town river is
contaminated by sewage waters, and, at this stage, can be used for watering but nor preferred for fishing. River
Sitnica, before any industrial water discharging, is contaminated at that extend as can be used only for watering of
not fruitful trees and grass. The water resources in Kosovo are also protected by Law (2004/24) approved by the
Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, and with the application of the same enables protection of the waters which
ensures prevention of pollution of surface waters as well as and rehabilitation of polluted waters.
REFERENCES
Shefqet Rashani, Inxhinjerija e mbrojtjes se mjedisit, Mitrovice 2007, p. 32-55;

Ilir Kristo, Fatbardh Sallaku, Toka dhe menaxhimi i saj, Tirane, 2000, p. 142-166;
Prostorni plan opstine, Osnove plana Titova Mitrovica, ZUP-Prishtine, I IAU Serbije- Beograd, 1988, p. 49;
Kuvendi i Republiks s Kosovs, Ligji pr ujrat e Kosovs, Nr.2004/ 24, Prishtine, 2004;
PAPER 180
INTERACTIONS AT METAL INTERFACES-A COMPARISON OF VARIOUS MODEL APROACHES
Mihone Kerolli-Mustafa1, Afete Musliu2

1
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Croatia;
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Tirana, Albania;
E-mail: mihone_k@hotmail.com,
ABSTRACT
Many of the mineral processing techniques depend on the interfacial interactions between solid and liquid,
essentially water. The interfacial surface tension control those two phases, while the surface energy is one of the
main components in understanding the interface process. The most common standard method used for determining
the surface energy is contact angle method that characterizes the properties of the solids. This paper reports a
description of the theory of interactions occurring at the metal interfaces and the experimental methods available for
assessing those interactions. We made a review and a direct comparison of widely used models for the calculation of
surface energy of solids such as Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelble, Wu and Acid-Base models in order to evaluate their
advantages and disadvantages. The particular site of Trepa Mining Complex jarosite waste material was used as an
example for reviewing these interactions. In this case a contact angle between the surface and the edge of droplets of
water, formamide, diiodo methane is measured. We conclude that values of contact angle provide an indication of
the degree of surface hydrophobicity / hidrophilicity character. This method is an important parameter of processing
the jarosite waste material in Trepca.
Key words: Interaction, metal interface, surface free energy, contact angle, Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelble, Wu,
Acid-Base model, jarosite waste.
INTRODUCTION
All modern industries rely on materials to create new products and technologies. Surface and interface structure has
been recognized for their importance on solid state and gaseous electronics, adhesion, catalysis and corrosion.
Surfaces and interfaces define a boundary between a material and its surrounding environment and influence
interactions with that environment ( Samorai et al. 2010). The theory of interfacial interactions between solid and
liquid, essentially water is of special interest. The interfacial surface tension control those two phases, while the
surface free energy is one of the main components in understanding the interface process. The standard method used
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for determining the surface free energy is contact angle method that characterizes the properties of the solids
(Neumann et al. 1979). Three interface forces are balanced at the edge of the drop, with two on the opposite
direction and the third that forms the particular angle of the surface. The contact angle measurements are easy to
perform on a smooth flat surface, while in many of the industrial applications materials used are in powdered form.
The interest on the experimental calculation of surface free energy of the solid is growing based on numerous
published studies used as references. The Young presented that the equilibrium of forces at the edge of a resting
drop can be described by the interfacial energies of the corresponding surfaces (Neumann et al. 1979) (Figure 1).
Figigure 1.Contact angle formed by a liquid drop on a surface [3].
This equilibrium of the forces obtained for the surface and interfacial tensions is presented by the following
equation:
(1)
Where:
, , represent the surface tensions between the solid and the saturated vapor of the liquid. The next
development after Young was the Dupre (Kovaevi et al. 2011/2012) that introduced the work of cohesion W coh
and adhesion Wadh. From thermo dynamical point of view the work of adhesion is the reversible free energy change
for making free surfaces from interfaces. It is represented by the equation (or so-called Dupre energy) (Kovaevi
et al. 2011/2012; Yildirim 2001) :
Wad= A+ B AB (2)
where: Wad is the work of adhesion, A and B are the respective surface free energies of two materials, AB is the
surface energy between the two materials in contact. When free surface of the liquid meets a solid boundary, three
interactions will occurs: the solid-liquid interface, the liquid-vapour interface and the solid-vapour interface
(Yildirim 2001). The true work of adhesion can be determined by contact angle measurements, through the Young
Dupre equation, which describes Wad as the function of the contact angle (Kovaevi et al. 2011/2012; Yildirim
2001; Subedi 2011)]:
Wad= A+ B AB= B (1 + cos ) (3)
The contact angle is a measure of the competing tendencies of the liquid drop and solid determining whether it
spreads over the solid surface or rounds up to minimize its own area (Van Oss 1994). Determination of the base line
at the phase boundary solid/liquid is the first step, followed by the determination of the drop profile and
measurement of the contact angle. According to the references the standard liquids with well-known values of
surface tension, component of dispersion and polar interaction such as water, formamide, diiodo methane are mostly
used (Van Oss 1994; Fu et al. 2007; Erbil 2006). The most common models used for the calculation of surface
energy (SFE) and its polar and dispersion components are Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelblen [Neumann et al. 1979;
Kovaevi et al. 2011/2012; Owens et al. 1967), Wu and Acid-Base methods. The Owens, Wendt, Rable and
Kaelble (OWRK) (Yildirim 2001; Subedi 2011; Owens et al. 1967) developed the first idea that the surface tension
of each phase can be split up into a polar and a disperse fraction:
+ (4)
+ (5)
Here and represent disperse and polar parts of the liquid, while and stand for the respective
contributions of the solid.According to Owens, Wendt, Rable and Kaelble the polar interactions contain Coulomb
interactions between permanent dipoles and the ones between permanent and induced dipoles. Both polar and
disperse contributions to the surface free energy and surface tension respectively are combined by forming the sum
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of both parts presented in the Equations 6,7. The calculation of surface free energy of the solid by Owens, Wendt,
Rable and Kaelble method takes place in a single step (Kovaevi et al. 2011/2012; Owens et al. 1967). By
combining the surface tension equation as the basis
+ - 2( ) (6)
with the Young Equation 1, the Owens and Wendt got the transposed equation below:
(7)
For low-energy systems (surface free energies up to 35mN/m) another method was proposed by WU (Van Oss
1994) for evaluating the contact angle. According to Wu the interface free energy between liquid and solid can be
calculated by forming the harmonic mean instead of geometric mean developed by OWRK. The Wu methods
require at least two kinds of drops with different surface tensions (one liquid heaving a polar part greater than zero).
The harmonic mean equation is used to sum the dispersive and polar contributions. Contact angles against two
liquids with known values of and are measured. The values for each experiment are put into the following
equation:
( +1) 4 ( (8)
In this way WU obtained more accurate results for low energy systems, while using the Wus method the following
point must be taken into consideration: as quadratic equations are involved this means that two solutions are
obtained for both and only one of these solutions describes the actual surface free energy (Erbil 2006) The
Van Oss theory (Van Oss 2002) separates the surface free energy of solids and liquids into three components. It
evaluates the polar energy based on energy interchange model of acid and base. The acid-base theory is suitable for
materials with polar surface and requires at least three drops of different surface tensions, while at least two of them
must be polar fluid. The authors OSS and GOOD describe the polar fraction with the help of the acid-base model
according to Lewis. According to this model, the polar fraction of the surface free energy of the solid and the
surrounding drop liquid is split into an electron acceptor fraction corresponding to a Lewis acid (electron
receiving fraction and an electron donor corresponding to a Lewis base (electron donor fraction) (Van Oss
2002). According to the authors the Van Oss and Good theory, the surface free energy , of a material can be
expressed as the sum of two components, the non-polar Lifshitzvan derWaals (LW) and the polar acidbase (AB)
contribution as:
(9)
with: as dispersive component (Lifshitz-Van der Waals interactions) and aspolar components (polar
interactions, Lewis acid-base).They put the relation between surface free energy components, liquid components and
contact angle into the equation:
(1+ ) (10)
were, is the disperse fraction, the acid fraction and the base fraction of the solid.
In this paper surface free energy of different samples of jarosite waste from Trepa tailings was used for measuring
the contact angle. The results were obtained using the Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelble, Wu and Acid-Base model.
EXPERIMENTAL PART
1. Samples. The material used for the study was taken in Mitrovica Industrial Park (MIP) jarosite waste situated in
northern Kosovo. Mitrovica region constitutes one of the main industrial areas of the former Yugoslavia as well as
one of the most important mining districts of Europe. The Trepca industrial and mining area includes about 40 mines
and various milling, flotation and smelting plant, it is/was regions largest lead and zinc mining, beneficiation,
smelting, and refining complex. At present industrial waste dumps in Mitrovica Industrial Park contains over 1.5
million t of various waste.
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Fiigure 2.Sampling locations of six investigated samples.
According to Deconta study (Deconta 2009) from the total area of 35 ha in MIP (Figure 2), 16 ha are covered with
jarosite waste resulting from Zn neutral leaching and acid leaching.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the samples in wt. %[9].

Sample Composition - wt. %
SO3-56.16, P2O5-0.87, Al2O3-0.3, Na2O-0.21, CaO-35.61, MgO-0.3, Fe2O3-0.03,

1-6 SiO2-1.2, CO2-2,3, F-0.3, organic material-2.3
Within the framework of sampling the particular tailing ponds in total 6 samples (Figure 2) were carried out. The
average depth of the particular samples was 1.5 m. Number of the samples was taken in dependence of waste
profile. Accessibility, position of waste sides and optimal location of sampling points were the main criteria for
selection of the sampling points. The stainless steel soil sampler was used during the sampling. Samples were put
into plastic containers of 1kg. The samples were dried at 105 C. Samples were compressed into a pellet by using a
hydraulic press jet pump.
2. Determination of surface free energy from contact angle measurements. The contact angle measurements
were conducted using three liquids of different polarity: water, formamide and diiodomethane. The drop orientation
was determined by using DataPhysics SCA 21. Firstly, the pellet, which has been prepared earlier, was placed on the
sample holder. The water, formamide, diiodo methane as standard liquids with well-known values was placed in
syringe, from where the drops were dispensed automatically. The contact angle (CA) has been measured by setting
its baseline and then making a profile extraction. The value of contact angle usually was obtained after CA
computation. The contact angle of each sample has been measured for three times. All measurements were
performed under ambient conditions of 21 - 23 C. Small liquid drop is deposited into the surface and the contact
angle is determined from the digital image of the sessile drop. Also the surface free energy (SFE) and its polar and
dispersion components were determined by means of Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelblen [Neumann et al. 1979;
Kovaevi et al. 2011/2012; Owens et al. 1967), Wu and Acid-Base methods.
RESULTS
Following the procedure mentioned in Experimental part, the contact angles of water, formamide, and
diiodomethane were measured on different surfaces samples of mining tailing material in form of clay and pellets.
Experiments showed that both parallel measured value of contact angle samples of compressed pellets and dried
material in glass side were the same. The results with the means of contact angle are presented in
Table 2. The sample 1-6 values obtained by measuring the contact angles with water, formamide, diiodo methane.
Contact Angle ()
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Sample Water Formamide Diiodo methane

1 32.66 20.1 21.2
2 22.2 22.1 13.9
3 1.2 8.2 0.9
4 4.1 22.1 20.1
5 19.1 20.9 16.45
6 41.1 31.3 27.1
If we compare the contact angle values of water on dried surfaces (pellets), we see larger variations between
samples. Water used as a probe liquid has a very high surface tension (72 mNm -1) and it is very polar. The values of
contact angle increases for sample 1, 2, 5 and 6 (Figure 3). This observation gives a first insight into the increase in
the hydrophobic character of the clay surface especially of sample 1 and 6 with the high content of Fe, Pb as well as
other compounds having aromatic or hydrophobic (water-insoluble) chemical structures. The tailing material is
placed in an open pit that gives a possibility of been mixed with other neighboring material via drainage water or
wind. Another explanation can be due to the fact that metal sulphide surfaces contain at least two types of surface
functional groups (thiol group and iron group) as opposed to one (Yildirim 2001). Sample 1 to 2 loses its
hydrophobic nature and became hydrophilic. This can attribute to the surface heterogeneity and solution impurities
adsorbing on the surface with very interesting implications and interactions as well. If the contact angle of water is
less than 30, the surface is designated hydrophilic since the forces of interaction between water and the surface
nearly equal the cohesive forces of water, and water does not cleanly drain from the surface (Arkles 2006). The
contact angle decrease was observed in sample 3 and 4. A lower contact angle indicates that the surface of the waste
material in sample 3 is more wettable. In this case we see that the water spreads over a surface and the contact angle
at the spreading front edge of the water is less than 10 which shows a super hydrophilic character of the surface. In
our case the nature of the observed surfaces in our study shows to have a hydrophilic character.
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45
Water
40 Formamide
Diiodo methane
35
Contact Angle, ()
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Sample1
Fig. 3. Sample Angle
Contact 2 Sample 3
measurement Sample 4 1-6.
for samples Sample 5 Sample 6
When we use formamide as wetting agent, the observed variations show the decrease in sample 3, while the contact
angle in other samples varies from 20.1 to 31.3. Formamide interacts with jarosite the case of sample 1 and 2. In
case of diiodo methane (which is of rather apolar nature) more variations are observed with the lowest value in
sample 3 and variations between 1, 2, 4 and 5 samples. The previous contact angle values (Table 2) were used to
estimate the components and parameters of the surface free energy of Trepa jarosite waste samples with Owens-
Wendt and Wu model. The results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Free Energy surface values of Samples 1-6.
Owens Wendt Wu
Sample Surface Free Energy (mJ m-2) Surface Free Energy (mJ m-2)
d p d p
1 40.99 24.91 65.89 40.62 28.18 68.81
2 30.35 34.99 65.34 31.96 35.91 67.88
3 35.88 31.95 67.83 36.40 34.08 70.48
4 39.21 30.81 70.02 39.43 33.59 73.02
5 37.52 31.28 68.80 37.82 33.91 71.73
6 38.99 21.73 60.72 38.46 25.54 64.00
If we compare the surface free energy values from 1-6 samples in using Owens-Wendt and Wu models, we see that
there is no major change. However, the characteristic values of surface free energy (SFE) of Trepa waste samples
versus the contact angle () of water, formamide and diiodo methane is presented in Figure 4. Clearly the plots are
not in similar shape and the values of surface free energy varies in line with the increase of contact angle of each
liquid.
a)
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b)
Fig. 4. Surface free energy (SFE) of samples 1-6 versus the contact angle () of water, formamide,
diiodomethane, calculated using a) Owens-Wendt and b) Wu models.
The obtained SFE values are compared in Fig. 5. The data calculated using Owens-Wend and Wu models are based
on the contact angle measurements carried out with use of water, formamide and diiodo methane parameters. The
figure shows that the plot corresponding to both methods is in similar line with very small differences in the results.
Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelble model
Wu model
Acid-Base model
80
Surface free energy, (mJ m-2)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sample1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
Fig. 5. Comparison of surface free energy (SFE) values of a samples, calculated using the Owens-Wendt (OW)
and Wu models.
Following the thermodynamic approach of Van Oss using Eq. (10), we have studied the interactions occurring
between 1-6 sample surfaces and drops of liquid parameters considered for the study. The values of the components
and parameters of the surface free energy of 1-6 samples with the use of Van Oss model are shown on Table 4.
Table 4. Values of the Lifshitz-Van der Waals (LW), electron donor (-), electron acceptor (+), acid-base
ccomponents (AB) and free energy of surface samples
LW ( mJ m-2) + (mJ m-2) - (mJ m-2) (mJ m-2)

Sample LW acid base AB (mJ m-2) total
1 47.15 0.00 48.43 0 47.15

2 49.25 0.03 51.65 2.65 51.90
3 50.79 0.08 56.84 4.32 55.11
4 47.73 0.02 61.96 2.1 49.83
5 48.73 0.05 53.86 3.27 52.00
6 45.23 0.20 35.43 5.29 50.52
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If we look at the electron-donor and the electron-acceptor values, we observe big changes occurring in both
parameters for all samples. The value of - is much higher in all 1-6 samples than the value of +, suggesting that the
sample tailing material in Trepa is predominantly basic. The total surface free energy results are in range of 47.15
to 55.11 mJ m-2. As it can be seen from the table the Lifshitz-van der Waals component values varies from 45.23 to
50.70mJ m-2, while the Lewis acid-base parameters are significantly lower. For example the value of AB may
become zero on a hydrophobic surface (sample 1), while on the other hand LW, never becomes zero. Overall, the
surface hydrophobicity is a function of the value of , as well as its components. Thus, the data given in Table 2 and
3 confirm the surface free energy components that are determined using the contact angle values (Table 2).
CONCLUSION
Values of contact angle provide an indication of the degree of surface hydrophobicity / hidrophilicity character of
the surface. This method is an important parameter of processing the jarosite waste material in Trepca.
Contact angle measurement were conducted on pellet surfaces to determine the surface free energy components of
Trepca jarosite tailing samples using the Owens-Wendt (OW), Wu and Van Oss models. The results showed larger
variations of contact angle values between samples.
A good agreement between the surface free energy calculations using different contact angle methods has been
demonstrated. Our simulation results indicate that the applied models work fine.
As a general trend, the Lifshitz-van der Waals component values varies from 45.23 to 50.70mJ m-2, while the Lewis
acid-base parameters are significantly lower. However, the value of AB is associated with decrease in the value zero
on a hydrophobic surface of sample 1.
The applied models showed advantage in depositing multiple droplets in various locations of sample and
determining the heterogeneity, while the detail characterization of the jarosite waste is in process.
REFERENCES
Somorjai , G., Li, Y. (2010) Impact of surface chemistry, National Academy of Science of USA, 103 (3), 917-924.
Chander, S., Wie, J. M., Fuerstenau, D. W. (1975) Advances in Interfacial Phenomena, AIChE Series 150, 183-188.
Neumann, A. W., Good, R. J. (1979) Techniques of Measuring Contact Angles, Surface and Colloid Science, Exp.
Meth., Plenum Pres, New York.
Kovaevi,V., Blagojevi, S. L., Leskovac, M., Vrsaljko, (2011/12) D. Surface Phenomenon, FKIT, Zagreb.
Yildirim, I.(2001) Surface Free Energy Characterization of Powders, VirginaTech, PhD dissertation.
Van Oss, C. J. (1994) Interfacial Forces, Marcel Decker Inc., New York, 1, 75-85.
Fu, Q., Wagner, Th. (2007) Surface Science reports 6, 421-493.
Erbil, H.Y., (2006) Surface Chem. of Solid and Liquid Interfaces, Blackwell Publishing, UK.
Van Oss, C. J. (2002) Colloid and surface properties, Marcel Dekker, New York, 295.
Deconta (2009) Final report, Czech-UNDP Trust Fund.
Arkles, B. Paint Coatings Industry magazine, 2006.
Hejda, F., Solar, P., Kousal, J. (2010) WDS'10 Proceedings of Contributed Papers, 3, 25-30.
Owens, D. K., Wendt, R.C.(1967) J. Appl. Polym. Sci, 1741-1747.
Subedi, D. P. (2011) The Himalayan Physics II, 2 (2), 1-4.
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PAPER 182
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EUROPEAN UNION NATURE PROTECTION LEGISLATION IN

MACEDONIA
Zoran Sapuric1, Vulnet Zenki 2*

1
University American College, Skopje, Macedonia (former minister of environment)
2*
South East European University, Tetovo, Macedonia.
Email: sapurik@uacs.edu.mk; v.zenki@seeu.edu.mk;
ABSTACT
Nature protection is an important part of environmental activities in the field on protection and improvement of the
environment. Activities, measures and standards in the nature protection should be drafted in the strategic
documents. The strategic documents can be implemented only with the accurately and comprehensive legislation.
Legal regulation significantly contributes toward to better nature protection. European Union, as a community with
the highest environmental standards, since 1972, has been acting in the improvement of common nature protection
activities which are stipulated in the common legislation. Besides the problems with the practical implementation,
Macedonia has been harmonizing its environmental legislation since 2004, a year before obtaining the candidate
status for the membership of the EU. This harmonization has been moving relatively successful. Nature protection
legislation has been harmonizing slower compared to the other environmental sectors. The same situation is with the
practical implementation of nature protection legislation, although The Law on nature protection, adopted in 2004, is
one of the first adopted laws in the sphere of the environment. It is caused by the numerous of subjective and
objective reasons. The Law on nature protection has been changed and amended seven times. After its entering into
force there were adopted a small number of strategic documents and sub law legal acts. The main aim of this paper
is to analyze the process of the harmonization of national nature protection legislation with the EU legislation and
the possibilities for the acceleration of this process. Also the paper gives some recommendations for the future
improvement of the Macedonian, s nature protection legislation and its more successful practical implementation.
Key words: nature protection, environment, legislation, harmonization, European Union
INTRODUCTION
Nature protection, as one of the most important element which determines the quality of the environment has crucial
impact on the activities in the field of the protection and improvement of the environment. The idea of conserving
species and nature has broadly significance and importance (Brinie 2009). Contemporary activities and measures on
nature protection should meet appropriate standards. It must be strictly defined in strategic and planning documents.
The efficient realization of the goals from the strategies is possible only through comprehensive and precise legal
frame work, as a significant tool for efficient and successful nature protection. Environmental legislation and in its
part nature protection legislation is a complex mechanism for the improvement of nature conservation. Besides of
the preservation it should be aimed toward improvement the nature conditions.
The EU, as a community with the highest environmental standards in the world, since 1972 has been enhancing
common activities in the field of the environment and the nature. Since then, the EU has developed a comprehensive
system of environmental legislation which includes more than 300 legal acts. (Sapuric 2010). The Unions
legislation in the sphere of nature protection aims to introduce a high level of protection. It provides strict standards
and a set of effective activities and measures. In that context the EU, permanently has been improving the
legislation and the activities in the field of nature.
The Republic of Macedonia, as a country with candidate status since 2005, has the numerous obligations in many
spheres. One of them is the environment and within it the nature protection. Macedonia started the intensive process
of harmonization of environmental and nature protection legislation in 2004. The harmonization has been going
relatively successful. On the other hand the process of practical implementation has been performing very slowly
with the number of problems which have objective and subjective roots. The sector of nature protection legislation
has been harmonizing slower than the other parts of the environment. The Law on nature protection (Law 2004),
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was adopted in 2004, one year before the basic law in the sphere of environment Law on environment (Law 2005).
Since 2004 The Law on nature protection has been changed seven times. Successful enforcement of the Law needs
detailing and specifying of the provisions. It is possible through detailing in sub law legal acts.
METHODOLOGY
In the process of research which was made during the preparation of this paper, was performed an analysis of EU
nature protection legislation. Also it was analyzed the sector of nature protection legislation of the Republic of
Macedonia, as an important part of environmental legislation, and the process of the implementation of Unions
legislation. The nature protection legislation in Macedonia was compared with the other legislation in the field of
the environment. In order to identify objective and subjective reasons for the slow adoption of legislation in the
field of nature protection, it was made an interview with twenty staff from the Ministry of Environment and Physical
Planning, who are involved in the different aspects of this legislation. Also it was used personal experience and
activity from following, analyzing and drafting the environment and nature protection legislation. The research has
a goal to determine some conclusions and recommendation for future activities.
RESULTS
The EU nature protection legislation has been developing for more than 40 years. The Union has built a system of
comprehensive legislation, which aims to harmonize the activities in nature protection on the whole, territory of the
EU. Under the of Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (The EU Treaty 2010), the Union has exclusive
competence in the area of the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fishery policy. Only in
this area of the environment the EU has exclusive competencies and the member states must follow the common
activities. Further the Treaty defines that other competencies in the field of the environment are shared between the
Union and the member states. The EU policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into
account the diversity of the situation in the various regions of the EU. The European Parliament and the Council
acting in accordance within the ordinary legislative procedures and after consultation the Economic and Social
Committee and the Committee of the regions, decide what action is to be taken by the EU in order to achieve the
common environmental objectives. It means that the EU nature protection legislation is adopted in the procedure of
co decide where both institutions, have equal powers and that the common legislation has to consider differences in
the regions. But the common activities in the field of the environment and nature protection not prevent member
states from introducing more stringent protective measures. Such measures must be in accordance of the EU treaties
and should be notified to the Commission. It clearly shows the Unions efforts for harmonization of the activities
and legislation in the area of nature and on the other hand, an opportunity for introduction the stricter standards in
the member states which have potentials for that.
The EU nature protection legislation aims to achieve effective results and to harmonies the activities, even the
shared competencies between the Union and the member states often produce differences, especially in the land use
planning, habitat matters and forest management. (Kramer 2007). As regards to the directives, the most
importance have Directive on the conservation of wild birds, known as Bird directive, (Directive 2009) and
Directive on natural habitats and wild fauna and flora, known as Habitat directive, (Directive 1992). Directive on
the conservation of wild birds was adopted in 1979 and amended several times. In 2009 was adopted codified
version. The Bird directive, underlines that a large number of species, especially migratory species, of wild birds
naturally occurring in the member states in the EU declining in number very rapidly. Directive recognizes that
migratory species causes a range of trans - frontier problems and a need for common activities toward building
conditions for sustainable living conditions for the wild species. The measures and the activities determined in the
Directive are oriented toward long term conservation. This is one of the core elements of the Directive, because the
protection of eco systems needs a set of complex activities with a long term approach. Certain species of birds listed
in Annex 1 are the subject of special conservation measures. For other species listed in other annexes, hunting is
limited by special procedures and conditions. The Directive has a big importance, not only for the protection and
conservation of wild bird and their habitats. It has importance for nature conservation as a whole. With promoting a
systematic, complete and complex common activities and common responsibility of member states toward long term
planed activities, the Directive introduced a completely new approach of the common protection of natural heritage.
Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora, also has an importance for the EU
common activities of nature protection. It was adopted in 1992 and amended three times. The Directive clearly
recognizes that activities in the area of habitats and species must take account the economic, social cultural and
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regional conditions. It shows that the EU is awarded that common activities must be harmonized, but based on the
regional diversity . Restoration or maintains of natural habitats and species produce the needs for designing the
special areas of conservation, which is a base for creation European ecological network. Member states are obliged
to establish a system of necessary conservation measure and to designee managements plans of protected areas. It
leads toward our conclusion that the Directive underlines the importance of creation of protection areas and inside of
them the habitats. Besides the numerous of problems in the process of practical implementation in some member
states the Directive has reached significant results, especially because of the fact that the number of protection areas
has been permanently growing . The number of those areas from 309 in 1986, 450 in 1990, 1.247 in 1995, 1.842 in
1998 has grown to 4.523 in 2006, covering 559.083 (Kramer 2007). Directive created the conditions for establishing
European ecological network of special network of special areas of conservation, Natura 2000, which has realized
the numerous of successful projects. Macedonia is also an active part of Natura 2000 and has realized the number of
successful projects.
In the context of EU nature protection legislation it is important to mention, Regulation EC 338/97, on the
protection species of wild fauna and flora by regulation trade therein, (Regulation 1997).The object of the
Regulation to protect species of wild flora and fauna and to guarantee their conservation. The Regulation establishes
a special regime for trade of endangered species and introduces procedures, permissions, certificates, transport and
other activities for trans boundary movement of the species. The long term and interactive approach of the EU in
nature protection can, clearly be seen in many strategic documents, such as EU biodiversity strategy 2020 (Strategy
2020). The Strategy sets a number of activities and measures toward further development of EU legislation.
The implementation of EU nature protection in Macedonia has been raised the question how this legislation could be
implemented in Macedonia with an effective achievement? It is not only a matter from legal point of view, it is also
a matter of practical and real enforcement. As mention above the Law on nature protection was adopted in 2004, one
year before the adoption a basic law in the field of environment, Law on environment. The Law on environment
generally refers on the nature protection issues, which are not regulated in the Law on nature protection. Since then,
the Law on nature protection has been changed and amended eight times. It produces an urgent need for adoption an
official consolidate version, because it is very difficult to use the Law with the numerous of chained and amended
provisions.
The law on nature protection regulates nature protection through conservation of biological and landscape diversity
and protection of natural heritage, within the protected areas and outside of them and protection of natural rarities.
Nature protection is determinate as an activity of national interest. The Law defines a system of measures and
activities in order to ensure sustainable use of nature and maintain natural balance. Nature protection is based on
several principles such as: high level on nature conservation, integrated approach, sustainable development,
integrated approach, precautions, prevention, and user has to pay, public participation and principle of cooperation.
For the planned activities, which in their implementation, could distort the nature balance, it is obliged a procedure
for impact assessment on the nature. It has an aim to avoid or minimize the degradation of the nature. In this context
the Law provides a number of activities which should be elaborated in details such as: stipulation of protection
measures for crossing the wild animal species in the infrastructural objects; performing scientific researches in the
nature; permission for introduction of species in the nature in a particular case; international list of endangered and
protected species of plants and animals red book; procedures at border points for endangered species;
determination of the manner and the procedure for sampling and using genetic materials from the nature; list of
strictly protected wild species in Macedonia and their uses; stipulation of the methods of development maintenance
and marking map of the natural habitats and their types and level of endangerment; determination of
environmentally important areas for the EU Natura 2000; establishment of the structure of the program for
management of forest habitats and ecosystems in protected areas; manner of using of environmentally important
habitats in the grasslands; designing a manner on the valorization of protected areas; establishing a cadastre of
protected areas; establishing a register of natural heritage; establishing an information system of biodiversity;
adopting a strategy for nature protection and many other obligations. The number of activities, which according the
Law on nature protection should be specified and detailed is 63. Some of them are competence of the Government,
and the other are competence of the Ministry for environmental and physical planning. From these activities, only 10
are adopted such as: a list of determination of strictly protected wild species where determinate 9 species of fungus,
51 species of flora; 134 of fauna and a list of protected wild species where are determinate 63 species of fungus, 12
lichens, and 151 species of flora and 594 species of fauna; issuing permits for collection of endangered and
protected wild species and issuing permits for scientific research in the nature. It is important to emphasize that it is
established National council for nature protection, which obligation from the Law.
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From this elaboration it can be recognized that only a small part of the obligation, that are stipulated in the Law are
completed. It is low enforcement especially compared with other sectors of the environment where the obligations
from the basic laws are almost completed, such as: noise with 15 measures and acts, waste management with 84 and
ambient air quality with 25. It is important to comment, that among these unrealized obligations are the Strategy for
nature protection and international list of endangered and protected species. It is a big disability for efficient nature
protection. Also the Habitat and the Bird directives are not implemented. Slow implementation of the Law is result
of the numerous subjective and objective reasons. The low progress can be recognized, also in the European
Commission progress reports (Report 2010, 2011 and 2012). The reports emphasize a little progress, mainly because
of adoption of management plans for the national parks. But the reports stress insufficient administrative capacity
and a lack of sustainable financing capacity. In the preparation of this paper besides an analysis and comparing we
used details from interviews of the administrative staff from the Ministry of environment and physical planning.
Also it is used personal experience in the analyzing and participation in the process of harmonization of national
environmental and nature protection legislation. One of the causes for slow implementation lays in the complexity of
the nature protection legislation, which is related with extensive and complex activities. It needs a complex
preparation and comprehensive practical scientific researches, which requires significant financial recourses. The
lack of sustainable funding the nature conservation activities is one of the reasons for slow implementation the EU
legislation. It is important to stress that the process harmonization of environmental legislation in the past, especially
in the period from 2002 to 2010, mainly was financed from the international sources and in the framework of this
the EU financial, scientific, and capacity building support. The numerous of international experts has helped the
process of harmonization of the environmental legislation. In the last few years this support is much weaker, mainly
because of an economic crisis. Besides of this, the authorities in Macedonia, both on the central level and on the
local level, should be aware, that the aspirations for membership of the EU, provides the obligations to reach its
environmental and nature protection standards. It is related with building of the system of nature protection
legislation, which will be in function to meet the EU standards. That needs a strong political will, which has to be
clearly demonstrated in the future period. In the context of this we underline that reaching the EU standards it is not
an easy task, but it is possible only with an active, gradual approach.
The week implementation of the EU nature protection legislation also is conditioned from insufficient capacity of
administration, on the central and local level. It causes a need for more intensive activities in the field of capacity
building of the administrative staff. In the future, state and local authorities should be more opened to use all
national experts and scientific human potentials. More successful implementation on the EU nature legislation is
also linked with further activities in strengthening of the public awareness, as an important impact on this process.
On the end of this discussion it is important to emphasize that acceleration of the process of harmonization is not
important only for the EU integration. The harmonized legislation will be a solid base for better protection of the
nature and the environment as whole. Investments in the nature protection should not be understood only as a cost,
but also as possibility for better and healthier life of the future generations.
CONCLUSIONS
What can be concluded from the above mention discussion? The implementation of EU nature protection legislation
in Macedonia is far from satisfactory. It is caused by the numerous of objective and subjective reasons. Compared
with the other environmental sectors the nature protection legislation has been trailing. The Law cannot be
implemented successfully without detailing and specifying with the sub law acts and other acts. Harmonization the
national legislation with the EU legislation should open the possibilities for the implementation of high level of
standards and for efficient protection and improvement of the nature, as an important part of the environment.
Macedonia as a state with candidate status for the membership in the EU has to accelerate activities in the
developing a nature protection legislation. In context of this it is possible to give some useful recommendation:
to strengthen the efforts from the Government for the implementation the EU nature protection standards and
legislation;
to follow permanently the development of EU legislation;
to ensure higher budgets funds for nature protection;
to use all national human capacities in the process of drafting and adopting the legislation;
to continue with capacity building of the administration;
to establish mechanisms for practical enforcement of the nature protection legislation;
REFERENCES
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Birnie P, Boyle A, (2009), International Law and the Environment, p. p. 589 592, Oxford University Press, New
York.
Brown L, (2007), Eco- Economy, p.p.70-75, W.W. Norton & Company, New York
Kramer L, (2007), EC Environmental Law, p.p. 195-196, Sweet & Maxwell, London.
Sapuric Z, (2010), Environment and Sustainable Development regulations and policies, p.p. 294- 296, University
American College, Skopje.
Legal acts and documents
Commission staff working document, The Republic of Macedonia Progress report, 2010, 2011, 2012,
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2012/package/mk_rapport_2012_en.pdf
Directive (2009/147), EC on the conservation of wild birds, codified version, Official journal of European Union, L
20,2010.
Directive ( 1992) on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora, Official journal of European
Union,L206,1992,L305,1997,L284,2003,L363,2006,http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONS
LEG:1992L0043:20070101:EN:PDF
Law on nature protection, Official Gazette of Macedonia, 67/2004, 14/2006, 84/2007, 35/2010, 47/2011, 148/2011,
148/2011, 59/2012 and 13/2013.
Law on environment, Official Gazette of Macedonia, 53/2005, 81/2005, 8/2009, 48/ 2010, 124/2010 and 31/2011.
EU Parliament resolution our life insurance our national capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to
2020.http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/comm2006/2020.htm
Regulation (1997), on the protection species of wild fauna and flora by regulation trade therein, Official Journal of
the European Union L 61. 3.3.1997
Treaty on the functioning of the European Union (2010), Consolidated version, Official Journal of the European
Union, C 83/ 47.
PAPER 184
ZOOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL DATA OF ORDER POLYDESMIDA OF THE DIPLOPODA

CLASS IN VLORA REGION
Hajdar Kiaj1, Mihallaq Qirjo2

1
Department of Biology, Vlora University, Vlora Albania;
2
Department of Biology, Tirana University, Tirana Albania;
Email: hajdarkicaj@yaoo.it
ABSTRACT
This article presents some zoological, sistematical and ecological data about the order Polydesmida, Diplopoda clas
of Myriapoda group, in the district of Vlora. The Polydesmida order presents one of the richest orders with the
Diplopoda class, group Myriapoda. Polydesmida order is represented from 29 families with a high number of
species that live on the surface of the ground or inside of it. The zoological sistematical and ecological data about
the Polydesmida order presented in this article are based on the gathering and zoological study of the collected
individuals. Eventhough the Polydesmida order is very common in our country, it is studies very little.Our
information is also compared with other data reported by foreign experts, like Verhoeff (1901), Atems (1929),
Manfredi (1945); Mauris et al. (1996). This study also presents their ecology; the way of living in the collecting
habitat, feeding, reproduction, movement and sensitivity etc. This order consists of earthy environment creatures as
decomposers and phytophags. Although they are very common, Polydesmida are not important for the humane
economy, because the density of the population is limited, they do not harm the crops dhe do not transmit diseases in
humans.
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Key words: polydesmida, diplopoda, zoological data, ecological data
INTRODUCTION
The diplopods data of Albania is based mostly on studies from foreign researchers: (Verhoeff E. 1901; Attems
1929); Manfredi, 1945; Mauris J.-P., Golovatch S. I. & Stoev P. 1996). These diplopods are represented by about
50 genres and 150 species, from which, more than half of them are totally identified from local and foreign
researchers (Mauries,J.P. et. al, 1997).
Polidesmida is one of the most widespread order of the diplopoda class, Myriapoda group, Arthropoda. This order
has 3000 species included in 29 family. Every family is represented by some genus with a lot of species. The reason
for this is that many species occupy a small area and not move further being extended to the territory of other
species. However, the species of this order are little studied in our country and the number of determined species is
limited. From the expedition of J.P Mauries, S.I. Golovatch & V.P. Stoev, are determined the species (Mauries
J.P & al, 1997) as follows:
Brachydesmus herzogowinensis, (Verhoeff 1897); Polydesmus herzogowinensis, (Verhoeff 1897);
Polydesmus mediterraneus oertzeni (Verhoef, 1901); Metonomastus petrelensis n.sp
The data given in this article are about Polydesmus complanatus (Verhoeff 1901) and Strongylosoma stigmatosum
balcanicum (Scubart 1937).
There have been only a few expeditions in the south region of Albania. In the studied literature there are only a few
studies that refer to this area of Albania: Verhoeff, 1901; Attems, 1929; Manfredi, 1945 (Mauries,J.P. et.al, 1997).
The definition criteria of the collecting stations are based on: geographical positions of the stations (Qiriazi,P. 1991),
soil types, based on their structure and their alimentary elements (A.SH. 1991), the height above the sea level
(Qiriazi P. 1991). The collection of material. The collected species are from various heights, from the sea level up
to 1000 m. They are found under rocks and tree barks, in fallen leaves, under musky layers, in tree hollows and the
upper layers of soil. The material is gathered by hand or by sieving the soil (Qirjo M. 1996).
Individuals are preserved in alcohol 80%, with some drops of ether in it (Engoff H. 2006). This mixture is prepared
before going to the collecting area, and helps maintaining the natural color of the collected species.
The definition of species is done by close and direct observation of their morphological features. Some of the other
features are observed by stereomicroscope. To define the species we took into consideration: the size, the shape and
the color of their body, the number of segments and the pairs of legs, the presence of the gonopodes in the seventh
segment (to determine the sex), the shape of their cover and the way tergal plates are put, etc. (Chiefi G., 1978,
Engoff H. 1978; Gjiknuri L. 1994; Hoffman R.L. 1979). In order to define the species with insufficient data about
their morphological features we compared the gonopodes according to Mauries J. (Lab. de Arthropodes, MNHN
Paris) definition keys.
RESULTS
Members of the order Polydesmida are known as "flat-backed millipedes", because each body segment has wide
lateral keels. These keels are produced by the posterior half (metazonite) of each body ring behind the collum
Polydesmids are very common in leaf litter, where they burrow by levering with the anterior end of the body.
The species of this order can reach the length from 2 4 cm. Polydesmids have 18-21 body segments. Most of the
females put the eggs 1-2 cm below the soil surface, the number of which can reache up to 200.
Polydesmida millipedes do not see. They live in the soil surface covered with leaves, and feeds with materilas in
decomposition. To be protected they round up as a compressed ball and release a substance with unpleasant smell.
Polidesmids generally are predators.
Within this study were collected 45 individuals belonging Polydesmida order according to the following taxonomic
units.
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Figure 1: Polydesmid
Family Polydesmidae (Heller 1858)
This species, wich belongs to this family has a body length from 16 25 mm and the width from 2 5 mm (?). From
gathered individual of this family are determined the follow species according to the taxonomic units (Hoffman,
R.L, 1979):
Genus: Polydesmus (Latrielle, 1802)
1. Polydesmus complanatus (Verhoeff 1901 )
Class: Diplopoda
Order: Polydesmida
Family: Polydesmidae (Heller 1858)
Genus: Polydesmus (Latrielle,1802)
Species: Polydesmus complanatus (Verhoeff 1901 )
This species is found in one sampling point (Karabarun) and three specimens were studied. This species was not
previously referred in the study area.
It is common in Europe?. It is found mainly in the valleys. Rust colored body, to 2.5 cm in length and width up to 5
mm. Characteristic is the shape of the body segments, with the exception of cervical or first segment, are jagged
edge. With ordinary eye that are easily distinguished their carved in the dorsal part of the body, surrounded by the
raised parts. Anal segment is tight. They have 30-31 pairs of legs, wich compared with body length, are very long.
Family Paradoxosomatidae
Family Paradoxosomatidae contains 178 genera and 878 species. It is probably the most homogeneous and well-
worked group within the Polydesmida", and is characterised by a gonopod aperture in the shape of a dumb-bell.
Genus Strongylosoma (Brandt,1833)
Strongylosoma is a genus, wich is well- destinguished from the others Polidesmids. Its body is diveded into 20
smooth segments. The species of this genus are very similar to Julids and others Polidesmids. Strongylosoma, in
Balcan, is found mostly in the wetland forest habitats with leafs in decompositation (Chiefi, G. 1978).
2. Strongylosoma stigmatosum balcanicum (Scubart 1937)

This species is found in two zones, sampling points (Trba, Tragjas). Number of specimens studied: 42. This
species was not previously referred in the study area.
Class: Diplopoda
Order: Polydesmida
Family: Paradoxosomatidae
Genus: Strongylosoma (Brandt,1833)
Strongylosoma stigmatosum (Eichwald, 1830)
Strongylosoma stigmatosum balcanicus Schubart, 1934
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This species it is not previously referred in Albania . It has oneshaped bodies, with a length of 16-20 mm and width
2-2,5mm, rust colored dorsal series with two yellow fluid that go up near the last segment.
Figure 2: Territory maps of Polydesmus complanatus dhe Strongylosoma stigmatosum balcanicus
The spreading of species in Balkan peninsula

Based on data from Albania, and other countries in Balkan peninsula (Stoev V.P. et al, 1996; Mauries. J.P et.al
1997; Enghoff. E, 2006), we compared the zoogeographical spreading in Albania, with the spreading in other
countries.
Table 1: Comparison of the species of diplopoda class met in our study area with those of Balcan area
No Species AL MAC SMN CRO B&H BUL GR

1 Polydesmus complanatus (Verhoeff 1901) + - - - + - -
2 S. stigmatosum balcanicum (Schubart, + - - - - + +
1937)
CONCLUSIONS
The first records for millipedes in Albania are the studies of Verhoeff (1901), Atems (1929); Qirjo, (1996),
Mauris, Golovatch, Stoev, (1996); Kiaj & Qirjo, 2004, 2008, 2009. In this study, for the first time are referred
two species of Order Polidesmida: Polydesmus complanatus (Verhoeff 1901); Strongylosoma stigmatosum
balcanicum (Schubart, 1937). References for Balkan peninsula show that the species above do not have a wide
regional distribution, but they have a wide distribution in the Europe. According to the zoogeographical maps of the
families of the Polidesmida order, they should have wide range distribution in our contry. Farther studies are needed
to be done, in order to make the full inventory of the Albanian millipede fauna.
REFERENCES
ASH, Gjeografia Fizike e Shqipris. Qendra e Studimeve Gjeografike, Akedemia e Shkencave, Tiran, 1991.
Chiefi, G. Conoscere la vita, 1978, 189-193.
Engoff, H. The ground-plan of chilognathan millipedes (external morphology), 1990. Pages 1-24 in Proceedings of
the 7th International Congress of Myriapodology. A.Minelli, ed E.J.Brill, Leiden.
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Engoff, H. The millipedes of Turkey (Diplopoda). Steenstrupia 29 (2): 175-198 Copenhagen, Denmark, November
2006. (ISSN ) 375-29-09.
Hoffman, R.L. Classification of the Diplopoda - Mus. Genve, 238 pp, 1979.
Hoffman, R.L. 1982. Diplopoda. In Parker, S.P., Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisms, vol. 2. McGraw-
Hill, New York: 689-724.
Gjiknuri, L. Zoologjia e parruazorve, 347- 356, 1994.
Jeekel, C.A.W 1971. Nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum, a list of the genus and family group -
names in the klass Diplopoda from edition the 10 th Linnaeus, 1758 to the and of 1957. Monog. Ned. Entomology.
Ver. 5: 405-412
Mauries,J.P., Golovatch, S.I & Stoev, V.P. The millipedes of Albania: recent data, new taxa; systematical,
nomenclatural and faunistical review (Myriapoda, Diplopoda). Zoosystema 19 (2-3) : 270-272; 287-28;. 1997..
Voigtlnder, Karin. 2001. Die Diplopoden- und Chilopodenfauna einer Grubenrutschung im Tagebaugebiet
Berzdorf/Oberlausitz (Diplopoda, Chilopoda). Entomologische Nachrichten und Berichte, 45 (3-4): 199-204: 199-
204
Qiriazi,P., Gjeografia Fizike e Shqipris 137-147, 1991.
Qirjo, M. Ndikimi i disa faktorve biologjik abiotik mbi faunn e toks n dy sera t rrethit t Tirans. Punim
doktorature, UT, Fakulteti i Shkencave t Natyrs, 1996.
Stoev, E.P., Ribarov,K. G. Contribution to the study of cave Myriapoda from Bulgaria. 89-96, 1996.
PAPER 185
THE EFFECT OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION TO THE BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL SOIL
PROPERTIES IN MINING REGION OF MIDDLE SPI (SLOVAKIA).
Lenka Angeloviov1, Danica Fazekaov2

1
University of Preov, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, Department of Ecology, 081 16 Preov, Ul. 17.
Novembra . 1, Slovakia
2
University of Preov, Faculty of Management, Department of Environmental Management, 081 16 Preov, Ul. 17.
Novembra . 1, Slovakia
Email: lenka.angelovicova@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Despite the importance of mineral resources for the progress of humans, extraction of minerals has caused serious
environmental problems. Contamination of soils by heavy metals in mining areas leads to the deterioration of soil
quality and other environmental components. Removing of heavy metals from the soils is not easy, because they are
non-biodegradable, and persistent in soils for tens or hundreds years. The aim of the study was to determine level of
soil pollution by heavy metals in the surrounding of processing plant and find out the effect of heavy metals on
enzyme activity and some chemical soil parameters. Total content of heavy metals (Cu, As, Cd, Pb, Zn), activity of
soil urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, catalase, soil reaction, organic carbon and nutrients were
determined. Heavy metals exhibit toxic effect on enzyme activities, what resulted as increasing soil enzyme activity
with the decreasing heavy metal content. Significant positive correlation was found between heavy metals and some
enzymes themselves. We found no statistically confirmed influence of heavy metals to the organic carbon, soil
reaction and nutrients.
Keywords: heavy metals, enzyme activity, mining area, soil properties, pollution
INTRODUCTION
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Heavy metal contamination in environment comes from industry and agricultural practices, but in Slovakia, large
areas are polluted by heavy metals as a result of long-term mining and smelting activities (Blintov et al., 2012).
Heavy metals enter the soils accompanied with dust, which can endanger the health of human beings and seriously
disrupted environment (Liu et al., 2005). In numerous studies, enzymatic activity is widely used as relatively stable
and sensitive biochemical indicator of soil pollution (Glser and Erdoan 2008). Reaction of enzymes to the soil
pollution is faster in comparison with monitoring of the chemical and physical properties (Nannipieri et al., 2002).
In addition, enzyme activities have the further advantage to being easy to determine without expensive instruments
(Dick, 1997). Among the different enzymes in soil environment, urease and phosphatases are important in the
transformation of different plant nutrients. Urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia or ammonium
depending on soil pH and carbon dioxide (Gao et al., 2010). Phosphatases play an important role in transforming
organic phosphorus into organic forms suitable for plants. Cathalase is oxidoreductase which protect organism from
the toxicity of hydrogen peroxide. The contamination of soils by heavy metals is significant problem, which leads to
negative influence of soil characteristics and limitation of productive and environmental functions. Numerous
authors have noted that polluted soils are no longer appropriate for agricultural production, because they have fewer
nutrients and reduced microbial diversity, which led to inhibition of plant growth. The objective of this study was to
determine the effect of heavy metal pollution to the chemical and biological soil properties. For this purpose
Krompachy city [4855'24,1''N 2053'59,2''E] and Slovinky village [4855'48,9''N 2053'51,0''E] as a part of
Middle Spi area, which are characterized by long-time mining and smelting activities predominantly focused on
copper, were selected.
A total set of 15 soil samples (0,150,20 m) were collected from 5 fields (three samples on each field), in distance
0,3; 1; 1,5; 2,5 and 5 km from the source of pollution. Soil samples were taken in summer period in 2011. Sampling
fields are listed in Figure 1. Samples were dried at room temperature, sieved from a sieve with 2 mm size opening
and finally stored in plastic bags until analyzes. Total content of heavy metals were determined in accredited
laboratory by AAS (atomic absorption spectrometry) and XFS (X-Ray florescence spectrometry) method. The soil
reaction was determined in 0.01 M CaCl2 solution using inoLab pH 720WTW. Nutrient content (P, K, Mg) and
organic carbon (Cox) were measured in accredited laboratory. Urease activity (URE) and catalase activity (CAT) was
measured by the method described by Chazijev (1976). Acid (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was measured
by the method described by Chazijev, modified method by Grejtovsky (1991). Statistica 10 software was used for all
data analysis. The level of significance between soil properties was calculated using Spearman's correlation
coefficient.
RESULTS
In our study, soil properties varied with respect to the distance of sampling field from processing plant. Measured
values of total content of heavy metals from five sampling fields are listed in Table 1. The most significantly was
exceeded the limit value in the case of copper, which exceeds permissible limit value 1.5 (field 5) to 21 times (field
4). Total content of arsenic and cadmium was highest on the field 1, which was dump of waste material from
industrial plant, mixed with slag from the mine. It has been reported that this dumps of waste material contains
sludge from the production of copper and zinc (Michaeli et al, 2010). The solid waste also contains residue of lead,
arsenic and cadmium (Klinda et al., 2005) which was confirmed by our results. Extremely high and above the limit
value of copper, lead and zinc was measured at field 4. Because this field is localized to the west of the source of
contamination, it may be a consequence of the prevailing westerly winds that are typical for this area. The lowest
values of each metal were measured at field 5, which was on the biggest distance from the source of pollution and
south westerly direction, so outside of prevailing winds bringing emissions from industrial plant. Values
(medianstandard deviation) of total content of copper (718451,3) and arsenic (16853,83) were at all sampling
fields above the permissible limit value. The same situation but except of field 5, was measured for cadmium
(2,91,7), lead (218136,9) and zinc (857423,1). Hronec et al. (2008) recorded in the Krompachy city above the
permissible limit values of cadmium, copper, zinc and arsenic. With exception of relationship between total content
of Zn and Pb, other heavy metals showed significant positive correlations (P<0.05) among them. All significant
correlations between heavy metals could be explained by the same source of these pollutants.
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Tab. 1. Values of total content of heavy metals, limit values of heavy metals and chemical soil properties
Cu As Cd Pb Zn Cox P K Mg
[mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] pH [%] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg]
min 89 39 0,5 25 126 4,6 1,64 15 45 101
max 1271 181 5,7 380 1333 7,5 5,49 179 374 280
average 744.6 134.8 3.1 228.6 759.6 5,52 3,2 80,4 157,2 196,8
standard deviation 504.6 60.18 1.9 153.16 473.01 1,12 1,31 56,76 124,65 79,16
limit value 60 25 0.7 70 150 - - - - -
Chemical soil properties measured on sampling fields are listed in Table 1. Soil reaction ranged from alkaline (field
1) to strongly acid (locality 4). Level of organic carbon ranged from middle values to very high, but we found no
direct relationship between distances of sampling fields and the organic carbon value. The lowest value of
phosphorus and potassium was measured at the most polluted locality, which wasnt confirmed in the case of
magnesium.
Fig. 1. Sampling fields in Krompachy city and Slovinky village.
Monitoring methods characterizing microbiological and biochemical soil properties are successfully used to evaluate
the intensity of the soil contamination. They are more sensitive to soil contamination and their reaction to the
pollution is faster than the chemical or physical soil properties. Measured values of enzyme activities are listed in
Table 1. Activity of urease (0,20,108) on the study fields vary depending to the distance of the source of pollution.
The value of urease increased on the least polluted field by 180% compared to the most polluted. Activity of acid
(18359,14) and alkaline phosphatase (122,3367) changed depending to the contamination by heavy metals. The
lowest value of acid and alkaline phosphatase was measured at field 5, but increased at filed 1 of 178% in the case of
acid and of 89% in the case of alkaline phosphatase. Catalase activity (0,410,06) did not change so significantly
than other enzymes. Some experiments demonstrated that some contaminants have an ability to increase soil
catalase activity in appropriate dosage (Wang et al., 2010). The heavy metal content, which exceeded the permitted
limits, is reflected in decreased activity of soil enzymes. In soil ecosystem, heavy metals exhibit toxicological effects
on soil microbes which may lead to the decrease of their numbers and activities (Renella et al., 2005). Although
heavy metals have comprehensive influence to the enzymatic activity, various enzymes activities showed different
responses on the same metal pollutant (Table 2). Urease had significant negative correlation with total arsenic
content (P<0.05). Changes in activity of urease observed in our study coincide with those reported in earlier studies
on the effect of heavy metals on biological soil properties (Zhang et al., 2010). We also reported negative significant
correlation between acid phosphatase and total content of arsenic and cadmium (P<0.05). Khan et al. (2010) has
reported high inhibition of cadmium to the acid phospahatase. Alkaline phosphatase had negative significant
correlation (P<0.05) with all studied heavy metals (except cadmium). Glser and Erdoan (2008) determined
influence of heavy metals to the alkaline phosphatase, and their findings were as follows: alkaline phosphatase gave
significant negative correlation with all heavy metals except cadmium which is the same in our study. We found no
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significant but negative correlation between total heavy metal content and catalase activity. Activity of catalase is
probably more tolerant to high level of metal contamination. Correlation coefficient between enzyme activities
indicated, that urease had significant positive correlation (P<0.05) with acid phosphatase, what agrees with the
findings of Khan et al. (2010). There was also reported significant positive correlation between acid and alkaline
phosphatase.
Tab. 2. Correlations among soil enzyme activities and total heavy metal content
Cu As Cd Pb Zn
URE ns -0.939* ns ns ns
ACP ns -0.922* -0.932* ns ns
ALP -0.924* -0.941* ns -0.924*-0.912*
CAT ns ns ns ns ns
pH ns ns ns ns ns
Cox ns ns ns ns ns
P ns ns ns ns ns
K ns ns ns ns ns
Mg ns ns ns ns ns
Cu 0,8953* 0,9142* 0,9988**
0,9705**
As 0,8906* 0,9032*0,9018*
Cd 0,9322* ns
Pb 0,9615**
** Correlation in significant at the 0.01 level
*Correlation in significant at the 0.05 level
ns not significant
URE: urease, ACP: acid phosphatase, ALP: alkaline phosphatase, CAT: catalase, Cox: organic carbon
With increasing distance of the sampling field from the source of pollution, soil reaction changed from alkaline
(field 1) to strongly acidic (field 5). Although they were no significant statistically, soil pH gave positive
correlations with all heavy metals and negative correlation with enzyme activities, organic carbon and nutrients.
Taylor et al. (2002) approvingly reported negative correlations between soil pH and enzyme activities.
Tab. 3. Correlations between soil characteristics
ACP ALP CAT pH Cox P K Mg

URE 0.943* ns ns ns ns ns 0.881* ns
ACP 0.945* ns ns ns ns ns ns
ALP ns ns ns ns ns ns
CAT ns ns ns ns ns
ph ns ns ns ns
Cox ns ns ns
P ns -0.884*
K ns
** Correlation in significant at the 0.01 level
*Correlation in significant at the 0.05 level
URE: urease, ACP: acid phosphatase, ALP: alkaline phosphatase, CAT: catalase
According to the agrochemical standards for medium-heavy soils on permanent grasslands in Slovakia, optimal
values for nutrients were determined as follows: phosphorus (66-100 mg. kg-1), potassium (151-210 mg. kg-1) and
magnesium (131-175 mg. kg-1). At sampling fields, measured values of magnesium achieved high or conveyable
value, the values of potassium and phosphorus ranged below normal. Negative correlation was observed between
magnesium and other nutrients but significant was only in the case of phosphorus (P<0.05). We also reported
significant positive correlation between potassium and urease activity. No significant correlation was reported for
heavy metals and nutrients. A large number of published papers deal to the relationship between soil enzymatic
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activity and soil parameters, such as organic carbon. Badiane et al. (2001) found no relationship between enzyme
activity and organic carbon, what coincide with our findings. No significant statistically, but positive correlation was
reported between organic carbon and total contents of all studied heavy metals, which was similar to the findings of
Liu et al. (2005).
Acknowledgement. The research was supported by KEGA 012 PU-4/2012 and VEGA . 1/0627/12
CONCLUSION
Mining activities in Middle Spi area affected heavy metal content in the soils and influencing soil properties. At all
sampling fields permissible limit values for copper and arsenic were exceeded, but distance from the source of
pollution wasnt crucial variable for heavy metal content. It has been reported that heavy metals exhibit toxic effects
on the enzyme activities, therefore enzymes can be used as possible indicators of soil pollution. There were reported
correlations between some heavy metals and enzymes, bud only arsenic gave significant negative correlation with
all enzymes (except catalase). Acid phosphatase gave significant positive correlation with urease and alkaline
phosphatase. Nutrients were not significantly affected by measured soil characteristics. We found, that magnesium
was changing conversely than phosphorus and potassium. No direct relationship was found between organic carbon
and enzymes, but positive relationship was reported for organic carbon and metals. There was no significant
difference between chemical soil properties with respect to sampling positions statistically.
REFERENCES
Blintov M, uptkov A, (2012) Treatment of acid mine waters. Technick univerzita v Koiciach, Stavebn
fakulta, stav geotechniky SAV, Koice.
Badiane, N. N. Y. Chotte, J.L. Pate, E. Masse, D. Rouland, C. 2001. Use of soil enzyme activities to monitor
soil quality in natural and improved fallows in semi-arid tropical regions. In Applied soil ecology, 2001, 18, pp. 229-
238.
Dick RP, (1997) Soil enzyme activities as integrative indicators of soil health.In: Biological indicators of soil health
(Ed. By Pankhurst CE, Doube BM, Grupta VVSR), pp 121-156. CAB, Wallingford.
Gao Y, Zhou P, Mao L., Zhi Y, Shi W, (2010) Assesement of effect of heavy metals combined pollution on soil
enzyme activities and microbial community structure modified ecological dose-response model and PCR-RAPD
60,603-612.
Grejtovsk A (1991Effect of soil fertility measures to the enzymatic activity of heavy metal polluted soils.
Rostlinn Vroba 37,289-295.
Glser F, Erdoan E, (2008) The effect of heavy metal pollution on enzyme activities and basal soil respiration of
roadside soils. Environ Monit Assess 145,127-133.
Hronec O, Vilek J, Tth T, Andrejovsk P, Adamiin P, Andrejovsk A, Daov M, Huttmanov E, Vilimov M,
kultty P, Juhsov M, (2008) Heavy metals in soils and plants of contaminated area Rudany Gelnica. Acta
regionalia et environmentalica 1,24-28.
Chazijev FCH, 1976. Fermentativnaja aktivnos pov. Nauka, Moskva.
Khan S, Hesham EL, Qiao M, Rehman S, He J.Z, (2010) Effects of Cd and Pb on soil microbial community
structure and activities. Environ Sci Pollut Res 17,288-296.
Klinda J, Lieskovsk Z, (2005) Report on the state of the Environment of the Slovak Republic in 2004. Ministry of
environment, Bratislava.
Liu HY, Probst A, Liao BH (2005) Metal contamination of soils and crops affected by the Chenzhou lead/zinc mine
spill (Hunan, China). Science of the Total Environment 339,153166.
Michaeli E. Boltiiar M, (2010) Selected localities of environmental loads in loaded areas in Slovakia. Geografical
studies 1,18-47.
Nannipieri P, Kandeler E, Rugguero P, (2002) Enzyme activities and microbiological and biochemical process in
soil.In: Enyzmes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications (Ed. By Burns RG, Dick RP), pp 1-33.
Marcel Dekker, New York.
Renella G, Mench M, Ladni L, Nannipieri P, (2005) Microbial diversity and hydrolase synthesis in long-term Cd-
contaminated soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19,203-205.
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Wang XL, Chen XJ, Zhao YL, Qi SH, (2010) Heavy metal enrichment of plants at lead-zinc mines in south China.
Ecology and Environmental Sciences 19,108-112.
Zhang X, Yang L, Li Y, Li H, Wang W, Ye B, (2010) Impact of lead/zinc mining and smelting on the environment
and human health in China. Environ Monit Assess 4,2261-73.
PAPER 186
VERTICAL PROFILES OF SOIL PROPERTIES AND MICROBIAL ACTIVITIES IN THE PEATBOG

SOIL IN SLOVAKIA
Lenka Bobusk1, Danica Fazekaov2

1
University of Preov, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, Department of Ecology, Preov - Slovakia
2
University of Preov, Faculty of Management, Department of Environmental Management, Preov - Slovakia
Email: bobulska.lenka@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Peatlands are one of few long-term terrestrial carbon sinks, preferably important for global carbon regulation in
future generation. Play important roles in maintaining water and soil quality, and supporting wildlife. Current
methods of peatbogs assessment rely on the use of ecological indicators, but often lack an in-depth analysis of soil
parameters. The objective of this study was to examine vertical profiles of some soil properties (soil reaction,
organic carbon content, soil moisture) and various types of microbial activity (soil basal respiration, microbial
biomass carbon, activity of soil urease, phosphatases and catalase). Soil samples were collected from three sites
(centre of peatbog, edge of peatbog and site closely surrounding peatbog) on the peat soil at three depth intervals (0
0.10 m, 0.10 0.20 m and 0.20 0.30 m) in northeast of Slovakia. Enzyme and microbial activities decreased with
the depth, but the significant correlation was found with alkaline phosphatase. Average values of most soil
biochemical indices were highest at the centre of peatbog with the exception of urease and catalase activity. Our
results indicated that enzymatic and biological potential for organic matter mineralization was strongly correlated to
soil pH, soil moisture and organic matter content.
Keywords: Peatbogs, chemical properties, biological properties, soil depth.
INTRODUCTION
Peatlands are one of few long-term terrestrial carbon sinks important for global carbon regulation in future
generations. Interest in the function of peat soils in global carbon turnover has increased due to the threat of global
climatic change and studies of sinks and sources for CO2 and other trace gases relevant for climatic effects (Brake et
al., 1999; Golovchenko et al., 2007). Agricultural use of peat soils employs extensive drainage and leads to
subsidence of such land and is the primary cause of degradation and loos of peat resources. Flora, the activity of
microorganisms and thermal conditions affect conditions in peat soils. Microorganisms together with flora specify
the direction and nature of biochemical processes. Soil enzymes are associated with microorganisms and activity of
soil enzymes in soil plays an important role in catalysing reactions indispensable in life processes of soil
microorganisms, decomposition of organic residues, circulation of nutrients as well as forming organic matter and
soil structure (Sinsabaugh et al., 1994). The stability of the carbon stock contained in peatlands has recently been
questioned and several studies suggest that loss of carbon from soil ecosystems contribute significantly to CO 2
emissions. Field experiments show that CO2 loss and soil microbial activity in peat soils is seasonal and strongly
depends on environmental factors such as temperature, soil water content, peat type (i.e. organic carbon availability)
and depth of soil horizon (Bellamy et al., 2005; Kechavarzi et al., 2010). Because soil is the main site for
transformation and storage of nutrients that are regulated mainly by microbes, it is relevant to clarify nutrients
dynamics in wetland and peat soils for understanding the impacts of changes in nutrient input. In general, these soils
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are thick, and therefore it is important to understand nutrient dynamics and their relationships with microbial activity
both in shallower and deeper layers (Senga et al., 2011).
This work considers differences in soil properties due to vertical profile and different sampling sites. Our study,
therefore, had two goals: (1) to assess the relationships between soil microbial indices and some physical and
chemical properties and (2) to investigate soil microbial activity from the surface to deeper layers by examining
vertical profiles of peat soil in the investigated area.
The study was carried out on the peatland in the region of north-eastern Slovakia in Liptovsk Teplika (48o 57.83'
N; 20o 06.24' E). The area of Liptovsk Teplika is situated in the Low Tatras National Park at an altitude ranging
from 846 to 1492 m a.s.l. Climatically, the area is situated in the mild cold zone with sum of average daily
temperatures above 10 C ranging from 1600 to 2000 and average precipitation of 700-1200 mm.
Samples for determination of chosen soil properties were sampled in spring time on two sites from peat soil (centre
of peatbog and edge of peatbog) and one site that closely surrounding our observed peatbog from different depth (0-
0.10 m, 0.10-0.20 m and 0.20-0.30 m). Soil samples were air dried, sieved (sieve with 2 mm size opening),
homogenized prior for analyzing for measuring soil properties and soil enzyme activity. Soil pH was determined by
the potenciometric method in 0.01M CaCl2 solution. Organic carbon content was determined by the Tiurin's method
(Fiala et al. 1999) and soil moisture was determined by drying samples of soil in the oven at 105 C until constant
weight. Activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase was determined by Grejtovsk (1991) and urease activity by
Khaziev (1976). Basal respiration, soil microbial biomass carbon and activity of soil catalase were performed on
freshly collected soil samples sieved through 2 mm mesh size. Soil basal respiration was determined by CO 2
absorption into NaOH. Respiration rate was then measured at 25 C for a period of 24 hours (Isermeyer 1962, in
Alef and Nanniperi 1995). Soil microbial biomass carbon was determined according to Islam and Weil (1998) and
activity of soil catalase was determined by Khaziev method (1976).
Obtained data were tested by mathematical-statistical methods from which regression analysis was used (the
Statgraphic software package).
RESULTS
Generally, the pH of peat soils is very low and could vary between 2.7 up to 7.0 (Brake et al., 2010; Grodnitskaya et
al., 2013), but our study found a slight tendency to be higher at our sites and varied between 6.5 and 7.0 on peat soil
and 7.2 on the surroundings site (Table 1.). Lower soil reaction was found in the centre of peatbog in deeper
profiles. Content of organic carbon ranged from 3.16 to 29.41 % and the highest amount of this parameter was
measured in the centre of peatbog, where its value increased with the depth (Table 1.). Similar trend was observed
with soil moisture content and these two parameters had a significant effect on many other soil biological
parameters. Activity of enzymes at two peat sites and the site that surrounding peat soil was higher in the shallower
layers. Enzymes are produced not only by microorganisms but also by higher-order plants and high enzyme activity
in surface layers may be originate from roots of such higher plants. Much lower enzymatic activity in the deeper
layers also was found by several authors (Brake et al., 1999; Senga et al., 2011). The relationship between soil
microbial enzyme activities and humic substances has not yet been fully elucidated. Soil enzyme activity levels are
sensors of microbial status and soil physicochemical conditions and can be useful in predicting the impact that
nutrient loading on ecosystems, such as peatbogs, wetlands or aquatic ecosystems (Prenger and Reddy, 2004;
Sardans et al., 2008). Activity of phosphatases were highest on the site that was located in the centre of peatbog, but
surprisingly, the activity of urease and catalase showed highest values on the site which surrounding the peatland
(Table 1.). Literature data point out that among soil physical and chemical properties the strongest connections with
enzymatic activity are indicated by organic carbon and nitrogen contents (Dick et al., 1996). Bieliska et al. (2004)
and Bloska (2010) showed high microbial activity in bog soils, which was also proven in out study. This was
associated by the authors with the content of organic carbon, total nitrogen and phosphate. Soil respiration is
considered to be a well-established parameter for monitoring decomposition in the soil, but it is highly variable and
can fluctuate widely depending on substrate availability, organic matter, moisture content and temperature (Truu et
al., 2009), which was according to our study. The basal respiration rate obtained for the different site on our peat soil
is showed in Table 1. This parameter shows the highest values on the site which is localized in the centre of peatbog,
where carbon mineralization is very fast and decrease with the depth increasing. The similar trend was observed
after determination of soil microbial biomass carbon and these findings were alike to those of Kechavarzi et al.
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(2010). Because of the moisture and high organic carbon content of peatbogs, these soils provide a unique and
varied environment for the microorganisms and soil microbial activity is despite of this reality very high. The high
organic matter content of these soils results from the accumulation of partially decayed plant and animal remains
under waterlogged conditions (Robert and Tate, 1980).
Table 1. Characteristics of peat soil in studied sites
Site Depth pH Mois Cox Ure ACP ALP Cat Cres Cmic
Centre of 0-0.10 m 6.9 35.3 20.28 0.25 465.26 348.56 1.34 255.59 720.82
peatbog 0.10-0.20 m 6.5 44.5 25.55 0.21 452.06 320.68 1.12 213.18 853.62
0.20-0.30 m 6.6 49.7 29.41 0.12 384.99 302.56 0.55 206.99 834.66
Edge of 0-0.10 m 6.8 21.4 11.19 0.29 288.48 343.71 1.36 192.72 531.22
peatbog 0.10-0.20 m 7.0 15.9 12.78 0.17 436.22 431.93 1.40 178.33 417.32
0.20-0.30 m 6.9 16.1 11.56 0.09 256.53 210.97 0.49 148.92 397.82
Site 0.10-0.20 m 7.2 12.7 3.22 0.49 325.41 341.10 2.41 136.13 341.44
surrounding
0.20-0.30 m 7.2 11.2 3.16 0.37 321.98 337.30 1.51 139.87 341.44
peatbog
Moisture (Mois) [%], Organic carbon content (Cox) [%], Urease activity (Ure) [mg NH4+ - N.g-1.1 d-1], Acid
phosphatase activity (ACP) [mg P.g-1.3hours-1], Alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP) [mg P.g-1.3hours-1], Catalase
activity (Cat) [ml O2.g.min-1], Basal respiration (Cres) [g CO2 g.h-1], Microbial biomass carbon (Cmic) [C mg.C.g-1]
A correlation analysis identified significant relationships between several soil parameters (Table 2). Soil moisture
was positively correlated with soil organic matter, microbial biomass and soil respiration. In contrast, soil moisture
was negatively correlated with soil pH and catalase activity and study of Rokosch et al. (2009) showed negative
correlation with other enzymatic activities. It is not surprising that soil moisture is correlated with many of the soil
parameters we measured because of influence on the accumulation and cycling of soil organic matter. Anaerobic
conditions occur under saturated conditions, and by limiting microbial decomposition, enhance organic matter and
organic accumulation. Tate and Terry (1980) studied soil microbial activity in histosols and found correlation
between enzymatic activity and soil moisture, and conclude that moisture could be a limiting factor for microbial
activity. Soil biological indices were positively correlated with soil organic carbon, while they were only negatively
correlated with soil reaction measured in this study. There was a positive correlation between urease and catalase
activity, but on the other hand, depth of soil profile negatively correlated only with one soil enzyme (alkaline
phosphatase). In terrestrial ecosystem, some biological soil parameters have proven to be reliable indicators of soil
quality and can provide an early indication of changes in soil properties due to land management. In these systems,
soil microbial biomass, carbon mineralisation and enzyme activity often decrease as the result of anthropogenic
disturbances (Gil-Sotres et al., 2005). These biological indices are generally positively correlated with soil organic
matter that was observed in our study.
Table 2. Correlation among physico-chemical soil properties and soil biological indices
Parameter Depth pH Mois Cox Ure ALP Cat Cres Cmic

Depth - ns ns ns ns -0.743* ns ns ns
pH ns - -0.927** -0.783* ns ns 0.747* -0.771* -0.921**
Mois ns -0.927** - 0.904** ns ns -0.738* 0.857** 0.946**
Cox ns -0.783* 0.904** - ns ns ns 0.809* 0.898**
Ure ns ns ns ns - ns 0.857** ns ns
ALP -0.74* ns ns ns ns - ns ns ns
Cat ns 0.747* -0.738* ns 0.857** ns - ns ns
Cres ns -0.771* 0.857** 0.809* ns ns ns - 0.922**
Cmic ns -0.921** 0.946** 0.898** ns ns ns 0.922** -
++P 0.01 +P 0.05
Moisture (Mois) [%], Organic carbon content (Cox) [%], Urease activity (Ure) [mg NH4+ - N.g-1.1 d-1], Acid
phosphatase activity (ACP) [mg P.g-1.3hours-1], Alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP) [mg P.g-1.3hours-1], Catalase
activity (Cat) [ml O2.g.min-1], Basal respiration (Cres) [g CO2 g.h-1], Microbial biomass carbon (Cmic) [C mg.C.g-1]
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Peat soil is understood to be the upper most active layer of peatbog, in which the roots of recent plants are found and
which is above the long-term average annual level of the groundwater. However, it is difficult to apply the data
widely because the organic mater of peat soils in climatic regions varies in composition due to variations in the
initial substrate and in the conditions for microbial decomposition (Brake et al., 1999).
CONCLUSION
There was a clear depth effect on soil properties, but statistically significant effect was found on alkaline
phosphatase. Peat soil is understood to be the upper most active layer of peatbog, in which the roots of recent plants
are found. The biggest differences in soil properties were observed between sites of peat soils and the site that
surrounded studied peatland. The main limiting factors of soil microbial activity are the soil reaction, soil moisture
and organic carbon content. The microbial biomass and also different enzymatic and process activities are well
proven as indicators of soil status and widely used in soil microbial ecology studies as easy to measure and
informative parameters. Peat soils are considered to be a unique environment for soil microbes because of the
moisture and high content of soil organic matter.
Acknowledgement. The work was supported by VEGA 1/0627/12
REFERENCES
Alef, K., Nannipieri, P. (1995) Methods in Applied Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry, Academic Press, London.
Bellamy, P. H., Loveland, P. J., Bradley, R. I., Lark, M., Kirk, G. J. D. (2005) Carbon losses from all soils across
England and Wales 1978-2003, Nature 437, 245-248.
Bieliska, E., Smal, H., Misztal, M., Ligza, S. (2003) Enzymatic activity in coeastal soils of Liaseczno, ukie and
Moszne lakes, Acta Agrophysica 1(3), 69-375.
Bloska, E. (2010) Enzyme activity in forest peat soils, Folia Forestalia Polonica 52(1), 20-25.
Brake, M., Hper, H., Joergensen, R. G. (1999) Land use-induced changes in activity and biomass of
microorganisms in raised bog peats at different depths, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 31, 1489-1497.
Dick, R. P., Breakwell, D. P., Turco, R. F. (1996) Soil enzyme activities and biodiversity measurements as
integrative microbiological indicators, Methods for Assessing Soil Quality, Soil Science Society of America Journal
WI, 9-17.
Fiala, K. et al (1999) Partial monitoring system soil (in slovak), Binding methods VPOP, Bratislava.
Gil-Sotres, F., Trasar-Cepeda, M., Leiros, C., Seoane, S. (2005) Different approaches to evaluating soil quality using
biochemical properties, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37, 877-887.
Golovchenko, A. V., Tikhonova, E. Yu., Zvyagintsev, D. G. (2007) Abundance, biomass, structure, and activity of
the microbial complexes of minerotrophic and ombrotrophic peatlands, Microbiology 76(5), 630-637.
Grejtovsk, A. (1991) Influence of soil improvers on enzymatic activity of heavy alluvial soil (in slovak), Plant Soil
and Environment 37, 289295.
Grodnitskaya, I. D., Karpenko, L. V., Knorre, A. A., Syrtsov, S. N. (2013) Microbial activity of peat soils of boggy
larch forest and bogs in the permafrost zone of central Evenkia, Eurasian Soil Science 46(1), 61-73.
Islam, K. R., Weil, R. R. (1998) Microwave irradiation of soil for routine measurement of microbial biomass carbon,
Biology and Fertility of Soils 27, 408-416.
Kechavarzi, C., Dawson, Q., Bartlett, M., Leeds-Harrison, P. B. (2010) The role of soil moisture, temperature and
nutrient amendments on CO2 efflux from agricultural peat soil microcosms, Geoderma 154, 203-210.
Khaziev, F. Kh. (1976) Soil enzyme activity (in russian), Nauka, Moskva.
Prenger, J. P., Reddy, K. R. (2004) Microbial enzyme activities in a freshwater marsh after cessation of nutrient
loading, Soil Science Society of America Journal 68, 1796-1804.
Robert, L., Tate I. I. I. (1980) Microbial oxidation of organic matter of Histosols, Advances in Microbial Ecology 4,
169-201.
Rokosch, A. E., Bouchard, V., Fennessy, S., Dick, R. (2009) The use of soil parameters as indicators of quality in
forested depressional wetlands, Wetlands 29(2), 666-677.
Sardans, J., Peuelas, J., Estiarte, M. (2008) Changes in soil enzymes related to C and N cycle and in soil C and N
content under prolonged warming and drought in a Mediterranean shrubland, Applied Soil Ecology 39, 223-235.
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Senga, Y., Hiroki, M., Nakamura, Y., Watarai, Y., Watanabe, Y., Nohara, S. (2011) Vertical profiles of DIN, DOC,
and microbial activities in the wetland soil of Kushiro Mire, northeastern Japan, Limnology 12, 17-23.
Sinsabaugh, R. L., Moorhead, D. L., Linkins, A. E. (1994) The enzymatic basis of plant litter
decomposition:emergence of an ecological processes, Applied Soil Ecology 1, 97-111.
Tate, R. L., Terry, R. E. (1980) Variation in microbial activity in histosols and its relationship to soil moisture,
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40, 313-317.
Truu, M., Juhanson, J., Truu, J. (2009) Microbial biomass, activity and community composition in constructed
wetlands, Science of the Total Environment 407, 3958-3971.
PAPER 187
STUDY ON THE CONTROL OF THE BEHAVIOR OF HEAVY METALS IN SOIL THROUGH USE OF
COMPOST AS ADDITIVE TO IMPROVE SOIL FERTILITY
Rota Elisona, Kopali Alberta, Abazi Urana, Krasniqi Simirb

a
Department of Agro-environment and Ecology, Agricultural University of Tirana
b
Drejtoria e Arsimit Profesional,Prizren , Kosova.
ABSTRACT
Improving of soil fertility in agriculture can be realized through use of additives that affects physical and chemical
qualities and also biological qualities.But their use need one careful evaluation regarding the behavior of the heavy
metals in soil. In this research is intended the preparation of the compost as additives in farm level and evaluation of
the content of heavy metals in different typology of compost based on availability of raw materials in farm.The
research is performed in 2008- 2009 at EDE (experimental didactic economy) and AUT (the campus and in Valias)
and also in one zootechnical farm Esat Boddli, in Durres, realizing the production of the compost with different
plant and housing materials to verify the attitude of heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Cu, Cr, Hg, Pb e Zn), environmental
-1
effects and evaluations of the different doses of the compost (15, 30, 45 t ha ) in agricultural plants.The analytic
results shows the differences between raw materials used for compost. The compost prepared in the campus has
shown that the quantity of P and Zn is in the normative, while compost of Esat Boddli has shown a higher value
of K, this because the different plant material used during the process of composting. Comparative evidence in field
-1
have claimed advantages using compost as fertilizer for corn plant in doses (30 t compost per ha ) because this
dose bring priority regard to maize grain production.
Key words: compost, heavy metals, fertility, environmental quality.
INTRODUCTION
Fertility and sustainability of the agricultural systems production depends on behavior and increased of organic
matter. But increasing the organic matter directly in the farm from animal manure management, without any
treatment, may bring also a lot of problems, for example toxic elements, heavy metals, spreading the seeds of wild
plants etc. In this aspect use of compost as additive take one important role in agriculture. To increase the
sustainable use of the land source is necessary to increase the organic matter (Gil et al., 2008). Many studies
(Aggelides e Londra, 2000;Montemurro et al., 2004; Crecchio et al., 2004; Ferri etal., 2006) shows that the use of
additives reach with organic matter, that influence in the fertility , determine improvement of physical and chemical
quality of the soil, and especially of biological quality.
Other studies shows that use of compost in agriculture brings other benefits in the soil, in plants and environment
(Roe et al., 1993; Hicklelenton et al., 2001).
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Organic fertilization in agriculture (through compost) is one important agronomic practice, very appreciated in this
last years, even because of biological system of cultivation. So bringing organic matter in the soil we not only bring
nutrients but there are even some more physical chemical benefits and also biological (Zaccardelli et al.,2006). The
compost used as additive in agriculture is one product with heterogeneous nature, that come from different materials
from different origins , as for example from plant, animal origins etc. To this heterogeneity we can include even
different combinations that derive from the process of composting and that have as final result a compost that can be
used for different purposes.
With compost we want to copy the nature , reproducing her but faster and in one controlled way. The process of
composting transforms complex organic molecules through aerobic microorganisms in simple chemical
compositions and is considered as stabilized that compost in witch are performed this chemical processes. The
compost is sustainable in time, reach with humus, without bed smell or with acceptable smell, able to reach the soil
with nutrients, to improve the structure of the soil through improving the circulation of air in the soil and improve
the microorganisms useful for plants. The main purpose of the experiment in this study is production of compost in
farm level through use of available biomass in the territory and evaluation of environmental effects deriving from
use of compost in different doses in plant in one agricultural farm. Through evidences is performed evaluation of
strengths of use of compost as natural nutrient and the impact on the physical and chemical features and especially
on biological features of the soil.
Experiment for the preparation of compost at farm level consist in two phases; first phase of application is finalized
with looking up the agricultural reality of the farms in order to define useful organic waste, potentially for compost
and the quantity that need one compost process; second phase consist in gathering of materials, construction of pile
for compost and the monitoring of the process as protocols approved. From monitoring process results that in two
points indicated for the compost there are enough materials for the pile with different origin, especially from
housing (EDE), (manure of cattle, pigs, small stocks), wood wool, wheat straw, plant waste, corn silage etc.
In the point near Agricultural University we had bigger availability for fertilizer from animal waste, but regardless
for the establishment of clusters we have maintained weight ratios. The sizes of clusters are as indicated: length 10-
15 m, width 1.5-2m height 1.5-2 m. The process of compost is monitored through daily observations of temperature,
and based in this observations and humidity of the materials, we have decided reversing the material and wetting,
(IAM,Bari. Itali,2006).
In the end of the process we have identified some agronomic and environmental parameters of the compost
especially pH, humidity, electric conductivity (EC), content of gravel, content of organic carbon, total content of
N,P,K and heavy metals as Cd, cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb.
Samples of compost are analyzed near Chemistry and Biochemistry Section DiBCA, university of Bari Italy
according to the methods of analysis for fertilizers of Italian legislation. (Trinchera et al., 2006).
Study agronomic and environmental effects of the compost as additive are tested through the field protocol in EDE
Valias, using a spring-summer crops (maize cultivar Goldfox 120). Field evidence is tested according to the
randomized block scheme, with different doses of compost producted in EDE.
There are 15 experimental plots, 25 m2 each of them divided as follow;
- 3 plots T, non use of compost (evidential);

- 6 plots C1, 20 t of compost per ha-1, equal with 2 kg m-2;
- 6 plots C2, 40 t of compost per ha-1, equal with 4 kg m-2.
Scheme of randomized plots is showed in figure 1, in witch the compost is applied on the ground and is inverted to a
depth of about 15 cm before planting, which was done a few days later with density about 7 bime/m2 (distances of
plant 70x20 cm). Each plot was analyzed on the average grain production (kg/plots), average biomass production
(kg/plots), the average height of plants, in relation to the number of rows kernels per ear, in relation to the number of
grains per row theweight of 1000 grains.
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Figure 1. Scheme of experimental plots. C1: 2 kg compost m-2; C2: 4 kg compost m-2; T: 0 kg compost -2.
Environmental qualities are verified through microbiological analyses of the soil, in different doses of compost
according to the above scheme.
During the period of the study different soil samples are analyzed for their systematic microorganisms groups to se
environment effects.
RESULTS
The results of analyses of the most important parameters of the two experiments are in table 1. analytic results
shown the differences between start material used for the compost. The compost prepared near university campus,
looking up even the departure levels of materials is within the normative, while the compost of EDE presented a
higher value of K, associated with greater diversity of plant material available that bring into the necessity of makes
necessary a sifting the material before use. Also is verified higher humidity level, because of excess rainfall
registered in this period.
Since then preparing compost results within the limits of the law is processed with field demonstration. Table 2
Table 1. Results of the main chemical-physical analysis of compost

Parameters Measure unit Composting at Composting at EDE
university campus Valias
Inert % s.s. 8.8 4.8
Humidity % t.q. 68.5 65.3
pH (in H2O, 1:10) - 8.3 7.8
EC (ekstract, 1:10) dS m-1 1.40 0.85
grace % s.s. 52.5 51.1
Organic carbon g kg-1 s.s 260.0 275.1
organic matter g kg-1 s.s 520,0 532,1
total nitrogen g kg-1 s.s 16.3 16.8
C/N - 16.1 16.4
total phosphoric Anidriti g kg-1 s.s 20.5 16.3
(P2O5)
total potassium (K) g kg-1 s.s 2.5 13.0
total Cadmium mg kg-1 s.s 1.1 0.7
total nickel mg kg-1 s.s 61.5 59.3
total copper mg kg-1 s.s 52.5 80.4
total chromium mg kg-1 s.s 75.3 63.2
Chromium hekzovalent mg kg-1 s.s <0.4 <0.4
total Mercury mg kg-1 s.s <0.5 <0.5
total lead mg kg-1 s.s 28.8 40.0
total zinc mg kg-1 s.s 210.5 139.6
Table 2. The results of field tests of the compost, in 2009 and 2010.
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Variants B P B-P H R C P mesatar

T (2009) 489,80 35,00 12,85 201,6 12,4 612,50 370,7
C1 (2009) 53,53 34,30 16,50 202,2 14,1 609,50 345,2
C2 (2009) 52,05 32,05 17,80 203,5 14,0 654,70 330,0
T (2010) 46,60 34,20 12,70 217,2 15,4 714,80 355,3
C1 (2010) 52,50 35,00 15,30 227,3 15,9 663,70 350,7
C2 (2010) 52,30 32,80 17,50 235,5 15,6 760,00 331,0
B: Average total biomass production (kg plot-1);

P: Average grain production (kg plot-1);
H: average height of plants (m);
R: The average length of the ear -1;
C: Average number per cob grains -1;
P: Average: weight of 1000 grains (gr).
Figure 1- Field test results of applying compost, the years 2009 and 2010.
By analyzing the data output measurements and other biometric data results that test C1 has shown greater
production of grain and total biomass in evidence in two years of tests, C2 in the same period has only higher
biomass of corn (B-P). Test free of compost (testimony T) has given a higher weight average grain production since
it had a lower density of grain per parcel. In C2 had lower 1000 grain weight and the highest number of grains per
ear, claiming the greater vegetative development than reproduction. In the end C1 gave an average weight of 1000
grains and a number of grains per spike lower a balanced ratio between the number of grains of their weight and
grain densities for parcel higher.
Evaluation of implementation of environmental qualities and verification of environmental effects is done by
analyzing the contentof systematic groups of microorganisms.
Table nr.3
Variants Total Mikroflora aerobic Actinomycetes mushroom Microbial biomass Humidity in

000/g dry land bacteria 000/g dry land s 000/g estimated kg/ha %
000/g dry dry land
land
T (2009) 10.200 9.100 1.110 13 2.240 15.0
C1 (2009) 18.100 10.630 1.350 18 3.800 15.5
C2 (2009) 24.240 14.900 1.650 23 4.200 15.9
T (2010) 12.110 8.500 1.150 16 3.200 18.1
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C1 (2010) 16.310 11.330 1.310 12 3.990 16.2

C2 (2010) 22.300 15.520 1.700 22 4.450 17.8
By analyzing the content of systematic groups in generally we se that by increasing the dose of compost there is one
improvement the content of systematic groups of microorganisms which is mainly related with increased content of
organic matter.
CONCLUSIONS
From the data of the study we se that scanning parameters of compost, starting from first materials of plant origins,
may result difficult to respect community boundaries for some parameters that are lower than in the test of compost,
especially for heavy metals. Demonstrative evidence in the field have confirmed the advantages of the use of
compost in spring-summer herbs fertilization (corn) when result that C1 (20 t compost per ha-1) result with the
highest agronomic effect. Use of compost as additive bring visible environmental effects, also verified with analyzes
of different systematic groups of microorganisms that are used as Bio indicator. Is verified almost everywhere the
presence of systematic groups in C2, 40 t compost per ha-1 in relation with the test, a higher quantity of the total
microbial connected this with the grooving of organic matter in soil.
As conclusion we can say that adding compost in soil, with one good origin from plants materials, is one good
strategy for growing biological activity in agricultural lands with consequences improving agronomic and
environmental qualities of agricultural systems. The study will serve as a very good reference to agricultural
operators who are interested in the production and application of biomass composting of agricultural origin as
additive in farm level.
REFERENCES
Altieri M.A., (1991) Agroecologia, f.210 - 275.

Altieri M A., ( 1999) - Verso unagricoltura biologica, f.275 300
Aggelides S.M., Londra P.A. 2000. Effects of compost produced from town wastes and sewage sludge on the
physical properties of a loamy and a clay soil. Bioresource Technology 71: 253-259.
Gil M.V., Carballo M.T., Calvo L.F. 2008. Fertilization of maize with compost from cattle manure supplemented
with additional mineral nutrients. Waste Management 28: 1432-1440.
IAM (Bari) Itali (2006) Manual per kompostimin ne bujqesine biologjike. f.140.
Isufi, E. (2004) Kompostimi i mbetjeve organike pr plehrimin e bimve, f.14.
Peuli, V., Kopali A. (2005) Bujqesia biologjike, f. 362
Regolamento (CEE) n. 2092/91 Relativo al metodo di produzione biologico di prodotti agricoli e alla indicazione di
tale metodo sui prodotti agricoli e sulle derrate alimentary.
Roe N.E., Stoffela P.J., Bryan H.H.1993. Utilizzation of MSW compost and other organic mulches on commercial
vegetable crops. Compost Sci. Utilizzation, 1(3):73-84.
Trinchera A., Leita L. e Sequi P. (2006) - Metodi di Analisi per i Fertilizzanti. Consiglio per la Ricerca e la
Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Istituto Sperimentale per la Nutrizione delle Piante per conto del Ministero delle
politiche agricole alimentari e forestali, Roma, Italy, 384 f.
Zaccardelli M., Perrone D., Gazzella A., Del Galdo A., Giordano I. 2006. Valutazione bio-agronomica di una
successione triennale di colture industriali e ortive in un terreno della Piana del Sele ammendato con compost da
F.O.R.S.U. Atti del convegno Utilizzo del compost da frazione organica dei rifiuti solidi urbani: attualit e
prospettive, Napoli 30 novembre, 95-118.
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PAPER 188
A NEW CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK RELATED TO NATURAL SELECTION, SEXUAL SELECTION

AND CULTURAL SELECTION
Ani Bajrami, Zyri Bajrami
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, Tirana, Albania
Email: ani.bajrami@fshn.edu.al; zyri.bajrami@fshn.edu.al
ABSTRACT
This article takes in consideration Darwinian conceptual framework which includes natural selection, sexual
selection and cultural selection in analizing mate choice. We have analyzed 618 individuals and 30% of them
believe that mate choice is pure coincidence. On the other hand, 46.05% of a sum of 816 individuals consider
appropriate the following concept: We love other people/other people loves us/ we get married to other people. In
363 individuals tested, 2/3 of them are married by interference of another, member of the family or otherwise. These
data allow us to raise hypothetically questions about mate choice and mechanisms in volving it. Coincidence and the
interference of other people in mate choice are caused by cultural selection which acts upon cultural modules. On
the contrary, natural selection and sexual selection acts upon noncultural modules which includes genetical modules,
epigenetical modules and neuor-endocrine modules. In this context, natural and sexual modules acts solely on the
modules mentioned above present on live organisms.
Keywords: natural selection, sexual selection, cultural selection, mate choice, modules.
INTRODUCTION
Living organisms have certain characteristics that enhance their survival and maximize their reproductive success.
For this reason Maynard Smith and Eos Szthamary in their book wrote: living organisms are composed of units
which enhance their survival and reproduction ( Smith and Szathmary 1995).These functional unit are called
modules. In a previous study ( Bajrami,2008) has been shown there exists four types of modules. The modules we
propose coincides with four types of inheritance systems:genetical inheritance, epigenetical inheritance, behavior
and symbolic inheritance ( Jablonka and Lamb, 2006). Genes, part of the nucleic acids, are considered an
information extracted from the environment ( Tooby and Cosmides, 1992). In these modules, a fragment or a part of
nucleic acids is called memory structure that contains the information and the product of this information is
necessary for the functioned performed. This feature lead us to maintain that living organism have a distinguished
property: the relation between information and function ( Emmeche, 2002) so every module performs a certain
functions based on information ( Treur and Jonk, 2006). In other words, gene is comparable with information wich
locks a certain function. Therefore a genetical module is formed when: a. a certain need must be accomplished b. a
certain information is extracted, corresponding to the need and c. a function is performed based on information to
solve the need required. The information is not solely preserved in nucleic acids. The fact that a protein functions
only in its conformational form shows that this information is steric. Based on steric information an alloteric enzyme
is related to prime or to the final product during the biochemical reaction. In many cases, although the genes exists
he is not functional cause of the methylation process. In this case, this process is performed by another type of
module, the epigenetical module. Another type of module is formed in the organism posedin a neuro-endocrine
system. In this case the informacion is deposited on a memory structure as sensory cells. A sensory cell, like gene,
intercept the stimuli (deposit the information required) and connects to muscular cells to perform a certain function.
According to this function for example every one put his hands up when touches a hot object because a module has
been formed. Finally, in humans, memory structures are formed and deposit new information each time. These
memory structure may be identified as memes ( Dawkins, 1976) but adding to them their triadic nature ( Kull,
2000). Memory structures located in our brains, deposits concepts, ideas and different mental models and according
to their information people creates artefacts, symbols and certain behaviours, cognitive, emotional and moral
interpretations.We may conclude that modules are the smallest units of function and they natural selection and
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sexual selection operates in them. How can we define sexual selection? Sexual selection, according to one author, is
a part of natural selection concerned with overpreproduction because of the choice made for their partner ( Starr,
2013). Buss defines sexual selection preference and mate choice object to sexual selection ( Buss, 2008).
According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary sexual selection is the choice of a mate based on the preference for
certain characteristics. Oxford dictionary defines sexual selection as natural selection arising through preference
by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex. In conlusion , sexual selection is defined as a
preference for certain features while natural selection as the survival of the fittest ( Carranza, 2009). In all cases
mentioned, sexual selection is considered mate choice based on certain characteristics. Our view is that sexual and
natural selection operates on the four types of modules. These modules are selected to enhance survival and
reproduction in organisms and when selection acts on modules which are responsible for reproduction, we maintain
in this case that sexual selection takes action.
Our data was gathered by two questionnaires. The first questionnaire formulated the question as follows: In your
opinion, marriage is a coincidence or not? This question was answered from 618 individuals ( Table 1), students
form Tirana University, one of their parents and one of their grandparents.
The second questionnaire tested the general idea expressed in Albanian culture : We love other people/ other peole
loves us/ we get married to other peoples. The individuals were asked if this is true or not. We gathered the
responses of 412 students and 404 parents (Table 2).
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the number of individuals tested (students, one of their parents and one of their grandparents), their
location (city or village) and their genders ( female or males). From 610 individuals , 133 of them (30%) have
answered that marriage is a coincidence. The percentage of tested individuals considering marriage a pure
coincidence is 57% of male students living in village to 22% male students living in city.
Marriage is a According to According to
Generati Location Gender No. coincidence location gender
ons According Accordig
to location to M F M F
generatio
ns
City F 94 29 (30.8%)
Student M 66 15 (22.7%) 28.7
Village F 38 9 (27.7%)
M 14 8 (57%)
City F 78 26 (31.9%) 28.3 33.8 29.8 30.2
Parent M 86 22 (25.5%) 30.5
Village F 44 14(31.85%
M 31 11 (35.5%)
City F 46 13 (28.2%)
Grandpar M 60 17 (28.3%) 32.6
ents Village F 32 8 (25%)
M 21 11 (52.3%)
Table 1. The percentage of students, one of their parents and one of their grandparents which answered that marriage
is a coincidence.
The percentage of individuals who considered marriage as a coincidence event tend to grow easily from students
(28.7%), parents (30.7%) to grandparents (32.6%). The difference between males and females is low (29.9% to
30.2%) but the difference is between location (28.3% in villages and 33.8% in cities). Therefore, people living in
villages consider marriage a coincidence event and this claim support aour thesis: people living in villages or in
small locations tend to be more conservatives than people living in cities. In villages, choosing a partner for the son
or daughter is part of familiar duties than of the person who is going to be married. Thus, sexual selection operates
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on familiar choice and not personal choice. Certainly,in choosing a partner, the family is based on some preferences
and so it can not be excluded that selection operates but we can not know for sure who is this kind of selection.
Familiar choice or the choice of a partner done by one member of the family differs from personal choice. For
example, while harsh economic conditions in a culture prevails, we maintain that family choice will be based in
preferences regarding wealth, high social and economic status and so on. In these conditions , choosing a good-
looking partner or putting erotical pleasure as main preference will be disastrous because these preferences can not
solve adaptive problems regarding harsh economic conditions. These claims are supported by a previous study
where the two preferences mentioned above were considered unimportant in Albanians, Greek minority and cultural
community of Aroumanians and Roma living in Albania (Bajrami and Ruka, 2011). The data gathered in the
previous article, enhance the hypothesis that mate choice happens because of the sexual selection. Table 2 indicates
that in 816 individuals tested, 376 of them ( 46.05%) accepts as true the assumption that: We love other people/
other people loves us/ we get married to other peoples.
Grupet No. Gender Answered YES
Males Females Males Females M-F Total
Students 412 204 208 102 98 200
(50%) (42.2%) (48.5%) 376
Parents 404 206 198 95 81 176 (46.05%)
(46,6%) (40,9%) (43,5%)
Table 2. The percentage of individuals (generations and gender) which considered right the assumption that : We
love other people/ other peole loves us/ we get married to other peoples.
As Table 2 indicates that 46.05% of individuals tested believe that marriage is pure coincidence or kind of lottery. If
46.05% of people believe that marriage is a coincidence event then we assume that sexual selection is not taking
place. Therefore, people does not everytime make the desirable choice about their future partner. In some
ethnographic Albanian studies , data gathered argue that in Albanian society, marriages are managed by family
members for economic purposes, solve conflictual situation and to preserve social cohesion ( Tirta, 2003). Based on
this data, in a previous study among 363 individuals living in Albania (190 Females and 173 Males), in three
generation ( Grandparents, Parents and their children) were asked the following question ( Bajrami, 2012) :You
were married: A with love B by the intrusion of an outsider and with your consent C by the intrusion of an outsider
and without your consent. The tested individuals responded, specifically A- 36.4%, B- 61% and C-2.6%.
Therefore, 2/3 of Albanians admit to get married by the intrusion of a family member and so, mate preferences and
mate choice are not a personal decision.
CONCLUSIONS
In these circumstances, sexual selection operates in a doubtful way. The uncertainty in mate choice is expressed in
the percentage of individuals that thinks marriage is a coincidence. But this uncertainty is explained by other fact as
well. When choosing a partner based on certain characteristics, individuals can not make predictions of future events
related to marriage.
A desirable preference is always accompanied by an undesirable preference in a mate choice. In this context people
must choose in an information pool regarding marriage which is always formed on contradictory characteristics (
for example Healthy versus Wealthy). Every decision making regarding mate choice is affected by the focusing
effect ( Kahneman, 2006). Therefore is difficult to asses mate choice as affected by sexual selection.
Our opinion is that sexual selection is not responsible for mate choice in humans. Cultural selection which acts on
cultural modules is a best explanatory framework for understanding mate choice. Cultural modules contains
information which is continually transformed and forms new sexual modules during the course of the time. On the
contrary to other modules like genetic, epigenetics and neuro-endocrine, cultural modules changes rapidly and
sexual selection does not act on them but in th three modules mentioned above. It operates in the others modules
while cultural selection acts solely on cultural modules. These modules are not related with the enhancement of
sexual success.
Let us give an example. What is the importance of choosing a mate who has not the normal gene SRY? While
choosing a partner, peoples operates through cultural modules but they can not ignore the genetic anomalies
associated with them. In the case of sexual selection, sexual success is depended by both cultural modules and non
cultural modules. This statement dismiss the idea that sexual selection is choosing the preferential partner.
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REFERENCES
Bajrami,A., Ruka,E. (2011) Seleksion seksual apo kulturor: Zgjedhja e partnereve seksuale n shqiptart, n
minoritetin grek si dhe n komunitetet kulturore arumun dhe rom. Buletini i Shkencave t Natyrs. No.11, p. 114-
123.
Bajrami, Z. (2008) Essay on a Model of the Living systems. Albanian Journal of Natural and Technical Sciences.
Vol.14 (23), 15-161.
Bajrami, A. (2012) European Scientific Journal. November edition Vol 8. No 25.
Buss, D. (2008) Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind (4th edition). Pearson Edition Inc.
Carranza,J. ( 2009) Defining sexual selection as sex dependent selection. Animal Behaviour, 77, 749-751p.
Dawkins,R. (1976) The selfish gene. New York: Oxford University Press
Emmeche, C (2002) The chicken and the Orphean egg: On the function of Meaning of function. Sign Systems
Studies. 30 (1). 15 32.
Maynard-Smith, J., Szathmary, E. (1995) The Major Transition in Evolution. Oxford University Press
Starr,C. ( 2013) Biology: The Unity and Diversity of life. Cengage Learning.
Kahneman, D (2006). You be happier if you were richer: A focusing illusion. Working Paper, No 125.
Jablonka, E., Lamb, M. (2006) Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioural and Symbolic
variation in the history of Life. A Bradford Book Publishing. Pp-64-65
Tooby, J.,Cosmides, L (1992) The psychological foundations of culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
Treur, J., Jonk.C, M. (2006) Agent-oriented modeling of Dynamics of Biological Organisms.
Tirta, M . (2003). Etnologjia e Shqipetareve. Shtypshkronja GEER, Tirane.
Kull,K. (2000) Copy versus translate, meme versus sign: development of biological textuality. European Journal for
Semiotic Studies 12(1), 101120.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sexual%20selection
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/sexual%2Bselection?q=sexual+selection
PAPER 189
SELECTION AND SUGGESTIONS OF SITE TYPE FOR SOLID WASTE INCINERATION SYSTEMS IN
TURKEY WITH BASIS AVAILABLE IN EUROPE
Ozgul CIMEN1, Sukru DURSUN1*, Hysen MANKOLLI2

1
Selcuk University, Engineering Faculty, Konya, Turkey
2
Agricultural University of Tirana, Department of Agro Environmental & Ecology, Albania
*Email: sdursun@selcuk.edu.tr, +903322232075
ABSTRACT
Hazardous waste must be collected separately from other waste and to be disposed of and the appropriate methods
because of environmental and human health risks. The disposal methods of hazardous wastes are source
reduction/prevention, recycling, pre-treatment, energy recovery, landfill and incineration. Hazardous waste
incineration unites in Turkey are located in zmit ZAYDA and Izmir Aliaga PETKIM. In addition, Izmit TPRA
refinery has incineration plant only for own waste. In this study, taking into consideration the importance of the
incineration plants, data and parameters increase studied these facilities. In addition, the acquisition of energy
alternative of disposal methods for waste incineration technology at the importance and dissemination for Turkey
should be discussed. In some European countries indicates the importance of the issue: regulations of
municipalities and municipalities associations, non-recoverable waste will have to burn the phrase''. In particular, the
problems of place selection were taken into consideration. In addition, especially the construction cost is taken into
consideration, because it is very important factor for presentation of incineration systems. For this reason, some
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incineration plants models in some European countries were analyzed and financial terms and site selection
parameters have been considered and some suggestions about incineration plants to installing in Turkey. The study
was presented with the aid of the data obtained from the assessments and recommendations, taking into
consideration the municipalities in our country, which plans to build incinerators, site selection consisted of the
opinion that the decision-making process will support
Keywords: Solid waste, incineration, municipalities, transportation, disposal, collected, recycling
INTRODUCTION
Incineration is used as a process for a wide range of wastes. Incineration itself is by a majorty only one part of a
complex waste treatment system that altogether, provides for the overall management of the extensive of wastes that
come forward in society. The incineration region has undergone swift technological development over the last 10 to
15 years. Much of this change has been driven by legislation specific to the industry and this has, in particular,
decreased emissions to air from individual installations. Continual process development is ongoing, with the sector
now developing techniques which limit costs, whilst maintaining or improving environmental performance. The
objective of waste incineration, in common with most waste treatments, is to treat waste so as to decrease its volume
and hazard, while capturing (and thus concentrating) or destroying potentially harmful substances. Incineration
processes can also provide a means to enable recovery of the energy, mineral and/or chemical content from waste.
Residual Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is waste that is household or household like. It comprises household waste
gathered by local authorities, some commercial and industrial wastes that may be collected by the local authority or
a commercial company. Legislation limits the amount of mixed MSW that can be sent to landfill.
One of the guiding principles, now enshrined in law, for European and UK waste management has been the concept
of a hierarchy of waste management options, where the most desirable option is not to produce the waste in the first
place (waste prevention) and the least desirable option is to dispose of the waste with no recovery of either materials
and/or energy. Between these two extremes there are a wide variety of waste treatment options that may be used as
part of a waste management strategy to recover materials (for example furniture reuse, glass recycling or organic
waste composting) or generate energy from the wastes.
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is waste accumulated by or on for the sake of a local authority.It comprises mostly
household waste and itmay include some commercial and industrialwastes. Historically, nationally the quantity
ofMSW has risen year on year, presenting agrowing problem for local authoritiesparticularly as legislation, now
limits the amount of mixed MSW thatcan be sent to landfill, comes into effect,becomes more stringent over time.
Combustion of MSW results in the release ofcarbon dioxide (and other greenhouse gases).Part of the MSW is
biomass derived materiale.g. card, paper, timber which is a source of renewable energy. MSW also contains
combustible elements which are fossil fuel derived materials e.g. plastics and are therefore not a source of renewable
energy. Fossil fuel-based carbon dioxide contributes significantly towards the greenhouse effect and hence global
warming. In the context of sustainable energy generation carbon emitted from biodegradable waste is classed as
short cycle carbon (i.e. the amount given off when combusted equates to that absorbed during its lifetime). The more
efficient the energy generation process, e.g. CHP, the lower the carbon emissions are per unit of energy produced
and the greater the energy and carbon benefits. Hence when considering energy recovery, carbon emissions need to
be considered in terms of composition of the residual waste stream, the type of energy produced (heat and/or power)
and the overall generating efficiency of the facility. The growing importance of climate change means the carbon
footprint of waste management needs to be fully considered in selecting technologies. The Environment Agency
lifecycle tool (Waste and Resources Assessment Tool for the Environment WRATE) is aimed at assisting the
comparison and assessment of the environmental performance of different waste options.
Although useful in many ways the MSW, unfortunately these plants arent sufficent number of Turkey. One of the
examples in Turkey is ZAYDA in zmit city (Figure 1.) The reason is that can be mistakes of selecting the
location and about high cost. Therefore this study comprise a number of the examples in Europe and makes
suggestions about the facilities can be established in Turkey.
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Figure 1. ZAYDA, zmit, TURKEY
DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY
The study is based on comprise a number of the examples in Europe and UK, makes suggestions about the facilities
can be established in Turkey. This section comprise to UK experiments and Europe experiments.
(a)UK Experience
The term incineration, for the purposes of this document, covers those technologies that directly combust waste and
then recover the energy for generating electricity (power) and/or heat. In terms of its current status incineration
accounts for the disposal of 15.1% of the total MSW produced in England in 2010/1116, which equates to
approximately 3.98million tonnes per annum. There are 73 permitted Incinerators and colncinerators in England, of
which 18 process MSW. Of the 8,300,000tpa permitted capacity in England, 4,521,600tpa is for MSW; with a range
in annual throughput of waste at these facilities from 3,500tpa up to 675,000tpa. A list of MSW incineration
facilities in England is presented in Table 1. Four of the permitted MSW facilities are recovering heat and power
under the Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance Programme18, as well as Slough Heat and Power
(coincineration process):
Sheffield 225,000tpa MSW throughput recovering 17MWe (electrical) and 39MWth (thermal).
Nottingham 160,000tpa MSW throughput recovering 14.4MWe and 44.2MWth.
Coventry 250,000tpa MSW throughput recovering 18MWe and 7.5MWth.
Grimsby 56,000tpa MWS throughput recovering 3.2MWe and 3.3MWth.
Slough Heat and Power 110,000tpa throughput recovering 104MWe and 22MWth.
In addition to the operational facilities presented in Table 1 further example incineration plant are included which
are in the process of planning and construction in England.
b)European Experience
In 2009 there were 44919 Incineration plants operating across twenty Western and Central European countries (not
including hazardous waste incineration plants). A total throughput of c.69.4million tonnes of waste was recorded for
2009. Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland have the largest installed incineration
capacities as a percentage of total MSW generated. The current trend is for larger facilities to realise cost savings per
unit of waste processed, most also feature material recovery operations in parallel with the incineration plant.
Incineration is also widely utilised outside of Europe with facilities in operation in most developed countries. Some
descriptive examples of Incineration processes are included here to illustrate the different technologies being
promoted for MSW management
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Table 1. Some ncinerator Plants in England
Incinerator Plant Scale (tpa) Energy Recovery Established
Edmonton, London 675,000 55MWe 1975
SELCHP, London 420,000 35MWe 1994
Tysesley, Birmingham 350,000 25MWe 1996
Stoke 200,000 12.5MWe 1997
Example of Small Scale Incineration, Shetland

The Shetland and Orkney Isles have entered into a waste management partnership that has resulted in the installation
of an Incinerator in Lerwick on Shetland. The Incinerator processes approximately 23,000tonnes of MSW per
annum. This is the smallest and only MSW Incinerator in the UK to generate purely a heat output (i.e. no electricity
generation).
The planning for the facility commenced in 1992 and the time required through to commissioning was
approximately 8 years, with the plant being in operation in 2000.
The plant has been designed to meet with all relevant legislation including the WID / IED.
The proposed plant was designed to provide heat which is supplied to both commercial and domestic customers. The
thermal efficiency of the Incinerator in terms of heat recovered is 80%. The capital cost for the Incinerator plant was
approximately 10m and the district heating network a further 11.5m. The heat supplied is provided at a
competitive rate and has been well received by the end consumers. The cost of installing the heat exchangers per
property to allow the heat to be used was between 2,000 and 5,000. The Incinerator and heating network provide a
significant financial benefit to the Shetland Isles.
RESULTS
The scale of use of incineration as a waste management technique varies greatly from location to location. For
example, in European Member States the variation of incineration in municipal waste treatments ranges from zero to
62 per cent. In EU-15 Member States (MS) an annual quantity of approximately 200 million tonnes of waste may
be considered suitable for thermal waste treatment. However, the total installed capacity of thermal waste treatment
plants is only in the order of 50 million tonnes.
Table 3. below gives an estimate of the treatment of the waste arising in each MS for municipal waste, hazardous
waste and sewage sludge. Deposited waste is included because a considerable proportion of these wastes may, in
future, be diverted to other waste treatment methods, including incineration. One the other hand Table 4. shows the
quantities of some wastes arising and number of waste incinerator plants in other European Countries, Table 5.
shows the number and total capacity of existing incineration plants (not including planned sites) for various waste
types. Figure 2. shows the variation in per capita capacity for municipal waste incineration.
The waste incineration sector has been the subject of extensive legislative requirements at regional, national and
European level for many years.
In addition to the requirements of the IPPC Directive, the incineration (and associated) sector is also subject to the
requirements of specific legislation. At present, the following EU-directives are in force for waste incineration
plants:
The size of installations varies greatly across Europe. Variations in size can be seen within and between technology
and waste types. The largest MSW plant in Europe has a capacity in excess of 1 million tonnes of waste per year.
Table 2. below shows the variation in average MSW incinerator capacity by country :
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Figure 2. Municipal waste incineration capacity per capita
Table 2. Average MSW incineration plant capacity by country
89/369/EEC for new municipal waste incineration plants

89/429/EEC for existing municipal waste incineration plants
94/67/EC for the incineration of hazardous waste (including co-incineration)
2000/76/EC for the incineration of waste (including co-incineration).
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Table 3. Amounts of municipal waste (MSW), hazardous waste (HW) and sewage sludge (SS) in EU-15 MSs, and
their treatment
Table 4. Annual quantities of municipal and hazardous waste arising and the number of incineration plants in some
Accession Countries
Regulation (EC) No. 1774/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 October 2002, laying down
health rules concerning animal by-products not intended for human consumption.
It should be noted that Directive 2000/76/EC progressively repeals the first three directives. This directive sets the
minimum requirements in respect of permissible emissions, monitoring and certain operational conditions. The
scope of 2000/76/EC is broad and does not have a lower capacity limit. Directive 2000/76/EC requires that its
standards are adopted follows:
new waste incineration plants, from 28 December 2002
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existing waste incineration plants, by 28 December 2005 at the latest.
Table 5. Geographical distribution of incineration plants for municipal, hazardous and sewage sludge waste
CONCLUSION
After all we can easly seeing basically, waste incineration is the oxidation of the combustible materials contained in
the waste. Waste is generally a highly heterogeneous material, consisting essentially of organic substances, minerals,
metals and water. During incineration, flue-gases are created that will contain the majority of the available fuel
energy as heat. The organic substances in the waste will burn when they have reached the necessary ignition
temperature and come into contact with oxygen. The actual combustion process takes place in the gas phase in
fractions of seconds and simultaneously releases energy. Where the calorific value of the waste and oxygen supply
is sufficient, this can lead to a thermal chain reaction and self-supporting combustion, i.e. there is no need for the
addition of other fuels.
As a result of, the waste incineration technology is very important for all countries waste managements. Incineration
technologies will contribute towards recovery targets on the tonnage of materials entering the thermal treatment
process as all processes are designed to recover energy. This study illustrates, Europe countries usually prefer to
established these facilities near the urban areas. When necessary precautions are taken, selection of location do not
constitute hazard environmental. For this reason, Turkey can be establish waste incineration plants especially in
metropol cities for instance Ankara, zmir. Thus, hazardous waste and waste which is difficult to store can be
converted to electricity and heat energy. In this way, waste management can be resolved in Turkeys crowded citites
and a part of energy demand can be supplied.
REFERENCES
Watkins, E., Hogg, D., Mitsios, A., Mudgal, S., Neubauer, A., Reisinger, H., Troeltzsch, J., Van Acoleyen, M.
(2012), Use of economic instruments and waste management performances, Final report, 10 April 2012, Contract
ENV.G.4/FRA/2008/0112, European Commission, Unit G.4 Sustainable Production and ConsumptionFischer, C.,
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Lehner, M., Lindsay Mckinnon, D. (2012), Overview of the use of landfill taxes in Europe. European Topic Centre
on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ETC/SCP Working paper 1/2012).
International Ash Working Group : A.J. Chandler, T.T. Eighmy, J. HartlnO. Hjelmar, D.S. Kosson, S.E. Sawell,
H.A. van der Sloot, J. Vehlow.1997. Municipal solid waste incinerator residues. Studies in Environmental Science
67, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam.
Thom-Kozmiensky,Karl Joachim.1994. zweite Auflage EF-Verlag Fr energie- und umwelttechnik GMBH. Berlin,
Germany.
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Draft Reference Document on Best AvailableTechniques for the Waste
Treatments Industries,European Commission Directorate GeneralJoint Research Centre,January 2004
Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives (B4-3040/2000/306517/Mar/E3), European Commission
Directorate General Environment, July 2003
Review of Environmental & Health Effects of Waste management, Enviros Consulting Ltd,University of
Birmingham, Open University & Maggie Thurgood. Defra 2004.
Energy from Waste A Good Practice Guide, Energy from Waste working group, CIWM, 2003
GREEN ENERGY FROM WASTE, Waste to Energy Agency, Oslo
PAPER 190
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION LEVELS AND POLLUTION SOURCES IN TURKEY
1
Aysen Akay, 3*Sukru Dursun
1
Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Soil Science, Campus / Konya-Turkey,
2
Selcuk University, Engineering & Architecture Faculty, Environ. Eng. Dep., / Konya-Turkey,
Email: aakay@selcuk.edu.tr; sdursun@selcuk.edu.t
ABSTRACT
There are important economic changes in recent years in Turkey with rapid economic growth and structural changes.
Population of Turkey has reached about 75 million in recent years and remains one of the fastest growing in the
OECD countries. Major migration from rural areas to urban, industrial and tourist areas are continuing. Economic
growth with environmental and social development is under going. In last decades Turkey experienced increasing
environmental pressures on the decision-making process and has made significant advances in the energy and
industry sectors. However, most of the necessary environmental infrastructure has yet to be created in urban and
industrial areas. The road towards environmental consciousness will require strengthened environmental efforts
from the central government, municipalities and the private sector as the environment had a relatively low priority in
Turkey in the past. Thanking consideration on environmental pollution control is going well as a candidate of
European Union. Stopping pollution is not possible with relation of industrialization. Industrialization is increasing
mining processes and metal industry with their pollution. Turkeys soil has number of metal and also heavy metal,
which is affecting their contamination in natural water source and agricultural soil land as well. In this study, we
tried to put forward pollution levels of Turkeys natural source.
Keywords: contamination, heavy metal, pollution, Turkey, soil
INTRODUCTION
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Turkey has almost all geological time and period lands and sedimentary, metamorphic and magmatic rocks. There
are many different topographic surface and at least 3 main climatic regions with numbers of natural plant. Historical
time period has formed many main physical and chemical materials, a lot of soil types from different geological time
period. These characteristics have affected to capability of agricultural soil usage. Turkey has many soil
characteristic of World with different geological time period formation, climate, vegetation and topographic
structure.Turkey has important geographic and geopolitical place at the crossroads between Europe, Asia and Africa.
Turkey surface area is 77.797.127 hectare. Recently data show that, % 35.6 of total surface about 28 thousand
squares meter is using for agricultural activity. About 8,333 kilometers coastline extends along four sea sides which
are Blacksea, Marmara Sea, Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The rate of urbanization was estimated to be
about 5.1% in the recent years.There is a great diversity in geological structure, climate and environmental concerns
in Turkey. The country is divided into seven geo-graphical regions: four of them are coastal zones, named the Black
Sea, Marmara, Aegean and the Mediterranean regions and the other three are Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and
South-Eastern Anatolia. Istanbul, Izmit, Izmir, Adana and Mersin are the most industrial cities which taken mostly
migrants from rural areas. This current accelerated migration from rural areas to urban centers reflects major
environmental changes. Unplanned urbanization, which leads to the transfer of rich agricultural land for urban use,
has severe environmental impacts, including salinity, soil erosion and pollution of surface waters.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A.Soil. The main problem for the soil structure in Turkey is erosion. Presently, 74% of total area about 57 thousands
squares meter is under threat of water erosion and also about 0.6% (466 squares meter) is under wind menace. Soil
erosion is estimated at 1 billion tones, most of it washed out to sea. Erosion affects 81 % of the total land surface in
Turkey. Erosion is an important problem in areas where agricultural activities are carried out without any
environmental precautions. Industrial and urban wastewater constitutes a very important pollutant source for soils in
Turkey. Average calculations, 15,000 m2 soil areas at medium, extreme and high extreme level water are under
erosion risk. About 330 m2 soil area is under risk group soil area of wind erosion.
B.Pollution. Pollution of the environment with toxic metals has increased dramatically since the onset of the
industrial revolution [1]. Soil pollution with heavy metals, such as cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, etc., is a
problem of concern. Although heavy metals are naturally present in soils, contamination comes from local sources,
mostly industry (mainly non-ferrous industries, but also power plants, iron and steel and chemical industries),
agriculture (irrigation with polluted waters, use of fertilizers, especially phosphates, contaminated manure, sewage
sludge and pesticides containing heavy metals), waste incineration, combustion of fossil fuels and road traffic.
Long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants adds to the metal load and is the main source of heavy metals in
natural areas [2]. In recent years, it has been shown that lead levels in soil and vegetation has increased considerably
due to traffic pollution i.e., usage of leaded petrol and exhaust combustion [3,4,5,6], The problem rises as daily
traffic increases [7,8]. Recently, a report was made which confirmed that the main source of air pollution in city
areas of Turkey was due to the amount of traffic on the roads using leaded petrol [9,10,11,12]. The reason being,
lead content of the petrol sold to consumers throughout the country is quite high. As city population ever increases,
so does the demand for creating more industry which adds to the problems already made. Over the years, like many
other developed countries, Turkeys environmental policies did not consider these problems an issue. Therefore,
they were not able to forecast the seriousness of the problems which have now arisen.
C.Sources of Soil Pollution. Industrial emissions, solid wastes and wastewater are affecting the natural soil
ecosystem. As a result of industrial emissions, various hazardous substances contaminated to the surface soil and
groundwater. Especially industrial wastes, either illegally buried or disposed off in temporary storage sites, close to
the factory, cause to contamination of both soil and groundwater. Statistical data of the Turkish Statistical Institute
(TSI) presented that about 50 % of industrial waste was disposed into the sea, lake or river, 20 % was disposed off in
municipal dumping sites, 10 % was controlled buried, 10 % was stored in the field of establishments, 2 % was
incinerated and 10 % was disposed off by other methods in 2008. About 60 % of total disposed industrial waste
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belonged to the basic metal industries, followed by the non-metallic mineral industry (15%), manufacture of food
and beverages industry (15%) and manufacture of chemicals and chemical products industry (5%) [13]. Considering
hazardous wastes, the regulation encourages their reuse and recycling. However, removal of wastes from the number
of hazardous waste treatment and disposal plants is very low level. Therefore, industrial hazardous wastes are
generally legally or illegally disposed off, incinerated or sold, rather than recycled. According to the data of TSI,
67% of the total amount of hazardous waste produced by the manufacturing industry was controlled buried, 21%
was incinerated, 7% was stored within the establishment field, 2% was disposed off in municipal dumping sites and
3% was disposed off by other methods in 2008 [13].
Also soil and groundwater pollution mainly occurs from uncontrolled dumping sites or other illegal burials. There
are over 3200 municipalities, which dispose off their wastes in dumping sites with very limited or no leaching
control. The amount of solid waste collected in municipalities in 2008 was 24 million tonnes, of which 65 % was
disposed off in municipal dumping sites, 30 % was disposed off in controlled landfills, 2 % was disposed off by
burial, 2 % was treated in composting plants, 0.5 % was disposed off into lakes and rivers, 0.5 % was disposed off
by burning in open areas [13].
D.Contaminated Sites in Turkey. The problem of polluted sites started to emerge especially in heavily
industrialized regions of Turkey. However, an inventory of contaminated sites is not maintained [14]. Currently,
identification of any contaminated site is not based on a certain systematic approach. Sites are mostly identified after
some potential problems become obvious and public, as a result of the efforts of local authorities or concerned
citizens [15]. The number of contaminated sites is expected to be in the range of 1000-1500, of which 5-10 % is
believed to be sites requiring remediation [16]. Soil pollution incidents, which became public, are mostly due to
illegal disposal of industrial wastes, oil leakages resulting from accidental spill at oil storage tanks or pipelines,
metal leaching from disposed metal ore processing residues and waste disposal sites.
Investigations show that pollution levels are higher around mining industry and plants of their industrial process in
Turkey as well as around metropolitan cities (Istanbul, Izmir, Kocaeli, Ankara, Adana). Some of studies and
investigation areas are summarised below:
Lead levels in plant and soil samples from the vicinity of Ankara-Istanbul highway in Turkey were determined. [17]
The lead levels were in the g g-1 range 0.5-47.3 in unwashed plants, 0.2-16.6 in washed plants and 1.7-27.0 in soil
samples.
A total of six trace metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cd) were determined in different moss samples used as bio-
indicators for deposition of metals in Trabzon, Turkey. Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cd ranges were 1150-6137, 13.6-
33.6, 329.2-806, 84.4-144.4, 9.2-30.4, and 0.7-1.7 g g-1 respectively [18].
Drinking and usage water obtained from water basins in Turkey, especially at metropolitan cities are in pollution
risk with agricultural and industrial activities and city wastes. These sorts of activities are dangerous for water
source. Many water source qualities are decreasing with contamination of these activities. An investigation for
cupper, chromium, cadmium at Gediz River passing through many geologic and industrial areas showed that
concentrations for water and soil are 0.017 and 63, 0.005 and 1.6, 0.03 and 15 ppm respectively [19].
Soil samples taken from the site of a factory, located in Kocaeli, that concentrations of lead, nickel and mercury
samples taken from three depth were 22- 45 41, 22- 31 - 23 and 76- 52 - 16 mg kg-1, respectively. The
concentrations of cadmium were below 0.0037 mg kg-1 in all samples. It is concluded that while concentrations of
Pb and Cd are below the standards, the concentrations of Ni and Hg are higher then standards [20].
Lake Sapanca, Sakarya is located in areas characterised by heavy traffic volumes but away from industrial pollution
sources. Lead and nickel concentrations ranged from 0.0 to 47.54 and from 0.0 to 58.67 mg kg-1, respectively.
Nickel accumulations are lower than the world standard, but lead accumulations are above acceptable limit values
[21].
Large amounts of nonbio-degradable urban and industrial waste, much of which is disposed of in the Nilufer River,
the Ayvali Canal, and on agricultural land in Bursa. Total heavy metal contents showed that these agricultural soils
were polluted with iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr),
nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb). The DTPA-extractable Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn concentrations in irrigated Fluvisols and
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Vertisols indicated that the practice caused the accumulation of the Cd and Cu in the upper parts of the soil profiles.
In the longer term, irrigation of the soils with the polluted waters may damage soil, crop, and human health [22].
Izmit Bay is one of the most polluted and populated enclosed sea in Turkey. It has been the centre of industrial
activities for the last 30 years. Seven major sources enter the bay waters along the north coastline of the bay. This
investigation forms part of continuing ecotoxicology studies in the Izmit Bay designed to constrain and minimise the
pollution caused by flourishing industry and a growing population. Sediments sampled from the mouths of the major
discharges of Izmit Bay were analysed for their organic carbon, total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (t-PAH) and
trace inorganic element (Cd, Al, As, Pb, Hg and Cu) contents and compared with those found in the sediments from
the reference station in the outer bay (in the Marmara Sea). The toxicity of sediments were determined in the bulk
and elutriates samples by using algal (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) batch bioassays. Chemical data showed that the
sediments collected from the inner sites of the bay have been contaminated with Cd, Hg, As and PAHs. Organic
carbon contents were also found higher. All the major industrial discharges into the bay are now biologically treated
but bioassays performed with bulk sediments revealed that the recent sediments are toxic to the microalgae
throughout the bay. The results are consistent with the previous toxicity studies performed with the industrial
discharges [23].
The contents of copper, nickel, cobalt, lead, cadmium, manganese and chromium in the soil samples collected from
22 crossroads in the Kayseri city centre on Kayseri-Ankara motorway were determined by flame atomic absorption
spectrometry after digestion with aqua region. The ranges of the metal ions in the soil samples are 19.8 -65.1 g g-1
for copper, 20.8 - 95.4 g g-1 for nickel, 9.8 - 20.8 g g-1 for cobalt, 15.6 - 92.8 g g-1 for lead, < 0.2- 1.6 g g-1
for cadmium, 149.3 - 475.8 g g-1 for manganese and 4.7 -38.2 g g-1 for chromium. The levels of investigated
ions were increased with the traffic level. Significant correlation data were found between investigated heavy metal
concentrations of the soil samples and traffic volume [24].
Samples of surface soil were collected at 73 sites in the Thrace region, northwest part of Turkey determined 35
elements in the soil samples. Results for As, Ba, Br, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu Eu, Fe, Hf, I, In, K, La, Mn, Mo,
Na, Nd, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sm, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th, Ti, U, V and Zn are reported for the first time for soils from this
region. The results show that concentrations of most elements were little affected by the industrial and other
anthropogenic activities performed in region. Except for distinctly higher levels of Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn in Istanbul
district than the median values for the Thrace region, the observed distributions seem to be mainly associated with
lithogenic variations [25].
E.Soil Pollution and Remediation Problems in Turkey. Besides industrial waste disposal sites, industrial facilities
causes to pollution due to handling losses, leakages from raw material or product storage tanks and pipelines, and
accidents. Among industries, the chemical industry and metal working industry are the most polluting industries
followed by the oil industry (refineries). Other activities resulting in the contamination of soil in Turkey are mining
and energy production activities. Generally mine tailing disposal sites have no lining or drainage systems.
Considering power plants for energy production, disposal of their ashes is very problematic. For energy production,
the amount of waste generated increased from 20 million tonnes in 2005 to 26 million tonnes in 2008, despite the
reduction of its share in waste production from about 26% to 24%; the share of municipal waste and manufacturing
industry is 40% and 36% respectively [13]. Generally both mine tailings and coal ashes are stored within the
establishment under uncontrolled conditions in Turkey.
RESULTS
Regulation on Soil Pollution Control is relatively new and requires a major revision like identification, investigation,
monitoring and clean-up of contaminated sites. There is need to be extended lists for limiting values of inorganic
and organic contaminants and indicative values, soil remediation intervention values and target values for all
contaminants to be included. There are some needs to develop of programmes providing a systematic approach for
the identification, monitoring and remediation of contaminated sites.
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Supporting agricultural policies must be integrated with efforts to protect land resources, methods should be
developed to include farmers in eco-regional decision-making; and the overuse or misuse of synthetic fertilisers,
agricultural chemicals and hormones should be prevented. In addition, methods for air spraying of agricultural
disinfectants should be abandoned; research and application of non-chemical pest control methods and integrated
pest management must be supported; drainage activities have always damaged ecological balance and for this reason
these projects have to undergo an environmental impact assessment at the decision-making stage. Protection forests
and developing new ones must be promoted; burning stubble should be restricted and laws must be developed on
this subject.
Some improvements for Turkey must be done:
Environmental policies implement and strengthen environmental management infrastructure in
order to provide enforcement capacity;
Environmental integrate concerns in economic decisions as well as in daily life;
Environmental investments complete for pollution prevention and sustainable resource use; and
Countrys international commitments meet by ratifying international environmental conventions
and by providing effective implementation of the provisions accordingly.
Other areas where progress is clear include a significant increase in the powers of the provincial and local
governments in regard to environmental matters and environmental protection efforts such as certification of
environmental management systems made by the export intensive industries. However, these advances are not
enough to address the increased pressures from unregulated industrialization and unplanned urban growth.
CONCLUSIONS
For the improvement of Turkeys natural environment, we still have to put pollution levels of contaminated areas
and to put some natural remediation methods for pollution control, particularly for the heavy metal pollution. Heavy
metal pollution levels may be not as much as many European countries, but it may just time to give more effort
before it is too late.
Acknowledgements: Authors thank Selcuk University Research Found (BAP) financial support of this study. We
also thank to T. Gner for his assistance during presentation text..
REFERENCES
[1] J.O. Niriagu, Global Inventory of Natural and Antropogenic Emissions of trace metals to the Atmosphere
Nature, 279 , 1979, pp.409-411.
[2] European Environmental Agency, Soil Pollution by Heavy Metal, Europes Environment, The Dobris
Assissment, Office des Publications, Luxenbourg ,1995, p.676.
[3] E. tvs, T. Pazmandi and Z.Tuba, First National Surway of Atmospheric Heavy Metal Deposition in
Hungary by the Analysis of mosses, Sci.Total Environ. ,309 , 2003, pp. 151-160.
[4] D.E.Koeppe, Lead: understanding the minimal toxicity of lead in plants, In: N.W.Leep, editors, Effects of
trace metals on plant function, Effects of trace metals on plants, Vol.1 Applied Science Publishers, London 1981
Chap. : 55-76.
[5] C.Biney, A.T.Amuzu, D. Calamari, N.Kaba, I.L.Mbome and H.Naeve et.all ,Rewiev of heavy metals, in: D.
Calamari and H.Naevi, editors , rewiev of pollution in the African Aquatic Environment, CIFA Technical paper
Vol.25 FAO, Rome, 1994, pp.33-60.
[6] P.C. Onianwa and J.O. Adoghe, Heavy-Metal Content of Road sides gutter sediments in Ibadan, Nigeria,
Environ. Int. , 23, (6), 1997, pp. 873-877.
[7] G.L. Wheeler and G.L. Rolfe ,Relationship between daily traffic volume and the distribution of lead in roadside
soil and vegetation Environ. Pollut. ,18, 1979, p.265.
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[8] H.L.Motto, R.Diness, D.M.Chilko and C.K. Motto ,Lead in soils and plants: its relationship to traffic volume
and proximity to highway, Environ. Pollut.,18,1970, pp.265-274.
[9] S.M.Soylak,Trace metal levels in soil samples from crossroads in Kayseri-Ankara motorway, Trace elements
and electrolytes, 20, 2003, 225-229.
[10] M.ztrk and I. Turkan,Heavy Metal Accumulation by plants growing alongside the motor roads. A case
study from Turkey, in: B. Markert, Editors, VCH Publ., Weinheim ,1991, pp. 398-411.
[11] A.Aksoy, U.Sahin and F.Duman,Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L. As A Possible Biomonitor of Heavy Metal
Pollution in Kayseri,Tr. J. Bot. 24,5,2000, pp.279-284.
[12] B.Market, Plants as Biomonitors/Indicators for heavy metals in the Terrestrial Environment, VCH Press,
Weinheim, 1993.
[13] Updated data from Turkish Standard Institute, Environmental Statistics Compendium of Turkey II, 2006,
Ankara, Turkey.
[14] State Planning Organization, Environment Ninth National Development Plan, 2006, pp.20-25, DPT, Ankara,
Turkey (in Turkish).
[15] NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Evaluation of
Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment of Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III),
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study, 2001,Annual Report, Number 250, pp. 251-253, EPA 542-R-02-001.
[16] K. nl, Tour de Table: The situation of contaminated sites in Turkey , Country Presentation at the
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study Workshop Prevention and Rem.in Selected Industrial Sectors: Small Sites in Urban
Areas, 4-7 June 2006, Athens, Greece,organised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society, pp. 4-5, www.cluin.org/athens/download/Tour_de_Table/
Turkey_Tour_de_Table.pdf.
[17] S.Muhammet, E.Hasdemir, M. Tuezen, H.Sari, D.Mendil, D, Lead levels in plant and soil samples collected
from the vicinity of Ankara-Istanbul highway,Turkey, Fresenius Environ.Bull., 12,2003,728-731.
[18] H.Sari, D.Mendil, M. Tuzen, E.Hasdemir, T.Ozdemir, AAS determination of trace metals in some moss
samples from Trabzon, Turkey, Fresenius Environ. Bull., 14,2005, 473-477.
[19] S.Veli, S.Ayberk , B.S. Celiker, B.Alyz,Investigation of soil contaminated by lead, cadmium, mercury and
nickel, Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sigma 2005/1.
[20] M.Baka,M.N.Kumru, Izmir Menemen ovas su ve topraklarnda radyoaktivite aratrmas ve ar metal
kirlilii Ekoloji Cevre Dergisi, 9(35), 2000, 26-30.
[21] I.Sisman ,I.Imamoglu, A.O.Aydin,Determination of heavy metals in roadside soil from Sapanca area highway,
Turkey,International Journal of Environment and Pollution,17,2002,306-311.
[22] C. Aydinalp, E.A.Fitzpatrick,M.S. Cresser ,Heavy metal pollution in some soil and water resources of Bursa
province, Turkey ,Communications in soil science and plant analysis, Vol. 36, 2005, 1691-1716.
[23] L.G.Tolun, O.S.Okay, A.F.Gaines, M.Tolay, H.Tufekci, N.Kiratli, The pollution status and the toxicity of
surface sediments in Izmit Bay (Marmara Sea), Turkey, Environmental International, 26,2001, 163-168.
[24] O.Turkoglu, S.Saracoglu, M.Soylak, Trace metal levels in soil samples from cross roads in KayseriAnkara
motorway, Trace Element and Electrolytes, 20, 2003, 225229.
[25] M.Coskun, E.Steinnes, M.V.Frontasyeva, T.E.Sjobakk, S.Demkina, Heavy metal pollution of surface soil in
the Thrace Region, Turkey, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol.119,(No.1/3), 2006.
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PAPER 191
USAGE OF SHRUBBY TREES TO PROVIDE AS BAIT PLANT AND IMPROVEMENT ACTIVITIES IN

THE ARID AND DESERT AREAS
Ramazan Acar1, Sukru Dursun2, Abdullah zkse1

1
Selcuk University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Agronomy, Konya-Turkey
2
Selcuk University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Dept., Konya-Turkey,
Email:; racar@selcuk.edu.tr; aozkose@selcuk.edu.tr; sdursun@selcuk.edu.tr;
ABSTRACT
Growing world's population nutrients production needs to use the arid and desert regions in addition to the existing
production areas with good planning. It will be needed to bring into places that contribute to the production. These
areas will support the production of plant and animal varieties selected, bred by appropriate methods for sustainable
growth. It is needed, especially in production of animal feed, primarily in the trees form and shrub plants can be
achieved to use. Suitability of plants to be selected in this region, which is important in these regions due to the
scarcity of fresh water, provision of necessary water. Response of plants to use waste water or non quality water is
also important. Shrub and tree form plants (Atriplex ssp., Kochia prostrata, Prosopis juliflora etc.) upbringing is
important in pre-application and additional measures of success. These activities carried out for the feeding of
domestic animals, such as biological diversity caused by the wind, which will contribute to the prevention of
erosion. After all, the food in the world suffering from these areas, and areas in the future may be very absence for
food production. Studies related to this area in international cooperation and knowledge transfer is very important.
Keywords: arid and desert areas, tree and shrub plants, animal feed
INTRODUCTION
Arid and semi-arid areas constitute about 50% of the total area in the world. These areas have the potential to less
rainfall and thus the low crop production, but also places where people and animals. Livestock plays an important
role in ensuring that people living around here. Crop production in arid and semi-arid regions has a negative impact
on animal husbandry. In addition to the lack of rainfall, at arid (25-200 mm rainfall) and semi-arid (200-800 mm
rainfall) locations, evaporation with high temperature is an important problem. All of these the harsh environmental
conditions occur problems for people, animals and plants [1]. When looking at these places, bush and trees plant
crops forum has more chance to survive in the fields of nature instead of the grass plant form. This is a concern key
for animal breeders. Shrub or tree plant forms are one of the plants facts for those places livelihoods that help to
most people feed livestock animals. The most important difference between plantations in arid and semi-arid areas,
the irrigation need in arid zone plantations during the first one or two years, whereas after the taken necessary
technical measures, there are little or no need for irrigation in semi-arid region is that plantations [2]. Numbers of
shrubs and trees species are very limited in arid and semi-arid regions. Desertification is the lack of rainfall and soil
moisture, as well as the formation of the desert as a result of human activities to decrease the vegetation and the
spread of accelerated formation [2]. According to Erinc formula (Erin, 1965) Turkey is divided into six classes,
indicated full-arid, arid, semi-arid desert areas with the corresponding sequence of vegetation, desert step, step. Full-
arid area is in Turkey, south of South Eastern Anatolia; and arid area is some of the South Eastern Anatolia, with the
driest places in Central Anatolia [2]. Ecosystems in arid and semi-arid regions are sensitive and destroyed very
quickly. The most important problem in arid and semi-arid regions can not be found an adequate level of water.
Sometimes, people can find the water to meet only their needs. For this reason, a temporary time period (2-4 years),
water needed for irrigation can be a big problem for placement in plant cultivation and planting in there.
Temporarily using the lower quality waters and waste water to solve this problem will contribute the solution (Acar
and Dursun, 2011). Some of the plants that grow in drought conditions have also resistant to poor quality water or
partially to salt water. This feature to give attention to selection of plants in these areas, it would eliminate the
objection related to local people sharing water. Important factors for success in arid and semi-arid areas are project
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finance, purpose, and environmentally friendly plant; the method can be applied to ensure the success, the support
and participation with local people. In addition, it is to production of the animal types plants for consume and
transform.
There is some available livelihood farming and applications with providing people seek either prevention of erosion
and plant-based solution in arid and semi-arid regions of the world countries. Some trees and shrubs plants are
shown below grown these regions.
Table 1. Some tree and shrub species used as fodder in drought parts of the West Asia and North Africa
(Houerou, 2000)
Family Species
Chenopodiaceae Atriplex halimus, A. glauca, A. Leucoclada, A. mollis, Salsola vermiculata, S. richteri,
S. paletzkiana, Haloxylon persicum, H. aphyllum, Aellenia subaphyllla, kochia spp.
Atriplex amnicola, A. undulata,
A. lampa, A. lentiformis, A. breweri, A. barclayana, A. canescens, A. isatidea, A.
paludosa, A. cinerae,
A. polycarpa, A. repanda, A. nummularia
Leguminaceae Hedysarum argyreum, Coronilla valentina, Medicago arborea, Acacia spp., Cassia
spp.,Prosopis spp. , Parkinsonia ssp. , Gleiditsia triacanthos, Geoffrea decorticans
Oleaceae Olea europeae var. silvestris
Eleagnaceae Eleagnus angustifolia, Hippophae rhamnoides
Rhamnaceae Rhamnus oleoides
Anacardiaceae Rhus tripartita, Rhus pentaphylla
Asclepiadaceae Periploca angustifolia
Polygonaceae Calligonum spp.
Asteraceae Artemisia badhysi, Artemisia herba-alba
Myoponaceae Myoporum insulare, M. serratum, M. pictum
Vitis rupestis, V. berlandieri, V. riparia
Opuntia ficus indica, O. robusta, O. inermi, O. fisicaulis
There are many plants to be added to the above table. Plant growth in arid and semi-arid regions is difficult and
risky, especially the germination and first time growth. The risk of germination and growth of these plants growing
with seeds can be minimized in arid regions, to growth in the seedlings form to be planted and covered where the
speed on especially with saline soils. These plants must be preserved such as irrigation, sun protection, reducing
evaporation to increase the success of crops in the first year growth, especially both arid and semi-arid regions.
Feed requirements of animals production may be reduced minimize the effect of adverse environmental conditions
besides a good plants selection with an appropriate method.
Some rules for selection of plant types:

-To choose right plants species for arid and semi-arid areas must be naturally growing plants in that area or can grow
at required conditions of the region which is closest to it or may have ability priority to adaptation,
-It must be more careful for plants selection in the arid and semi-arid, which they can be fit to growth at salty, stony,
sandy and shallow soils places,
-Non-toxic plants for animals to be chosen in nutritious and enough capable to feed,
-More deep-rooted and fast rooted plants should be preferred with ability to more drought stem with higher rood/
body ratio,
-The choice of plant species selection must be serve the multi-purpose (such as contribution to beekeeping) an
additional income for the rural economy by means of to be taken into consideration these features income,
-It must be selected as possible as long-lived plants.
Important Remarks for Agricultural Growth:

-It must be right chose as enough seeds and seedling during selection of limited plant species; must be stock seeds
and seedling for died plants and vacant places or provide any other reasons,
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-If the growth rate is very low using the seed, greenhouse or nursery production areas will always be available for
seedlings production,
- During preparing the land, preparation of wind curtains for erosion prevention must be pre-creation (the creation of
inorganic or organic hedges) opened ditches or pits, provided organic or inorganic or soil organic matter to increase
cover reducing water loss,
-preparation mulch system, sun efficacy reducing organic or inorganic shades, terraces, etc., will be done,
- As such as range planting or sowing time, planting or sowing spaces or depth issues are important. For example, in
the future, water needs will increase with the increase in transpiration with increasing trees stem and root.
-Space between plants should be wider than usual spacing at precipitation, because insufficient moisture allows
development of living to low number of trees and bushes, the in the soil per unit area.
-Especially in arid areas, tree seedlings should be preferred Instead of seed and should be considered trees covered.
The average seedling survival percentage of seedlings and long development for saplings covered were determined
significantly more than bare-root seedlings. Cup depth, cup volume, and poured mortar are important for covered
seedlings. Mycorrhiza inoculation increases the seedling survival rate in cap specified duties.
- If a single species does not restrict rather than based on the cultivation, a mixture of different species of trees and
shrubs should be planted. This minimizes adverse effects in abnormal situation.
- Especially in semi-arid areas, weed hoes struggle, shallow soil maintenance etc. handled work in the maintenance
of 3-5 years is recommended for success.
-Particularly, planted seedlings irrigation in arid areas may be required in two years (may be more than this).
Irrigation technique needs to be done the deeper root development; otherwise the developed surface roods will
consist of roots, the lives of young trees could be endanger after irrigation cessation.
- Seedlings planting year or coming years, plant root collar, rodents gnawing or eating plants measures must be
taken to prevent or defeat. It can be covered with wire mesh. In shortly, during the first years of protective measures
need to be for the pests.
- Places where water shortage is scarce in arid and semi-arid places. Accordingly, irrigation systems should be
implemented to minimize water loss and increase the efficiency.
- Purification the possible treatment process is done in case of using resources such as waste or saline water,
otherwise in this situation, resistant species selection come important position and these types of waters usage must
be kept in short time and minimum amount. Their impact on plants and the environment should be carefully
monitored.
- The main feed value that could support the plant to produce; pre-plant cultivation can not be done in the field
obtaining micro-climate. Again, the growing feed value herbaceous plants should be considered in favourable
conditions created with shrubs and trees.
-Before the selection of grass-shrub and tree species supply as study plants in arid and semi-arid areas, deciding to
applied ecological conditions, necessary, technical issues such as water supply, and preliminary research and
planning must be done a very good knowledge and experience of the elements in this present work issue.
-Project costs will be higher in arid and semi-arid regions, so funding problem should be resolved before studies.
The provision of public and private sector support is important for financial problem.
- This project should be supported by all sections of relevant studies and interdisciplinary studies. Especially, the
local people and planned benefits to work should be explained with benefit to people from the work, and people
need to better train.
- Projects should be a long-term period (at least 5 years) after project need continued. Grazing in arid and semi-arid
regions, especially after opening these places should be applied implementation non-destruction methods. If
necessary, the establishment of a management unit must be provided.
RESULT
Worldwide Studies on Shrubby Trees Application. Drought (25-200mm) and semi-arid (200-800 mm) regions of
Africa, India, Australia, South America, fodder shrubs and trees are used for feeding farm animals (1). The region
covering of Tunisia, Syria, Morocco, Libya, Jordan and Iran holds the world's largest man-made fodder shrub
plantations. Shrubs and trees fodder owner other countries are Egypt, Sudan, Yemen, Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
Atriplex species into Saudi Arabia were brought from Argentina, Australia and the USA. There have been attempts
in the United Arab Emirates plantation applications (5). Similar studies are also available in the U.S., Mexico,
Central Asian countries and China. Here, there is not only in obtaining fodder from shrubs and trees, but also
preventing erosion have utilized in there. In these places, yield was quote form feed, shrubs and trees more than
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form herbaceous plants. The study also Kazakhstan data is being received 1690 kg yield per ha with Kochia
prostrata (bush) and 957 kg per ha with Agropyron cristatum (herb) are obtained (6). a study with herbaceous plants
have been artificially established, in Karapnar- Konya which has lower than 300 mm annual rainfall, pasture yield
was obtained in second year, but the yield of 1763.6 kg / ha were obtained from the best mixture of green grass. The
advice of researchers in this place to get in breeding pasture grass, first step is the to start with shrub-form (Acar et
al., 2011). The study also planted in pits Karapnar-Eregli, Haloxylon sp. and Calligonum sp. seedlings (C4 plant)
were watered with 2-3 liters of water (life watering) and there is no irrigation during the summer. At the end of first
year, 90% seedling was grown with 15-20 cm length. H. aphyllium and H. persicum seedlings were formed 2 meters
deep pile roots in the first year and can form up to 8-10 m in the future (3). Non-legume 26 shrubs were used in the
study in Syria. While the average yield was 487 mg DM feed ha-1 the, maximum was obtained 2384 mg DM ha-1
with Atriplex halimus (7). In a study, chemical composition of A. halimus (% DM) was determined in four different
cultivation period as follows (Vo12-487).
Table 2. Chemical composition of A. halimus (% DM) in four different cultivation periods

Season Madd kum Ash CP NDF AOF ADL IVDMD
1 24.40 26.00 20.11 41.05 21.30 12.29 72.69
2 25.70 26.15 18.36 42.73 23.71 11.32 61.89
3 34.30 17.67 15.98 53.74 29.25 14.74 53.69
4 38.15 12.26 13.41 66.28 41.40 14.68 40.6
1. Spring, 2. Summer, 3.Autumn, 4. Winter, IVDMD = in vitro dry matter digestibility
Grown cultivated plants in some areas at Africa-Mediterranean region, annual precipitation is stated as follows:
-R <150 mm; Aracia ligulata, A. salicina, A. aneura, Prosopis juliflora, Olea europaea var. Oleaster,
-150-200 mm, Atriplex nummularia, A. halimus, A. glauca, A. vesicaria, Ceratonia siliqua
-R <300 mm; Eleagnus angustifolia, Vitis spp.
-R <400 mm; Gleditsia triacanthos (Source V.1).
Salt affected areas in arid and semi-arid regions in the world, growing legumes, grasses and shrubs, especially
Atriplex sp., it is possible to cultivate sheep and cattle ensure a delicious and high quality forage (Anlarsal-)
CONCLUSIONS
For the increasing population of our world, due to in terms of adequate nutrition in addition to what are the optimum
conditions, marginal production areas will be included in the issues considered in the future. For this reason, today
used limited or un-used arid and semi arid areas should be increased to participate in production activities. The
increasing scarcity of fresh water demand and water consumed by humans, Precipitation with limited water or waste
water will be introduced to encourage work on plant cultivating. Arid and semi-arid areas are sensitive ecosystems.
Plant cultivating studies in arid and semi-arid areas must supported by ecological, biological, technical and
socioeconomic aspects. For this reasons, the more restrictions, more knowledge, experience and care is required.
Plant cultivating costs are also higher. In arid and semi-arid regions, "Rural Development Projects" for appropriate
development and priority will be implemented, ecological, socio-cultural and economic aspects must become more
efficient. Projects makers in the projects planning stages must be experienced in this type of project. In addition, the
participation of local people and non-governmental must also be ensured organizations period (2).
REFERENCES
International Ash Working Group : A.J. Chandler, T.T. Eighmy, J. HartlnO. Hjelmar, D.S. Kosson, S.E. Sawell,
H.A. van der Sloot, J. Vehlow.1997. Municipal solid waste incinerator residues. Studies in Environmental Science
67, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam.
Thom-Kozmiensky,Karl Joachim.1994. zweite Auflage EF-Verlag Fr energie- und umwelttechnik GMBH. Berlin,
Germany.
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Draft Reference Document on Best AvailableTechniques for the Waste
Treatments Industries,European Commission Directorate GeneralJoint Research Centre,January 2004
Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives (B4-3040/2000/306517/Mar/E3), European Commission
Directorate General Environment, July 2003
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Review of Environmental & Health Effects of Waste management, Enviros Consulting Ltd,University of
Birmingham, Open University & Maggie Thurgood. Defra 2004.
PAPER 193
A SURVEY ON THE UTILIZATION OF BIO-INDICATORS FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITIES IN AGRO-ECOSYSTEMS
Albert Kopali1, Elison Rota1, Simir Krasniqi2, Uran Abazi1

1
Department of Agro-environment and Ecology, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
2
Department of vocational education, Prizren, Kosovo
Email: albertkopali@yahoo.it,
ABSTRACT
Biodiversity, available to us, as of today, is an outcome arrived at by a process of evolution of life on earth. There
occur various processes including the process of extinction and the emergence of new species. But the progressive
increase in the extinction of species is heavily influenced by the human activity, which on top of eco-systems is
verified even in agro-eco-systems. The considerable changes which have been happening in the field of agriculture
have irreversibly upset the equilibrium already existing between agriculture and bio-diversity. Many species, hailed
as key species, which carry out fundamental roles, are directly interrelated with agriculture. The measurement and
evaluation of their functional roles in agro eco-systems has a direct influence on the productivity, sustainability, and
the environmental qualities of agro-ecosystems. The ecological function of species might be significant in the
evaluation of biodiversity and their presence might very well be an indicator of the peculiar characteristics of the
environment, hence the name for biological indicators. They might easily help create an idea about biodiversity
both in the environment and agro-ecosystems. In particular, over the last ten years or so the use of bio-indicators has
been hugely encouraged, which is nothing short of a species or a combination of species with special demands and
with a combination of physical or chemical variables. This study analyzes a system of bio-indicators at various
levels which will in turn reduce the biological complexity and its influence on two types of agro ecosystems
(traditional and conventional) alongside the consequences to the environmental quality and its sustainability.
Key words: agro-ecosystem, bio-indicator, species, biological complexity
INTRODUCTION
Until recently the traditional agriculture represented the most stable agricultural production sector. The introduction
of conventional farming systems has considerably simplified the structure of the environment and that of agronomic
practices used as the systematic use of chemical synthesis compounds, using intentionally the fertilizers and
pesticides parasites which combined have reduced substantially the structural and biological complexity of agro-
ecosystems.
Conventional agro-ecosystems are based increasingly on the use of subsidiary energy which is so huge in use today
that makes you think that "... products of intensive agriculture are derived mostly from fossil fuels than from that of
solar energy " (Odum, 1973 ).The prevailing relations of agriculture with the environment as "caregiver and mentor
of nature have increasingly turned into aggressive relations in connection with nature. The biggest problems do
arise when we attempt to identify conventional systems and traditional systems Altieri, M.A., Letourneau, D.K.,
Davis, J.R. (1983). Modifications fueled by intensive farming practices of cultivation have changed both their
structure and functioning. Natural ecosystems use a huge percentage of their productivity to maintain the biological
and physical infrastructure needed to maintain soil fertility and biotic stability (Cox & Atkins, 1979). Conventional
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agro-ecosystems maintain a certain level of biodiversity, a level that ensures its sustainability in time, a thing which
does not happen in conventional agro-ecosystems, which contains a low degree of biodiversity and consequently the
sustainability of their stability. With this in mind this study, through an analysis at several levels, determines the
structural and functional differences in two types of agro-ecosystems, differences in levels of biodiversity and their
impact on their stability.
Under the study for purposes of analysis administration two types of agro-ecosystems in the traditional cultivation
and intensive "conventional" ones already cultivated with the vineyards. Vineyards are located in the hilly area of
Ndroq in the district of Tirana. The traditional practice of cultivating vineyard in the area dates back in early times
and extensive cultivation practices generally being used in the area such as covering the soil with vegetation, green
upturning etc. The traditional vineyard covers a total area of about 0.3 hectare. But in the vicinity of the area there is
yet another vineyard with an area of approximately 0.3 hectares, which is structured and administered through
intensive cultivation practices (conventional) associated with the utilization of herbicides and a heavy use of
pesticides, practices which intended to control weeds and to protect the production from pests and diseases.
For purposes of evaluation and comparison of biodiversity a system of bio-indicators has been used with several
levels, where the respective indicators are analyzed. In the soil edafic fauna, in the surface area ground fauna,
herbaceous layer - floristic composition (spontaneous vegetation), the air surface - avifauna, in agro-ecosystem - the
presence of the space with natural vegetation. The indicator selected for consideration in the soil is the one
pertaining to the edafic fauna community. The soil biological analysis through the study of micro-fauna serves as an
argument to verify the difference between the two types of agro-ecosystems (Parisi, 2001). For batches of samples
obtained is analyzed the level of diversity through QBS indicators (Parisi 2001) and the diversity indicator Simpson
(1949), Shannon and Wiener (1948), Margalef (1995).
The diversity indicator of Simpson (1949) serves to express both the number of species of the community and the
way in which organisms are spread across different species. Shannon-Wiener Indicator (H ') is the most commonly
used indicator in environmental analysis (Vincent et al., 2002; Bouchet e Sauriau, 2008). It allows to measure the
diversity of taxa (species) present, taking into consideration both the specific property and the equilibrium: H = -
(ni/N)log(ni/N), where: ni = number of individuals of species; N = total number of individuals. On the threshold
value of this indicator are taken as stabilized data as provided for by Vincent (2002).
Table 1 Threshold values of EcoQ different for H
EcoQ H
High H> 4
Good 3 < H < 4
Moderate 2 < H < 3
Poor 1 < H < 2
Bad H < 1
The WFD indicator. To put into practice as much as has been envisaged by the WFD a set of indicators have been
designed in order to have assessment instruments for EcoQ (Ecological Quality Status). In years within various
integrations made by the WFD (Henocque and Andral, 2003; Borja et al., 2004; Casazza et al., 2004), it has been
affirmed that it was essential to establish some classification schemes for the assessment of EcoQ that includes the
indicators of values which hold one of the five ecological classes proposed by the new law (high, good, moderate,
poor, bad). In the case of invertebrates the main parameters are: diversity and density of different species, the ratio
Between tolerant taxa and sensitive taxa (Muxika et al., 2007). Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) has been defined as
the relation between the observed real conditions and those that serves as terms of reference (undisturbed
environments taken as models) (Anon, 2000; Borja et al., 2007; Borja et al., 2004).
Margalef indicator is given by the formula: d = (S -1) / logN, where S - number of species, N - number of
individuals. The size of the number of species present for a given number of individuals is dependent on the size of
the sample, ie to be used to compare similar samples.
In the land by using ecological concept of biological form (Sacchi & Testard 1971) and by analyzing the edafic
fauna the QBS indicator (Paris 2001) does attribute a different weight to the groups that contribute to the
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biodiversity of underground life forms. In much of the surface there have been efforts to estimate the number of
groups (taxa) present and their diversity. In much of the vegetation layer which is under vegetation cover density of
bird species is analyzed based upon the Braun-Blanquet floristic approach. In much of the air surface has been
analyzed the diversity of bird populations (Farina 1992), through a series of observations from fixed points, in which
are recorded species that frequent the two vineyards by means of the the relative frequency ratios. From the agro-
ecosystems there has been an analysis into the ecotones since they constitute a significant element in defining the
functional potentials of a particular ecosystem (Canters & Tamis 1999, Vereijken et al. 1997, Mander et al. 1999,
Burel & Baudry 1995, Burel 2002, Hansen & Di Castri 1992, Farina 1995).
RESULTS
From the analysis of edafic fauna performed on the basis of two samples obtained in spring 2010 for each indicator
of used biodiversity there have been efforts to calculate the loss in percentage of diversity in the vineyard in both the
conventional cultivation with traditional one.
Table no. 2: Indicators of diversity of edafic fauna
System of cultivation Indicators Number

QBS Shannon Margalef Simpson N
Conventional cultivation (K.I) 54 1.2 0.65 0.14 37
Conventional cultivation (K.II) 30 0.85 0.50 0.35 14
Means 37 1.02 0.57 0.24 25.5
Traditonal cultivation (K.I) 94 1.8 1.30 0.17 357
Traditonal cultivation (K.II) 120 2.2 1.50 0.15 245
Mean 107 2.0 1.40 0.16 301
Loss of diversity 74 % 35 % 50.5 % 29 % 93 %
From the analysis we able to discern remarkable differences between traditional and conventional cultivation.
Agronomic practices such as frequent tillage and frequent application with herbicides and pesticides significantly
reduce the edaphic arthropod communities on land, either as the number (N) as well as the percentage of referring
indicators to diversity. By calculating the threshold values EcoQ for indicator H ' there results:
Table no.3: Calculation of threshold values EcoQ for indicator H.
System of cultivation EcoQ H

Conventional cultivation (K.I) poor 1.2
Conventional cultivation (K.II) poor 0.85
Mean poor 1.02
Traditonal cultivation (K.I) poor 1.80
Traditional cultivation (K.II) moderate 2.20
Mean moderate 2.00
Hence, it is noticeable that in the plots of land which are administered for the traditional practices there is an edafic
community which is much richer and more diversified, yet not close close tot levels good or high based on the
ECO (Ecological Quality Status) indicators.
By analyzing the biodiversity of the ground part (overhead fauna composition) carried out through the capture with
traps/snares, the Margalef index brings out the highest degree of diversity with significant difference in traditional
cultivation compared with the conventional one.
Table no.4 The analysis of the ground fauna on the basis of the indicators of the Maraglef diveristy
System of cultivation Number (N) Maraglef indicator

Conventional cultivation 9 1.00
Trational cultivation 13 1.45
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21 % 34 %
From the analysis of land cover with vegetation it is demonstrated that the number of species (S) is much higher and
more diverse in the traditional vineyards as opposed to the conventional one. The main cause behind this are the
common practices in tillage of land between the rows and in particular the use of herbicides.
Table no.5 Analysis of the layer of the vegetation cover
System of cultivation No of species (S)

Intensive cultivation 25
Traditional cultivation 51
Losses 56 %
Through the indicator of relative frequency an analysis has been done for the species of birds (avifaunes)
frequenting the two types of vineyards.
Table no.6 Species of birds and types of vinyards
System of cultivation Number of species (S)

Conventional cultivation 2
Traditional cultivation 8
Losses 80 %
The fact that traditional vineyard is visited by more species of birds shows the negative impact of the use of
pesticides and herbicides on the conventional one. By analyzing the ecotones it is easy to notice that they occupy the
greatest part in the traditional vineyard since they get a far great support from the forest space, fences and bushes,
while the conventional is surrounded by cultivation of herbal plants that significantly reduce the ecotones impact
and simplify the structure of the environment in general. In the traditional vineyard the ecotones account for roughly
38% of the total area, while in the traditional one they occupy approximately 12% which mainly belong to other
nearby cultivation.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the above indicators leads to an estimation of total loss of biodiversity in the conventional vineyard
for all of the levels being analyzed in roughly 43% as a consequence of the use of intensive cultural techniques and
general deterioration of environmental qualities. The data obtained from this study are useful because since they
bring out the importance in using the system of bio-indicators as important indicators for assessing the
environmental qualities in different cultivation systems. The conclusions of this study emphasize once again one fact
that as of today there exists no universal indicator that might have been applied in all situations (Dauvin et al., 2007;
Pranovi et al., 2007; Puente e Diaz, 2008) and that the sustainability of these indicators is still controversial as such
(Borja et al., 2009). Another fundamental aspect relates to obtaining the reference parameters for the environment
that is taken fully into account, until the ecologic conditions of an area are different from those of another one,
although the species may be the same or might exhibit the same ecological valence. In various studies there have
been found differences in the assessment based on indicators being used (Afli et al., 2008; Albayrak et al., 2006).
Moreover it would be appropriate and to the benefit of achieving a deep knowledge about the field under cultivation,
in order for one to be able to know about the environmental situation, to see where are the major influences of
environmental and human-related factors, since it should be stated safely that what is really lacking in these
environments, is a historical series of data, which might provide more indication about how the ecological situation
has changed and what might be the terms of reference for assessing the current situation. (Borja et al., 2009).
REFERENCES
Altieri, M.A. (1999) - The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agric. Ecosyst. Env. 74:19-31.
Afli, A., Ayari, R., Zaabi, S., 2008. Ecological quality of some Tunisian coast and lagoon locations, by using benthic
community parameters and biotic indices. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 80, 2:269-280.
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Borja, A., Muxika, I, Rodriguez, J.C., 2009. Paradigmatic response of marine benthic communities to different
anthropogenic pressure, using M-AMBI, within the European Water Framework Directive. Marine Ecology 30, 214-
227.
Brichetti, P. & Gariboldi, A. 1997. Manuale pratico di ornitologia. Edagricole, Bologna: 362 pp.
Burel, F. 2002 - Connectivity in agricultural landscapes, its influence on biodiversity at several levels of
organization and consequences on managment policies. Universit. degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca. 3-14.
Burel, F. & Baudry, J. 1995 - Species biodiversity in changing agricultural landscapes. A case study in the pays
dAuge, France. Agricultural, ecosystems and Environment 55:193-200.
Caporali,F., (1993) Agricultura Ecocompatibile. Ecologia Applicata, f.875-902.
Cox G.W. and M.D.Atkins (1979) Agricultural Ecology. Freeman: San Francisco.
Casarini, P. Camerini, G. Carbone, M. 1990 - Agricoltura ed alterazioni della fauna del suolo. Biologia Ambientale
3/4:5-14.
Corino, L. Luzzati, A. Siragusa, N. Jodice, R. Nappi, P. 1985 - Stato nutrizionale, profilo radicale e micorrize di
alcuni vitigni coltivati in ambienti del Piemonte con caratteristiche pedologiche diverse. Rivista di viticoltura e di
enologia di Conegliano, 2:67-86.
Dauvin, J.C., 2005. Expertise in coastal zone environmental impact assessment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50, 107-
110.
Farina, A. 1992 - Avifauna ed ambienti agricoli. In Paoletti, M.G. Faretto, M.R. Nasolini, T. Scaravelli, D. Zecchi,
G. 1992. Biodiversit. negli agroecosistemi. Osservatorio Agroambientale, Cesena. 137- 146.
Farina, A. 1995 - Ecotoni. Patterns e processi ai margini. Cleup, Padova.
Hansen, A.J. Di Castri, F. 1992 - Landscape boundaries: consequences for biotic diversit. and ecological flows.
Springer, New York-Berlino.
Muxica, I., Borja, A., Franco, J., 2003 - The use of a Biotic Index (AMBI) to identify spatial and temporal impact
gradients on benthic communities in an estuarine area. ICES CM 2003/Session J-01.
Muxica, I., Borja, A., Bonne, W., 2005 - The suitability of the marine biotic index (AMBI) to new impact sources
along European coasts. Ecological Indicator 5, 19-31.
Odum, H.T. (1973) Ecological and general system an introduction systems ecology, Rev.Ed., Colorado
Univ.Press, Niwot.
Paoletti, M.G. Faretto, M.R. Nasolini, T. Scaravelli, D. Zecchi, G. 1992 - Biodiversit. negli agroecosistemi.
Osservatorio Agroambientale, Cesena. 158 pp.
Parisi, V. 2001 - La qualit. biologica del suolo. Un metodo basato sui microartropodi. Acta Naturalia de Lateneo
parmense. 37:100-114.
Peuli, V., Kopali A. (2006) Agro-ecology. f. 600.
Puente, A., Juanes, J.A., Garcia, A., Alvarez, C., Revilla, J.A., Carranza, I., 2008- Ecological assessment of soft
bottom benthic communities in northern Spanish estuaries. Ecological Indicator 8, 373-388.
Ryszkovski, L. & Karg, J. 1992 - La biodiversit. negli agroecosistemi Il caso polacco. In Paoletti, M.G. Faretto,
M.R.
Shannon, F.P., Weaver, W., 1963 - The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University Illinois Press, Urbana,
117 pp.
Vereijken, J.F.H.M. Van Gelder, T. Baars, T. 1997 - Nature and landscape development on organic farms.
Agricolture Ecosystems and Environment 63:201-220.
PAPER 194
GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY IN ISTOG BASIN (DUKAGJINI

REGION, KOSOVO)
Hazir adraku1, Arjan Beqiraj2,*

1
Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Department of Water, Pristina, Kosovo;
2
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geology and Mining, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania;
Email: cadraku@hotmail.com
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ABSTRACT
In recent years, groundwater quality has been deteriorating in many parts of Kosovo as result of agriculture and
industrial activities, solid waste disposal, and urbanization. A preliminary assessment of vulnerability to
groundwater contamination in Istog watershed area of Dukagjini region, Kosovo, was undertaken. The major
geological and hydrogeological factors that affect and control groundwater contamination were incorporated into the
DRASTIC model, to produce groundwater vulnerability and risk maps. Moreover, a Geographical Information
System (Arc GIS 10) was used to create a groundwater vulnerability map by overlaying the available
hydrogeological data. The final DRASTIC index indicated that the central area of the Istog basin is highly
vulnerable to groundwater contamination.
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is a major source of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses in Kosovo. Deterioration of
groundwater quality became an increasing serious problem in recent years. The concept of groundwater
vulnerability is based on the assumption that the physical environment may provide some degree of protection to
groundwater against contaminants entering the subsurface (Napolitano, 1995). Over the past 30 years, groundwater
vulnerability maps have been developed in many countries as a basis for developing land use strategies that take into
consideration aspects of protection of groundwater from pollution (Fritch, 2001; Naqa et al., 2006). The final goal of
vulnerability maps is the subdivision of the area into several hydrogeological units with different levels of
vulnerability. The aim of this study is to assess the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination for the Istog basin
(Fig. 1) by using a DRASTIC model (Aller et al., 1987) combined with a Geographic Information System (Arc Gis
10).
The Istog Basin (Fig. 1), which is one of the most important alluvial groundwater basins in Dukagjini region
(Nikolic J., 1984, Simic M,1996, Peric J,1978-1979), consists mainly of Quaternary alluvial gravels that are 3-22 m
thick (Vilimonoviq J., 1969). The main recharge occurs from the precipitation and to a less extend from the karstic
mountainous in the northwestern part of the basin. The yield of the groundwater wells ranges from 1.0 to 10.0 l/s.
From the hydrochemical point of view, the groundwater mostly belongs to calcium magnesium bicarbonate type
having average values of pH, general hardness and general mineralization of 6.4-8.0, 8.0-40Gj and 130-800mg/L,
respectively.
For the assessment of the Istog groundwater vulnerability to contamination the DRASTIC (Aller et al., 1987) model
and a geographic information system (ArcGIS 10) (Napolitano, 1995) were used to produce the vulnerability map
for groundwater contamination. This involved: (i) data (hydrogeological, geological and pedological) collection, (ii)
scanning of toposheets and digitizing (raster to vector) source data, (iii) creating the attribute table, (iiii) analyzing
the DRASTIC factors for evaluation of Drastic Index, (iiiii) rating these areas as to their vulnerability to
contamination and deriving a Graduated Map.
RESULTS
Vulnerability refers to the sensitivity of groundwater to contamination, and is determined by intrinsic characteristics
of the aquifer. In this study, the DRASTIC model (Aller et al. 1985; Aller et al., 1987; Deichert and Hamlet, 1992)
and a geographic information system (Arc Gis 10) were used to produce the groundwater vulnerability map to
contamination of the Istog basin. The DRASTIC acronym stands for the seven hydrogeological parameters: Depth to
water, net Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography (slope), Impact on the vadose zone media, and
hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer. For the determination of the DRASTIC index number (pollution potential)
each factor rating was multiplied by its weight and the resulting values were added together:
DRASTIC Index = DrDw + RrRw + ArAw + SrSw + TrTw + IrIw + CrCw (*)
where r = rating for area being evaluated (110), and w = importance weight for the factor (15). A generic
DRASTIC table (Table 1) lists weights for factors having greater applicability (Aller et al., 1987) while factor
ratings are derived from data on each factor (Table 2-8). The Drastic Index values are calculated by using the above
(*) equation. Higher sum values, i.e. higher DRASTIC index, represent a greater potential for pollution or a greater
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vulnerability of the aquifer to contamination. The DRASTIC index was further divided into five categories: very
low, low, moderate, high, and very high. The sites with high and very high categories are more vulnerable to
contamination.
Legend
River
Border Istog basin
0 2.5 5 10 km
Figure 1. Hydrographic map of the Istog Basin
The Arc Gis 10, was used to compile the geospatial data and to generate the final vulnerability maps. The DRASTIC
index map (Fig.2) was prepared to determine the vulnerability to groundwater contamination (i.e., pollution
potential). This map shows that the vulnerability of the Drini i Bardh alluvial aquifer to contamination ranges from
very low (DI=91-110) to very high (DI=170-190). As a result of the vulnerability assessment, 10% of the Istog basin
was classified as being very highly vulnerable, 39% highly vulnerable, 26% vulnerable at moderate levels, 20% low
vulnerable and, finally, around 5% of the basin has very low vulnerability
Table 1. Assigned Weights for DRASTIC Parameters
Parameters Drastic Weights

Depth to Water 2
Net Recharge 3
Aquifer Media 5
Soil Media 1
Topography 4
Impact of Vadose Zone 2
Hydraulic Conductivity 3
Table 2. Ranges and Rating for the Depth to Water
Depth to water (m)

Range Rating
<3 10
3-4 8
4-5 7
5-6 5
6-7 3
Table 3. Ranges and Rating for the net Recharge
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Net Recharge (mm/year)

Range Rating
>80 mm 9
79-60 8
59-40 5
39-20 3
<19 2
Table 4. Ranges and Rating for the Aquifer Media
Aquifer Media
Range Rating
Quaternary Sediments (gravel, sand) 10
Gravel, sand, silt, clay 9
Lacustrine sediments, mostly gravel and sand 8
Conglomerate, Sandstone 7
Clastic formations 5
Terrigeneus mostly fine formations 4
Volcano-sedimentary formations 2
Table 5. Ranges and Ratings for Soil Media
Soil Media
Range Rating
Alluvial soil 8
Delluvial soil 7
Brown soil above the limestone 5
Marshy soil 4
Pseudogley soil 3
Red soil 2
Table 6. Range and Rating for Topography
Topography (Percentage Slope)

Range Rating
0-5% 10
5-10% 9
10-20% 8
20-30% 7
30-40% 6
40-50% 5
Table 7. Ranges and Ratings for Impact of the Vadose Zone Media
Vadose Zone Media

Range Rating
Quaternary Sediments (gravel, sand) 9
Lake sediments 8
Prolluvial formations 6
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Volcano-sedimentary formations 4
Travertine 3
Clastic formations 2
Table 8. Ranges and Ratings for Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day)

Range Rating
70-80 10
60-70 8
50-60 7
40-50 6
<40 5
The most vulnerable areas of the aquifer to groundwater contamination showed by the highest DRASTIC indexes
are located in the in the central alluvial area where the soil cover and/or vadose zone are very thin and aquifer
media consists mainly of gravel. On the contrary, along the western-northwestern and southeastern sectors of the
Istog basin, where marl and clay formations crop out, the lowest vulnerable areas of the aquifer to groundwater
contamination are located.
The above configuration of the vulnerability to groundwater contamination fit very well with the data of the
qualitative evaluation. This later has detected different levels of ammonium ions, nitrites, nitrates, phosphates,
BOD5, COD, etc, in the groundwater of the central sectors (Ashworth J.M. 2009-2010) of the alluvial aquifer as it
could be expected from the vulnerability map.
LEGEND
Figure 2. Vulnerability map of Istog the Basin
CONCLUSIONS
The DRASTIC model and a geographic information system (Arc Gis 10) were used for the assessment of the
groundwater vulnerability to contamination in the Istog basin. This assessment along with a continuous qualitative
evaluation are indispensable for this aquifer system because its groundwater represents an important water source
for potable, industrial and agricultural needs of the Dukagjini region. According to values of the DRASTIC index,
five categories of aquifer vulnerability to contamination are distinguished: very low, low, moderate, high, and very
high which fit very well with the data of the qualitative evaluation of groundwater. The areas with high and very
high categories, i.e. the more vulnerable areas to contamination are located in the central parts of the basin, whereas
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the lowest vulnerable areas of the aquifer to groundwater contamination are located along its western-northwestern
and southeastern sectors.
Acknowledges. We would like to thank Majlinda Cenameri, who helped us during data collection and elaboration.
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Aller, L., Bennett, T., Lehr, J.H., Petty, R.J., 1985, DRASTIC; A standardized system for evaluating groundwater
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and Earth Observation (ITC), unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, 172 p.
Naqa A. E., Hammouri N. and Kuisi M., 2006. GIS-based evaluation of groundwater vulnerability in the Russeifa
area, Jordan. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geolgicas, 23/3, 277-287.
Nikoliq J., Palavestriq L., 1984, Hydrogeological study on the groundwater-bearing potential of the region
Dvoran-Suharek, Beograd (page 1-32 and annex, in Serbian)
Peric J., 1978, Study on the possible accumulation of the groundwater in the Dukagjini Basin, Beograd (page 1-30,
in Serbian)
Peric J.,e tjer., 1978 1979, Hydrogeological project on the water yeild of the spring Istog, Beograd (in Serbian)
Simiq M dhe Grup Autor 1996. Results of the experimental research in the water capture of the tunnel, CAR Dushan
I and II, Prizren, Beograd (page 1-56, in Serbian)
Vilimonoviq J., 1969, Hydrogeological observations in the village Piskot- Skivjan of the Gjakova Commune
Beograd.
PAPER 196
THE USE OF ALTERNATVE PLANTS IN CHANGNG ENVRONMENT WTH GLOBAL WARMNG

1
Kbra Yazici, Bahriye Glgn, Nilgn Yenil
1
Ege University , Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, 35100 Bornova, Izmir
Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering department , Manisa
Email: k-yazici-karaman@hotmail.com;bahriye.gulgun@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
As a result of greenhouse effect that people created by releasing gas to the atmosphere, the temperature increases in
the surface of the earth, which is called global warming. To explain more detailed, the surface of the earth is heated
by the sun rays. The earth reflects those sun rays back but some of the sun rays are kept by the layer that is from
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carbon dioxide, marsh gas and water vapor. This causes earth to stay hot enough. However, it is observed that being
burned of fossil fuel in recent times causes accumulation of carbon dioxide, marsh gas and diazotemonoxide gas in
atmosphere with the reasons of deforestation, rapid increase of population and increase of intention to consume of
societies. According to the scientists, this increase causes global warming (http://www.kuresel-isinma.org/., 2009).
Figure 1. Deforestation.
Climate change, which is the result of global warming, is defined in a general perspective as "Whatever the reason
is, it is a gradual, global and important local effects of change in climate conditions" (Trke, 2008a). Climate
change in geological era is not only altered the geography of the earth but also made a permanent changes in
ecological systems especially by iceberg movements and the change in sea levels (Trke; Smer ve etiner,2000).
As a result of the climate change, hailing in excessive levels in the costs, drought in inner regions by extreme hot
temperature will be seen. If any precautions aren't taken adequately, it will cause a destruction of the natural balance.
The Effect of Global Warming on Plants.
As a reason of having plant species more than Europe , the importance of precautions has increased by considering
the levels of this threat. The main reasons of global warming on plants is;
The negative effects of the increase of levels of water in soil as a result of extreme raining, staying water saturated
of water, the decrease of oxygen levels of soil on plants
As a result of the deceleration of photosynthesis of extreme hot temperature, deceleration of the growth of the plant
and deceleration of fertilisation ability,
Cumulative tree drought in forests and spread of diseases,
Excessive hot weather causing forest fire,
Accelerated temperatures causing loss of product
Because of excessive hailing, destruction of crops
Change in potential of agricultural product
Mankind's fight for famine as a result of being exposed to excessive hotness of basic nutritients.
Increase of humidity as a result of excessive hailing and because of this insects and diseases visits on plants,
The hotter, more humid and rainy climate conditions which some of the regions will experience, causing to increase
of harmful microorganisms,
Immigration of the plants
Loss of massive production (Halak, 2010).
MATERAL AND METHOD
In the study, green tissue (park-garden etc.) as a material and in other landscaping arrangement that will be used,
plant materials without the need of a little water and/or extra water, and related documents and information were
used. Method of the research is observation, investigation, analysis, evaluation. This method is contained by several
levels. In the first level, it is detected that cultural environment on building the landscaping structure to be used of
xerophytic plant material were anchored. Later, environmental conditions were investigated for xerophytic plant
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growth. In the last level, the analysis of herbal design of plant material in need of less care and/or in need of extra
water were investigated.
Evidences. The main criteria that will affect the choose of plants which will be used in plantation works is
ecological desires. This criteria builds the roof of the design (elem ve ahin 1997). Regarding of global warming,
planning of plant choise according to the future is be inevitable. In the chart 3.1, different colours and tissues of
shrub types that will be used in drought climate are given.
Chart 3.1 Shrub types that will be used in drought climate
PLANTS
Latin Name Familia Remarkable Characteristics of the Plant
Achlleamlle folum Asteraceae Has yellow flowers
Agapantus Agapanthaceae Dekorative, blue colour
Alcea rosea Malvaceae Pink, violet flowers, height 2- 2.5 m
Ansodontea Malvaceae Pink, Violet, Red flowers
Antrrhnum macus Plantaginaceae Red and Pink flowers
Aptenacordifolia Aizoaceae Pink flowers , Heart shaped, bright leaves
Berberis thunbergii Berberidaceae A decorative shrub

Buxus sempervirens Buxaceae Round peak, decorative
Caesalpna Fabaceae Bright red flowers
Carabrotus edulis Aizoacae Violet flowers.
Calistemon chinensis Myrtacae Red, pink, brush shaped flowers
Cnerara Violet, pink, white, decorative flowers
Centranthus ruber Valerianaceae Red, pink flowers
Danthus anatolcus Caryophyllacea
Delosperma aberdeenense Aizoaceae It has pinky floewrs
Drosanthemum hispidum Aizoaceae Decorative, violet flowers
Delosperma lineare Aizoaceae Red decorative flowers
Eschscholzia californca Decorative plant

Gazana Asteraceae It has Yellow and orange flowers .
Irs ridaceae Violet, nice appearance and smell

Lavandula angustfola Lamiaceae Violets flowers with smell
Laden-Cstus Cistaceae Pink and white flowers
Lampranthus purpurreus Aizoaceae Violet flofers, decorative
Lampranthus aurantiacus Aizoaceae Orange flowers, decorative
Mahonia aquifolium Berberidaceae Yellow flowers

Nerum olender Apocynaceae Pink flowers, a type of shrubs
Plumbago Plumbaginaceae Blue colored plant
Rhus glabra Anacardiaceae Remarkable with having red leaves in Fall
Rosa canina Rosasea Blossomed in spring, through the end of the
summer looks decorative with fruits
Tulbagha Amaryllidaceae Violet flowers
Verbena bonarenss Verbenaceae Small flowers
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The most dominant plants are trees in herbal design. Trees frames by defining the space according to their size
(Yazgan, 2009). In chart 3.2 it is given trees and small trees to be used for their form, colour, tissue in drought
climate.
Chart 3.2. Trees and small trees for drought climate
TREES AND SMALL TREES

Latin Name Familia Remarkable Characteristics of the Plant
Arbutus unedo Ericaceae Decorative fruits
Cercis siliquastrum Fabaceae Pink flowers in spring
Cappars spnoza Capparaceae Pinky flowers in spring
Juniperus oxycedrus Cupressaceae Always green, decorative
Olea europea Oleaceae From Mediterranean regaon, always green
Nandna Berberdaceae Violetish leaves in fall or copper red
Pstaca terebnthus Anacardiaceae Turns from green to blue of fruits
Qercus coccifera Fagaceae Always green
EGZOTIC TREES AND BUSHES
Beucarnean olna Ruscaceae Vertical, blue leaves. Suitable for planting in pot.
Braheaarmata Arecaceae Can be used in park and garden since its top size is
wide.
Chamaeropus humulis Arecaceae Remarkable for its silver colour in leaves.
FRUIT TREES
Feijoa sellowiana Myrtaceae In Spring seoson, having decorative flowers
Ficus carca Moraceae Big leaves, tree appearance
Punca granatum Lythraceae decorative leaves in spring
Chart 3.3 Drought resistant types of grass
TYPES OF GRASS
Latin name Family Remarkable Characteristics of the Plant
Agropyron cristatum Poaceae Provides depth in green fields.
Festuca arundinacea Poaceae Provides depth in green fields.
Poa pratensis Poaceae Provides depth in green fields.
TYPES OF COMMON IVY

Bogenvillea Rosopsida Pink decorative flowers
Campsis chinensis Bignoniaceae red flowers
Trachelospermum jasmnodies Apocynaceae white flowers
Jasmnum Oleaceae white small flowers
Loncera Caprifoliaceae white flowers
(slam,2001)
Succulent and cactus are water resistant in drought and accommodates easily. (Karahan, 2004 and Karahan, 2006).
Besides its charming form and characteristics makes it remarkable. (Chart 3.4).
Chart 3.4. Drought climate plants succulent and cactus
TYPES OF
SUCCULENT AND
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CACTUS
Latin Name Family Remarkable Characteristics of the Plant
Agave americana Agavaceae Used in rock gardens.
Aloe longistyla Asphodelaceae Plumpy and watered leaves
Aloe humulis Asphodelaceae
Astrophytum Crassulaceae yellowish white flowers
Cereus Cactaceae Can reach ap to 3-9 m
Crassula ovata Cra2w21ssulaceae Balcony plant
Cactaceae Hedgehog shaped, can be used in the pot.
Echinopsis Cactaceae Orange flowers. Stays long.
Ew2uphorba spp. Euphorbiaceae Suitable for interior and balcony.
Echevera elegans Crassulaceae Used in rock gardens
Epphllyum Asclepadacees A different form of cactus with flowers which blossoms at night
Kalnchoe Kalanchoe
Mamlara Cactaceae Blossoms in spring and pink, small
Portulaca grandflora Portulacaceae Used in balcony, Ostentatious flowers
Rebuta Cactaceae Different shapes and forms
Schlum bergera Cactaceae Ostentatious flowers
Sedum spp. Crassulaceae Can be used in rock gardens
Yucca rostrata Asparagaceae, Ostentatious structure
CONCLUSION
The negative effects of climate change has no borders and is spreading rapidly in every area as long as undervalued.
Plants that are important to all living things is pretty much influenced by the climate change. Depending on
especially the global warming, there is a risk in 10% decrease of plant species which is a big threat for living beings.
As a reason of having plant species more than Europe , the importance of precautions has increased by considering
the levels of this threat. The reason of using drought plant is to decrease the costs, providing an healthy plant tissue.
According to the selection of plants that are drought-resistant property of the functional aesthetic feature, a more
detailed assessment is required. Primarily natural plant species should be included in the creation of green areas.
Because natural plants are more resistible compared to foreign ones and when they are grown in appropriate
conditions they are affected less by the regional climate conditions. Besides, natural plants are easily adjusted to
their environment, contributes to their fertility of soil, decreases erosion and generally needs less water fertiziler and
medicine. When the water potential is supposed to be decreased by global warming, the demand will be increased.
Distribution of water by sector is given below. In addition to the aesthetic properties of plants, drought-tolerant to
consider that will provide water conservation, reduce the dimensions of the threat of global warming. Water plant
care of the environment is less than the desire to create is, a positive effect on future generations. In our study,
Sukkulent xeric plant species of plants, cacti, water-wise plants (trees, shrubs, bushes and ivy species) with the plant
material to be preferred as a long-term;
(1) for irrigation of plant materials, less water consumption,
(2) ease of maintenance of green areas,
(3) a more sustainable water resources management and
(4) can deduct a minimum spending of financial resources for the provision of municipal water emerged. To get all
of this importance, advantages widespread the use of water-wise plants should be ensured. It has revealed that the
use of drought tolerant plants, healthy plant tissue should be evaluated together with the reduction of water saving.
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 2004. Avrupann Deien kliminin Etkileri Gsterge Temelli Bir Deerlendirme, AA (Avrupa
evre Ajans) Raporu, 16.10.2008
Anonymous, 2007.Climate Change 2007, theFourth IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange),Assessment
Report, http://www.ipcc.ch/, eriim,08.011.2008
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elem, H. ve . ahin. 1997. Kent i Yol Aalarnn Grsel ve levsel Etkileri. Kent Aalandrmalar ve
stanbulSempozyumu. Bildiriler Kitab.s: 41-54. stanbul
Dnya evre ve kalknma komisyonu (The World Commission on Environment and Development ) 1987.Ortak
geleceimiz WCED
Halak O., 2010. Kresel snmann toprak ve bitki zerine etkileriAtatrk niversitesi Mhendislik Fakltesi
Kimya Mhendislii Blm 3. snf rencisi25240 Erzurum, e-mail: orhanhaslak@yahoo.com
slam A.,2001.Kakts Bitkisi hakknda genel Bilgi(Sistematii, Yetitirilmesi, retimi, Ekolojik stekleri) yksek
lisans Tezi. Ordu niversitesi Ziraat Fak. ORDU
Karahan, F.,z, I., Demircan, N.,2006.Stephenson, R., Succulentplantdiversity in Turkey I: Stonecrops
(Crassulaceae)., Haseltonia, 12: 4154, 2006.
Karahan, F., 2004.Succulentplantdiversity of Turkey: thecasestudy of Sempervivumgenus. Pakistan J.
OfBiologicalSciences, 7 (6): 977980.
www.meteor.gov.tr/2006/kurumsal/ekitap/4mevsim5/6-iklim_deisiklii.pdf
Trke, M.,2008b.klim Deiiklii ve Kresel Isnma Olgusu:Bilimsel Deerlendirme,s:21-57. Yay.Haz;
E.Karakaya, Kresel Isnma ve Kyoto Protokol: klim Deiikliinin Bilimsel, Ekonomik ve Politik Analizi,
Balam Yaynlar,308, stanbul.
Trke, M. 2007. Kresel klim Deiiklii Nedir? Temel Kavramlar, Nedenleri, Gzlenen vengrlen
Deiiklikler,.1. Trkiye klim Deiiklii Kongresi TKDEK 2007, 11 13Nisan 2007, T, stanbul.
Trke, M., Smer, U. M. ve etiner, G. 2000. Kresel klim Deiiklii ve Olas Etkileri, evreBakanl,
Birlemi Milletler klim Deiiklii ereve Szlemesi Seminer Notlar (13Nisan 2000, stanbul Sanayi Odas), 7-
24, KK Gn. Md.,Ankara.
Yazgan, M.E., zyavuz, M. 2009. Mekan Bitkileri ve Tasarm, Ankara niversitesi Ziraat Fakltesi Yayn No:
1575, Ders Kitab: 527, Ankara
PAPER 197
ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL HERBACEOUS ORNAMENTAL PLANTS USED FOR

PHYTOREMEDIATION
Elif Bozdoan1, Bahriye Glgn2, Sevgi Oztrk3

1
Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Hatay, Turkey,
2
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Izmir, Turkey,
3
Kastamonu University, The School of Tourism and Hotel Management ,Kastamonu, Turkey,
Email: ebozdogan@mku.edu.tr; bahriye.gulgun@ege.edu.tr; sozturk@kastamonu.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
Phytoremediation is a plant-based technique which consists of plants that they can be able to accumulate different
level of pollutions. It is a sustainable, cost effective and greenery supported biological approach. It is a paramounth
aspect since urbanisation and industrialisation has caused enormous environmental pollutions in urban areas.
Therefore, ornamental plants that can grow in polluted areas can be used for decreasing of environmental
pollutions. Some of the annual and perennial herbaceous ornamental plants have high resistance to metals. Thus,
they can be able to accumulate and transform metals from toxic form to non-toxic form such as As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb,
Zn and so forth. Ornamental plants gain importance both for their aesthetical and functional qualifications as
remediation of pollution for urban green areas which have intensive pollution from traffic, industrial and agricultural
areas. This study aims to determine ornamental plant species which can be used affectively at pollution intensive
urban areas and their usage in landscape architecture as a design element.
Key Words: Annual and perennial herbaceous plants, ornamental plants, pollution, phytoremediation
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INTRODUCTION
Increasing population, industrial development and pollution as a thread for the natural sources of the countries made
the Environmental issues are among the most important subjects of humanity in 21st century. Most of the
environmental problems are the result of the imbalance in nature because of its bad or misuse (TV, 2003). The
main elements of life cycles in nature i.e, soil, water and air had been counted as limitless and used improvidently,
hence, they are destroyed at different levels. Technological development to reach the high quality life standards
resulted in pollution of ecosystems too. Pollution can be defined as temporary or permanent negative changes in
materials, systems and environment made by living organisms together with gases, liquids, solids and radiation that
are harmful to living organisms. In other words, physical, chemical and biological undesired changes in air, water
and soil pollution is a problem for all living organisms and their environment (epel, 1997). Pollution can be
eliminated by using different methods. In phytoremediation is a plant-based technique through which the pollution
in air, water and soil is transformed into a non-destructive form by the use of plants (Campbell, 1999). The
technique is accepted as an alternative to the expensive and difficult to apply methods, it is effective in eliminating
many organic and inorganic pollutants and cheaper (by 4-1000 times) to both constructing and remediating (Henry,
2000; Sadowsky, 1999). It can be built both into the polluted areas or further places. Those areas are green and can
be used for various purposes. The have a long lifetime if monitored regularly. However, the root deepness of the
species, negative effects of climatic conditions, inefficiency in short term and negative effect on the biological
diversity when the far fetched species are used make its use limited (EPA, 2000; Farrell et al., 1999). It is a
sustainable, cost effective and biological approach supported greenery. Therefore, ornamental plants that can grow
in polluted areas can be used for decreasing of environmental pollutions. Plants used for phytoremediation can be
able to accumulate different level of pollutions. Plants play an effective role in remediation of the polluted
environment in different fields. Especially in elimination of pollution resulted from the gun use in military zones,
industrial pollution and cleaning of soil, water basin and underground waters (EPA, 2000). This method can be used
effectively in treating pollution in air (resulted from heating, trafic and industrial facilities), soil (resulted fom
agriculture, animal breeding mining, settlements, transportation and waste storage field), water (resulted from
houses, indutrial organisations, power plants, agricultural and industrial facilities) (Ycel, 1995; TV, 2003; epel
et al., 2006). The plant species can differ according to the source of the pollution or type of the pollutant. Many
perennial herbaceous ornamentals used as a design plant in landscape architecture discipline carries an effective role
in amelioration of the environment and regaining of the naturality to the environment that has been polluted and
deteriorated (Bozdoan et al., 2012). Some of the annual and perennial herbaceous ornamental plants have high
resistance to metals. Thus, they can accumulate metals such as As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn etc. and transform them from
toxic form to non-toxic form. Ornamental plants gain importance both for their aesthetical and functional
qualifications as remediation of pollution for urban green areas which have intensive pollution from traffic,
industrial and agricultural areas. This study aims to determine ornamental plant species which can be used
affectively at pollution intensive urban areas and their usage in landscape architecture as a design element.
HERBACEOUS ORNAMENTALS AS A DESIGN ELEMENT
Green building elements, namely the plants forms the foundations of open and green fields Plants are used in those
fields both for their aesthetical and functional values. Their general form (upright, conical, round, pendent etc.) and
their colors (leaf, flower, fruit, body) are important aesthetic values of the plants that directs the users. Furnishing,
forming borders, hiding the ugly appearences, surface covering and eliminating the pollution can be counted as
functional values of the plants. Plant species used in open and green fields consist of ligneous and herbaceous
species. Ligneous species.consist of ornamental trees and bushes, while the herbaceous species consist of annual and
perennial ornamental plants. Annual ornamental plants are effective in coloring the field with their flower and leaf
colors. They are attractive for their single or multiple layered flowers blooming in certain seasons in various colors
such as red, yellow, purple, lilly, pink, white etc. Those plants are effective both at outdoor (balcony and window
gardens, terrace and roof gardens and city roads) and indoor together with or without the presence of other plants.
Perennial ornamental plants are used extensively in the same landscape areas since they are permanent and they
have aesthetical values. Those plants consist of different plant groups such as cactus and succulents, bulbous-
tuberous-rhizomous plants, ferns, ornamental grasses, sedges and reeds, bamboos, water plants and
groundcoverings. Usage aim and the usage types of these plant groups are given at Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table
4, Table 5.
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Table 1. Some annual flowers used extensively in open and green areas and their usage (Ycel, 2004)
Usage Usage Type

Aim
Aesthetical
Plant Latin Name
Functional
Rock Flower parterre Balcony Road Wall
garden and
terrace
Ageratum houstonianum + + + + + +
Alcea rosea* + + + +
Alyssum maritimum + + + + + +
Amaranthus tricolor + + + +
Anthirrinum majus + + + +
Bellis perennis* + + + + + +
Brassica oleraceae var. + + + +
acephala
Calendula officinalis + + + + +
Celosia argentea + + + + +
Cosmos bipinnatus + + +
Dianthus barbatus* + + +
Gomphrena globosa* + + + + + +
Helianthus annuus + + +
Impatiens balsamina* + + + + +
Papaver rhoeas + + + +
Petunia hybrida + + + + + +
Portulaca grandiflora + + + + + +
Salvia splendens + + + + +
Tagetes erecta + + + + +
T.patula + + + + +
Viola tricolor + + + +
Viola x wittrockiana + + + + +
Zinnia elegans + + +
* biannual herbaceous ornamentals.
Table 2. Some cactus and succulents used extensively in open and green areas and their usage Ycel (2004)
Usage Usage Type

Aim
Plant Latin Name Rock Flower Balcon Indoo Road Wal Groundcov Roof
Aesthetical
Functional
garden parterre y r l er garde

and n
terrace
Aloe arborescens + + + + + +
Begonia + + + +
semperflorens**
Carpobrotus + + + + + +
edulis
Echeveria elegans + + + + + +
Lampranthus + + + + + + + + +
roseus
Opuntia ficus- + + + + + + +
indica
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Sedum acre + + + + + + + +
S. album + + + + + + + +
** its stem is succulent.
Table 3. Some bulbous-tuberous-rhizomous plants used extensively in open and green areas and their usage Ycel
(2004)
Usage Usage Type
Aim
Groundcover
Rock garden
Balcony and
Roof garden
floriculture
Aesthetical
Functional
Pool and
parterre
Plant Latin Name
Flower
terrace
Indoor
ponds
Road
Wall
Cut
Anemone coronaria + + +
Canna x generalis + + + + + +
Chrysanthemum + + + + + +
maximum
Chlorophytum comosum + + + + + + +
Fritillaria imperialis + + +
Gaillardia aristata + + +
Gazania hybrida + + + +
Iris pseudacorus + + + + +
Lilium candidum + +
Mirabilis jalapa + + + + +
Nuphar lutea + + + +
Nymphaea alba + + +
Oxalis floribunda + + + + + + +
Paeonia officinalis + + + +
Sterlitzia reginea + + + + + + +
Tulipa species + + + + + +
Tulbaghia violacea + + + +
Viola odorata + + + + +
Zantedescia aethiopica + + + + + + + +
Table 4. Some ornamental grasses, sedges and reeds used extensively in open and green areas and their usage Ycel
(2004)
Usage Usage Type
Aim
Aesthetical
Functional
Plant Latin Name Rock Flower Pool Wall Groundcove Cut

garde parterr and r floriculture
n e ponds
Arundo donax + + + + +
Cortaderia selloana + + + +
Eichornia crassipes + + +
Festuca ovina glauca + + + + + +
Phragmites australis + + + +
Ranunculus aquatilis + + + +
Typha angustifolia + + + + +
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Table 5. Some ferns used extensively in open and green areas and their usage Ycel (2004)
Usage Usage Type

Aim
Flower parterre
Cut floriculture
Pool and ponds
Groundcover
Rock garden
Balcony and
Roof garden
Plant Latin Name
Aesthetical
Functional
terrace
Indoor
Road
Wall
Nephrolepis + + + + + + +
exaltata
Asplenium nidus + + + +
HERBACEOUS ORNAMENTAL PLANTS USED FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION
Many studies has shown that annual and perennial herbaceous ornamental plants can be used for the remediation of
polluted air, soil and water. The data on the ability of pollution reduction by plants whether by accumulating the
pollutant in their body or reducing the pollution levels are given in Table 6. While those defined species are used for
their aesthetical and functional values, they will also gain a priority in use at open and green field for their capacity
to reduce the pollution of certain pollutatns. Many ornamental herbaceous plants were determined in literature as
seen at Table 6. These plants are used as design plants with their aesthetical qualifications. Therewithal, some plants
are sensitive against to heavy metal pollutions as Anthirrinum majus, Ophiopogon japonicum, Portulaca
grandiflora, Salvia splendens Viola tricolor (Wang and Zhou, 2005; Dai et al., 2006; Peng et al., 2009).
Table 6. Annual and perennial herbaceous ornamental plants used for remediation of the pollutions
Plant Latin Name Pollution Polluting Plant Accumulation References

Tolerance
Alcea rosea Soil Cd High Hyperaccumulator Liu et al. (2008)
Alyssum maritimum Sewage Ni Leaf, shoot Bozdoan et al.
sludge (2012)
A. montanum Soil Cd High Root Barzanti et al.
(2011)
Amaranthus Soil Cs Shoot Tang et al. (2003)
tricolor
Calendula Soil Cd High Liu et al. (2008)
officinalis
Water Phenol Root Jha et al. (2013)
Water U Root Lee and Yang, 2010
Helianthus annuus Soil Cd Plant Hao et al. (2012)
Impatiens Soil PHC High Cai et al. (2010)
balsamina
Petunia hybrida Soil Cd High Wu et al. (2011)
Soil Cd Medium Wang and Zhou
Tagetes erecta (2005)
Perennials Annuals
Soil As High Root, stem, leaf Chintakovid et al.

(2008)
T.patula Soil Cd High Hyperaccumulator Sun et al. (2011)
Begonia Sewage Ni, Hg Dai et al. (2006)
semperflorens sludge
Canna x generalis Soil BTEX Root, rhizome Boonsaner et
al.(2011)
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Chlorophytum Soil Pb High Wang et al. (2011)

comosum
Chrysanthemum Soil Cd, Cu Root Gonzales-Chaves
maximum and Carrillo-
Gonzalez (2013)
Eichornia crassipes Water Cr, Cd, Pb, High Root, shoot Agunbiade et al.
As (2009)
Iris pseudoacorus Water High Zhang et al. (2012)
Soil Petroleum Peng et al., (2009)
Mirabilis jalapa hydrocarbons
Soil Nitrobenzen Zhou et al. (2012)
Phragmites Water Cd, Hg, Mn, Root, rhizome, Bonanno and
australis Zn leaf, stem Giudice (2010)
Tulbaghia violacea Soil Cd Street et al. (2010)
Typha angustifolia Water Phenol, Chandra and Yadav
melanoidin (2010)
Zantedescia Water As Zurita et al. (2012)
aethiopica
CONCLUSION
Phytoremediation is a plant based technique. Plants that were used at phytoremediation may differ from tree to
groundcovers; so as; herbaceous and woody. Ornamental plants has functional qualifications as remediation of soil,
water and air pollutions. Especially, heavy metals as As, Cd, Cr, Cs, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb; petroleum hydrocarbons,
phenols, btex and PHCs can be treated by using annual and perennial ornamentals. This is the secondary usage aim
of these plants at green areas. It means, these functional qualifications were helped to correct plant design for
landscape architects.
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Chandra, R., Yadav, S. (2010) Potential of Typha angustifolia for phytoremediation of heavy metals from aqueous
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marigolds for arsenic phytoremediation and income generation of remediators in Ron Phibun District,Thailand.
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Dai, J., Chen, L., Zhao, J., Ma, N. (2006) Characteristics of sewage sludge and distribution of heavy metal in plant
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PAPER 198
NATURAL PURIFICATION SYSTEMS, AQUATIC PLANTS AND THEIR RANGE OF USE
Fadim Yemis, Nilgun Yenil, Selda Kuzu
Celal Bayar University, Science and Arts Faculty, Department of Chemistry, 45030, Muradiye, Manisa-Turkey
Email: fadimyemis@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Water and process of purification of it have a crucial effect on living beings. Using of the residential and industrial
areas that reduces operating costs, chemical-free natural water treatment system which also protects the environment
at the same time provide economic and environmental benefits. In this context, aquatic plants, which are used as a
natural treatment system, are also used to prevent environmental pollution by absorbing of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and carbon elements from the domestic waste waters and by absorbing zinc, cadmium, selenium and
copper from the industrial waste waters also. In addition, since aquatic plants such as duckweed and water hyacinth
that is rooted in fringe and capable of self-renewal transmit the oxygen to the water through their roots, they enrich
the oxygen level and support the continuation of the existence of the fishes in ecosystem, as well. Aquatic plants
must be correctly identified for what purpose to use as a natural treatment systems. Because the ones grown using
nutrients in waste water are used as a protein-rich animal feed while the ones grown in industrial waste cannot be
used. In contrast, by anaerobic ambient fermentation the production of biogas containing highly methane gas can be
made by aquatic plants that grown in industrial waste waters; include trace amounts of nickel and cadmium
elements. It is known that depending on the development stage of the crop harvest and the type of waste water, the
contents of the plant, which is rich in vitamins and mineral, enrich the carbohydrate and protein contents so can be
used as a food additive. On the other hand, the therapeutic properties of aquatic plants have created interest in
phytotherapy researches. Because of their anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-larvasidal microbiological properties
lead such plants to be used in pharmaceutical industry.
Keywords: Duckweed, water hyacinth, aquatic plants, metal absorption, waste water treatment, antimicrobial
effects, carbohydrates.
INTRODUCTION
As a result of industrialization and urbanization; major increases have occurred in the amounts of domestic and
industrial waste waters. Elimination of the wastes without damaging the natural environment or recycling is the
problem to be solved. Waste water treatment systems for municipal and industrial waste waters play a major role in
cleaning. However, because of high costs of the conventional treatment methods, researching and applying any other
alternative methods are essential.
Water pollution was being handled only in terms of health until recent times. Today, it is understood that it is
significant not only for health, but also for the proper use and protection of natural resources. The world is now
committed to the water and does not want to waste even a drop. For this reason, studies are carried out for reuse of
the used water.
Being given of untreated waste water directly to surface water comes at the very beginning of environmental issues.
In order to eliminate or minimize the problem, waste water must be treated. In major institutions which were
established, physical, chemical and biological treatment processes are applied in sequence to remove the nutrient
and metal from waste water. Because of its technological systems set up separately for each process step, the
operation of treatment systems, maintenance and energy costs are very high. Compared to the other treatment
methods, natural treatment systems are recently preferred techniques which are in need of the minimum energy
consumption and do not require too much man power, chemical or mechanical equipment (Angn et al. 2010; Soran,
1992). The devices of natural treatment systems are constituted from ordinary plants such as lotus flower, majority
seen in marshes or river banks, thatched cane and duckweed. While these plants absorb metal ions such as chrome,
nickel, lead, silver, copper and zinc that cause pollution in water (Elmachliy et al. 2011, Gogotov 2004; Srivastav et
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al. 1994), nutritional remains and several chemical in their bodies, they also increase the amount of dissolved
oxygen in water (Tripathi et al. 1991).
The biggest problem with this type of natural treatment systems is how to assess the growing plants using nutrients
in wasted water. In these systems working with a completely natural mechanism, abundance of protein within plants
increases, as well. Plants that are grown in areas where domestic waste water is discharged have a biomass rich in
protein because of their locations in nutrient-rich environment. By grinding and drying aquatic plants developed in
such systems, mineral and protein-rich animal feed is obtained. However, nutritional value of dried material and
whether it is used as feed depend on the content of organic material and mineral of wasted water.
AQUATIC PLANTS AND TYPES OF THEM ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITAT
Water plants are the plants which grow in areas with water and in water-saturated soils. For other aquatic organisms,
providing an environment with protection, breeding and feeding; increasing the level of oxygen in water; removing
the toxic compounds and nutrients, helping water treatment and producing goods to use for various tasks are among
responsibilities they have. Aquatic plants demonstrate cytological, morphological and anatomical differences
compared to the plants growing in land. In addition, it is observed that those plants vary in their types of
reproduction and forms compared to land plants.
Researchers report that chemical structures of aquatic plants have phenol, lipid, carbohydrate, protein, carotenoids,
chlorophyll (Vasu et al. 2009), steroids, terpenoids (camphor, cineol, etc.), alkaloids, tannin, tall oil fatty acid and
elemental sulfur (Neori et al. 2000). Also, they have antifungal, antibacterial (Su et al. 1972), antitumor,
antimalarial, cytotoxic, pesticidal and suppressing the immune system effects (immunosuppressant) (Neori et al.
2000).
Plant species that are used in natural treatment are classified in three according to their life forms:
Submerged Aquatic Plants
Submerged aquatic plants, which are known as especially su kekii, yelpaze otu, boynuz otu and binyaprak, are
majority encountered in Turkey. They are submerged, living either suspended rootless in water, or hang on with
their roots in the bottom sediments, but generally green parts of them are in the water (Nordin, 2006). They live in
cold waters but in good lightning. Their growth rate slows down when algae covers the surface. When it is compared
to duckweed, their capacity to transfer nutrient is very low, and they have a limited ability to treat waste water. The
most commonly used underwater plant type that is used for water treatment is elodea, which is widely known as
binyaprak, and it enriches the oxygen of water.
Fig. 1 Elodea (binyaprak)*
Rooted Aquatic Plants (Underwater Plants)
The most popular of rooted aquatic plants are known as species of kedikuyruugiller, srsazgiller, haszsazgiller
and kpeksazgiller in the family of Typha latifolia L. They are commonly encountered in swamps and ponds in
Turkey. Rooted plants are quite efficient at nutrient removal.
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A** B*** C****

Fig. 2 A-Rooted Aquatic Plants; B-water cane thatched grass; C-kofa
Water Cane (Typha latifolia L.):
They can be extremely invasive in very hot areas. They approximately grow 1,5 to 3 meters. Their roots descend
deeper than 60 cm. Their growth speed gets faster by cultivation of grain or cutting branches. They blossom in June-
October. They may be up to a height of 1930 meters above sea level. They are spread of the western and central
parts of Turkey. They are perennial and used efficiently for cleaning lake, swimming pool and sewage water.
The chemical structure of Typha latifolia L. contains steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides, cerebrosides, long-
chain hydrocarbons (Varpe et al. 2012). Typha latifolia L. which has an efficient area of medicine has also effects of
tightening, diuretic, sedative, anticoagulant, cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as used for
curing the diseases like as abnormal uterine bleeding, lymphatic system cancer, kidney stones, tapeworm, diarrhea
and whooping cough (Deka et al. 2012; Varpe et al. 2012).
Thatched Grass (Phragmites australis L.):
They are from Poaceae (Grain) family and perennial plants. Their height can reach up to 300-350 cm. Their roots
descend deeper than 75 cm. Salt water resistant Phragmites has deeper roots than Typhas. Their need of pH changes
from 4.8 to 8.2 in growing conditions. This plant can live in a range from 0 to 2000m altitudes. It is widely available
in all the world scale, but the reason why it is commonly found in water beds is man-made pollution.
Thatched cane (Juncus sp):
They are from Juncaceae family. They are perennial plants that commonly form the cluster. They have no rhizomes.
Their stems are approximately 15-150 cm and they are tough and their base of leaves' number varies from 2 to 5.
Their leaves are round and the ends of their leaves are sharp, and their flowers are many and frequent. They can live
in the edges of saltwater and freshwater marshes, and live up to 0-100 m elevation. They are produced by the
separation method in spring.
Swimmer Aquatic Plants (Free-floating Plants on the Surface of the Water)
The most commonly used swimmer aquatic plants are water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), duckweed (Lemna
minor), water lettuce (Pistia stratiodes) and water fern (Salvinia natans). The leaves of the swimmer plants float on
water and their roots are in the bottom of the water. They take CO2 from air by photosynthesis with their leaves and
take necessary nutrients with their roots. Aerobic bacteria live in their root zone because produced oxygen is given
to the environment of wastewater. They make the formation of algae slower down by forming a layer on the surface
of the water. All swimmer aquatic plants are been in Turkey.
A***** B***** C****** D*******

Fig. 3 Swimmer Aquatic Plants (A-water hyacinth; B-duckweed; C-water lettuce; D-water fern)
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Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes L.):
Water hyacinth; a swimmer plant that is multi-year, has bright green leaves, ears similar to lavender and their
flowers and roots extend to 30 cm depth. Water hyacinth, which lives in waste water, has a length about 0.5 to 1.2
m.
The chemical structure of water hyacinth contains phenolic compound, terpenoids, alkaloids (Daniel et al. 2012),
chlorophyll, carotenoid (Vitoria et al. 2011) and it is reported that it has antimicrobial, antialgal, antibacterial effects
(Baral et al. 2011; Daniel et al. 2012; Shanab et al. 2010).
Duckweed (Lemna minor L.):
Lemna spp, Spirodela spp. and Wolffa spp. are the three common species. Their roots are generally 1 to 2 cm long
and their leaves are a few mm, they are small, have green color and are a swimmer plant. They are the smallest and
the most rapidly growing species of flowering plant. A cell on their leaves spreads by segmentation. Each leaf is
capable of producing about 10 to 20 new leaves as long as they live. The rates of growth of these plants are two
times than the other plants. In appropriate temperature conditions (27C), the number of Lemma species can reach
up two times in four days and can completely cover the water's surface (Nalbur, 1997). Duckweed; has a huge
capacity of absorbing macro elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium (Dalu et
al. 2003; Landolt et al. 1987). It is detected that Spirodela polyrrhiza species of duckweed take higher amount of
heavy metal to its structure than algae. For instance; the amount of zinc, which is located in body of duckweed, is
more than 2700 times depending on their conditions (Sharma et al. 1995). L. minor as one of the duckweed species
contains in high degree of heavy metals such as cadmium, selenium and copper and middle degree of chrome. In
another study, it is indicated that duckweed which is grown in 1,2 and 4 M arsenic acid concentrations take 4 M
arsenic (Rahman et al. 2007). Small structure of duckweed and its rapid growth features provides an advantage in
toxicity tests. Since the floating part of duckweed takes directly the chemicals to its body, controls of toxic
substance are easily made. By this way, it can be measurable by counting the leaves of duckweed and calculating the
growth rate, the toxicity of fat, phenols and aromatic compounds and also herbicides.
Duckweed has an important role in medical, food and pharmaceutical industry. Also, it is very important in food
sector because of preventing microbial degradation. Because of its help to cure coroner and dermatological diseases,
duckweed is among the interest of plants as well as showing characteristics of anti-radical, anti-microbial, anti-
candital, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-mutagenic, antibiotics, antidiuretic and phytotoxic. Moreover, its capacity
to have catching hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion radicals makes duckweed important by the regarding to
prevention of the DNA destruction (Deka et al. 2012; Glin et al. 2010).
The studies show that the chemical structure of it also contains anthraquinone, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, streroid,
carotenoid, flavonoids, as well as crude protein and crude fiber (Effiong et al. 2010).
RESULTS
Increasing world population that parallels to the developing industry causes our earth to be polluted and this
pollution is harmful for underground, surface and rain water. It has been known that the earth can make itself clean,
but the level of the pollution is so high that the cleaning cannot only be done by the earth and it needs to spread.
Increasingly polluted water, diminished water resources by global warming, rising energy prices and increasing
costs of manpower made natural treatment systems a candidate of water treatment technology of the century. By this
method, generally aquatic plants grown in natural environment are used. Treatment system with plants is not only
used for waste waters, but also used to treat for stored rain water. Those plants can clean up all the nutritional waste,
toxic chemicals and heavy metals such as copper, lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, chromium presenting in water.
These heavy metals cause serious health problems such as cancer.
CONCLUSION
The first treatment system based on plants was seen in BC. It is known that it was used in some places even though
it was not common. Today's technology-based cleaning systems and use of chemicals are very expensive and require
old-looking natural treatment systems which are brought up again. These systems have the power of both cheap and
high cleaning. The studies on existing machines show that they are very successful at cleaning industrial waste
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water, drinking water, agricultural irrigation water, dams and lakes. In conclusion, every facility for renewable water
whose every drop is needed, should build up natural treatment systems and purify waste water to give nature back.
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Baral, B., Vaidya, G.S. (2011) Biological and chemical assessment of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.)
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Dalu, J.M., Ndamba, J. (2003) Duckweed based wastewater stabilization ponds for wastewater treatment (a low cost
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Daniel, S.C.G., Nehru, K., Sivakumar, M. (2012) Rapid biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Eichornia
crassipes and its antibacterial activity, Current Nanoscience 8(1), 1-5.
Deka, R., Baruah, B.K., Saikia, K., Ahmed, R. (2012) Study of medical plants in a flood plain wetland in Barpeta
district, Assam, India, The Clarion 1(2), 87-93.
Effiong, B.N., Sanni, A. (2010) Antifungal properties and phytochemical screening of crude extract of Lemna
pauciscostata (Helgelm) against fish feed spoilage fungi, Life Science Journal 7(3), 1-4.
Elmachliy, S., Chefetz, B., Tel-Or, E., Vidal, L., Canals, A., Gedanken, A. (2011) Removal of Silver and Lead Ions
from Water Wastes Using Azolla filiculoides, an Aquatic Plant, Which Adsorbs and Reduces the Ions into the
Corresponding Metallic Nanoparticles Under Microwave Radiation in 5 min, Water Air Soil Pollut 218, 365-370.
Gogotov, I.N. (2004) Additional purification of water bodies and waste waters with consorciums of aquatic plants
containing microorganisms, Biotechnology and the environment including biogeotechnology 7178
Glin, ., Kirei, E., Akkemik, E., Topal, F., Hisar, O. (2010) Antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticandidal activities
of an aquatic plant: duckweed (Lemna minor L. Lemnaceae), Turkish Journal of Biology 34, 175-188.
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Geobotanisches Institutes der Edg. Tech. Hochschule, Stiftung Ruebel, Zuerich, p. 638.
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Rahman, M.A., Hasegawa, H., Ueda, K., Maki, T., Okumura, C. , Rahman , M.M. (2007) Arsenic accumulation in
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PAPER 203
A DRAINAGE BASIN MANAGEMENT PROPOSAL MODEL CASE STUDY OF DEVREKANI STREAM

SUB- BASIN
Sevgi ztrk1, Bahriye Glgn2, Elif Bozdoan3

1
Kastamonu University, The School of Tourism and Hotel Management ,Kastamonu, Turkey,
2
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Izmir, Turkey,
3
Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Hatay, Turkey,
Email: sozturk@kastamonu.edu.tr; bahriye.gulgun@ege.edu.tr; ebozdogan@mku.edu.tr;
ABSTRACT
Water resources and management subject has always been significant for societies throughout history.
Understanding of the importance of water between developed and developing countries activated management
models based on systematic, participatory and holistic perspectives. The study, has been carried out at Devrekani
Watercourse Sub-Basin-which is a sub basin of Western Black Sea Basin of Turkey. The aim of the study is to
develop integrated a basin management model for Devrekani Watercourse Sub-Basin which will basicly based on its
natural an spatial development dynamics. In the scope of the study, applicability of the proposed model to other
drainage basins in Turkey is defended. In this context, the development and providing of national level hierarchy is
also examined.
Key words: Integrated Basin Management, Water Resources, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
River basin management is globally important since it is a natural resource management that manages protection and
usage of water and other resources, that oversees ecologic and economic concerns and that aims increasing the life
quality of those living in the river basin. River basin scale in water resource management can be traced back to
1950s. The concept of river basin management has been used with the 1980s as integrated river basin management
which aimed to sustain participation, cooperation and coordination among the institutions. With the second World
Water Forum in 2000, global water crisis has taken upper hand in the international agenda. With the forum,
integrated water resources management has been taken within the framework of effective water governance (ztrk,
2011). At this point, the necessity of river basin-based management of water resource management has come to the
agenda (http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=16, 2011). In this way, the concept of integrated river
basin managementhas been developed. Integrated river basin management aims to protect the river basin and its
surrounding area, to adopt to various physical, social, economic and political techniques, to minimize the negative
impacts of natural disasters such as flood and erosion, to improve the life quality of the people living on the river
basin, to develop environmental consciousness and to integrate the stakeholders to the management
(www.unescap.org/enrd/water_mineral/pubs/watershed/watershed1.htm,2010). Such an approach requires teamwork
of specialists from various disciplines, takes all stakeholders into consideration, considers the influence of social,
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political, economic and institutional factors and includes a river basin management plan and its implementation for
usage and management of the natural resources.
Devrekani Watercourse River sub-basinManagement Model Proposal.
This work aims to develop an integratedmanagement model for Devrekani Watercourse river sub-basinby taking the
natural and spatial development dynamics into consideration. While developing the model, we have taken the issues
on water resource management and legal regulations which have been brought forward in international platforms
into account. Only a model that provides the ground for coordination of different institutions and their active
involvement in decision-making can sustain effective management. Based on this premise, we have suggested a
River Basin Council at national scale (Table 1). River basin councils will operate under the authority of Ministry of
Forestry and Water. The ministry willprovide a participatory atmosphere andreceive the support of river basin
councils in preparing national and international plans, programs, policies and legal regulations. Besides, the ministry
will be responsible for financing the 26 hydrologic basins in Turkey, regulating the annual budgets, overseeing and
allocating the projects, and for ensuring the coordination of local authorities and beneficiaries by preparing
meetings. The ministry is also responsible for preparation of an integrated structure by integrating all legal
regulations on surface and underground waters, shores and environment protection under a National Water Law.
River basin councils will provide their support for preparation of the bill on National Water Law. Suggested river
basin councilswill be responsible for protection, control, oversight, supervision, purification and integrative
management of surface and underground water. They will also be responsible for protection of potable water and for
preparing the water quality standards. Moreover, the councils will have duties such as maintaining coordination
among the river sub-basins, allocation of projects that are directed by Ministry of Forestry and Water to the river
sub-basins, sustaining communication and preparing the river basin data system that will collect all data from river
sub-basins.
Our model proposes the involvement of representatives from the governorate, municipalities, secretary general of
special provincial administration, the bank of provinces, directorate of environment and urban planning, provincial
directorate of agriculture, regional directorate of DSI (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works),provincial
directorate of health and universities located at the river basin area. Private sector representatives and related
chambers will also have the right to present their options and take active role in the management in our model
(Figure 1).
Figure 1.Components of River Basin Council
The proposed model is a system that defines the hierarchical relationship between the upper official institutions with
the organizations at river basin and river sub-basin area. There are 26 hydrological river basin areas in Turkey
(Figure 2). Figure 3 indicates the relationship between Devrekani watercourse river sub-basinswith the West Black
Sea Basin Council that has six river sub-basins.
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Figure 2.Location ofDevrekani Sub-Basin in West Black Sea River Basin.
Figure 3. West BlackseaRiverBasinCouncils
Table 1.Contribution of the groups related with the river sub-basinto the management.
Preparation of database,
Special Provincial Preparation of river basin management plan and
Provincial Government
Administration program,
DS 23rd Regional Directorate Maintaining finance for infrastructure such as potable
Provincial Directorate of water, sewage and transportation,
Environment and Urban Arranging workshops and meetings in order to maintain
Planning coordination among the related groups,
Provincial Directorate of Developing projects in order to solve the problems and
Agriculture meet the necessities,
Kastamonu Maintaining the security of potable water,
ProvincialDirectorate of Health Conducting the monitoring and regulating activities
with the group of specialists.
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Preparation of Database,
Local Government
Municipalities Preparation of river basin management plan and
District Governorate program,
(Azdavay, Al, Cide, Giving support for works on determining problems,
Devrekani, Pnarba Seydiler necessities and priorities,
Districts) They are primary stakeholders in application of river
basin plans.
Preparation of data base, network and contact with
other river basins,
Specialists
Group of
Preparation of river basin management plan and

Universities and Research
program,
Institutions
Developing projects for solving problems and meeting
necessities,
Conducting educational activities.
TEMA,
program,
Non-Governmental
WWF-Turkey
Conducting activities with educational purposes
Organizations
KED
Maintaining communication and coordination with the
KY-KOOP Association of
local inhabitants and their participation in activities
Hunters
Arranging workshops and meetings in order to maintain
Kastamonu Commodity
coordination among the related groups,
Exchange
Developing projects for solving problems and meeting
Chamber of Trade
necessities,
Chamber of Agriculture
Taking place in creating financial resources.
Representatives of
Local Inhabitants
program,
Participating in application of river basin management
Village Headmen plans,
Providing support for educational activities,
Taking place in activities related with problem-solving
and meeting the necessities.
Private Sector
program,
Representatives of Private Taking place in activities related with problem-solving
Sector and meeting the necessities,
Maintaining resources for activities related with the
river basin management.
In order to conduct detailed works on river sub-basins, to prepare data base and to sustain efficiency in management,
River sub-basin councils will be formed. While central institutions will take effective and active role in West
Blacksea River Basin Council, they will share this role with local governments in river sub-basin councils.
Devrekani watercourse river sub-basin council which will perform within the context of the model proposed in this
work will be responsible for preparing detailed management plans for the river sub-basin. The proposed River Sub-
basin Councilwill be composed of representatives of six groups. Table 1 provides the contribution of the
representatives.
CONCLUSION
The proposed Devrekani Watercourse river sub-basin management model will conduct activities to solve the
problems that will occur within the territory of the sub-basin and will have a leading and supportive role for
development of projects that will improve life qualities of those living on the river sub-basin. Performing this role
will be only possible with a hierarchically consistent, flexible, strategic, open-ended and participatory planning
approach.
REFERENCE
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Guidelinesand Manual on Land-Use Planning andPractices in Watershed Management andDisasterReduction,

ST/ESCAP/1781, 1997, 2010, http://www.unescap.org/enrd/water_mineral/pubs/watershed/watershed1.htm
nternet: 2nd World Water Forum, 2011, http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=16
ztrk, S., 2011, Devrekani ay Alt Havzasnn Ynetim Plannn Gelitirilmesi, Gazi niv. FBE ehir ve
Blge Planlama Blm, Doktora Tezi, Ankara.
PAPER 205
NUTRIENT BALANCE AN IMPORTANT TOOL TO BETTER PERFORMANCE FOR ALBANIAN

DAIRY FARMS
Sokol Stafa, Enkeleda Sallaku
Email: stafa4@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The big dairy in farms in Albania are getting more complex than before. They have started to be more concentrated
in last years with breeds that produce higher yields of milk and very depended on purchase feed outside the farm.
The economic factor and environmental impact are very much related with nutrient balance of whole farm.
Therefore strategies and software to manage and calculate these balance are important tools in controlling the impact
to the environment and the overall performance of dairy farms in Albania. Relation between the nutrient balance and
utilization of nutrient in dairy farms are not fully understood from dairy farm operators in Albania and it seems that
is new concept. The dairy farms are not requested management plan to control the manure and wastewater as well
as a yearly plan of nutrient management. These two plans should be an important objectives in coming years
according to the request of a effective management plan of discharges for every dairy farms in Albania. The
research on whole farm dairy nutrient balance in central part of Albania is in its initial stages and it aim to provide
an overview of whole farm nutrient balance situation and used its findings as an indicator to overall performance
and environment impact of Albanian dairy farms. This article provides information of the present situation of dairy
farms in relation with nutrient balance and compare it with other international findings. All the calculation of
nitrogen ustilization express the balance as proportion. So the information of nutrient balances of diferent farms
target evaluated in the study (only based on the information collected direct from target farms in central part of
Albania) result on inbalances and direct losses of nitrogen ranging from 62% -89%.
Key words: Nitrogen Balance, Nutrient, Whole farm, Management, Feeding,
INTRODUCTION
Most of the international studies carried out from diferent universities has express balance of the nitrogen utilization
as proportion. The nutrient Balance in dairy farms are defined as difference of imported nutrient and its exports; this
ensure a general indicator if a farm has the risk of increase of these nutrient and releasing them in the environment.
Determine of these looses are used as indicator in air, soil and underground waters contamination.
It is inportant to mention that all the international studies mention in this article are done with diferent methodology
and diferent situations. No scientific information has been produced to be used specifically for dairy systems in
order to indicate an average or an optimal value for the efficiency of whole-farm nitrogen utilization.
Most of the strategies of nitrogen utilisation inprovments mention in the international studies include reduction of
inputs and increase of output or both
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The methodology of this study is based on synthesis and statistical analyses. The source of the information mention
in this study are based on initial findings of the research conducted in Albanian on whole dairy farm nutrient
balance in central of Albania.
The farm selected are small (10 -50 dairy cows), medium (more than 50 dairy cows) and big farms (more than 100
dairy cows) all the farms are different regard the farm management and its facilities, but this diversification allow
to compare and provide a clear indicators which affect a nutrient balance in the target area.
The nutrient balance in dairy farms is defined as difference of imported nutrient and its exports. Imbalances
determine quantities of direct losses (ammonia evaporation) or increase of inventory of these nutrients in soil and
underground waters ( salt and nitrate leaching) (See Fig 1) Three priorities components which were integrated are:
Import of nutrient, exports of nutrients and the farm facilities. Cornell Nutrient Management spear program Mass
Nutrient Balance Calculator MNB http://nmsp.cals.cornell.edu were used to calculate the nutrient balance with the
information generated from the dairy operators.
It is important that all the farms should ensure data for a minimum of 1 year in order to calculate the nutrient balance
Comparison with other international researched and methodologies as well as the importance of this balance are
part of methodology used in this article.
RESULTS
According to the findings in nutrient balance in central part

of Albania in all the dairy farm's imports and exports of
nutrients are very different and variable influence from
different factors like season, feed produced from the farm,
the availability of forage in farm and forage present in
feeding diets, know how, calving periods etc.
Express the balance of the nitrogen utilization as
proportion and based on preeleminary of diferent farms
evaluated in the study (only based on the information
collected direct from target farms in central part of
Albania) result on inbalances and direct losses of
nitrogen ranging from 62% -89% (preeleminary results).
Most of the international studies carried out from diferent
universities has express balance of the nitrogen
utilization as proportion as well.
For comperiosn: Researchers from Cornell University did
whole-farm balances on 24 dairy farms in northern New
York, and the average nitrogen remaining (importsto-
exports) was 46% (Larry E. Chase, Professor, Cornell
University, personal communication).
Koelsch (2005) reviewed information from different
dairy whole-farm balances in the United States, and
found imbalances or direct losses of nitrogen value
ranging from 59% to 84%.
Castillo et al. (2000) a alyzed information on whole-farm
nitrogen balances from European dairy farms, including
high and low nitrogen inputs, and estimated that harvested nitrogen in the outputs ranged from 44% to 84%.
Likewise, Spears et al. (2003) found that in whole-farm nitrogen balances carried out on 41 Western dairy farms, on
average 36% of the inputs were accounted for in the outputs. It is inportant to mention that all the international
studies mention above are done with diferent methodology and diferent situations.
Regarding the nitrogen utilization according to Rassmusen et al. (2006) during the analizing of 38 dairy farms in
New York it is found that there is no benchmarking to measure a livestock farm nutrients management performace.
They sugested some indicators which include quantity of inported nutrient, export and remaining; remaining of
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nutrient per animal unit; percentage of nutrient remain; distribution of farm imports and exports; crop sales; and the
percentage of forage and feed produced from the farm itself.
All the strategies of nitrogen utilisation inprovments mention in the international studies above include reduction of
inputs and increase of output or both. In practical terms if the objectives is to maintain the number of animals and
surphace, reduction of inputs and/or increase of outputs than the inprovments shuld be based on:
The management of eficient of feed and feeding;
Manure management practice;
In the figure 2 it shows a simple model to optimize feeding program and crop rotation of dairy farms
At the example mention below is bazed on Spears et al. (2003), table 1 analyse the impact of diferent strategies to
inprove the avarage of nitrogen balance and present the achivable goals for dairy farms.
Table 1. Inproving Whole -farm Nitrogen (N) BAlances

Spears et al. (2003 Inproved Balance
Tons nitrogen per year per dairy farm
Toral input 126 101 (-20%)
feed 106 81*
fertilizer 5 5
bedding 1.3 1.3
Animals 1 1
fixation 13 13
Total outputs 45 54 (+20%)
Animal Products 28.5 34
Crops 1.0 1
Dry Manure 15.5 19
Balance (ton/year) 81 47
Balance (%) 36 53
* Reduce nitrogen imports in feed by 20%, by increasing crop uptake 10% and restricting
nitrogen in the diet 10%.
CONCLUSION
The Management Plan to control the manure and wastewater as well as a Yearly Plan for the nutrient management
should be a important objectives for Albanian farms in coming years according to the request of a effective
management plan of discharges for every dairy farms. Preparation of a storage capacities of manure in order to avoid
environment contamination.
The dairy farms should improve the use of manure according to a yearly management plan based on chemical
composition of manure and soil and according to crop requirements.
Decrease of inputs 20%. According to the NRC 2001; Broderick 2003; Olmos Colmenero and Broderick 2006 in
order to decrease nitrogen inputs ut to 20%, nitrogen intake in feed by dairy cows could be reduced by 10% and the
on-farm growing of crops that take up nitrogen could be increased by 10%.
Increasing outputs 20%. Increasing milk output and the resulting levels of nitrogen in the milk was estimated to
increase the nitrogen output, which may be obtained by increasing milk yields by about 10% (Wang et al. 2000).
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REFERENCES
Broderick GA. 2003. Effects of varying dietary protein and energy levels on the production of lactating dairy cows.
J Dairy Sci 86:137081.
[CRWQCB] California Regional Water Quality Control Board. 2007. Waste Discharge Requirements General Order
for Existing Milking Cow Dairies. Order No R5-2007-0035. May 2007. 125 p.
Castillo AR, Kebreab E, Beever DE, France J. 2000. A review of efficiency of nitrogen utilization in dairy cows and
its relationship with environmental pollution. J Anim Feed Sci 9:132.
Koelsch R. 2005. Evaluating livestock system environmental performance with whole-farm nutrient balance. J
Environ Qual 34:14955.
[NRC] National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle (7th rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Nat
Acad Pr. 381 p.
Olmos Colmenero JJ, Broderick GA. 2006. Effect of dietary crude protein concentration on milk production and
nitrogen utilization in lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 89:170412.
Powell JM, Jackson-Smith DB, McCrory DF, Mariola M. 2006. Validation of feed and manure data collected on
Wisconsin dairy farms. J Dairy Sci 89:226878.
Rasmussen C, Ketterings Q, Albrecht G, et al. 2006. Mass nutrient balances a management tool for New York
dairy and livestock farms. In: Proc Silage Dairy Farming Conference. NRAES-181 Cooperative Extension, Ithaca,
NY.
Spears, RA, Kohn RA, Young AJ. 2003. Whole-farm nitrogen balance on Western dairy farms. J Dairy Sci
86:417886.
Wang, SJ, Fox DG, Cherney DJR, et al. 2000. Whole herd optimization with the Cornell net carbohydrate and
protein system. III. Application of an optimization model to evaluate alternatives to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus
mass balance. J Dairy Sci 83:21609.
PAPER 207
EVALUATION OF CADASTRE RENOVATION STUDIES IN TURKEY
Fazl NACAR1, Hakan KARABRK2, Tayfun AY3

1
Osmaniye Korkut Ata niversitesi Harita Kadastro Blm 80010 Fakua / Osmaniye TURKEY
2
Seluk niversitesi Harita Mhendislii Blm 42031 Seluklu / Konya -TURKEY,
3
Seluk niversitesi Harita Mhendislii Blm 42031 Seluklu / Konya-TURKEY,
Email: fazilnacar@osmaniye.edu.tr; hkarabork@hotmail.com; tcay@selcuk.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
In our country, the first institution cadastre has taken up over one hundred years and in recent years, by means of
bidding for cadastre, it has been completed about % 97. In this long period, both the changes in the measurement
methods and also improvements in technology have resulted in the production of map sections in different
measurement systems through varied procedures and this has led to restoration without completing the cadastre. For
about 30-40 years the cadastral maps have been restored due to a number of deficiencies. Recently through the
amendments made to the cadastral regulations, Forming the base of spatial knowledge system has been added to
the aims of cadaster. Together with that new aim , the cadastral renovation works, supported by the credits of World
Bank , have accelerated and especially across villages the renovations of the sections made by using graphic
method have been accelerated. Our cadastral regulations have prohibited the second cadastre but by means of an
exceptional term it has given way for the renovation works. However, the cadastral renovation works in progress are
far away from realizing the aim of Forming the base of spatial knowledge system and only digitisation is being
made.
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In the study, as examples of the old and new cadastral renovation works, two sections are studied and the
shortcomings of the cadastral renovation have been pointed out. The renovation cadastre made according to the
former renovation regulations of a section of a quarter once a village, whose first institution cadastre was made
through photometric method and also the renovation cadastre made according to the renovation regulations in
operation of a village, whose first institution cadastre was made as graphic, have been studied. By means of this
study both methods have been compared and how sufficient the cadastre work done is for todays needs and also the
requirement of the second cadastre have been studied.
Key words: Cadastre, renovation, spatial knowledge system, second cadastre
INTRODUCTON
Cadastre, in the simplest term, is to determine and show the geometrical and legal status of the immovable
properties.
As being a definition, having been adopted by all countries, in view of the Cadastre 2014 report, "Cadastre is
composed of the systematically drawn up public inventories of the property data of a country, or region, borders of
which have been lined up on the basis of a specific scale. Legal land objects are systematically determined by means
of several display meanings. Such a land object is defined by public, or special laws. Cadastre may show the outline
of the immovable, in other words, together with the special data there of, the peculiarity, size, value, and legal rights
of each separate definitive land object, or the limitations, which are correlated with the land objects. There are two
main land recording systems accepted worldwide. In view of our country, it may be difficult to perceive the land
recording system. Land system is, as being similarly applicable in our country, is based on the principle of cadastre -
title deed registration, and title deed is by any means connected with the cadastral map. First of all in practice, the
borders of the land in question are ascertained, surveyed, and the parcel is registered to the land registry office with
all the property rights thereon. This system is applicable in the countries, which are depending to the statutory law
(civil law), such as Turkey, Germany, France, Switzerland, etc., and this is described as 'modern cadastre'
worldwide. However, in terms of the land recording system, unlike our country, cadastre is not a necessity, in other
words, there is no parcel surveying dimension (except the Torrence system) in question. Only the contracts being
executed with the company of notary public, or attorneys are of validity. A land, which belongs to a person, is
thereby recorded to a land record book, which is in the quality of an inventory, on the basis of the respective
certified contract. This system is applicable in the countries, having arisen out of British colony, such as England,
USA, Canada, Australia, and in numerous other countries worldwide outside Europe, which are depending to the
conventional law (common law) system. However, it should be reminded that, the aforementioned countries seek for
the way to adopt modern cadastre.(Yomralolu, 2011)
Cadastral applications worldwide are not uniform, but of systems with different peculiarities. For instance, cadastres
worldwide are divided into three groups in view of the mapping constituent. (1) English group; utilizes the large-
scaled maps of the National Mapping Institution (ordnance survey), (2) German group; utilizes the parcel-based
cadastral maps, (3) Torrence group; utilizes the provisional surveying plans (Henssen 1995).
There are two groups of cadastres coming to the fore in terms of determination of the borders:
a) fixed (determined) borders, and b) general borders. While the borders may definitely be defined in terms of the
fixed borders application, the official record only signifies the approximate lines of the borders in terms of general
border approach, and the definite borders may be lined up therein by way of additional surveys on the site (Dale and
Mclaughin, 1999)
Table 1. Applicable cadastral regulations in Turkey in chronological order
Name of Arrangement Date Purpose Type
Orhan Gazi
Defteri Khne Unknown Economical
(1324 362)
Kuyudu Kadime 1535 Border Determination and Taxation Legal
Issuance of Title Deed from the
1847 Determination of Legal Status Proprietary and Legal
Registry
Enquiry 1872-1873 Determination of Legal Status Proprietary and Legal
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Determination of the Geometrical and

Law on Restriction and
1912 Legal Status, Income and Value Proprietary and Legal
Registration of the Real-Estates
Estimation
Law on Kars, Ardahan (474) 1924 Legal Status, Income and Value Proprietary and Legal
Estimation
Cadastral Law (658) 1925 Legal Status, Designation of Tax and Proprietary and Legal
Economical Class
Cadastral and Land Registration Determination of the Geometrical and
1934 Proprietary and Legal
Law ( 2613 ) Legal Status
Land Registration Law (5602) 1950 Legal Status Proprietary and Legal
(Rural Area)
Cadastral Law (3402) 1987 Proprietary and Legal
Legal Status
Determination of the Geometrical and Proprietary and Legal
Cadastral Law
2005 Legal Status and Spatial Information Spatial Information
(amended by law No.5304)
System System
The process of cadastral works in our country has extended over a quite long time (Table 1), and the initial facility
cadastre has not been finalized yet.
The followings may be said about the current situation;
The cadastral subalterns, having been deemed sufficient for the time of their production, and which maintain their
legal validity for the time being, are not in the expected sensitivity at the present time.
Updating and survival of the cadastral information and documents could not have been maintained.
No information, other than those of ownership, may be provided therefrom.(Cay, 2007)
Replacement Law No.2859, and the Regulation No.22-A could not have fulfilled the expectations.
Cadastral system of our country could not have established the necessary cooperation with the other systems within
its field of interaction, and carries on its activities by itself.
Title deed registrations in the rural areas have lost their actuality. Such a circumstance causes difficulties in
implementing the planned projects on these sites, and in establishing a spatial information system thereat.
Replacement Law No.2859, and the Regulation No.22-A operate due to such reasons as insufficiency due to
technical reasons, loss of applicable quality, incidence of insufficiency, and inability to determine the borders
realistically on the ground. Establishment of a spatial information system has been included as an objective within
the Law No.5304, and this objective has added a new dimension to our cadastral works.
Such a change made by virtue of the Law No.5304 could not have been carried out in parallel with the objective
intended in 22-A applications (Sar, 2006).
Second cadastre has been banned in terms of Article 22. By way of making a modification in the Clause A of
Article 22, it has been stated in this section starting by However that, the provision of the first sub-clause is
inapplicable at the sites having been undergone land registration and cadastre.Statement of the exceptional condition
of second cadastre within the aforementioned law text has suggested that second cadastre may be applicable.
However the Regulation No.22-A only consists of the section renewal.
What is actually meant by the term renewal should be perceived as the whole of the technical, legal, and
administrative effects thereof, which include the constitution, survival, and periodical updating of a cadastral
structure (land information system) addressing to numerous fields of use. The issues of constitution, survival, and
periodical updating of a parcel-based land information system are included within the current law. In place of the
2859 and 22-A applications, a new cadastral model should be established by virtue of of a new law to address the
requirements.While cadastre is a service, which requires consistency, and which should adapt to the current
conditions, cadastral expectations remain unfulfilled not only due to the technical deficiencies of the produced
product (title deed, section), but also due to the failure in adapting it to the current conditions and techniques in
parallel with the socio-economical development of the society.
Cadastral and Renewal Efforts In Europe
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Upon being accepted as a candidate-country in the year 1999, EU harmonization process has been initiated in all
sectors since then.
Land registration and cadastre information regarding the first 15 countries (Germany, Austria, Belgium, United
Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, Ireland, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, and
Greece) in particular has been compared with that of our country. Having also assessed the responses of both our
country, and the aforementioned 15 countries of EU towards the questions of "where, how much", both two groups
are compatible with each other in general, but differ in details (Biyik, 2003).
Comparison of Turkey with Some of the European Countries
Upon being compared with 15 European countries (Table 2)in terms of parcel definition and address, Turkey
contains all the information. In terms of the information regarding the owner, only the information of his/her fathers
name is available. However, thanks to the automation efforts of the recent years, and to the communication having
thereby been established with the birth registry offices, other details may also be accessed easily (Biyik, 2003).
Table 2. Comparison with EU countries
Renewal Activities In Our Country

Law No.2859 On Land Registration And Renewal Of The Cadastral Sections
Being also known as a renewal law, the Law on Land Registration and Renewal of the Cadastral Sections was put
into practice upon being published on the Issue No.18088 of the Official Gazette, dated 25.06.1983. Besides, the
Regulation on Land Registration and Renewal of the Cadastral Sections, having been published on the Issue
No.22234 of the Official Gazette, dated 21.03.1995, remained effective until the year 2005. While Renewal Law
involves the renewal of the cadastral sections, which have been found insufficient due to technical reasons, which
have lost their applicable quality, or which have been found defective, conduct of any change necessary in the Land
Registry regarding such cadastral sections, Renewal Regulation, on the other hand, involves the technical and legal
principles to become applicable in the aforementioned corrections in the Land Registry.
The graphical cadastral maps, having started to be drawn up since 1925, and the land registration system, having
been established on the basis thereof, have not been undergone any renewal and updating until the year 1985, and
such efforts could not have been directed to information systems. Due to the arise of a need for a renewal, by which
legally valid numeric values are generated for all parcels, such renewal activities have been carried out since 1985.
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The said law and regulation remained applicable until the year 2005. Meanwhile, map production standards have
changed for three times in Turkey since the year 1985, and in 1988 Large-Scaled Map-Making Regulation, and in
2005 the Regulation on Large-Scaled Map-Making, and Generation of Map Information were adopted. Changes in
the technology and regulations brought about the need for the renewal of the renewal.
Due to the fact that the Renewal Law allows only for the conduct of technical works, it is impossible to take the
possessions, and proprietary rights, such as (1) voluntary partition, (2) subdivision and subdivisional partition, (3)
voluntary handovers, (4) appropriation by way of possession, into consideration (Dogan, 1996).
In other words, application of this law remedied no problem, other than causing the renewal of the cadastral
sections, and was annulled by virtue of the Regulation No.22-a, dated the year 2005.
Table 3. Renewal activities having been conducted in accordance with the Renewal Law No.2859
. The Field on which Renewal Law is implemented

Five-Year Terms
Number of Parcels Surface Area (m2)
1985-1989 30.813 155.214.000
1990-1994 36.617 272.313.000
1994-1999 154.877 715.005.000
1999-2005 213.332 992.321.000
TOTAL 435.639 2.134.853.000
Number of 22-A Regulation

Article 22 of the Cadastral Law No.3402, which regulates the ban on second cadastre has been re-regulated by virtue
of the Article 6 of the Law No.5304, and while second cadastre has again been banned under the first clause of the
article, the exception thereof has been stated under the sub-clause (a) as follows however, the provision of the first
sub-clause is inapplicable at the sites to have been undergone land registration and cadastre with the intent of
eliminating the errors to have arisen from the limitations, measurements, drawings, and calculations regarding the
land registration, cadastre, and modification processes, and with the intent of rearranging the cadastral maps to have
been found insufficient due to technical reasons, to have lost their applicable quality, to have been found defective,
and borders of which are not to be determined realistically on the ground. According to the Clause 4 of the same
Article the sites where Sub-Clause (a) of the Clause 2 are to be determined upon the respective approval of the
Director-General of the Land Registration Office, and the said circumstance is to be announced at the worksite, in
the regional center, and in the Centrum, to which the regional center is subordinated, by making use of the ordinary
means, and on a local newspaper, if any, no later than fifteen days prior to the commence of the activities.
Despite the provision, which declares the inapplicability of the Clause 1 on the activities to be conducted under Sub-
Clause (a) of Article 22, suggests the applicability of second (new) cadastre, it is then sorted out under Clause 4 of
the same article that, the activities to be conducted under Article 22/a will not be of cadastre quality, and that only
the rearrangement of the erroneous cadastral maps is thereby intended.
In that case, such activities regarding possession, change in quality, transfer by inheritance, voluntary partitions and
handovers, etc. may not be conducted within the scope of Article 22/a, and no addition may be made within the
previously made cadastre in terms of scope and content. The principles of the activities to be conducted within the
scope of Article 22/a have been determined by virtue of the Regulation on the Methods and Principles to be
pursued in the Rearrangement of Cadastral Maps, and on the Conduct of any Correction Necessary in the Land
Registration (having been announced on the Official Gazette No.26351, dated 29.11.2006), and the activities to be
called 22/a application have been included within our cadastre system by virtue of the aforesaid regulation. By
virtue of the Communiqu-Supplementing Application and Control Directive No.2007/10, on the other hand, it has
been attempted to maintain practical unity. Renewal activities have been accelerated in compliance with the intent of
the Law No.5304 to constitute the basis of the spatial information system. While the cadastral renewals of
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3,960,000 parcels have been finalized as of the year 2011 (according to 22-A), it is intended to finalize the renewal
of the cadastre of 8,100,000 parcels by means of the World Bank credits.
Comparison of the renewal regulations
Cadastral renewal activities in Turkey are conducted by virtue of the Renewal Law No.2859, dated 1983, and that of
the Law and Regulation No.3402/22-a, dated 2005. The differences between the respective practical regulations are
as follows:
2859/Renewal Law: 3402/22-A Governing Regulation:
1.a.The existing cadastral sections, which have 1.b.Ground-measurement-section incompatibilities

lost their ground-measurement-section to arise not only from technical reasons, but also
compatibility due to technical reasons, are caused from limitation errors, may all be eliminated.
to be restored into applicable condition, in a way
freeing them from their deficiencies and errors.
2.b. BHHBUY is applicable in the process to be
2.a. BHYY has been applied. implemented.
3.a. Commenced upon ministerial approval. 3.b. Commenced upon the approval of the director-
general.
4.a. Renewal works are commenced upon the
announcements to be made on the Official Gazette, 4.b. Field of application; being announced by the
on a newspaper being published in the district center, directorate in the work field, in the regional center, or
or in the Centrum which the respective district is in the Centrum to which the same regional center is
connected, and via conventional means, furthermore connected, via the conventional means, if any, on the
to be made on a newspaper being published daily in local newspaper, no later than fifteen days prior to the
Ankara and stanbul, and via radio, and not commence of operations.
commenced, on the other hand, in no earlier than one
month to pass as of the date of respective
announcement.
5.a. While land use conversion was applicable until 5.b. Land use conversions of the structures and
the year 2003, unrequested land use conversion was facilities to have obtained occupancy permits are
abrogated by virtue of the Circular No.2003/2. applicable.
6.a. Section drawing was used to be made by taking 6.b. Incompatibilities are sorted out upon conducting
the fixed borders, and the borders which may be not the final, but the interim drawings, and the
deemed valid, as the bases of the parcel borders, and following steps are taken only after the correction of
it was thereupon finalized by way of performing the such incompatibilities.
works for determining the non-existing borders.
7.b. It was allowed to utilize lineal
7.a. It was allowed to utilize lineal photogrametrical sections for information
photogrametrical sections. purposes.
8.a. While cadastral fee accrual was

applicable, fee collection was abolished by 8.b. It was provided to abolish the fee
virtue of the Article 36 of the Law No.5035. collection.
Other Renewal Activities

Renewal Activities being conducted via Correction Method. In view of the renewal activities, it has been
intended so as to correct any and all of the technical errors in the first facility cadastre. From this point of view,
Article 41 of the Cadastral Law No.3402, amended by the Law No.5304, is in a sense a renewal. Communiqu
No.1458 of the Directorate-General of Land Registry, which is meant to be the correction of simple misspellings,
may further be deemed as correction of mistakes and renewal in terms of land registers. Despite Article 41 foresees
correction by administrative way, jurisdiction considers plotting and measurement errors as change of ownership,
and therefore do not allow for correction. According to the decree, approved by the Supreme Court, in case plotting
correction does not cause any change in the diameter of the parcel (in plan example), in other words in its section,
then there is no change in ownership is in question, so such a correction is applicable.
However, in case there is any change in the section, this reminds that, correction will then become inapplicable.
According to the Article 9 of the Law No.5304 (Article 41 of the Cadastral Law No.3402), Any error to arise in the
measurement limitation, limitation, plotting, and calculation to be made on the immovable, geometrical status of
which is finalized, throughout the processes either at the time, or after the cadastre, will be corrected either upon the
respective application of the related person, or by the Cadastre Directorate on its own motion. Supreme Court
declared that, the term of ownership had already been deleted by virtue of the modification in Article 41, that as long
as the original measurement values and the utilization status on the ground are in conformance with each other, it
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had become possible to change the border of possession, being seen within the erroneously formed diameter, in
other words on such corrections could be made on the condition to prove by the mediation of experts that, the
original measurement values and the border of utilization on the ground were equal to each other, and in
consideration of the foregoing, the Supreme Court decreed to reverse the judgment of the local court, which had
decreed to the cancellation of the correction (Sar ,2007).
Renewal by Way of Digitization. Out of the 325,000 cadastre plans having been generated until the year 2006, only
38,731 thereof were generated digitally, with the parcel corner coordinates saved within computer environment.
88% of the cadastral plans were generated lineally, and have no parcel corner coordinate available. However, since
the year 1988, where digital working has been introduced in our country, maps should also be
digitized.(Sar,2006)As long as the maps will be digitized, maps are not only to be renewed as a whole, the scales of
the surface areas being found in digital values will also be found. The gravest problem being encountered in DGLR
(Directorate-General of Land Registration), where cadastral information system works are in progress, is the
unavailability of the spatial information. By virtue of the Directive on the Digitization of the Cadastral Sections, as
being enclosed to the Directive No.1999/1, DGLR has determined the principles of digitization of the lineal maps
within its own rural organization, and demanded for the commence of the digitization activities in the cadastral
directorates. Thanks to the digitization works, not only the parcel corner points on the lineal bases are given with
coordinates, but also the maps become renewed upon the opening of new sections according to these values. It is
further attempted to have the calculated surface areas registered to the land registry. A major judicial problem in
practical terms is how the surface areas of the immovables, which have been calculated via coordinates due to
digitalization, will be registered to the land registry. According to the Land Registry Regulations, no conversion is
applicable without the approval of the related person. Under such a circumstance, the result of the conducted process
cannot be reflected on the land registry, thus the projected works could not have been finalized (Sar, 2007). The
Law No.5304 on the Amendment in the Land Registration Law, and the Article 1 supplemented in the Land
Registration Law No.3402 are related with digitalization. In accordance with the Supplementary Article 1, cadastral,
or land registration maps are digitalized upon conduct of respective land surveys.
It is stated that, "The results of the conducted works are announced in accordance with Article 11, and the respective
corrections will be made in the registers of the immovable properties, against which no lawsuit is to have been
brought within the term of announcement... It has been attempted by this change to overcome the problem, which
was encountered in the registration of the digital surface area values in the land register. Upon review of the
"Regulation regarding the Digitalization of the Cadastral Maps", having become effective upon being published on
the Official Gazette Issue No.26356, dated 24.11.2006, it has been stated under Article 13 that, during the
comparison of the interim coordinate values, to have been attained from the plan, or from the original measurement
values with the fixed borders, the differences exceeding the margin of error, are to be corrected in accordance with
the technical cadastral regulations (Sar, 2007).
Application. In this study, the Cadastral Renewal Process No.2859 has been applied in the Uzunban Quarter of the
Dzii District of the City of Osmaniye, and the Application No.3402/22-a has been made in the Hemite Village of
the City Centrum of Osmaniye as well.
Exemplary Application Of The Law No.2859 / Uzunban Quarter Of Dzii. Haclar was granted with mayoralty in
the year 1954, and Haruniye was granted with mayoralty in the year 1957. Both two units were connected to the
City of Adana. These two mayoralties were unified at the date of 29.11.1983, given the name of Dzii, and became
a district connected to the City of Adana. After Osmaniye became a city in the year 1998, Dzii was then
connected to this city. Uzunban Quarter in our example is a quarter having been incorporated upon Dzii became a
district. Having used to be Haclar Village previously, it then became a quarter connected to the District of Dzii.
First facility cadastre of Haclar Village was made photogramatically at the date of 29.03.1979. While Gaziantep
N36-c-04-b (1/5000) section was opened for the land part, Gaziantep N36-c-04-b-2-c (1/1000) section was opened
for the inner-village (Fig.1).
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Fig .1. Gaziantep N36-c-04-b-2-c (1/1000) section was opened for the inner-village
It was undergone renewal at the date of 01.03.2001 in accordance with the Renewal Law No.2859.
Regarding the conducted work;
1-Haclar, having used to be village, at first became a mayoralty, and then became a district upon the
unification with the Haruniye Mayoralty, and it was thereby subjected to administrative changes twice. Cadastre
belatedly kept up with these developments, and the sections and land registers thereof could have been renewed 18
years later.
2-Sections in the photogramatical studies are more accurate than the graphical sections. That is so because
they have coordinate values. Besides, as the regulation requires, coordinate system is applicable in the country.
While the section scale is 1/5000 thereat, critical errors occurred in the measurement, application, and conversion
processes conducted by way of digitalization.
3-The area measurements are not accurate, due to have been conducted via planimeter. While the renewal
was also made digitally, there occurred differences exceeding the approval.
4-While there used to be an educational institute in the Haclar Mayoralty in question, it was therefore
subjected to a dense population in comparison to that of a village. During renewal, these structures were also
registered to the land registry, and respective land use conversions thereof were made as well (Fig.3) (No land use
conversion being requested after the year 2003 is being made).
5-For instance, Parcel No.290 is located at the border of 1/5000 section and 1/1000 section. Parcel No.290
was then subjected to conversion (Fig.2). In other words, it was remained within the zoning plan, and subjected to
parceling.
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6-Different coordinate and section systems were applied at different times (Fig. 4 ie. 30K-III).
Fig 2
Fig 3
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Fig.4
Exemplary Application in Hemite Village / Osmaniye in accordance with 22-A Regulation. Hemite is a village
connected to the District of Osmaniye Centrum, at thr south and west of which lies the Ceyhan River, at the north of
which the Endel Village is located, and at the east of which the hill, atop of which the Hemite castle is located, and
the Krmacal Village are located. While Kadirli-Osmaniye Highway passes through this village, one of the bridges
in the region is located thereat over the Ceyhan River. Furthermore, as an outcome of the construction of the
pipelines, Bak Tiflis Ceyhan Pipeline also passes through the north of the village within Ceyhan River. There
are also the channels being used for the irrigation of the plains at the east of ukurova located inside the village.
This is also the village of our famous novelist, Yaar Kemal. Cadastral works of the village were conducted in the
year 1953 in accordance with the Land Registration Law No.766. Sections of which are graphical sections, having
been drawn up on carton bedding. Renewal works were done in the village in the year 2011 in accordance with the
Clause A of the Article 22, amended by Law No.5304. Graphical first facility cadastral sections were digitalized
(Fig.5).
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Fig 5
Fig 6
It was shown by way of superposing the ground status on the section with calculated ground measurement (Fig.6).
The deficits, having been found out in the Hemite Village example, are as follows:
1.Voluntary allotments are not taken into consideration, the conducted cadastral work contradicts with the actual
situation, the parcels, having been divided by way of inheritance, and the parcels being utilized by consent during
the sixty years of time since the renewal by the first facility cadastre contradicts with the logic of the first facility
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cadastre as being a settlement law. In Fig.7, the parcel No.436 was registered in a cadastre as a single, despite being
actually utilized in 9 pieces.
Fig. 7
The structures, having been built after the 1950's could not have become formalized in the renewal cadastre, in other
words they could not have been undergone land use conversion. Acting as such institutions as the Public Works, or
mayoralties, the Cadastre organization may perform supervision of licenses. This causes the understatement of the
information regarding a particular immovable property. Fig.8 reveals the former and new conditions of the structures
in the Hemite Village. (The structures shown in blue are those, which were constructed prior to the first facility
cadastre).
It is stipulated under the renewal regulation regarding the places excluded from registration that, it will not be
applicable for the places dating prior to the date of issuance of the Law No.3402 (09.07.1987), that however the
places excluded from registration may be surveyed within the scope of the cadastral works, and this leaves many of
the non-registered areas indeterminable. The area, shown in green in the vicinity of Block No.274 of the Parcel No.1
along the Ceyhan River in Fig.9, could not have been registered. The non-registered area nearby the Block No.64 of
the Parcel No.2 in Fig.10 also could not have been registered with a title deed.
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Fig .8
While the servitudes (TEDA (Turkish Electricity Distribution Corporation), DSI (General Directorate of State's
Hydraulic Works), BOTA (Petroleum Pipeline Corporation), etc.) generally concern more than one village, and
while they have not been performed digitally in the previous years, they do not conform with the ground, and despite
such an error is detected in terms of the renewal regulation, the actual condition on the ground is left as shown in
dashes, unless the related corporation accordingly gives its respective consent. Servitudes of the DS channel and
pipeline are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
Hemite Village is a protected site due to having a historical castle within its borders. The protected site and the
castle have been excluded from registration, and have not been undergone any cadastre work.
In a part of the hill, which is within the protected site, a stone crushing work was done, besides DSI has passed an
irrigation channel under the said hill Due to having not measured the elevation details of the hill at the time of
cadastre, this will cause a weak spot in the assessment of the destruction within the protected site. While the DS
channel has not been measured due to passing through the non-registered region, this will also cause deficiencies in
terms of land details.
Ceyhan River lies at the west of Hemite Village, and at the east and north of the Sakarcal Village. The changes
having occurred in the riverbed are deemed as non-existent at the times of cadastre, the pit sites, having been leased
out to the sand pits by the Directorate-General of National Real Estate are excluded from the license area, different
operators fall into dispute with regard to the license areas, while no measurement was made in the river at the time
of cadastre, problems arise in this issue (Fig.14).
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Fig 9
Fig 10
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Fig 11
Fig 12
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Fig.14
RESULT
According to the data of TKGM (Directorate-General of Land Registry and Cadastre), first facility cadastre of which
took more than 100 years of time, out of the 52574 units (quarter + village) in our country, cadastre of 51200 have
been finalized. It corresponds to 97% in terms of ratio. Works for finalizing the cadastre works have been
accelerated for the last ten years in an attempt to comply with the targets of the eighth five-year development plan,
and upon bringing the tender system into effect, according to the same TKGM data, cadastres of 12025 units (23%
out of the total number of units) have been finalized within the same period of ten years. Besides, renewal activities
have been accelerated in compliance with the intent of the Law No.5304 to constitute the basis of the spatial
information system. While the cadastral renewals of 3,960,000 parcels have been finalized as of the year 2011
(according to 22-A), it is intended to finalize the renewal of the cadastre of 8,100,000 parcels by means of the World
Bank credits. Despite having reached to the final part of the facility cadastre, and despite the escalation in the
renewal activities, the efforts being made respectively are far from the targets of the constitution of the basis of the
spatial information system, stipulated under the intent of the Law No.5304. The need to perform the second
cadastre has been voiced ever-frequently and ever-loudly by the related science circles. That is so because of the
following deficits in the first facility and renewal cadastre (respective implementation of the Replacement Law
No.2859, and the Regulation No.22-A);
Renewal works are implemented only in the form of giving coordinates to the existing sections,
While land use conversion was conducted in the renewal works (in accordance with the Law No.2859)
until the year 2003, such documents as certificates have been required for the land use conversions, and the
structures are shown neither in the title deeds, nor in the sections thereof in terms of the renewal works after the year
2003.
The places having been undergone cadastre before the year 1987, in which the Law No.3402 was issued
regarding the areas having been excluded from registration, are not assessed in terms of renewal. At the places
having been undergone facility cadastre works following the issuance of the Law No.3402, such works are
performed only for pastures and forests.
Due to having neglected 3-D, which is stipulated under the respective regulation, contour lines are present
only in the photogramatical sections.
Such issues as tunnels, etc., which concern 3-D, were not taken into consideration in the course of the
cadastral works.
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Forest and rural cadastres are to be correlated. So many places having been undergone land cadastre lack
forest cadastre, and gaps are formed in between the forest border, due to such belatedly performed forest cadastre,
and such gaps remain as out of cadastre.
At common spots of transhumance, particularly in Black Sea and Mediterranean Regions, there exist numerous
structures and summer resorts, even cities in both the 2-B regions, and in the forest regions within the borders of the
forests. No work is done in relation to these regions. While the aforementioned structures may not be demolished,
despite they have to, no income may also be obtained by the state therefrom.
Voluntary allotments are not taken into consideration at the times of renewal, and such a circumstance
contradicts with the actual situations, and creates an imperfect display.
CONCLUSON
Cadastral plans cannot be changed in terms of both two renewal regulations due to the actual on-site situation.
Although the cadastre of our country, in its pursuit towards EU membership, shows parallelism with the EU
countries, it would suit well with the purpose of the Law No.5304, if the content of the cadastre, which is the basic
layer of the land information systems and other information systems, is to be expanded in a way to comprise the soil
classification in the arable lands, and to include such details of zoning, environmental protection, and historical
ruins, etc.
In the course of its history, cadastre has been seen to be inadequate to keep up with the processes of renewal and
change.
Changes to occur on the immovable properties should be followed up rapidly by TKGM.
National Geographical Display Basis (ORTOFOTO) project should be finalized as soon as possible, and having a
country-wide high-resolution ortofoto produced, it should then be utilized in the cadastral activities.
Deficiencies of the renewal works are to wait for the letter of conformity from the related institutions in the practice
of the servitudes law, if not, to leave it erroneously. In case announcement binds the public institutions at such
places, correction should be made by ones own motion, if there is any objection, the respective problem is to be
solved either prior to, or during the suspension period.
Jurisdiction should be informed particularly in the issues of proprietary (Article 41) corrections, and second
cadastre, and it should thereby be allowed have the issue put into practice.
Cadastre, in its current condition, is far from meeting the actual requirements. In order to keep the cadastre up-to-
date, the legal arrangements, which prohibit second cadastre, should be amended.
Land and plot arrangements should be prioritized, and boosted, so as not only to keep the cadastral works up-to-
date, but also to allow for the socio-economical growth of the country in general, and that of the mayoralties and
villages in particular.
While the Renewal Law No.2859, and the Renewal Regulation No.3402/22-A includes only the technical
corrections, they are far from meeting the technical and legal corrections and updates, which the Turkish cadastre
and land registry require. It is therefore quite a necessity to have these regulations rearranged in a way certifying the
actual on-site situation, and the proprietary changes as well.
REFERENCES
Adbelli, S. , In 2006. Second Survey Design in Turkey. Master's thesis, Selcuk University of Science and
Technology Institute, Konya, Turkey
Cay, T., Erdi, A., Iscan F., Durduran S.S. and Yalpir, S.,2006. Turkey Cadastre 'Cadastre 2014' Vision Integration
Research, Journal of Geodesy and Geoinformation and Land Management 2007/2 of Issue 97
Doan M., In 1999. Study and Analysis of the Results of the cadastral renewal, refer to the Eastern Black Sea
Region And Property Issues Symposium, October, Trabzon, Turkey.
Kocak, E.,2000. Cadastre Future Perspectives.
Koak H., 2000. 22 / a and Cadastre Maps Renewal "Immovable Property Supervisors Association website.
KKTRK, Erol, Trkiye Kadastrosunun Gerekleri, Istanbul Bulletin, Journal of the Istanbul branch of the
Chamber of Survey and Cadastre Engineers, May 2009, pp: 30-33.
Sar, N. . 2006. Cadastre Renovation Work and Recommendations country. Master's Thesis, Yildiz Technical
University, stanbul.
Remote Sensing Systems Special Commission Report. SPO, 214S, Ankara, Turkey
Uakcolu, E. 2008 A Study on the Renewal of Cadastre Maps. Master Thesis, Afyon Kocatepe
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University Institute of Science, Afyon.

State Planning Organization, 2001. Eighth Five-Year Development Plan Map, Land Registry, Geographic
Information and
Yomralolu T , Cadastral trends in the world and Turkey, Cadastral Survey and Cadastre Engineers Congress
2006 22 to 24 May 2006, Ankara
Yomralolu T , In the world of Land Management, Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geomatics
Engineering,
URL 1: The Official Site of the General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre
PAPER 208
THERMO-FLUID DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF AN AIR SUPPLY CEILING DIFFUSER UNDER

DIFFERENT CONDITION
Altin Dorri, Albert Shira, Majlinda Alcani
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Sheshi Nene Tereza, nr. 4, Tirane, Albania
Email: adorri@fim.edu.al
ABSTRACT
In this paper, thermodynamic behavior of an air supply ceiling diffuser, part of an air conditioning plant, is analyzed.
Also are evaluated the influences, that have in the solution, the values of characteristic parameters of turbulence and
the resolution of computational grid. The aim of study is interesting especially for sterile rooms. Analyzes are made
through 3-D numerical simulation of finite volumes with aim to simulate thermal and flow fields in a VAV
(Variable Air Volume) type square ceiling diffuser, which is characterized by complex geometry and composed with
concentric elements. In this simulation, fields of temperature, velocity and turbulence intensity are studied.
Simulations are performed for three different air flow rates and two turbulence models k- Realizable and Standard.
In conclusion, comparing the results obtained from simulations was found a relation that express the velocity as
function of flow rate and position, in a symmetry plan of computational zone.
Keywords: Air distribution, VAV (Variable Air Volume), environmental air quality, simulation.
INTRODUCTION
In the context of continued growth on environmental quality standards of indoor environments, needs to answer a
series of very precise specifications that overlap between them and as a result are opportunistic design choices,
especially in system design [1, 2].The design engineer of heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems,
should be able to choose between several different kinds air distribution systems; this choice should guarantee a
state environmental comfort of the persons present on this air conditioned spaces. Besides mean values of
temperature and relative humidity should be foreseen an accurate distribution of the air in the environment to avoid
areas with high air speed and stale air areas. In this context, systems with variable air volume (VAV) have become
increasingly useful the recent years compared to constant air volume systems (CAV), having smaller plant size and
the potential to save energy [3].
To analyze the air distribution in an indoor environment, can follow the experimental or numerical simulations
methods. According the experimental method simulation, scale models can be expensive and often impossible to
realize, and on the other hand no-scale models may not consider all the observed characteristics of a device as on
scale models. On the contrary a computer analysis (numerical simulation method) is based on a mathematical model
taken from a set of differential equations, representing various advantages such as: low cost, short duration, obtain
complete and detailed information, simply simulate real and ideal conditions [4, 5]. However, the numerical
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simulation method has a weakness: in most cases, found an absolute lack of quality control of the solution, when it
refers to a complex situation.
With continuous improvements in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), various commercial programs
such as Fluent are capable to perform a detailed predicted of air movement in an air-conditioned room. For this
purpose, in this paper is done a numerical analysis through the software Fluent, to study the thermo-fluid dynamic
behavior of air flow supplied from a terminal unit (square with concentric sectors-part of VAV system) in heating
conditions.
DESCRIPTION OF THE GEOMETRY DIFFUSER AND THE AREA CALCULATOR
Supply air diffuser taken in consideratin (Figure 1) is a 4-way square ceiling diffuser, composed of anodised
aluminum and different elements:
one paralellpiped with height equal to 100 mm and square base with sides 575 mm;
one paralellpiped with height equal to 100 mm and square base with sides 630 mm;
one filter inserted in the second paralellpiped; with height of 68 mm and square base with sides 630mm;
6 concentric sectors turned by 45 , 68 mm height and horizontal dimensions ranging from 120x120 mm up to
620x620mm, increasing 100 mm by a deflector to another, as in Figure 2.
Figure 1: 4-way square ceiling diffuser with filter
Figure 2: Diffuser geometry
In Figure 2 characteristic dimensions are: B = 695mm, D = 630mm, F = 535mm est = 247mm and inlet air duct is
not taken consideration in the design of geometry to have a uniform flow at the inlet. Survey is carried out for four
different flows 405 m / h, 540 m / h, 675 m / h 810 m / h.
Different flows are obtained by changing the frequency of rotation of the electric motor,part of the VAV box.
Numerical simulations in the study were performed only for a diffuser sector, which is limited to the area near the
diffuser. Diffuser is mounted in the center of the room ceiling, taken into consideration. Two calculations zones
were created in two different dimensions, respectively size 1x1x1 and 2x2x1 m m, both consisting of an upper inlet
and an open contour, representing continuity with the interior of the room.
In realization of the geometry, is chosen to model only half of the interior part of the room, considering the vertical
symmetry plan, the plan that pas through the base diagonals of the diffuser (Figure 3.a and 3.b).
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a) b)
Figure 3: The geometry of the first calculation zone (a) , second calculation zone (b)
BASIC EQUATIONS THAT DESCRIBE THE AIR MOVEMENT INIDE THE ZONE
In this study, baseline of thermo fluido dynamic analysis is represented by the equations in stationary regime: mass
conservation, movement and energy [6]:
Conservation of mass:
v 0 (1)
where is air density and v is velocity vector.
Conservation of the quantity of movement:
vv p v (2)
where p is the mean pressure and is the effective viscosity , given by the sum of
laminar and the turbulent viscosity.
Conservation of energy:
vc p t t q (3)
where cp is the specific heat and q represents the internal heat generation.
Solving equations (1), (2), (3) gives us a full distribution of air flow parameters. In this system of equations
represented is only one unknown parameter, more accurately, turbulent viscosity, which is calculated in different
ways depending on the turbulence model.
DESCRIPTION OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
For two calculation zones are considered the following boundary conditions:
air inlet is selected a condition type mass flow inlet.
filter is represented by a porous- jump condition, the pressure drop is equal to 140 Pa.
air outlet is selected a pressure- outlet condition.
prism side surface, which represents the continuity of the interior part of the room, is selected pressure-inlet
condition.
symmetry surface is characterized by a condition type - Simmetry.
ceiling and side surfaces of the different elements that make up the diffuser, are represented by a wall type condition.
In the Figure 4, yellow area represents the symmetry plan of the complete area, the red area represents the basis part
of the room in witch is set "pressure outlet" boundary condition. The blue area represents the inner continuity plan
of the room in which it is used boundary condition "pressure Inlet", gray surfaces represent the ceiling of the room
and the air diffuser walls in which is used the boundary condition "wall" and blue surface unrestricted by walls of
diffuser represents inlet flow air where is
used the boundary condition "mass flow Inlet."
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Figure 4: Three-dimensional mesh, realized with Gambit, 1-st calculation area
RESULTS
All graphical presentations shown in this study are generated based on the numerical method "segregate solver" of
solving equations; discretization of convective terms is adapted for "First Order Upwind" interpolation scheme. For
the pressure-velocity binome is taken into consideration "SIMPLE" algorithm and for the turbulence investigation is
used k- with standard wall function.
Figure 5 shows the movement of the air that comes from the outer contours and enter the base of the diffuser
Figura 5: Air flow distribution
To compare the results, are taken into consideration the performance of velocity, turbulence intensity and
temperature along the horizontal and vertical axis that belong symmetry plan of three-dimensional internal space x =
z, (Figure 6) and y = z plan which is parallel to one of the outside contours passing through an axis of the nozzle
(Figure 7)
Figure 6: The symmetry plan x=z Figure 7: The symmetry plan y=z
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Figure 8: Distribution of velocity module in symmetrical plan x = z; Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h
Figure 9: Distribution of velocity module in symmetrical plan y = z; Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h
Analyzing Figure 8, can say that also for small shift in the vertical direction the velocity decreases.
By studying graphs we can define a symmetry in the distribution of velocity in the plane x = z which takes into
account the geometrical symmetry in that plan. The velocity will be meanwhile: large in the areas near the exit of the
air, and too small in below zones deflector.
From Figure 9, that represents the distribution of velocity module in the symmetrical plan x = z, it can be seen that
the maximum velocity can be set in the vicinity of the diffuser.
Figure 10 shows for medium flows the overlapping of the intensity turbulence profiles in the plan x = z along the
horizontal and vertical axis
Figure 10: The overlapping of intensity turbulence profiles for y = 0.03 m, 0.05m, 0.26 m, 0.50 m and 0.90 m in
symmetric plan x = z. Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h
Figures 11 and 12 show the temperature distribution in different plans and distances from the diffuser for air flow of
810m3 / h. From the indicated images we can see how the temperature in the various plans represents a symmetry
that coincides with the calculated space.
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Can also observe how the temperature decrease rapidly away from the diffuser and after reaching a maximum
stabilized at temperature value at 293K ; this is a characteristic of each vertical axis parallel to the axis of the
diffuser in two symmetry plans.
Figure 11: Temperature distribution in the symmetric plane x = z; Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h
Figura 12: The overlapping of temperature profiles for y = 0.03 m, 0.05m, 0.08 m, 0.26 m 0.50 m
and 0.95m in the symmetric plane x = z. Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h.
Figure 13 shows overlapping trend of the velocity module for two calculation zones, in the plan with equation x = z
at different distances from the diffuser for air flow rate of 810 m3/ h. Discern how the measured velocity module
along the axis in the plane symmetric x = z untill distance 0.08 m from the diffuser axis, is slightly higher for
geometry "1m x 1m" in comparison with the geometry "2m x 2m".
Figure 13: Overlapping trends of speed module in the plan with the equation x = z, at a distance of 0.08 m from the
diffuser. Flow rate Q = 810 m3 / h.
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Figure 14 shows the trend of the temperature in the plane x = z, where we have a similar trend of temperature for the
four air flowrates. As can be seen with the increase of the air flowrate temperature distribution has not changed
significantly. Is also observed a temperature increase for the four air flowrates untill to the distance that correspond
to the half of distance of the deflector center, and after reaching the maximum value, the temperature decreases
moving away from the axis.
Figure 14: Overlapping temperature profiles for y = 0.05 m in the plane symmetric x = z for four different air flow
rates.
Figure 15 shows the trend of velocity module at distance of 0.26 m. From this figure results that since at this
distance from the air diffuser, velocity module is less than 0.1 m/s for the four different air flows and
the difference between maximum velocity modules reduces for this different air flows being shifted towards the end.
Figure 15: Overlapping trend of velocity module for y = 0.26 m in the symmetric plane x = z
for four different air flow rates.
From the represented functions of the trend of velocity vy in symmetrical plan y = z (Figure 16), at the distance of
0.7 m from the air diffuser, it can be assumed that vy, along this axis is distributed according to a parabolic law:
v ax 2 V (4)
y max
For maximum velocities achieved over the peak of parabolic curve and for minimal flow rate we can write the
relation:
V (Q) V c (Q Q ) (5)
max max y Q
rif Qrif rif
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Figure 16: Overlapping trend of vertical velocity component and functions that represent the trend of velocity y =
0.70 m in symmetrical plan y = z , for four air flowrates.
Figure 17: Overlapping of vertical velocity component and functions that represent trend velocity at some point of
symmetry plan y = z for y = 0.7 m , for four air flowrates.
From Figure 18, we can write that the velocity variation in function of the distance from the diffuser along the axis,
can be expressed by the parabolic law:
V
max y y Q

( Q , y ) a y 2 b y c Q Qrif c
rif .
(6)
where: crif. is the coefficient (c) of parabolic curve wich express velocity variation in function of the distance from
the diffuser for the refered flowrate. In relation (5) is introduced and the term that takes into consideration the fact
that the maximum velocity on the axis of the diffuser varies linearly with the flowrate.
Figure 18: Overlapping of vertical velocity component vy and functions that represent this trend along the axis of
the diffuser, for y ranging from 0.7 m to 1 , refered to the four air flowrates.
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At the conclusion analysis of the results of the trend of velocity as related to the flowrate and the position is found
the following relationship:
3
0,719 y 2 0,1573 y 0,097 4105 Q 405
2
v (Q, x, y ) 0,0184 x (7)
y 3
0,0406 4105 Q 405

2
0,719 y 0,1573 y 0,097 4 10 Q 405
5
This relation can be accepted as the starting point of further studies
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper is studied thermo fluid-dynamic behavior of a air diffuser type VAV. Analyses were performed by
CFD software (Computation Fluid Dynamics) FLUENT based on finite volume methods. Simulations have been
adapted to the model of turbulence "k- Realizable."
Simulations were carried out for flow: 405 m3 / h, 540 m3 / h, 675 m3 / h and 810 m3 / h in two different
calculation spaces, with open contour around the diffuser. Are compared trends of velocity, turbulence intensity and
temperature in the two symmetry plans of the air diffuser. In general, the solutions obtained are comparable and in
the conclusion can be confirmed that various expansion of calculation spaces, did not significantly influence in the
results of simulations.
The velocity and the turbulences intensity, increases with the increase of air flowrate, and temperature distribution is
less affected by increased flow. Simulations carried out with the model of turbulence "k- Rrealizable" and "k-
Standard", gave almost identical results.
Another goal of the study is that of finding a relationship that describes the velocity in function of position in the
plane of symmetry y = z, perpendicular to the walls of computation space and that containing the axis of nozzle. The
analysis shows that the vertical axis of the velocity has a parabolic trend over a sufficient horizontal distance from
the diffuser. This is considered as the reference plan, in which the distribution of velocity component vy is not
influenced by the geometry of the diffuser and increases linearly with the trend of the air flow rates.
A similar parabolic law expresses the variation of vertical velocity component along the axis of the diffuser.
Combining these two effects, is found a relation that express vertical velocity component v y in this plan as a function
of the air flow rate Q and the coordinates (x, y) of the points in the plan (remember that the y axis is the vertical axis
of the reference system).
The analysis of the simulations, shows that the air flow doesnt come uniformly in all directions, but mainly
concentrated along selected exit routes. This feature allows to avoid obstacles located aside air flow direction and
developed in a of acceptable wide range. Thus is avoided a directly "by-pass" through the supply diffuser and
recirculation nozzles, if they are installed in central areas without importance for supply, and therefore there will be
no-stagnant zones particularly in enhanced environments.
REFERENCE
ASHRAE Trans., 114 (I) : SF-98-10-1, 1998.

ASHRAE FUNDAM., 2001, pag. 26.2 e success.
BRIGANTI A., Manuale della climatizzazione, Vignate (MI), Tecniche Nuove, 1992, capitolo 8.
CHEN Q., SUTER P., A numerical study of indoor air quality and thermal comfort under six kinds of air
diffusion, ASHRAE Trans., 98 (I) pp.203-217, 1992.
CHEN Q., Comparison of different k- models for indoor air flow computations Numerical Head Transfer, Part B,
n.28 pp.353-359, 1995.
COMINI G., Fondamenti di Termofluidodinamica Computazionale, Padova, 2001, cap. 4.
CHEN H.C., PATEL V.C., Near-wall turbulence models for complex flows including separation,
COSTA J.J., OLIVEIRA L.A., BLAY D., Test of several versions for the k- type turbulence modeling of internal
mixed convection flows, Internal Journal of Head and Mass Transfer n.42 pp.4391-4409, 1999.
DE LIETO VOLLARO A., GRIGNAFFINI S., VALLATI A., Comportamento di diffusori a microugelli in
ambienti confinati: simulazioni numeriche, Dipartimento di Fisica Tecnica- Universit di Roma La Sapienza.
FLUENT 6.0 Users Guide.
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PAPER 209
INSURANCE SERVICE ON PROPERTIES INUNDATES IN SHKODRA
Suela Shpuza, Elidiana Bashi
Rayonal directory of street transportation

Finance lecturer University of Shkodra Luigj Gurakuqi
Email: elidianapema@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The industry of financial services is so hard and complex at the same time. Though for many years, in Albania, the
insurance market was enriched not only by the services offered by INSIG company public owed, at this market
many other private companies were added. Many of the insurance companies, make their gross income mainly from
the obliged insurance services. The consumers behavior is dominated from the responsibilities that are born from
businesses debts born from the relations to banking loans, from partnerships with foreign businesses, different
European partners, transport system etc.The main reason, that we focused our study at the property insurance
category is related with the inundates phenomena that is often happening recent years in Shkodra and Lezha ares.
Apparently, exists always the potential risk that this area, specially during winter and fall, to be covered from water,
for this reason, during this paper we are trying to study the present market, and the potential of insurance service on
properties from the inundates risk. At one side of medal the inundates of a large area is a tragic situation for the
inhabitants, but on the other side the insurance market targets this situation as the best opportunity for market
extension. This paper makes a reflection of the situation of property insurance, the main reasons that actually
influence the scheme of insurance services, also expanding new prospectives for this niche of insurance market.
The main objective, of this paper, is related with the evidence of the insurance market at this area (Shkodr, Lezh),
valuating the new potential that have the insurance companies.The conclusions that we have discovered from this
study, are related mainly to the potentials of insurance market and the spaces to make people and businesses act
more responsibility to this phenomena not strange any more to this area.
Keywords: Property insurance, individuals and businesses, insurance companies, inundates a climatic phenomena.
INTRODUCTION
Why do insurances exist? the reason is, to help those fateless people, who are victims of a los or an accident,
benefiting a compensation. Insurance is an exchange system made of a contract, that describes the payments,
profits made for a period of time, that give the right to an individual, or organization to compens from another
organization (called insurance company), for the lost as prescribed by the conditions of the contract. Insurance
means transfer of a potential risk, of a financial lost or a material damage from the insurer as by a prescribed
insurance contract. Insurance societies are promisory associations. They guarantee the customes security. Through
their plans and strategies they try to make a trust climate and guarantee to their clints. Insurances are a very
interesting field that is always in development for its package of offered products and from the regulatory
infrastructure.
METODOLOGY
Primary resources, that include interview with managers or responsible persons that are selected from companies to
represent insurance companies at their branches in Lezha and Shkodra.
Second resources from secondary data as report of many different companies, those published from AMF, etc.
Objectives of the study are Creating a scheme for the application possibilities for making a property insurance from
the inundates disaster. Separating responsibilities between government institutions and insurance companies for this
natural catastrophe.
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Insurance as a service industry

Insurance market includes:
The trader (insurance company)
SIGAL sh.a. was founded on february 22, 1999, from Tirana Court decision. This company was fastly ranked as
the biggest insurance company in the insurance market in Albania since 2002 till present. SIGAL sh.a is the first
insurance company that atracted the foreign capital in the albanian insurance market. Since 2003, the american
albanian foundation, became one of the main shareholders of Sigal SH. A, by owing 13.3% of the shares. During
March 2007, SIGAL sh.a. signed the collaboration agreement with one the most powerful financial groups in
Central Europe and Eastern Europe, named UNIQA GROUP AUSTRIA. Expanded on 20 countries in Central and
Eastern Europe, this group owes abut 68.7% of the shares of SIGAL. Thus, over 80 % of the shares of SIGAL
UNIQA GROUP AUSTRIA is a foreign owed capital and the other shares belong to the albanian shareholders.
SIGMA Sh.a, partner of Vienna Insurance Group, is the first private company of insurance in Albania with full
competiviness judicial rights in the insurance market. This company initiated its financial activity on February
03,1999. The foundation of the insurance company Sigma, signs the beginning of the liberalization process of the
insurance market in Albania. This market was accomplished during the years as per its products offered, as its in its
function manner giving its basic contribution as one of the most powerfull businesses. Sigma services with a high
quality about 100 thousand of clients, offers about 20 insurance services, expanded with its branches at whole
territory of Albania and is present also in Kosovo and FYR of Macedonia. The compay ows a safe financial situation
answering fastly to its clients. The most important event fore the company is considered 2007, when Sigma SH.A
became part of VIG (Vienna Insurance Group), the most powerful group of insurance market in Austria and the
places of central and eastern Europe, that at present ows 87 % of the company shares.
The insurance company Interalbanian founded since 2004, operates in the insurance market Non Life with its
main purpose to help the clients to realize their projects with special products designed specially to protect
businesses and families from the unexpected events of life. In 2011, this company became partner of Vienna
Insurance Group with 75% foreign capital and the other part Albanian capital. The mision of this company is to
offer qualitative services and products for its clients. The general objective of this company is to increase its
business during years.
Insurance Institute INSIG was founded on July 31, 1991 with the approvement of Albanian parliament for the
creation of insurance institute, separating it from the insitute of cash deposits and social insurance. INSIG has over
130,000 clients in every city and village. This company is expanded in Albania, Kosovo and FYR of Macedonia.
From its foundation till 2000 The insurance Institute was the unique state owned institution. Year 2000, signs thie
beginning of the first steps for the privatization of the company, turning it to an anonymous society, based upon the
decision of them cuonciel of ministers No. 61 date February 24, 2000.
After 8 years, In Albania was licensed a new insurance company.
At present, in Albania operate eight licensed companies of non life insurance and three other companies for life
insurance. Ansig is a company with 100% of Albanian ownership, at the value of 379 million Albanian Leke.
ATLANTIK sh.a. owes 95.1 % of the company shares. The company enters at a market of 5 competitors. The
companys business is concentrated in property policies insurance and health pilicies insurance. By beginning with a
unique branch in Tirana, during its three years life, the company was gradually expanded by covering whole
Albanian territory. ATLANTIK is th company with the fastest increase at the insurance market in Albania.
ALBSIG company was licensed on September 10, 2004, with court decision No. 45, date September 10, 2004 at the
quality of a non life insurance company service (damage treatments).
Alb Siguracion Sh.a (shkurt Albsig Sh.a) operates under this name in Albanian territory. This insurance
company is part of Albsig A.d, Skopje FYR Macedonia. Albsig Sh.a Tirana is the sole shareholder of Albsig
A.d, Skopje- FYR Macedonia. Albsig represents the union of the capitals of many known people of Albanian
businesses and the capitals of well known insurance societies in the international insurance market.
In December 2005, the company DUKAGJINI-AL Sh.a, sold 100 % of its shares, appearing in the market with the
name "EUROSIG" sh.a, with total vendor capital.
EUROSIG as the newest company in the market, was widely expanded in whole territory of the country with over
12 branches, 100 agencies as retail shops. By now this company covers about 9.5% of the market for motor
insurance (versua 3.5% that owed Dukagjini-Al) and 4.5% of property insurance and other voluntary insurance
service. EUROSIG begun its activity on july 2004, concentrating mainly in activities that cover the insurance of
motors, property, health and other insurance products. This company offer online service insurance during 24 hours.
This technology makes this company service competitive and unique at insurance market.
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Intersig sh.a begun its activity during September 2001, as an Albanian entity ownership.
From August, 2011, Intersig is partner of Vienna Insurance Group (Vig), that owes the most part of the shares of
Intersig, 75%. Vienna Insurance Group (Vig) is one of the biggest groups of interanational insurance in Central and
Eastern Europe. In 2007, the group entered in the Albanian insurance market. Vig - Vienna Insurance Group is the
biggest group of insurance in Albania with over 32.7 % of general market insurance during 2011. From December,
2011 the shaholders capital of INTERSIG - Vienna Insurance Group increased from 2.898.550 Euro to 8.898.550
Euro to reinforce the company.
Sicred Sh.a. is an albanian insurance company of life, that begun its activity in July, 2004. The company offers
different products of life insurance and accident insurance, and healthy insurance, life insurance for children and
pupils, life insurance for sportists and life insurance service for visitors. During 2008, SICRED Sh. A. had a part of
36,07% of the market in the life insurance segment.
-Another actor at this process are - buyers (businesses, Public institutions and the most imporatant the wide public)
- Intermediators (consulents, brokers,agents,etc)
Realization of insurance contracts happens at every moment of the day, and the contracts are made to be favorable
for the actors part of this contract where they find ite necessary.
Buyers vendors
Intermediators
Buyers are those persons that are interested for the insurance services. They are wide public, businesses, public
institutions, etc.
Intemediators are of three kinds that operate in the insurance market:

-brokers, is an individual or a firm, that has the main puprpose to make the insurance contract, between insurance
company and the benefactor of this contract. The albanian lwa makes clear the criteria tha has to approach a broker.
For instance the broker can give advices to the insurer about its insurance needs, about the kind of insurance that
covers this need, and many other information about the insurance contract that he needs. As by the insurance
companies point of view negotiations with brokers are easier and faster because hard cases need a special instruction
for the contract and its characteristics. A broker, accelerates many of the procedures and also saves a lot of money
and time. The most cases of commerscial insurance nowadays is contracted from registered brokers.
-agents, are individuals or fiirms, their main puprpose is not related to the insurance services. These can be agents of
immobile properties, accountants, building societies that often make contracts for theis clients.
-consulenst are individuals that want to play the role of the intermediator in the insurance market, but that did not
approach the requested criteria to be called brokers.
3. Insurance market in Albania
The insurance services in Albania existed from a long time ago. Though this market was developed later in other
developing places, they have their characteristics and history. During recent years was created a judicial basis that
describes the rights and the obligations between the insurer and the insurance company. During this period of time,
conditions are created, and also the posibility to obtain another insurance property with foreign societies as a
sgnificant mean for protecting the insurers interest. Actual insurance market, is compound from some companies,
that operate in life and non life insurance service.
Albanian insurance market is made of domestic capital and also from foreign capital. Some of the Albanian
companies have expanded their acitvity in Kosovo and FYR of Macedonia, by turning to rayonal company, and laso
increasing considerably their primes on insurance. The monopolist position of the state is decreasing from year to
year by letting place the private and free companies. A fondumental change of the primes on policies of the
insurance market is happening.
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Insurance market, till 2006 is oriented to the obligatory insurance. During the last years the weight of voluntary
insurance is expanding widely, taking place of the insurance that is obligatory. The Albanian market is being widely
developed by expanding its activity, but as any other market it is faced with its advantages and problems.
Advantage:
Existence of a market capacity and till not used.
Increase of the specific weight of the voluntary insurance in the Albanian market
Partnership with foreign compnaies that helped and influenced the capital increase and the experience
increase at this field.
Expansion of the companies in the rayonal markets.
Disadvantages:
The lack of information related to insurance services.
The lack of self conscience of consumers to take any insurance service.
The high level of the obligative insurances in the company portofolio.
The low level of consumers income
Despite the problems that exist at this specific financial market, already exist potential opportunities to
increase, develop and make it perfect and profitable for both parts of the contract.
4.Insurance products and market situation

The products of these companies are separated in 4 big classes, that have their sorted groups:
1.Health insurance
2. Property insurance
3.Motor Insurance
4. Life insurance
Health Insurance. This kind of insurances or as it is differently called life insurance have the objective life
insurance of the person. Most of them are voluntaries. The person that fulfills theis contract is called the insurer and
is the original owner of the contract.
This group includes:
-Insurance from personal accident, covers the priod of one year, if the event happende is sure. An accident is defined
as per insurance law, each event that happens of ocasional matters, violent and external, that causes physic damages,
objectively admitted, that end at death of the insurer or physic incapacity of him.
The profit, from the insurance contract, in case of insurer loss, from accident is 100 % of the amount of contract.
The insurance contracct can be individual or in group. The most sales of this kind of contract are in group. The
health insurance contract is a contract that has a low price, and different prices for different people, depending on
their needs.
-Health isurance in voyages. This kind of contract covers the voyager (insurer) during their journey abrod Albania
and makes the reimbursement of all the necessary expenses, made during the insurance contract period, that include:
a) medical expenses ( medical expenses for medical assistance during the journey abroad, funeral expenses, etc.)
b) expenses for turning back to your country (insurance company has to pay the rent of a transprot mean, including
qualified accompaigners, etc)
c) cover of damages inc case of personal accidents (in case of physic damages, alone and directly from accidental
means, violent, external and appearent, there has to be paid the reimbursement of this contract)
2.Property insurance this includes many policies, as it is:
- Fire insurance and added risks. Insurance sompany pays the insurer for losses, damages or unexpectes
destroyement of property insurance from fire, thunder, explosion, from a plane crash, parts or its loading till 3 %
of insurance contract amount. Thi insurance can be made for houses, shops (machines or equipments, goods they
keep in, etc)
- Insurance for building under construction- this policy offers a contract that cover all the risks during the phase of
building of objects. This contract includes damages that happen to the building from insurer, but also the expenses
of damages that insurer makes to others. The responsibility of the insurer beggins immediately at initiation of works
till the end of them.
- Insurance of all works in process this policy offers the same coverage as the above insurance contract, but this is
not for buildings under construction bur for works in process phase of montage of machineries and equipments in
industrial objects.
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This policy covers, material damages tha happen during the montage process of machineries and equipments, also
material damages that are caused to third parties.
- Insurance on bank activity Insurance of bank activity has main purpose the coverage of loses from financial and
physical risk.
- Insurance of agricultural and animal products this insurance contract covers agricultural production and animal
insurance. This kind of insurance service is offered from two insurance companies, Insig and Sigal.
This kind of insurances are not a developed segment in Albania. During inundates in Shkodra the figures of lost
animals and agricultural products damaged were a natural catastrophe. The Albanian farmers didnt give to attention
to this contract, that certainly when applied would have done possible the reduce of loses from that disaster.
Insurance companies are making a wild campaign to this policy category, especially after inundates period, but the
farmers in Albania are still unresponsive to this service.
2. Extension of insurance market on properties at the cities related to inundates (Shkodra and Lezha)
The law on civil emergencies has its main purpose:
a) prevention, shortage and qualifying from every damage to the population of the country, also animals, property,
cultural heritage and the environment from civil emergencies;
b) Good conditions for state institutions, public and private, for economic acitivities and population, for passing
from normal state of work in an emergency situation, making less loses for saving people lives and making work
process possible under an emergent situation.
c) Guarantee of usage of every possible state resources, with the purpose on public security, stable guard on local
economy, localization of emergency zone and facilitation of disaster results.
Good management of an emergency situation depends from some factors and passes through 4 stages, as listed
below:
a. work for prevention of emergencies;
b. preparation and collaboration;
c. capability to react during a situation of emergency;
d. escape from situation.
Actually the rayon doesnt have an approved plan for the Management of civil emergencies. Till January, 2010
central subsidiaries didnt face before with the same emergent situation caused by the inundates. So the plan to
prevent this disaster was a new experience for the leading staff there. Local funds really contribute to prevention of
emergencies, but another source of financing is the prime taken by the insurance contracts and services.
2.1 Insurance market in Lezha
Population 158,829
Prefecture surface 1,620
Written gross prime 165,504
Paid damages 57,270
Prime/inhabitant 1,042.02
Property insurance in Lezha rayon is as below:
In Lezha, Albsig is the company, that takes the most part of insurance on property market. Despite, the inundates
distater the property insurance is not dominating in insurance market portfolio.
The most part of insurance portfolio is dominated from businesses insurance on property for a banking loan or
obliged from other contractual conditions of business. During 2010 in this rayon do not exist primes paid for
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damages on properties caused by the inudates, that shows that people are not so responsible at preventing this
natural phenomena.
Population 246,060
Surface of prefecture 3,562
Gross written prime 288,153
Paid damages 56,686

Prime per inhabitant 1,171.07
2.2 Insurance market in Shkodra prefecture
In Shkodra prefecture, the primes collected from insurance on property are leaded from Intersig company at about
34% part of market for this category. But according to the data the portfolio of insurances, many of insurers are not
property insured from inundates, but in general they make an insurance contract on property for a banking loan or
for a better business development.
But what does it mean to have an insurance contract from natural disasters?
It means to owe an insurance paket were it is involved whole population, to make possible it protection. For many
reasons, and lack of information, from an important industry as insurance industry people have information only on
car insurance that is obligative. But also car insurance for many persons represents, a tax and not as request of the
law on insurances. On the other hand, people know the insurances asked from banks as services on collaterals.
Voluntary insurance services are very low for many reasons:
Nowadays Albanian consume insurance products of 18 euro per inhabitants. Making our country the porest country
in balcany. Neighbour countries have a figure of 100 euro per inhabitant and european comunity inhabitants
consume about 2,500 euro per inhabitants per year.
Insurance companies created a wide area of insurance services during this years, but the inherited mentality of
making the government responsible for all the disasters. So property insurance are absolutely the ideal solution and
also the first necessary step that everyone should make to protect itself and his investments from such natural
phenomena. This process is necessary to protect the state budget from extraordinary expenses such as for covering
this disasters, instead of investing them in other necessary sectors.
Meanwhile insurance market makes generation of financial forces of economy and individuals, reinforces people
personality and creates the necessary spaces and big opportunities for renaissance by repairing damages and creating
compensation funds or other forms of saving deposits.
Government from its side, has its own functions and responsibilities. To be protected from natural disasters one way
out is, for the government to buy disasters bond in the international insurance market. This happens when the
national insurance market doesnt work properly.
RESULTS
As by the above study, resulted: People make varying properties in different places. During this period of transition
people are free to build at every place. They never make a study plan first, but they just allocate at the place without
taking care of its risk or its disadvantages that it offers. Many insurance companies operate in Albania, by offering
according to their politics life and non life insurance service. But they dont make strong promoting campaigns for
their services.
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Albanian people have inherited the mentality that government has to pay all the inundate damages, without taking
care, of the budget balance. During January, 2010, referring to the official data, over 10 thousand ha of land are
covered by water, and about 2,500 houses are under water this disaster leads us to the opinion that a big invoice is
paid by the state for the damages caused.
By paying the caused damages from this disaster, government damages the business onf insurance companies that
give insurance policies for this cases.
People are suspicious for the reimbursement that insurance companies make to them.
The only recommend is that: Albanian case, is an insurance market that has the operation of some of the most
powerful strategic operators, that can lead successfully this duty. Neighbor countries have terminated this phase and
are entering at other development phases. But which is the scheme for the realization of this project? Experience
shows that are calculated potential risks of a country in a year and on this basis are done the requests for coverage. If
Albania has a potential risk of 300 400 million euro per year, it is calculated the price of coverage and over this
basis determine the prime of insurance services that varies from 15 40 euro per family.
CONCLUSIONS
This amount is payable once per year and covers all the risks that we mentioned above, to make possible softness of
economic and social consequences that bring events like inundates in some locality in Albania territory. In such a
way, is surpassed definitively state responsibility and is created the independence of each family from the
government central and local. Insurance industry has made the proposal to government of obligatory insurance not
less than 5 years for all the homes that make legalization. This would make possible, the creation of a double
portfolio for insurances and naturally a protection of the interested for their construction. According to scenario,
insurance companies would have bigger opportunities for identifying or preventing of construction of objects in
places not legalized are very exposed to open or predetermined risks.
REFERENCE
Shkodra district, 2012. Action plan, in cases of natural disaster, edition of Shkodra district;
Shkodra district, 2013. Annual publications of financial authority;
N.KOCI, SH.BUNDO, Z.SHALARI, 2012. Risk and insurances;
The Albanian Parliament, 2010. Albanina low nR.9267 on social insurance societies;
PAPER 210
THE EFFECT OF MAIZE PLANTS DENSITY IN THE EFFICIENCY OF THE DRY BEAN YIELD IN
AN INTERCROPPING SYSTEM
A Canko*, F Kashta*, I Kaziu**

*
Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Agricultural University of Tirana
**ATTC Fushe-Kruje
Email: agimcanko@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In conditions of our agriculture, with small farms, the association of agricultural plants is an efficient way to
increase the income for the unit area. The association of maize with dry bean is an old practice of cultivation, while
the association of dry bean with maize is a newer practice . The large surface planted with direct bean(14-16
thousand ha) and the little opportunity to mechanize its harvesting, make necessary the application of this way of
cultivation. The aim of this study was to see the effect of maize plants density on the efficiency of the yield of the
dry bean. The results obtained showed that Shijak bean cultivar and the maize hybrid (R-89) form appropriate
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components of association. Also, the density of maize plants from 10-30 thousand maize plants/ha prolonged the
beans vegetative cycle and reduced linearly the main components of yield. However, the density of 15 thousand
maize plants/ha was better, because this density isnt stressful to the bean yield. In this level of association was
achieved the same yield of dry bean (as in the case of its direct cultivation), and at the same time was produced 6-9
quintal/ha maize. This way of association increased the income for unit area with 15-25 thousand leke and can be
applied successfully in the area where the water balance is sufficient
Key words: effect, maize plant, density, efficiency, intercropping system
INTRODUCTION
The association is an important practice of extensive agriculture and will continue to be important for a long
time(2.5). Although long history of this system, it wasnt paid the right attention(3.4). Apart from greater yield
stability and better insurance against total crop failure, other obvious advantages of intercropping include efficient
use of growth resources by plants of different canopy structure, different rooting systems which allow exploitation
of different depths, varying nutrient requirements at different periods and different maturity periods. This is an
important consideration, particularly when self-feeder agriculture dominates (1.5). Throughout the world, and even
in Albania, association is an old and widely used practice, where several plants combinations and models of their
spatial orderings are used. Among several plants association in Albania, that of maize with bean is the most
traditional and till the 60s it has been the only way to cultivate bean. In the 70s in our country were planted about
40 thousand ha maize associated with bean(6). In general, the planting material of bean consisted of Landraces,
local populations that are selected by their tolerance to disease or to pests and that are characterized of stable
production efficiency in specific microclimates. On the other hand, the association of bean with maize is a newer
practice for the Albanian farmer. This farmers experience and intuition has led to planting maize plants in plots
planted with bean. For this reason, the study of the impact of different densities of maize population in the
production efficiency and other components of bean production is in our farmers interest in the conditions of
todays Albanian agriculture development. The aim of this report is to compare influences of intercropped system
(dry bean and maize mixtures) with dry bean sown as sole crop on some morphological changes and grain yield
production.
The study was conducted at the ATTC of Fushe Kruje during 2007-2008, to study the effect of maize plant density
on dry bean yield in an intercropping system. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCB), with four replications There were five variants of maize density (associated plant), planted within beans
rows (main plant), The plant densities of maize were respectively 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 plants/m 2. The surface of each
variant was 30m2 (10x3). Cultivar Shijak was used as planted material for dry bean and R-89 hybrid for maize. The
sowing was done in optimal time of zone and was executed by hand, used 60 cm distance between rows. Objective
was to provide 28 plant/m2 for dry bean The maize seeds distance within rows was respectively 165, 110, 83, 66
and 55 cm. During growth period, cultivate cares were done ordinarily and phonological stages are noted. In
maturity time, grain yield, ad its components were measured for dry bean and maize respectively in 20 and 10 plants
for two replications
RESULTS
Phenotype as the physical expression of the traits can change depending on the environment, methods and
techniques of cultivation.
Table 1. The duration of plant cycle for bean and maize (days)
No Variants Dry bean Maize

Vegetativ Reproductive Plant Germinatio Plant
e period period cycle n - tassel cycle
1 Bean 33 52 85 - -
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2 Bean+1 plant/m2 maize 33 52 85 57 91

3 Bean+1,5 plant/m2 maize 33 53 86 58 91
4 Bean+2 plants/m2 maize 33 54 87 58 91
5 Bean+2,5 plants/m2maize 33 55 88 58 92
6 Bean+3 plants/m2maize 33 55 88 58 92
The data obtained (Table 1), indicated that when the number of maize plants increases, a extension of the bean plant
cycle occurs, especially at the reproductive phase (from 1-3 days). The maize plant cycle is not affected by the
density of the plant population. It happens, because the number of its plants is very inferior compared to the maize
as monoculture. The carefull verification of the development phases during association of bean with maize, is
important not only in the biological aspect, but also for the technical one. Our data showed that the cultivar Shijak
and the maize hybrid R-89 form suitable components, and affected not only on extending of the total plant cycle
(85-92 days), but also on some main sub-periods.
Firstly: the flowering and the growing pods of bean coincide with the tassel and the cob filling phases of maize, in
wich the requirements for nutrients and moisture are higher. So, needs of bean for water throgh irrigation in this
phase, influenced positively on the maize, althought maizes requirements are much higher.
Secondly: during the bean harvest period, maize is almost mature and the harvest and trasporation of bean
production, doesnt damage maize plants and its production.
Table 2. The bean yield components (average of 2 years)
No Variants Yield components

Pods/plant weight/plant g/plant Thousand
weight
1 Bean 10.8 35.1 15.6 453
2 Bean+1 plant/m2 maize 10.6 34.7 15.9 465
3 Bean+1,5 plant/m2 maize 10.0 31.3 14.0 450
4 Bean+2 plants/m2 miaize 9.6 30.0 13.1 448
5 Bean+2,5 palnts/m2maize 9.9 30.5 13.5 458
6 Bean+3 plants/m2maize 9.6 29.0 13.1 442
The results obtained (Table 2) showed that, increasing the density of maize, leads to linear decreases of all yield
components of dry bean. Thus, the number of pods /plant is reduced from 10.8 in the direct bean variant, to 9.6 in
the variant of bean associated with 3 plants/m 2 maize. Also, grains/plant was reduced from 35.1 to 29 and
weight/plant from 15.6 to 13.1. respectively
The yield of dry bean is a function of the distribution in space of plants vegetative and reproductive structures.
According to Donald, biological production increases with the increase of the density, up to a maximum value,
determined by enviromental factors, whereas for large densities, it tends to be preserved unchanged as long as other
factors wont interfere. When the environmental stresses, witch affect the yield, occurs during plant growth, the
yield component, which was formed at the beginning of the reproductive stage, pods/plant, gets more affected. The
plants competition for light, not as the competition for water and nutrients, occur not between plants, but between
their leaves. If one leaf is over shaded by another, the photosynthetic activity will decrease at the same level as when
the overshadowed is made by another plant.
In this study, maize leaves play the overshadowed role and therefore the lower leaves of the dry bean stem gets
overshadowed so much that they remain below the compensation point. These leaves, without exerting the
photosynthetic activity, become parasite, because they spend dry matter produced by other leaves.
This is why the yield components of dry bean reduced, when increased density and leaves area of maize,
consequently they affect the final production.
Table 3. The yield of plants in association.
Nr Variants Dry bean Maize

2007 2008 Average 2007 2008 Average
(2 years) (2 years)
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1 Bean 27.44 25.20 26.32 - - -

2 Bean+1 plant/m2 maize 25.24 26.29 25.76 6.01 6.99 6.50
3 Bean+1,5 plant/m2 maize 24.81 24.99 24.90 9.34 8.87 9.10
4 Bean+2 plants/m2 miaize 22.23 22.92 22.57 12.60 11.25 12.12
5 Bean+2,5 palnts/m2maize 22.56 22.01 22.28 14.42 15.36 14.89
6 Bean+3 plants/m2maize 22.10 21.70 21.90 17.70 18.94 18.32
LSD 0.01 2.87 3.42
LSD 0.05 3.98 4.51
The aim of the study is to find out what density of maize plants population causes stress on the dry bean production.
Just like the yield components, the final yield of the dry bean was decreased gradually, when the plants maize
density was inceased from 1-3 plants/m 2. This happens due to the concurrence between the plants, while investing
resources were reduced. This leads to increases of the concurrence within the plants, ispecially between the
vegetative and reproductive parts. In genotypes that have a high ability of concurrence, such as the cultivar Shijak,
the vegetative parts take advantage in growth, therefore grain production is reduced due to the reduction of the
harvest index. The ideal plant mixture should provide a high biological production and a high harvesting index,
even in great densities. From the experimental data presented above we can observe that a plant density of maize up
to 1.5plants/m2 does not causes stress on theory bean yield. This means that we can achieve the same efficiency in
the directed dry bean just like in the culture associated with 1.5 plants/m2 of maize. From tables data, it can be noted
that maize yield was increased significantly, when the maize plant density increases. However it should be noted
that the yield of maize, obtained by this association is not very high, because differences in management practices of
two plants. Maize plant has more requirements for moisture and nutrients as dry bean.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the data analysis and discussion we may conclude the following:
The bean cultivar Shijak and the early maize hybrids form suitable components in the association, where the first
culture is bean and the associated plant is maize.
The increase of maize plant density affects the prolongation of the bean plant cycle, mainly its reproductive phase.
The density of the plant population of maize affects the linear reduction of all dry bean yield components.
The association of bean with maize up to 1.5 plants/m2 doesnt affect the decrease of beans yield. The further
increases of the plant density of maize caused stress effect on the dry bean and decrease their yield.
The association of dry bean with maize in a density of 1.5 plants/m 2, mainly in the favorable environments and in
areas where water balance is ensured, increases the economic efficiency by 150-250$/ha net income.
REFERENCES
Bennett J. P., Adams M. V., Burga C. : 1977 Pod yield Component Variation and Intercorrelation in Phaseolus
Vulgaris L. as Affected by plant in Density
Crop Science, Nr.1, 73-75
Donald M. C., Hamblin J. : 1976 The Biological Yield and Harvest Index of Cereales as Agronomic and Plant
Breding Criteria, Advanced in Agronomy 375-380
Dwyer L. M., Stewart D. V. : 1986 Leaf Area Development in Field Grown Maize, Agronomy Journal Nr.2 334-
341
Francis C. A., Prager M., Laing D. R. : 1978 Genotype x Environment Interactions Climbing Bean Cultivars In
Monoculture And Associaded With Maize, Crop Science, Volumni 18, Nr.2, 242-246
Nienhuis J., Singh Sh. P. : 1985 Effect of Location and Plant Density on Yield and Architectural Traits in Drr
Bean, Crop Science Nr.4, 580-584
Shkodrani J. 1988 Fasulja ne hamullore dhe ne bashkeshoqerim me misrin, Tirane, 5-38
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PAPER 213
ANIMAL WELFARE IN ALBANIA
Ylli Bioku*
* Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirane, Albania
Email: bicokuy@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In comparison with other farmed animals, much research has been carried out on methods for assessing the needs
and welfare of dairy cows. In considering the welfare of dairy cows, some of the most important aspects of poor
welfare are disease conditions, in particular foot and leg disorders and mastitis. Reproductive and behavioral
problems are also relevant indicators of poor welfare. As animal welfare is the physical and psychological well-
being of animals, it is measured by indicators including behavior, physiology, performance, reproduction and
longevity. Welfare is defined according to Broom (1986) as follows: the welfare of an individual is its state as
regards its attempts to cope with its environment. According to the preliminary data on animal welfare survey with
consumers in Tirana the majority of the respondents thought that animal welfare is important for the farmers and
animals. In addition the majority of respondents are ready to pay higher price for the animal origin products
produced in farms respecting and treating well the animals.
Key words: animal welfare, survey, survey, consumers.
INTRODUCTION
Animal welfare as a formal discipline started with the publication of the Brambell report on the welfare of farm
animals, issued by the British government in 1965 (Brambell Report, 1965). In the last 30 years the animal welfare
is considered an important scientific issue, and a significant amount of information and literature is published
because according to Lund et al (2006) animal welfare is a multi-faceted issue which implies important scientific,
ethical, economic and political dimensions
World Organization of Animal Health (OIE) that defines animal welfare as: (i) how well an animal is coping with
the conditions in which it lives, (ii) an animal having good welfare if, as indicated by scientific evidence, it is
healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express key aspects of behavior, and if it is not suffering from
unpleasant states, such as pain, fear and distress, and (iii) good animal welfare requiring disease prevention and
veterinary treatment for illness and injuries, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and
humane slaughter/killing (OIE, 2012). While the term animal welfare refers to the state of an individual animal, in
practical circumstances these individual measurements are used to assess the mean welfare in a group or herd. The
EFSA Opinion was based on a multidimensional concept of welfare that included both the physical health and the
emotional state of the animal (EFSA, 2012).
The term animal welfare is being used increasingly by corporations, consumers, veterinarians, politicians, and
other stakeholders. However, the term can mean different things to different people. Understandably, in the past,
veterinarians and farmers have seen animal welfare mainly in terms of the body and the physical environment
(shelter, feed, etc.): if an animal is healthy and producing well, it is faring well. However, there are limitations to
seeing animal welfare only in terms of the body. One limitation is that genetics and the environment can produce
desirable physical outcomes and another limitation is that some physical parameters are difficult to interpret,
because they can be increased by both positive and negative experiences.
The above would suggest that animal welfare includes not only the state of the animal's body, but also its feelings,
thus, if an animal feels well, it is faring well. Such research has led to the conclusion that animals have fundamental
behavioral needs that they must be allowed to satisfy for humane reasons. Another view of welfare, linked to the
feelings-based approach, is that animals fare best if they can live according to their nature and perform their full
range of behaviors. Thus, the most widely accepted definition of animal welfare is that it comprises the state of the
animal's body and mind, and the extent to which its nature (genetic traits manifest in breed and temperament) is
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satisfied. However, the 3 aspects of welfare sometimes conflict, and this presents practical and ethical challenges
(Hewson 2003).
General aspects of animal welfare in Albania
Welfare is a broad term which includes the many elements that contribute to an animals quality of life, including
those referred to in the five freedoms ((freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition; freedom from fear and
distress; freedom from physical and thermal discomfort; freedom from pain, injury and disease; and freedom to
express normal patterns of behaviour).
Five Freedoms
In 1965, the UK government commissioned an investigation, led by Professor Roger Brambell, into the welfare of
intensively farmed animals. The Brambell Report stated that animals should have the freedom to "stand up, lie
down, turn around, groom themselves and stretch their limbs". This short recommendation became known as
Brambell's Five Freedoms.In 1979 the UK Farm Animal Wlfare Council developed the five freedoms which
should be considered for the animal welfare, on farm management, during transport, at market place or at
slaugterhouse. These freedoms define ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare (as shown below,
FAWC):
a. Freedom from Hunger and Thirst- access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour.
b. Freedom from Discomfort- providing to animals an appropriate environment including shelter and a
comfortable resting area.
c. Freedom from Pain, Injury or Disease- prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
d. Freedom to Express Normal Behavior- providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's
own kind, and
e. Freedom from Fear and Distress- ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering.
One of the OIEs key achievements, of course, is the development of the science-based international animal welfare
standards in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code. Implementation of these standards is the responsibility of
individual member countries. But the OIE has supported countries to establish the necessary underpinnings of good
animal welfare policy, including contemporary legislation, improved veterinary education and training, and defined
competencies for graduating veterinarians.
The recently adopted Community Action Plan on the Protection and Welfare of Animals has as one of the main
areas of action upgrading existing minimum standards for animal protection and welfare as well as possibly
elaborating specific minimum standards for species or issues that are not currently addressed in EU legislation
(EFSA 2009)
In comparison with other farmed animals, much research has been carried out on methods for assessing the needs
and welfare of dairy cows. In considering the welfare of dairy cows, some of the most important aspects of poor
welfare are disease conditions, in particular foot and leg disorders and mastitis. Reproductive and behavioural
problems are also relevant indicators of poor welfare.
In Albania is not prepared yet an Animal Welfare Act, however several articles provided us with a general
framework for animal welfare are in the Veterinary Service and Animal Breeding Laws.
Albanian legislation in force:

Law on Animal Breeding, No. 9426, date 6.10.2005;
Law on Veterinary Service in Republic of Albania, No.10 465, date 29.9.2011
Minister of Agriculture Order on minimum standards of welfare for laying hens, No. 307, date 4/07/08;
Minister of Agriculture Order on rules of animal health and animal welfare, No. 382 date 31.07.2006;
Minister of Agriculture Order on minimum housing for calves, No 4, date 9. 09. 2008
Minister of Agriculture Order on minimum standards of welfare for laying hens and pigs, No 1, date 4.03.2009;
Council of Ministers Decision on Guidelines for the identification of animals and livestock farms, No.320, date
19.3.2008.
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Albanian legistlation (Minister of Agriculture Order No 292 date 12.06.2006 covers also the farm animal welfare at
the time of slaughtering and killing.
Albanian consumers are not informed in regard with animal welfare of farm animal because public debates and
discussions in television and radio are very rare. In such situation a simple survey was conducted in Tirana, the
capital of Albania, with the aim to get preliminary data on animal welfare consumers point of view. 200 consumers
were interviewed face to face in market places, as well as mini and supermarkets. The consumers were randomly
selected. Seven closed ended questions were included in questioner except the respondents demographic data .
According to the consumers answers results that 27,7% of respondents considered poultry in intensive rearing
system as the most stressed animals, followed by cows 22,3%, pigs 18,1 %, horses 21,3%, while small ruminants are
considered by only 10,6 % of respondents.
Figure 1: Most stressed farm animals
Consumers awareness about the impact of animal treatment (animal welfare vs animal suffering) on the quality of
the products may be confirmed by the answer of the question:
Are you willing to pay higher price for the animal products produced in farms that treat well the animals?
Figure 2: Consumers willing to pay higher price
So, from the figure 2 we see that 88,4-% of the respondents are ready to pay higher price for animal friendly
products.
From the survey resulted that only 55,8-% have visit one or more times a farm while 44,2% never visit a farm.
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CONCLUSIONS
Improving and promoting animal welfare must be an important objective of the Albanian Government and an
Animal Welfare Act is more than needed to cover the five freedoms.
This kind of work needs better support among academic leaders, scientific publishers, and funding bodies, and
training in interdisciplinary thinking needs to be introduced as early as in undergraduate education. An important
aspect is that all participants need to learn to communicate and to learn the language of discourse of different
disciplines so as to understand the issues and to appreciate the value of their contributions.
Government, farmers and food industry need to be forward looking and position themselves to respond to emerging
animal welfare concerns, and to consider public opinion. Industry needs to demonstrate continuous improvement to
keep in touch with community expectations and to be transparent about its activities.
REFERENCES
BRAMBELL Report, (1965): Report of the Technical Committee to enquire into the welfare of animals kept under
intensive livestock husbandry systems. Her Majestys Stationery Office, London, UK.
BROOM DM, (1986): Indicators of poor welfare. The British Veterinary Journal, 142, 524-526.
Scientific Opinion on the overall effects of farming systems on dairy cow welfare and disease.
EFSA (2009): Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Animal Welfare
(Question No EFSA-Q- 2006-113). http://www.efsa.europa.eu/de/scdocs/doc/1143.pdf
EFSA (2012): Scientific Opinion on the use of animal-based measures to assess welfare of dairy cows. EFSA
Journal 2012; 10 (1): 2554, 81 pp.
FARM ANIMAL WELFARE COUNCIL-FAWC, (2009): Farm Animal Welfare in Great Britain: Past, Present and
Future. http://www.fawc.org.uk/pdf/ppf-report091012.pdf
HEWSON, CJ, (2003): What is animal welfare? Common definitions and their practical consequences. Can Vet J.
2003 June; 44(6): 496499.
LUND, V., COLEMAN, G., GUNNARSSON, S., APPBLEY, M.C., KARIKINEN, K., (2006): Animal welfare
science - Working at the interface between the natural and social sciences. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 97:37-49.
OFFICE INTERNATIONAL EPIZOOTIES OIE, (2012): Terrestrial Animal Health Code. Section 7: Animal
Welfare.
PAPER 214
FAILURE of REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS DURING a RECENT EARTHQUAKE WITH A

MODERATE MAGNITUDE in TURKEY
Ali KKEN1, Mehmet Alpaslan KROLU2

1
Selcuk University, Civil Engineering Department, Konya, Turkey
2
Necmettin Erbakan University, Civil Engineering Department, Konya, Turkey
Email: akoken@selcuk.edu.tr; makoroglu@selcuk.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
An earthquake with magnitude (ML) 5.7 occurred on May 19, 2011 in Simav, Ktahya located in the western part of
Turkey at 20:15 local time with the epicentral coordinates of the 39.1328N 29.0820E by the Earthquake
Department of the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (DEMP). The DEMP reported the depth of the
Ktahya-Simav earthquake as 24.46 km. The earthquake resulted in 2 casualties and more than 122 injuries.
Building stock in Simav city center is generally formed from reinforced concrete structures and masonry structures.
In this paper, the performance of reinforced concrete buildings during Simav earthquake in Turkey is discussed. The
objective of this paper is to provide a brief overview of damages of RC Structures after Simav earthquake.
Observations from the earthquake damages are discussed and compared with TDY 2007(Turkish Earthquake Code).
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The major deficiencies of reinforcement detailing in Simav is discussed and finally, a short overview of advices are
mentioned.
Key words: Simav Earthquake, Earthquake hazards, reinforced concrete failures, structural deficiencies.
INTRODUCTION
On May 19, 2011 an earthquake with magnitude (ML) 5.7 occurred in Simav, Ktahya located in the western part of
Turkey at 20:15 local time with the epicentral coordinates of the 39.1328N 29.0820E by the Earthquake
Department of the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (DEMP). And also the DEMP reported the
depth of the Ktahya-Simav earthquake as 24.46 km. The earthquake resulted in 2 casualties and more than 122
injuries. Approximately 2500 aftershocks occurred after the main shock [1, 2, 3]. The magnitude range (ML) of
these aftershocks is between 1.3 and 4.8 Major faulting system acting in the Simav region is shown in Fig. 1. Red
star shows the epicenter of the main-shock (ML 5.7). The earthquakes with ML+4, ML+3, and ML+2 are shown
with the color red, orange and yellow dots, respectively [4].
In the literature, there are many studies about the earthquakes and post-earthquake case studies in Turkey, because in
the last two decades destructive earthquakes hit the country (such as 1992 Erzincan (Mw 6.8), 1996 Adana-Ceyhan
(Mw 6.3), 1999 Adapazari-_Izmit (Mw 7.4),1999 Dzce (Mw 7.2), 2002) 2002 AfyonSultandagi (Mw = 6.5), 2003
Bingol (Mw = 6.4), 2010 Elaz 2011 (Mw 6.0), Van (Mw 7.2)) [5-13]. The majority of the studies are related to
buildings with structural systems of reinforced concrete frames. However, most of the low-rise residential buildings
constructed in villages and small towns are masonry structures. So much of the studies about Turkish earthquakes
hazards and structural deficiencies and mistakes are concentrated in reinforced concrete and masonry structures [5-
13].
Figure 1. Major faulting system acting in the Simav region
MATERIAL AND METHOD
General features of the buildings in seismic zone. The typical construction in Turkey is reinforced concrete
moment resisting frame structures with hollow clay brick unreinforced infill panels as the urban part of Simav. R/C
structure damages are observed as crack failures and falling of infill walls that were resulted in significant economic
loss and human casualties. In the rural area, there are significant numbers of timber-reinforced adobe, stone or brick
masonry old buildings. Most of the damage occurred in this old timber-reinforced adobe, stone or brick masonry
buildings located in loose ground [1-3].
Buildings with poor quality of construction and materials were built using the traditional techniques by the local
people by abiding construction rules of earthquake-resistant design in this region. In Simav town center the most
common type of structures are 3-6 storey RC frame structures with hollow clay brick unreinforced infill panels and
1-4 storey brick masonry buildings. Most of RC building have basement floor and in-situ concrete with
inappropriate aggregate is used [1-3].
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Observed structural damages on RC buildings. Majority of the buildings in Simav town center had structural
and/or non-structural damage. The main reasons of observed damage may be pointed out as structural system and
member deficiencies, and also fragility of the infill walls.
The major deficiencies of reinforcement detailing in Simav can be listed as follows:
unsuitable transverse reinforcement,

large spacing of stirrups,
lack of 135 hooks at the end of column ties,
unconfined lap splices,
inadequate anchorage lengths,
lower longitudinal reinforcement ratios than considered in design,
insufficient lateral ties at the beamcolumn joints,
using plain rebars for reinforcement (low quality steel reinforcement)
RESULTS
Short column problem was a frequently observed in Simav Earthquake (Figure 2.). During an earthquake, lateral
forces are transmitted to the columns as moment and shear forces. If the length of the columns is shortened, it
becomes stiffer, more rigid in bending and receives higher moments in earthquake. Since the moment arm is short,
the shear forces become more pronounceable. Short column problem may arise due to arrangement of infill walls or
other non-structural, architectural members. Sometimes, the infill walls are shorter than the column. The top of the
walls may be opened for lightening purposes in schools, hospitals and dormitories. Also, windows may be opened at
the top of the periphery shear walls in the basement of the structures. In these cases, the column length in between
the wall is confined by the wall and its stiffness is increased. Due to increase in stiffness, the columns share more
flexural moments and this cause increase in the shear forces
Short column failure effect nel et al. 2011 nel et al. 2011
Kaplan et al. 2011 Kaplan et al. 2011 Kaplan et al. 2011 Kaplan et al. 2011
Figure 2. Short column failures
Soft-Story Formation forms due to discontinuity of vertical elements of the lateral load resisting system. Taller first
stories and disuse of walls for exterior cladding to use the first flats as shops or stores because of dense residential in
Simav center caused weak and soft story problems (Figure 3a). The building in Figure 3 in which the moment frame
is both flexible and weak in the first story by comparisons with the upper stories collapsed. Deformations are
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concentrated in the first story of this building because the front of the building was opened in the first story. The
first-story columns in this building were severely damaged and leaned to the next building.
Failure on first floor due to soft story Wide spacing of lateral ties lack of stirrups at the joints
Figure 3. Failures from Simav earthquake
In Simav city center inadequate gap between the neighboring buildings caused serious damage to a significant
number of buildings. During the earthquake, structures hit to each other due to differences in dynamic properties of
the adjacent buildings is called as hammering was observed in many neighboring buildings.
As similar to the previous studies of Turkey earthquakes [5-9], poor detailing and lack of proper reinforcement were
observed in many RC framed structures in Simav post-earthquake observation. The wide shear cracks and plastic
hinging at column ends indicates that poor detailing and insufficient number of column transverse reinforcement led
to catastrophic results.In Simav actually the lack of stirrups at the joints that makes the column-beam joints
vulnerable to earthquake was observed (Figure 3b, 3c) [10, 11, 12].
During an earthquake, some additional lateral forces are induced in a structure. These loads increases the shear
forces on the structures so, actually for columns, design of the shear reinforcement is essential. Wide spacing of
lateral ties is a common shortcoming observed in Simav RC structures. During site observations after earthquakes, it
is noted that the stirrup spacing was much more than the maximum value allowed by the design code TEC 2007.
Most of damaged columns, no tie spacing of less than 100 mm were not observed. Often unequally spaced ties are
between 150 mm and 300 mm.
For TEC 2007 Hoops and crossties used in columns, beam - column joints, wall end zones and beam confinement
zones of all reinforced concrete systems of high ductility level or normal ductility level in all seismic zones shall be
special seismic hoops and special seismic crossties Special seismic hoops shall always have 135 degree hooks at
both ends. 90-degree hook does not provide effective anchorage since it is not embedded in the confined. In Simav,
90-degree hooks have been commonly observed.
The strength of the lap splice is very important for the development of strength and ductility of a reinforced concrete
column. According to the observation in the field, lap splices in substandard columns were typically designed as
compression splices with the lap length of about 20 to 24 times bar diameter. The reason of most observed defects in
damaged members are because of unconfined lap splices and inadequate anchorage lengths (1530 cm), lower
longitudinal reinforcement ratios than considered in design. Also lap splices of column longitudinal reinforcement
should be made, as much as possible, within the column central zone due to TEC 2007 lap splices in moment-frame
columns were typically made immediately above the floor framing or the foundation. So, lap splices in columns
were located in a plastic hinge zone which is the most critical part of RC members.
In addition to reinforcement detailing deficiencies, low quality concrete caused adherence problems in RC members,
resulting in plastic hinging. An interesting observation is that, in some buildings, wooden pieces were observed in
column formwork, causing large holes.
CONCLUSION
In addition to the negative view of the situation, there are significant changes in Turkey due to the earthquake
regulations of 1998 and 2007, and increased control mechanisms have ensure that structures built in the last 10 years
incorporate earthquake resistant features. However, a significant proportion of the existing buildings, which are
thought to constitute 45% of RC buildings, were constructed before 1998 and were not subject to sufficiently tight
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controls; the earthquake performance of these structure especially historical and critical buildings should be
accurately re-evaluated as a matter of priority.
REFERENCES
A Report on the 19 May 2011 Ktahya-Simav Earthquake In collaboration with Earthquake Engineering Research
Center (EERC) Middle East Technical University, Report No: METU/EERC 2011-02, June 2011, Ankara, Turkey.
Inel M., zmen H. B., Akyol E., ayc B. T., A Report on the 19 May 2011 Ktahya-Simav Earthquake and
aftershocks, Denizli, Turkey (in Turkish)
Kaplan H., Tama Y. S., Ylmaz S., Kayhan A. H., n H., Simav Earthquake Constructional Hazards Preliminary
Research Report, Denizli, Turkey (in Turkish)
www.afad.gov.tr
Arslan, M. H. and H. H. Korkmaz (2007). "What is to be learned from damage and failure of reinforced concrete
structures during recent earthquakes in Turkey?" Engineering Failure Analysis 14(1): 1-22.
smail H, . (2005). "Experimental evaluation of buildings damaged in recent earthquakes in Turkey." Engineering
Failure Analysis 12(3): 440-452.
Inel, M., H. B. Ozmen, et al. (2008). "Re-evaluation of building damage during recent earthquakes in Turkey."
Engineering Structures 30(2): 412-427.
Tan, O., Taprdamaz M. C. & Yrk A. The Earthquake Catalogues for Turkey Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences
(Turkish J. Earth Sci.), Vol. 17, 2008, pp. 405418.
Adalier, K. and O. Aydingun (2001). "Structural engineering aspects of the June 27, 1998 AdanaCeyhan (Turkey)
earthquake." Engineering Structures 23(4): 343-355.
Sezen, H., A. S. Whittaker, et al. (2003). "Performance of reinforced concrete buildings during the August 17, 1999
Kocaeli, Turkey earthquake, and seismic design and construction practice in Turkey." Engineering Structures 25(1):
103-114.
Adem, D. (2004). "Performance of reinforced concrete buildings during the May 1, 2003 Bingl Earthquake in
Turkey." Engineering Structures 26(6): 841-856.
Celep, Z., A. Erken, et al. (2011). "Failures of masonry and concrete buildings during the March 8, 2010 Kovanclar
and Palu (Elaz) Earthquakes in Turkey." Engineering Failure Analysis 18(3): 868-889.
Kaplan, H., S. Yilmaz, et al. (2004). "May 1, 2003 TurkeyBingl earthquake: damage in reinforced concrete
structures." Engineering Failure Analysis 11(3): 279-291.
PAPER 216
STRENGTHENNG OF RC FRAMES BY EXTEROR PREFABRCATED PANELS
Nebi ZDNER1, Nail KARA2

1
Necmettin Erbakan University, Civil Engineering Department Turkey,
2
Seluk University, Civil Engineering Department Turkey,
Email: nozdoner@konya.edu.tr; nkara@selcuk.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
In this study, a strengthening method that will differ from the others due to its outdoor application and not requiring the
vacation of the building was investigated. In this context, the behaviors of these reinforced concrete frames prepared in
scale with the mistakes commonly encountered in existing buildings of Turkey was researched experimentally under
reversed cyclic lateral loading conditions. The characteristics such as strength, stiffness, energy consumption
capacities of the multi storey and multi span brittle reinforced concrete frames of insufficient seismic resistance
were obtained at the end of the tests and they were compared with the results obtained for the strengthened/improved
systems formed by the addition of prefabricated outdoor panels to the existing reinforced concrete building having
identical characteristics with the test specimens.
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Keywords: Reinforced concrete frame, prefabricated panel, strengthening.
INTRODUCTION
Repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures occur for many different reasons. Reinforced concrete
structures exposed to outside influences during their lifetime unexpected and may occur due to increased transport
capacity. Reinforced concrete structural systems of a structure, project, or load carrying capacity of the building
under construction, significantly reduce errors and defects.
These frameworks in order to demonstrate the behavior of the outer wall of frames that make up the building from
outside the building is intended to strengthen with the addition of pre-fabricated panels.
In this study, without interfering with the use of strengthened buildings, completely outside the building and
recommended a method considered to be economically applied and investigated. In this model, unlike other
methods, empowerment, building users without having to leave the building during the manufacturing process, fine
workmanship in the building without damaging the system optimization method can be done from outside the
building were investigated. Interruption of the use of this method is undesirable in our country and is heavily used in
hospitals, health centers and school like method is thought to be of great importance for the building.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The main objective of this study, the earthquake resistance of buildings, insufficient load carrying capacity,
stiffness, ductility, such as a new enhancement to the healing properties significantly method. For this purpose, the
existing building, symbolizing the two-dimensional frames, causing damage to structures during earthquakes, and
we live in our country in general building stock, taking into consideration the most frequent omissions were made.
Figure 1. Dimensions of the test specimens reinforced concrete frame.
TEST SETUP. The two-storey two-span, weak earthquake resistance of reinforced concrete frames and the frames
are reinforced with the application from outside the states of pre-fabricated panels, representing the reversible
earthquake - is repeated in the experimental studies on lateral load testing, Selcuk University Faculty of Engineering
- Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering Earthquake Research Laboratory, Department of carried out. The thesis
prepared under the concrete frame of the 3 sample units (1 unit 2 units of prefabricated panels reinforced with
reinforced frame and the frame), 300 kN capacity was assayed using a rigid steel loading frame system. In our
experiments, using computer-assisted data reading system, and immediately made the necessary load and
displacement readings were recorded. Was started as a load controlled experiments, the system yield a nominal
value of the load-displacement controlled after the experiment was continued. Installation, hydraulic pump as much
as possible through the regular and the development of cracks during the experiment was to observe a speed.
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Figure 2. Measurement setup used in the experiments.
RESULTS
In all experiments, before the installation began as a controlled load, the load displacement curve becoming
horizontal time (the time limit was reached the nominal yield) ended a few cycles the load-controlled loading, the
displacement-controlled loading was started. The displacement-controlled loading, the displacement increases from
5-10 mm, LVDT capacities of the sample rate or in any way to continue the installation until the carrying capacity
has been lost. The experimental results in terms of better understanding, some of the graphs were prepared for each
sample.
40
30
20
Yatay Yk (kN)
10
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
-10
-20
-30
-40
2. Kat Yer Deitirmesi (mm)

Deney 1
Figure 3. No. 1 is the second layer of horizontal load displacement envelope of the test specimen.
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150
120
90
60
Yatay Yk (kN)
30
0
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-30
-60
-90
-120
-150

Deney 2
Figure 4. No. 2 test specimen in the second layer of horizontal load-displacement graph.
200
150
100
Yatay Yk (kN)
50
0
-150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150
-50
-100
-150

Deney 3
Figure 5. No. 3 test specimen in the second layer of horizontal load-displacement graph.
200
160
120
80
Yatay Yk (kN).
40
0
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-40
-80
-120
-160 Deney 3

Deney 2
Deney 1
Figure 6. The second layer of horizontal load displacement envelope graphics.
CONCLUSIONS
Cracks and plastic hinges on columns was eliminated by using Precast Concrete Panels.
Using Precast Concrete Panels increased the primary rigitness of the specimen.
Energy consaption capacity increased % 325 when Precast Concrete Panel was used.
Using Precast Concrete Panels increased the displacement capacity of the specimens.
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REFERENCES
Akn, S.K., 2006, Betonarme erevelerin apraz ubuklar YardmylaGlendirilmesi, Doktora tezi, Seluk
niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Konya.
Altn, S., 1990, Strengthening of R/C Frames with RC Infill, A Doctor of Philosophy Thesis in Civil
Engineering, Middle East Technical University, February 1990.
Aras, F., 2001, Nonlinear Response Analysis of the Retrofitted Structures by Different Strategies, PhD Thesis in
Civil Engineering, Bogazii University.
Arslan, M.H., 2007, Kolonlar ekme Krlmas Gsteren Snek Olmayan Betonarme erevelerin D Perde
Duvar Uygulamas le Glendirilmesi, Doktora Tezi, Seluk niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Konya.
Celep, Z., 2002, Mevcut Betonarme Binalarn Deprem Gvenliinin Belirlenmesi ve Glendirilmesinde Genel
Kurallar, Prof. Dr. Kemal zdeni Anma Semineri, stanbul Teknik niversitesi, stanbul.
Ersoy, U., zcebe, G., 2001, Betonarme Temel lkeler TS500-2000 ve Trk Deprem Ynetmeliine (1998) Gre
Hesap, Evrim Yaynevi, Ankara.
lgn, A., 2003, ok Katl Betonarme Panel Yaplarn Yatay Yk Altnda Davran: Teorik ve Deneysel
Aratrma, Doktora tezi, Seluk niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Konya.
zcebe, G., Ersoy, U., Tankut, T., Erduran, E., Keskin, R.S.O., Mertol, H.C., 2003, Strengthening of Brick-Infilled
RC Frames with CFRP, Research Project, YMA-TAG-1575, NATO SfP977231, March.
Yavuz, G., 2005, Ksmi Betonarme Perde Duvar ile Glendirilmi Deprem Davran Zayf Snek Olmayan
Betonarme erevelerin Deprem Davran,Doktora tezi, Seluk niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Konya.
Ylmaz, .S., 2007, Kolonlar Basn Krlmas Gsteren Snek Olmayan Betonarme erevelerin D Perde
Duvar Uygulamas le Glendirilmesi, Doktora Tezi, Seluk niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Konya.
Youssef, M.A., 1999, Modeling of Existing and Rehabilitated Reinforced Concrete Buildings, PhD Thesis,
McMaster University.
Yksel, E., Karadoan, F., 1998, Earthquake Behavior of Frames Strengthened by Added Shear Walls, Second
Japan-Turkey Workshop on Earthquake Engineering, page: 236-247, February, Istanbul, Turkey.
Afet Blgelerinde Yaplacak Yaplar Hakknda Ynetmelik, 1998, Bayndrlk ve skn Bakanl, Ankara.
Afet Blgelerinde Yaplacak Yaplar Hakknda Ynetmelik, 2007, Bayndrlk Bakanl, Ankara.
ACI 318-99, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute Standard.
ACI Committee 355, 1991, State of the Art Report on Anchorage to Concrete, American Concrete Institute.
FEMA 273/356, Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1996 a. Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Buildings, Cilt I, Redwood City, California, USA.
TS500 2000, Betonarme Yaplarn Hesap ve Yapm Kurallar, Trk Standartlar Enstits, ubat 2000, Ankara.
PAPER 218
PROMOTION OF ECOTOURISM IN PROTECTED AREAS OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
Besnik Rexhepi1*, Behxhet Mustafa1, Xhezair Abdiu2, Hysen Xhemaili2, Jehona Rushidi-Rexhepi3, Fahrije
Iseni4
Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, State University of Tetova, llindenska nn, 1200 Tetovo, Republic of
Macedonia1*, 2, and 4
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Prishtina, Str.Mother
TeresaRepublic of Kosova1
Faculty: Languages, Cultures and Communications, South-East-European University, Ilindenska nn 1200 3
Email: besnik.rexhepi@unite.edu.mk
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ABSTRACT
Ecotourism as an important pillar of mass tourism should be a function of protection of natural heritage and socio-
cultural changes. On the last decades protected areas are in a continuing interest of lovers of nature values therefore
it is necessary the managers of these areas, tour operators, local communities, local and central institutions and other
stakeholders to promote the natural and cultural values of these areas. The proposed Representative of Protected
Areas System (RPAS) is consisted of 99 areas: 34 already protected, 42 proposed for protection and 23 additionally
proposed areas (SNR 2; NP 6; NM 51; NP 32; PL 6 and MA 2). Most of the PAs includes eco-destinations and eco-
regions. In Macedonia ecotourism is much less developed. Therefore, it is necessary to set development standards in
coordination with local stakeholders. The protected territory in Macedonia must be utilized as a basic destination for
the development of ecotourism and other similar forms of tourism such as mountain tourism, sustainable tourism,
etc and not to be considered just as an idea through which we can preserve natural resources. Therefore this study
intend to promote opportunities of development of ecotourism in these protected areas
Key words: Ecotourism, Protected Areas, Republic of Macedonia, Eco-destinations.
INTRODUCTION
Protected areas (PAs) are important destinations for a growing tourism segment (nature or ecotourism) which uses
inact and diverse nature, landscapes and biodiversity as major attractions. This represents both a potential threat, and
an opportunity for conservation goals. That is why on one hand, negative environmental and other impacts have to
be minimised. On the other hand, nature tourism can provide significant benefits, both for conservation agencies and
for local people living in and around PAs (Starsdas 2002).
Like many other countries in the region, the tourism in the Republic of Macedonia (RM) is under selective pressure.
One of these forms of selective pressure is obviously the ecotourism. Ecotourism typically involves travel to
destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions (Udgata 2012).
Regarding the geographical position and geo-eco-tourism assessment the RM accomplishes all features to attract a
larger number of eco-tourists in PAs. However, the number of the last mentioned compared to regional countries is
significantly smaller (Todorovi et al 2003). The Republic of Macedonia, situated in the central part of the Balkan
Peninsula, covers an area of 25.713 km2. Forty percent of the total territory of the State is forest and forest land, 51%
is agricultural, and 9% is unproductive land (APIPWPA/CBD 2012). On regional scale, the biodiversity of
Macedonia, in diverse taxonomic groups, covers 70-90% of the entire Balkan biodiversity (Kottelat & Freyhof,
2007; Gasc et al., 1997; Harrison, 1982; Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999). Due to the disproportionately high
concentration (70-90%) of the biodiversity of the Balkan region concentrated in Macedonia, the country is widely
recognized as the top European Biodiversity Hotspot (MEPP 2009; UNEP 2004). However, based on the available
scientific research, four key ecosystems have been established in the RM: forest, mountainous, aquatic/wetland and
dryland/grassland ecosystems. Moreover, the total number of species recorded on the territory of the RM is around
17.604 species, of which 1.053 species of Fungi, 354 species of Lichens, 2.169 species of Algae, 3.674 species of
vascular plants and 10.354 faunal species (APIPWPA/CBD 2012). According to the WWF (2011) for Nature and
DMEER (2011), Macedonias territory can be subdivided into four eco-regions: the Pindus Mountains mixed
forests; Balkan mixed forests; Rhodopes mixed forests and Aegean sclerophyllous and mixed forests.
Current status of eco-tourism programes/initiatives/projects in and around PAs in Macedonia
In the Republic of Macedonia several programmes, projects and initiatives have been already undertaken. Overall
the programmes of eco-tourism are created by the ME, MEPP/AE and MAFWE/DF, MST and other relevent
Institutions. After all, these programs, projects and initiatives in PAs with some exceptions (NP, SNR and Skopje
Region) seem to be insufficient. Ecotourism is still at a starting stage in Macedonia. The most important
spontaneous actions that have been undertaken properly is the example with Skopje Region where five ecotourism
zones have been selected (Vodno-Matka, Taor, Skopska Crna Gora, Katlanovo and Jakupica). Another spontaneous
initiative is one Gorani emigrant who is strives to preserve traditional and regional cousine Slow Food in village
Janse in Reka valley who is trying to stop the inhabitants from leaving the village. A political party Democratic
Renewal of Macedonia is setting up an eco-village in Babino and is promoting cultural tourism in Vitoliste in
Mariovo district. Another good example is the co-operation between BSPSM and Travel agencies in Bitola. A
successful story of development of eco-tourism in PAs in the RM is Monospitovsko Blato as a part of the project
Development of eco/rural tourism in Municipality of Bosilovo, financed from the Neighborhood Programme
between Bulgaria and Macedonia, Grant scheme for Nature Protection, Valorization of Cultural Heritage and
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Cooperation among Public Institutions at Regional/Local Level (Trajkova et al 2010). Also the GEF/SGP with the
project Practical protection of biological diversity through active participation of local community has contributed in
supporting ecotourism. But until now, according to Analyticamk (2008) the most significant ongoing projects are
implemented with international coperation: the project Sustainable development through ecotourism and
environmental education in protected areas financed by the German agency GTZ, is implemented in Galicica
National Park by the Alliance for Lake Cooperation in Ohrid and Prespa with the help of six NGOs from Serbia,
Albania and Bulgaria and the UNDP project (2010) Strenghening the Ecological, Institutional and Financial
Sustainability of Macedonias National Protected Areas System, the project activity: Development of Representative
National Protected Asreas System. In 2008, Macedonia adopted the National Strategy on Tourism Development
2009-2013, which was prepared with a main vision: by 2013 Macedonia to become a famous travel and tourism
destination in Europe based on cultural and natural heritage (Dimovska & Petrevska 2012). Also the project
Increasing Capacities of the State University of Tetova for biodiversity Study of Flora and Fauna of the Mountain
Massif of Sharr through Enhanced Regional and Inter-university Cooperation (2013) attempt to promote some
spontaneous initiatives to establish ecotourism in the region of Sharr Mountain.
Therefore, taking into consideration the lack of offers and the few attempts that have been made in the RM to
promote the eco-destinations that this country offers we considered that somehow through this work we will
contribute in promoting ecotourism in the context of growth of the number of responsible travel to natural areas that
conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people (TIES, 1990), by providing eco-destinations
and other attractive destinations in and around PAs (Tab.2.).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Throughout the research we used a variety of literature and internet sources (where some of our theoretical
approaches were largely based on published articles and guides about protected areas and ecotourism). The research
in the field and the visit of the PAs was conducted during the years 2012/2013.
RESULTS
Information from all published sources including Law on Nature Protection show that the Republic of Macedonia, as
many countries in the region has developed its own separate access for management in PAs. This has influenced the
RM to remain behind compared to the rest of the Balkan countries. Therefore, Macedonia must urgently harmonize
the legislation and to follow the so-called post-2010 model of development of the system of categorization of PAs
(Ervin, J et al. 2010). Since the Republic of Macedonia was part of former Yugoslavia it has inherited in legal terms
the old model of system of categorization of PAs. However, now as an independent state the basic legal act
regulating the protection of the natural heritage in the Republic of Macedonia is the Law on Nature Protection
(Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia No.67/04, 14/06, 84/07, 35/10, 47/11 and 148/11). The Macedonian
legislation i.e. The Law on Nature Protection in the system of categorization currently does not completely
incorporate some of the most critical components of a life support system which in fact in terms of their ecological,
social and economic value are not sufficiently taken in consideration (Ervin, J et al. 2010).
In the Republic of Macedonia the concept of an eco-destination is new, and no guidelines have been written for it or
those that are published in a roundabout way do not include some of the basic eco-destination characteristics. Some
of the most famous destinations such as Ohrid, Markovi Kuli, Cave Slatinski Izvor are World Heritage Sites, while
the other destinations such as Prespa Lake, Dojran Lake are Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Sites).Whereas in Emerald Network Sites all national parks are included (Mavrovo, Pelister and Galicica), also one
Strict Nature Reserve (Tikvesh) and Natural Monuments (Ezerani, Dojransko Ezero, Klisura Demir Kapija, Orlovo
Brdo, Matka Canyon, Smolarski vodopas, Markovi Kuli) and some still not designed areas (Bogoslovets, Alshar,
BanskoMonositovo, Belchyshko Blato and Sharr Planina). Therefore, we consider that this article will be a good
opportunity for promoting the development of ecotourism in and around PAs as well as for the government which
must play a responsible role on planning, policy-making and zoning.
During the proposal of eco-destinations we take into consideration the most important eco-destination
characteristics, also the social and environmental factors, opinion of the local community, zoning strategies, opinion
of the tourist, etc. According to CBET (2012) the eco-destination characteristics included in this proposal are:
Natural features conserved within a protected landscape.
Low density development, where natural areas are abundant and the built landscape does not dominate.
Evidence that tourism is not harming natural systems such as waterways, coastal areas, wetlands and wildlife areas.
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Thriving small community businesses, including food stands and other types of craft enterprises owned by local
people
Plenty of designated outdoor recreation zones that are designed to protect fragile resources, including bike path,
trails or boardwalks that are shared by local and visitors alike.
Thriving, locally owned lodges, hotels, restaurants and businesses that provide genuine hospitality with friendly,
motivated staff.
A variety of local festivals and events that demonstrate an on-going sense of pride in the local community s natural
environment and cultural heritage.
Clean and basic public facilities for tourists and local to share, such as public showers and toilets.
Friendly interaction between local people and visitors in natural meeting.
In the RM as a result of uneven distribution of PAs the ecotourism and other similar forms of nature tourism in some
areas (such as Sharr Mountain) suffer from the consequences. This ecotourism region (Sharr Mountain) offers
amazing value on the combination of physical, biological, social and cultural characteristics. Moreover, the Sharr
Mountain according to MBA is part of Emerald Network, and is considered as Important Plant Area, Important Bird
Area, Prime Butterfly Area, etc. Therefore we think that if the Sharr Mountain in near future will be declared as a
National Park, the phenomena such as migration in this area can be minimized.
In the RM ecotourism should be used as a tool in order to create small work places especially in isolated areas were
economic alternatives are rare in number i.e. ecotourism can contribute that these areas which are numerous in
number to improve their local economy. Thus in turn it can increase more political and financial support for the
conservation of nature.
The Law on Nature Protection in the RM regulates the nature protection by protecting biological and landscape
diversity, protection of the natural heritage in protected areas and out of protected areas and protection of the natural
rarities. However, the process of revalorization and re-proclamation of protected areas is not yet completed. So for
instance some of the proposed eco-destinations are moved from one category to another (SNR Ezerani from 2011
is re-designated as a Nature Park. Also other famous ancient locality Alshar which certain mineral such is
Lorandite according to the OG No.83/08 has lost the protected status. In administrative procedures aspects regarding
to PAs Macedonia must also regulate some components such as: proclamation, register, cadastre, supervision, etc.
(Melovski et al.2011). Based on the data, it seems that PAs of RM are classified as level 2 or in concordance with
IUCN PAs Management Categories (Ornat & Reines 2007). Despite the fact that they are practically identical to
those of the IUCN, this organization (IUCN) is not mentioned specifically in the national law (Melovski et al. 2011).
The proposed Representative of Protected Areas System (RPAS) is consisted of 99 areas: 34 already protected, 42
proposed for protection (according to National Spatial Plan-MEPP, 2004) and 23 additionally proposed areas
(Tab.1). The portion of the land in the RM covered by this proposal is 20.25% which is an agreement between the
CBD target for 2020 and EU requirements/target. (Melovski et al.2011).
The adoption of the Law on Nature Protection in 2004, transposing the European directives related to natural
heritage protection, is of a particular significance. The data on protected areas in this period is presented in the table
2 (APIPWPA/CBD 2012; Melovski et al 2011).
The needs to increase the number of PAs in the territory of the RM are directly affected not only by the fulfillment
of international obligations but they also come indirectly as a result of the industrialization and urbanization prompt
that has been running this geographical area in the last decade. Therefore the proposed portion of the land according
to NSP-MEPP seems to be very fair. However, the addition of protected areas should be the main pillar for
installation and development of ecotourism and other forms of sustainable nature tourism. Thereby, the negative
impact of tourism can be minimized and thus can reflect with reduction in the migration phenomenon which makes
it more difficult to installation and development ecotourism. Therefore the promotion of a selective form of tourism
such as ecotourism should not be regarded only as an idea, but efforts should be made to promote and implement all
aspects. Moreover, ecotourism goes beyond sightseeing to enhancing visitors understanding of the scientific and
ecological features of our natural attractions. This means that ecotourism must:
Recognize the intrinsic value of nature and accept that National Parks are primary for conservation of fauna, flora
and landscapes
Promote and develop ecologically and culturally sustainable travel and tourism
Promote and foster the conservation of an investment in the natural and cultural resources used for tourism
Develop ethics and standards for ecotourism
Educate and inspire tourists through participation to enjoy and appreciate the importance of natural and cultural
assets.
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In other words, ecotourism is based upon ecologically sustainable visitation to natural areas that fosters
environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation (TWA2006).
Much debate and confusion has surrounded the terms nature based tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism is often
used interchangeably with other terms such as nature based tourism, sustainable tourism, green tourism, responsible
tourism and soft tourism. While some elements of these different tourism types are similar, the terms are neither
synonymous nor mutually exclusive.
Table. 1. PAs of the RM under the Law, correspondence and representative Network of PAs (Source modified:
(MAK-NEN 2009; (Melovski et al 2011)
Areas proposed for Newly proposed

Protected areas protection (number areas for protection
Macedonia-old
Corresponding 2004 under Spatial Plan
categorization (Law on
Macedonia 2004 (Law on Nature Protection) IUCN 1994 of RM)
Protection of Natural
category Numbe Numbe
Rarities)* Number Total Total Total
r of r of
of area area area area
area area
I. Strict Natural Reserve. The definition and I.a Strict Nature
management objectives fully correspond to both Reserve Strict Nature Reserve;
2 470.76
IUCN subcategories of category I. It was Nature Reserve for - - - -
considered that there is not an undisturbed area Ib. Wilderness Scientific Research
large enough to be designated as Ib. Area
II. National Park. Corresponds completely with 115713.

II. National Park National Park 3 2 85116.98 1 16767.79
IUCNs category II. 21
III. Natural Monument. Corresponds completely III. Natural 85517.0

Natural Monument 20 21 17951.12 10 15361.82
with IUCNs category III. Monument 3
Special Nature Reserve.
This category is very
IV. Nature Park. The definition of nature park in IV.
vague. It is not clear if it
the Law on Nature Protection corresponds with Habitat/Species
corresponds with current
that of IUCNs category IV only with respect to Management Area
category IV, or is 7 3164.11 17 18696.42 8 10689.72
species and communities. However, nature park
something different. So
could include other physical features, which III.Natural
the management
corresponds more with IUCNs category III. Monument
objectives not so clear.
Landscape with specific

V.Protected
V. Protected landscape. Corresponds with IUCNs Natural
Landscape/Seasca - - 2 30006.27 4 89649.76
category V. Features/Characteristic
pe
Landscape
31529.3
2 - - - -
9
subtotal subtotal subtotal subtotal subtotal subtotal
VI. Multipurpose Area. According to the Law on VI. Protected area 34 236394. 42 151770.7 23 132468.3
Is not clear what are the
Nature Protection this PA category is the same as with sustainable 5 9 9
management objectives.
IUCNs category VI, but in some cases it can also use of natural Total:
comprise a significant area modified by humans resources
Number of areas by Total area: % of the national
category:99 520633.7 territory:20.25
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Table. 2. The Eco-destinations in and around PAs in Republic of Macedonia

Important components
Component model proposed by (Stardas 2002) modified for proposed eco-
New proposed eco- destinations
destinations in
Transportation on
and
Hospitality and
Types of tourists
Ecodestinations
Categories PAs, around Other natural and cultural
Infrastructure
(LNP: 2004) proposed and attractions in and around proposed
Information
Promotions
Important informations about proposed eco-destinations
newely proposed which includes some eco-
services
Facility
and protected destination characteristics
The proposed eco-destination i.e. the swamp Belchisko Blato is unique area Belchisko Blato is one of the few
in Macedonia. This destination is with flooding forests and humid habitats places in Macedonia where a large
and is important because it is also a corridor for migration of waterfowls. population of otters (lutra lutra) is
Also there is evidence of the spawning of certain fish species in the waters present. This site is part of the
Belchisko Blato
of Belchisko Blato, such as the endemic trout Salmo lumi and the presence Emerald Network, which includes
includes I, II, VI
of Lutra lutra[1] areas of special conservation
eco-destination
The SNRTikvesh Reserve is located on the most picturesque part of the interest, future protected area in the
characteristic.
ravine of the river Crna Reka. This proposed eco-destination occupies an European network "Natura 2000".
Tikvesh includes
area of several natural ecosystems (mountain, forest, grass, river, lake and Village Belchishta and village
all eco-destination
coast). The reserve together with river Crna Reka is added to the Novo Selo; Locality Sini
characteristic
international IUCN list and it has been characterized as a world significant Virovi1.
except EDC VIII
birds living place [2]. Village Vozraci, Tikves Lake;
partially.
Category I i The Lokvi-Golemo Konjari is nominated as SNR in 2003 (Official Tikvesh valley; villages Vatasha,
Lokvi Golemo - - -,+ + +
PAs-SNR ii Gazette 71/2003). The main reason of this nomination was the presence of Klinovo, Drdanja; Rozden,
Konjari includes I-
the endemic Pelagonia dragon crab (Chirocephalu pelagonicus). According Krushevo.
III, V eco-
to the European red list of invertebrate representatives for fresh water
destination
ecosystems, this species is included in the endangered species category [3].
characteristic.
SNR Ploce Litotelmi belongs to the area which has a number of
Ploce Litolemi
characteristic recesses s.c. "lythotelms" with an average diameter of 20-60
includes I-II, V
cm. and depth of 10-40 cm. The dragon crab (Tanymastix stagnalis), the
eco-destination
relict species of an unique population on the Balkan Peninsula, grows in the
characteristic.
water, which retains in these small recesses in the rocks after the rains and
the snow melting. According to the European red list of invertebrate
representatives for fresh water ecosystems (2012), the dragon crab is
included in the endangered species category [3].
The area of the NP Mavrovo is located in Sharplaninska group of mountains Glacial Lake Lukovo, Cave
NP Mavrovo Sharkopadinski system. According to todays borders this area encompasses Sharkova dupka, Bridge Dear
includes all eco- the southern branches of the Sharr Mountain, Korab massif of Mount Bistra Jump, Waterfall Duf, Mavrovo
destination and the adjacent watershed of the river Radika [4]. Lake, Region of village
characteristics NP Pelister it abounds with unique natural resources and is home of rare and Razalopolje, Mountain house
except EDC II endemic animal and plant species. Trademark of Pelister are clear spring Upper meadow, Safari Park
partially.1 water and rivers from where can be see Pelister and Pelagonia trout, Bunes, Picnic locality Gorna
NP Pelister waterfalls and glacial mountain lakes-Big and Small one, also known as Ledina, Monastery St. John the
includes all eco- Pelister Eyes [5]. Baptist, Church St. Nikolla, Old
i-
Category II destination The floral live in NP Galicia represents over 1000 species, of which a large mosque Rostushe 1.
v + + + + +
PAs-NP characteristics2 number of relicts and endems have the final frontier of its range exactly on Stone Rivers and seas on Pelister,
i
NP Galicica the mountain Galicica. There is characteristically presence of up to now 11 23 river flows, Malovishte
includes all eco- discovered local endems to be found exclusively on the slopes of Galiica (Capari), Trnovo, Begovi cesmi,
destination and nowhere else, this illustrates the specifically floristic composition of this Sedum Kladenci, Site of antic city
characteristics3 mountain. At the moment, it is intensively worked on the flora of the Heraklea Linkestis, ethno
Sharr Mountain National Park and there are indications that the number of endems will be museum of Jone Evtimovski
2
proposed NP even bigger. Beautiful views across the lakes and neighbouring mountains village Krklino .
includes all eco- can be seen from the Galiica peaks. The highest is peak Magaro (2,254 m) Traditional villages Elshani,
destination [6,12] Velestovo and Trpejica, Locality
Due to the exceptional richness of plant and animal world, Sarr Mountain is Krstec, Baba, Korita Climp
i-thecommitted nature tourist; ii-The interested nature tourist;iii-The casual natural tourist; iv-The
sports/adventure tourist; v-The hunting/fishing tourist;Vi-The nature tourist with cultural interests. EDC- eco-
destination characteristics; + yes; - No.
CONCLUSION
Insufficient promotion of Ecotourism with some exceptions in National Parks and Skopje Region affects that the
number of international tourists in PAs of RM to be very small. In this regard, it is not enough to promote
ecotourism through category National Parks only, but RM must find a way to promote ecotourism also in other
categories of PAs. In order to do this, we think that Macedonia must urgently to establish The Ecotourism
Association in order to promote ecotourism in all categories of PAs. This association can be excellent and useful
tool in developing ethics and to implement principles of ecotourism.
In Macedonia ecotourism is much less developed. Therefore, it is necessary to set development standards in
coordination with local stakeholders. The tourist operators in Macedonia should be trained as much as possible in
order to satisfy the needs of eco-tourists. Operators should understand that Eco-tourists usually are looking for
experiences that provide a sense of closeness to the natural attractions and local communities. During the
proposition of any destination, the operator should ensure that the local community is integrated.
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Since the RM doesnt have a clear National Strategy to develop the eco-destinations we believe that throughout the
establishment of The Ecotourism Association, a result can be achieved in accordance with the World Tourism
Organization i.e. European Ecotourism Network- European Ecotourism Labeling Standards EETLS, GSTC and
other important institutions. The role of the government must rise in sense of planning, zoning of eco-destinations
and incorporating in the Law the critical components of life support system. The government and other relevant
institution must show good will to support spontaneous initiatives, because investment can improve the local
economy especially in isolated areas. Moreover, the properly distribution of PAs which will include separate areas
from the entire territory can contribute to promote eco-tourism.
The all parties involved should attempt through online information to promote eco-regions and eco-destinations. The
best choice to promote eco-tourism in this context is by preparing online guides for tourists. National Parks on their
websites need to update the information in English.
The government must encourage educational and training activities related to parks and protected areas.
More research on the opportunities of ecotourism in Macedonia should be conducted as soon as possible.
We think that through this article about the ecotourism opportunities in Macedonia well contribute by facilitating
threats which according to UNDP report (2008) prepared for a GEF project are identified in Macedonia.
The process of revalorization and re-proclamation of PAs should take place as soon as possible
REFERENCES
APIPWPA/CBD Action Plan for Implementing the Programme of Work on Protected Areas of the Convention on
Biological Diversity 20 (1) 3-6;
Digital Map of European Ecological Regions (DMEER), Version 2000/05
http://dataservice.eea.eu.int/dataservice/metadetails.asp?table=DMEER&i=1
Dimoska, T.&Petrevska, B. (2012). Tourism and Economic Development in Macedonia, Conference Proceedings,
THI 2012, Opatija, Croatia, pp. 12-20;
Ecotourism in Macedonia http://analyticamk.org/newsletters/june2008/Newsletter_JUNE_2008.pdf
Ecotourism in the Balkan Peninsula http://www.visiteurope.com/Discover/Where-To-Go/Balkans/ecotourism-
balkan-peninsula;
Ervin, J et al. (2010) Protected Areas for the 21 st Century: Lessons from UNDP/GEFs Portfolio. New York: United
Nations Programme and the Convention on Biological Diversity 132 (1) 8-15;
Groshong, D (2011). What is an eco-destination.The hummingfish foundation.Hong Kong.
http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/gef_prj_docs/GEFProjectDocuments/Biodiversity/Macedonia%20%
20Strengthening%20the%20Ecological%20Institutional%20and%20financial%20Sustainablity/10-27-
06%20MSP%20PIF%20document.pdf;
Jimnez et al. (2010) Handbook of ecotourism in Protected Areas of Vietnam, Fundeso 105 (1) 4-5.
Law on Nature Protection.Official Gazzete of RM, No 67/04, 14/06,84/07.35/10,47/11 and 148/11;
MEPP (2004a).National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of the Republic of Macedonia.Ministry of
Environment and Physical Planning, Skopje;
MEPP (2004b).Natural heritage conservation.Sectoral Study.The Spitail Plan of the Republic of Macedonia 2002-
2020. Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, Skopje;
MEPP (2009) Biodiversity.The quality of the environment in the Republic of Macedonia Ministry of Environment
and Physical Planning, Skopje;
Ornat, A.L., Reins, A.P. (2007). Use of the IUCN protected areas management categories in the Mediterranean
region. IUCN in collaboration Consejeira de Medio Ambiente of Junta de Andalucia, Sevilla, Espagne. 211 p
Panos (1997). Ecotourism: Paradise gained, or paradise lost? http://www.oneworld.org/panos/panoseco2.html;
Starsdas, W (2002) The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers, German Foundation for
International Development (DSE), Centre for Food, Rural development and the Environment 103 (1), 8-20;
The GEF Small Grants Programme
http://sgp.undp.org/index.php?option=com_sgpprojects&view=projectdetail&id=11755&Itemid=205
Todorovi, M (2003). The Development and Potentials of Ecotourism on Balkan Peninsula.Geological institure.pp
1-159;
Tourism Western Australia
http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Growing%20Your%20Business/Ecotourism%20vs%20Natu
re%20Based%20Tourism%20v3%20260706%20(final).pdf;
Tourism Western Australia: Ecotourism vs Nature Based Tourism.
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http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Growing%20Your%20Business/Ecotourism%20vs%20Natu
re%20Based%20Tourism%20v3%20260706%20(final).pdf;
Trajkova et al (2010). Case study of eco/rural tourism development in Monospitovsko Blato.International
Conference on Organic Agriculture in Scope of Environmental Problems. Famagusta p1;
Ugata, HB (2012). Eco-Tourism Destinations of Odisha.
http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2012/nov/engpdf/45-49.pdf;
UNDP/GEFSEC Project Strengthening the Ecological, Institutional and Financial Sustainability of Macedonia's
National Protected Areas System;
[1]-http://www.ecnc.org
[2]-http://enrin.grida.no
[3]-http://www.macedoniavision.com
[4]- http://npmavrovo.org.mk
[5]- http://park-pelister.com
[6]- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gali%C4%8Dica
[7]-http://www.mojataubavagradina.mk/index.php?o
[9]- http://www.macedonia-timeless.com
[10]- http://www.balkansgeotourism.travel
[11]-https://wcd.coe.int/com
[12] www.galicica.org.mk
PAPER 220
ON THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETES PRODUCED WITH BLENDED CEMENTS THAT

INCORPORATE LOCAL INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE
Arjan Korpa1; Enera Xhaferri1; Argena Buzi1; Altin Mele1; Gani Kastrati2
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Blv. Zog I, 1001, Tirana, Albania;
2
Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina, Str. "Mother Teresa", 10 000, Prishtina, Kosovo;
Email: arjan.korpa@fshn.edu.al
ABSTRACT
Alternative cement technologies represent increasing interest due to the growing environmental concern and
relatively large carbon footprint of the cement industry. This research work contributes with some properties of
blended cements that incorporate industrial solid waste found in the area (calcareous fly ash and ferro-nickel slag).
Some main properties of the concrete specimens that were produced with those blended cements are given as well.
As we have previously demonstrated in similar research works, this technology is a sound economical and
environmental alternative of waste management and is in line with the goal of sustainable development of the
building and construction sector.
Key words: Industrial solid waste, blended cements, properties of concretes
INTRODUCTION
The production of Portland cement clinker has a share of about 6 % to 8 % on the global CO2 emissions [1]. A
widespread approach for the reduction of the CO 2 emissions related to Portland cement is to replace the clinker in
the cement by pozzolanic waste materials e.g. fly ash, slag, silica fume, etc. [1]. These materials produced in large
quantities as industrial by-products, in many cases are problematic for environmental pollution. The general
terminology for them is supplementary cementitious materials (SCM s). SCMs themselves are generally not used as
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cements, but when blended with OPC, they make a significant cementing contribution through hydraulic or
pozzolanic activity [2]. When finely ground they possess binding properties and can be jointly employed with
cement to produce blended cements [3]. Blended cements are produced by intimately and uniformly inter-grinding
or blending ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with one or more supplementary cementitious materials (SCM s). They
are characterized by lower environmental impact, as they require less clinker than ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
[4]. Evidence of the first blended cements dates back to Roma times, when volcanic ash was used in a crude blend
with slaked lime to give the user a product that developed higher early strength than the usual slaked lime as well as
significant durability [5]. Nowadays the use of blended cements is growing very fast as a consequence of the
massive energy consumption and large CO2 emissions released throughout Portland cement clinker production [4].
Unlike Portland cement, SCMs do not need to be heated in a cement kiln, which is the most energy-intensive part of
cement manufacturing [4]. As a result, much less energy is required to produce blended cements than an equivalent
quantity of 100-per cent Portland cement and far fewer greenhouse gases are produced [6]. Blended cements can
benefit the environment as well as economy. Their utilization save energy, conserve natural resources and offer
significant technical benefits. Some potential benefits of blended cements are: improved concrete workability, lower
risk of thermal cracking, improved concrete durability and long-term strength, reduced overall concrete cost. In this
way, from problematic remains they can be converted into high added value materials [4, 7, 8, 9, 10].
[9] Because the ferro-nickel industry in the Republic of Kosovo generates significant amounts of slag (50-60
Ktons/month) and the burning of coal in TEC Kosovo A and Kosovo B produces annually about 2 million tons of
fly ash it was deemed important the study of their cementitious properties. Therefore this research work deals with
the production of blended cements with fly ash and Fe-Ni slag and to find their optimal ratio for the production of
blended cements. Their performance was further checked in concrete by assessing the properties of concrete
produced with them.
Materials:
Cement
A cement type CEM I 52,5 R was employed as major component of blended cements (BCFA and BCSG) and to
produce the reference concrete samples (PCRF-concrete). It satisfies the following requirements:
Compressive strength > 52,5 MPa

Beginning of setting time > 45 min
Expansion < 10 mm
A SEM image of CEM I is shown in figure 1.
Fig 1. SEM image of CEM 52,5 R
Some properties of the reference cement are shown in table 1.
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Table 1. Properties of cement CEM I 52.5 R
Consistence Setting time Compressive strength Fineness

[%] [min] [MPa] Blaine
2 day 7 day 28 day [cm2/kg]
27,6 163 28,57 44,25 57,50 3910
Fly ash
The employed fly ash that was of calcareous type, it has latent hydraulic and puzzolanic properties and SEM images
show his granules with irregular shape. Its chemical composition expressed as its main oxides content is given in
table 2.
Table 2. The chemical composition of the fly ash (main oxides)
Property [%] SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Others

FA 23,12 12,18 6,52 39,23 3,72 10,80 4,80
The SEM images of figure 2 show particles of fly ash with varying size, shape and morphology.
Fig 2. SEM image of fly ash
Fe-Ni slag
The slag employed was a residue of ferro nickel industry (Fe-Ni type). This slag was mixed with CEM 52,5 R to
produce blended cement BCSG. Its chemical composition is given in table 3.
Table 3. Chemical composition for Fe-Ni slag
Property Al2O3 SiO2 CaO MgO MnO Cr2O3 Co Fe Ni Others

Content [%] 2,59 55,78 12,37 8,24 0,50 1,26 0,02 15,03 0,06 4,15
Aggregates
Three types of aggregates fractions were employed for the preparation of cubic specimens with dimensions
150x150x150 for compressive strength tests. In figure 3 are shown the pictures of each fraction.
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Fig. 3 Fractions of aggregates employed for the production of cylindrical concrete specimens
3a. Fraction 0-3mm 3b. Fraction 0-5mm 3c. Fraction 5-10mm
Equipments, Concrete mixers
A ToniMIX mixer, automatically programmable, from Toni Technik was employed for the preparation of
cement pastes and concrete mixes with automatic mixing procedure including water feeding in accordance with EN
196 -1.
Setting time apparatus
The setting time of the pastes was determined at 201C according to EN 196-3 using a manual Vicat apparatus.
Compression strength testing machine
The measurement of compression strength was carried after the specified time of curing in an automatically
controlled hydraulic press type ToniNorm from Toni Technik according to the EN 196-1 and EN 12390-4
standards. The concrete samples had cubic sections of dimensions 150x150x150cm.
2.3 Methods
Sample preparation
Blended cements with fly ash (BCFA) and ferro-nickel slag (BCSG) were prepared. The amount of fly ash and Fe-
Ni slag varied between 10-30 % and the optimum content of the SCMs based on technico-economical considerations
was found to be about 15 %. Cubic concrete samples with dimensions 150 x 150 x 150 were prepared for
compressive strength tests by using a simple mixer. Three types of samples were prepared: reference sample made
of 100 % OPC, BCFA-concrete sample using 85 % OPC and 15 % fly ash and BCSG-concrete sample using 85 %
OPC and 15 % ferro-nickel slag. The mass was filled in two steps using vibration for compaction (vibration time
about 1min). Concrete samples were cured for 24 hours at room conditions (rh. 95% and 20C) and subsequently
were stored in water saturated with lime for the specified curing time (3, 7 and 28 days).
RESULTS
Physico-mechanical properties for blended cement with fly ash (BCFA)
A series of tests were initially conducted with standard mortar specimens produced with blended cements whereby
the amount of fly ash was varied between 10-30%. The main properties of mortar specimens as well as that of
mortar produced with reference cement are shown in table 4.
Table 4. The main properties of mortar specimens produced with blended fly ash cement
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Samples Consistence Setting time Compressive strength

[%] [min] [MPa]
2d 7d 28d
PCRF 27,6 163 24,0 35,8 48,5
BCFA-10 27,0 115 23,2 38,9 53,5
BCFA-15 28,3 130 22,7 36,8 51,6
BCFA-20 30,1 148 20,2 34,3 49,8
BCFA-25 31,4 170 18,7 31,0 45,3
BCFA-30 32,8 200 16,8 28,8 41,7
From the results depicted in table 4 can be seen that the addition of fly ash increases in general the consistence
which is due to the increase of water demand. Regarding the beginning of setting time, initially a decrease of it it
observed followed by an increase of setting time with higher additions of fly ash (figure 4).
Fig. 4. Dependence of the beginning of setting time on the percentage of fly ash added
A different behaviour was observed for the compressive strength. In figure 5 is shown the compressive strength
development depending on the content of fly ash added for specimens 2, 7 and 28 days old. The increasing of fly ash
content brings about in general a decrease of compressive strength at all percentages as compared to reference
mortar (PCRF). Only at 7 and 28 days a slightly higher compressive strength is measured for the mortar specimens
with 10 and 15% fly ash (figure 5).
Fig. 5. Dependence of the compressive strength on the percentage of fly ash added
Physico-mechanical properties for blended cement with ferrous-nickel (Fe-Ni) slag (BCSG)
As with fly ash a series of tests on standard mortar specimens were carried with blended slag cements whereby the
amount of slag was varied between 10-30%. The main properties of mortar specimens are shown in table 5.
Table 5. The main properties of mortar specimens produced with blended slag cement
Samples Consistence Setting time Compressive strength [MPa]
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[%] [min] 2d 7d 28d

PCRF 27,6 163 24,0 35,8 48,5
BCSG-10 27,1 150 21,3 32,7 44,5
BCSG-15 27,8 165 18,4 29,0 41,0
BCSG-20 29,4 180 16,6 25,2 32,0
BCSG-25 30,9 195 13,7 21,2 27,3
BCSG-30 31,7 220 11,6 17,8 22,7
The same trend of consistence is observed for blended cement samples that contain Fe Ni slag as with samples that
contain fly ash (table 5). Whereas in figure 6 is shown the setting time dependence on the content of ferro-nickel
slag added. The addition of slag brings about in general an increase of the beginning of setting time. The strength
development however follows a different trend. The strength gain of mortar specimens that contain slag is
significantly lower than that of specimens with fly ash.
Fig. 6. Dependence of the beginning of setting time on the percentage of slag added
Fig. 7. Graphical presentation of the dependence of the compressive strength from the percentage of the slag added
In figure 7 is shown the compressive strength depending on the content of Fe-Ni slag added for specimens 2, 7 and
28 days old. With increasing the percent of Fe-Ni slag the compressive strength in all specimens (2, 7 and 28 days)
decreases significantly.
Concretes from blended cement with fly ash (BCFA - Concrete) and Fe-Ni slag (BCSG - Concrete)
In table 6 are shown the recipes of concrete specimens produced with the two blended cements and that of the
reference concrete, whereas in table 7 are shown the results of compressive strength of representative concrete
specimens.
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Table 6. Recipes of concrete specimens
PCRF-concrete Content BCFA-concrete Content BCSG-concrete Content

Constituent [kg] [%] Constituent [kg] [%] Constituent [kg] [%]
CEM I 52.5 R 7,6 21 Cem BCFA 7,6 21 Cem BCSG 7,6 21
Aggregate 0-3 mm 10 27,6 Aggregate 0-3 mm 10 27,6 Aggregate 0-3 mm 10 27,62
Aggregate 0-5 mm 1,5 4,14 Aggregate 0-5 mm 1,5 4,14 Aggregate 0-5 mm 1,5 4,14
Aggregate 5-10 14 38,67 Aggregate 5-10 14 38,67 Aggregate 5-10 14 38,67
mm mm mm
Water 3,1 8,56 Water 3,1 8,56 Water 3,1 8,56
Table 7. Results of compressive strength of concrete specimens
Compressive strength (MPa)

Samples 3 days 7 days 28 days
PCRF-concrete 22,71 31,32 38,93
BCFA-concrete 15,14 24,62 36,73
BCSG-concrete 12,57 18,90 32,18
From the results shown in table 7 can be seen that the reference concrete (PCRF concrete) shows better strength
compared with the two other specimens that were produced with blended cements. The strength development of
concrete based on blended cement with fly ash is not significantly lower than that of reference concrete, which
indicates a good potential of this fly ash for strength development. The strength development of concrete specimens
based on blended cement that contain slag is much lower than that of reference concrete, especially the early
strength. However this blended cement could be potentially employed for applications were lower strength is
required and where other parameters than strength are in first place.
CONCLUSION
The influence of the amount of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM s) on the properties of mortars and
concretes produced with blended cements that incorporate local SCM s was studied. The two SCMs employed were a
calcareous fly ash and a Fe Ni slag found in the area. The optimal content of the SCM s for optimal performance
was found to be about 15% of the total amount of binder. The addition of fly ash and slag increases in general the
consistence which is due to the increase of water demand. A different behaviour is observed for the compressive
strength. The increasing of SCMs content brings about in general a decrease of compressive strength at all
percentages as compared to reference mortar (PCRF). Only at 7 and 28 days a slightly higher compressive strength
is measured for the mortar specimens with 10 and 15% fly ash. The strength development of concrete based on
blended cement with fly ash is not significantly lower than that of reference concrete, which indicates a good
potential of this fly ash for strength development. The strength development of concrete specimens based on blended
cement that contain slag is much lower than that of reference concrete, especially the early strength. However this
blended cement could be potentially employed for applications were lower strength is required. Ongoing research is
running with scope of testing the durability and especially corrosion resistance of concretes produced with the two
blended cements.
REFERENCES
[1] http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/news_docs/C02%20Mondiaal_%20webdef_19sept.pdf
[2] Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa state University. Evaluating properties
of blended cements for concrete pavements. Final report, December 2003.
[3] Siddique R. Waste materials and by-products in concrete, Springer 1st edition, Berlin, Germany 2007.
[4] Bignozzi M. C. Alternative blended cement with ceramic residues; corrosion resistance investigation of
reinforced mortar Cem. Concr. Res. 41(9) 947-954 2011.
[5] Soylev T. A.; Mc Nally C.; Richardson M. G. Cem. Concr. Res. 2007. 37, 972-977
[6] Bijen J. Benefits of slag and fly ash. Construction and Building Materials 10, 309314, 1996.
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[7] Bumrongjaroen W. et al. A figure of merit for fly ash replacement Portland cement. 2009 World of Coal Ash
(WOCA) Conference May 4-7, 2009 in Lexington, KY, USA. http://www.flyash.info/.
[8] Taylor H. F. W. Cement Chemistry, 2nd ed. Thomas Telford Publishing, London, 1997.
[9] Korpa. A. Fly ash and its potential benefits in construction industry. Ukr Cemfor 2009. III International
conference Cement industry, Prospects of Development May 24-27, 2009.
[10] Chandra S. (1997) Waste materials used in concrete manufacturing, Noyes Publications, New Jersey,
USA.1997.
PAPER 221
AEROGEL DRYING METHOD OF CEMENT PASTE THAT COMBINES SOXHLET EXTRACTION

WITH SUPERCRITICAL EVACUATION
Arjan Korpa1; Argena Buzi1; Enera Xhaferri1; Arjan Xhelaj2; Reinhard Trettin3
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, 1001 Blv. Zog I, Tirana, Albania;
2
Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, 1001 Blv. Zog I, Tirana, Albania;
3
Institute for Building and Materials Chemistry, University of Siegen, Paul-Bonatz-Str. 9-11, 57068, Siegen,
Germany;
Email: arjan.korpa@fshn.edu.al
ABSTRACT
We report herewith preliminary research results on the development of a new drying method that combines soxhlet
extraction with supercritical evacuation. The highest specific area of the dried cement paste aerogel was obtained
with about 64 soxhlet extraction cycles (drying time about 16 hours). Based on the N2 specific surface area values
and within these experimental conditions, it can be assumed that the above extraction time (reported as extraction
cycles) is the most efficient to extract the highest possible physical water content, without significant collapse of the
structure (pore collapse). The method deserves further exploitation and optimisation in order to be successfully
employed in the future to assess the real porosity of cement pastes which is necessary to understand and controll the
properties and behaviour of the cement based materials.
Keywords: Cement paste; drying; surface area; microstructure
INTRODUCTION
When cement powder and water are mixed, they form the cement paste. Due to reactions that begin to consume the
cement particles the paste transforms into a solid mass (products), whereby the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H)
comprise more than 80% of it [1]. Cement pastes have a characteristic pore structure which depends primarily on the
w/c ratio, the extent and conditions of hydration, and, to a lesser extent, on the specific cement used, the presence or
absence of admixtures and certain other factors [1, 2]. A right understanding of the CSH porosity and
nanostructure is of major importance for influencing and improving the bulk properties of the hardened cement and
related materials, such as compressive strength, freezethaw behaviour, permeability and ion migration, which are
directly related to the pore structure [3]. At nanoscale (1-100 nm), evidence suggests that C-S-H behaves like a
colloidal precipitate with mechanical properties similar to a gel. C-S-H is considered to have layered structure which
is composed of calcium silicate sheets randomly connected by strong ionic-covalent bonds. It is thought that two
general types of pores are present in CSH gel, both of which contain water; capillary pores are larger pores that
hold water in saturated conditions but lose their water on exposure to air, and gel pores are nanometer-sized
pores(<2 nm) [4]. The pores stem mostly from what were originally water-filled spaces between cement particles,
and finer pores, below around 2nm, are believed to be characteristic internal features of CSH gel: the main
hydration product of cement paste [1, 2]. The water that is present in gel pores is more strongly bound than capillary
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water and can be removed only by drying the paste [1, 7]. Drying of cement paste and removing of pore water
enables the N2 molecules during adsorption experiments to enter the created pore network and give a picture of it in
terms of pore area and pore volume [5, 3]. Any gel pores which remain filled with water will not be accessed by the
adsorbate molecules and will not be included in the surface area measurement [3, 6, 7]. It has often been suggested
by others that the drying process partially destroys or alters the CSH gel structure, causing gas adsorption
measurements to measure too low asurface area even after adequate drying (water removal) [5]. When the water
inside the pores of the material evaporates, the pores are subjected to high tension which causes the partial collapse
of the structure [8]. The smallest pores are the most difficult to empty of water, but they also have the highest
relative surface area, and the stresses related to surface tension of the receding water menisci generate a collapse of
some of the fine pores, which are the most sensitive to these capillary effects [8]. Therefore various drying methods
have been developed to preserve its structure. They generate very different surface area and porosity values [5]. In a
previous research work on the subject the author carried a comparison between the efficiency of drying of various
existing drying methods and found out that the most efficient drying method is freeze-drying (F-drying), which gave
the highest specific surface area of the cement paste [3]. In the present reasearch work we exploit the drying
effciency of a new method which combines soxhlet extraction with supercritical evacuation (drying). It was thought
that in order to reduce the capillary forces responsible for the partial destruction of porous texture, the water can be
exchanged with another solvent with a lower surface tension [9, 10]. After exchange the solvent can be evacuated
under supercritical conditions at which conditions the surface tension of the solvent is the lowest. Supercritical
drying is based on the exploitation of the fact that when the pressure is raised the interface between the liquid and
the gas phase becomes unstable and when the pressure is larger than the critical pressure the interface gas/liquid
disappears and a mixture of the two phases appears (supercritical fluid). Supercritical fluids (SFs) have a very low
surface tension that allows to them penetrate readily porous solids and packed beds. The diffusion coefficients of
solutes in supercritical fluids are between those they display in liquids and gases. Because diffusion coefficients in
supercritical fluids are higher than those in liquids, mass transfer is usually more favourable in SFs. As a result,
supercritical fluid extraction is much faster than other (liquid) extraction [11]. We employed nitrous oxide (N 2O) in
liquid state in order to replace water by extraction and subsequently evacuate it under supercritical conditions. The
temperature needed to remove N2O is lower than that of any organic solvent due to its lower surface tension.The
critical pressure and temperature for the N2O are: Tc = 36.4C, Pc = 72.45 bar. The system can be held in these
conditions for several hours. Due to the significant reduction of the enormous capillary forces generated at liquid-
vapour interface, the supercritical drying of the gel can keep integrity of the structure without any collapse.
All the pastes were made of Cem II 42.5R. The pastes were prepared with an initial water/solid mass ratio of 0.45,
which is a common ratio used by other authors in similar works. It is considered as the theoretical ratio that cannot
prevent the complete hydration of cement powder in normal conditions [5], [7]. Small batches were employed,
namely 29,000 g (20,000 g cement powder + 9,000 g distilled water). Mixing was done by hand for 5 min using a
stainless steel spatula. Samples were cured in a water bath at 18C for the first 24 h (unluckily samples could not be
stored in airtight containers in order to prevent carbonation). After 24 h of initial hydration, the containers were
filled with lime water, and stored again in a water bath at 20C for the curing period of 28 days. After the specified
time of hydration, samples were removed from the containers and were dried by the soxhlet extraction and other
methods.
The Soxhlet equipment
The extraction of water is carried within glass soxhlet equipment that is placed inside an autoclave. The parts of the
equipment and its setup are schematically depicted in figure 1, whereas in figure 2 is shown a picture of the real
equipment during operation. The soxhlet is equipped with a siphon that serves for the periodic discharge of the
soxhlet vessel once it is filled with N2O liquid extracted water mixture. The glass window which is built on the
autoclave lid serves to visually inspect the starting, progress and end of a cycle.
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Fig. 1. Scheme of Soxhlet equipment and setup
1. Cooling
2. Manometer
3. Window
4. Valve
5. O-ring
6. Autoclave
7. Autoclave lid
8. Cartridge
9. Soxhlet vessel
10. Internal vessel
A. N2O (liquid and gas)
Fig. 2. Picture of soxhlet equipment during operation
1 - Autoclave
2 - Heat oven
3 - Thermometer (controlling the water
temperature)
4 - Manometer
5 - Coolant (etilenglikol )
6 Soxhlet vessel
7 - Interior vessel
8 Cartridge
9 - Entering the gas tube
10 Coolant
Calculation of the quantity of gas required to perform an extraction cycle
In table 1 are shown the volumes of constituent parts of the soxhlet equipment.
Table 1. Volumes of constituent parts of the Soxhlet equipment
1 Volume of empty autoclave (V1) 760 cm3

2 Volume of soxhlet vessel (V2) 130 cm3
3 Volume of internal vessel (V3) 160 cm3
4 Volume of cartridge (V4) 68 cm3
5 Volume of the sample (V5) 10 cm3
6 Volume of mantel vessels (V6) 6 cm3
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7 Volume of cartridge robe (V7) 2 cm3

8 Volume of cooling tube (V8) 0,5 cm3
9 Volume of pressure and flow capillary (V9) 0,2 cm3
The approximate liquid (liquid and gas) N2O volume needed for extraction process is calculated by the formula:
V = V1 - (V5 + 2V6 + V7 + V8 + V9)
V = 760 - (10 + 26 + 2 + 0.5 + 0,2)

V = 735,3 cm (total volume)
The calculated volume comprises the total volume of gas and liquid together.
The volume of N2O (liquid) = volume of internal vessel - volume of the sample = 160 - 10 = 150 cm3.
The volume of N2O (gas) = total volume volume of N2O (liquid) = 735,3 - 150 = 585,3 cm
The mass of N2O (gas plus liquid) can be calculated from these volumes with the help of the corresponding densities
of gas and liquid N2O at 25 C (table 2). The respective densities at 25C reported on literature are shown in table 2.
Table 2. Densities of N2O gas and liquid at 25C [12].
N2O (liquid) N2O (gas)

Density(g/cm3) 0,78 0,158
The mass of N2O (gas plus liquid) required to carry an extraction (to be able to fill the extraction vessel and
discharge thereafter) can be calculated as follows:
The mass of N2O (liquid) = 1500,74 = 111 g

The mass of N2O (gas) = 585,30,158 = 92,477 g
Total mass of N2O (gas plus liquid) = 111 + 92, 477 = 203,4 g
To perform a soxhlet extraction a minimum 203,4g N2O is required.
Drying methods
After the specified time of hydration that was chosen to be 28 days the samples were dried as follows. Apart from
samples dried by soxhlet extraction employing N2O, a sample that was dried by ethanol exchange at room
temperature (25 C) followed by oven drying at 80C and a sample that was directly oven dried at 105C were
employed and the efficiency of drying was compared.
Soxhlet extraction
10g of hardened cement paste (solid) were weighed and placed in the cartridge. The autoclave was filled with 205 g
of N2O (a little higher than the theoretical amount) and all parts of the soxhlet equipment were put together.
Following that the autoclave was heated in a water bath at 40 C which was connected to the cooling tube (with
temperature around 10C) and the extraction experiment was started. The liquid was heated inside the autoclave
beyond its critical point which converts it into a supercritical fluid. The critical temperature and pressure of N 2O are
respectively 72,45bar and 36,4C. After the specified time required for carrying the planned number of extraction
cycles (cycles were randomly chosen) the fluid was released either fast or slow as shown in table 3.
Ethanol Exchange
The ground sample was placed in ethanol and left for 7 days. The ethanol was replaced every 12hours. The ethanol
was subsequently evaporated by placing the samples in oven for 1 hour at 80C.
Oven drying
The sample was directly put in oven and dried for 24hours at 105C.
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Table 3. Drying methods employed and their specificities.
Sample code Sample treatment Number of soxhlet cycles Mode of evacuation

D1 Dried in oven 0 In oven at 105C
E1 Exchange with ethanol 0 In oven at 80C
S1 Soxhlet extraction with N2O 42 Subcritical
S2 Soxhlet extraction with N2O 56 Supercritical, fast
S7 Soxhlet extraction with N2O 200 Supercritical, slow
RESULTS
Investigation of drying method efficiency (specific surface areas). The dried samples prepared by the specified
drying methods were investigated by the gas adsorption technique using N 2 as the adsorptive gas, and the results for
specific surface areas were compared. Nitrogen adsorption was conducted using manual equipment. Surface areas
were calculated by the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) method over a relative pressure range of 0.050.25 on
the adsorption branch.
Aim of outgas. The aim of outgas is to eliminate most of the species physisorbed during storage of the sample (e.g.
H2O vapour in the air, CO2, etc.), to avoid any drastic change as a result of ageing, sintering or modification of
surface functional groups, and to reach a well-defined, reproducible, intermediate state that would be suitable for the
proposed experiments (adsorption isotherm measurements). This state can be attained by an appropriate form of
vacuum outgas [13]. The vacuum outgas that could be reached by the vacuum pump was 0.0018 mbar. From other
works with hardened cement pastes, the outgas level was found also to be a variable affecting the gas adsorption
results [14].
Specific surface area results. In figure 4-7 are shown the adsorption isotherms obtained respectively for the sample
dried in oven (D1), sample dried by ethanol exchange followed by oven drying (E 1) and two samples dried by
soxhlet extraction with two different soxhlet cycles (S3 and S7). There is no apparent difference between the
adsorption branches of isotherms and since desorption branch was not measured that time, very little can be said
about the type of the isotherms. It is logical to assume based on previous research work that they belong to type II
[3].
Fig. 4 Adsorption isotherm branch of sample D 1 Fig. 5 Adsorption isotherm branch of sample E1
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Fig. 6 Adsorption isotherm branch of sample S3 Fig. 7 Adsorption isotherm branch of sample S7
The specific surface area results and other details are shown in table 4. The results of specific surface area are
graphically shown in figure 8.
Table 4. Comparison of specific surface areas of all samples.
Sample code Number of soxhlet cycles Mode of evacuation Specific surface (m2/g)
D1 0 In oven at 105C 14,1
E1 0 In oven at 80C 24,2
S1 42 Subcritical 38,9
S2 56 Supercritical, fast 38,2
S7 200 Supercritical, slow 30,7
As expected the specific surface area of the cement paste as measured by nitrogen gas adsorption is affected by the
drying method which is employed to remove the water from the pores prior to the measurement. The largest specific
surface area is measured for the sample S3 that was dried with 64 soxhlet cycles and drying time of approx. 16 hours
(1 full cycle is performed in 15-16 minutes). The sample dried in oven (sample D 1) is characterised by the lowest
specific surface area, which confirms the expectations and is in agreement with previous conclusions [3, 15, 16].
The sample dried by ethanol exchange followed by oven drying (E 1) is characterized by higher specific surface area,
giving thus evidence of milder drying regime and better preservation of the structure. Surprisingly the increasing of
drying time (number of exchange cycles) beyound about 16 hours did not result in higher values of specific surface
area instead a decrease of it was recorded. This is not in line with what one expects considering the fact that when
more water is removed better access of N2 molecules to the pore network should be expected. Even though some
pore collapse and/or carbonation could be assumed, the reason for this lower specific surface area was not clear.
Therefore more research is needed in order to understand it. Also there is no significant variation of specific surface
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area between samples were the fluid was brought to supercritical conditions and those were the fluid was evacuated
in subcritical conditions (the temperature and pressure below the critical values). Because the specific surface area
values obtained in conditions where no special care was taken to prevent the samples carbonation are well
comparable with the results obtained from freeze drying under exclusion of CO2, it can be concluded that this new
method removes the water by significantly preserving the pore structure [3]. Therefore the method deserves further
exploitation and optimization in order to be employed for assessing the real pore structure of cement and related
materials.
Fig. 8. Specific surface areas of all samples
CONCLUSIONS
We briefly report herewith the development of a new drying method that combines soxhlet extraction with
supercritical evacuation. The drying method was employed for drying of cement pastes in hardened state and its
efficiency was assessed in terms of N2 specific area variation related to the time of drying variation (number of
cycles). These preliminary results indicate that within these experimental conditions there is an optimal time of
drying which is about 16 hours (64 cycles) that gave the highest value of the specific surface area. The increase of
drying time did reduce the specific surface area of the cement aerogel instead of increasing it as it might be expected
because of more water that can be removed and more access of the N 2 gas to the pore network. Even though some
pore collapse and/or carbonation could be assumed, the reason for this lower specific surface area was not clear.
Therefore more research is needed in order to understand it. Because the specific surface area values obtained in
conditions where no special care was taken to prevent the samples carbonation are well comparable with the results
obtained from freeze drying under exclusion of CO2, it can be concluded that this new method removes the water
by significantly preserving the pore structure. Therefore it deserves further exploitation and optimization in order to
be employed for assessing the real pore structure of cement and related materials.
REFERENCES
[1] Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Fourth Edition, Edited by Peter C. Hewlett. Butterworth-Heinemann;
4 edition, January 29, 2004.
[2] Diamond S. Very high strength cement-based materials - a prospective, in: J. Francis Young (Ed.), Materials
Research Society, Symposia Proceedings, vol. 42, 1985, pp. 233 243 Pittsburgh, PA.
[3]. Korpa A.; Trettin R. The influence of different drying methods on cement paste
microstructures a reflected by gas adsorption: Comparison between freeze-drying (F-
drying), D-drying, P-drying and oven drying methods, Cement and Concrete Research 36
(2006) 634 649.
[4]. Jennings H.; Bullard J. W.; Thomas J. J.; Andreate J. E., Chen J. J. and Scherer G. W. Characterization and
modelling of pores and surfaces in cement paste: Correlations to processing and properties.
[5]. Juenger M. C. G.; Jennings H. M. The use of nitrogen adsorption to access the microstructure of cement paste,
Cement and Concrete Research 31 (2001) 883 892.
[6] Thomas J. J.; Jennings H. M.; Allen A. J. The surface area of hardened cement paste as measured by various
techniques, Concrete Science and Engineering 1 (1999 March) 45 64.
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[7]. Perrut M.; Francais E. Aerogel Drying. State of the art book on Supercritical Fluids, Valencia: AINIA, 2004, pp.
129-134.
[8] Deshpande R.; Hua D. W.; Smith D. M.; Brinker C. J. Pore structure evolution in silica gel during aging/drying.
Effects of surface tension, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 144 (1992) 32 44.
[9]. Kraiwattanawong K.; Tamon H.; Praserthdam P. Influence of solvent species used in
solvent exchange for preparation of mesoporous carbon xerogels from resorcinol with
formaldehyde via subcritical drying, microporous and mesoporous materials, 138, 2011
[10] Diamond S. A discussion of the paper Effect of drying on cement based materials pore structure as identified
by mercury porosimetry - a comparative study between oven-, vacuum, and freeze-drying by C. Galle, Cement and
Concrete Research 33 (2003) 169 170.
[11]. Xhaxhiu K. Extraction of the orange peel essential oil using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), ultrasonic
extraction (USE) and Soxhlet extraction.
[12] Nist.gov/chemistry thermophysical properties of fluid systems
[13]. Roquerol F.; Roquerol J.; Sing K. Adsorption by powders and porous solids, Principles, Methodology and
Applications, Academic Press, London, 1999.
[14]. Gimblett F. G. R.; Sing K. S. W., Amin Z. M. (Grande-Bretagne), Influence of pre-treatment on the
microstructure of calcium silicate hydrate gels. 7th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, vol. II,
Communications, Paris, 1980, pp. 225 231.
[15]. Day R. L.; Marsh B. K. (1988). Measurement of porosity in blended cement pastes. Cement and Concrete
Research, 18, 63-73.
[16]. Galle C. (2001). Effect of drying on cement-based materials pore structure as identified by mercury intrusion -
porosimetry A comparative study between oven-, vacuum, - and freeze-drying. Cement and Concrete Research.
PAPER 222
DETERMINATION OF SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN OSUMI RIVER
Gentiana Shegani1, Anila Kala2, Aida Bendo3

1
Public Health Directory, Albanian University, Berat, Albania
2
Regional Directory of Environment, Albanian University, Berat, Albania
3
Sports University of Tirana, Albania
Email: gentaberat@shqiptar.eu
ABSTRACT
Rivers are important sources of surface waters in Albania. Monitoring and evaluation of environmental conditions of
rivers is an indispensable need for determining the quality of aquatic ecosystems. This study was carried out to
assess the present status of physic-chemical parameters of Osumi River, such as temperature, pH, Total alkalinity,
ammonia ions, COD(IMn), nitrate ions, chloride, TSS, TDS. The samples were collected during March 2012-March
2013.Three sampling stations were established for this study. Comparing the physic-chemical parameters with EU
Directive [78/659] and Norwegian Institute for Water Research, resulted that Osumi River was classified in class 1
on the pH and Total alkalinity, mean value of ammonia ions 0.49mg/L exceed the limit of 0.16mg/L N-NH of the
EU Directive , according to COD, Osumi River was classified in class 5, mean value of N-NO3 2.23 mg/L is within
the norm of 2.63 mg/L for 654 river stations in Europe. Mean concentration of phosphates results 0.624 mg/L, is out
of the norm 0.4 mg/L of the EU Directive, value of chloride 208.3 mg/L ranged within the limit of 250 mg/L by
USEPA, mean value of TSS 205.57 mg/L classified Osumi River in class 5, max. value of TDS 470.56 mg/L and
mean value 232.87mg/L ranged within the limit of 500 mg/L related to WHO 2004 and USEPA, iron ions varies
from 0.1-0.3 mg/, Osumi River waters were classified in class 3 by NIVA. This study provides the preliminary data
for the evaluation and monitoring of physic chemical parameters for the current status of Osumi River.
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Keywords: physic-chemical parameter, water quality, aquatic system, Osumi River.
INTRODUCTION
Rivers are important sources of surface waters in Albania. Rapid industrial development, uncontrolled urban and
rural movements are associated with negative effects on the quality of river water. Monitoring and evaluation of
environmental conditions of rivers is an indispensable need for determining the quality of aquatic ecosystems.
Osumi River like many other rivers in Albania is exposed to anthropogenic contaminants from various sources.
Untreated industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, solid waste, domestic sewers and many other sources have
significant effects on the quality of a river system in different places. Osumi River is the main branch of Semani
River. Its total length is 161 km, 828 m above the sea level, the water accumulation surface is 2.150km,its
discharges is reported to vary between 5.11m-74.11m. Long term average flow rate is 32.5m/s. Mineral water
average is 345mg/l. It flows initially from south to Kolonja, from Vithkuqi and finally flows through Berati, then
Ura Vajgurore. At the end of flow join with Devolli River and create Semani River. [file://F:\Osumi River-
Wikipedia.htm].Previous studies on physic-chemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations, were conducted in
Osumi River, as a branch of Semani River, such as the Environmental State of Some Rivers of Albanian Adriatic
Lowland Miho et al.(2005), where highlighted the tropic state of rivers. Water quality characteristics of aquatic
environment depend from physical, chemical and biological interaction. The current study was carried out to assess
the present status of physic-chemical parameters of Osumi River, such as temperature, pH, Total alkalinity,
ammonia ions, COD(IMn) , nitrate ions, chloride, TSS, TDS. This fact becomes important from the geographical
position of expansion Osumi River, which passes through the city and the major role it plays in environmental
performance.
The samples were collected at approximately 1500 m stretch of the river during the period March 2012- March
2013. Three sampling stations were established for this study. Interval of time keeping for the collection of samples
was once a week or 3-4 times a month. The samples were collected by grab sampling (1000mL each). The choice of
3 sampling stations was based on their accessibility. Each sample was analyzed for physic-chemical parameters such
as pH, Total alkalinity, COD (IMn), ammonia ions, nitrate, chloride, phosphate, TSS, TDS, iron ions. All water quality
parameters were estimated by standard methods. pH was determined by Selecta pH-meter. Total alkalinity was
determined with standard method of titration. COD was analyzed with method of permanganate index. Ammonia
ions were determined by nesslerization method. Chlorides were analyzed with method of titration (Argentometria).
Nitrate ions and phosphates were determined with colorimetric methods, respectively Test Kits /2, 6 dimethylphenol
and ammonium molybdate. TSS and TDS were determined with filtration and gravimetric method.
RESULTS
Values of physic-chemical parameters in three stations set Osumi River, during March 2012-March 2013, are
presented in Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively, for Station 1, 2, 3. Assessment of most parameters related to
environmental quality of Osumi River water is performed on the basis of NIVA classification by Norwegian
Institute for Water Research [NIVA1997], and the European Community Directive [CEE/CEEA/CE 78/659]
regarding Quality of fresh waters supporting fish life, Miho et al. (2005)
Table 1 Physic-chemical parameters of water samples in Station 1 of Osumi River (n= 18)
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Table 2 Physic-chemical parameters of water samples in Station 2 of Osumi River (n= 19
Table 3 Physic-chemical parameters of water samples in Station 3 of Osumi River (n= 18)
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Table 4 Average values of physic-chemical parameters of samples in 3 stations of Osumi River
Table 5 Maximum and minimum values of physic-chemical parameters in Osumi River
In tables 4 and 5 are presented the average values, maximum and minimum values of physic-chemical parameters
for Station 1, 2, 3, which are based on the figures in the following histograms.
Figure 1 Variation of average values of pH Figure 1-1 Maximum and minimum values of pH
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The results of water samples showed that the average values of pH vary from 8.19-8.34-8.24 in Station 1, 2, 3,
minimum and maximum values of pH respectively in S1 from 7.7-8.5, in S2 from 7.5- 8.7, in S3 from 7.5-8.8 . pH
values indicate alkaline water for Osumi River. This alkaline value of pH is due to the presence of bicarbonate
which shifts the minimum pH up over 7.5. Higher values of pH are presented in S2 and S3, as a result of
anthropogenic activities within this urban area. Other contributors to an alkaline pH are decomposition of organic
matter, nitrogen containing compounds, phosphate etc. These pH values are within the range recommended by
NIVA and Bratli 2000, Miho at al. (2005).Regarding this parameter, Osumi River water is classified in class 1
where the pH> 6.5 and within norms of the EU Directive 78/659, where the pH ranges 6-9, Miho et al. (2005).
Total alkalinity
mg/L CaCO
maximum
average
minimum
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3
Figure 2.Maximum, mean and minimum values of Total alkalinity
Total alkalinity is an indicator closely related with pH values. By the results of Total alkalinity, Osumi River water
is included in class 1 where total alkalinities (mmol/L) > 0.2
according to NIVA classification.
Figure 3 Max, mean and min. values of NH- N Figure 4 Max,, average and min. values of COD (IMn)
The presence of ammonia in river water is a result of decomposition of organic matter, created by different urban
discharges, including untreated sewage. The maximum values of ammonia were recorded 2.5 mg/L in S1, 2.7 mg/L
in S2, 2.3 mg/L in S3 and the average values fluctuate between 0.527 mg/L in S1- 0.511 mg/L in S2- 0.43mg/L in
S3. Maximum and average concentration of ammonia in Osumi River water, respectively 2.5 mg/L and 0.49 mg/L
exceeds the ammonium limit of 0.16 mg/L NH -N of the EU Directive for cyprinid waters. At pH 8.5 and
temperature 25, 40% of NH passes in NH3 which means that when the value of ammonia reached 0.6 mg/L in
cyprinid waters, exist deadly danger for fish, Miho et al.( 2005). Maximum values of COD were recorded 42.6 mg/L
in S1, 39.8 mg/L in S2, 48 mg/L in S3. Average values of COD were recorded 14.29 mg/L in S1, 17.54 mg/L in S2,
16.84 mg/L in S3. The highest values of COD were observed in S2 and S3 as a result of anthropogenic activities in
these populated areas. Maximum and average values of COD in Osumi River waters, respectively 43.46 mg/L and
16.22 mg/L, exceed the limit value of COD (IMn) 15 mg/L O according to the NIVA classification. From the data
according to this parameter Osumi River waters are classified in class 5, which means very bad status, Miho et
al.(2005).
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Figure 5 Max, averages and min. values of N-NO 6 Max, averages and min.values of phosphate
Level of nitrates in natural waters is an index of manmade pollution, source of which are nitrogen compounds,
including agricultural activities, fertilizers, livestock, urban discharges, Ugwu (2012). The figure presents the
maximum values of nitrates relatively 3.2 mg/L in S1, 4.5 mg/L in S2, 4.4 mg/L in S3, mean values were recorded
1.927 mg/L in S1, 2.552 mg/L in S2, 2.22 mg/L in S3. Maximum value of nitrate in Osumi River waters results 4.03
mg/L from the data, the mean value of nitrate results 2.23 mg/L, very close to the mean concentration of 2.63 mg/L
for 654 river stations in Europe, Miho et al.( 2005).
This study shows the maximum value of phosphate 1.5 mg/L in S1, 2.25 mg/L in S2, 2.3 mg/L in S3. Respective
mean values result 0.54 mg /L in S1, 0.693 mg/L in S2, 0.64 mg/L in S3. Man made sources of phosphate in natural
waters are domestic and industrial discharges, due to detergents and fertilizers leached into the streams of the river.
Phosphates are not very toxic to people or other living organisms, Ugwu(2012), but increasing the level of
phosphates on the values necessary to biomass production, stimulates the growth of algae, such as phytoplankton ,
which results in atrophic condition of waters, Miho et al.(2005). Mean concentration of phosphates in water samples
results 0.624 mg/L. This value exceeds the limit value 0.4 mg/L phosphate, according to the EU Directive for
cyprinid waters, Miho et al. (2005).
Figure 7 Max, average and min. values of chloride (mg/L) Figure 8 Max, average and min. values of TSS (mg/L)
In this study the maximum value of chloride in Osumi River waters was recorded 208.3 mg/L, average value results
56.03 mg/L. The highest concentration of chloride, 283.6 mg/L at S1 is due to the intrusion of anthropogenic sources
such as sewage effluent. Other values of chloride ranged within the permissible limit of 250 mg/L, according to
standard limit of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], Ugwu( 2012), since in Albania don`t have the
reference norm for chloride in surface waters. Chlorides content in water are not harmful, but higher concentration
of chloride may harm metallic pipes and structures as well as growth of plants, Mariraj (2013).
Maximum values of TSS resulted 1680 mg/L in S1, 1460 mg/L in S2, 233.18 mg/L in S3. The highest values in S1
and S2 were observed in rainy conditions. Average values of TSS resulted 242 mg/L in S1, 227.96 mg/L in S2, 146
mg/L in S3. Total Suspend Solids (TSS) are the materials such as fine clay or loam particles, plankton, organic and
inorganic compounds etc , that affect the transparency of water, inhibit photosynthesis, depletion of oxygen, reduce
the aesthetic quality of the surface waters, Ugwu (2012). The main source of TSS in waters is soil erosion,
geographical and climatic conditions including rainfalls, Miho et al. (2005), anthropogenic activities such as
deforestation etc. From the data, the mean value of TSS 205.57 mg/L of Osumi River waters according to the
recommended limit of the EU Directive below 25 mg/L, and according to NIVA classification exceed many times
value 10 mg/L, the limit guide for class 5,Miho et al.(2005), with very bad status.
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Figure 9 Max, average and min. values of TDS (mg/L) Figure 10 Max, average and min. values of iron ions (mg/L)
Maximum value of TDS in Osumi River waters is 470.56 mg/L, mean value is 232.87 mg/L , that result below the
permissible limit of 500 mg/L according to WHO( 2004), Tukura et al.(2013) and USEPA,Ugwu (2012). Maximum
value of TDS that exceeds the allowable limit was recorded in S2 586.25 mg/L due to the intrusion of sewage and
domestic discharges. Dissolved salts, gases and organic compounds may produce aesthetically not pleasant color
and odor, so the level of TDS in a broad sense reflects the burden of aquatic systems, Tukura et al. (2013). Figure 10
shows the maximum value of iron ions in Osumi River waters, that results 0.68 mg/L, average value was recorded
0.157 mg/L and minimum value is 0.04 mg/L. High concentration of iron promotes the growth of iron bacteria and it
gives a rusty appearance to the water, Mariraj (2013). Maximum value derived from the data is due to the sewage
intrusion and exceeds the permissible limit 0.6 mg/L according to NIVA classification (Bratli, 2000) for class 5 with
very bad status. Regarding mean value of iron ions within permissible range from 0.1- 0.3 mg/L, Osumi River
waters were classified in class 3 according to NIVA classification ( Bratli, 2000),Miho et al.(2005).
CONCLUSION
The conclusions for this study were based on physic-chemical analysis of surface water of Osumi River for city of
Berat. The data related to the values of pH, Total alkalinity, show that the load of contaminants is at such level that
does not affect the overcoming of values according to EU Directive.
The mean level of nutrients such as nitrates is 2.23 mg/L, within the limit 2.63 mg/L for 654 river stations in
Europe. The mean value of phosphates 0.624 mg/L exceeds the limit value 0.4 mg/L of EU Directive and stimulates
the process of eutrophication, Miho et al.(2005).
Values of ammonia ions and COD demonstrate the high level of organic compounds as a result of anthropogenic
activities in river waters. Values of TDS and chloride have fluctuations related to pollution sources, but estimated
within the permissible limit according to USEPA.
Values of TSS exceed many times the limit value of NIVA classification, like all the rivers in Albania that are
subject to the process of strong erosion of soil.
This study provides preliminary data for the evaluation and monitoring of physic-chemical parameters for the
current status of Osumi River.
REFERENCES
Miho, A., ullaj, A., Hasko, A., Lazo, P., Kupe, L., Bachofen , R., Brandl, H., Schanz, F., Baraj, B. (2005)
Environmental State of Some Rivers of Albanian Adriatic Lowland, Chapter ,(34-37), Chapter ,(103-121) ,(in
Albanian).
Ugwu,A.I., Wakawa, R.J.(2012) A study of seasonal physicochemical parameters in River Usma,American Journal
of Environmental Science,8(5), 569-576. http://www.thescipub.com/ajes.toc
Mariraj, Mohan S., Vanalakshmi, P., (January 2013) Assessment of water quality in Noyyal River through water
quality index, I. Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Vol.5(1), (35-48),
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJWREE
Tukura, B.W., Gimba, C.E., Ndukwe, I.G., Kim, B.C. (2012) Physicochemical characteristics of water and sediment
in Mada River,Nasarawa State, Nigeria, I. Journal of Environment and Bioenergy,1(3),
170-178, http://www.ModernScientificPress.com/Journal/IJEE:aspx
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Thirupathaiah, M., Samatha, Ch., Sammaiah, Ch.(2012) , Analysis of water quality using physic-chemical
parameters in lower manair reservoir of Karimnagar district, I. Journal of Environmental Sciences,Vol.3,No1,(172-
177).
Alikaj, M., Brahushi, F., (2012) The situation of water quality of Viroi Lake and measures for the improvement,
BALWOIS, Republic of Macedonia.
S SH EN ISO 9963-1 (1999) Water quality. Determination of total alkalinity, Potentiometric and titratable method.
ISO 5667-2(1991), Water quality-Sampling-Part2, Guidance on sampling techniques.
S SH EN ISO 6878(2004), Water quality, Determination of phosphate. Ammonium molybdate method
S SH EN ISO 8467, (2000) Water quality. Determination of ammonia ions. Nesslerization method.
S SH EN ISO 8467, (2000) Water quality. Determination of permanganate index.
Standard Analytical Procedures for Water Analysis. (May 1999). Hidrology project. Determination of Solids. Total
Suspended. Gravimetric after Filtration method, ID: 1.24. Determination of Solids, Total Dissolved. Gravimetric,
Filtration and Evaporation method, ID: 1.23. http://www.cwc.gov.in/main/HP/download/Standard
PAPER 223
IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITION INDICATORS IN COW MILK PRODUCTION USING THE

BACKWARD REGRESSION METHOD
E. Sallaku*, A. Boari**, M. Tafaj*
* Department of Animal Production, Agriculture University of Tirana

** Department of Mathematics and Informatics, Agriculture University of Tirana
Email: enka_sallaku@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Livestock accounts for over 60% of agricultural production in Albania. In the lower part of our country, most of this
agricultural production is bovine milk. The milk production in a national level is low even though the genetic skills
of producing of the breeds are high. These low degrees of exploitation of the genetic potentials are conditioned by
many factors such as breeding and feeding, with the latter being always brunt. In this context we have launched our
study which aims to show the influence of food on production levels in dairy cattle herds, within which are found
very different production ranges from 3000 to 5000 kg milk / head / year. For this purpose, mathematical methods
were used of such as the multiple selecting backward method to verify the impact of each indicator. At the
conclusions, this study highlighted that dependence of milk productivity on different food factors, have resulted not
to be strong, but they should be understood and interpreted only in framework of this level of productivity, around
12kg/cows/day, which is almost below average for the standard of this breed. Milk productivity is influenced by the
level of feeding, characterized by indicators of nutrition, where primary influence shows the energy and protein
levels
Key words: cow milk, nutrition indicators, backward regression
INTRODUCTION
Milk productivity in cows depends on the genetic capacity and a series of other factors, where the key factor is the
feeding. Nowadays, the tendency of increasing blegtoral productions is dedicated first to the increase of number of
cows and the productivity per cow, which shows that the dominant system of production in cattle raising is
extensive. Often times, farmers think that they could increase production only by buying animals with a high genetic
value, or by improving the existing genetic material, without evaluating that the main factor of expression of
production is the nutrition.At this level, it is understood that a priority would be improvement of nutrition to increase
the level of using the genetic capacities that are at least 3 times higher than the average productivity that is currently
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realized. Increase of average size of farms is a tendency to be strengthened more, and then it is indispensable to
ensure that the nutrition base is at the proper quantitative and qualitative feeding level.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was carried out in the private farm of Lushnja district. This is a farm, which stands out in good
productions of milk. A group of cows of the breed Holstein Friesian were taken under observation to carry out this
study. Being aware that milk production is influenced by several factors, we followed several indicators at the same
time for a period of three years. The data base has been issued by the documentation of the economy in question.
1 Indicators of nutrition:
Daily physical average consumption of food or the daily average ration
Average level of feeding and the nutritive value of the daily average ration
-quantity of dry food, kg/cows/days
-quantity of energy, kg/Nj.U./cows/days
-quantity of proteins, gr/protein tret/days
-quantity of Ca and P, gr./days
Average structure of food ration
Ration balancing scale
2 Indicators of milk productivity
Daily average production for every month and for every year
3 Mathematical model
Influence of nutritive factors over the production factors has been studied through the method of Multiple Linear
Regression. The procedure Selection-Backward was selected to know the scale of influence for each factor. This
procedure makes it possible, because in the first step (Step 1) the relation of the influenced factor being studied is
calculated (dependent variable Y) with all the influenced factors (independent variables - X X); and in the
following steps the dependent variables are selected, removing them one after the other, until the last step is reached,
where only the variables with a certain level of influence remain, which is bigger than the limit accepted, and which
coincides with a significant scale of level p 0.1 or a probability of P90%.
The applied mathematical model is:
Y = + X + X +. mXm+ = 1, 2,.,n; n>m where:

Y the dependent variable or the variable being studied
X, Xn independent variables
... m unknown parameters of regression
the constant or the intercept
random variables
The study has been carried out taking as a basis the daily average indicators for each group of cows and for each
month, in other words:
Dependent Variable (Y):

Daily individual average production for every group and for every month
Independent Variables (X,Xn):

Indicators of nutrition
RESULTS
By analyzing the general characteristics of population, the following conclusions were reached:
It has the highest indicators in our country in such a massive herd of cows. Average milk productivity has been
4200kg/per cow in a year or approximately 12kg/day.
Inside the herd, there exists a big variation of all parameters, which coincides with the usual distribution encountered
in big herds of milk cows in the systems supported by volume feeding with less concentrate.
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Table 1 Average indicators and variation of feeding, productivity.
Milk DM F.U. Prot. Kg FU/ g Prot Fresh Roughage Conce

production Kg/d Kg/d g/d kg Milk. /kg milk. forage % % -ntrat
Kg/d %
Milk Production 4000 kg/year
X 11.04 13.98 13.81 1436.32 1.25 130.07 70.03 3.39 26.56

SD 0.38 0.26 1.10 330.56 0.10 29.97 9.11 1.62 5.47
Results of the Analysis of Multiple Regression (Backward)

To analyze the influence of nutritive value indicators as well as those of balancing, we have used the approach of
backward multiple regression. All the data taken from this analysis are presented in the following table 2
Table 2 Influence of nutritive value and structure ration on milk production
s
t stat R2 DM Fed Unit Prot. Ca P Fresh Roughage Concenetra
e forage t
p
1. 0.5712 1.6223
X 0.0369 0.7673 0.0012 -0.0078 -0.0281 0.0006 0.0374 -0.0386
s 0.1353 0.1317 0.0006 0.006 0.0127 0.0358 0.0573 0.0391
P MAX 0.7854 MAX 0.0432 0.1942 0.0288 0.9868 0.5146 0.3252
2. 0.5712 1.6815
X 0.0368 0.7674 0.0012 -0.0078 -0.0281 0.0369 -0.0392
s 0.1348 0.1312 0.0006 0.006 0.0127 0.0457 0.017
P MAX 0.7851 MAX 0.0426 0.1922 0.0281 0.4209 0.0222
3. 0.571 1.7229
X 0.7933 0.0012 -0.0076 -0.0273 0.0361 -0.0391
s 0.0905 0.0006 0.0059 0.0123 0.0455 0.0169
P MAX MAX 0.0348 0.2004 0.0282 0.4292 0.0221
4. 0.5695 1.8921
X 0.8011 0.0012 -0.0079 -0.0285 -0.0409
s 0.0898 0.0006 0.0059 0.0122 0.0168
P MAX MAX 0.0349 0.1813 0.0209 0.0156
0.5651 1.5508
X 0.8035 0.0007 -0.0322 -0.0355
5. s MAX 0.09 0.0004 0.012 0.0163
P MAX 0.1015 0.0078 0.0308
0.5585 1.5705
X 0.8916 -0.032 -0.0413
6. s 0.0728 0.0120 0.016
P MAX MAX 0.0085 0.0106
0.5421 0.5196
X 0.8853 -0.0299
7. s 0.0739 0.0122
P MAX MAX 0.0148
8. 0.5266 0.7117
X 0.7579
s 0.0534
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P MAX MAX
Backward regression on the influence of the nutritive value indicators on the milk production has resulted with an
average determination coefficient (R2). The strongest remaining variables almost until the last steps are the energy,
phosphorus and % of the concentrate, which in step 6 give an R a little smaller than 0.55. This is completely
explainable with their physiological role. The energy is the main nutrient of the value of ration and the energy level
is the most important indicator for the nutrition level in general, because nutrients being used for energy constitute
approximately 70 - 80 % of all the dry ration food. On the other hand, roles of P and its limited content in the cow
rations justify its priority in comparison with Ca. In general, in the ration structure, the concentrate is the most
concentrated bearer of nutrients per volume unit and the most limited one in the constitution of rations of studied
cows, in the conditions of the volume system of nutrition with less concentrate applied generally in herds of cows.
Table 4.3 Influence of nutritive value and indicators of balancing on milk production
s
t stat R2 Const. D M F. U. Prot. Ca P FU/DM Prot/DM Prot/ FU Ca/P
e
p
1. 0.3846 10.356 -1.9405 2.1029 0.0054 0.0031 - -1.8283 -0.2102 0.1481 -0.0252
X 0.7606 0.6903 0.0032 0.0161 0.0271 9.6699 0.1172 0.1054 0.729
s 0.01114 0.0026 0.097 0.85 0.0402 0.8502 0.0741 0.1613 0.9725
P MAX 0.0500
7
2. 0.3846 10.4701 -1.9483 2.1093 0.00539 0.0025 - -1.9954 -0.2098 0.1476
X 0.7244 0.6634 0.00317 5 0.0258 8.3492 0.1165 0.1039
s 0.0077 0.0017 0.0899 0.0068 0.0144 0.8113 0.0729 0.1569
P MAX 2 0.0739
0.7084
3. 0.3844 8.4803 -1.9115 2.0745 0.0054 0.0022 - -0.2252 0.1625

X 0.7064 0.6459 0.0032 0.0067 0.0258 0.0972 0.0827
s 0.0073 0.0015 0.0879 0.7389 0.0143 0.0214 0.0505
P MAX 0.0729
4. 0.3841 8.5636 -1.8847 2.0457 - -0.2222 0.1594
X 0.7005 0.6388 0.0056 0.0248 0.0966 0.082
s 0.0077 0.0016 0.0031 0.0141 0.0223 0.0531
P MAX 0.0756 0.0775
0.3758 8.7395 -1.8226 1.8669 -0.204 0.1417
X 0.7028 0.6337 0.0056 0.0965 0.0817
5. s 0.0101 0.0035 0.0032 0.0358 0.0843
P MAX 0.0743
0.3678 8.4186 -0.7559 0.796 -0.0548
X 0.3409 0.1417 0.0054 0.0442
6. s 0.0276 MAX 0.0031 0.2156
P MAX 0.0877
0.3637 2.8145 -0.3714 0.8072
X 0.1428 0.1416 0.0015
7. s 0.0099 MAX 0.0005
P MAX 0.0044
8. 0.3454 2.3446
X 0.5097 0.0011
s 0.0844 0.0005
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P MAX MAX 0.032

0.3326 2.1604
X 0.6411
9. s 0.0589
P MAX MAX
It is interesting that indicators of balancing included in equation, together with the nutritive value of ration, (table 3)
have shown a weak influence than those of the structure. What appears to be interesting is that the indicators of
balancing, together with the nutritive value of ration, have shown a weaker influence than those of the structure,
which is seen in the R being smaller than 0,385. This can be explained by the bigger role of concentrates and by the
other fact that the model has already taken under consideration the special indicators of the nutritive value and then
as ratios. Again, the energy shows the biggest influence, then the soluble proteins. Meanwhile from the reports, the
prot towards DM has shown the biggest influence.
Table 4 Influence of structure and balancing of ration on milk production
S
t stat R2 Konst. FU/DM Prot/FU Prot/FU Ca/P Fresh Roughage Concent
e (b) forage .
p
X 0.1018 20.1425 -9.4132 0.1620 -0,1263 -0.3708 -0.0168 0.0.376 -0.0499
s 9.6898 0.0973 0.0963 0.2603 0.0519 0.0829 0.0563
1. P 0.00801 0.3327 0.0976 0.1915 0.1561 0.7472 0.6508 0.3761
X 0.1013 18.2229 -9.1808 0.1594 -0.1236 -0.3655 0.0534 -0.0335
s 9.6384 0.0967 0.0957 0.02592 0.0669 0.0238
2. P 0.00415 0.3421 0.1011 0.1982 0.1602 0.4257 0.1614
X 0.0980 17.2013 -7.9137 0.1491 -0.1138 -0.3544 -0.0356
s 9.4970 0.0958 0.0948 0.2585 0.0236
3. P 0.00247 0.4058 0.1211 0.2315 0.1721 0.1343
X 0.0945 9.4385 +0.072 -0.037 -0.416 -0.0355
s 0.0243 0.022 0.2476 0.0236
4. P 0.0014 0.0034 0.0945 0.0948 0.1348
0.083 8.1966
X 0.0705 -0.0334 -0.378
5. s 0.0243 0.0219 0.2471
P 0.014 0.0042 0.1301 0.1279
X 0.0712 8.1421 0.0367 -0.3636
s 0.0099 0.2479
6. P 0.0013 0.0003 0.1442
X 0.06005 7.6953 0.031
s 0.0091
7. P 0.0008 0.0008
However, introduction of indicators of balancing (table 4) has not played any bigger role, because regression only
with nutritive value indicators (table 5) has a R only a little lower (0,37), where again the energy and later the
soluble protein have shown the biggest influence.
Role of the concentrate in milk production is clearly evident also in the regression only with the indicators of the
structure of ration However, in general the structure has influenced a little the milk production (R = 0,14). The
dependence with the indicators of the balancing of ration is also weak. But these connections should not cause any
misunderstandings from a physiological level, because the daily average production level is low, around 12 kg, and
as such is less influenced both from the structure and level of balancing. implies variables removed during the
selection by the backward procedure
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Table 5 Influence of nutritive value on milk production
s
t stat R2 Konstantja DM Feed Unit Prot Ca P
e
p
0.37
X -0.3122 0.8483 0.0014 0.0009 -0.0022
1. s 2.6025 0.1493 0.1445 0.0007 0.0067 0.0143
P P = 0.0001 0.0373 0.0001 0.036 0.8889 0.1266
0.37
X -0.3097 0.8463 0.0015 0.0215
2. s 2.6252 0.148 0.1434 0.0005 0.014
P P 0.0001 0.0374 MAX 0.0066 0.1256
0.364
X -0.3714 0.8071 0.0015
3. s 2.8145 0.0143 0.1416 0.0005
P P 0.0001 0.0099 MAX 0.0045
0.345
X 0.5097 0.0011
4. s 2.3246 0.0844 0.0005
P 0.0001 0.032
P 0.0001
0.333
X 0.6411
5. s 2.1604 0.0589
P P0.0001 MAX
CONCLUSION
In general, the study of the nutritional factors impact on milk production through Backward linear regression, has
determined that the level of daily production of about 12 kg: influenced primarily by the level of nutrition,
characterized by indicators of nutritional value (R = 0.37), which shows the primary impact of the energy level
followed by the amount of protein and phosphorus in the ration. much less influenced by the structure and level of
ration balancing, expressed by low values of R, 0.14 and 0.10 respectively. The role of concentrate in feed ration has
more impact as well the ratio digestible protein/DM has emerged as the most influential of the indicators of balance.
REFERNCES
Bauman, D. E., and J. L. Capper. 2011. Sustainability and dairy production: challenges and opportunities. Proc.
Cornell Nutr. Conf., pp. 136-153
Holden, L.A., L.D. Muller and S.L. Fales. 1994. Estimation of intake in high producing Holstein cows grazing grass
pasture. J. Dairy Sci. 77:2332-2340.
Fox, D.G., L.O. Tedeschi, and P.J. Guiroy. 2001. Determining feed intake and feed efficiency of individual cattle
fed in groups. Proceedings of the 2001 Beef Improvement Federation Meeting, San Antonio, TX
Johnson, K.D. 2011. Growing and harvesting high quality grasses for dairy cattle. Proc. Tri-State Dairy Nutr. Conf.,
Ft. Wayne, IN. Pp: 139-147.
Grummer, R. R. 1995. Impact of changes in organic nutrient metabolism on feeding the transition dairy cow. J.
Animal Science 78:2820-2833.
National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 7th rev. ed. National Academy Press,
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Spiekers H., Klunter A. M., V. Potthast V., and Pfeffer E. (2003): Effects of different concentrate levels on milk
yield, feed intake, live weight change, health and reproduction in dairy cows.Livestock Production Science 28; 89
105
St-Pierre, N. R., and C. S. Thraen. 1999. Animal grouping strategies, sources of variation, and economic factors
affecting nutrient balance on dairy farms. J Anim Sci. 77 (Suppl. 2):72-83.
Vandehaar, M. J. 1998. Efficiency of nutrient use and relationship to profitability on dairy farms. J. Dairy Sci.
81:272-282.
Wu, Z. and L.D. Satter. 2000. Milk production during the complete lactation of dairy cows fed diets containing
different amounts of protein. J. Dairy Sci. 83:1042-1051
PAPER 224
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN KOSOVA
Florije Tahiri1*, Ardian Mai2, Valbona Tahiri3, Kushtrim Tahiri4, Valmira Gashi5
1*
Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning "Luan Haradinaj" street, Prishtina , Kosova
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment Tirana University of Agriculture Albania
3
Radio and Television Public, Republic of Kosova,
4
Elkos Group, Republic of Kosova
5
Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Republic of Kosova,
Email: floravk@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Electronic media in our country are numerous and compared With other problems which are treated, certain space
occupied by the environmental problems which is diverse as: air pollution, water, waste, pollution prevention and
environmental protection. The aim of the research was to create a clear overview for space that dedicate this medium
to environmental issues, environmental problems addressed in particular waste management, environmental
emissions statistics and knowledge that should be a reporter for the realization of such emissions. We have
researched three electronic media: TV-RTK (Radio Television of Kosova-public medium), TV Klan Kosova
(private medium) and TV- Koha Vision (private medium). The questionnaires are prepared and they are delivered
three media to fulfill with data. Data from the research are processed with Excel and from the results we have
worked tables and diagrams for comparisons. In the electronic media the environment has not enough space, the
treatment of environmental topics mainly is informative format or responsive to problems and environmental
activities. To have a clean environment and healthy, electronic media like TV have responsibility, which should give
greater space environmental issues, which should be included extensive information for the environment protection
from pollution and negative impacts that can be affect in health, educational programs for environment and waste
management should be included in every electronic medium like TV-s because they are most viewed.
Key Words: environmental education, waste, electronic medium, statistics, research, questionnaire.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental education in our institutions is still under construction (Tahiri.F. 2012 IJEES) curriculum and
teaching units for the environment are in insufficient level (Tahiri F. 2012 Aktet). In Kosovo lives around 1.733.872
inhabitants (Statistical Office of the Republic of Kosovo 2011), and electronic media in our country are many, in
between which included noumerous televisions and websites from the number and different from the field that treat
it. For information of public in Kosovo operating 21 licensed TV, 1 medium public-national RTK, 2 private national
media KTV and RTV21, TV Klan Kosova and others are parts of private regional and local media (IMC 2013). TV
and other electronic media, in the context of their work along with other issues which treated in the media, certain
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space also provide environmental issues (Kepa 2009). For partition of space for environmetal programes is obliged
only Public TV (Official Gazette, Republic of Kosovo No.7/27 April 2012). Through written media and electronic
information of public for the importance of environmental protection is deficient (F. Tahiri 2012 Aktet) and should
be noted that in Kosovo the environmental issues are not treated as priority problems (KEPA 2009).
The aim of the research it was to create a clear review for space that devoted the electronic media TV environmental
problems especially management waste, statistic for environmental emissions and knowledge that should have a
journalist for realisation of such emissions.
Environmental problems are multidisciplinary and are not covered by journalists which are specialized in this field,
therefore lacking the necessary knowledge to treat in professionally manner (KEPA 2009).
Treatment of these issues in media, not only informative, but also analytically, critically, research and education,
increase the impact in solving these problems, and reflects more serious approach to choice of environmental
problems (KEPA 2009).
Methodology of work- For research are taken three different electronic media: TV- RTK, TV-Koha Vision and TV-
Klan Kosova. The questionnaires are prepared and they are delivered three media to fulfill with data. Data from the
research are processed with Excel and from the results we have worked tables and diagrams for comparisons.
RESULTS
From the survey in the question: is the TV obliged to allocate space for environmental emissions, only RTK said
Yes, KTV and Klan Kosova says No; in the question how much percentage TV gives space for environmental
programs, RTK said 1-3%, KTV and Klan Kosova says 4-6%; in the question do they hold yearly statistical data for
programs for environment and waste management and do they have statistical data for the last three years, and the
answer from three televisions is No.When we asked if needs to have a special school preparations for journalist that
realizae programs with environmental themes and waste: RTK doesnt answer, KTV said as editorial we dont
require that journalist to have a special preparation regarding of reporting for the environment or to address the topic
of waste, its enough to be experienced journalist. Klan Kosova said: it is not necessary to have education for
environment journalist, in our editorial nobody from the journalists does not have this or similar education but we
require the criteria that we practiced is professionalism in the field of journalism.In a question for the comment of
yours: RTK does not comment, KTV is answered that trying to send a message to the public awareness, we support
the campaign "Let's clean up Kosovo" giving enough space for the promotion of the campaign, we report on the
destruction of nature, its pollution, poor waste management, air pollution, water within the program information and
we realized stories with special programs.Klan Kosova says: in Kosovo with political, economic, social problems,
environmental issues remains the last hand. Comparative results of three TV in table form are given in Table 1, and
the illustration in Diagram 1.
Table1. Comparative results of three TV
Question RTK KTV Klan Kosova

Obliged TV - to allocate space for Environment
Educated (EE) Yes(1) No(2) No(2)
How much % TV - space for EE emissions 1-3%(1) 4-6%(2) 4-6%(2)
How much % TV - space for Management
waste(MW) emissions 4-6%(2) 4-6%(2) 4-6%(2)
Annual statistics for EE and MW emissions No(2) No(2) No(2)
Statistics for the past three years No(2) No(2) No(2)
Special school for journalists - for environmental Didnt give
education, waste comment (0) No(2) No(2)
Didnt give
Comment comment (0) Po(1) Po(1)
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Diagram 1. Comparative results of three TV
CONCLUSIONS
In electronic media, environment does not have sufficient space. Only the TV-RTK is obliged to allocate space for
environmental emissions. Others TV are private and comercial that have aimed at the material benefits and not the
public awareness, but it is better than the three TV said they have the space for environment but the numbers are
very low, but none of the TV they dont have the notes for content of the emissions and they dont have
environmental education programes for environment and waste managment, treatment of environment topics mainly
is informative or reactive on environmental problems and activities. Televisions do not keep statistics on emissions
to the broadcast. To have a clean and healthy, electronic media such are TV they have responsibilities and should
provide more space the environmetal issues, to inlude extensive information to protect the environment from
pollution and negative impacts on health. Educational Programs for environmental and waste management should be
included in any electronic media, especially TV because they are the most viewed.
REFERENCES
IMC 2013 Independent Media Commission , Annual Reports of Independent Media Commission for 2012, pg.6-
13.
KEPA 2009 January Environment in newspaper Prishtina. pg. 3-14.
Official Gazette of Republic of Kosovo No.7/27 April 2012, Assembly of Kosovo, Law No. 04/L-046 for RTK
(Prishtina).
Statistical Office of the Republic of Kosovo 2011, pg 10-58.
Tahiri F. 2012, Aktet, vol.V, No. 3 Environmental Education for Waste Administration in Primary School in
Kosova, pg. 398-402
Tahiri F. 2012, IJEES vol.2/3 September 2012 Albania Environmental Education on Waste Management in Lower
Secondary Education (VI-IX Classes), In Kosova, pg. 279-284.
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PAPER 226
THE LEVEL OF DETECTION OF THE PRESENCE OF POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECT ON

AQUATIC ORGANISMS IN THE LAKE OHRID
Sheqibe Beadini1, Nexhbedin Beadini1, Gazmend Iseni1, Hesat Aliu1

1
State University of Tetova, Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Study Program of Biology, Tetova,
Macedonia.
Email: hesat.aliu@unite.edu.mk
ABSTRACT
Ohrid Lake is counted among lakes with special features for periods of geological, geographical location, the
presence of relic and endemic forms of flora and fauna, and tourism attractiveness for recreation, etc. This lake is
characterized by a unique ecosystem of endemic and relic species, with very ancient geological and other features
that make this lake be particular from other lakes in the Balkans and in the world, so that in 1980 it has been
declared as the worlds cultural heritage and it is protected by UNESCO. To preserve this natural wealth it is
required a greater attention by the state and institutions. A special attention should be paid to the environmental
protection, namely protection of Lake Ohrid. Biosphere which surrounds us, recently without interruption is exposed
to contamination by various toxic substances that are harmful to living organisms. These toxic substances
(xenobiotics) from different industrial, municipal and natural reservoirs as their final repository have the aquatic
environment. Aquatic organisms in general and in particular fish have the ability to bio-transform or metabolize
these substances to final products, store them in tissue or to connect to macromolecule such as DNA and RNA that
can cause genotoxic effects on the body. Toxins every day reach to pollute the water more and more. Water bodies,
in general and in particular fish mandatorily are exposed to the pollution. As safer biomarker for the presence of
xenobiotics in the aquatic environment recently is used OFP enzymatic complex (mixed functions oxidase), which
have the capability of ERODE and B(a)PMO enzymes. Measurement of the enzymatic activity of EROD and B (a)
PMO is made in the liver of control fish carp, carp and carp experimental hunt in different localities of Lake Ohrid.
Based on these biochemical parameters is determined the presence of contamination of Lake Ohrid. The key marker
and very important to identify xenobiotics in the aquatic environment is used the enzymatic complex MOF (mixed
function oxidase) that has the ability to increase several times (induces) self enzymatic activity in the liver of the fish
under the presence of these xenobiotics. Such skills have also enzymes EROD (ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase) and
B(a)PMO (benz(a)pyren monooxygenase).
Key words: environmental, ecosystem, pollutants, xenobiotics, liver, fish
INTRODUCTION
Lake Ohrid as an ecosystem that features the special kinds of fauna and flora, is considered one of the peculiar lakes
both, by its geological period of formation and the presence of its relic and endemic flora and fauna, tourist
attraction, recreation, etc.
This lake represents the unique aquatic ecosystem in the Balkans and Europe, as well, because it is characterized by
its relic and endemic species, with its ancient geological period and other peculiarities that make it different from
other Balkan, European and world lakes, and due to these peculiarities, this aquatic ecosystem was declared a world
cultural heritage under UNESCOs protection.
In order for us to have a permanent watch over this natural treasure, greater care is necessary to be given from
respective countries and state institutions.
The biosphere is under a permanent exposure to toxic pollutants that are very hazardous to living organisms,
especially the fish. This toxic substance (xenobiotics) of various industrial, municipal and natural origin, is being
disposed off in their final destination which happens be the water environment.
The aquatic world, especially the fish are being affected by this pollution, as organisms that posses the ability to
biotransform or metabolize this matter into final products, to deposit within tissue or be attached to macromolecules
(DNA and ARN), causing negative genotoxic effects for the organism itself (Williams 1974).
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The use of biomarkers has been applied to detect xenobiotics, lately. As a reliable biomarker for the detection of
xenobiotics presence in the aquatic environment is the OFP (mixed functions oxidase) enzymatic complex.
Enzymes containing such traits are EROD and B(a)PMO (Kurelec, et al. 1977; Paine 1976; Monod 1988; Masfaraud
1990; Vindimian 1991, Arcin et al. 1996, Britvic et al. 1996, Kirby et al. 2000, HUO Chuan - Lin 2005, Jonson.
2003). Concentrated anthropogenic activities since the 20 th century caused a dramatic increase in the pollution of the
biosphere, which unfortunately had a negative impact in all living environments, especially the aquatic environment,
because this environment was transformed into a permanent potential waste disposal for pollutants. Fish are
considered as best aquatic bio-indicators, because they are characterized with their great sensitivity to the presence
of pollutants in aquatic environment. Sudden death of fish in an aquatic environment can be taken for a serious
pollution indicator, and the effects of exposure to toxic, subletal and letal levels of pollutants can be determined
through biochemical, physiological and histological markers (Mondon et al., 2001).
Based on studies so far, it is also found that the decrease in number of species among the fish population, comes as a
result of water pollution, but there are also specific reactions to a single pollutant or a number of pollutants
(Svobodov 1997). The specific biomarkers could be taken for the strongest indicators relating to these biochemical
changes induced to the presence of a specific group of pollutants that can cause toxic activity to the water world.
Such biomarkers are very sensitive to a wide range of industrial pollutants, such as dioxins, poly-colored biphenyls,
polycyclic and aromatic hydro carburets (Van der Oost et al., 2001; White et al., 2003).
A very efficient and suitable system to monitor the living aquatic environment is cytochrome P450 (Jung et al.,
2001).Research so far has shown that cytochrome P450 counts for a suitable detector to monitor the aquatic
environment and identify xenobiotics in an aquatic environment (Payne and co., 1987). In the recent years, many
attempts have been made to create new pesticides, insecticides and herbicides, of greater efficiency in the treatment
of agricultural cultivation. More precisely, in the past forty years, pesticides have become inevitable users in the
world agriculture, and thats how they are considered as pollutants for the water world. Pollutants concentrate at
great amounts in the sediment of rivers and lakes and through chain trophic levels succeed to infiltrate all the way
into the fish (Malins and co., 1984). Pesticides and many other xenobiotics, act as substrates of an inhibitory or
inductive nature for enzymes that metabolize medications, including cytochrome P-450s (CYP) (Hodgson and Levi,
1996).Research has shown the inductive effect of insecticides in different isoenzymes CYP (Campbell and co.,
1983; Li and co., 1995) and the adjustment effect of gene expression CYP in the target tissue.
Induction of CYP1A1 has also been used to monitor the acute and chronic potential intoxication of insecticides
(Delescluse and co., 1998; Dubois and co., 1996).
Cytochrome P450. The protein complex of cytochrome P450 is characterized as a type b haemoprotein that
contains the hemoglobin, myoglobin and some peroxidases. These proteins are a structural part of the agranular
endoplasmic reticulum of liver cells. Cytochrome P450 is also present in mitochondrial membranes, whereas in
bacteria in cytoplasm, as a dissolved form. This proteinic complex was discovered by Klingenberg in 1948 and this
protein has been intensively studied for, since (Kvasnikov 1995; Anzenbacherov and Anzenbacher 1999; Lewis
2001). This enzymatic complex does not present only a single unit in itself, it includes a large number of
isoenzymes; so that, this is how over 1000 isoenzymes have been isolated so far (Stoilov and co., 2001; Lewis
2001).Cytochromes as specific proteinic complexes are present in great amounts in the liver, meaning 12% of the
total mass of hepatocytes (Lester and co., 1993; Lewis 2001).
They have also been found in intestines, kidneys, fish-gills, gallbladder, lungs, brain, skin, muscles, prostate,
placenta, etc. (Anzenbacherov and Anzenbacher 1999, 2001; Arukwe 2002; Ortiz-Delgado and co., 2002).
The cytochrome P450 activity depends on the presence of the enzymatic cofactor NADPH cytochrome P450
reductase and the fraction of membranes phospholipids. All of these components make up the monooxygenase
system (Kvasnikov 1995). The induction of cytochrome-P450 is mediated by the AH receptor, protein which
binds xenobionts present in the cell cytoplasm (Lewis 2001; Sadar and Andersson 2001; Schlenk and Di Giulio
2002; Billiard et al., 2002). Studies so far have shown that xenobiotics are connected to the AH receptor in the cell
cytoplasm causing the release of HSP 90, which is then replaced with tARN. This new complex penetrates the cell
nucleus and is joined with the DNA in a specific way, enabling it to access the transcription factors, which are
responsible for the transcription of cytochrome P450 1A1 genes, which through mARN that runs through cytoplasm,
are transferred into endoplasmic reticulum, affecting the decomposition of toxic substances (Image 1).
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Image 1. Induction of Cytochrome P450 (according to Nebert and co., 1993)
Pollutants of greater capacity to connect with AH receptor, also possess greater capacity to induce CYP 1A, but with
counter-consequences (Billiard and co., 2002).
Purpose of the study. The purpose of this study is to determine the activity of enzymes EROD (7-ethoxyresorufin-
o-deethylase) and Ba(a)PMO (benzo a pyrene monooxygenase) in the liver, kidneys, fish-gills and gallbladder of
Lake Ohrid native fish, in order to determine the presence or not of xenobiotics in this aquatic ecosystem.
Furthermore, the purpose of this study has been to analyze the impact of insecticides and fungicides in the increasing
activity of these enzymes in experimental fish, compared to the activity of enzymes after the reaction with
herbicides.Based on the results obtained, the capability that these biochemical markers possess when they are
induced under in vitro conditions, after the reaction with toxins (insecticides, herbicides and fungicides), the same
study can be accomplished under in vivo conditions, with species of native fish population of Lake Ohrid. Results
obtained from this study will offer information on the level of pollution of this aquatic ecosystem from pesticides,
herbicides and fungicides, excessively used in agriculture.
To accomplish this study under in vivo conditions, four species of thrown out fish near the outfall of river Sateska
have been used, through the electroshock method. After the identification and marking, the fish were transferred
by a transportation refrigerator to the Scientific Research Laboratory of the Medical Faculty of State University of
Tetova, where then, the dissection and isolation of targeted organs was done. This is the kinds of fish used, in order
to fulfill this study:
Carp (Cyprinus carpio);
Trout (Salmo truta);
Black bleak (Barbus balcanicus);
Eel (Anguila anguila).
The same kinds of fish were used for the realization of this study under the in vitro conditions, but they were kept at
lab conditions, in aquariums, size 75x35x40cm, water temperature of 16 0C and water dissolved oxygen level of
6mg/l, created by continuous aeration pumps. After the fish were acclimatized (after 5 days), the i/p manner was
used with a certain dose of selected toxicants (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides) mostly used in agriculture and are
toxic for ichthyofauna. 24 hours later, the dissection and isolation of targeted organs were done, which together with
those of the native fish were subjected to chemical reactions in order to decide the EROD and B(a)PMO activity.
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Preparing the microsomal fraction in order to decide the activity of EROD and B(a)PMO enzymes. After the
dissection, these fishs targeted organs are removed: liver, kidney, fish-gills, and gallbladder. The liver is removed
carefully, so that the gallbladder is not damaged (because it is rich in OFP inhibitors). After this, the homogenization
of organs is done at a homogenization solution volume, 5 times as high. (1,15% KCl, 3,6 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl
fluoride (PMSF) or 0,1 mM natrium phosphate buffer with pH 7,7) in the Potter-Elvehjem homogenizer. The
homogenate obtained this way is centrifuged 10000g in 20 minutes at 4C, in the Sanyo Harrier 18/80 Refrigerated
Centrifuge, so that certain cell organelles are removed. The upper lipoid layer of supernatant is carefully removed
with a vacuum absorbent, whereas the supernatant is decanted with a specific blocker. The decanted supernatant is
centrifuged once again 10000 g in 60 minutes. The sediment formed from microsomal fraction is dissolved in
natrium phosphate 0,1 M buffer, with pH 7,7 by 20% glycerol, so that in 1g of liver, 1ml of this buffer is used. The
whole procedure is conducted at a temperature of + 4C.
Determining the proteins. The protein determination was done according to Lowry and co., method (1951), while
as a standard; the bovine serum albumin was used. The quantity of proteins was determined by reading the
absorbance in 750 nm with the folin reagent, in spectrophotometer Genesys 10 uv.
Determining the EROD enzyme activity. The EROD enzyme activity was determined according to the method
applied by Burke and Mayer (1974).In a quartz fluorometer cuvette of a 10mm optical field we put 1ml of the
phosphate buffer 0,1M (NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4) with pH 7,7, NADPH until the final concentration 200M and
substrate (etoksiresorufin), until the final concentration 12,5 M. Fluorescence will be noticed in an exciting
wavelength of 510nm and emitting of 585nm, in spectrofluorophotometer Shimadzu rf-1501, which needs to be
constant. The enzymatic substrate is added 1 minute later and the increase in fluorescence is supervised for 2
minutes. After this procedure, the specified resorufin quantity (0,585 pM) of the final reaction product is added in
the cuvette, where an instant increase in fluorescence will be noticed. The quantity of the EROD activity is taken
from the average change in fluorescence of 1 minute, compared to the change in fluorescence after the final product
is added, expressed in pmol/resorufin/min/mg protein.
Determining the activity of B(a)PMO enzyme. The determination of B(a)PMO enzyme activity was done
according to the method applied by Nebert and Gelboin (1968). This activity was accomplished in a way that, to the
specified quantity of the organ (normally 200mg) are added 2ml of buffer (0,05 M Tris, 0,25 M saccharose and KCl
1%, with pH 7,6) and it is homogenized at 0C in Potter-Elvehems homogenizer, taking 5-6 blows. This type of
homogenate is then centrifuged at +2C, 9000g in 15 minutes. The part of homogenate, the so called supernatant,
lying under the lipoid layer, is used to determine the B(a)PMO. Such a fraction presents the post-mitochondrial
fraction (S-9), which is then thrown in the previously prepared medium and incubated at 29C, containing: 0,8 ml
buffer, 0,1 ml NADPH (1,25 mg NADPH/1 ml buffer) and 0,02 ml benzopyrene (0,5 mg benzopyrene in 1 ml
acetone). Incubation at 29C in water spa type Assistant, lasts for 15 minutes and stops when 1 ml acetone is added.
After the reaction is stopped, 4 ml of hexane are added and it is stirred intensively with Vorteks for 30 seconds
and centrifuged for 3 minutes in 6000 g. The hexane fraction is put in the test-tube with 4 ml NaOH (20 g NaOH in
500 ml distilled water) which is vortexed for 30 seconds and centrifuged once again for 3 minutes in 6000 g, in a
Sanyo Harrier 1817 refrigerated type centrifuge. After the centrifugation, the upper layer (hexane) is aspired and the
fluorescence measured (exciting wavelength 395 nm and emitting 520 nm). The BPMO activity is expressed in 3-
OH unit, benzopyrene/min/mg protein. As a standard, the quinine sulfate solution is used (0,001 mg/ml).
RESULTS
EROD and BaPMO activities in some organs of the native group of Lake Ohrid fish thrown near the outfall of
Sateska River
Results obtained from EROD and BaPMO enzyme activities from some of the native group of Lake Ohrid fish are
shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. EROD and BaPMO activities in some organs of the native group of Lake Ohrid fish.
Fish species included in the study

Organs Cyprinus carpio Salmo truta Barbus balcanicus Anguila anguila
Liver [a]EROD 20,13 [a]EROD 38,2 [a]EROD 26,90,1 [a]EROD 18,340,12
0,15 0,12 2
[a]BaPM 30,4 [a]BaPM 13,040, [a]BaPM 17,960, [a]BaPM 13,800,13
O 0,12 O 10 O 12 O
Kidneys [a]EROD 0,522 [a]EROD 0, [a]EROD 0,6180, [a]EROD 0,4230,17
0,13 8140,1 12
[a]BaPM 0,2440, [a]BaPM 0,3220, [a]BaPM 0,2210, [a]BaPM 0,2410,12
O 17 O 21 O 21 O
Gall- [a]EROD 1.1700, [a]EROD 1,980,1 [a]EROD 1,2310, [a]EROD 1,410,23
15 2 13
bladder [a]BaPM 0,9870, [a]BaPM 0,5210, [a]BaPM 0,7320, [a]BaPM 0,6210,13
O 18 O 15 O 21 O
Fish- [a]EROD 0,1850, [a]EROD 0,1130, [a]EROD 0,980,1 [a]EROD 0,640,11
gills 18 12 3
[a]BaPM 0,920,1 [a]BaPM 0,520,1 [a]BaPM 0,440,1 [a]BaPM 0,210,12
O 9 O 6 O 6 O
As the activity of these two enzymes is shown in the above table, it is clearly indicated that we have an induction of
these enzymes in the native group, which means that at this part of Lake Ohrid, where River Sateska outfalls, we
have a discharge of pollutants. From obtained results, it is also shown clearly that the highest activity concentration
of these two enzymes was in the liver, whereas in other organs, we have a lower activity and trout happens to be
most vulnerable to this outfall. EROD and BaPMO activities in some organs of the control group fish held under lab
conditions, where no toxic matter was usedResults obtained from EROD and B(a)PMO enzymes in liver, kidneys,
fish-gills, gallbladder of control group fish, treated in an intraperitoneal manner with 300l corn oil mixture and
DMSO in a 3:7 proportion, are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. EROD and BaPMO activities in some control group fishs organs after the i/p reaction with 300l corn oil
mixture and DMSO 3:7.

Liver [a]EROD 1,520,1 [a]ERO 1,650,1 [a]EROD 1,290,1 [a]EROD 1,470,12
2 D 7 6
[a]BaPM 1,270,1 [a]BaP 1,320,1 [a]BaPM 1,120,1 [a]BaPMO 1,210,21
O 2 MO 3 O 2
Kidneys [a]EROD 0,3520, [a]ERO 0,4220, [a]EROD 0,2970, [a]EROD 0,2120,18
23 D 13 20
[a]BaPM 0,2870, [a]BaP 0,3140, [a]BaPM 0,1980, [a]BaPMO 0,1210,12
O 13 MO 14 O 12
Gall- [a]EROD 1,1150, [a]ERO 1,510,1 [a]EROD 1,1910, [a]EROD 1,120,12
bladder 13 D 8 16
O 12 MO 17 O 12
Fish-gills [a]EROD 0,1370, [a]ERO 0,920,1 [a]EROD 0,620,1 [a]EROD 0,520,13
15 D 9 3
[a]BaPM 0,410,2 [a]BaP 0,470,1 [a]BaPM 0,370,1 [a]BaPMO 0,370,18
O 1 MO 8 O 2
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From the obtained results that show EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities of the control group of fish, kept at lab
conditions, and where no toxic matter has been used, it can clearly be seen that there is no induction of these two
enzymes.
EROD and B(a)PMO activities in some organs of experimental group of fish held in lab conditions and where toxic
matter was used (insecticide, herbicide and fungicide).
Obtained results from EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities in liver, kidneys, fish-gills and gallbladder of
experimental fish, treated in an intraperitoneal manner with solution, 300l, 1mg/ml insecticide (PYRINEX 48 EC),
dissolved in corn oil mixture and DMSO in a 7:3 (1,8 mg/kg) proportion, are shown in table 3.
Table 3. EROD and BaPMO activities in some organs of the experimental group fish after the i/p reaction with
300l solution, 1mg/ml insecticide (PYRINEX 48 EC) dissolved in corn oil mixture and DMSO in a 7:3 (1,8 mg/kg)
proportion.

Liver [a]EROD 65,780, [a]EROD 68,130, [a]EROD 58,170, [a]EROD 49,110,11
12 12 12
O 12 O 12 O 12 O
Kidneys [a]EROD 0,8210, [a]EROD 0,9470, [a]EROD 0,7190, [a]EROD 0,6200,15
12 11 21
O 17 O 11 O 12 O
Gall- [a]EROD 1,7430, [a]EROD 1,8160, [a]EROD 1,5110, [a]EROD 1,4120,12
bladder 18 10 17
O 18 O 12 O 14 O
Fish-gills [a]EROD 1,2120, [a]EROD 1,2890, [a]EROD 1,1730, [a]EROD 1,1130,11
12 13 12
[a]BaPM 0,9990, [a]BaPM 0,7580, [a]BaPM 0,6720, [a]BaPM 0, 54 0,11
O 15 O 16 O 11 O
Based on obtained results for the control group, where we had no activity of these two enzymes, we have a very
expressive activity with the experimental group of fish treated with this type of insecticide, especially in the liver as
the primary organ of xenobiotics metabolism.
Results obtained from EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities in liver, kidneys, fish-gills and gallbladder of
experimental fish, treated in an intraperitoneal manner with solution, 300l, 1mg/ml herbicide (STOMP) dissolved
in corn oil mixture and DMSO in a 7:3 (1,8 mg/kg) proportion, are shown in Table 4.
From the obtained results shown in the table about the EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities after the herbicide
treatment, it can clearly be seen that, differently from insecticide reaction, where an EROD and B(a)PMO induction
was noticed, during the reaction with herbicide, there was no expressive activity of these enzymes noticed.
Table 4. EROD and BaPMO activities in some organs of the experimental group of fish i/p reaction with the 300l
solution, 1mg/ml herbicide (STOMP 330) dissolved in corn oil mixture and DMSO 7:3 (1,8 mg/kg).

Liver [a]EROD 4,170,1 [a]EROD 6,310,11 [a]EROD 3,120,1 [a]EROD 2,210,1
1 7 2
[a]BaPM 2,310,1 [a]BaPM 3,320,11 [a]BaPM 2,120,1 [a]BaPM 1,51o,1
O 4 O O 8 O 2
Kidneys [a]EROD 0,7890, [a]EROD 0,8220,13 [a]EROD 0,3970, [a]EROD 0,3440,
16 17 16
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[a]BaPM 0,4170, [a]BaPM 0,5200,13 [a]BaPM 0,2120, [a]BaPM 0,2310,

O 12 O O 11 O 15
Gall- [a]EROD 1,4520, [a]EROD 1,510,11 [a]EROD 1,1910, [a]EROD 1,120,1
bladder 11 17 5
O 11 O O 21 O 16
Fish-gills [a]EROD 0,6130, [a]EROD 0,9560,18 [a]EROD 0,8210, [a]EROD 0,7220,
18 21 18
O 19 O O 12 O 17
In Table 5 we have the obtained results from EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities in liver, kidneys, fish-gills and
gallbladder of experimental fish, treated in an intraperitoneal manner with the 300l solution, 1mg/ml fungicide
(TILT 250), dissolved in corn oil mixture and DMSO in a 7:3 (1,8 mg/kg) proportion.
Table 5. The EROD and BaPMO enzyme activities in some organs of the experimental group of fish during the i/p
reaction with 300l solution, 1mg/ml fungicide (TILT 250), dissolved in corn oil mixture and DMSO 7:3 (1,8
mg/kg).

Liver [a]EROD 45,210, [a]ERO 58,130, [a]EROD 48,170, [a]EROD 39,110,11
11 D 12 12
O 13 MO 18 O 12
Kidneys [a]EROD 0,6210, [a]ERO 0,7470, [a]EROD 0,5450, [a]EROD 0,4370,13
15 D 18 19
[a]BaPM 0,2720, [a]BaP 0,4190, [a]BaPM 0,2960, [a]BaPMO 0,2120.14
O 17 MO 18 O 12
Gall- [a]EROD 1,5620, [a]ERO 1,3160, [a]EROD 1,5110, [a]EROD 1,4120,11
bladder 18 D 19 13
O 18 MO 19 O 12
Fish-gills [a]EROD 1,2120, [a]ERO 1,1180, [a]EROD 1,1230, [a]EROD 1,1190,18
10 D 12 11
[a]BaPM 0,8720, [a]BaP 0,6430, [a]BaPM 0,4340, [a]BaPMO 0,
O 18 MO 11 O 11 5430,19
From the obtained results, it can be clearly noticed that fungicides, similar to insecticides, can cause the induction of
these two enzymes.
The obtained results tell us clearly about an expressive inductivity of EROD and B(a)PMO in the liver, in
comparison to the kidney, fish-gills and gallbladder, because the liver is the main organ for the metabolism of
xenobiotics, compared to other organs.
The correlation made between the native group of fish included in this study, tells us how the induction of both
enzymes was higher in trout (Salmo truta), compared to carp (Cyprinus carpio), bleak (Barbus balcanicus) and eel
(Anguila anguila) where the induction of these two enzymes was lower.
Such results about the native group of fish, correspond to the fact that the area where such species of fish were cast
(River Sateska outfall), we have municipal, industrial and agricultural discharge, and fish are very vulnerable to this
discharge and this vulnerability is expressed through an increase in activity of these enzymes.
Based on referral values, obtained from the determination of EROD and B(a)PMO enzyme activities in the liver of
the control group fish, it can clearly be noticed that the reaction with toxicants (insecticide, herbicide and fungicide)
at experimental fish, has caused an induction of such biochemical markers. A higher induction toward this reaction
has been noticed with EROD enzyme, whereas with B(a)PMO enzyme, the induction has been lower.
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Different from insecticide (PYRINEX 48 EC) which is proved as a strong inductor of the activity of these two
enzymes, the herbicide (STOMP 330) used in this study, has not caused such an expressive induction.
Just like insecticides, fungicides are also characterized with induction traits, because the fungicide used in this study
(TILT 250) has caused an increased activity of these two enzymes.
These results are compatible to the results obtained by other authors, like: Campbel with co., 1983, Delescluse with
co., 1998, Mondon and co., 2001; Svobodov 1997; Payne and co., 1987, etc.
CONCLUSION
EROD and B(a)PMO activity measurements were done in the liver, kidneys, fish-gills and gallbladder of the
following fish: carp (Cyprinus carpio), trout (Salmo truta) and eel (Anguila anguila) of the aquatic ecosystem of
Lake Ohrid. Results from our research show that a higher EROD and B(a)PMO activity is noticed in the liver,
whereas in other organs their activity stands at control fish levels, showing no inductivity of these enzymes in these
organs.The correlation made amongst researched fish, clearly shows that the fish with higher inductivity for both
enzymes, compared to other fish, is trout (Salmo truta), because this kind of fish is considered to be an indicator of
clean waters and is very vulnerable to pollutants.Such biological biomarkers will serve the state authorities as well
as local and regional institutions to monitor the level of pollution in the aquatic environment of Lake Ohrid. Results
obtained from this study can also serve to determine the level of pollution from insecticides, herbicides and
fungicides, which are largely being used for agricultural needs in the recent years. Results from our study have
shown that insecticides and fungicides have caused a significant increase in activity for these two enzymes, as
opposed to herbicides that have not shown any expressive induction. Results obtained from this study will provide
information on the level of pollution of this aquatic ecosystem, from xenobionts, and also insecticides, herbicides
and fungicides, as well. It is recommended that the aquatic environment of Lake Ohrid is permanently monitored for
both, pollution from different xenobionts and the level of pollution from insecticides, herbicides and fungicides that
are being used excessively in agriculture and can cause lethal consequences to the aquatic world in general, and
especially the fish.
REFERENCES
Anzenbacherova, E, Anzenbacher, P (1999): Cytochromy P450 a metabolismus xenobiotik. Bulletinaeske

spoleanosti pro biochemii a molekularni biologii, Cytochromes P450 and xenobiotic metabolism. Bulletinof the
Czech Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 1:4-33 (In Czech);
Anzenbacherova, E, Anzenbacher, P (2001): Review. Cytochrome P450 and metabolism of xenobiotics. Cell Mol
Life Sci 58: 737-747;
Burke, M. D., Mayer, R. T. (1974). Ethoxyresporufin direct fluorimetric assay of microsomal O-dealkylation which
is preferentially inducibile by 3-methylcholantrene. Drug. Metab. Disp: 2: 583-588;
Billiard, SM, Hahn, ME, Franks, DG, Peterson, RE, Bols, NC, Hodson, PV (2002): Binding of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) to teleost aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol
133: 55-68;
Campbell, M. A., Gyorkos, J., Leece, B., Homonko, K., and Safe, S. (1983): The effects of twenty-two
organochlorine pesticides as inducers of hepaticdrug-metabolizing enzymes. Gen. Pharmacol. 14, 445454;
Delescluse, C., Ledirac, N, de Sousa, G., Pralavorio, M., Lesca, P., and Rahmani, R. (1998). Cytotoxic effects and
induction of cytochromes P4501A1/2 by insecticides, in hepatic or epidermal cells: binding capability to the Ah
receptor. Toxicol. Lett. 96, 97, 3339;
Dubois, M., Plaisance, H., Thome, J. P., and Kremers, P. (1996): Hierarchical cluster analysis of environmental
polluants through P450 induction in cultured hepatic cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 34, 205215.
Hodgson, E., and Levi, P. E. (1996): Pesticides: An important but underused model for the environmental health
sciences. Environ. Health Perspect. 104, 97106;
Jung, D.K.J.; Klaus, T.; Fent, K (2001): Cytochrome P450 induction by nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
azaarenes, and binary mixtures in fish hepatoma cell line PLHC-1. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20, 149-159;
Kvasnikov, E (1995): Xenobiochemie. Carolinum, Praha, p. 49 (In Czech);
Lewis, DFV (2001): Guide to Cytochromes P450 structure and function. Taylor & Francis Inc., London, p. 215;
Lester, SM, Braunbeck, TA, Teh, SJ, Stegeman, JJ, Miller, MR, Hinton, DE 1993: Hepaticcellular distribution of
cytochrome P-450 IA1 in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): an immunohisto-andcytochemical study. Cancer
Res 53: 3700-3706;
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Lowry, O.H.; Rosebrough, N.J.; Farr, A.L.; Randall, R.J (1951). Protein measurement with the Folinphenol reagent.
J. Biol. Chem. 193, 265-275;
Mondon, JA, Duda, S, Nowak, BF (2001): Histological, growth and 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD)
activity responses of greenback flounder Rhombosolea tapirina to contaminated marine sediment and diet. Aquat
Toxicol 54: 231-247;
Malins, D.C.; McCain, B.B.; Brown, D.W.; Chan, S.L.; Myers, M.S.; Landahl, J.T.; Prohaska, P.G.; Friedman, A.J.;
Rhodes, L.D.; Burrows, D.G.; Gronlund, W.D.; Hodgins, H.O (1984). Chemical pollutants in sediments and
diseases of bottom-dwelling fish in Puget Sound, Washington. Environ. Sci. Technol. 18, 705-713;
Nebert DW, Puga A, Vasiliou V. (1993). Role of the Ah receptor and the dioxin-inducible [Ah] gene battery in
toxicity, cancer, and signal transduction. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 685:624-40;
Nebert, D.W. and Gelboin, H.V. (1968), J. Biol. Chem. 243, 6242-6245;
Ortiz-Delgado, JB, Sarasquete, C, Behrens, A, Gonzales, DE, Canales, MLG, Segner,H (2002): Expression, cellular
distribution and induction of cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) in gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, brain. Aquat
Toxicol 60: 269-283.
Payne, JF, Fancey, LL, Rahimtula, AD, Porter, EL (1987): Review and perspective on the use of mixedfunction
oxygenase enzymes in biological monitoring. Comp Biochem Physiol 86: 233-245;
Sadar, MD, Andersson, TB (2001): Regulation of cytochrome P450 in a primary culture of rainbow trout
hepatocytes. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 37: 180-184;
Svobodova, Z (1997): Ryba - vznamn indikator zneitn povrchovch vod. Program a sbornk konference ERA
[Fish an important indicator of surface water pollution. Abstract from the ERA Conference 97], pp. 158-165 (In
Czech).;
Schlenk, D, Di Giulio, RT (2002): Biochemical responses as indicators of aquatic ecosystem health. In: ADAMS
SM (ed.), Biological indicators of aquatic ecosystem stress. AFS, Bethesda, pp. 14;
Schenkman, JB, Jansso, I (1998): Spectral analyses of cytochromes P450. In: Phillips IR and Shephard EA (eds.),
Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol. 107: Cytochrome P450 protocols. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ, pp. 25-33;
Schlenk, D, Di Giulio, RT (2002): Biochemical responses as indicators of aquatic ecosystem health. In: ADAMS
SM (ed.), Biological indicators of aquatic ecosystem stress. AFS, Bethesda, pp. 14;
Van der Oost, R.; Beyer, J.; Vermeulen, N.P.E (2003): Fish bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk
assessment: a review. Environ. Toxicol. Pharm. 13, 57-14;
PAPER 228
THE EFFECT OF DIETARY COMPOSITION AND FEED INTAKE ON LACTATING COW

PERFORMANCE AND METHANE EMISSION
Enkelejda Sallaku1, Ylli. Bioku1, Agim Kumaraku1, Arben Boari2 Arjana Nepravishta1
1
Department of Animal Production, Agriculture University of Tirana, Albania
2
Department of Mathematics and Informatics, Agriculture University of Tirana, Albania
Email: enka_sallaku@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Ruminant livestock are responsible for the production of a significant proportion of greenhouse gases, particularly
methane that contribute to global warming and climate change. Methane is a product that forms during the
fermentation of food in the rumen of ruminants, and on average represents a 7% loss of the energy ingested by the
animal. At a global scale, livestock farming may contribute 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2006).
Many authors point out that the emission of methane to ruminants and cattle is mainly influenced by the level of
nutrition. In this context, we have undertaken this study, aimed to determine the strategies of nutrition and
management of ruminants by reducing methane emissions.The aim of this paper is the strategic ways of feeding and
managing ruminant livestock to markedly reduce the methane emission. For this study, the data of milk production
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and the feeding levels of three farms containing Holshtein-race cattle in the district of Fier were analyzed. The
analysis confirmed that the production and genetic capacities are not fully utilized due to a number of factors, the
most important of which are dietary imbalances and wrong nutritional structures. In these production levels, food
usage is low while methane enteric is high. In these conditions, the increase in production levels decreases
significantly CH4 , and not the increase in number of the cattle. Going from 3000kg milk per year to 5000kg
decreases by 44.5% the methane emission per kg of milk produced. The linear regression analysis proves that there
is a close connection between daily milk production and enteric methane emission.
Key words: cow milk, nutrition indicators, feed intake, enteric methane
INTRODUCTION
The greenhouse effect of methane has been considered high compared to another gases, thought to be around 20
times that of carbon dioxide. The methane production from enteric fermentation in animal
agriculture contributes around 20% of the total global methane. Methane is a product that is produced during the
fermentation of food in the rumen of ruminants, and on average represents a 7% loss of the energy ingested by the
animal. At a global scale, livestock farming may contribute 18% of the total greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2006).
Different authors identify the relationships between the levels of the daily milk production and the quantity of the
lost energy in the form of methane. In our country the farms are of different sizes and provide different levels of
production. In this context it was initiated this study, which was intended to evidence the influence of the milk
production and the emission of methane, and also the influence of feed intake in methane emission.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This study was undertaken in three cattle farms in the district of Fier, where were breeding cows of the Holstein
bred, in three different levels. Summarising the data in basis of the forms gathered during a year were calculated:
Nutrition parameters
dry matter intake
Ration Structure
Level of energy intake
Production indicators:
kg milk/day
It was calculated the methane which potentially can be emitted through the Shibated et al. 1993 quadratic equation :
Y(L/day) = -17.766+42.793 X-0.849 X2
Where, X = DMI (kg/day)
RESULTS
It was defined the level of the emission of CH4 for three levels of milk production from the cows, which consume
different quantity of dry matter per day. The data was collected from three farms of the district of Fier.
Table 1 Milk production and feed intake according to the levels of milk production.
Yearly milk production Milk kg/day DM kg/day NEL (MJ) Prot g/day
Energy
Production 3000 kg/year X 8.17 11.37 15.96 1157.9
SD 1.42 1.4 2.01 315.5
Production 4000 kg/year X 11.04 13.98 19.34 1436.3
SD 0.41 0.23 1.54 330.6
Production 5000 kg/year X 13.63 16.45 22.9 1759
SD 1.15 1.38 2.3 337
Table 2 Quantity emitted of methane by the cows in three production levels.

3000 kg 4000 kg 5000 kg SD
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Dry matter kg/ day 11.37 13.98 16.45 0.56

Milk kg/day 8.17 11.04 13.63 0.35
Protein % in milk 3.76 3.59 3.63 0.06
METHANE CH 4
Total g/head cows 292.8 254.82 213,2 24.7
g/kg DMI 24.96 23.7 15.6 1.6
% EB MJ/day 7.2 6.1 5.98 0.4
Productivity increase reduces the impact of the emission of the enteric methane, because we have a higher utilization
of saccharides and a small loss of energy in the form of fermentations gases, toward the synthesis of chemical
constituents of milk. Also G.C.Waghorn 2004 highlights that a cow in a pasture regime with 450 kg live weight for
three different levels of milk production per day: 12 kg; 20kg dhe 24kg issues 17.2g CH4/kg milk and 13.6 et
12.7g/kg milk what recertifies our data.
Moss et al, 2000 note that one of the most important factors in the emission of methane, digestive kind, is the milk
production level closely linked to the use of their genetic capacity and with manufacturer-rearing system and mainly
the type of nutrition. In the following table is calculated the amount of methane emitted per cow for three different
levels of production per lactation. They analyzed three cattle farms in the district of Fier. Cows were of the same
breed, Black spotted, two family-type farms with 20 and 30 heads each, which had these productivity levels: 2650
kg milk the first and 4100kg milk the second. The third was selected with 180 heads and 6200kg milk cow
productivity. From the data it is clear that for the level up to 3000 kg milk per lactation, the value of emission from
ruminal fermentation is 99g and for higher production levels ranges from 110-126 grams per lactation.
Table 3 Relation with milk production and methane emitted ( Moss)

Milk Production kg Production of CH4 g/kg milk* Production CH4 per
lactation kg
2500-3000 33 99
4000-5000 22 110
Up to 7000 18 126
The problem arises if it is of high economic efficiency rearing from the same breed cattle for milk production, milk
or meat to preserve the lower production levels and thus can provide lower emission levels of methane. From the
simulation of the situation in the area in a cattle farm in Fier we need to know how many the Black spotted cows
have to be bred for the production of 100 tons of milk and which is the best system and breeding technology with
genetic capacity utilization of their production and with minimal impact on the environment.
From the data of the following table, the intensive technologies of the growth and breeding cattle have a lower
impact on the environment. The performance of 2500-3000kg milk per cow, which represents the average level in
republic level, affects negatively the economic efficiency of the farms and also the emission of methane over twice
as much if the harness is the same breed of their productive capacity.
Table 4 Relation with milk production
Milk The Total No. of cows Production of Production of CH4 in kg

Production kg Production of in the farm CH4 g/kg milk CH4 per per farm
Milk ton * lactation kg
2500-3000 100 40 33 99 3960

4000-5000 100 20 22 110 2200
Up to7000 100 14 18 126 1764
Based on the above, we have calculated the amount of methane that can be emitted during ruminal fermentation of
dairy cows, on the average level of production in the whole country that today marks the level of 2500 kg and 5000
kg in medium and large farms and the objective of achieving 7000kg. The data show that capacity utilization of
genetic manufacturer today represents one of the basic factors not only for the increase of milk production, the
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increase of the economic efficiency of the farm but also lower CH4 emissions. The increase of the number of heads
except with this level of productivity has very negative economic and environmental impacts.
So for the same amount of milk production, the system selection and cattle breeding technology affects the amount
of enteric methane, connected with the natural decrease in the number of heads but with the increase of their
productive potentials for lactation and a very high production efficiency. For 100 tons milk production per day, the
transition from nursing in 3000 kg to 5000 and 7000 kg reduces the quantity of methane emissions respectively to
44.5% and 55.6%.
CONCLUSIONS
The level of milk production in our country ranges from 8-14 kg per day.
There are identified strong relationships between the quantity of dry matter consumed and the quantity of methane
emitted into the atmosphere near livestock farms.
The capacity utilization of genetic manufacturer, not the increase of the number of heads not o
nly gets the highest amount of milk production but also lower levels of CH4 emission per kg milk.
The improving of nutrition technologies affects the environmental preservation.
REFERENCES
Moss, A. R., J. P. Jounay and J. Newbold. (2000) Methane production by ruminants:its contribution to global
warming. Ann. Zootech. 49:231-253
Moe, P.W. & H.F. Tyrrell, (1979). Methane production in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 62, 1583-1586
Shibata, M., F. Terada, M. Kurihara, T. Nishida, and K. Iwasaki (1993) Estimation of methane production in
ruminants. Animal Science andTechnology, 64: 790-796
S. Tamminga , A. Bannink ,J. Dijkstra , R. Zom (2007) Feeding strategies to reduce methane loss in cattle
http://edepot.wur.nl/28209
Waghorn G. C. and. Woodward S. L. (2004) Ruminant contributions to methane and globale warming- a New
Zealand Prespective. Presented at The Science of Changing Climates- Impact on Agriculture, Forestry and
Wetlands July 20- 23 2004 University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta Canadian Society of Agronomy, Animal
Science, and Soil Science
http://www1.foragebeef.ca/$foragebeef/frgebeef.nsf/all/ccf758/$FILE/CcbRuminentconributionsinNZWaghorn.pdf.
PAPER 229
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY IN CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS USED IN ALBANIA INVESTIGATED

WITH A FULLY AUTOMATED GAMMA-RAY SPECTROMETER
Gerti Xhixha1,2,3, Alma Ahmeti3, GianPietro Bezzon1, Marsela Bitri3, Carlo Broggini4, GianPaolo Buso1,
Antonio
Caciolli1,4, Ivan Callegari5, Florinda Cfarku6, Tommaso Colonna5, Giovanni Fiorentini1,2,7, Enrico Guastaldi5,
Fabio Mantovani2,7, Giovanni Massa5, Roberto Menegazzo4, Liliana Mou1, Carlos Rossi Alvarez4, Dhurata
Sadiraj Kuqi8, Manjola Shyti2,7, Virginia Strati2, Merita Xhixha Kaeli9, Pandi Zdruli10, Adriana Zyfi3
1
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Legnaro National Laboratory, Via dellUniversit, 2 - 35020
Legnaro, Padova, Italy;
2
University of Ferrara, Physics Department, Via Saragat, 1 - 44100 Ferrara, Italy;
3
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Forestry Science, Kodr Kamz - 1029 Tirana, Albania;
4
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Padova Section, Via Marzolo 8 - 35131 Padova, Italy;
5
University of Siena, Center for GeoTechnologies, Via Vetri Vecchi, 34 - 52027 San Giovanni Valdarno, Arezzo,
Italy;
6
University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Centre of Applied Nuclear Physics, P.O.Box 85 Tirana, Albania;
7
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Ferrara Section, Via Saragat, 1 - 44100 Ferrara, Italy;
8
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Square Nn Tereza, 4 Tirana, Albania;
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9
University of Sassari, Botanical, Ecological and Geological Sciences Department, Piazza Universit 21- 07100
Sassari, Italy;
10
CIHEAM Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Land and Water Department, Via Ceglie 9 - 70010
Valenzano, Bari, Italy;
Email: xhixha@fe.infn.it
ABSTRACT
A fully automated gamma-ray spectrometer composed by two coupled HPGe detectors p-type with 60% relative
efficiency was developed for monitoring the environmental radioactivity. Through fully automation of operational
processes, up to 24 samples can be measured without any human attendance. The absolute efficiency of the
MCA_Rad system is estimated by using two point sources 152Eu and 56Co, and validated at 5% relative uncertainty
by measuring certified reference materials. The MCA_Rad system was employed in the measurement of the activity
concentration of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th in different types of chemical fertilizers used in Albania. The results show a
clear correlation between the content of K2O measured and that labeled for chemical fertilizers. The presence of
phosphorus in the chemical fertilizer is not clearly related to the activity concentration of 226Ra and 232Th. This is
mainly due to the different origins of the phosphate ores and/or to the chemical processing of the ore during
fertilizers manufacturing. The activity concentrations of 226Ra and 232Th in NPK samples are found to vary from
MDA to 25314 Bq/kg and MDA to 244 Bq/kg, respectively. The calculated radium equivalent activity was found
to be comparable or higher than the threshold value of 370 Bq/kg varying from 362 Bq/kg to 967 Bq/kg, mainly due
to the high concentration of 40K and 226Ra (especially for NPK-3, NPK-8 and NPK-9). Based on these results, no
direct estimations on dose rate can be made, but we recommend to monitor the radiation exposure rate of workers in
a storage warehouse
Key words: HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry; Chemical fertilizers; Natural radioactivity
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the XIXth century agriculture development in Europe and USA was faced with the problem of
soil impoverishment and removal of nutrients due to increased crop production. In 1840, the German chemist Justus
von Liebig initiated a revolution in soil science and agriculture. He proved that plants assimilate mineral nutrients
from the soil and proposed the use of mineral fertilizers to increase nutrient supply of deficient soils promoting this
way a tremendous increase in crop yields never seen before. The science of soil fertility and plant nutrition
recognize the dominant importance of macro elements such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) and
many other micronutrients crucially needed to maintain high yields but more importantly to sustain healthy plants.
The NPK fertilizers are necessary to remediate depleted soils from the natural nutrients removed through farming
and erosion. Phosphate rock is the raw material for the production of phosphate fertilizers due to the relatively high
concentration of P2O5, at least 20%. These rocks contain together with other elements, also a relatively high
concentration of uranium (238U) normally between 370 and 2,470 Bq/kg (Kratz and Schnug 2006 and references
therein) and sometimes even higher than 12,350 Bq/kg, while thorium ( 232Th) at relatively low concentrations less
than 40 Bq/kg (Menzel 1986). In phosphate fertilizer industry, phosphate rocks are mainly processed through the so-
called "wet-process", which includes chemical treatments, mostly by using sulfuric acid: the products are phosphoric
acid (PA) and an insoluble calcium sulfate salt called phosphogypsum (PG), with a ratio PG/PA = 5. The PA and PG
are usually separated by filtration and reactor off-gas and vapors: in this process the mixture of phosphoric acid and
phosphogypsum constitute the product called normal or single super phosphate (SSP) containing the lowest grade of
percentage of phosphorus, less than 20%. The utilization of the phosphoric acid in the "wet-process" is used to
produce the triple superphosphate (TSP) and furthermore the combination with ammonia form various ammoniated
phosphate fertilizers (e.g. mono-ammonium phosphate MAP and di-ammonium phosphate DAP). During these
processes, the decay chains on 238U and 232Th suffer the disequilibrium, where approximately 80-90% of 226Ra is
concentrated in PG and 80-85% of 238U and 70% of 232Th is concentrated in PA (Xhixha et al., 2013), which ends up
in chemical fertilizers. The presence of 40K in NPK fertilizers is mainly due to the K content, which can be estimated
knowing its isotopic ratio 0.0117%. On the other hand, the N content in NPK fertilizers generally doesn't contribute
in the concentration of radioelements.
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High-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry is a suitable technique for environmental radioactivity monitoring, since
the decay chains of 238U and 232Th and the isotope of 40K can be investigated simultaneously. However, the
environmental radioactivity monitoring may require the measurement of a huge amount of samples. For this purpose
we designed and built up a low-background high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry system (Xhixha et al., 2013),
which allows an autonomous investigation of the radioactivity content on a large amount of samples, without any
human attendance. The absolute efficiency of MCA_Rad system is calibrated for a standard container volume of 180
cm3 by using two point sources (152Eu and 56Co). We validated the calibration method by measuring certified
International Atomic Energy Agency reference materials RGK-1, RGU-2 and RGTh-1 (IAEA 1987), containing
some thousands of Bq/kg of 40K, 238U and 232Th. The relative discrepancy between central values is found to be less
than 5% within the reported uncertainty. The aim of this study was to check the applicability of such instrument in
the characterization of natural radioelements in different chemical fertilizers and to draw the first conclusions on
their radiological consequences for workers. For this purpose 11 different NPK fertilizers used in agriculture in
Albania, are measured using the MCA_Rad system.
MCA_Rad system: high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry measurements. The natural radioactivity

concentrations in chemical fertilizers were investigated using a fully automated high-resolution gamma-ray
spectrometry system, called MCA_Rad system (Figure 1). This equipment is composed of two coaxial high-purity
germanium (HPGe) p-type detectors with a 60 % relative efficiency, having an energy resolution of 1.9 keV at
1332.5 keV (60Co). The HPGe detectors are accurately shielded with 10cm thick oxygen free copper and 10cm thick
lead allowing to reach an environmental background reduction of two orders of magnitude. A severe lowering of
manpower cost is obtained by a fully automated system which permits to measure up to 24 samples without any
human attendance. Furthermore, a user-friendly software has been developed in order to analyze a high number of
spectra, possibly with automatic procedure and customized output. The absolute photopeak efficiency of the
MCA_Rad system has been determined by using two low activity standard point sources of 152Eu (6.56 kBq in 1995)
and a 56Co home made source. The spectra obtained are corrected (as described in Xhixha et al., 2013) for: (1)
coincidence summing on each individual detector, produced by the complex decay scheme of the sources, (2)
differences between the geometry of the point sources and the sample shape and (3) self-attenuation of gamma-rays
within the sample volume. The calibration process was validated by measuring three certified reference materials
(95% confidence interval), prepared in a powder matrix (240 mesh) containing 494030 Bq/kg of 238U (diluted
uranium ore BL5), 325090 Bq/kg of 232Th (diluted thorium ore OKA-2) in a secular equilibrium and 14000400
Bq/kg of 40K (high-purity K2SO). As a result, this test achieved an overall relative discrepancy of 5 % among central
values within the reported uncertainty.
Figure 1. View of the MCA_Rad system.
The natural activity concentration of 226Ra was determined through 351.9 keV (37.1%) of 214Pb and 609.3
keV (46.1%) of 214Bi. The activity of 232Th was estimated as 228Ra by measuring the gamma-ray of 911.1 keV
(30.3%) of 228Ac and 583.1 keV (33.2%) of 208Tl. The activity concentration of 40K was determined by measuring
the 1460.8 keV gamma-ray. The minimum detectable activity (MDA) concentration was calculated for each energy
of interest as described by Currie (1986).
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Sampling and sample preparation. Different brands of chemical fertilizers used in Albania are imported from
countries worldwide. In this study, are investigated 11 types of chemical fertilizers, which differ from the N, P, K
content. Samples, when needed, were crushed and milled into fine powders with the particle size of <2mm. To
remove the moisture content, all of the samples were dried in a temperature-controlled furnace at 110C for at least
24 h (or until constant weight). After cooling in a moisture-free atmosphere, each sample was transferred for
measurement to a cylindrical PVC container (with the dimensions of diameter of 7.5 cm x 4.5 cm of height and an
effective volume of 180 cm3) and was then weighted. The hermetically sealed containers were stored for at least 4
weeks prior to measurement to allow 226Ra and its short-lived decay products to reach the secular equilibrium.
RESULTS
Activity concentrations
The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in NPK samples were determined by measuring for 1 h using the
MCA_Rad system (e.g. Figure 2) and the results of the activity concentrations are summarized in Table 1.
Figure 2. The gamma-ray spectra obtained for NPK-3 sample acquiring for 1h by using MCA_Rad system. The
most intense gamma-ray energies for the isotopes investigated are indicated.
The radioisotope of 40K was present in high concentrations in all the NPK varying from 3,927202 Bq/kg to
12,557633 Bq/kg. Taking to account that the activity concentrations of 1% K corresponds to 313 Bq/kg, the
measured abundances of K are found to be comparable within 1 with the labeled content of K 2O (calculated as K2O
= K/0.83) for each type of fertilizer (Figure 3). The activity concentrations of 226Ra and 232Th in NPK samples are
found to be very variable from MDA to 25314 Bq/kg and MDA to 244 Bq/kg respectively. Different studies
(Jibiri and Fasae 2012 and references therein) show also high variability in the activity concentrations of 226Ra and
232
Th (228Ra) ranging, respectively from MDA to 780 Bq/kg and MDA to 49 Bq/kg. We observe that the
concentrations of phosphorus and the radioactivity concentration of 226Ra and 232Th are not correlated. This may be
due to the different origins of the phosphate ores and/or on the chemical processing of the ore during fertilizers
manufacture. Indeed, the phosphate rocks are found either in sedimentary or igneous deposits where the
concentrations of 238U(232Th) vary from 20-11,000 Bq/kg (7-1,100 Bq/kg) to 70-200 Bq/kg (100-400 Bq/kg)
respectively (Falck and Wymer 2006 and references therein).
Table 1. In this table are shown the chemical fertilizers investigated and the respective N, P, K content as labeled
(unlike N, the P and K represent the wt. % of respective oxides in the form of P 2O5 and K2O therefore for the mass
fraction can be calculated by multiplying respectively with 0.436 and 0.83). The activity concentrations (1) for
each chemical fertilizer is determined for 40K, 226Ra and 232Th (in Bq/kg). Values reported as "<" show the minimum
detectable activity (MDA).
N-P-K Country of 40K 226
Ra 232
Th (228Ra)
Sample ID. Raeq
(wt. %) origin (Bq/kg) (Bq/kg) (Bq/kg)
NPK_1 13.5-0-46.2 Israel 12557 633 <3 <4 967
NPK_2 13-0-46 Italy 12458 627 <3 <4 959
NPK-3 5-15-30 Italy 7646 387 253 14 20 5 871
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NPK-4 20-20-20 Italy 5471 280 <2 10 4 419

NPK-5 20-20-20 Italy 5851 298 <2 <4 451
NPK-6 20-20-20 Belgium 5443 278 <2 <3 435
NPK-7 18-18-18 Italy 4870 249 <2 <3 375
NPK-8 12-12-17 Belgium 4316 221 137 8 11 4 485
NPK-9 12-12-17 Italy 4051 207 78 5 83 402
NPK-10 12-12-17 Italy 3927 202 25 3 24 4 362
NPK-11 14-6-16 Italy 4443 227 26 3 <3 369
Figure 3. Comparison between labeled and measured K2O in % wt. The relationship KHPGe = (0.990.07) KNPK is
obtained by fitting the data with a 2 of 1.9. Dashed lines represent 1 uncertainty interval.
Radiological characterization
From the radiation point of view, the storage of large quantities of chemical fertilizers in the warehouse may
influence significantly the indoor radon concentration other than external gamma-ray exposure. The widely used
radiation hazard index Raeq (radium equivalent activity) can be used to estimate the external gamma-ray exposure.
The radiation equivalent activity is a weighted sum of activities of the three natural radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and
40
K based on the estimation that 370 Bq/kg of 226Ra, 259 Bq/kg of 232Th and 4810 Bq/kg of 40K produce the same
gamma ray dose rate (Beretka and Matthew 1985). The radium equivalent activity was calculated by using the
following relation.
Raeq CRa 1.43CTh 0.077CK (Eq. 1)
where CRa, CTh and CK are the specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in (Bq/kg) respectively.
In Table 1 is shown that the radium equivalent activity calculated for NPK samples is comparable or higher than the
reference value of 370 Bq/kg reaching the maximum value of 967 Bq/kg for NPK-1 sample. This indicates that the
management of large quantities of stored chemical fertilizers can lead to an excess of the effective annual dose rate.
However, we emphasize that this is mainly due to high concentrations of 40K, with exception to NPK-3, NPK-8 and
NPK-9, where the activity concentrations of 226Ra are high and contribute to approximately 30%. This least may
contribute to a radiological potential risk for workers due to indoor radon gas concentration. Based on these results,
no direct estimations on dose rate can be made, but we recommend that controls should be made in order to monitor
the radiation exposure rate of workers in a storage warehouse.
CONCLUSIONS
The MCA_Rad system was found to be a suitable technique used to characterize the natural radioactivity
concentration in NPK fertilizers. The activity concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th were measured in different
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types of NPK fertilizers used in agriculture in Albania. All measured NKP fertilizers showed high activity
concentration of 40K varying from 3,927202 Bq/kg to 12,557633 Bq/kg. The results obtained by MCA_Rad
system were found to be in excellent agreement with those labeled for chemical fertilizers under investigation. The
presence of phosphorus in the chemical fertilizer is not clearly related to the activity concentration of 226Ra and 232Th
in the chemical fertilizers mainly due to the different origins of the phosphate ores and/or on the chemical
processing of the ore during fertilizers manufacture. The activity concentrations of 226Ra and 232Th vary between
MDA to 25314 Bq/kg and MDA to 244 Bq/kg respectively. Future studies are needed in order to investigate the
transfer of radioelements from phosphate rocks to chemical fertilizers. The radium equivalent concentration was
calculated in order to estimate the radiological implications of the storage and the management of NPK fertilizers.
The calculated radium equivalent activity for all NPK fertilizers was found to be comparable or higher than the
reference value of 370 Bq/kg varying from 362 Bq/kg to 967 Bq/kg. These high values are mainly due to high
concentration of 40K in all samples (65-100% of Raeq), while for NPK-3, NPK-8 and NPK-9 the contribution of
226
Ra accounts for 20-30% of Raeq concentration. Based on these results, the management of large quantities of
stored chemical fertilizers can lead to an excess of the effective annual dose rate for workers and therefore we
recommend that controls should be made in order to monitor the radiation exposure rate in storage warehouses. In
this context the MCA_Rad system was shown to be an excellent tool for measuring the radioactivity in chemical
fertilizers and to monitor huge amounts of samples.
Acknowledgements. We are grateful for useful discussions and valuable comments with L. Carmignani, M.
Gambaccini, S. Grazhdani, Y. Huang, P. Marku, W. F. McDonough, G. Oggiano, R. L. Rudnick, V. Tabaku, G.
Xhixha and A. Zanon. This work was partially supported by Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy and
by Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Padova e Rovigo.
REFERENCES
Beretka J., Matthew P.J. (1985) Natural radioactivity of Australian building materials, industrial wastes and by-
products, Health Physiscs 48(1), 87-95.
Currie L.A. (1986) Limits for Qualitative Detection and Quantitative Determination Application to Radiochemistry.
Analytical Chemistry 40, 586-593.
Falck W. E., Wymer D. (2006) Uranium in phosphate fertilizer production. In: Merkel B.J., Hasche-Berger A. (eds)
Uranium in the Environment, Mining Impact and Consequences, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, New York, pp. 57-67.
857-866.
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Preparation and certification of IAEA gamma spectrometry reference
materials, RGU-1, RGTh-1 and RGK1. Report-IAEA/RL/148. International Atomic Energy Agency (1987).
Jibiri N.N., Fasae K. P. (2012) Activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in brands of fertilizers used in
Nigeria, Radiation Protection Dosimetry 148(1), 132-137.
Kratz S., Schnug E. (2006) Rock phosphates and P fertilizers as sources of U contamination in agricultural soils. In:
Merkel B.J., Hasche-Berger A. (eds) Uranium in the Environment, Mining Impact and Consequences, Springer
Berlin Heidelberg, New York, pp. 57-67.
Menzel R.G. (1986) Uranium, Radium, and Thorium Content in Phosphate Rocks and Their Possible Radiation
Hazard, Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 16, 231-234.
Xhixha G., Bezzon G.P., Broggini C., Buso G.P., Caciolli A., Callegari I., De Bianchi S., Fiorentini G., Guastaldi
E., Mantovani F., Massa G., Menegazzo R., Mou L., Pasquini A., Rossi Alvarez C., Shyti M., Xhixha Kaeli M.
(2013) The worldwide NORM production and a fully automated gamma-ray spectrometer for their characterization.
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 295, 445.
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PAPER 230
WATER MANAGMENT AND MICROBIAL QUALITY OF THE WATER OF DRINO AND VJOSAS
RIVERS
iljeta Piro, Klementina Puto, Rexhep Shkurti, Marsela Alikaj
The Faculty of Technical Medicine Sciences, Saranda Branch, UT

2
Departament of Biotechnology, FNS, UT, Tiran, Albania
3, 4
Department of Biology, University E. abej, Gjirokastr, Albania
Email: ciljeta_piro@yahoo.ca
ABSTRACT
The protection of the environment, the development of tourism, economy and public health has been the regional,
national and global main priorities in recent years. In the southern region of Albania, the situation and the quality of
surface waters, especially the water of rivers and lakes, have been very problematic recently. The same problematic
situation has been noticed in Drino and Vjosa rivers, which come together and flow into Adriatic Sea. From
preliminary data analyzed during 20122013 in 6 stations along these rivers, it results that their microbial quality is
bad. This is shown by the results obtained from the analysis of microbial indicators FC/FS that vary for FC from
1500 to 4.6x106 bacteria /100 ml water and for FS from 90 to 1.5x104 bacteria/100ml water. Samples have been
taken and have been analyzed within 24 hours. The water samples have been transported in a temperature of 4 0C.
The determination of bacterias numbers (FC/FS) is based on the method of Multiple - tube Fermentation or Most
Probable Numbers Technique (MPN). We have also studied the chemical physical parameters such as temperature,
pH, salinity, the quantity of dissolved oxygen in water, conductivity etc. Based on the studies and the data over the
years, the population of fish and otter in this area has been reduced. Urban discharges, untreated wastewater and the
influence of environmental factors make it necessary to adapt strategies to stop the pollution.
Keywords: Indicator bacteria (FC/FS), pathogenic bacteria, pollution, rivers Drino & Vjosa
INTRODUCTION
Rivers are today an important source of water. They can have a great impact in many vital aspects, but unfortunaly
the situation and the quality of surface waters, especially the water of rivers and lakes, have been very problematic
recently in the southern region of Albania. The subject of our work during the period 2012 2013 has been the
dynamics of microbial contamination of Drino and Vjosas rivers. There are two main rivers of the southern region
of Albania, which come together and flow into Adriatic sea.
Drino is a river in southen Albania and northwesten Greece, tributary of Vjosa. Its length is 84.6 km and its sourse is
in the northwesten part of Joannina regional unit, Greece. It flows initially southeast, then northwest and crosses the
Albania border. It continues northwest through Gjirokastra and flows into the Vjosa river near Tepelena city.
The total area of Drinos walley is 920 km, from which 240km is plain but the other piece is hilly and mountary
landscape with great amplitudes that surpasses 2000 m (Mezini B. 1985).
Some animal species of this river for different reasons related not only with the anthropogenic enviromental impact,
are already classified as species with a determinate status: Barbus meridionalis petenyi (R), Gobio gobio (R),
Cobitis taenia taenia (T) , Triturus vulgaris (K*), Hyla arborea (K*), Rana balcanica (T), Rana dalmatina (C),
Testudo hermanni (T), Emys orbicularis (K*), Mauremys caspica (K*), Anguis fragilis (K*), Natrix natrix (K*),
Natrix tessellata (K*), Lutra lutra (E&V.) (Annonimous, 2006).
Vjosa is a river located in southern part of Albania, in the center of this river; raise the Permeti and Tepelena cities.
It is 272 km long, with discharge rate in the Adriatic Sea (195m/s). Vjosa River is shared between Albania and
Greece. It is one of the cleanest and the most important rivers of the country for its aquatic flora and fauna
communities. Valley of the river (Albanian part) extends in prolonged form (total surface of watershed is 6706
km2), in the left side of national road Kora - Gjirokastra. The river is important for globally threatened species
Lutra lutra, for a number of protected bat species, and for migratory fish species (Salmo sp.). Both rivers are
characterized by biological diversity of ecosystems and landscapes, offering variety of plant populations,
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vegetations, invertebrate animals, as well as indicator organisms of the enviromental situation and biodiversity.
(Shkurti R., 2009). Although they are considered among low impacted rivers in Albania, deforestation, erosion, use
of fertilizers in agriculture, urban discharges, untreated wastewater, alteration of natural habitats and gravel
excavation are increasing during two last decades. Under these conditions, the water managment and the microbial
quality of Drino and Vjosas rivers takes a special importance. The presence of pathogenic microorganisms and the
microbial quality of water can be determined by microbial indicators Fecal coliforms (FC) and Fecal streptococci
(FS) (Puto K., 2011) (Hysko M., Gace B., Puto K., 2010). Members of two bacteria groups, coliforms and fecal
streptococci, are used as indicators of possible sewage contamination, because they are commonly found in human
and warm-blooded animal feces. Although they are generally not harmful themselves, they indicate the possible
presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria, viruses, and protozoans that also live in human and animal
digestive systems (Wade T.J., Calderon R.L., Sams E., Beach, Brenner M., Williams K.P., Dufour A.P., 2006) (Puto
K. & al., 2011). Therefore, their presence in rivers suggests that pathogenic microorganisms might also be present.
Since it is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive to test directly for the presence of a large variety of pathogens,
surface water is usually tested for coliforms and fecal streptococci instead. Testing for coliform bacteria is faster and
cheaper than testing for specific organisms and pathogens (Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 15 February 2006); (Jeng H.C., England A.J., Bradford H.B., 2005)
Water samples were taken in 6 stations of Drino and Vjosas rivers three times: in July 2012 (summer season),
September 2012 (autumn season) and March 2013 (winter season). There were analyzed in total 36 samples, 18
samples for Fecal coliforms (FC) and 18 other samples for Fecal steptococci (FS).
The selection of sampling stations was based on the monitoring scheme of liquid discharges. The 6 stations of Drino
and Vjosas river are:
Pacarela - Drino river (after the industrial waste discharges of leather shoe factory)
Kordhoca- Drino river
Drino river (after the discharge of urban pollution in Gjirokastra city)
Virua (after the urban discharges and untreated wastewater of different restaurants in this area)
Vjosa river (after the discharge of urban pollution in Kelcyra city)
Drino & Vjosas rivers (at their intersection in Tepelena city)
Figure 1 Pacarela Figure 2 Kordhoca Figure 3 Drino
Figure 4 Virua Figure 5 Vjosa Figure 6 Drino & Vjosa
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Samples were taken in sterilized glass containers and were transported in cooling holders in the temperature 4C.
Analyses were performed within 24 hours in the laboratory of the Department of Biotechnology, FNS, Universitety
of Tirana, Albania. Two analyses for FC and FS were performed for each sample according to standard European
methods. Multiple tube fermentation technique was used, 3 tubes for each dilution and the tables (MPN index)
served for the determination of the number of bacterial cells.
Fecal coliforms (FC) were determined by inoculating 10ml, 1ml, 0.1ml, 0.01ml, etc. (up to 6 dilutions) of the water
samples, first in LSB (Lauryl pepto broth) preliminary test, at 35C for 24 - 48 hours and then in ECB (EC broth),
conformation test, at 44.5 C for 24 hours. Positive reaction is indicated by turbidity and gas presence in the Durham
pipes.
Fecal streptococci (FS) (Faecal Streptococcal group) were determined by inoculating 10ml, 1ml, 0.1ml, 0.01ml,
etc. (up to 6 dilutions) of the water samples first in ADB (Azide Dextrose Broth), preliminary test, at 35C for 24-48
hours and then in EVAB (Ethyl Violet Azide Broth), conformation test, at 35C for 24 hours. The presence of a
purple colored precipitate at the bottom of the test tube indicates the presence of fecal streptococci.
The chemical - physical parameters are measured in situ. The device that is used to measure pH, the quantity of
dissolved oxygen in water and conductivity is a multiparameter. This device belongs to the scientific laboratory of
Agro Enviromental and Ecological Department, Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania.
RESULTS
From preliminary data analyzed during 2012 2013 in 6 stations along Drino and Vjosas rivers, it results that their
microbial quality is bad. This is shown by the results obtained from the analysis of microbial indicators FC/FS that
vary for FC from 1500 to 4.6x106 bacteria /100 ml water and for FS from 90 to 1.5x10 4 bacteria /100ml water. These
results for FC and FS are presented in the following figures.
Drino river
In the following figures are shown the microbial values for CF dhe SF in the most polluted stacions of this river. It
results that the hightest pollution is noticed in Drino (station 3) for CF in September 2012 (summer) with the value
of MPN 1.5 x 10 .
Figure 7 Fecal coliforms in Pacarela (station 1) Figure 8 Fecal coliforms in Drino (station 3)
The most polluted stations in Drino river for FS is Drino (station 3) with the value of MPN 1.5 x 10 , which is
already the same in September 2012 (summer) and March 2013 (winter).
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Figure 9 Fecal streptococci in Pacarela (station 1) Figure 10 Fecal streptoccoci in Kordhoca (station 2)
Figure 11 Fecal streptoccoci in Drino (station 3)
These values of MPN for CF and SF in Drino river are several times higher than the permitted levels.
Drino and Vjosa rivers
In the following figures are shown the microbial values for CF dhe SF of in respective stations.The highest value of
MPN for FC is in Vjosa (station 5) in September 2012 (summer), which goes 4,6 x 10 bactere /100 ml, but in the
winter the the highest value of MPN for FC is in Drino and Vjosa (station 6), which is goes in 1.5 x 10 bactere
/100 ml.
Figure 12 Fecal coliforms in Vjosa (station 5) Figure 13 Fecal coliforms in Drino & Vjosa (station 6)
The highest value of MPN for SF is in Drino &Vjosa (station 6) in September 2012 (summer), which goes 7500
bactere /100 ml.
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Figure 14 Fecal streptoccoci in Drino & Vjosa (station 6)
These values of MPN for CF and SF in Drino & Vjosa rivers are also several times higher than the permitted levels.
In the figures 15 and 16, we can see the microbial situation in three seasons for 6 stations, which is not satisfactory
both for the CF and for the SF. We can noticed that highest pollution for FC anf SF in three seasons is noticed in
Drino river (station 3) (after the discharge of urban pollution in Gjirokastra city) and it reaches the highest level in
March 2013, when the MPN for FC is 1.5 x 10 bactere / 100ml and 1.5 x 10 bactere / 100ml for SF.
Figure 15. Fecal coliforms Figure 16. Fecal streptococci
Finally, we can say that the levels of pollution are tens of times higher than the permitted levels. Therefore, we can
say that this situation is problematic for the health of the population near this river in all kinds of its use. Also, this
situation explains the fact that the population of fish and otter in this area has been reduced recently.
Table 1. Water and air temperatures (C) in three seasons for 6 stations
Month /season July 2012 /summer September 2012/autumn March 2013/ winter
t.w t.a t.w t.a t.w t.a
PACARELA 26C 28C 20C 22C 11C 17C
KORDHOCA 26C 29C 21C 23C 11C 17C
DRINO 26C 28C 20C 22C 13C 17C
VIRUA 26C 29C 21C 23C 11,5C 16C
VJOSA 24C 27C 18C 22C 11C 16C
DRINO & VJOSA 25C 30C 18C 24C 12C 16,5C
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Table 2. pH, dissolved oxygen (mg/l), conductivity (S/cm) March 2013 (winter)
pH D.O. (mg/l) E.C.

PACARELA 8.35 3.51 478
KORDHOCA 8.04 3.4 537
DRINO 8.08 3.43 479
VIRUA 8.12 3.86 287
VJOSA 7.77 3.46 447
DRINO & VJOSA 8.04 3.52 424
CONCLUSIONS
From the results obtained on microbiological contamination of the waters of these rivers, it results that for years
urbanwaste water are made without treatment before discharge.
This level of contamination not only significantly affects the water quality of these rivers, but also causes negative
impact on the Adriatic Sea where they are deposited.
Not only should this situation be monitored, but competent authorities and the very residents of these communities
should be made aware of the need for assessment initiatives and immediate intervention for the treatment of waters
with fecal pollutors.
Urban discharges, untreated wastewater and the influence of environmental factors make it necessary to adapt
strategies to stop the pollution.
REFERENCES
Mezini, B. 1985. Lugina e Drinos dhe malet prreth (pamje fiziko gjeografike), Tirane.
Shkurti, R. 2009. Aspekte social ekonomike dhe imakti mjedisor ne lumin Drino, Gjirokaster botuar ne Studime
albanonologjike IV, fq 513 - 524.
Annonimous, 2006. Red book of Albanian fauna, Tirane.
Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006. Concerning the
management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76/160/EEC Official Journal of European Union,
04.03.2006
Jeng, H.C., England, A.J., Bradford, H.B. 2005. Indicator organisms associated with stormwater suspended
particles and estuarine sediment. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. A. 40, 779-791.
Wade T.J., Calderon R.L., Sams E., Beach, Brenner M., Williams K.P., Dufour A.P., 2006. Rapidly measured
indicators of recreational waterquality are predictive of swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness. Environ.
Health. Persp. 114, 24-28.
Puto K. 2011. Varaton of mcrobal polluton (Sf and Cf) n water rvers of Trana and Shkodra, Journal of
Ecosystems and Ecology Science (IJEES),Volume 1/ 2011, Special Issue, ICE 2011 , Tirana, Albania, page 13-
18;
Puto K. & al. 2011.The Impact In Public Health Of Microbial Pollution Of Coastal Area Of Durrs During The
Years 2009-2011
Hysko M., Gace B., Puto K. May 2010. Microbial Water Pollution of Vjosa River and Vegetable Contamination
by Irrigation, Balwois Conference, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia
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PAPER 231
FOREST PROTECTED AREA AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPACT ON TOURISM
Ina Vejsiu
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Forest Department, Koder-Kamez, Tirane, Albania
Email: inavejsiu@yahoo.it
ABSTRACT
Protected areas are specific area with a special landscape value, rich formation and rich in biodiversity. These area
have a major historical and cultural values which are protected with a special status provided by law.
Dajti National Park, was been declared as a protected area with DCM nr.402, dated 21.06.2006, with an area of
29384.2 ha. It is the closest mountainous area to the district of Tirana, the country's most populated areas.
This study is focused on the economic impact that the accessibility manners have on touristic exploitation of Dajti
Park. There are two types of access for tourists to arrive in Dajti Park, one is by using the cable car and the other is
the automobilist road.For this purpose, the relevant questionnaires have been drafted. The results obtained showed
that the efficient utilization and greater incomes comes from the use of the cable car against the use of the road,
which were around 10 % more.
Keywords: protected area, economy, Dajti Park, tourism.
Introduction
According to the World Tourism Organization, tourism is the economic activity that allows persons with sufficient
time and resources to take advantage of the programs of entertainment and recreation, outside the places of origin
for a period exceeding 24 hours. Tourism is an activity which consists in an interaction of some factors such as
economy, social, cultural and environmental. That is why it may be difficult to get some social effects on it. The
tourism sector in the Republic of Albania is mainly a new industry.
The development of this sector has been hampered for years mainly due to a greater isolation of the communist
system against the rest of the world that come and develop this sector and many other sectors of the economy.
Tourism is one of the most profitable sectors all over the countrys economy and is in interest of all counties. The
tourism on protected areas has a large part on it. This sector is an important one even in Albania. According to a
publication by the National Bank of Albania, travel and tourism may represent more than 10% of GDP, and perhaps
more than 60% of services trade.
This study provides a closer look at a non market value of the protected area of Dajti Park. Also a reason why these
contingents of the visitors in this Park chose it and the benefits they got from the utilization of this National Park.
The main actors in the national Park are the government, donors, tourists and also the local people than can be
determined as the park client because they decide to spend their money in this area and non-elsewhere. The
government decide to invest past of is budget to protect or to develop the area; they make policy to attract local and
non-local visitors to enlarge the incomes in the area above.
The Albanian economy relies mostly on agriculture and mining sector. Recently, a special emphasis is been putted
in the tourism sector which is growing by leaps and attributed the major premise to be developed furthermore and is
really competitive with regional countries. In relation with all this the demand on eco-tourism is raising as well, with
the usage in an efficient way of the land and the recreation this area can offer for a sustainable development.
Traditionally, forests are considered a lower economic value than agricultural lands. The creation of National Parks
separated by agricultural land has led and divided to the understanding of the terms conservation and recreation,
from a traditional land use of them. (Hall, 1998)
Protected areas. A protected area is an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or
other effective means (IUCN, 1994). The protected area covers a surface of 21% of Europe and EEA (European
Environment Agency) member countries.
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Albania, during the very last years has extended the protected areas from 5.8% that was in 2005 to 12.57 of 2009 of
the total surface area of the country.
Albania country is not focused only in the enlargement and the protection of these areas but also the development
and gathering larger incomes from them because of their potentials.
The protected areas of Albania include 15 National Parks, 5 Protected Landscape Areas, 4 Strict Nature Reserves,
26 Managed Nature Reserves, and other protected areas. One of these National Parks is that of Dajti Park, the one
we made this study.
One of the main reasons the protected area are creates is to conserve particular species from danger of extinction and
also to encourage biodiversity territory
Protected areas are very attractive places for visitors to enjoy nature resources that these areas provide.
Dajti Park. Dajti Park is situated in the district of Tirana and Durres (includes parts of Tirana and Kruja district),
and represents a high value in landscape area, tradition, history and culture.
Dajti Park has been declared as a Protected National Park with a surface of 2098 ha, by the Decision of the Council
of Minister Nr. 93 date 1960. This surface has been changed in the latest 1966 into 3300 ha.
The National Dajti Park is divided into 4 zones:
The core zone ( with a surface of 9 101, 23ha) with a subdivision in:
Special conservation zone
Environmental natural zone
Natural Monuments area
Recreation zone ( with a surface of 2 365, 13 ha)
Traditional usage zone ( with a surface of 16 602, 22 ha)
Sustainable usage zone (with a surface of 1184, 27 ha)
Military zone (with a surface of 131, 33 ha)
THE METHODOLOGY
Questionnaire method. The reason why investigate the problematic of transportation usage in the Dajti Park, we
applied the methodology based on a questionnaire with 15 questions, which consisted of interviewing 100 people,
specifically guests of this area. The interview consisted on determine the group age of the contingent, the district
they come from, their approximate family incomes, the transport vehicle they chose to enter in the Park, the
expensive they made for transport and during the period they stay in the touristic area.
This information on the accessibility manners on the study zone where taken to get a conclusion on the benefits we
get in an economic aspect and that of the recreation.
RESULTS
Tourist Transportation and the main reasons
Graphic 1
From the questionnaire results, regarding the transport vehicles, the tourists interviewed in the National Dajti Park,
we define that the biggest part of the visitors (55%) use the cable car as the effective way of entrance in the Park
area also our study zone. Also a significant number of them (42%) use the car to get to the area, and only a limited
number of them prefer to use other means of transport.
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The main reasons they get for this transport vehicle consist mainly on the advantages as: panoramic, greater
adventures, the commodity, the short time to arrive in the park which the cable car gave to them. In the same time
the reasons these people dont chose the road transportation (car, bus, bicycle, on foot) is the fact that the time they
spend on trip is much greater, and big reason to avoid this transportation is the bed infrastructure that the road can
offer.
Even thaw a good part of the respondents have decided to take their instead of the cable car because they want to
enjoy the fresh air this zone can offer, the costs for those who have a big family and their income are low or in the
average.
Expenses in Dajti Park
Regarding the willing to pay of the victors during their time spending in this Protected area, from the questionnaire
results that the large part of the contingent asked where inclined towards minimal costs which coincides with
contingencies that frequented the park for a short time till all the day. While a relatively low number were inclined
to spend a significant amount of money in this area, this is due to their stay longer than one night.
Graphic 2
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, we can conclude that the particularity that the National Protected area of DAJTI
Park can offered to tourists for their recreation gave an efficient utilization of the cable car transport versus
transportation road use.
Therefore, I recommend that should be paid more importance and make some investments in the road transportation,
being as preferable and less costly for local and foreign tourists.
All this will allow for a greater development of businesses in the local park and community living nearby the park.
REFERENCES
Deborah Rezzoagl, Community Based Tourism development and environmental protection in Albania. The CISP
experience in the Butrint National Park, Greater Area, CISP European Programmes, Rome, (April 2005);
Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories, Edited by Nigel Dudle, IUCN;
M.Dida, N.Dragoti, G.Kromidha, Gj. Fierza- Zonat e mbrojtura natyrore, parqet kombetare te shqiperise-, Tirane
(2004);
Ministria e Mjedisit, pyjeve dhe administrimit te Ujrave, MMPAU- akte ligjore per pyjet kullotat dhe zonat e
mbrojtura, Tirane (2008);
National Bank of Albania- Annual Report (2012);
UK & DIAVA, PLANI I MANAXHIMIT I PARKUT KOMBTAR T DAJTIT International Development
Association (IDA) DHV Agriculture and Natural Resources BV Nbashkpunim me Halcrow Rural Management, ,
Shqipri, (2005);
World Travel &Tourism Comity (WTTC), Travel &Tourism economic impact 2012;
Xavier Font and John Tribe FOREST TOURISM AND RECREATION, Case Studies in Environmental
Management (2000);
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PAPER 232
BODY CONDITION SCORE AND NUTRITION IN DAIRY COWS
Ilir Dova*, Ana Kapaj, Enkeleda Ozuni, Elenica Dimc, Albana Munga, Dardan Shedula, Hamdi Smoqi
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
Email: dova_ilir@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Result of BCS in three farms investigated pointed out that boundary condition was between optimal condition and
weakly in dairy cows 2 week before calving. BCS decreased in dairy cows 2 week after calving. Decreasing of BCS
in dairy cows of Lushnja farm was lower than others farms. The lowest BCS is in Kashari farm. BCS shows that
have correlative connections verified statically with some feeding components in the ration. The starch level in
dietary ration is positively related to the BCS in all physiological conditions. But value of correlations between BCS
and starch decreased gradually from before calving to two months after calving. Although all correlations are
statistically confirmed (P<0001 to P<0.05) . This proves that the starch role as an energy source is really important,
but in addition to this the neoglucogenesis is intensified. Metabolic energy and proteins have decreasing connections
related to the physiological state of cows. Cellulose negatively affects the BCS of cows. This impact is relatively
small in two weeks before calving (r =-0.12) and not statistically proved (P >0.05), where as in other physiological
states the negative impact of high content of cellulose in food rations is relatively increased(r =-0.65 to -0.76) and
also statistically verified (P<0.001).
Keywords: BCS, metabolic energy, proteins, starch
INTRODUCTION
Body Condition score (BCS) in cows is widely accepted as a practical method for evaluating the energetic reserves
in many species of mammals (Grummer 2004). Wider use has been found in cows in each physiological state and
especially during puerperal period in cows (Bewley 2008; Hazzey 2007; Nelson 1985). Fluctuations of BCS in cows
in this period have implications in milk production and reproductive capabilities to minimize the onset of various
diseases (Ferguson 1994).Previously conducted studies, have found that approximately 49% of cows suffer from
ovary dysfunction and length during the fertility period (Bossaert 2010; Dun 1982). Such implications occur more
often in the puerperal period and as a result economical negative issues are observed in breeding cows enterprises
(Bewley 2008; Huzzey 2007; Van Suan 1991). This refers to the fact that the situation of BCS varies considerably
according to the physiological phases in drying period, the postpartum phase in early lactation period and secondary
phase lactation. The data indicate that about 7 days before calving until day 46 after calving BCS decreases 0.87 (
0.44 scale) (Bossaert 2010).Feeding management in these periods, especially in drying and in the first stage after
calving is of paramount importance to ensure a slight decrease of BCS in the first stage after calving and to provide
an optimum BCS in later stages (Grummer 2004; Lori Ann Vickers 2011; Lowman 1976; Suzyk 2006).
Nevertheless, the BCS is rarely used as a practical method to prevent loss weight of cows, and this can lead to
various pathological implications. The introduction of new technological breeding methods of cows requires as an
indispensable element the adoption of BCS method in practical cow breeding. The BCS depends on genetic factors,
so this factor should be taken in consideration in addition to the feeding Mero-Mendez et al. (2008).
The objective of this study is to evaluate the BCS of cows and to create opportunities to introduce this method for
assessing the level of energetic reserves in cows to ensure the maximum potential of economic benefit and to
determine the impact of feeding in BCS.
In the study were obtained 10 cows for every farm. The cows were kept under surveillance during 4 physiological
states. Evaluation of BCS in the selected cows was made with 9 score systems by Jack et al., (2007).This system
has been used because it is believed that allows a more accurate evaluation of BCS.
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Tab.1. Characteristics of the body according to the classes of BCS
Very 1 Severely emaciated; starving and weak; no palpable fat detectable over back, hips or
weak ribs; tail head and individual ribs prominently visible; all skeletal structures are
visible and sharp to the touch; animals are usually disease stricken.
Weak 2 Emaciated; similar to BCS 1, but not weakened; little visible muscle tissue; tailhead
and ribs less prominent.
Very thin 3 Very thin; no fat over ribs or in brisket; backbone easily visible, slight increase in
muscling over BCS
Border 4 Individual ribs noticeable but overall fat cover is lacking; increased musculature
condition through shoulders and hindquarters; hips and backbone slightly rounded versus sharp
appearance of BCS 3.
Moderated 5 Increased fat cover over ribs, generally only 12th and 13th ribs are individually
condition distinguishable; tailhead full, but not rounded.
A better 6 Back, ribs, and tailhead slightly rounded and spongy when palpated; slight fat
state deposition in brisket.
condition
Healthy 7 Fat; cow appears fleshy and carries fat over the back, tailhead, and brisket; ribs are
condition not visible; area of vulva and external rectum contain moderate fat deposits; may
have slight fat in udder.
Very 8 Very fat; squared appearance due to excess fat over back, tailhead, and hindquarters;
healthy extreme fat deposition in brisket and throughout ribs; excessive fat around vulva and
condition rectum, and within udder; mobility may begin to be restricted.
Extremely 9 Obese; similar to BCS 8, but to a greater degree; majority of fat deposited in udder
obese limits effective lactation. Under normal production systems cattle in this condition
condition score are rare.
The feed ration compounds used in the three selected study farms are structurally presented in Table 2.
The calculations are based on the tabular method described by McDonald (1995). The data below shows that
components of the feed ration between farms represent significant changes.
Tab. 2 Components of Dietary ingredients in cows feeding
Ndroq Farm Kashar Farm Lushnje Farm

Dry matter 19.77 14.32 12.4
Cellulose(kg) 3.26 4.11 2.31
Proteins(kg) 3.97 1.86 1.77
NDF(kg) 7.66 8.5 5.37
ADF(kg) 4.27 3.59 2.81
Starch (kg) 4.55 0.83 2.7
Metabolic energy(MJ) 222.65 131.66 135
Fermentable metabolic energy(MJ) 185.21 112.8 112.25
Calcium(gr) 18.6 12.6 23.8
Magnesium(gr) 20.1 26.17 20.4
Phosphorus(gr) 36.9 16.95 45.61
Ratio Ca/Mg 0.92 0.48 1.17
Ratio Ca/P 0.5 0.74 0.52
The level of crude cellulose is higher in the diet of Kashari farm and lower in Lushnjas. Meanwhile, crude proteins
are higher in Ndroqis farm, and in the other are nearly equal. NDF was lower in Lushnjas and almost equal in two
other farms. ADF follow a dynamic reduction from Ndroqis to Lushnjas farm. The starch content is very low in
Kashar farm and higher in Ndroqi. Metabolic energy is higher in Ndroqis and almost equal in the two others farms.
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The macro-elements differences of these farms (calcium, magnesium and phosphorus) resulted problematic in all
farms. The rate of Ca/Mg and Ca/P fluctuated considerably and they revealed outside the normal requirements of
feeding ration.
Statistical evaluation
Descriptive statistics like mean average, standard deviation and standard error were obtained by utilizing Ms. Excel
2007. Comparisons and relationships between feeding components among farms and physiological state have been
estimated by applying standard ANOVA method.
RESULTS
This study shows that in all cases of the studied farms the BCS is lower that the optimal BCS (Fig. 1), such
conditions demonstrate that cows have not optimal feeding regime.
3 Ndroq
Kashar
2
Lushnje
1
0
2 week before 2 week after 1 week after 2 week after
calving calving calving calving
Fig. 1. BCS in cows in different physiological states and economies
During 2 months after calving is demonstrated a gradual reduction of BCS on lactating dairy cattle. The BCS starts
growing about 4 months after calving (Meikle 2006). This dynamic is in agreement with data of different authors
which have contributed for the study of this issue (Bewley 2008; Lowman 1976), on the transition period from one
physiological state to another. The data of the study are carried out in three farms from the period 2 weeks to 2
months after calving (Fig. 1. and Tab. 2.).The BCS in Ndroqis farm is higher before calving, that in the other farms.
Similar dynamics is demonstrated in the cattle of Lushnjas farm, while in Kasharis is demonstrated a lower BCS
(Fig. 1).The reduction of BCS between cows of Ndroqis farm and Kashiasfarm before calving period is 0.55 scales
and in Ndroqis farm with Lushnjas farm is 0.41 scales. As we can see, in the period of 2 weeks after calving is
demonstrated that between Ndroqis farm and Kasharis farm the BCS is reduced 1:09 scale and in Lushnjas farm is
reduce with 0.05 scales. We can see other results in the period of one month after calving, where it is demonstrated
that reduction of BCS on Ndroqis farm and Kasharis farm are averaging 0.67 scales, followed by those of
Lushnjas farm in an average of 0.35scales.Two months after calving it is demonstrated a difference of 0.4 scales
between Ndroqis and Kasharis farm and 0.42 scales between Ndroqis and Lushnjas farm. The reduction of BCS
from one physiological state to another is determined from different individuals genetic features on farms, reducing
the ability of cows to eat food as well as defects in the diet. Non-uniform character of the reduction in various farms
is determined as well as by other authors (Huzzey 2007; Lori Ann Vickers 2011), but the real discovery of this
disinformation causality remains to be clarified. The nature of the data in the Fig. 1 is clear by determining the
authenticity of change (TD) in accordance with the physiological state of cows (Tab.3.)
Tab. 3. The probability of the change of BCS in different herd of cows
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Ndroq:Kashar Ndroq:Lushnj Kashar:Lushnj

2 weeks before calving 4.3a 2.3c 0.74d
2 weeks after calving 4.26a -0.33d 4.22a
1 month after calving 4.27a -2.36c -5.34a
2 months after calving 2.19c -2.83c -5.0a
a=P<0.001; b=P<0.01; c=P<0.05; d=P>0.05
Data in Tab. 3 show that in the after calving period the differences between cows of Ndroqi and Kashari farm:
Ndroqis and Lushnjas farm have statistically verified changes, respectively (P< 0.001 and P < 0.05) between
Kasharis and Lushnjas farms the changes are statistically unproved (P > 0.05). Two weeks after calving the
differences between Ndroqis and Kashars farms and between Kasharis and Lushnjas: farm are statistically
verified (P< 0.001), while between Ndroqis and Kashars farm are not statistically verified (P >0.05).So in the
period of one month after calving statistical changes have determined differences in all cases but the intensity of
these changes is different. In this way, comparing the Ndroqis and Kasharis farm and Lushnja with Kasharis farm
the change probability is higher (P< 0.001) and between Lushnjas and Ndroqis farm the change probability is
lower (P> 0.05). We notice, that in the period of two months after calving, the difference between groups is
statistically verified but in the first two couples this difference is lower (P> 0.05),while in the third couple the
difference is absolutely considerable (P< 0.001).
Tab. 4. The average values of BCS according to economies (M m) n=10
Farm 2 weeks before calving 2 weeks after calving 1month after calving 2 months after
calving
Ndroq 4.830.08 4.190.09 3.690.07 3.350.09
Kashar 4.280.1 3.10.24 3.020.14 2.950.16
Lushnj 4.420.16 4.240.12 4.040.13 3.870.16
The data seen in Tab. 4. show that the BCS does not appear the same in different economies, within the same
physiological condition. The average level of BCS in Ndroqis farm cows is normally 4.83 score. On the other hand,
this average level changes in Kasharis farm where it is lower, up to 4.28 score, while in Lushnjas farm the average
condition is 4.42 score. Two weeks after calving we notice a decline of the BCS level. The BCS in Ndroqis farm
presents an optimal energetic level 2 weeks before calving. Body condition usually decreases 0.64 score 2 weeks
after calving. Meanwhile the decreasing of body condition in the period one month after calving is almost 0.47 score
and two months after calving it achieves the value of 3.35 score or 0.34 degrees compared to its previous period.
These data are lower than the ideal body condition of cows. This situation is closely related to the structure of cows
food portion, which does not change regardless of the transition from one physiological state to another as well as by
the reduction of food consumption. The BCS in the two other farms is lower than the one in Ndroqis farm. The
reduction dynamics in Kasharis farm is more emphasized in the period of two weeks after calving. It decreases 1.18
score. One month after calving the reduction is 0.08 score and two months after calving it decreases up to 0.07
score. The reduction dynamics in Lushnjas farm is less emphasized. Two weeks after calving it decreases 0.18
score, one month after calving it decreases 0.2 score and two months after calving it decreases up to 0.17 score
compared to its respective previous periods.
Tab. 5. The probability of the average change(s) of BCS in herd, in different physiological state(n =10)
Economy 2 weeks before : 2 weeks after : 1month after :

2 weeks after 1 month after calving 2 months after calving
Ndroq 2.37c 4.38a 2.98c
Kashar 4.26a 0.3d 5.02a
Lushnj 0.9d 1.13d 0.85d
a=P>0.001; b=P>0.01; c=P>0.05; d=P<0.05
Tab.5., shows us that in Ndroqs farm changes are present in all physiological conditions. They have a higher
probability to change in a period of 2 weeks after calving by one month after calving(P<0.001)and a lower
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probability in the other physiological conditions (P>0.05). Meanwhile, in Kasharis farm, changes are more sensitive
in a period of 2 weeks before calving and two weeks after calving, as well as in a period of one month after calving
and two months after calving (P<0.001). Anyway there are not statistically verified the changes in the2weeks after
calving and one month after calving (P <0.05).We notice another fact in the Lushnjas farm. The difference exists
even though it is not confirmed statistically (P >0.05).Other authors as (Huzzey 2007; Lori Ann Vickers 2011) have
noticed non-uniform dynamics of decreasing physical condition. The reduction of BCS of cows after calving is
related to the fact that about 30% of dry matter of milk produced in their bodies comes from the mobilization of
tissue reserves in an ideal BCS (Ferguson 1994, 1989). We can say this because the food needs cannot be fulfilled
with the diet already used (McNamara 1991; Vernon 2005; Chilliard 2000)).Another issue that affects the state of
physical condition is the dry matter obtained by food, which is significantly reduced, especially in the first period
after calving, (Grummer 2004; Lori Ann Vickers 2011). During lactation, the increase of the dry matter obtained
from food portion is smaller than the increase of milk production. This dynamic lasts until the 4 th month after
calving (Bewley 1989; Meikle 2004; McNamara 1991). As a result, also the diameter of adipose tissues cells is
reduced during the phases of physiological status as it is observed in our research (Mero-Mendez 2008; Huzzey
2007). So, this is the main reason why the BCS is reduced (Santos 2001; Meikle 2004; McNamar 1991). The
increasing of lipolysis originated from the reduction of insulin biosynthesis (Vernon 2005; McNamara 1991) as well
as the decreasing of insulin/glucagon ration in blood Xoxa (2005).
Tab.6. Correlation couples (r) between some Dietary indicators and BCS(n =30)
BSC celluloses proteins ME Starch

2 weeks before -0.12d 0.54a 0.55a 0.54a
2 weeks after -0.65a 0.32c 0.37c 0.63a
1 month after -0.76a 0.11d 0.16d 0.5b
2 month after calving -0.72a -0.08d -0.03d 0.31c
a=P<0.001; b=P<0.01; c=P<0.05; d=P>0.05
These data in Tab.6. show us the correlation of several indicators of feeding rations with BCS depending on the
physiological situation. Cellulose in our case negatively affects the BCS of cows. This impact is relatively small in
two weeks before calving (r =-0.12) and not statistically proved (P >0.05), where as in other physiological states the
negative impact of high content of cellulose in food rations is relatively increased(r =-0.65to-0.76) and also
statistically validated (P<0.001).Usually, the impact of dietary crude protein in the BCS level is reduced from one
physiological state to another. It is confirmed statistically in the2weeks period before calving(r =0:54) and is also
reduced the level of bonding strength in the 2 weeks period after calving(r =0:32). It is also demonstrated the
reduction of bonding strength in the 2 months period after calving in two other physiological conditions, which
obviously changes the connection nature (r =-0.08). We observe the same phenomenon to the metabolic energy
correlations. These data indicate that the role of protein in the determination of the BCS is reduced and in the same
time the role of endogenous protein catabolizing is increased Xoxa (2005). The starch level in dietary ration is
positively related to the BCS in all physiological conditions. But even for this indicator of dietary ration is seen a
weakening of the bonding from one physiological state to another, although in all cases is statistically confirmed
(P<0001to P<0.05). This proves that the starch role as an energy source is really important, but in addition to this the
neoglucogenesis is intensified. This phenomenon of correlation coefficients is related to two specific factors. The
first factor is the decrease of feed consumption which characterizes the after calving period and the second factor is
the endogenous mobilization of tissue substances in order to face the defecated matter by milk (Paul 2006; Lori Ann
Vicker 2008; Dale A Blasi 1994).
CONCLUSIONS
1-Feeding used in three farms taken in our study has considerable fluctuations. More problematic are the relations
between the portions of macro elements.
2- BCS in three farms taken in our study presents the average values and the boundary values (about 4 scale ) in the
period before calving.
3- BCS is gradually decreased on the three after calving periods compared to its own before calving period.
4- Some of the nutritional indicators calculated in our study have a strong correlative connection with BCS.
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5- Generally the correlative connection potency is destabilized during the transition from one physiological state to
another.
REFERENCES
Bewley, J.M., Schuts, M.M. (2008) Body condition scoring for dairy cattle. In: American Registry of Professional
Animals Scientists. Dairy Cows. J. Dairy Sci. 72: 68-78
Chillard ,Y. (1999) Metabolic adoptions and nutrient partitioning in the lacting animal. In: Biology of Lactation 530-
552
Dale, A.B.(1994) Cow body scoring management for monitoring nutritional status in beef cows. Beef Cattle
Handbook
Dunn, R.T.Jr., Smith, M.F., Gall, T.J., Massey, J.W. (1982) "Survey of Reproductive Performance in Missouri Beef
Herds.MO Beef Cattle Research Report 101:56.
Ferguson J.D., Chalupa, W. (1989):Impact of protein nutrition on reproduction in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 72: 746-
766
Ferguson, J. D., Galligan, D.T., Thomsen, N. (1994) Principal descriptors of body condition score in Holstein cows.
J. Dairy Sci. 77(9):2695-2703.
Grummer, R. R., Mashek, D.G., Hayirli, A. (2004) Dry matter intake and energy balance in the transition period.
Vet. Clin.North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 20(3):25.
Huzzey, J. M., Veira, D.M.,Weary,D.M., Keyserlingk, V. ( 2007) Prepartum behavior and dry matter intake identify
dairy cows at risk for metritis. J. Dairy Sci. 90(7):3220-3233.
Jack, C.W. (2007) Body Condition Scoring of Beef and Dairy Animals University of Missuri, Extension
Lorin, A.V.(2011) Controlling energy intake in the prepartum period to improve transition cow health. Thesis for
the master science degree.
Lowman, B.G., Scott, N.A., Somerville, S.H. (1976) Condition Scoring of Cattle, East of Scotland College of
Agriculture Bulletin 6.
McNamara, J.P. (1991) Regulation of adipose tissues metabolism in support of lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 74(2) 706-719
Meikle, A. (2006) Effects of parity and BCS at parturition on endocrine and reproductive parameters in the dairy
cow. Reproduction 127; 727-737.
Moro-Mendez., Clue, J.(2008) Phenotypic study of body condition score in Canadian dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 88
213-224
Nelson, T.C., Short, R.E., Reynolds, W.L., Urick, J.J. (1985) Palpated and Visually Assigned Condition Scores
Compared with weight, Height, and Heart Girth in Hereford and Crossbred Cows," J. Animal Sci. 60:2.
Paul, J.K. (2006) Nutritional management of the high producing dairy cow in 21 century. Feeding and Nutrition
Philippe, B.(2010) The role of Insulin in the energy conflict between milk production and ovarian activity during the
transition period of high yielding dairy cows Ph. D Thesis
Santos, J.E.P. (2001) Dietary ingredients and nutritional management impact fertility in dairy cattle.In Proc. 36 th
Pacific Northwest Animal Nutrition Conference 182-219
SuzykI, K. (2006) A monitoring study on cattle growth and BCS in small holder dairy farming system in North
Vietnam. In: J. of Veterinary Epidemiology 10(1) 15-20.
Van Saun R.I. (1991) Dry cow nutrition the key to improving fresh cow performance. Vet. Clin.North Am. Food
Anim. Pract. 7(2) 599-620
Vernon R.G. (2005) Lipid metabolism during lactation: A review of adipose tissues- liver interaction and the
development of fatty liver. J. Dairy Res. 72(4); 460-46
McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A., Greenhalgh, J.F.D., Morgan, C.A. (1995) Animal Nutrition
Wayne, Kllog. Body condition scoring with dairy cattle. In: Agricultural and Natural Resources FSA 4800
Xoxa, A., Mane, B. (2005) Biokimia
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PAPER 234
POTENTIAL USE OF LOW-NOISE ROAD PAVEMENT IN URBAN ROADS OF TIRANA

MUNICIPALITY
Ledia Aleksi1, Entela obani1, Oltion Marko1
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Albania
Rruga Muhamet Gjollesha, Nr.54, Tirane
Email: ledia.aleksi@gmail.com, entelacobani@yahoo.com, omarko_78@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Acoustic pollution and vibration is one of the major environmental problems in Albania related to roads and one of
the less analyzed during the environmental studies until now. The main responsible of this phenomenon are without
reservation industrialization and motorization after the 90, together with the lack of inadequate protection
regulation in our country.The Environmental Protection Act defines limiting noise emissions at source as a basic
principle. The following paper presents and proposes the appropriate strategies for the realization of the control and
mitigations measures for acoustic pollution in urban roads. Following the actual roads conditions in Albania and
monitoring process until now in this paper we propose the following appropriate passive measurement, thats to say
the different manners to limit noise distribution in a given environment. One of the most appropriate traffic noise
reduction measures, especially for urban roads, is the use of different low macro-texture bituminous mix road
surfaces, such as asphaltic concrete, slurry seal, open graded asphalt and stone mastic asphalt. These pavements are
of particular interest for areas with a high population density, as Tirana municipality, which continues to have the
greatest shortcomings in terms of noise abatement. Moreover, these are often the only measures which can be taken
on roads in urban areas.It was recognized at a very early stage that the quality of a road pavement has a considerable
effect on the level of noise emissions due to road traffic. Laying a low-noise road pavement may represent a
measure which is both effective and economical for reducing road noise pollution. Indeed, it has no negative impact
on the landscape or on constructed sites, or on road safety.
Key words: decibel, noise reduction, mitigation measure, low-noise road pavement
INTRODUCTION
Noise pollution as one of the most challenging environmental problems, but less considering one in Albania, has its
negative impacts in the quality of life. The negative health effects of noise pollution are well known nowadays, even
the noise from traffic infrastructure. The adverse negative health effects such as stress, weakness, annoyance, sleep
disturbance, high blood pressure, etc., are evident to the people living or working close to the noisy places. This
scenario is getting worst if we consider the close relationship between the level of the noise and the relative
exposure time to the noise.
Road traffic is the main responsible of the acoustic pollution generation, because of the increase non-controlled
number of private vehicles as explosion of the population, which is inappropriate regarding the actual urban and
extra urban road conditions. According to the different monitoring from the Institute of Public Health published to
the State of the Environment Report from the Ministry of Environment and Water Administration and Forestry, in
the 8 main cities of Albania, results that during the daytime levels of the noise pollution are approximately 70 dB
[A], meanwhile during night time, especially in Tirana, levels of noise pollution are extremely high, from 55 60
dB [A] (MoE, SoE Report, 2008).
The high levels of acoustic pollution, mention above, demonstrate that Tirana is one of the countries with
problematic noise pollution in Europe, thus the mitigation measures and reduction of noise pollution is one of the
most emergency problem (Cobani E., Aleksi L., 2012). This was the reason why we undertake this study, to evaluate
the actual conditions regarding to the noise pollution. The main purpose of this paper is to recommend the possible
mitigation measures, contemporary ones and environmental friendly. In our paper we selected as a case study Siri
Kodra Street (Fig.1), as one of the road with heavy traffic, and different destinations buildings. We measured the
noise levels in 3 different points of this main road in Tirana as shown in the Photos 1, 2, 3 (Fig.2).
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Fig 1. Images of the Siri Kodra Road (images taken from Google earth)
In our paper we measured the noise levels in Siri Kodra str, in Tirana Municipality. Since this road is very similar
with many other roads in Tirana, the results obtained from our study can be applied with sufficient roughly even in
them. This road leads to heavy traffic, especially during the day. On both sides of its there are different destinations
buildings as schools, kindergartens, and residential buildings.
We measure the sound by using the Sound meter model 407764, Extech type, certified ISO 9001-2000 (IEC651 type
2, ANSI S1.4). The microphone is placed in a distance of 1 m in front of the most exposed part of an external
window or door and approximately 4 m above the ground surface. Measurements were done closed to the natural
source of pollution, with road traffic in the street. The time measurement was 24 hours for 5 days (enough to
measure and characterize the traffic noise) and was performed during daytime and nighttime (Kiely G., 1997). The
wind speed and direction relative to the microphone must be noted. Valid measurement can be taken in wind speed
up to 5 m/sec. The measurements methodology is in accordance with standards CEI 29 10 and EN 60504/1994.
During the measurements and noise monitoring we referred to the legislation regarding the noise pollution control
and monitoring which are as following: DCM No. 587, dated 07.07.2010, Control and monitoring of noise levels in
urban areas and touristic areas, Law 9774, dated 12.07.2007 Environmental assessment and administration of
noise, Guideline No.8, date 27.11.2007, Critical sounds levels in specific environments.
The results in this paper are discussed based on the critical levels for specific environment according to the guideline
No. 8, date 27.11.2007 and the standards of WHO-s regarding the noise pollution presented below in the Tab. 1.
Tab.1 Guidelines values for community noise in specific environments (Guideline No. 8, date 27.11.2007
MoEFWA) (Berglund B., Lindvall Th., Schwela D, WHO 1999)
Specific environment Night time Laeq(dBA) Evening time Laeq(dBA) Day time Laeq(dBA)
Protected 40 45 50
Residential 45 50 55
Mixed areas 50 55 60
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Fig. 2 Photos of Siri Kodra Str (from left to right: photo 1 traffic of the road, photo 2 Siri Kodra school, photo 3
Selvia crossroads)
RESULTS
Since road traffic is a random character phenomenon, noise pollution monitoring was carried out on a timing of five
days, from 11.09.2012 to 15.09.2012. Thus, the acoustic indicator is measured such as the equivalent continuous
sound pressure level (LAeq,T) as shown in graphic 1 and graphic 2 (Fig 3). Later on, from the hourly datas we
calculated the average weekly values for each monitored point as are shown in Tab.2.
Tirane,shkolla 8-vjecare"Kongresi i Permetit".LAmes(D)=70.1db(A)
100 Tirane,aksi rrugor nga Shiku-Selvia.LAmes(D)=72.2db(A)
95
90
90
85
85
80
80
75
75
70
70
65
65
60
60
55
Vlerat(dbA)
55
50
Vlerat(dbA)
50
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
13 :30
13 :54
13 :18
13 :42
13 :06
:30
13 6:55
13 7:25
13 7:55
13 8:25
13 8:55
13 9:25
13 9:55
13 0:25
13 0:55
13 1:25
13 1:55
13 2:25
13 2:55
13 3:25
13 3:55
13 4:25
13 4:55
13 5:25
13 5:55
13 6:25
13 6:55
13 7:25
13 7:55
13 8:25
13 8:55
13 9:25
13 9:55
13 0:25
13 0:55
13 1:25
13 1:55
13 2:25
13 2:55
13 3:25
13 3:55
13 4:25
13 4:55
13 5:25
13 5:55
13 6:25
:55
:28
:29
:29
:29
:30
:30
:31
:31
:31
:32
:32
:33
:33
:33
:34
:34
:35
:35
:35
:36
:36
:37
:37
:37
:38
:38
:39
:39
:39
:40
:40
:41
:41
:41
:42
:42
:43
:43
:26
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:1
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
:2
13
13
Koha(h) Koha(h)
Graph. 1 Noise pollution monitoring graph at kindergarden No. 39; Graph 2 Noise pollution monitoring graph at
Siri Kodra elementary and medium school
Tab.2 Average weekly values of noise pollution in the monitoring points at Siri Kodra str.
No Monitoring points Average value of LAeq dB(A) Time of measurement

1 Selvia crossroads 69.2 24 h/5 days
2 Siri Kodra street 72.2 24 h/5 days
5 Siri Kodra elementary
and medium school 72.2 24 h/5 days
Based on the different references and results from the monitoring processes we conclude that the main source of
noise pollution generated from road infrastructure is the noise generated from road moving vehicles. This noise is
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produced by different reasons, which gain different importance under different conditions of motion (velocity,
traffic flow, etc.) (Coni M., 1995). The most important components are;
1. Noise generated from the engine especially power of the engine (power engine)
2. Noise generated from frictional contact between the vehicle and the ground and air.
The importance of these components depends on the speed of motion; First group of factors determine the noise
level in area with low velocity as results in heavy traffic zones, while at high speed (above 40 km / h) as occurs on
main roads and motorways, engine noise drowns by another source noise, second category. The noise level depends
from the velocity and the surfaces in contact characteristic. This noise is generated by the road surface impact, air
vibration as a consequence of elastic tire deforming (air pumping) and the phenomenon slip and stick and stick-
snap (tire stick on the road surface texture) (XXVI Convegno nazionale stradale, 2010).
The first is the phenomenon of physical mechanism that occurs in the front and the rear surface of the tire-road
contact, which generated an air pumping mechanism occurring between the tire and the road, as well as that present
in the cavities of the floor. This phenomenon produces a sound in the medium-high frequency (>1000Hz), which
amplified by horn effect depending on the geometry-road tire, with a contribution of about 30% of total noise.
Stick-slip and stick- snap: depending on road surfaces, tangentially actions are developed, as a result of friction
between the contact points (stick-slip) and radial vibrations and deformations due tangentially to the contact (stick-
snap).
Aerodynamic flow: as any part of the vehicle, the tire, during the movement, crush the resistance of the air, creating
a streamlined flow, also one of the causes of the noise at high frequencies.
Vibrations: in the part of the contact with the road surface, tires will be subjected to the action of forces that generate
vibrations (radial or tangentially), that depends on deformation of tire and on the ratio between the contact surface
and the wave length (Cesbron J., Anfosso-Ledee F., Duhamel D., Yin H.P., Le Houedec D., 2008).
Parameters that influence the phenomenon are numerous and depend on road, traffic and types of vehicles in motion.
However, if road planners cannot interfere on vehicles, more can be done on road infrastructure as for limiting noise
generation and to reduce its dispersion in the surrounding environment by intervening on materials and maintenance
of road (Coni M., 1995).
According to the legislation of the noise pollution control, sound emissions reduction produced by infrastructures
based on the application of preventive measures, which should intervene on:
the noise source (low noise road surfaces, decrease of the velocity of motion, reduction of traffic flow,
improvement of the acoustic quality of tires, etc)
ways of noise distribution (application of sound barriers, dense vegetation, artificial tunnels, etc)
receptors (insulation of facades and windows, suitable design of buildings, etc) (Law 9774, date 12.07.2007).
Among the various typologies, for this case study, we selected as the most efficient, interventions applied to the
noise pollution source. They do that benefits from the reduction of sound levels to extend uniformly throughout the
territory concerned, and at the same time, seem like the only possible intervention in this road.
So, we note that it is totally impossible to establish sound barriers or green barriers, because of the insufficient space
between the street and buildings, as noted in the relevant photos (Fig. 2, Photos 1, 2, 3).
Therefore we recommend the possibility of using sound absorbing road surfaces, techniques that are develop more
thanks to the use of modified bitumen, allowing achievement of bituminous mixtures, characterized by a structure
with high alveolar spaces without penalized resistance characteristics of the conglomerate.
The asphalt affects the noise produced by the vehicles in two ways:
Reducing of noise generated by the tire contact with the surface of the road (noise from the rotation),
Absorbing a portion of the sound energy produced (engine noise and rotation) through use of the porous materials.
These types of asphalt, known as Conglomerate drainage sound absorbent (CDF) have achieved a mixture where the
percentage of spaces is higher than traditional asphalt. On the one hand this enables a better drainage, and on the
other hand (acoustic point of view) the presence of the spaces in the asphalt make possible to reduce the rolling
noise by using acoustic absorption capacity, typical of porous materials.
The highest percentage of space, realize a better possible drainage of the road surface waters, taking the name
"draining asphalt" (Cesbron J., Anfosso-Ledee F., Duhamel D., Yin H.P., Le Houedec D., 2008) , (De Palma C.,
2000).
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It is known the fact that bituminous conglomerated with a thickness of about 4 cm, percentage of gaps 18% - 25%,
with dimensions of aggregates 0/10 or 0/12, are able to reduce by 3 4 dB[A] the emitted acoustic energy compared
to the traditional asphalt (Cesbron J., Anfosso-Ledee F., Duhamel D., Yin H.P., Le Houedec D., 2008).
This reduction is due to the reduction of the speed from 100 km/h to 60 km/h, almost one-half of traffic volume
(Coni M., 1995).
Knowing that the man perceives a greater annoyance in the presence of high-frequency noise compared with those
in the lowest, even though the value expressed in dB is the same, we admit that the draining asphalt decrease the
annoyance just because they shift the frequency spectrum below.
Two alternative types of bituminous conglomerates that fulfill the above features are:
Open texture asphalt (or bituminous conglomerates) with high porosity
Closed texture asphalt (or closed bituminous conglomerates sealed with inert lightweight, such as expanded clay)
(Coni M., 1995).
The first type of bituminous conglomerates is characterized by a high degree of porosity, due to the accessible holes
in the mixture. The main reason to use this type of asphalt is the capacity of it to allow drainage of the water. It is
determine that use of this asphalt emitted less noise. It consists of stone particles with relatively large dimension
from 10 to 15 mm. They create a structure with high percentage of gaps from 20 to 25% with high rate of space
communication between them and outside, which gives the mixture a significant permeability of water and a
considerably sound absorbance (De Palma C., 2000).
The second type of bituminous conglomerates is characterized by a structure very close to the traditionally
conglomerates used in the road surface construction. It consists of the aggregates, with dimensions from 15 mm
maximum to the minimum of 0.075 mm filler. This realize filling of the system itself, reaching the final space at
the levels of 4 6 %. The sound absorbing capacity is stimulated with weight synthetic materials, such as expanded
resistant clay (very suitable for road surface), that replace around 27 33 % of the volume of traditional aggregate
made by the coarse stone. Expanded clay is used as a component of concrete barriers used as noise barriers (De
Palma C., 2000).
At this point we can confirm that both types of bituminous conglomerates fulfill the noise reduction characteristics
as well as structural point of view and road safety, during the first phase of exploitation.
But over time, their characteristics change. So, it is an important issue to consider the maintenance and performance
of this type of conglomerate. The maintenance and operation of the first type of conglomerate, shows that after time
of operation their performance and function degrade as a result of gaps filled by leakage of foreign particles ( such
as dust, tires particle etc.). This fact makes the operational and maintains cost relatively expensive because of the
traffic flow intensity, cost of cleaning, reconstruction and other interventions.
This doesnt happen in the case of closed bituminous conglomerates. Their characteristics are retained also during
the time. They are subject to the normal processes of evolution of structural and operational characteristic; as a result
they need traditional methods of maintenance and operational (Lubrini P., 2008).
For these reasons our opinion is that use of the closed bituminous conglomerate will be followed by enough
satisfactory results in extra urban and urban roads with flow of traffic. Apart from the rotation noise, due to the
absorption of vibration which avoid the multiple reflections phenomenon between tires and road, the conglomerate
energy distributes gradually to stone particles by providing a reduction of noise at the level of 3 4 dB (A),
compared to the traditional asphalt (comfort on the road). This is not the only advantage of this type of asphalt.
Other positive impact regards the safety and security of the driver, because of the elimination of splashing and
spraying of water due to water drainage properties of the porous surfaces (road safety).
CONCLUSION
Noise pollution is one of the most challenging environmental problems, but less considering one in Albania. Tirana,
the capital of Albania is one of the most noise polluted area of the region. Road traffic is the main responsible of the
acoustic pollution generation, because of the increase non-controlled number of private vehicles as explosion of the
population, which is inappropriate regarding the actual urban and extra urban road conditions.
Based on the different references and results from the monitoring processes we conclude that the main source of
noise pollution generated from road infrastructure is the noise generated from road moving vehicles. This noise is
produced by different reasons, which gain different importance under different conditions of motion (velocity,
traffic flow, etc.)
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The calculation of the noise measurements in three monitoring points of Siri Kodra str, resulted at the average value
for the noise of 72 dB(A). Comparing these values with critical levels according to our legislation and WHO-s
standards for living areas the differences are 17 dB for the daytime. Thus the mitigation measures and reduction of
noise pollution is an emergency problem.
Based on the characteristics of the traffic and the spaces that the road offers, we propose the use of the closed
bituminous conglomerate, which will be followed by enough satisfactory results in extra urban and urban roads with
flow of traffic. Apart from the rotation noise, due to the absorption of vibration which avoid the multiple reflections
phenomenon between tires and road, the conglomerate energy distributes gradually to stone particles by providing a
reduction of noise at the level of 3 4 dB (A), compared to the traditional asphalt. This is not the only advantage of
this type of asphalt. Other positive impact regards the safety and security of the driver, because of the elimination of
splashing and spraying of water due to water drainage properties of the porous surfaces.
REFERENCES
Coni M., (1995), Quaderno sulla manutenzione stradale. La rumorosita indotta delle infrastrutture viarie.
XXVI Convegno nazionale stradale, (2010). Attenuazione del rumore stradale Interventi di mitigazione sonora alla
sorgente.
Cesbron J., Anfosso-Ledee F., Duhamel D., Yin H.P., Le Houedec D., (2008) Experimental study of dynamical
contact forces for tyre/road noise application- EURONOISE, Paris, France
Prof. Ing. De Palma ., (2000), Manti di usura fonoassorbenti realizzati con conglomerati bituminosi alleggeriti di
tipo chiuso
Kiely G., (1997), Environmental Engineering, (pg. 390 419)
Lubrini P., (2008), Verifica dell eficacia di pavimentazione stradale a basso impatto acustico tramite misura
dellindice SPBI secondo UNI EN ISO 11819-1:2004, 35 Convegno nazionale.
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Administration of Waters, Albania, State of Environment Report 2008, (pg.25
29)
Law 9774, date 12.07.2007 Environmental assessment and administration of noise,
obani E, Aleksi L., (2012) Application of tree barriers as mitigation measures for noise pollution road 29
nntori, Tirana, Albania, JIEAS, Vol 7, Issue 2.
PAPER 235
MORTGAGE LOAN AND THE CONSUMER ON THE ALBANIAN BANKING MARKET
Besnik ina, Rexhep uko
Email: besnikugr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The credit risk has an increasing trend and which is seriously affecting the performance of the Albanian banking
system. The non performing loans are increasing very quickly. By the end of the year 2011 the volume of the non
performing loans in Albania reached 880 million USD or above 18% of the loans portfolio. This indicator has
continued to worsen during this year. The Albanian banking system continues to be liquid and this indicator is not
close to the limits due to the low lending activity. The banking system in Albania is new as result they dont have a
consolidated risk management system. Various methods starting from traditional such as the interest gap (measuring
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the deposits interest rate risk), measuring exchange rate risk through the Value at Risk which is used also for
measuring credit risk. VaR results to be very often used for market risk management and sometimes for credit risk
due to the availability of the data for interest and exchange rate risk compared to credit risk. Bank of Albania credit
policy can be considered conservative approach since it imposes 12 % limit on regulatory capital compared to 8%
on majority of the countries. Actually the credit risk is becoming serious for banks in Albania. As the competition
increases banks are quite obliged to move toward more crediting which then leads to major exposure of banks to the
credit risk. It is easy to note that the banks note the high risk and uncertainty of their clients incomes and as result
they require 1.5-2 times collateral to loan coverage Funding on foreign currency is an other factor which exposes the
clients on exchange rate risk especially to the clients whose incomes are on local currency. The mortgage loans are
49% in EUR currency favoured mostly by the fact that the real estate market is quoted in this currency. The incomes
of the individuals are low and not very easy verifiable as result not very easy to satisfy the general rule that
monthly incomes should be at least 3 times higher to the monthly loan instalment. It is to be mentioned also that
individuals face a number of procedures on state institutions, which in many cases cost time and money. The
banking system should improve the terminology; unify the indicators and units of measure by all means in order to
come closer to the consumer. The consumer on his side should not only look to just purchase what is offered but
should look for details before the signing contracts because after that everything becomes an obligation which might
last up to 30 years.
Keywords: mortgage loan, consumer, banking market, Albania
INTRODUCTION
According the loan puorpse there are;
a) Credit Lines for working capital needs. These are loan facilities with based on contracts that might be without
amortization plan ore payment date, with a maximum limit, variable interest rate and commissions on maximum
limit This provides to the borrower the option to withdraw every amount up to a maximum limit and repay back
according to the cash flow. This loan facility is mostly used for working capital needs resulting on cyclic withdraws
and deposits within the contractual maximum limit.
b) Revolving for working capital. These are terms contracts with specific conditions which include delaine,
amortization plan, amount, interest rate, commission and purpose.
c) Specialized loans. Banks offer other loan types which require specific expertise for example.
(i) Commercial real estate loans.
(ii) Participation loans including local Syndicate Loans (loans offered jointly form some banks)
(iii) Business term loan
(iv) Renewable business credit lines
(v) Other
According the duration there are;

a) Short term loans. These are loans which repayment is based on business cycle and usually last from 3-6 months,
but definitively dont last more then one year.
b) Mid term loans. The repayment period of these loans is from 1-5 years on special cases it might be up to 7 years.
c) Long term loans. Duration of these loans normally have a duration from 7-10 years. The duration of this loans
may have a longer duration if supported by a cash flow, the asset life is longer loan duration, the price of the loan is
based on floating interest rate.
According the market focus the loans are;

a) Consumer loan. Is quick and flexible loan that covers the consumer loans for purchase of electronic equipment,
furniture, personal car etc. Everyone is faced at least once a day with offers for consumer loans. It is very common
to find whole pages of newspapers where banks present their offers. Often banks present on TV spots their offers
with few words but very attractive for the followers. All these means at the end result on encouraging peoples to
borrow more and more.
b) Housing loan. Is a funding possibility that permits the purchase of an apartment or a house, construction or
reconstruction. The banks offer various possibilities on attractive conditions.
c) Personal loan
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Is a loan that can be used to fulfill immediate needs for, education, vacations, medication, purchase of
electronics etc. This is a fast loan.
d) Working capital loan
Is an advance payment loan in an overdrawn account (overdraft). This is suitable for companies or persons that have
continuous need to circulate money.
e) Investment loans
Is a loan that is used for purchase of office furniture, equipments, machineries, renovation or expansion of the
business facilities etc.
f) Business loan
Is offered as short and mid term funding opportunities. This loan is mostly used for activity business activity
expansion. It can be used also for buying technologies, technology renovation etc.
Table 1. The below table provides the total individual loans stock in Albanian Banking Market as o f
December 31, 2010(Albanian Banks Association)
Individual Loans in (ne '000 ALL)

Total loans on 31/12/2010 in %
ALL 59,411,847 41.79%
Overdrafts 4,468,411 3.14%
Personal Loans 14,403,516 10.13%
Consumer Loans 5,433,949 3.82%
Mortgage Loans 27,782,656 19.54%
Business Activity 7,323,316 5.15%
US$ 2,254,258 1.59%
Overdrafts 236,806 0.17%
Personal Loans 20,633 0.01%
Consumer Loans 135,056 0.09%
Business Activity 105,075 0.07%
EURO 80,001,577 56.27%
Overdrafts 1,559,437 1.10%
Personal Loans 1,732,939 1.22%
Consumer Loans 2,415,505 1.70%
Business Activity 4,186,005 2.94%
Other Currencies 508,279 0.36%
Overdrafts 2,260 0.00%
Personal Loans - 0.00%
Consumer Loans - 0.00%
Mortgage Loans 506,019 0.36%
Business Activity - -
Total Individual Loans 142,175,961
It is easy identifiable that the main share on the individual loans stock is the mortgage loan and the least part is for
business purposes. It gives the impression that the banks only offer mortgage loans. The number is incredibly high
but it is important to mention that, connecting these figures with the number of the borrowers would have provided a
better picture. The figures about the number of the borrowers are hardly found. Referring to various publications,
especially those of Bank of Albania is widely accepted the Albanian consumer has overused these products
(Consumer Loans, Personal Loans and Overdraft). These products are the most expensive ones but have the
advantages of being easily available and deliverable.
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MATERIAL AND METHOD
Mortgage loan is a collateralized loan usually from with a real estate. The borrowing process is a very important step
on a persons life often is related with the purchase of an apartment or a house (In most of the cases the purchase of
the first house). For many peoples is the first step on the world of borrowing. The borrowing is the finalization of
very difficult and complicated process which in most of the cases is very difficult to understand by the
consumer.After the identification of the real estate that will be purchased should be clearly allocated the borrower
participation share on the investment and that what will be the share that will be funded by the financial Institution.
Usually, mortgage loans are funded up to 70% of the real estate value (In some cases even more). The duration of
the mortgage loans might get up to 25 years in some cases even longer(The duration varies form the banks). The
borrower pays the loan on a longer period with an interest rate which would pay back the lender and its costs during
loan preparation and the risk that he is undertaking.
The construction sector is perhaps the most dynamic sector in Albania, which means that the peoples are purchasing
real estates even when not necessarily have enough cash to do that, meaning that they borrow. To buy a real
estate, apartment, shop, office, building plot etc is necessary to get a mortgage loan. During all this process, the
uninformed and uneducated consumer, often becomes victim of non informative advertising (sometimes also of
defraud), incorrect terms and conditions review, various costs related with the products for which they are not
aware but according to contractual agreement they dont have other solution than paying.
On the market the number of the banking operators that provide funding facilities has increased significantly and for
the consumer the result is more confusion on identifying the right bank and the right product.
Selecting the best mortgage loan.
Identification of the best product for the mortgage loan is the problem that we will address in this study considering
the large number of the offers and the funding alternatives. To address this problem were combined the various
sources of information starting from individual meetings on the bank premises, internet sites, leaflets and various
interviews with individual experts out of the bank. It is to be mentioned that banks not only on their premises but
also on their other forms of information focus mostly on the costs of the product that are directly connected with
them and tend to ignore the others costs even when they are payable on their accounts.
Form the collected data is easy identifiable the fact that on our banking system there is no a standard coefficient for
calculation of the base lending rate. For borrowing on local currency the most commonly used is the 12 Months
Treasury Bills Rate (12M TB). Some banks use 12 M BLR ( Base lending rate , an indicator that is 0.5-1% higher
then 12M TB) the calculation of this borrowing index is not very clear.
On the market is also an index namely TRIBOR ( Usually an indicator that is 0.3-0.8% higher than 12M TB
according the index publication of Raiffeisen Bank).
There is also an index which is based on the Term Deposits Rate with 12 months maturity of the 5 -7 largest banks
plus a percentage which is usually 1 %. This index is even worse then the rest of the indexes and it adds up quite 2%
higher then 12 M TB.
For borrowing in foreign currencies are widely used the above methods but on this case the 12 M TB is replaced
with 12M Euribor for borrowing in EUR currency and 12M Libor for borrowing in USD currency.
We havent considered in this analysis the costs that are equal independently of the chosen bank by the client. These
are fixed costs for everyone that is going to borrow money. Such costs include the real estate evaluation, notary
costs, mortgage deed registration to not forget the life and property insurance which are annually paid for the
customer.
The banks tend to differentiate on different ways in order to increase sales. Often the banks differentiate on the entry
costs but are not left out of their attention also the costs of the during the life of the loan sometimes also the full or
partial payback of the loan is not left out of the attention.
The consumer are informed for the initial costs of having a loan which is more on their sight and attention but it
cant be said for the incurring cost during the life span of the loan and it gets even worse when we talk about early
full or partial payback of the loan.
It is to be mentioned that the banks are forced by Bank of Albania to provide mandatory pre contractual information
for their clients. In this information the banks are obliged to inform their clients for loan conditions, monthly
installment and their change, penalties, charges, required guarantees for providing the loan facility. The banks
should advice the consumer the type and the suitable loan based on their offers taking in consideration their financial
situation, their repayment capacity, explaining positive and negative features of the proposed product. The banks
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are obliged to provide their clients with pre contractual information, contract life and terms and condition for
contract break.
RESULTS
If a consumer would choose based on the maximal participation on the investment then the recommended bank is
Pro Credit Bank but if this indicator is related with the loan coverage ratio then the recommended bank would be
Raiffeisen Bank.
The funding limit varies from bank to bank. The bank that has the highest funding limit is Societe Generale followed
by BKT.
Banks make various offers which make more difficult the choice of the best banks offer. The offers tent to reduce
the initial loan costs. The choice at this point is very difficult for the consumer and the banks tent to simplify it by
using fix numbers for certain periods. For the time period considered Instesa Sanpaolo Banka has the best offer.
The client is obliged to pay various commission and charges for new loan facility such as Loan Application fee ,
loan commission etc. From this point of view BKT has lower costs compared to the rest of the banks.
A very important loan cost is the overdue charges. The market is Mysore with non performing clients which are
charged for their non performance with very prices. Pro Credit bank is the bank that is more Mysore with this
category of the clients.
Banks force their clients to pay 2-10% early repayment fee for partial or full payment of the loan. In some cases
they tend to discourage the early repayment of the loans.
All the banking system in Albania requires collateral loan coverage 1.3-2 times higher than the funding limit
Quite all the banks offer variable or floating interest rate loans. In some cases they offer fixed interest rate for some
periods which might get up to 7 years (Alpha Bank) but latter on they turn on the floating interest rate.
The high competition has lead on lower lending rates compared to some years ago but here is important to mention
that not every low interest rate loan is cheap. Various costs starting from various administrative fee, life insurance,
loan application fee etc might lead on increased cost that the real cost of the loan might be 2 times higher than the
advertised interest rate.
The credit risk has an increasing trend and which is seriously affecting the performance of the Albanian banking
system. The non performing loans are increasing very quickly. By the end of the year 2011 the volume of the non
performing loans in Albania reached 880 million USD or above 18% of the loans portfolio. This indicator has
continued to worsen during this year. The Albanian banking system continues to be liquid and this indicator is not
close to the limits due to the low lending activity.
The banking system in Albania is new as result they dont have a consolidated risk management system.
Various methods starting from traditional such as the interest gap (measuring the deposits interest rate risk),
measuring exchange rate risk through the Value at Risk which is used also for measuring credit risk. VaR results
to be very often used for market risk management and sometimes for credit risk due to the availability of the data for
interest and exchange rate risk compared to credit risk.
Bank of Albania credit policy can be considered conservative approach since it imposes 12 % limit on regulatory
capital compared to 8% on majority of the countries.
CONCLUSIONS
Actually the credit risk is becoming serious for banks in Albania. As the competition increases banks are quite
obliged to move toward more crediting which then leads to major exposure of banks to the credit risk.
It is easy to note that the banks note the high risk and uncertainty of their clients incomes and as result they require
1.5-2 times collateral to loan coverage
Funding on foreign currency is an other factor which exposes the clients on exchange rate risk especially to the
clients whose incomes are on local currency. The mortgage loans are 49% in EUR currency favored mostly by the
fact that the real estate market is quoted in this currency.
The incomes of the individuals are low and not very easy verifiable as result not very easy to satisfy the general
rule that monthly incomes should be at least 3 times higher to the monthly loan installment.
It is to be mentioned also that individuals face a number of procedures on state institutions, which in many cases
cost time and money.
The banking system should improve the terminology; unify the indicators and units of measure by all means in order
to come closer to the consumer.
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The consumer on his side should not only look to just purchase what is offered but should look for details before the
signing contracts because after that everything becomes an obligation which might last up to 30 years.
REFERENCE
Rural Finance Services: Implementing the Banks Strategy to Reach the Rural Poor. World Bank, 2003.
Managing Risks and Designing Products for Agricultural Microfinance: Features of an Emerging Model,
World Bank. Rural Finance Innovations: Topics and Case Studies, The World Bank Agriculture and Rural
Development Department, April 2005.
Steele, WF & Charitonenko, S. Rural Finance Services: Implementing the Banks Strategy to Reach the Rural Poor,
The World Bank Agriculture & Rural Development Department, March 2003.
Microcredit and Agriculture Meagan Andrews, MEDA July 2006.
Annual Reports from Bank of Albania.
Annual Reports from Albanian Savings and Credit Union.
PAPER 236
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES BASED ECOSYSTEMS
Ilir Myteberi1 Arsen Proko2,
Department of Forestry; Agricultural University of Tirana, ALBANIA

Directorate of Forests and Pastures, MEFWA, Tirana
E-mail: ilir_myteberi@yahoo.com;a-proko@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
A case study has been conducted in Petran Commune, compound by 12 villages with c.a. 3095 inhabitants and
extended in c.a. 5025ha, in order to determine contribution of forestry to sustainable development and analyze
forest-village relations. With this study, a forest resource in Petran Commune, which is located on Southestrn
Albania, was investigated. Two main elements, human and forests are subject of this study. The main goal was the
study of the coexistence of these two elements, reciprocal benefits and the improving of situation for both forest and
society. In the frame of sustainable development, the concept of the sustained yield principle cover whole ecological
system and include non-timber products and values (for instance biodiversity, erosion control, recreate and grazing
values) in the objectives of forest management. The main objectives of this study are: the identification of the best
managerial alternative for the sustainable management of natural resources, coordinating silvicultural measurements
with socio-economic situation and the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems, increasing the forest productivity and
restriction of the erosion and desertification as well as conservation of the biological diversity. We will show how a
mathematical model (expert system) can assist on the decision-making process, in terms of sustainable forest
management, considering the multi-functionality of natural productive systems. Natural ecosystems, together with
society and economy are considered as the components of a natural economic productive system. The detailed
analyses of the three components (multivariable analyzes), as the part of a unique system, analyzed of the conflicts
within this system and their resolve, in a sustainable way, through the most appropriate scenarios (mathematically
determine), is the methodological principle of this study. The factors which affect sustainable management of the
ecosystems based on the suitability and relative weight, in four interval classes are classified. New software,
concepts and terminologies are used to conduct this study.
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Keywords: Natural productive system, sustainable forest management, multi-functionality, biodiversity, ecosystem,
FAC, Cluster and GIS analyses.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable management of natural resources in a broad manere is an ancient way of managing forestland and more
recently a way of managing pastureland. It leads to increases of products from forestry in the short, medium and
long term and, as a structurally diverse ecological system and a multiple product system, often is a sustainable use of
land (1). They increase productivity in the short, medium and long terms, compared with forestland, and have a
higher level of biodiversity than farmland. A silvopastoral system is a complex system and therefore requires of
wise management strategies to combine the different components in a balanced way.
The establishment of sustainable management of forest, as productive economic system, is becoming more and more
important in the identification of the most appropriate alternatives for a sustainable development of regions where
they are implemented. Natural ecosystems are very complex and influenced by considerable biologic, social and
economic factors. Meantime, as renewable systems, they are distinguished for their multi-functionality and
effectiveness, if appropriately managed.
Presently in Albania communal forests are managed with the same principles as the timber-production forests or so
called classical forestry. However, there are many reasons which make indispensable the methodological
improvement of the forest management plans in case of communal forestry:
Society is an important component to consider, which interact on the development of natural productive system
together with ecosystem and economy (2)
Multi-functionality and integrated forestry call for the implementation of new principles and new methodologies (2).
Utilization of new techniques of computation, satellite imagery, GIS, offers the possibilities of analyzing in a short
time and with high quality, unlimited attributes for a considerable number of variables.
Different types of factors affecting the natural systems.
Principles of the division of territory in management unit are different on the case of natural system.
The objectives are: (i) identification of forest types (Braun Blanquet-sensu strictu) (3) as spatial unit, which
encompass the relationship through the vegetation, ecological conditions (climate, soil) and the traditional use of the
natural resources. (ii) identification of the suitability and relative weight of the factors, which affect on the
sustainable silvo-pastoral system; (iii) mapping of the territory based on the main factors and management units.
The final aim of this study was the identification of the management scenarios, for a sustainable development of
silvopastoral system, sustained on the best scientific experiences and adapted on the community traditions, thus
helping the decision-making process.
GENERAL LOCATION INFORMATION
The Petrans Commune is located c.a 7 km on the East of Permetis town. Latitude ranged from 20 01827 to
2001302 East and 4000747 to 4001752 North. The altitude is from 250m (Permet) up to 2138m (Maja e
Dhembelit). The variability of climate factor is one of the reasons of the high variability in biological forms and
vegetation types. Petrans Commune is located on the both sites of Vjosas river, which is formed by the conflux of
two main springs: Langaricas and Ballabans springs.
There are living, in this commune c.a. 3095 inhabitant or 821 families, distributed per village shown in the table.
Geologically, the territory is extended over the terigene and carbonates rock, because of intensive cutting and over
grazing, often prone of the erosion and the desertification. The most common soil types are those of grey-drab
covered mostly by the typical Mediterranean shrub, typical brown covered mostly by the broadleaves oak forests
and hornbeam shrubs.
The study area is extended on two vegetation belts: (i) sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation (or typical
Mediterranean forest and shrub) and, (ii) termophyllous vegetation of broadleaves oaks. The communal area is c.a.
5025ha, divided per land use: agricultural land (35%), forest stock (36%), pastures and meadows (20%) and bare
area (9%); meantime forest stock is divided in coppices (19%), shrub area (36%), pastures (32%), and high forest
(5%). It can be seen that the common management forms are coppices and shrubs, preferable from the farmers for
fire wood production and grazing. Step slopes, degraded vegetation and terigenous character of the rock make this
territory prone of the erosion. Using GIS techniques geological, soil, erosion risk and biodiversity maps are provided
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Fig. 1. Maps provided by GIS technique (Myteberi I.)
The climate is typical Mediterranean, characterized by c.a. 3 months summer dry period. On the graph below the
Gaussan index (4), per meteorological station of Permeti is showed.
Fig.2. Termo-pluviometric diagram (Gaussen Index)(4)
The study area is well known for the high value of the biodiversity, not only on species richness (383 vascular
species divided per 64 families or 12% of Albanian flora), but for the variability of biological and chorological
forms as well (Figures).
Based on the suitability and relative weight of the factors that affect on the biodiversity the hot spots, warmish
spot and cold spots are identified and mapped.
The forest stock covers an area of 3276.35ha with an annual harvesting possibility of c.a. 1078 m 3/year(5).
The most important economic activity for the indigenous people is agriculture and husbandry. Agriculture is not
intensive because the small area of the farms (from 1 to 2.5 ha). Farming is another very important activity on the
area, which encompasses: 5200 sheep, 6250 goats, 310 cows and 190 horses, producing milk 1229.6 T, and meat
110 T. The request of the community for fire wood is c.a. 3285 m3. (5)
It is clear that the needs of the community per forest production, fire wood and pasturing are higher that the annual
possibility of harvesting or annual growth of the forests. If the traditional methods of forest use will continue in the
future, the degradation of the vegetation would continue and bring erosion and desertification. For this reason the
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elaboration of another methodology for the establishment of a forest and pastures management plan is necessary. All
the information given below is used as factors on multivariable analysis for the sustainable management of
silvopastoral system or identification of the best managerial practices.
METHOD
In this study we consider the natural resources (ecosystems), as a component of production economic system,
together with the society and the economy. Silvopastoralism can be applied in forest, grazing and arable lands in a
Ecosystem
Society Economy
Fig. 3. Natural production system (Silvopastoral system)
sustainable way for diversification and multipurpose land use. It can increase biodiversity, protect the environment,
combat and prevent desertification, promote the landscape, improve health and increase rent income in the short,
medium and long term for managers when the social, cultural and economic benefits are accounted for.
Silvopastoralism promotes land sustainability, integrated land-use management and offers benefits to managers,
local communities and the public.As can be depicted from Figure 3, the natural production system can be considered
as the output of interaction between three components; human component, ecosystem and the impact of the market
economys laws (6). Thus, the sustainable use of the natural sources is not only a technical question but social and
economic as well.
Releves (sample plot) is defined as the unit area for data collection and plant association (Braun Blanquet sensu
stricto) (3) as management unit.
The study is realized through three different phases:
Preparatory phase
Analytic phase of data gathering
Synthetic phase or data elaboration
Almost hundred thirteen relevs (floristic inventory plots) were sampled and more than hundred interviews are
performed and analysed. Figure 4 shows schematically, the steps followed during the study.
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Fig.4. Methodological scheme of the study (5)
The analytic phase has been an inventory of physical, biological, dendrometrical and silvicultural data. Particular
care was paid on the historical and spatial change of vegetation within the study area. Existing information,
including special information from the photos was used and relevs (inventory plots) were established based on the
principles of sample design. A database with all information and GIS with sustainable geo-references were
established and for each described theme (layer of information) a digital map was provided.
The identification of vegetation types was based on the principles of Braun-Blanquet school (3). As a study unit the
plant association is used: complexity of species having the same historic, ecologic, dynamic, statistic and conjugate
from the same traditional use (7). According to the concept of Braun-Blanquet (sensu stricto) (3), the position of
plant association within the framework of a hierarchical system is given and the dynamic position, within vegetation
series may be defined as well. The size of the relev (inventory plot) was identified with the minimum area, while
the position was defined by the method of marshrut (8).
The identification of the degradation stages within vegetation series has been an important aspect of the study
considering that this could serve as a basis on choosing the best managerial practice.
For the identification of vegetation types, based on Braun Blanquet (3) and multivariable analysis, several specific
software and a series of statistical analyses, which are briefly described below, have been used.
The computer software package TURBOVEG (9; 10) was used for designing the storage, selection, and export of
vegetation data (relevs). JUICE (11), a statistical program optimized for use in association with TURBOVEG,
offers the possibility for editing, classification and analysis of large phytosociological tables and databases. This
software, with a current maximum capacity of 30 000 relevs in one table, includes many functions for easy
manipulation of table and header data. The data from TURBOVEG (Vegetation archive) are exported to JUICE for
clustering of the similar relevs according to Euclidian Distance. SYNTAX programs were also included (12).
Lastly, the Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe was used on identification of the potential vegetation (13).
The methodology for the identification of vegetation types is considered crucial, because it is strictly connected with
the evaluation of fuel wood production capacities and grazing capacity, as well as non-timber production. The
methodology is based on the principles of forest inventory and on the cast of the data gathered through the relevs.
Using the GIS technique, the above-mentioned information was used in the preparation of vegetation types maps.
In linking the forest productivity with the vegetation types we used the principles of phytosociological school (7).
The analysis considers the relationship between the plant species and surface of relev and classifies them in the
index of A-D (3).
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Actual vegetation types (plant association) are identified based on the synoptic analysis per fidelity of the
characteristic species and nomenclature of phytosociology (3). The degree of degradation was determined by
comparing the results of JUICE (11) analysis with potential vegetation types (13) and later the degradation scheme
for each vegetation series was drawn. All factors which affect the sustainable forest and pastures management are
classified in four interval classes, based on the suitability and relative weight of each factor. They were analysed
together (multivariable analysis) to identify the best managerial alternative.
RESULTS
According to the methodology, data collected from the 118 relevs were archived on TURBOVEG programme. For
each relev, both, general data about the ecology, geo-morphology, etc., and the list of species with A-D index as
well as biological forms were collected and registered. Data from Turboveg are exported to JUICE. Identification of
Fidel species (significant or characteristic species of association) was based on the synoptic analysis from the
synthetic table.
Fig. 5. Statistical analyse Juice 6.4 (Tichy, 2002)
Cluster analysis was performed with SYNTAX 2000 (12). The ecological analysis was an important step for the
classification of the vegetation types.
Fig. 6. Cluster analyse (Podani 1993)
Vegetation types must to be clearly distinguished on the context of ecological factors and historic traditional use.
Ellenbergs factors are identified for each vegetation type, temperature, light, moisture and continentally (14).
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Fig. 7. Ellenbergs Ecological indexes
The result of phytosociological analysis showed the presence of 12 plant associations and 2 communities with the
following hierarchical classification:
Class: Quercetea ilicis Br-Bl 36.
Order: Quercetalia ilicis Br.-Bl. 32
Alliance: Quercion ilicis Br.-Bl. 38
Association: Andrachno-Quercetum ilicis Br. Bl. 36
Association: Arbuto-Quercetum ilicis Br.-Bl. 36
Association: Fraxino orni-Cotinion So 1960
Association: Paliuro-Carpinion orientalis Crisurean et Teculescu 1970
Association: Fraxino orni-Cotinion So 1960
Class: Queco-Fagetea Br.-Bl. et Vlieger 37
Order: Quercetalia pubescentis Br.- Bl.31
Alliance: Quercion frainetto-cerris (Horv 1939).
Association: Quercetum frainetto-cerris Oberd.48 et Horvat 59
Association: Orno-Carpinetum orientalis Horvati 1938
Association: Orno-Quercetum (So 1928) Horansky, Jakucs & Fekete 1958
Association: Quercetum trojanae macedonicum Em 1958 em. Horvat 1959
Class: Brachypodio-Chrysopogonetea Horvatic 58
Order: Scorzonero-Chrysopogonetalia Horvatic et Horvat 58
Alliance:Chrysopogoni-Saturejon Horvat et Horvatic 34
Association: Thero-Brachypodion Br.-Bl. 1931
Alliance: Xero Bromion (Br.-Bl. et Moor 1938) Moravec in Holub et al. 1967
Association: Chrysopogonetum gryllus
Order: Cisto-Micromerietalia julianae Oberd. 1954
Alliance: Micromerion julianae
Association: Micromerietum julianae
AssociationCirsio-Brachypodion pinnati Hadac et Klika in Klika et Hadac 1944
Community of Mediterranean Pine
Community o fBlack pine
Vegetation types which represent the vegetation associations having the same ecological condition, species
composition, historic development and traditional use, are mapped.
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Fig. 8.The map of plant associations
Potential vegetation was identified based on the European Vegetation Map (13). Dynamic vegetation series and
stages are defined by comparing actual vegetation (based on phytosociological analyses) with potential vegetation
(13).
Fig. 9. Dendrogram of managerial alternatives based on the vegetation type.
The same methodology was used on defining the best managerial alternatives for every village. If preparing the
matrix of factors which affect the managerial alternatives, in addition to the data collected for plant associations and
types of vegetation, we collected data also about the society demands, husbandry, and agriculture. Figure 10 shows
the results of multivariable analyses based on village. As can be seen on the dendrogram (Fig. 10) only the villages
of Tremishti, Odunan-Delvine, Trebozisht-Lipivan dhe Bnja-Lupcka could get benefits from the forestry activities.
The other villages cannot benefit from the forestry because of the high pressure from the husbandry activities and
high level of degradation. They should work on forest rehabilitation and reestablishment of vegetation by the
forestations and coppicing. Part of the forest area could have a protective and recreation function, rather than fuel
wood production (16).
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Fig. 10. Dendrogram of the development priorities per village
CONCLUSIONS
Data are classified into four interval classes (15): forest origin and naturalness, endemic, rare and endangered
species, actual state of open landscape, timber and fuel wood production classes, annual growth, medicinal and
aromatic plants, grazing capacity, biomass production and productivity, and CO2 sequestration level. A matrix of
factors which affect the managerial alternatives was built and statistically analysed.
In this figure (Fig. 9), the right group represents the forests that the best managerial alternative has to use for the
production of fire wood. The lower-left group represent forests which are suitable for cats grazing and
management. In addition, these forests can be used for the sheep grazing. The lower-midle group represents
vegetation appropriate for sheep grazing. The lower-left group represents shrub vegetation stage (second and third
stage of degradation) which could be used grazing area from goats. The group of the upper-left represents very
advanced degradation stages of the vegetation, prone of the erosion. The priority on these areas should be the
aforestation/reforestation activities.
Kaludh, Badlonje and Gjinkar share an intermediate position. These villages should consider forest harvesting as
well as rehabilitation through thinning and coppicing. Biaxial analysis shows that only Lipe, Leshice and a little
extend, Leuse, have good conditions for forestry development as an economic sector.
REFERENCES
Mosquera-Losada M R, Riguerio A, Mcadam J., (2005) Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management. Kabi
Hardback 432 pages
Papanastasis V., Silvopastoral systems and range management in the Mediterranean region. Western European
Silvopastoral Systems. INRA Edition. 1996 Paris p. 143-156.
Braun-Blanquet, J. (1936) ber die Trockenrasengesellschaften des Festucion vallesiacae in den Osalpen. Bulletin
della Socit Botanique Suisse 46: 169-189
Gaussen H. (1967) Bioclimats du sud-est asiatique Imprimerie de la maisson France. p.13-23
Proko A., Management plan of Aranitas Communal forest and pastures. Tirana 2007 p.30-56
Proko A., Vegetation forestiere et la sylviculture. Options Mediterraneans Serie B/n 15 1997 Albania, an
Agriculture on the way to Transition. Montpellier p. 125-142.
Ghu, J.M., Rivas-Martnez, S. (1981). Notions fondamentales de Phytosociologie Berichte der Internationales
Symposien der Internationalen Vereinigung fur vegetationskunde. Syntaxonomia (Rinteln, 19880): 5-33.
Pirola, A. (1970). Elementi di fitosociologia. CLUEB Bologna, Italy. pp. 153.
Hennekens, S.M. (1995). TURBOVEG(VEG). Software package for input, processing, and presentation of
phytosociological data. Users guide. Instituut voor Bos en Natuur, Wageningen, NL and Unit of Vegetation
Science, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK.
Hennekens, S.M., Schaminee, J.H.J. (2001). TURBOVEG, a comprehensive data base management system or
vegetation data. Journal of Vegetation Science. 12: 589-591.
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Tichy, L. (2002). JUICE, software for vegetation classification. Journal of Vegetation Science. 13: 451-453.
Podani, J. (1993). SYNTAX: Computer Programs for Multivariate Data Analysis in Ecology and Systematics.
Scienta Publishing, Budapest.
Bohn U., Gollub G., Hettwer Ch., Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn-Bad Godesberg 2000 p. 69-72
Ellenberg
Gatzojannis, S., Stefanidis, P., Kalabokidis, K. (2001). An Inventory and Evaluation Methodology for Non-timber
functions of Forests. Mitteilungen der Abteilung fur Forstliche Biometrie. Universitt Freiburg. pp. 49.
Aranitas Commune. Archive 2007
PAPER 237
HOSPITAL SOLID WASTES AND ITS EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT
Ayse Cebe1,*, Sukru Dursun1, Hysen Mankolli2,

1
Seluk University, Konya, Turkey;
2
Tirana Agriculture University, Tirana, Albania
*Email: ayshe.engineer@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The solid waste emerge during diagnosis and treatment, clinical and pharmaceutical research, besides that emerge in
medicine production, hospital waste or in other words they are referred as clinical waste. While 75-90 percent of the
wastes that composed during the processes which are related with health are copper bottomed or the wastes that do
not threaten peoples health and the rest of them composed of risky wastes. Harmful hospital wastes composed of
waste group of infectious, pathological, cutter-piercing, genetoxic, pharmaceutical, chemical, heavy metal and
radioactive waste. It has been indicated in this study that; because of the hospital solid waste; hospital staff, clinical
waste carriers and people are at risk, also the wastes cause hepatitis A, B, C, AIDS, typhoid, bronchitis, anthrax,
infection diseases and allergy etc. As well as the wastes spoil the appearance of environment, they have come into
question with features such as chemical, radioactive and clinical waste, because of threatening people and
environmental health too, removing wastes has taken a variety of precautions that carry weight with it. Since these
wastes are hazardous, they must be taken under control, collected safely without giving any danger to the
environment and human beings. The wastes must be stored temporarily and must be disposed permanently. With
creating a waste minimisation program about hospital waste; the negative impact of the wastes must be eliminated
that will affect people health and environmental health or that will be able to reduced has been taught.
Keywords: clinical wastes; hospital wastes; pharmaceutical wastes; harmful hospital wastes; minimisation program,
Konya, Turkey
INTRODUCTION
The type and composition of the solid waste generated by individual states can vary greatly. This variation is a
function of several factors including climatic conditions, population characteristics, type of industries and businesses
located within the state, landownership, culture, and others. Reliable estimates of the solid waste being generated are
a crucial component of any solid waste plan. Estimates of current generation rates provide a snapshot view of
present conditions and form the foundation for future estimates and related projections. These projections determine
the expected life of facilities, future operation costs and revenues, and ultimately the selection of the integrated solid
waste management system to be used. Detailed waste characterization can be expensive and time consuming but
may be desirable and appropriate for capital intensive projects. The use of secondary information may provide solid
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waste generation estimates adequate for planning purposes. The county solid waste planners were given the
flexibility to determine and select the best method to estimate their solid waste stream.
Municipal solid waste, as defined by the EPA, includes wastes such as durable goods, nondurable goods, containers
and packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes from residential, commercial,
institutional, and industrial sources. Examples of waste from these categories include appliances, newspapers,
clothing, boxes, disposable tableware, office and classroom paper, wood pallets, and cafeteria wastes. MSW does
not include wastes from other sources, such as construction/demolition wastes, municipal sludge, combustion ash,
and industrial process wastes that might also be disposed of in municipal waste landfills or incinerators.
Medical facilities such as hospitals, dental offices, and veterinary facilities produce infectious waste which has the
potential to transmit disease. To be capable of transmitting infection, a waste must contain a pathogenic agent in a
large enough quantity to cause infection; a susceptible host (individual) must come in contact with the infectious
agent; and there must be a portal of entry through which a sufficient number of organisms is deposited to cause
infection. The solid waste emerge during diagnosis and treatment, clinical and pharmaceutical research, besides the
that emerge in medicine production, hospital waste or in other words they are referred as clinical waste.
In most communities and planning areas, collecting solid waste is not a new activity. However, it should be noted
that many rural areas have recently spent significant effort and resources to provide collection service to all
residents. Most planning areas utilize a mix of public owned and operated collection systems, private contracted
services, and private services. Like other areas of solid waste management, collection systems are undergoing rapid
change. Many of the new landfills are being sited farther away from population centres which results in higher
collection and transportation costs.
Classification of Hospital Waste

"Biomedical waste" means, and is limited to, the following types of waste:
(a) "Animal waste" is waste animal carcasses, body parts, and bedding of animals that are known to be infected
with, or that have been inoculated with, human pathogenic microorganisms infectious to humans.
(b) "Biosafety level 4 disease waste" is waste contaminated with blood, excretions, exudates, or secretions from
humans or animals who are isolated to protect others from highly communicable infectious diseases that are
identified as pathogenic organisms assigned to biosafety level 4 by the centers for disease control, national institute
of health, biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories, current edition.
(c) "Cultures and stocks" are wastes infectious to humans and includes specimen cultures, cultures and stocks of
etiologic agents, wastes from production of biologicals and serums, discarded live and attenuated vaccines, and
laboratory waste that has come into contact with cultures and stocks of etiologic agents or blood specimens. Such
waste includes but is not limited to culture dishes, blood specimen tubes, and devices used to transfer, inoculate, and
mix cultures.
(d) "Human blood and blood products" is discarded waste human blood and blood components, and materials
containing free-flowing blood and blood products.
(e) "Pathological waste" is waste human source biopsy materials, tissues, and anatomical parts that emanate from
surgery, obstetrical procedures, and autopsy. "Pathological waste" does not include teeth, human corpses, remains,
and anatomical parts that are intended for interment or cremation.
(f) "Sharps waste" is all hypodermic needles, syringes with needles attached, IV tubing with needles attached,
scalpel blades, and lancets that have been removed from the original sterile package.
Medical Waste Generation

Medical waste is also sometimes referred to as pathological waste or infectious waste. As used in this chapter, the
term will not include toxic waste, hazardous waste, or radiological waste. However, these wastes may also be
generated at health care facilities and may or may not be part of a private contractors responsibilities because of
their unique properties.
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Infectious Waste:
Table 1. Medical Waste Generation
National Income Level Annual Waste Generation

(kg / person)
High income countries:
All health care waste 1.1 - 12.0
Hazardous health care waste 0.4 - 5.5
Middle income countries:
Hazardous heath care waste 0.3 -0.4
Low income countries
The following are a number of the common procedures followed at health care facilities in managing medical waste.
Many of these procedures will influence the contractors point of waste collection.
1. General non-medical waste should be handled within the health care facilitys domestic refuse system.
2. Sharps should all be collected together, regardless of whether or not they are contaminated. Sharps containers
should be puncture-proof and usually are made of metal or high-density plastics. Sharps containers should be
tamperproof and fitted with covers that do not allow access to the sharps contained within. The containers should be
rigid and impermeable so that they safely retain not only the sharps but also residual liquids from syringes.
3. Bags for infectious waste should be red and marked with the international infectious substance symbol.
4. Bags and containers should be removed when they are no more than three quarters full to enhance their safe
handling. Some bags can be closed by tying the neck of the bag while heavier gauge bags may require plastic sealing
ties of the self locking type.
5. Cytotoxic waste should be collected in strong, leak proof containers that are clearly labeled as cytotoxic wastes.
6. Large quantities of obsolete or expired pharmaceuticals stored at hospital wards or departments should be
returned to the pharmacy for disposal.
7. Large quantities of chemical waste should be placed in chemical resistant containers and sent to specialized
treatment facilities if they are available. The identity of the chemicals should be clearly marked in the containers and
hazardous chemical wastes of different types should not be mixed.
8. Wastes with high content of heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury should be collected separately for
disposal at appropriate locations.
9. Aerosol containers may be collected with the general health care waste once they are completely empty provided
that the waste is not destined for incineration.
10. The internal waste management plan for the health care facility should stipulate regular procedures and
schedules by which waste is collected daily or as frequently as required and transported to a designated central
storage site which, more than likely, will be the contractors point of collection.
11. If it is necessary to transport medical waste on-site from generation locations to the point of collection or
storage, health care facilities must assure that this is done safely. This may require the use of wheeled trolleys,
containers, or carts that are not used for any other purpose. Generally these will meet the following specifications:
Figure 1. Distrubution Of Hospital Solid Waste
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Medical Waste Environmental Control Plan

The contractor should be required to prepare a medical waste environmental control plan defining environmental
control testing procedures and standards for process air emissions, vented air, effluent, wash-down water, odours,
noise, etc. The environmental control plan should describe the remedial actions to be taken whenever environmental
control standards are not met. At a minimum, the environmental testing and control stipulated in this plan should
include:
1. Vented Air: Vented air from the treatment process should be filtered or treated to remove pathogens, dust, and
chemical contaminants.
2. Effluent: The treatment system should not produce a liquid effluent that does not conform to national and local
regulations and limits for wastewater.
3. Off-Site Run-Off: Surface run-off from precipitation falling outside of the medical waste receiving, holding, and
treatment areas and the treated residue holding and loading areas, should be diverted by drainage ditches and swales
to off-site drainage features.
4. Wash-Down Water: Wash-down water from any area where medical waste or treated medical waste residue is
handled should be separated from all other run-off, collected, and contained in a holding tank. The holding tank and
any water therein should be disinfected at least once a day. Collected wash-down water may be treated or used in the
medical waste treatment system if it is technically feasible, and approved by the government. Alternately, it may be
disposed at a wastewater treatment facility designated by the government.
5. Litter Control: The contractor should inspect the entire perimeter of the facility daily and collect all litter.
Collected litter must be disposed along with all other MSW generated atthe facility on a daily basis.
RESULTS
Because of the hospital solid waste; hospital staff, clinical waste carries and society are at risk.
The risk of hospital staff: That causes the passage of infectious medical wastes are sharp and cutting ones. There is
at risk of infection of infectious due to errors of using sharp tools and packaging them.
The risk of clinical waste carriers: The contaminated instruments, that are not well packaged, are at the higher risk.
During the processing of medical wastes some risks may arise. These are the high heat of steam sterilizers or the
toxic gases that leaked to the atmosphere. These constitute hazard for health.
The risk of society: The chemical residues, that left in the sewage system, can have effects on the natural ecosystem
and this may contaminate water sources. Discharging of waste improper site creates problem in terms of overall
environmental pollution. These wastes should not be kept a place where we can reach easily.
Red plastic bags marked with on INTERNATIONAL BIOHAZARD and ATTENTION! CLINICAL
WASTE are used in collecting of medical wastes. For medical wastes, which are sharp and cutting , plastics,
laminated cardboard boxes or containers marked with on INTERNATIONAL BIOHAZARD and
ATTENTION! CUTTING AND DRILLING are used.
Figure 2. An example of hospital wastes Figure 3. Things used for clinical wastes carrying materials
Waste treatment technologies.

(1) At the request of an applicant, the department of health, in consultation with the department of ecology and local
health departments, may evaluate the environmental and public health impacts of biomedical waste treatment
technologies. The department shall make available the results of any evaluation to local health departments.
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(2) All direct costs associated with the evaluation shall be paid by the applicant to the department of health or to a
state or local entity designated by the department of health.
(3) For the purposes of this section, "applicant" means any person representing a biomedical waste treatment
technology that seeks an evaluation under subsection (1) of this section.
(4) The department of health may adopt rules to implement this section.
CONCLUSIONS
Hospital solid waste is a potential health hazard to the health care workers, public and flora and fauna of the area.
Hospital acquired infection, transfusion transmitted diseases, rising incidence of Hepatitis B, and HIV, increasing
land and water pollution lead to increasing possibility of catching many diseases. Air pollution due to emission of
hazardous gases by incinerator such as Furan, Dioxin, Hydrochloric acid etc. have compelled the authorities to think
seriously about hospital solid waste and the diseases transmitted through improper disposal of hospital solid waste.
The procedures that applied on hospital solid wastes should be managed within a Project and this program should
start the place where the wastes emerge. The wastes should be separated the place where the first emerge ,
transported separately and specially stored in a temporarily, separate storage. While carrying them from temporary
warehouse to the last destruction areas, separate carriers and trained personnel should be used. In the last destruction
areas, they should be burned in incinerators or buried in specific ways. With such a project in a university hospital
with 600 beds , the expenditure made for the destruction of hospital wastes will save an annual about 2-3 billion TL.
Each hospital should constitute a hospital solid waste management committee, chaired by the head of the Institute
and having wide representation from all major departments. This committee should be responsible for making
Hospital specific action plan for hospital waste management and its supervision, monitoring and implementation.
Beside, at national, regional and local level, some planning should be made for the health care waste management.
The wastes should be reduced by identifying and monitoring the sources of waste. The wastes should be able to use
again. Some measures need to be determined to reduce the cost and re-use the wastes. With planning, authorities,
health care workers and the society are motivated and other activities that need, could be defined.
REFERENCES
Gnaydn M., (1994) Hastane atklarnn zararsz hale getirilmesi. Klinik Dergisi, 1: 22-23.
http://www.klimikdergisi.org/sayilar/16/22-23.pdf
http://euatik.ege.edu.tr/files/tehlikeliatiklarbilgilendirmekitapcigi.pdf
http://isebindia.com/95_99/99-07-2.html
http://muratomu.tripod.com/hastane_atik.pdf
http://www.das.org.tr/kitaplar/kitap2002/019.pdf
http://www.das.org.tr/sunu/hes/he6_dosyalar/frame.htm#slide0131.htm
http://www.ytusigmadergisi.com/dergi/makaleoku/67
Mato R, Kaseva ME. (1999) Critical review of industrial and medical waste practices in Dar es Salaam City.
Resource, Conservation and Recycling 271-87.
Matsumoto S. (2000) Proper disposal(management) of medical wastes--the appropriate management of medical
waste in laboratory. Rinsho Byori Suppl 112:39-46.
Prs A, Giroult E, Rushbrook P. (1999) Safe management of wastes from health-care activities. Geneva: WHO, 1-
230.
Rutala WA, Odette RL, Samsa GP. (1989) Management of infectious waste by US hospitals. JAMA 262:1635-40.
Shapiro K, Stoughton M, Graff R, Feng L. (2000) Healthy Hospitals: Environmental Improvements Through
Environmental Accounting. Thellus-Institute 1-108.
Solid Waste Management. Chapter 11 Privatization Procedural Manual, Medical waste collection, treatment, and
disposal. U.S. Agency for International Development. Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. NHMRC, US.
Thornton J, McCally M, Orris P, Weinberg J. (1996) Hospitals and plastics. Dioxin prevention and medical waste
incinerators. Public Health Rep 111: 299-313.
Tsutsumi Y. (2000; Proper disposal (management) of medical wastes--appropriate handling and disposal of medical
wastes from pathology laboratories. Rinsho Byori Suppl 112:32-8.
Urbanowicz GR. 1998) Medical waste autoclaves: not just a lot of hot air. Prof Dev Ser (Chic III) 4-24.
Wiesner G, Harth M, Szulc R, (2001) A follow-up study on occupational exposure to inhaled anaesthetics in Eastern
European surgeons and circulating nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 74:16-20.
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PAPER 238
CREDIT PROBLEMS IN ALBANIAS AGRICULTURE SECTOR
Gerta Gogo, Dori Risilia, Ines Dika, Orkida Totojani
Faculty of Economics and Agribusiness. Agricultural University of Tirana
Email: ggogo@ubt.edu.al
ABSTRACT
Agriculture is an important sector of the Albanian economy not only because of its contribution to the Gross
Domestic Product, but more for the fact that half of the population provides the revenue base through this sector. In
this context, agricultural development is particular importance for the future of the Albanian economy, and to the
welfare of the population in rural areas. In recent years efforts have been made to support the agricultural sector.
This happened as indirectly through investments in rural infrastructure, as well as directly through initiatives and
regulatory initiatives. Such is the law for the establishment of agricultural holdings and various subsidies given by
the government to farmers who planted certain agricultural crops. According to INSTAT, for the period 2005-2012,
the Gross Domestic Product has grown on average by 4.4%, while the agriculture sector by 4.1%. From these data,
although the agricultural sector has increased over the years, is not where it needs to be. Most efficient solution
would be to strengthen the sector through private funding in significant monetary amount for raising medium and
large farm. Individual farmers not only seek to have the opportunity to meet the needs for inputs, agricultural
machinery or equipment, but intend to make investments in greenhouses, vineyards and orchards. One problem is
the lack of credit or low level of lending to the agricultural sector in our country related to the low reliability of
financial lending institutions have to loan applicants. Farmers in many cases do not have the title in relation to land
or are in litigation, which in this case would serve as collateral for lending financial institutions. A successful farm
requires not only abundant land but requires a technological infrastructure of production, which is accompanied by a
financial bill. This solution should be provided by the funding mechanisms of the market which would lower
production costs.
Key words: Private investment, agricultural credit processes, financing mechanisms, production costs, rural
infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
The global food crisis and population growth generally leads to a higher demand of agricultural products. In a World
Bank study in 2050, the world will have 2 billion more people. In order to provide food for all, we will have a very
large investment in agriculture as the public and private sector. World Bank in all its projects gives a great
importance to investment in the agricultural sector by funding specific projects in different countries to increase
agricultural production efficiency and profitability of them.
A summary of recent publications on agricultural lending and other wider topics for rural areas financing reveals
some opinions about the state of financing agricultural businesses, including:
The economic development of rural areas is behind urban areas.
Rural areas have not been well served by the microfinance industry, nor are effectively managed by financial
services during the past decades mainly because institutions and donors have focused on urban markets.
Financial institutions that provide services to rural areas face significant challenges.
Credit to agriculture is inherently risky and it is difficult to effectively granted considering the geographical
distribution, the weak links in the market, high costs, lack of support services and natural hazards.
Donors and governments are turning their attention to the rural poor and their needs in relation to a range of
financial services.
Providing effective agricultural credit even rural finance remains a challenge for the donor community and financial
develop sectors.
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Although rural areas remain poorly served regarding financial services, more and more providers are entering the
market.
It is known that it is necessary to provide a range of financial services although other financial services (such as
savings, insurance, remittances) may be more important for rural areas than credit and probably should precede it.
Also the Albanian state on basis of some projects financed from its own budget or through grants from other
countries is investing in the agricultural special products that can bring an increase in income for farmers.
Nevertheless the state, the private institutions should help to develop rural areas.
An effective way would be strengthening the sector through private funding in significant amounts for raising
medium and large farms. Something similar this can be achieved through the creation of private financial
instruments. Also the demand for agricultural loans from farm economies, continue to be high.
Individual farmers are seeking credit to meet the needs for inputs, agricultural machinery equipment, but they also
aim to make the investments in greenhouses, vineyards and orchards.
METHODOLOGY
Sources of information regarding the treatment of this paper consists mainly of the accumulated data through
surveys with farmers, the data collected from various interviews in focus groups, to local and foreign experts as well
as various statistical data published by official sources. Interviews have included a broad array of stakeholders
ranging from farmers to experts in different agro-industry sector, rural community representatives etc..
RESULTS
Lending by the banking sector
The seasonal nature of agricultural production, a relatively high risk due to the volatility of output from one year to
another, but also the price of agricultural products, small farms area and fragmented ownership problems and
difficulties in providing collateral, low level of technology used, are some of the reasons that have generated a tight
policy banks and other financial institutions associated with lending to agriculture.
Banks constitute the main lenders to the business sector and individuals and not lending for agricultural business,
therefore setting the portion of the credit allocated to the country where they carry out the activity. Therefore,
through a combination of business activity and agricultural lending through deposits, the banking system would
affect more the aggregate supply of money and credit growth, becoming, so in compelling the monetary mechanism
inherent in the totality of economic development.
From the data of the Bank of Albania loans provided by the banks of the second level for agricultural units are at
levels 1-2% of 'total loan although data from agriculture occupies about 20% of GDP.
Source: Bank of Albania
What are the problems?
Some of the problems which affect a reduction of crediting are:
High costs of the transaction for both parties, borrower and lender.
Low population density and non-uniform distribution of demand.
Limited economic opportunities available to local populations.
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High Risk of potential borrowers up to face due to the variability of income, exogenous economic shocks
and limited tools to manage risk.
Seasonality - potentially affects both the client and the institution.
Lack of reliable information on borrowers.
Lack of market information and / or market access.
Weak institutional capacity - including poor governance and operating system, a small staff and managerial
skills.
"Collection" of effects due to subsidies and direct loans.
Increased risk associated with the portfolio concentration in agricultural activities that are prevalent in an
area.
Lack of adequate or useable collateral (lack of property, rights over the property unclear).
The risk of political interference, which could undermine the morale of payment through debt forgiveness
and interest rate coverage
Not good legal, regulatory and political frames
Underdeveloped legal systems and inadequate mechanisms for enforcing contracts.
Underdeveloped or insufficient infrastructure
Land owned can be very small or remotely located in very remote areas that are difficult to reach
Individuals can only be hung from a culture with no other outside sources of income
Lack of funding is one of the main problems that hinder the development of agriculture. Private banking sector is
one that should supply the agricultural capital sector. This is not simply because the agricultural sector should be
developed for social reasons, but because the unused lands of our country have a non-capitalized chance to profit.
In this case, will benefit the agricultural sector and rural residents, but will also benefit many banks themselves.
Currently, commercial banks provide loans in large amounts, but require collateral, which, as was mentioned above,
in many cases lacking. There are also institutional instruments for lending to small microfinance, in amounts from
10 to 50 thousand dollars. However, lack of funding to provide loans without collateral amounts range from 100 to
300 thousand dollars. Unfortunately financing agricultural activities and rural areas, continue to remain far from the
banks for lending preferences. Index of credit to the agricultural sector over the last decade should be considered
low. There are two reasons that have contributed directly to this indicator:
Commercial banks prefer not to lend to agricultural business and above all agricultural farms, as they consider them
as economy and small businesses thus giving more lending possibilities to medium and large businesses. The
number of commercial banks interested to small business financing including daily agricultural business is very
limited. Although during the last 2-3 years, banks have shown growing interest in lending to the agricultural sector
but still not have a significant weight in the credit market for farm economies.
Commercial banks consider lending to agricultural farms as an activity with very high risk even though opposing
opinions claim that the repayment of agricultural credit is safer that in many other sectors of the economy.
Lending by non-bank institutions
While the second level banks have cut lending rate, the opposite happened with credit-savings institutions. They
have continued to lend but also to offer new services to their members, even those newly registered on this group.
Referring to the Bank of Albania, the Savings and Credit Societies are included as members of two unions: the
Albanian Union of Savings and Credit (UShKK) and Jehona Union.
SHKK-union group is an institution that has its beginnings in 1992. Union is a voluntary association of Savings and
Loan Company, which enable a cohesion and solidarity at the national level. Mission of GROUP Union-SHKK is to
provide financial services to members of the SHKK, residents of rural areas in order to encourage productive
activities, improving the standard of living and the sustainable development of rural areas.
Local SHKK, members and their clients are the basis of union activity. Being in the heart of the village, SHKK are
committed to meeting the needs of rural people to financial services. Control over the management of SHKK is
performed by members, who elect boards during the Annual General Assemblies. The chosen volunteers represent
members being engaged together with the staff of the Union with accountability in the management of SHKK. By
focusing on a broad target group living in rural areas, Union-SHKK has as its members and clients farmers, artisans,
merchants, etc., who have equal rights in decision-making institution. The direct beneficiaries are residents of rural
areas, SHKK members who are excluded from the banking system to the benefit of financial services.
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Products & Financial services related to financial landing:
Microcredit
Maximal ammount: 10,000,000 leke
Duration: up to 5 years
Interest: (in descending balance)16% per year
SME Loans (in ALL & Euro)
Maximal amount: 3,000,000 (30,000 Euro)
Time: up to 7 years (3 years for the loan in Euro)
Interest 16 % per year
Loans in Euro
Overdraft
Lending micro-businesses supported by the Union
A. B.
C
Source: Unioni SHKK
Real support to farmers in the service comes in two basic ways in deposits and lending to them.
Farmers and rural residents have found microcredit as main support for further development of their activities.
Savings and Credit Societies are the exclusive providers of financial services in rural areas.
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SHKK Union operates in the most intensified segment of agricultural sector (and that coastal lowland area) being
managed and run as a growing financial institution and to rely on savings and credit societies involved in this
institution.
Through lending to agricultural businesses are achieved some objectives by the SHKK Unions as:
It is made possible elimination of emergency and development phases of farms

Farmers helped to increase their income and are supported in the adoption of a market economy farms
The promotion of economic development in areas where they have activities with a significant impact on
the improvement of living standards, employment opportunities, immigration and reduction of poverty in
these areas.
Although recently has been given priority from the Albanian government and outside donors to agricultural business
development, through projects for infrastructure improvement and various grants, agriculture is still a sector that has
not reached the required levels. Awareness of the banking sector to invest in agriculture combined with other efforts
in the form of investment funds will constitute a solid package to finance the development of agriculture. Progress of
the agricultural sector through these scenarios, will greatly improve the structure and pace of economic growth and
quality of life that more than half of the population. Lending by the private sector will make possible an even greater
development of agriculture since it would make you even own agricultural businesses focused on efficacy and
profitably.
CONCLUSIONS
There is no specific answer on how to operate lending in the agriculture sector. Although it has some general and
specific ideas that come from recent studies and existing institutions that provide frameworks for analysis and
practical examples for the evaluation of agricultural business.
There are a few features for lending in the agriculture sector:
Repayments are not related to the use of credit.

Basic characteristics of lending techniques are combined with technical criteria in the selection of
borrowers, choosing the terms of the loan and the loan repayment obligation
There are given protection mechanisms.
The portfolio risk is diversified.
The terms and conditions of credit are adapted to accommodate cyclical cash flows.
Contractual agreements are designed to reduce the risk of price increase, to increase the production quality
and help guarantee payment;
Membership in rural organizations can facilitate the provision of financial services and to be applicable
even in remote areas
Provide the basis of the index area can protect against risks to agricultural lending;
Agricultural Microfinance should be isolated from political interference.
The agricultural sector is a sector that is largely funded by savings from rural families or immigration in recent
years. Although it has increased participation of financial institutions in financing this sector, mostly of savings and
credit societies. Government and foreign donors have given a great help in developing this sector although this kind
of contribution is temporary and the agricultural sector must find other ways of financing.
Based on best practices but also the problems faced by microfinance institutions we recommend:
Establish and consolidate new Savings and Credit Corporates, increasing the range of financial services available to
farmers and rural enterprises.
Diversification of loan portfolio by customer activity and corresponding regions by providing a low level of risk in
the loan portfolio as well as sustainability and consolidation in the future of these institutions.
Establishment of Cooperative Banks, which we think will be a premium for the rapid development of rural financial
market and consolidate the rural financial institution, reference and global experience.
Encouraging and motivating microfinance institutions to be more flexible and to orient their activities to rural
financial services by reference to experience and global practices.
Improving the legal and regulatory framework for the development of rural financial institutions.
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Microfinance institutions stimulate competition and increase access to financial services for rural enterprises to
consolidate and develop their businesses, create jobs, improve living conditions and the continued development of
rural areas.
REFERENCES
Rural and Farmer Finance: An International Perspective, Andrew Dorward 2001

Rural Finance Services: Implementing the Banks Strategy to Reach the Rural Poor. World Bank, 2003.
Managing Risks and Designing Products for Agricultural Microfinance: Features of an Emerging Model,
Rural Finance Services: Implementing the Banks Strategy to Reach the Rural Poor. World Bank,2003.
Steele, WF & Charitonenko, S. Rural Finance Services: Implementing the Banks Strategy to Reach the Rural Poor,
The World Bank Agriculture & Rural Development Department, March 2003.
Microcredit and Agriculture Meagan Andrews, MEDA July 2006.
Annual Reports from Bank of Albania.
Annual Reports from Albanian Savings and Credit Union.
PAPER 240
HIRSUTISM AND ITS RELATION WITH HYPERANDROGENISM AND PCOS IN A ALBANIAN

FEMALE POPULATION
Koi Armida, Rexha Tefta
University Aleksandr Xhuvani Elbasan, Department of Biology

University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology
Email : armida.caku@yahoo.com
ABSRACT
Eight hundred and twenty four albanian female students, from 18 to 30 years of age, were evaluated by individual
interviews bazed on a questionnaire and some of them by further hormonal investigations in order to estimate the
prevalence of hirsutism and its relation with hyperandrogenism and PCOS. Hirsutism is common albanian women
with a 31.3% %. Testosterone (T) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHAES), which stimulate hair follicle and
function of sebaceous gland were elevated in most hirsute women. Were found a strong correlation between
hirsutism and hyperandrogenism (2 = 10.601, sig. = 0.001 and between hirsutism and PCOS ( 2 = 40.370 sig.<
0.001).
Key words: hirsutism, hyperandrogenism, PCOS, testosterone, DHAES
INTRODUCTION
Hirsutism is defined medically as excessive terminal hair that appears in a male pattern in women.(Deplewski D,
Rosenfield RL, 2000; Azziz R, Carmina E, Sawaya ME, 2000). Areas where hirsutism appears, include the face
(upper lip, chin) and the body (chest, upper and lower back, upper and lower abdomen, forearms and pelvic areas).
Hair growth occurs as epithelial cells in contact with the dermal papillae, proliferate (Speroff et al, 1994). Are
known two types of haire composition: vellus and terminal. Vellus is thin, soft and unpigmented, whereas terminal
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is thick, rough and dark pigmented. A given hair follicle can produce either a vellus or a terminal hair in response to
hormone stimulus. Hirsutism is the transormation of a fine vellus hair to a visible, thickened terminal hair under
androgenic stimulus (Delahnut,1993). Andogens are required for sexual hair and sebaceous gland development
(Deplewski & Rosenfield, 2000). The ovarian and adrenal glands produce androstenedione, which in peripherally
converted to testosterone. Testosterone itself is secreted from both the ovaries and adrenal glands, but the ovary is
almost always the primary sourse in hirsute women. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) arises almost
exclusively from the adrenals and is also converted peripherally to testosterone. Testosterone is transformed into the
potent androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5-alfa- reductase at the level of hair follicle. DHT by iself induces
terminal hair growth (Harsoulis, 1998). The effect of androgens on hair growth is area specific (Azziz,1989;
Thiboutot,1995; Lunde & Grottum,1984). Terminal hair growth in these areas is characteristically masculine and if
present in women is considered pathological (Azziz,1989).
Most women with androgen levels that are twice the upper limit of the normal range or higher have some degree of
hirsutism. However, the severity of hirsutism does not correlate well with the level of androgen, because the
response of the androgen-dependent follicle to androgen excess varies considerably within and among persons
(Reingold SB, Rosenfield RL,1987).
Biological material: Study subject was a sample of 824 female students of the secondary education schools and the
University of Elbasan, Tirana and Durres, from 18 to 30 years of age, descending from different areas all over
Albania, as representative of a random Albanian female population. They were evaluated by individual interviews
based on questionnaire and some of them by further hormonal investigations.
We evaluated hirsutism severity by modified Ferriman-Gallwey method, by Azziz (Azziz R,1989). According to this
method, the amount of facial and body hair was measured in nine hormone dependent regions. The severity of
hirsutism in each of nine areas was graded from 1 to 4 with a maximum of 36 scores. The number of scores < 8
indicated non hirsutism and > or = 8 indicated hirsutism. More specifically, when the number of scores is from 8 to
16 hirsutism is mild; 16-25 hirsutism is moderate, and > 25 hirsutism is severe.
Of 824 female students that we examinated, 212 were recorded as hirsute, but only 28 of them and 15 of those
recorded as non hirsute (control group), accepted to participate in further hormonal investigations. Serum hormone
levels were evaluated in the early folicules phase (days 4-7) and a blood sample was obtained in 09.00- 11.00 a.m.
Hormone evalutation included serum testosterone (T), dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHAES), sex hormone
binding globulin (SHBG) and prolactin (PRL). All hormone levels were evaluated by ECL (Roche). Data were
recorded and subjected to further statistical elaboration.
Statistical analyses: Statistical sample was initialy described through the tables of distribution of frequencies. After
that, to check out correlations between two parameters that classify a statistical population was applied indipendence
controll (2 test ) (Crawshow I & Chambers I, 2002). Statistical data were computerized using the SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences), version 11.5 for Windows.
RESULTS
Using the physical examination of each individual of the sample examined, 258 of 824 female students, were
considered hirsute. The prevalence of hirsutism resulted 31.3%; SE = 0,0162 and 95% CI [0,2813, 0,3447].
Several investigators have examined the prevalence of hirsutism in selected populations. In the study of
Leondaridou et al, 2003, the prevalence of hirsutism in a sample of 592 Greek female students was 16.4%.
The prevalence was very high in our sample, but we would like to put in evidence that it was charaterized of a mild
form (from 8 to 16 scores). Our results were according with other studies (Chinnappa P, & Mehta A, 2004).
Table 1. Hirsutism * Hyperandrogenism. Crosstabulation

Hyperandogenism
No Yes Total
Non Hirsute Count 11 4 15
Expected Count 5.6 9.4 15.0
Hirsute Count 5 23 28
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Total Count 16 27 43
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)
a
Pearson Chi-Square 12.866 1 .000 .001 .001
Continuity Correctionb 10.601 1 .001
Likelihood Ratio 13.091 1 .000 .001 .001
Fisher's Exact Test .001 .001
Linear-by-Linear 12.567c 1 .000 .001 .001
Association
N of Valid Cases 43
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.58.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
c. The standardized statistic is 3.545.
We observed a significant difference in serum androgen levels between hirsute and non hirsute female students. In
most hirsute female students, serum androgen levels were increased (in total T and DHEAS levels). SHBG
concentrations were not related to the presence of hirsutism.
From sample (43) that accepted to participate in hormonal investigations, we found out 23 of 28 hirsute female
students (89.2%), with hyperandrogenism, whereas 4 of 15 non hirsute female students with hyperandrogenism
(26.6%),
The correlation between hirsutism and hyperandrogenism, taking in consideration and continuity correction, was
significant enough (value of X = 10.601), while p= 0.001, a value smaller than the table value threshold p= 0.01
(table 1).
In the sample examined, we found out 46 of 258 hirsute female students (17.8%) with polycystic ovary syndrome
(PCOS), whereas 24 of 566 non-hirsute female students (4.2%) were found with PCOS.
The correlation between hirsutism and PCOS, taking in consideration and continuity correction, was significant
enough (value of X = 40.370), while p< 0.001, a value smaller than the table value threshold p= 0.01 (table 2).
Table 2. Hirsutism * PCOS. Crosstabulation
Personal Data
PCOS
No Yes Total
Non Hirsute Count 542 24 566
Hirsute Count 212 46 258
Total Count 754 70 824
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (2-
Value df sided) sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)
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Pearson Chi-Square 42.100a 1 .000 .000 .000

Continuity Correctionb 40.370 1 .000
Likelihood Ratio 38.499 1 .000 .000 .000
Fisher's Exact Test .000 .000
Linear-by-Linear 42.049c 1 .000 .000 .000
Association
N of Valid Cases 824
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.92.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
c. The standardized statistic is 6.484.
Our results are in accord with other studies. PCOS is the most common observation in hirsute patients (Spona&
Aydinlik,1989; Barth,1997). Hirsutism is present in 70% of women with PCOS (Hatch et al,1981).
CONCLUSIONS
The prevalence of hirsutism in our sample was 31.3%. We find out that androgens, especially testosterone (T) and
dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) which stimulate hair follicle and function of sebaceous gland were
elevated in most hirsute women. In the sample examined, we found out 46 of 258 hirsute female students (17.8%)
with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), whereas 24 of 566 non-hirsute female students (4.2%) were found with
PCOS. Of 28 hirsute female students, 23 (89.2%), resulted with hyperandrogenism, whereas of 15 non hirsute
female students, 4 (26.6%), resulted with hyperandrogenism. Were found a strong correlation between hirsutism
and hyperandrogenism (2 = 10.601, sig. = 0.001 and between hirsutism and PCOS (2 = 40.370 sig.< 0.001).
REFERENCES
Azziz R, Carmina E, Sawaya ME., 2000. Idiopathic hirsutism. Endocr Rev;21:347-362.

Speroff L, Glass RH, Kase MG.,1994. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. 5 th ed. Baltimore:
Wiliams and Wilkins.
Delahnut IW, 1993. Hirsutism. Practikal therapeutic guidelines.Drugs,45: 223-231
Deplewski D, Rosenfield RL.,2000. Role of Hormones in pilosebaseous unit development. Endocrine reviews,21;
363-392
Harsoulis F, 1998. Clinical Endocrinology. Pub. University Studio Press. Thessaloniki, Greece.
Azziz R,1989. Reproductive endocrinologic alterations in female assymtomatic obesity. Fertility Sterility 52: 703-
725
Thiboutot MD,1995. Dermatological manifestations of endocrine disorders. Journal of clinics on endocrinological
disorders. 80: 3082-3084.
Lunde O, Grottum P,1984. Body hair growth in women: normal or hirsute. American journal of physical
anthropology,64: 307-313
Leondaridou I, Pentzou A, Daponte A, Kouvatsi A,2003. Prevalence of hirsutism in a hellenic female population.
Journal of Biological Research: 63-72
Crawshow I, Chambers I: A concise course in Advanced Level Statistics. Nelson Thornes Ltd. UK 2002, 469-486,
560-586.
Spona I, Aydinlik S, 1989. Hirsutism and Endocrine Dermatological Problems. Proceedings of a symposium held at
the XII World Congress of Gynecology and Obsetrics, Rio De Janeiro. October 1988. The Parthenon Publishing
Group Ltd.UK.USA
Barth IH,1996. How robust is the methodology for trials of therapy in hirsute women? Journal of clinical
endocrinology,45: 379-380
Chinnappa P, Mehta A: Hirsutism. Disease management project. The Cleveland Clinic, 2004: 1-7.
Reingold SB, Rosenfield RL.,1987 The relationship of mild hirsutism or acne in women to androgens. Arch
Dermatol;123:209-212.
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PAPER 241
THE IPMACT OF ALBANIAN LOCAL BOVINE RACES AS PART OF

CONSERVATION BIODIVERSITY IN THE ALBANIAN POPULATION HEALTH
Odeta Laknori 1*, Tefta Rexha1, Anila Mitre1
1Tirana University, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Biology Department, Bulevardi Zogu i par, Tirana, Albania,
*Email: olaknori@yahoo.it
ABSTRACT
The only ecological study to date for Albania (11 districts). The aim of the study was to test the correlation of
A1/capita consumption with ishceamic heart disease mortality 2 and 3 years later. A1/capita consumption was
estimated from cow milk and cream supply (FAO database) and A1 -casein fraction from a variety of sources. Milk
and cream supply/capita was calculated from nutritional statistical databases at the FAO web site as milk
protein/capita/day, excluded goats and sheeps milk. FAO food supply data were converted to nutritional measures
using British food composition tables. Cow breed distribution was calculated from Center of Agriculture
Technology Transfer, Animal Production Department data. Beta-casein fractions were estimated by breed from
dairy science literature for 11 districts. Additionally, milk was tested from 5 breeds. IHD mortality rate data were
obtained from INSTAT website. Average milk protein/capita varied across breeds. A1 fraction of milk casein varied
from 0.2257 to 0.4732. Here we show that correlation of the calculated consumption of the milk protein, -casein
A1 (excluding milk protein in cheese) against ischaemic heart disease (IHD) mortality has a r = 0.2145 for 2008 and
a r = 0.2236 for 2009.
Key words: -casein A1, ishceamic heart disease mortality.
INTRODUCTION
Major cardio vascular diseases are: Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD) and cerebrovascular accident (CVA). For both
diseases, the underlying processes are atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Some of the risk factors identified with
cardiovascular disease are high levels of LDL, total cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diet and the lack of
physical activities. The A1/A2 hypothesis emphasizes that even the consumption of A1 beta casein constitutes a risk
factor for IHD (McLachlan 2001). The molecular mechanism of this factor is not clearly known yet, but it is a major
opinion that beta casomorphin 7 (that is formed after the digestion of A1 milk) helps the oxidation of lipid acids that
interact with the aminoacids of Apo- B protein. So, this protein changes its chemical and imunological
characteristics and does bind anymore to its specific receptor (Iuliano et al., 2003).
Epidemiological data of New Zeland show that A2 milk is better for the human health than A1 one. McLachlan
(2001) corelated the consumption of A1 beta casein and IHD death rate in 17 different states (r=0.86). Another
epidemiological study from Laugesen and Elliott (2003) found a connection between of A1 beta casein consumption
and IHD death rate in males aged 3564 in 19 different states.
In both studies, A1/capita is estimated as the product of per capita cow milk and cream supply and its A1 -casein
content (A1/ ) (calculated from herd tests and breed distribution in 11 regions), then tested for correlation with IHD
five years later in 20 countries which spent at least US $1000 (purchasing power parities) per capita in 1995 on
healthcare.
Based on the study of McLachlan in 2001, in order to calaculate the corelation of IHD mortality rate with dairy
consumption of milk proteins are needed:
DATA OF IHD MORTALITY RATE IN 12 REGIONS
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Statistical Institute of Albania (INSTAT) and its publications (2008, 2009) supplied IHD mortality data for 12
regions. The annual mortality rate per 100 000 population lies in the age group 185 years. Main sources of
statistical information about diseases that cause death are:
First: Clinical information gathered in hospitals and other medical institutions well defined by the rules about
recognition of diseases. The definition of the death cause term is made based on original cause of the diseases or
trauma that leads to death.
Second: Information by the medical certificate in the death file. This file is fullfiled by the doctor and constitutes
the most conprehensive official source of the diseases that cause death.
DATA ON A1 BETA CASEIN DAIRY CONSUMPTION IN 12 REGIONS

A1/capita is estimated as the product of per capita cow milk and cream supply and its A1 -casein content (A1/ )
(calculated from herd tests and breed distribution, or from tests of commercial milk) (Laugesen & Elliott, 2003),
then tested for correlation with IHD five in 2008 and 2009:
A1/capita = (cow%) x (milk protein supply/capita) x (beta casein/cow milk protein) x

(regional A1/)
Cow% is total milk production percentage minus the percentage from sheep and goat milk. Milk protein
supply/capita is calculated from the nutritional statistical databases at the FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization)
web site, as milk protein per capita in grams per day. This was calculated as (3.3% by weight of milk excluding
butter + 2.7% of cream, minus 25% of cheese). Milk included fresh milk products, but excluded cheese and butter.
defined above. Beta casein as a fraction of cow milk protein = 0.284 . 36 Regional A1/ = sum of the percentage
contribution of each breed, weighted for its percentage of the regionalndairy cow population, the protein content of
its milk, and average milk yield of its cows. All the information above was supplied by The Center of Agricultural
Technology Transfer, Fush Kruj (Leka et al., 2009; Leka & Doko, 2010).
RESULTS
In order to calculate the correlation of IHD mortality rate with dairy consumption of milk proteins we used:
Data of IHD mortality rate in 12 regions (table 1)
Data on A1 beta casein dairy consumption in 12 regions (table 1). The frequency of beta casein different alleles is
calculated by analysis of UREA PAGE under acidic conditions (Laknori & Rexha, 2008)
Tab. 1. A1/capita (g/d) and IHD mortality rate in 2008 and 2009 in 12 regions
IHD IHD
mortality rate mortality rate Average regional
A1/capita
Region in 2008 (per in 2009 (per A1 beta casein /
(g/d)
100 000 100 000 capita (g/d)
population) population)
Berat 165 189 0,2163 0,064
Dibr 205 216 0,3135 0,084
Durrs 199 209 2,0866 0,8552
Elbasan 338 332 1,8507 1,372
Fier 326 316 2,0383 2,688
Gjirokastr 98 87 0,2118 0,032
Kor 336 290 0,4239 0,204
Kuks 89 102 1,5012 0,276
Lezh 170 147 0,2444 0,083
Shkodr 199 352 0,385 0,21
Tiran 661 636 0,2935 0,183
Vlor 228 85 0,2298 0,058
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In order to define if dairy consumption of A1 beta casein (grams) and IHD mortality rate are tow variables that
change together, we calculate the correlation coefficient of the product of the moment (according to Karl Pearson)
and the significance test.
Year 2008:
Correlation coefficient of the product of the moment (according to Karl Pearson) is:
r = 0.0046
Significance test:
ts = 0.01454663 ns
Fig. 1. A1 beta casein consumption and IHD death rate (2008) in 12 regions
Year 2009:
Correlation coefficient of the product of the moment (according to Karl Pearson) is:
r = 0.0048
Significance test:
ts = 0.011517911 ns
Fig. 2. A1 beta casein consumption and IHD death rate (2009) in 12 regions
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CONCLUSIONS
Cow A1 beta casein per capita supply in milk and cream (A1/capita) was not significantly, but positively correlated
with IHD in 12 regions of Albania two and three years later. For 2008 correlation coefficient of the product of the
moment (according to Karl Pearson) is: r = 0.0046, showing a weak correlation. For 2009 correlation coefficient of
the product of the moment (according to Karl Pearson) is: r = 0.0048 showing again a weak correlation.
REFERENCES
Iuliano, L., Micheletta, F., Violi, F. (2003) Low density lipoprotein oxidation, Istituto di I Clinica Medica
Universt degli Studi La Sapienza, Policlinico Umberto I, Viale del Policlinico, 155 00161, Roma.
Laknori, O. & Rexha, T. (2008) Data on prevalence of A1, A2 and A1/A2 bovine milk, Proceedings of International
Conference on Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Tirana University, Tirana, pp.
794.
Laugesen, M., Elliott, R. (2003) Ischaemic heart disease, Type 1 diabetes, and cow milk A1 beta casein, Journal of
New Zealand Medical Association, Vol. 116, No. 1168.
Leka, F., Doko, A. (2010) Situata aktuale dhe perspektiva e zhvillimit t gjedhit n Shqipri, Raport vjetor, Qendra e
Transferimit t Teknologjive Bujqsore, Fush Kruj.
Leka, F., Dedendreaj, L., Tahiri, F., Topi, H. (2009) Transferim i teknologjive gjenetiko racore, t mbarshtimit pr
ruajtjen in situ dhe prdorimin ekonomik t qndrueshm t populacionit t gjedhit autokton Lekbibaj Kuks,
Proceedings of International Conference on Agricultural Sciences, Tirana, 792 pages.
McLachlan, C. N. S. (2001) Beta casein A1, ischaemic heart disease mortality and other illnesses, Auckland, New
Zealand, Medical hypotheses Vol. 56(2), 262 272.
PAPER 242
REVIEW OF INFORMATION ON EMISSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ABOUT MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE AND SIMILAR WASTE
Miranda Deda1, Marco Massabo1,2

1
CIMA Research Foundation, Savona, Italy, 2University of Genoa, Italy.
Email: miranda.deda@cimafoundation.or
ABSTRACT
Waste management is a very large scale activity which inevitably has consequences for human health and the
environment. In this paper, we evidence the emission from different way to treat the municipal solid waste and
similar waste. The review considers mainly studies investigating emission on the different media. The various waste
management processes such as landfill and incineration are very different in character and give rise to different
emission and different kinds of human health hazards. This paper is concerned with reviewing the available
evidence the emission on different media and the effects on local populations of waste management activities. This
charter of the report reviews available information on the emission in land, air, groundwater, surface water and
sewer from the agreed range of waste management facilities. Where possible, we have quantified emissions from
each waste management option to relevant media. Where sufficient data are available a release rate for a pollutant
per ton of MSW processed at the waste treatment/disposal has been derived. This information along with the
methodology and assumptions used during the assessment are presented below. The data underlying the assessment
of emissions from waste management operations are less than ideal in many respects. In many cases, the available
information is limited in coverage, of uncertain quality, and does not specify the details of the process and waste to
which it refers. This sets a limit on the confidence that can be placed in the data. This is reflected in the assessment
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of uncertainty inherent in the emissions estimates in this chapter. We provide both an estimated uncertainty range,
and also an evaluation of the pedigree of the data that is, the reliability of the information underlying the emissions
estimates. We also make recommendations for areas where future work would be most valuable to address the
current shortcomings in data availability. But for evaluating the estimation in public health is used the Data Pedigree
(Van der Sluijs at al 2002).
Key words: waste emission, waste management, solid waste, health effects of municipal solid waste, environmental
effects, landfilled, data pedigree evaluation, ecc
INTRODUCTION
This study reviews the information on emission on public health and environmental effects which can be linked data
source to facilities treating MSW and similar waste. This paper reviews the available information on the emissions
to air, land and water, including the amounts of solid residues, from waste management facilities, especially for the
landfill. Where possible, we have estimated the amounts of emissions, for example, in many cases, we have
provided an estimated release rate of pollutants per ton of waste processed. Alongside the estimated amounts of
pollutants emitted from waste management facilities, we have described the data quality as very good, good,
moderate or poor. Emissions to air occur from most if not all waste management processes. Waste management
facilities are designed assessed and monitored to ensure that any impacts of emissions to air are at an acceptable
level. Emissions to water occur in particular from landfill and composting, mostly via treatment at a sewage works.
The main routes for disposal of MSW solid residues (other than to landfill) is spreading of composted material to
land and similar materials from related processes. The estimated emissions data is summarized in table below. This
section draws together the information gathered for each emission from landfill facility.
Although there are hundreds of substances emitted during waste management operations, most of these are released
in very small amounts which, as far as is known, are harmless. The study focused on substances of concern, and
those which are released in large quantities from the management of municipal solid waste. The pollutants assessed
differ according to the receiving media, and are detailed below.
But for evaluating the estimation in public health is used the Data Pedigree (Funtowitc and Ravetz, 1990, and
derived from Van der Sluijs at al 2002) and have this value: 0 4 poor, 5 8 moderate; 9 12 good; 13- 16 very
good.
The data underlying the assessment of emissions from waste management operations are less than ideal in many
respects. In many cases, the available information is limited in coverage, of uncertain quality, and does not specify
the details of the process and waste to which it refers. This sets a limit on the confidence that can be placed in the
data. This is reflected in the assessment of uncertainty inherent in the emissions estimates in this paper. We provide
both an estimated uncertainty range, and also an evaluation of the pedigree of the data that is, the reliability of the
information underlying the landfill emissions estimates. We also make recommendations for areas where future
work would be most valuable to address the current shortcomings in data availability.
RESULTS
Landfill. Landfill Directive (Council Directive 1999/31/EC), which aims to prevent, or to reduce as far as possible,
the negative environmental effects of landfill are very important for the Municipal solid waste(MSW) and here
indication in public health. The major impact of the Landfill Directive will be the change of composition and mass
of MSW being landfilled. Currently about 60% of MSW is biodegradable, and landfill is therefore a major
contributor to the production of the potent greenhouse gas methane, when landfilled (S Teneggi, V Nizzoli, E
Bertolini 2001). This will need to be progressively reduced over the period up to 2020. This may have the effect of
reducing the quantity, and changing the composition of the landfill gas produced, with similar changes to leachate
production. Emissions from landfill processes differ from other processes considered, in terms of the timescale over
which emissions arise following disposal to landfill. Emissions of landfill gas and leachate from biodegradable
waste materials take place over a period of years following disposal (MFleet, CP Young et al). In contrast, emissions
from other processes take place at the time the waste is processed. In this study, we have set out to evaluate the total
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emissions that will arise from waste landfilled at present. These emissions will take place over a period of years. By
the same token, emissions from a landfill at any one time arise from waste deposited over the preceding years.
1.1 Emissions landfill to air per ton of waste

Landfill gas (LFG) is the principal component of emissions to air from landfill sites. The composition of the gas
varies according to the type of waste and the phase of degradation of the waste but typically it contains a large
proportion of methane (typically 65%) and carbon dioxide (typically 35%) by volume (B Croft, R Smith, M Caine,
et al.) Small amounts (around 1% in total) of a range of trace components such as organic gases or vapors are also
present, a number of which are potentially harmful to health. There are a number of ways in which landfill gases and
products of combustion are released to the atmosphere. These include: Fugitive gas emissions; Collection using a
gas extraction system and subsequent burning in flares; Collection using a gas extraction system and utilized to
provide heat; The table 1 contains the evaluation the summary reuse the Data Pedigree for evaluation the estimate in
public health and in this cases are moderate(6). The summary emission results per ton of waste (g/T) and are
calculated in three scales: Lower estimate, Best estimates and Upper estimate, for the three cases. There potential
effects in public health are also evaluated.
Table 1: Contains the evaluation the summary emission in the air
Case Study 1: Case Study 1:

75% engines and 25% fugitive 75% flaring and 25% fugitive
Upper
Lower Lower Upper
Best estimate(g/ Best
stimate estimate estimate Data
estimate T estimate Potential effects in human
Substances (g/T MSW (g/T MSW (g/T MSW Pedigr
(g/T MSW (g/T health
except except except ee
waste except waste
where where Where
processed where processe
Started Started started
) started d)
otherwise ) otherwise) otherwise
otherwise)
Nitrogen Moder
300 680 1580 41 75 150
oxides ate(6) Asthma attacks,cancer
Total Moder Eye irritation
1.5 5,3 17 1.9 6.1 13
Particulates ate(6)
Moder Cancer,birth defects
Sulfur oxides 23 53 130 35 90 260
ate(6)
Hydrogen Moder Reproductive effects and
0.68 3.0 17 4.8 14 41
chloride ate(6) the effects in kidney
Hydrogen Moder Reproductive effects and
0.68 3.0 15 0.77 2.7 9.2
flouride ate(6) and the effects in kidney
Moder Reproductive effects and
Total VOCs 2.9 6.4 14 3.3 7.6 19
ate(6) and the effects in kidney
Non Moder Eye irritation
4.5 23 120 0.30 1,4 8.1
methaneVOCs ate(6)
1,1- Moder Reproductive effects and
0.033 0.66 13 0.033 0.66 13
dichloroethane ate(6) on the liver, cancer
Moder Effects in immune system
Chloroethane 0.013 0.26 5.2 0.013 0.26 5.2
ate(6) and kidney
Moder Effects in immune system
Chloroethene 0.014 0.28 5.6 0.014 0.28 5.6
ate(6) and kidney
Moder Effects in nervous system
Chlorobenzene 0.030 0.59 12 0.030 0.59 12
ate(6) cancer
Tetrachloroeth Moder Reproductive effects and
0.11 0.98 17 0.042 0.84 17
ene ate(6) on the liver, cancer
Moder Cancer, asthma,
Methane 13000 20000 33000 13000 19000 35000 ate(6) respiratory disease, birth
defects
Moder Reproductive effects and
Cadmium 0.011 0.071 0.45 No data No data No data
ate(6) the effects in kidney
Moder Effects in nervous
Nickel 0.0056 0.0095 0.016 No data No data No data
ate(6) system, cancer
Moder Cancer, reproductive
Arsenic 0.00058 0.0012 0.0025 No data No data No data ate(6) effects and effects in the
kidney liver ,birth defects
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Moder Cancer, reproductive

ate(6) effects and effects in the
Mercury 0.00060 0.0012 0.0024 No data No data No data
kidney ,liver ,birth
defects
Moder Cancer ,reproductive
Dixines and 140 ng 1.900 ng 2.8ngTEQ 55 ng 1.100ngT
11ngTEQ/T ate(6) effects and effects in the
furanes TEQ/T TEQ/T /T TEQ/T EQ/T
kidney liver ,birth defects
Poly- Moder
chlorinated No data No data No data No data No data No data ate(6) Reproductive effects,
biphenyls cancer
Carbone Moder Respiratory and other
16300 30000 540000 110000 200000 350000
dioxine ate(6) diseases
Moder Cancer, asthma,
Benzene 0.000003 0.000060 0.0012 0.000003 0.000060 0.0012 ate(6) respiratory disease, birth
defects
The estimated total releases represent the total quantity of a pollutant released from the waste landfilled during
decomposition over the coming years. The proportion of landfill gas that is combusted, using flares and engines,
during 2002 has been interpolated from data in the report as 67%, leaving the remainder to escape fugitively. It is
probable that the proportions of landfill gas that are released from each emission route will change due to drivers
such as the Landfill Directive. It is anticipated that improvements in practice and technology will lead to improved
capture rates of landfill gas reducing fugitive emissions, and a drive towards utilization of landfill gas to generate
electricity will cause the operational capacity of engines to increase more quickly than flaring capacity. Offset to
emissions from electricity generation. Landfill is often operated with energy generation from combustion of landfill
gas, resulting in the generation of electricity for export to the National Grid. Generating electricity in this way may
be viewed as reducing the need to generate electricity from other sources, with a benefit in reductions in emissions
from these sources.
1.2 Emissions to sewer, groundwater and surface water air per ton of waste
Emissions from a landfill to sewer, groundwater and surface water arise from the production of leachate.
Technology to control landfill leachate has advanced significantly during the past 25 years. The regulatory
requirements have also changed and now require that this technology is incorporated into landfill construction to
minimize emissions and harm to human health and the environment (Schmid J, at al DEFRA.-2000). Groundwater
and surface water are environmental receptors but may also be pathways to a human receptor (Environment Agency
USA 1999),. The Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) requires that all landfills receiving non-hazardous waste (which
includes MSW) must have a barrier system to contain leachate (Wheeler P.A,at al. 2001). This must comprise:
a drainage blanket to allow collection of leachate;
a leachate sealing system including an artificial liner;
a geological barrier comprising a low permeability mineral layer, extending under the base and up the sides of the
landfill.
A risk assessment is frequently carried out for landfills accepting non-hazardous waste (e.g. MSW), to ensure
compliance with the Groundwater Directive (80/68/EEC) and the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC). The
Landfill Directive also requires that water from precipitation (rainfall) is prevented from entering the landfill and
that surface water and/or groundwater are prevented from entering the landfilled waste. It is now common practice
to reduce infiltration and leachate production to a minimum, and thereby the long term costs associated with
leachate removal and treatment. This is achieved by the installation of a geomembrane within the cap, which
severely limits the production of leachate once the site is capped. Leachate is therefore likely to be produced in
significant quantities only during operational phases of landfilling before the permanent cap is installed or from
older closed landfills with less fully engineered caps.
The introduction of these strict engineering barrier controls in the construction of modern landfills is the result of a
progressive change in landfill design to minimize both the production and fugitive.
Table 2. Estimated emissions from landfill to surface water and groundwater.
Estimated Estimated Estimated Estimated national

discharge national Uncertaint Estimated discharge rate Discharge from
Selected substance Data Data
from Discharge y Removal from landfill landfill via STW to
(see text) Pedigree Pedigree
landfill to from landfill to factor 1 rate in STW via Receiving waters
STW(g/T) STW STW to (kg/year)
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(kg/year) receiving
waters (g/T)
Anyline (g/L) <0.00008 Poor (4) <2.2 3
Methyl tertiary ether
(g/L) <0.00011 Poor (4) <2.9 3
Chloride (mg/L) 123 Poor (4) 3340585 3
Cyanide (as CN) (mg/L) <0.005 Poor (4) <146 3
Di(2ethyl
hexyl)phthalate
(g/L <0.00008 Poor (4) <2.1 5
Ethylbenzene (g/L) <0.0008 Poor (4) <22 3
Fluoride (mg/L) 0.07 Poor (4) 1896 3
Methyl chlorophenoxy
acetic
acid(g/L <0.000008 Poor (4) <0.21 7
Dichloromethane (g/L) <0.00011 Poor (4) <2.9 43
Nitrogen (Total) (mg/L) 39 Poor (4) 1061985 3
Organo-tin (g/L) 0.000022 Poor (4) 0.6 3 99,6 % 8.6 x 10-8 Poor (3) 0.0023
Phenols (mg/L) 0.0023 Poor (4) 61 12
Phosphorus (mg/L) 0.32 Poor (4) 8699 3
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons(g/L) <0.00048 Poor (4) <13 2
Nonyl phenol (g/L) 0.00008 Poor (4) 2.1 5 99.999 % 7.6 x 10-10 Poor (3) 0.000021
Biphenyl (g/L) 0.000009 Poor (4) 0.24 5 94 % 0.00000053 Poor (3) 0.014
Mecoprop (g/L) 0.0008 Poor (4) 22 3 41 % 0.00049 Poor (3) 13
Naphthalene (g/L) 0.00004 Poor (4) 1.0 7 96 % 0.0000014 Poor (3) 0.038
Pentachlorophenol and
compounds(g/L) <0.000009 Poor (4) <0.25 4 86% <0.0000013 Poor (3) <0.035
Toluene (g/L) 0.0017 Poor (4) 46 5 98% 0.000034 Poor (3) 0.93
Xylenes (g/L) 0.0031 Poor (4) 83 3 97% 0.00010 Poor (3) 2.7
Arsenic (g/L) 0.0007 Poor (4) 18 3 11% 0.00060 Poor (3) 16
Chromium (g/L) 0.005 Poor (4) 132 3 66% 0.0017 Poor (3) 45
Copper (g/L) 0.0010 Poor (4) 27 3 67% 0.00034 Poor (3) 9.1
Lead (g/L) <0.0054 Poor (4) <146 3 51% <0.0026 Poor (3) <71
Nickel (g/L) 0.006 Poor (4) 164 3 41% 0.0036 Poor (3) 98
Zinc 0.011 Poor (4) 309 9 62% 0.0043 Poor (3) 118
Note: The uncertainty factor gives an indication of the likely range in estimated emissions of trace components. The
likely range is obtained by multiplying and dividing the estimated discharge by the uncertainty factor. Potential
effects in public health and in environments are the simile, because are the same element.
CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of available information on potential emission from Municipal Soil Waste and similar waste, were assessed
for their potential effects on human health and the environment. This means analysis of all data available on
emissions treated in the literature of health effects and environmental effects associated with landfill, incinerator and
MSW treatment processes are very important. This study reviews the health and environmental effects which can be
linked directly to facilities treating MSW and similar waste. Report commitments to clarify that this review of health
and environmental effects, and the conclusion is in the following:In these terms of reference on emmission,
environment covers both the natural environment, such as the impact on flora and fauna, water systems, odour, noise
levels and the man-made environment, for example buildings and materials.This study has compared the
performance of waste management and waste disposal options relative to one another across all categories of
environmental and health impacts. This study has compared the performance of waste management and waste
disposal options relative to other polluting activities affecting human health and the environment. Where possible,
assess the relative importance and risks of different impacts, drawing upon evidence of public risk perceptions and
preferences. This study is designed to be suitable for use in informing and supporting waste management decisions,
and also intended to be suitable for use as background information to assist in consideration of the case for using
economic instruments for incineration, taking into consideration the economic cost and benefits of health and
environmental effects of waste managements. Draw objective conclusions from the evidence on the relative
environmental and health impacts of different waste disposal options, including an assessment of the robustness of
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these conclusions. These objective conclusions can then be used by Government to inform further waste policy
decisions, including a consideration of the case for using economic instruments for landfill.
REFERENCS
DEFRA(Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs), and University of Birmingham in the UK, March
2004: Review of Environmental and Health Effects of Waste Management: Municipal Solid Waste and Similar
Wastes
B Croft, R Smith, M Caine, et al. 2001 - The Brogborough Test Cells: Conclusions from a 14- year field scale
landfill gas experiment, 2001
S Teneggi, V Nizzoli, E Bertolini 2001 - Monitoring of air emissions from a landfill capping and evaluation of
effects on the biogas collection system efficiency, from 8th International Waste Management and Landfill
Symposium, Vol. 1, 2001
Environment Agency 2003 Monitoring of Particulate Matter in Ambient Air around Waste Facilities Technical
Guidance Document M17.
Environment Agency 2002: Investigation of the composition of emissions of trace components in landfill gas, and
the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection ( NSCA).
Environment Agency 2002. Waste Pre-Treatment :A Review Report P1-344
Wheeler P.A., Stewart, I. , Dumitrean, P, and Donovan, B, , 2001 .Health Effects of Composting, R&D Technical
Report P1-315/TR Environment Agency , Bristol UK.
European Commission, 2001 Waste Management Options & Climate Change.Gladding T.& Crook B, 2000
Development of Dust Monitoring Guidelines for Licensed Waste Management Facilities R&D Technical Report P
399
Schmid J, Elser A , Strobel R, Crowe M , EPA, ABAG-itm Ireland ( February 2000), Dangerous substances in
waste.
Gladding T.L. et al Air Quality and Worker Symptoms in Nine Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs) in England
and Wales Integrated Waste Management and Pollution Control: Research, Politcy and Practice
Institut of Waste Management ,2000 Materials Recovery Facilities, IWM Business Services Ltd. EMAP
Communications , 2003 Materials recycling week and Materials Recycling Handbook.
Ministry of the Environment Ontario Kanada ( july 1999), Environmental Ricks of Municipal non-hazardous waste
landfilling and incineration.
Marb C. et al 1997 PCDDand PCDF in bottom ash from municipal solid waste incinerators in Bavaria, Germany.
Organohalogen compounds 32
EPA(Enviromental Protection Agensy- report ) 1999 - A framework to assess the risks to human health and
the environment from landfill gas, Technical report P271, 1999b
PAPER 246
CARBON SEQUESTRATION PROJECT IN ALBANIA: A TOOL TO GET INCOMES FROM

DEGRADED FOREST LANDS
Nehat ollaku1, Diana Shehu2, Erion Istrefi3, Valbona Simixhiu4

1
Manager of Improved Natural Resources Management Project, Tirana, Albania;
2
Agricultural University of Tirana, Dept. of Economy and Agrarian Policy, Tirana, Albania;
3
Improved Natural Resources Management Project, Tirana Albania;
4
Improved Natural Resources Management Project, Tirana, Albania
Email: nehatcollaku@gmail.com
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ABSTRACT
This article presents the implementation of carbon sequestration project in Albania for more than 7 years. Land
degradation has been identified as a major issue related to the natural resources management in Albania. The
degradation has been caused by intensive grazing activities in the forest and pasture lands in Albania. The project
activity has been implemented to reduce and avoid erosion and to establish forests an degraded lands. The project
activity consists of the reforestation of degraded lands, by assisting the natural regeneration of vegetation on
degraded lands. The objective of carbon sequestration project in Albania is reducing soil degradation, conserve
biodiversity and enable GHG emission reduction. The assisted natural regeneration project aims to restore the
vegetation on degraded lands distributed in 24 poorest communes over five regions of the country. To avoid further
degradation of the forest lands within project area are implemented several measures, such as: a) protection from the
grazing to promote natural regeneration; b) supplementary planting to enrich species diversity and stabilizing eroded
areas; c) silvicultural measures to increase forest biomass. The Bio-Carbon Fund as a buyer of carbon credits has
transferred the payments of carbon credits to Albania within May 2013. The payments of carbon credits will be used
for reinvesting in forestry and pasture improvements. The implementation of carbon sequestration is a tool to get
financial resources, which can be used for improvement of forests and pastures and in the same time to the
improvement of socioeconomic conditions of the rural communities.
Key words: carbon sequestration project, degraded forest lands, natural resources, carbon credits, carbon credit
payments, tool, incomes, improvement of forest and pastures, rural communities.
INTRODUCTION
The carbon sequestration project in Albania was spread on 24 communes.The implementation of carbon
sequestration project in Albania started on November 2005 and is going on.The project activity has been
implemented to reduce and avoid erosion and to establish forests an degraded lands. The project activity consists
of the reforestation of degraded lands, by assisting the natural regeneration of vegetation on degraded lands.
The objective of carbon sequestration project in Albania is reducing soil degradation, conserve biodiversity and
enable GHG emission reduction. The assisted natural regeneration project aims to restore the vegetation on degraded
lands distributed in 24 poorest communes over five regions of the country.
To avoid further degradation of the forest lands within project area are implemented several measures, such as:
a) protection from the grazing to promote natural regeneration;
b) supplementary planting to enrich species diversity and stabilizing eroded areas;
c) silvicultural measures to increase forest biomass.
The location of the communes, which are under carbon sequestration project are shown on the map below.
Map 1. Location of communes, Albania
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The aiming of the Project is to increase carbon sequestration through plantation and reforestation of highly degraded
land, which will also lead to enhanced sources of livelihood and incomes in poor rural areas, reduced soil
degradation, improved water quality and conservation of biodiversity.
This project supports a participatory approach within the communities in which it takes place, to reach agreement on
site selection and protection from grazing, as well as planning and implementation.
Status of carbon sequestration project in Albania. The full verification of carbon sequestration in Albania for the
Assisted Natural Regeneration Project took place in July 2012. The Monitoring Report following Clean
Development Mechanism procedures was submitted to the independent auditor Tv Nord. Out of the project area of
6,272.36 ha registered under the project, 1,493.36 ha was excluded from the project area as it was found unsuitable
for implementing the project.
There are almost 50 % of all measures like fencing, planting and forest improvements have been concluded so far,
from starting phase of the implementation of carbon sequestration up to June 2012. After 7 years under project
implementation, Albania has taken the first payments for carbon credits.
The non completed measures and activities of carbon project are going on implementation in framework of
Improved Natural Resources Management Project under the support of Swedish Trust Fund given for the year
2012-2013.
Economic benefits from carbon sequestration project. As we noted above, the total area under carbon
sequestration in Albania after the full verification is 4,779.03 ha. All the calculation done for the carbon credits
sequestered are done based on the area resulted after the full verification. At the beginning of the project, it was
prepared the PDD (Project Design Document), where were pre-calculated the estimated net anthropogenic GHG
removals by sinks for the period 2005 to 2018. At the end of monitoring and verification of carbon sequestration
project in spring summer, 2012, it was calculated the actual anthropogenic GHG removals by sinks for the period
2005 to 2012.
Tabel 1: Estimated and actual net anthropogenic GHG removals by sinks for the period November 2005 to June
2012.
Estimated net anthropogenic GHG Actual net anthropogenic GHG
removals by sinks for the removals by sinks in the current
No. of monitoring period 2005 to 2012 in the monitoring period
year Year the registered PDD (tones of CO2e) November 2005 to June 2012
(tones of CO2e)
1 2005 6,783.30 17,353.08
2 2006 13,971.62 17,182.52
3 2007 23,597.25 16,910.59
4 2008 27,382.68 17,000.08
5 2009 27,392.71 17,117.27
6 2010 26,936.46 17,119.52
7 2011 26,487.78 17.121.75
8 2012 26,046.54 8,952.66
Total 178,598.34 128,757.50
Source: Verification and certification report; UNFCCC Ref. No. 2714
As we can see above, on the year 2012, there were almost 50,000 tonnes CO 2e less than pre-calculated in the PDD.
This difference is mainly result of the reducing of carbon area of 1,493.36 ha, excluded from the project area as it
was found unsuitable for implementing the project, and not completed implementation activities planned at the
beginning of the project.
So, finally, the project was implemented on 3.990.45 ha during period November 2005 June, 2012. The total GHG
over the monitoring period amount of tCERs to 128, 757. 50 tonnes CO 2 e.
Table No.2: Payment distribution of carbon credits in Albania from 2005 June 2012
Implemented Total Payment distribution (USD)

No. Commune
area payment MoEFWA/Project Commune FPUA
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(Ha) (USD) (12.5 %) (20%) (67.5%)

1. Barmash 97,43 10,882.08 1,360.26 2,176.42 7,345.40
2. Bushtric 196,77 21,987.15 2,748.39 4,397.43 14,841.33
3. Caje 198,97 22,254.74 2,781.84 4,450.95 15,021.95
4. Golaj 186,74 20,872.18 2,609.02 4,174.44 14,088.72
5. Gjinar 212,87 23,771.10 2,971.39 4,754.22 16,045.49
6. Klos 302,85 33,850.40 4,231.30 6,770.08 22,849.02
7. Labinot 83,78 9,365.72 1,170.72 1,873.14 6,321.86
8. Maqellar 80,71 9,008.94 1,126.12 1,801.79 6,081.03
9. Melan 162,72 18,196.26 2,274.53 3,639.25 12,282.48
10. Ostren 83,65 9,365.72 1,170.72 1,873.14 6,321.86
11. Papr 239,13 26,714.61 3,339.33 5,342.92 18,032.36
12. Pishaj 435,39 48,657.16 6,082.15 9,731.43 32,843.58
13. Polis 137,67 15,386.54 1,923.32 3,077.31 10,385.91
14. Qaf Mali 93,59 10,480.69 1,310.09 2,096.14 7,074.47
15. Qelz 137,03 15,297.35 1,912.17 3,059.47 10,325.71
16. Qerret 267,81 29,925.71 3,740.71 5,985.14 20,199.85
17. Rrape 144,41 16,144.72 2,018.09 3,228.94 10,897.69
18. Sllov 124,46 13,914.79 1,739.35 2,782.96 9,392.48
19. Shishtavec 55,74 6,243.82 780.48 1,248.76 4,214.58
20. Shushic 219,33 24,529.27 3,066.16 4,905.85 16,557.26
21. Tomin 87,46 9,767.11 1,220.89 1,953.42 6,592.80
22. Trebisht 59,51 6,645.20 830.65 1,329.04 4,485.51
23. Ulz 353,58 39,514.43 4,939.30 7,902.89 26,672.24
24. Zerqan 28,85 3,211.11 401.39 642.22 2,167.50
3,990.45 445,986.80 55,748.37 89,197.35 301,041.08
Total
Source: Improved Natural Resources Management Project
CONCLUSIONS
Through the implementation of carbon sequestration project we found several conclusions, which are listed below:
The implementation of carbon sequestration project requires community participation and a strong agreement among
communities, clans and families to manage and to protect carbon sites according to rules and criteria set out for the
implementation of the carbon project.
Implementation of carbon project means limitation and restriction in use by the community and users for some
years. So, the users and community is not allowed to use the carbon sites, which means that grazing, firewood
collection, fodder should be stopped.
For all of these restrictions in use, we should give some compensation to the users and community restricted in use
from the implementation of carbon sequestration project.
The compensation for the users and community are the payment for carbon credits sequestered as result of the
implementation of carbon project.
Community and especially the users of carbon sequestration sites/parcels is the key actor for the protection of carbon
sites from grazing and fires.
The remain non-implemented measures and activities could be supported through the payments of carbon credits, so
there is a source how to find financial means for the forests improvements, or planting in degraded areas.
Through the implementation measures and activities under carbon project were employed for certain time around 8
- 10 % of the labor forces of the communes under carbon sequestration communes, which shows that
implementation of carbon project has had a good impact in the employment of community.
As we stressed at the beginning, most carbon project sites have been degraded areas. Through implementation of
carbon project, we see how useful was this project as result of its implementation there is a better situation of carbon
sites in term of biomass, but also in term of getting incomes through the employment of community.
Implementation of the carbon projects are important not only locally in term of improvement of community forests,
and getting incomes for the community, but also globally in term of adapting of climatic changes.
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Through, monitoring and verification of carbon sequestration project we see that the carbon sites under end user
rights are much more protected than the carbon sites under common use rights of community. This shows that
continuing of the decentralization reform of transferring of forests and pastures to the end users are very good also
for the increasing of carbon credits under the carbon sequestration project.
REFERENCES
TV NORD; 2013: Verification and certification report 1st periodic- Assisted Natural Regeneration of Degraded
Lands in Albania; UNFCCC Ref. No: 2714;
AGROTEC. Spa. Italy, 2005: Project Design Document: Assisted Natural Regeneration of Degraded Lands in
Albania;
World Bank: 2006 2011: Aide Memoires of World Bank Missions in framework of Natural Resources
Development Project from 2006 2011.
NRDP: Progress Reports of NRDP prepared for World Bank Missions in framework of Natural Resources
Development Project from 2006 2011.
PAPER 247
FAECAL CONTAMINATION INDICATORS OF THE BUTRINTI LAGOON ECOSYSTEM AND

SHELLFISH SAFETY
Elvira Beli1, Renis Mai2, Sonila ooli1, Halit Memoi2

1
Agricultural University, Kamez, Albania;
2
Food Safety and Veterinary Institute, Str. Aleksandr Moisiu nr. 82 Tirana, Albania;
Email: elvira.beli@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The objective of the study was to evaluate contamination of the Butrinti lagoon ecosystem, Albania, through
determinate FC, E. coli densities in Mytilus galloprovincialis and water, to correlate and to compare with Albanian,
and international criteria. The dates obtained during years 2008 - 2011, in total 153 water samples and 293 mollusks
samples Mytilus galloprovincialis, it is analyzed. The minimum value of FC, E.coli recorded in water were
respectively 2 cfu/100mL, 1 cfu/100mL, the maximum were 960 cfu/100mL FC vs 480 cfu/100mL of E.coli. GM
of FC annual counts varied from lowest 5.3 cfu/100mL 2011, to highest value 24.8 2010. Annual GM of E.coli is
lowest 1.9 cfu/100mL 2011, highest value 9.6 cfu/100mL, recorded 2010. The GM value of FC, E coli during 2008,
2010 years exceeds the FC level 14 cfu GM/100 mL, E coli level 4 cfu GM/100mL, standard set for approved area.
The minimum value of E.coli mollusk it was 10 MPN/100g, recorded during the four years, maximum of E.coli
16.000 MPN/100g recorded winter 2011, related to high flow condition. GM of E.coli annual counts observed
varied from lowest 43.1 MPN/100g 2011, to highest 365.9 MPN/100g to 2008. The classification of the Butrinti
lagoon belongs to restricted area, based on EU requirements is consider as B area. Has no differences in the
classification refer to two different systems, restricted and class B areas, are equivalent. The E.coli GM and the
distribution of the value indicated by box-Whisker-plot, is less than 230 MPN/100g E.coli during the spring-
summer.
Key words: Mytilus galloprovincialis, shellfish growing water, faecal coliform, E.coli, Butrinti lagoon ecosystem.
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INTRODUCTION
Butrinti lagoon, located southern part of Albania has been distinguished for the production and the exports of the
molluscs with particular emphasis on mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis and other shellfish species such as ostrichs,
scallops etc. Early 1980 the level of shellfish harvesting reached 50000 kv annually. Those products were of
particular importance for the Albanian exports in general and were a good income for the national economy in
general. Due to a irrational and intense exploitation, within a time period of 5 years a depletion of the shellfish
reserves occurred, associated to a drastic decrease of production. The Democratic turnover of the country found that
area of activity in a precarious condition although the productivity still was considerable.
Following the outbreak of cholera in 1994, a restriction on the imports for marine products was imposed and the
export for such products was banned. The facilities for the collection of shellfish have been totally abandoned and
several of them have been destroyed during the outbreak of disorders in 1997. From around 75 existing facilities in
the Butrinti lagoon area, almost 35 were rendered nonfunctional and are currently gradually getting restored.
Aquatic animals are nutritionally very important for human consumption as they are excellent sources of protein,
trace elements and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Ruxton 2005). Consequently there is a global increase in the demand
of fish and shellfish product (FAO 2006)
As any coastal lagoon it is located in the interface of land, freshwater and seawater environments. A primary
concern in such ecosystems which support the commercial production of bivalves is contamination from human
sewage, animal wastes as well as risks to human health associated with the consumption of contaminated bivalve
(Knap et al 2002). Microbiological pollution of shellfish growing water is a common problem in almost all the
coastal ecosystems of developing countries (Stegeman et al, 2002).
Therefore shellfish growing water must be examined to ensure that pathogenic microorganisms are not present.
There is rigorous legislation to protect those who consume mollusk shellfish by:
-ensuring that shellfish sold into the supply chain meet strict food safety health and hygiene standards;
-classifying harvesting areas and beds from which shellfish are gathered;
The indicator bacteria used are generally of the coliform group: total coliforms, faecal coliforms or E. coli
depending on the requirements of the legislation which applies.
There are two principal systems in use in the world. One is that of the European Union (EU), under Regulation (EC)
No 854/2004 (European Communities 2004). This system uses the monitoring of E. coli in the shellfish flesh and
intra-valvular fluid. The other is the United States National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) which uses
monitoring of water samples from the production area (US FDA 2008).
Other countries which trade with Europe or the United States will adopt one or both of the systems depending on the
circumstances. Some countries have produced hybrid systems as a practical approach to trading with both blocks.
EU criteria for the classification of shellfish harvesting areas . Microbiological standard required
Class A an area in which molluscs contain consistently less than 230 E coli per 100g of flesh.
Class B an area where 90% of samples have less than 4,600 E coli per 100g of flesh; the remaining 10% of
samples must not exceed 46,000 E coli per 100g of flesh.
Class C an area where mollusks must contain less than 46,000 E coli per 100g of flesh.
Prohibited area an area where levels are higher than 46,000 E coli per 100g of flesh.
NSSP, USA , criteria for the classification of shellfish harvesting areas. Faecal coliforms per 100mL water.
1 Approved area <14 <43 90% compliance . (Median concentration of 14 organisms per 100 ml, not
more than 10% of the samples may exceed 43 organisms/100mL).
2 Restricted areas <88 <260 90% compliance
3 Prohibited areas Above the restricted level.
Albanian legislation is an adaption of EU regulation, shellfish growing area classification is based on the level of
E.coli per 100 g of flesh and intravalvular liquid. Faecal coliform, E.coli per 100 ml water are studied to. The first
study related to environmental contamination levels of the Butrinti lagoon ecosystem it was conducted from October
1995 to August 1996,( Topi et al. 1998,). Frequently the monitoring programs are designated and implemented by
Albanian authority and laboratories.
The objective of this study is to determinate faecal bacteria (faecal coliform, E. coli) densities in mollusk Mytilus
galloprovincialis and in the surrounding water simultaneously, in an attempt to correlate them and also to compare
the bacterial densities found, with Albanian and international microbiological criteria for the classification of
shellfish harvesting areas.
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In this presentation the set of the dates obtained from monitoring programs implemented during the years 2008 -
2011, in total 153 shellfish harvesting water samples and 293 mollusks samples Mytilus galloprovincialis, it is
processed and analyzed. Microbiological water quality and its significance for bivalve mollusks it was considered,
with reference to the requirements for monitoring shellfish waters and bivalve mollusk harvesting areas.
Three sampling point where the samples are collected frequently (water monthly, mollusk biweekly) are identified
with GPS coordinate BM1N (North), BM1W (West), BM1S (South). The east sampling point has not the same
frequency.
The sample of water is constituted to fill a sterile bottle with seawater in the proximity of the water surface of
mussels sampling point. Every mussels samples is constituted to take the animals in three height (high, half,
lowness) of cultivate system. The samples identified with the name of sampling point, are put into the handling
fridge and refrigerated with ice boxes and transferred to the laboratory of ISUV.
The temperature of the samples at arrival it is recorded.
The laboratory tests the samples immediately. The water samples were tested for the level of faecal coliforms
bacteria and E. coli. The methods use by laboratory is ISO 9308: 2000.
At the laboratory the shell of mollusks were washed and scrubbed under running water and their surface were
sterilized by rinsing in 70% ethanol, opened aseptically with a sterilized knife, the flash and liquid were weighed
and tested.
Within Europe, refer to regulation EC 2073/2005, ISO TS 16649-3 (based on Donovan et al. 1988) is the reference
method for the testing of shellfish for E. coli. This method is a two-stage; five tube by three dilution MPN. The first
stage of the method is a resuscitation requiring inoculation of minerals modified glutamate broth (MMGB) with a
series of diluted shellfish homogenates and incubation at 370C for 24+2 hours. The presence of E. coli is
subsequently confirmed by sub culturing acid producing tubes onto agar containing 5-bromo-4-chloro-3 indoly--D
glucuronide and detecting growth on the tryptone bile glucuronide agar (TBGA).
The level of fecal coliforms, E.coli in shellfish growing water and E.coli in mollusks it is estimated by annual
geometric mean, minimum, maximum value, percentage. Box-Whisker-plot is used to evaluate the distribution of
the value and seasonal variations.
RESULTS
Water microbiological contamination assessment: Fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli densities of the shellfish
growing water samples collected on Butrinti lagoon showed a distribution of the value, varied from year to year,
from seasons to season,.
Comparison of sanitary quality of the shellfish waters with standards. The results of microbiological contamination
of the shellfish growing water samples analyses, collected during the long term study 2008-2011, presented as
summary statistics of the level of faecal coliform, E.coli are shown in Fig. 1, 2. The minimum value of faecal
coliform, E.coli recorded were respectively 2 cfu/100mL, 1 cfu/100mL. The maximum value showed in Fig.1,2 are
960 cfu/100mL faecal coliforms vs 480 cfu/100mL of E.coli. GM of FC annual counts observed varied from lowest
5.3 cfu/100mL 2011, to highest value 24.8 2010. GM of E.coli presented as annual mean in the figure 2 is lowest 1.9
cfu/100mL 2011, highest value 9.6 cfu/100mL, it was recorded 2010. The GM value of FC, E coli obtain during
2008, 2010 years exceeds the FC level 14 cfu GM/100 mL, E coli level 4 cfu GM/100mL, standard set for approved
area. Faecal contamination of water courses and associated shellfish growing areas can originate from both human
and animal (domestic and wild) sources (Cox et al., 2005; Derlet et al., 2004; Donnison & Ross, 1999). The
classification of the Butrinti lagoon mollusk production area based on the GM level of FC and E.coli in shellfish
growing water compare to the NSSP (USA) criteria and the Albanian Prime Minister order 1995, varied from
approved for the 2009, 2011 years to restricted for 2008, 2010 years. Based on the percentage compliance of the raw
date, the area is classified as restricted during four years periods. One should note, however, that the results shown
here should only be considered indicative because the recent Albanian legislation has not foreseen the classification
of the mollusk production area based on the shellfish growing water contamination. Some studies reported that in
general the level of bacterial contamination of shellfish depends on the extent of pollution in the growing water
(Adebayo Tayo et al 2006).
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Table.1. Summary statistic of the levels of faecal coliforms in shellfish water from the Butrinti lagoon,
for the period 2008-2011
Faecal coliform cfu/100 mL shellfish water

Total
Years N Minimum Geomean Maximum Percentage > 14 cfu/100mL
2008 34 4 22,6 124 70,6
2009 36 2 12,5 68 41,7
2010 41 2 24,8 960 61
2011 42 2 5,3 142 16,7
Table 2. Summary statistic of the levels of E.coli in shellfish water from the Butrinti lagoon,
Escherichia coli cfu/100 mL shellfish water

Years Total N Minimum Geomean Maximum Percentage > 4 cfu/100mL
2008 34 1 7,6 83 73,5
2009 36 1 4,6 15 50
2010 41 1 9,6 480 68,3
2011 42 1 1,9 32 19
Figure 1.2 Box-and- Whisker plots of faecal coliforms, E,coli level in shellfish growing waters
from the Butrinti Lagoon.
Seasonal variation of microbial contamination. Fecal coliforms minimum value showed in the Fig. 1 is 2 cfu/100
mL, membrane filter methods, it was recorded during the summer time frequently, the maximum it was 960
cfu/100mL recorded during the autumn-winter monitoring of the lagoon. Seasonal geometric mean of FC value
expressed to the Fig. 3, indicate the higher value recorded also the autumn-winter time. E. coli densities the shellfish
growing water samples varied from the minimum 1 cfu/100mL to the maximum 480 cfu/100 mL membrane filter
methods. Seasonal geometric mean value presented to Fig. 3, indicate the same trends as fecal coliforms, with the
higher value during the autumn-winter monitoring program. The higher concentration of these bacteria at the
autumn-winter months it is related with wet weather and high flow conditions. Referring to previous studies of the
lagoon (Topi et al.1998, Sulaj et al 2004) E.coli level of the shellfish growing water it was higher winter time than
summer time, because of the waste water discharges into it. An UK study estimated that geometric mean
concentrations of indicator organisms can be increased 10-fold during high flow conditions (Crowther et al., 2003,
2002). In New Zealand, faecal indictor organisms were found increased by 2 orders of magnitude during the rising
limb of a flood event (Nagels et al., 2002)
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The seasonal evaluations of the faecal contamination of the shellfish growing water of the Butrinti lagoon reveals of
the occurrence of the elevated number of the FC, E.coli during the autumn- winter months, corresponds to the few or
non fishing period.
Figure 3.4 Box-and- Whisker plots of seasonal variation in faecal coliforms, E,coli level in shellfish growing
waters from the Butrinti Lagoon.
Mollusk microbiological contamination assessment: Despite the results for the shellfish growing water, which are
indicative, the E.coli densities of the mollusk Mytilus galloprovinciali samples, farming at the Butrinti lagoon,
collected during 2008-2011 period it is evaluated. GM of E.coli count in mollusk tissue presented as annual mean in
the Fig. 7 is lowest 43.3 to 2011, the highest value GM 365.8 it was recorded 2008. The min. value 10 MPN/100g,
frequently recorded during the years, the maximum count of the E.coli 16000 MPN/100g, it was recorded during the
2011. The bacterial densities found in mussels are the result of complex interactions related to the physiology and
morphology of the bivalve such as size, filtering, excretion, and metabolic rates (SOL et al., 2000) and also depend
on prey characteristics such as size, specific composition and density of the bacteria in the water. These latter are
affected by several environmental conditions such as solar irradiation, temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability
(Sinton et al., 2002). It has been observed (De Donno et al., 2008) that shellfish may contain high densities of fecal
indicator bacteria, even when the surrounding waters are, apparently, of good quality. This suggests that bivalves
such as mussels may concentrate pathogenic microorganisms in their tissues and that bacteria may have higher
survival rates inside the bivalves (Solic et al., 1999).
The lagoons proximity to the coast and consequently, to the city and other populated area such as Ksamil means
that these waters are subject to contamination by sewage discharge and/or by urban drainage waters, considered to
be the main causes of the contamination of coastal waters, especially after periods of rain. A large rural catchments
faecal contamination may be non-human sourced (Carroll et al., 2005). E. coli is largely found in the intestine of
warm-blooded animals (Orskov &Orskov, 1981), thus its presence is not necessarily indicative of human-sourced
pollution. Non-human sourced faecal bacteria and viral pathogens are known to originate from domestic livestock,
aquatic and terrestrial wildlife (Griffin et al., 2000; Orskov &Orskov, 1981).
Table 3. Summary statistic of the levels of E.coli in mollusk from the Butrinti lagoon,
Escherichia coli MPN/100 g shellfish flesh

Percentage MPN/100 g
Years Total N Minimum Geomean Maximum < 230 >= 230 to 4600 > 4600
2008 80 10 365,9 3500 35 65 0
2009 75 10 161,8 5400 62,7 30,7 6,7
2010 63 10 281,9 9200 50,8 41,3 7,9
2011 75 10 43,3 16000 86,7 8 5,3
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Figure 5, 6. Box-and- Whisker plots for the level of E.coli MPN/100 g in mollusk from the Butrinti Lagoon for the
period 2008-2011and E.coli MPN/100 g in mollusk seasonal variation 2008-2011.
Comparison of microbiological quality of the shellfish flesh with standards. The results of microbiological
contamination of the shellfish flesh samples analyses, collected during the long term study 2008-2011, presented as
minimum, maximum, annual geometric mean, percentage are shown in figure 7,8,9. The minimum. value of E.coli it
was 10 MPN/100g, recorded during the four years, the maximum value of E.coli 16.000 MPN/100g recorded winter
2011, it was related to high flow condition. Sporadic pollution events, when molluscan shellfish are more likely to
contain higher numbers of microbial contamination, are a major issue (Fitzgerald, 20081). There is particular
concern because the incidence of sporadic pollution events will increase with climate change due to wetter weather
and more storm events (as reported by Fitzgerald,2008 2).
GM of E.coli annual counts observed varied from lowest 43.1 MPN/100g 2011, to highest value 365.9 MPN/100g
to 2008. If the classification of the production areas will be done based on GM of E.coli presented as annual mean in
the figure 8, Butrinti lagoon during 2009, 2011 it will be consider as A zone. As it is indicated by Fig, 8, the
classification will be B area for the years 2008, 2010. Albanian and EU criteria are based on the regulation (EC) No
854/2004, the area classification is based on the percentage compliance of the raw data. Based on E.coli level
recorded during this four years study period indicated to Fig. 7, Butrinti lagoon did not fulfill standard set for A area,
because there are each year samples exceeds the E.coli level 230 MPN/100g. Refer to Fig. 7 less than 10% of the
samples exceeds the E.coli level 4600 MPN/100g, fulfilling the standards set for B area. The classification system
determines whether the area can be used for production at all and, if so, the level of treatment (relay, depuration,
heat-treatment) which needs to be applied to harvested bivalves prior to sale for consumption. The depuration
process is necessary for public health protection.
The seasonal distribution of the E.coli level of the shellfish samples recorded during this study it is showed by Fig.9.
The E.coli GM and the distribution of the value indicated by box-Whisker-plot, is less than 230 MPN/100g E.coli
during the spring summer time, with exception case. The E.coli GM and the distributed value are between 230
MPN/100g to 4600MPN/100g during the winter-autumn, corresponds to few fishing or non fishing period. The
seasonal classification of the zone will reduced the cost of the depuration process.
CONCLUSIONS
The overall evaluations of the faecal contamination of the Butrinti lagoon ecosystem, shellfish growing water and
mollusk reveals the occurrence of elevated number of faecal coliforme, E.coli compare to requirement of the
standard to either shellfish growing water and mollusk flesh. The higher number of faecal coliforms, E.coli in
shellfish growing water corresponds to the winter-autumn month. The dates indicate the same trends as faecal
coliforms, E.coli in water, with the higher value during the autumn-winter monitoring program for E.coli in mollusk
flesh. The higher concentration of these bacteria at the autumn-winter months it is related with wet weather and high
flow conditions. Refer to the shellfish water criteria (NSSP) the overall classification of the Butrinti lagoon belongs
to restricted area, based on EU requirements is consider as B area. Has no differences in the classification refer to
two different systems, restricted and class B areas, respectively are equivalent. The lagoons proximity to the coast
and consequently, to the city and other populated area such as Ksamil means that these waters are subject to
contamination by sewage discharge and/or by urban drainage waters, considered to be the main causes of the
contamination of coastal waters, especially after periods of rain. The years findings indicate the necessity of
depuration process, in aim to protect public health. The seasonal evaluations of the faecal contamination of the
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shellfish growing water and mollusk of the Butrinti lagoon reveals of the occurrence of the lower number of the
GM of FC, E.coli during the spring-summer months, corresponds to the fishing period. Seasonal classifications may
be consider from the authority and safety control measures for the product before placing on the market should be
enforced. Effective measures are also needed to prevent pollution from occurring source of discharges and
monitoring is required.
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Adebayo-Tayo B.C., A,A Onilude , A.A. Ongujobi and D.O. Adejoye 2006. Bacteriological and proximate analyses
of periwinkles from two differences creeks in Nigeria. World Applied Sci. J.1 87-91.
Carroll S, Hargreaves M, Goonetilleke A, 2005. Sourcing faecal pollution from onsite wastewater treatment systems
in surface waters using antibiotic resistance analysis. Journal of Applied Microbiology 99 471-482.
Cox P, Griffith M, Angles M, Deere D, Ferguson C, 2005. Concentrations of pathogens and indicators
in animal feces in the Sydney watershed. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 5929-5934.
Crowther J, Wyer MD, Bradford M, Kay D, Francis CA , 2003. Modelling faecal indicator concentrations in large
rural catchments using land use and topographic data. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 94, 962-973
De Donno A., Liaci D., Bagordo F., Lugoli, F., Gabutti G. 2008. Mytilus galloprovincialis as a bioindicator of
microbiological pollution of coastal waters: A study conducted in the Salento Peninsula ,Italy. J. coast. Res., v. 24,
216 221.
Derlet RW, Carlson JR, Noponen MN ,2004. Coliform and pathologic bacteria in Sierra Nevada National forest
wilderness area lakes and streams. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 15, 245-249.
Donnison AM, Ross CM (1999) Animal and human faecal pollution in New Zealand. New Zealand
Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 119-128.
Donovan T.D., Gallagher S., Andrews N.J., Greenwood M.H., Graham J., Russell J.E., Roberts D. and Lee R. 1988.
Modification of the standard UK method for the enumeration of Escherichia coli in live bivalve mollusks. Comm.
Dis. Public Health,1, 188196.
European Communities, 2005. Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for
foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union L338: 1-26.
European Communities (2004) Regulation (EC) No 854/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29
April 2004 laying down specific rules for the organization of official controls on products of animal origin intended
for human consumption. Off. J. Eur. Communities, L 226, 25.6.04: 83127.
FAO, 2006. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Fitzgerald, A., 20081. Financial impacts of sporadic pollution events and exceeded discharge agreements on shellfish
operations. http://www.shellfish.org.uk/SIDS/sids_projects.html
Fitzgerald, A., 20082. Impact of climate change on frequency of pollution events.
http://www.shellfish.org.uk/SIDS/sids_projects.html
Griffin DW, Stokes R., Rose JB., Paul JH 2000. Bacterial indicator occurrence and the use of an F+specific RNA
coli phage assay to identify faecal sources in Homosassa Springs, Florida. Microbial Ecology 39, 56-64
ISO 9308: 2000. Isolation and enumeration of faecal coliforms, E.coli. Membrane filtration method. International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
ISO TS 16649-3:2004 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs Enumeration of b-glucuronidase positive
Escherichi coli part 3 : Most Probable Number technique using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-b-D-glucuronide acid.
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
Knap ,A., E. Dewailly and C. Furgal, 2002. Indicator of ocean health and human health: A research framework.
Environ. Health Perspective, 110, 839-845.Orskov F, Orskov I, 1981. Enterobacteriaceae. In: Broude AI (ed)
Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. W.B. Saunders Co., Philidelphia, p 340-352Nagels JW, R.J. Davis-
Colley, Donnison AM, Muirhead RW,2002. Faecal contamination over flood events in a pastoral agricultural
stream in New Zealand. Water Science and Technology, 45, 45-52
Ruxton, C., P.Calder,S.. Reed and Simpson, 2005. The imact of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on
human health. Nutr. Res. Rev.18: 113-129
Sinton L., Findlay R., Hannah R. 1998. Distinguishing human from animal faecal contamination in water. New
Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 32, 323-348.
Sol M., Porte C., Barcelo D. Albaiges J 2000. Bivalves residue analysis for the assessment of coastal pollution in
the Ebro Delta (NW Mediterranean). Mar. Pollut. Bull., 40,746 753.
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Solic, M.; Krstulovic, N.; Jozic, S.; Curac, D 1999. The rate of concentration of faecal coliforms in shellfish under
different environmental conditions. Environment Int., v 25, n. 8, 991-1000.
Stegeman , J. J., A. R. Solow and T.J Goehl, 2002. Environ. Health Perspective, 110, 660-661.
Sulaj K., Beli E., Bijo B., Telo D., Shallari Y., 2004. Bacterial monitoring of Albanian water coastline and live
bivalve mollusk on 2003. Albanian journal of agriculture science. Agriculture University of Tirana, V 1, No 3, 87-
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Topi B., Polleti R., Beli E., Mone S., Xinxo A., Dervishi I., Telo A., Sulaj K., 1998. Monitoring of bio-
toxicological pollution of aquatic ecosystems of the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Journal of Veterinary, Albania, V 1,
No 1, 3-15
US FDA. , 2008. National Shellfish Sanitation Program: Guide for the Control of Molluscan Shellfish 2008.
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FederalStatePrograms/NationalShellfishSanitationProgram/ucm046353.htm.
PAPER 248
EVALUATION OF COMPLEMENT FIXATION TEST AND IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE FOR

DETECTION OF MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE ANTIBODIES
Blerta Laze1*, Anila Mitre2, Hysnela Marra3

1
UniversityIsmail Qemali, Vlora, Albania;
2
Tirana Uiversity, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Albania;
3
Medical Clinic Intermedica, Albania;
*Email: skenderi_blerta@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in routine clinical practice has been based on serology, since
bacterial culture of this organism is slow and lacks sensitivity. Medical diagnostic is working to determine the most
sensitive techniques for the detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae antibodies, in the framework of which is
developed this scientific work. In these conditions, is worth testing immunologic techniques such as
Immunofluorescence or Complement Fixation Test (CFT). 50 individuals that were identified as positive for M.
pneumonia and 50 individuals that were identified as negative for M. pneumonia were tested by CFT and
Immunofluorescence techniques. The results obtained are compared with each other and sensitivity and specificity is
estimated for each technique. Based on the results, we defined sensitivity 92%, specificity 96% for CFT and
sensitivity 94%, specificity 98% for Immunofluorescence. Low specificity is the limit of CFT in CHORUS
instrument. Advantage of CFT is measuring samples one by one (even a single analyse) and short procedure time.
Immunofluorescence advantages are high sensitivity and specificity. CFT frequently is found as a method in the
testing menus of clinical reference laboratories and is recommended in rapid tests examinations. But in doubtful
cases, its important testing the patients with Immunofluorescence technique.
Keywords: Immunofluorescence, ComplementFixationTest, Mycoplasma pneumonia, Sensitivity, Specificity.
INTRODUCTION
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a human respiratory tract parasit that causes endemic and epidemic infections.
Mycoplasma pneumonia is the smallest free-living organism capable of self-replication, smaller than some viruses.
It has also one of the smallest bacterial genomes known and a total lack of cell wall. Lack of the cell wall makes this
parasit to be resistant to -lactam antibiotics.
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First M. pneumoniae was considered as a virus rather than a bacterium, when was cultured the causative agent of
human primary atypical pneumoni (PAP) or "walking pneumonia"
Acute respiratory tract infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumonia, may be accompanied by worsening of chronic
bronchitis and asthma.
In our study we have included 100 cases tested by PCR Real Time, of which 50 individuals that were identified as
positive for M. pneumonia and 50 individuals that were identified as negative for M. pneumonia by Real-Time
PCR, were tested by Immunofluorescence and ELISA. The results obtained are compared with results of Real-Time
PCR and sensitivity and specificity is estimated for each technique. Principle of quantification by
Immunofluorescence test. Mycoplasma pneumoniae cells are incubated with diluted samples obtained from patients
6 to 60 days after infection. If the reaction is positive, IgG-specific antibodies will be associated with bacterial
antigens. In the second step, the antibodies associated with anti-human antibodies are stained with fluorescence and
visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
CHORUS test principle: The test is based on the principle of indirect ELISA's.
ELISA, (Enzyme Linked Immunoabsorbant Assays) is a technique used in immunology for the detection of
antibodies and antigens. It is a technique that exploits the properties of plastic materials, consisting of polystyrene,
to absorb protein molecular layers on their surface, based on the enzymatic degradation of the substrate. The antigen
comprising an extract of Mycoplasma pneumonia, is bound to a solid phase and incubated with diluted human serum
blocking antibodies that we want to exclude IgM or IgG (if we test IgG, exclude IgM ). Specific IgG antibodies will
be associated with antigens. After washing and elimination of proteins that do not interact, incubation continues
with the addition of conjugate consisting of monoclonal anti-human IgG antibodies conjugated with peroxidase.
Unbound conjugate is eliminated and peroxidase substrate added. Blue color developed is proportional to the
concentration of specific antibodies present in serum. There are taken 25 infected patients with Mycoplasma
pneumonia, diagnosed by PCR test in throat swab specimens and serum, from 6 to 60 days after infection and 25
healthy patients (excluded by PCR test for Mycoplasma infections). These patients were sent from "Shefqet Ndroqi"
lung disease hospital and their ages range from 16-69 years. It is defined in history the first day of the disease and
sera were obtained from day 6 to day 60 after the onset of illness. During the first visit of the patient, throat culture
is taken and stored at -70 C. Nucleic acid is extracted with Qia Amplificator DNA kit (Q / AGENT). Amplification
was carried out with platinum nitrofhenuar supermikser. Immunofluorescence was carried out with EUROIMMUN
Anti-Mycoplasma pneumonia IIFT IgG and Anti-Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM IIFT kits.
RESULTS
From the analysis of 50 samples identified as negative by Real-Time PCR technique, we defined 50 negative
samples (or 100%) with IIF technique. While from the analysis of 50 samples identified as positive by PCR Real-
Time, we defined 46 positive and 4 negative samples with IIF technique. Based on these results we determined the
sensitivity and specificity of Immunofluorescence taking as reference test Molecular Biology (Real-Time PCR).
Immunofluorescence is a very specific technique with 100% specificity and sensitivity good enough 88%.
Table 1. Results of patients analyzed by immunofluorescence and Real-Time PCR.
Real-Time PCR
Mycoplasma pneumonia IgG, IgM Negative Positive
Negative 50 4
Immunofluorescence Positive - 46
Sensitivity = (46/50) * 100 = 88%
Specificity = (50/50) * 100 = 100%
From the analysis of 50 samples defined as positive by Real-Time PCR technique, ELISA technique (CHORUS)
resulted in 42 positive samples and 8 negative samples. While from the analysis of 50 samples classified as negative
with Real-Time PCR, ELISA technique resulted in 46 negative and 4 positive samples. According to these results,
the sensitivity of the ELISAs was 84% and specificity is 92%.
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Table 2. Results of patients analyzed by ELISA and Real-Time PCR.
Mycoplasma pneumonia IgG,IgM

Real-Time PCR
Negative Positive
Negative 8 46
ELISA (CHORUS) Positive 42 4
Sensitivity = (42/50) * 100 = 84%
Specificity = (46/50) * 100 = 92%
Chart 1. Overview of the frequency of patients analyzed by Immunofluorescence and ELISA test.
CONCLUSIONS
Low specificity and sensitivity are the disadvantages of ELISA in CHORUS instrument. This happens because there
is a non specific glycolipid antigen for Mycoplasma pneumonia, which operates in a cross-reaction with antigens of
different origins. Advantage of ELISA is measuring samples one by one ( even a single analyse) and a short
procedure time. Immunofluorescence advantages in comparison with ELISA are high sensitivity and specificity.
Positive and negative samples produce a large difference in signal strength. Each bound antibody shows a typical
fluorescence pattern depending on the location of the individual antigens. The disadvantage of this method is that it
requires a very specialized personnel for interpretation of results Although, ELISA has lower sensitivity and
specificity than Immunofluorescence, both these techniques are highly recommended in routine clinical practice.
As mentioned in the literature, Molecular Biology is the gold method, but its use is impossible in routine diagnostics
due to its high cost.
REFERENCES
Iolanda E. Low and Monroe D.Eaton. Replication of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in Broth Culture. Journal of
bacteriology,Mar.(1965)
Jurgen Feldner , Wolfgang Bredt , Shmuel Razin Adherence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to Glass Surfaces.
Infection and Immunity , Oct. 1979, p. 70-75
G.K. Masover , R.P. Mischak and L. Hayflick. Some effects of growt Medium Composition on the Antigenicity of a
T-Strain Mycoplasma. Infection and Immunity, Mar.1975, p. 530-539
Tsuguo Sasaky, Miharu Shintani and Kojo Kihara. Utility of Egg Yolk Medium for Cultivation of Mycoplasma.
Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Nov. 1983,p.1167-1173.
Gerlinde Layh-Schmitt , Alexandre Podtelejnikov and Matthias Mann.2000 Protein complexed to the P1 adhesin of
Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology(2000),146,741-747 (2000)
Shlomo Rottem. Interaction of Mycoplasmas With Host Cells. Physiol.Rev.83:417-432 (2003)
Mette Drasbek, Pernille K.Nielsen, Kenneth Persson, Svend Birkelund, and Gunna Christiansen. Immune response
to Mycoplasma pneumoniae P1 and P 116 in patients with atipical pneumonia analyzed by ELISA.
BMCMicrobiology.2004; 4 (1):7
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G .Franzoso, P.-C. Hu, G.A. Meloni, and M.F. Barile. The Immunodominant 90-Kilodalton Protein Is Localized on
the terminal Tip Structure of Mycoplasma pneumonite. Infection and Immunity , Apr. 1993, p. 1523-1530
J.Petitjean, A.Vabret, S.Gouarin, and F.Freymuth .Evaluation of four Commercial Immunoglobulin G (IgG) and
IgM-Specific Enzyme Immunoassays for Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae Infections.
Daxboeck F, Krause R, Wenisch C. Laboratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Clin Microbiol
Infect 2003; 9:26373.
Talkington DF, Shott S, Fallon MT, Schwartz SB, Thacker WL. Analysis of eight commercial enzyme
immunoassay tests for detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in human serum. Clin Diagn Lab
Immunol 2004; 11:862.
PAPER 254
PROBLEMS AND ACCOUNTING ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL COMPANIES IN TERMS OF

GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS
Albana Gjoni (Karameta), Ines Dika, Flutura Kalemi
Finance and Accounting Department, Faculty of Economics and Agribusiness. Agricultural University of Tirana,
Albania
Email: gjoni.albana@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Agriculture is one of the most important sectors of our country, with a significant impact on the economy of
Albania. A significant part of the population is employed in this sector, bringing a significant added value for all
domestic economic and financial indicators. Agricultural companies large and small throughout the territory of
Albania realize diversified products which are sold on local markets today and in foreign markets. However,
agricultural companies in the country today face many difficulties and problems which arise naturally in terms of the
global financial crisis and significant changes in terms of legislation and standards in the context of integration into
the European Union. Accounting problems affecting agricultural companies make financial management and
financial reporting even more difficult. Another problem associated with financial management and accounting
practices of agriculture companies today relates to the implementation of modern software in order to create
appropriate facilities recording and reporting of information in appropriate ways and in accordance with relevant
standards. This paper aims to bring attention to certain specific aspects and some problems of agriculture companies
accounting practices today in Albania. Also, this paper aims to achieve some useful approaches to relieve the
problems created in terms of global financial crisis in the context of the implementation of standards of practice for
contemporary accounting Albanian on agricultural companies. Finally this paper aims to achieve a comparison of
the problems faced today from local agricultural companies and foreign agricultural companies of the region.
Keywords: Agriculture Sector, Global Financial Crisis, International Accounting Standards; Agricultural
Companies; European Union.
INTRODUCTION
Accounting in the agricultural sector is object of continuous study, due to its unusual characteristics. Complex
supply chains, a largely fragmented production base and a shortage of accounting expertise, all contribute to a lack
of visibility of accounting practices at various stages of the supply chain from the production to the market.
Producers also have to contend with the relative concentration of power with the large retailers; and with the
vagaries of weather and disease. The peculiarities of this sector make it a fascinating arena to study, but may
frustrate attempts to import management accounting practices which have proved successful in other sectors.
Despite this, there does seem to be potential to improve both costing and pricing practices to achieve cost
efficiencies and to enable participants to better understand their costs insights which could help them negotiate
more equitable contracts. On the other hand this very important sector in Albania is also part of the continuous
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adopting of the international accounting standards, witch makes all agribusiness sector operators to be affected by
this changes and evolutions. In modern capitalism purchase and sale of manufactured foods is as fundamental to
social existence as the exchange of a whole gamut of other commodities (Giddens, 1984, p.259). Behind the
production of food are networks of people, transactions and accounting that have rarely been examined by
accounting researchers.
The agricultural sector is conflict-ridden and affects us all. Entities that measure or disclose their assets or liabilities
at fair value will be affected by IFRS 13, the new standard on fair value measurement. Determining fair value
measurements can be a challenge in practice because obtaining fair values for assets and liabilities in inactive
markets can be extremely difficult and, at times, it requires preparers to apply significant judgment. Under IFRS 13
the fair value of an asset should be based on the highest and best use of the asset. The highest and best use is
determined from the perspective of market participants, even if the reporting entity intends a different use. It refers
to the use of an asset by a buyer that would maximize the value of the asset, considering all the uses of the asset that
are physically possible.
The practical impact on the agriculture industry will be particularly significant for an entity with land that is used for
farming. For example, if the highest and best use of the land is with a factory built upon it, the fair value of the land
has two components: the value of land assuming its current use (farming) and the incremental value to fair value
(amount by which the fair value of land
differs from the value in its current use). This concept of highest and best use will also have a
significant impact on the value of biological assets. For example, the highest and best use of sheep for a buyer might
be to obtain wool, however the current use by the entity might be production of mutton or lamb. The extent of the
impact will vary for different types of biological
assets such as consumable biological assets and bearer biological assets. Therefore, the range of values will be
based on the different uses of the asset coupled with the impact of pricing trends for given commodities.
Interviews from a number of farmers and their advisors provided the primary data for this analysis. These included
interviews with farmers who had diversified their businesses within the last two years, bankers, government experts,
academics and researchers for the Albanian Agricultural Sector. The persons interviewed had many years experience
in the industry and between them had seen many of farm businesses. Around twenty interviews were conducted in
all, and the findings triangulated against contemporary and historical technical publications, the agricultural
economics and farm management literature and media sources.
The subjects of the analysis are the valuation bases defined partly in the Albanian national accounting standards and
in the international standards. More detailed procedures of the assets and liabilities, revenues valuation are included
in the internal directives of a particular company, e.g. matching of an asset (a liability) type to the particular
valuation model, the components of an asset or liability valuation, the valuation point, respectively test point. For the
purposes of valuation, there is a possibility to use the agricultural assets classification, according to their presenting
in the company balance sheet.
RESULTS
The importance of problems of harmonization and standardization of financial reporting on the international level
does not have to be proved. Nowadays the users put high demands on the preparation of financial reports and their
comparability to the reports prepared by other companies. The present work reveals the difficulties of the transition
to the practice of financial reporting according to IFRS, presents the methods of transformation of financial
statements, points out the main problems of transition to IFRS for agricultural enterprises. The authors come to the
conclusion that financial reporting in accordance with IFRS is essential for agro-industrial complexes in order to get
access to the international capital and attract foreign investors. Fair value accounting is a controversial topic but the
focus is usually on fair valuing financial instruments.
This study takes a different perspective by investigating fair value accounting in the agricultural sector. The
international financial reporting standard on agriculture (IAS 41) requires that biological assets be measured at fair
value, a significant departure from the traditional historic cost model. However, the standard does allow entities to
use historic cost accounting
if they can rebut the presumption that fair values can be determined reliably and there are also a range of surrogates
for fair value allowed under the standard. The report identifies that agricultural entities are using a variety of
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valuation methods under IAS 41 and that there is a lack of comparability of disclosure practices. Survey respondents
generally stated that the costs of measuring and reporting biological assets at fair value outweigh the benefits. The
authors argue that there is a need for the IASB to revisit IAS 41 not only because it has failed to change farm
accounting practice but also because it creates an illusion of comparability.
The financial crisis has several transmission channels to the various economic sectors. With regard to agriculture,
the primary one concerns pricing agricultural products. The patterns of growth rates impact the demand for
agricultural products, and therefore for all commodities. Conversely, the frequent recessions in 2008 and 2009
generated a drop in demand for basic products, and led to a sharp decline in agricultural prices that had
repercussions for all European farmers. In addition, the crisis hindered household food expenditures, and strongly
impacted meats.
The second transmission channel concerns global trade. The severe shrinkage of growth rates in industrialized
economies, together with a downturn in emerging nations, triggered an acute trade contraction, including commodity
trade. Global trade declined by 12 percent in 2009, followed by a 13.8 percent recovery in 2010. For 2011, global
trade recorded a small five percent increase. Agricultural activities might also have been affected by the banking
crisis. The exposure of banks to risks linked to sovereign debt steered banking institutions into curbing credit to
companies and households in order to secure cash reserves. This trend was confirmed by the freeze of the interbank
marketas banks no longer lent cash to other banks.
The current crisis is opening peoples eyes. In addition to a shift in the global order of nations, the crisis duly
illustrates how an economic sector such as agriculture is incorporated into economic channels and globalization. As
far as the sole euro zone is concerned, the crisis also reveals how the sensitive issue of sovereign debt and public
deficits jeopardizes the conditions to set an agricultural budget for the 2014-2020 periods, at least for some
expenditure that would remain a national responsibility. Finally, if we add some aspects of the environmental
downturn to the economic and financial crisissuch as successive droughtsthe agricultural sector has indeed
entered in a time of turbulence and uncertainty that calls for new directions in terms of public policies.
CONCLUSIONS
There is a significant impact on entities in the agriculture sector that have biological assets and land and buildings
measured at fair value because the fair value movements of these assets can be significant. Management will need to
understand the fair value measurements required of their assets /liabilities and the corresponding disclosures needed.
In our experience, most agriculture entities will classify their biological assets in level 3 of the fair value
hierarchy, which is the category that requires the most disclosure in the accounts. Considering the diversity of
transactions in the industry, most entities are involved in lease contracts (eg, leases of land, farming equipment, and
storage) and will be affected by new rules on accounting for leases.
Many entities will find that their expense recognition patterns change; the income statement will have more front
loading of expenses for leases of assets other than property; and cash payments versus expense recognition will
further diverge (eg, for long leases of land). Most leases will generate a liability for lessees and a material lease
liability could be added to the balance
sheet for significant capital items (eg, large scale farming machinery). Based on the latest proposals, all entities
would need to recognize their existing and new leases on the balance sheet and disclose more information about
each item (eg, lease term, contingent payments etc).The more leases an entity has, the greater the impact.
The economic and technical characteristics of the agriculture industry make revenue recognition an important issue.
The proposed revenue model replaces the current revenue recognition rules with principles that will be applied to all
revenue generating transactions. The proposals will impact the amount of revenue -gross profit and net profit
entities recognise in a period.
Many entities that enter into arrangements with customers to sell a package of goods/services will recognize
revenue earlier.
Many entities will need to apply more judgment to estimate the amount of variable consideration in a contract.
The determination of variable consideration is complex and may introduce more volatility in the income statement.
Entities should invest time in understanding how their business would identify all of the performance obligations
under their various contracts with customers and allocate a portion of the contract price to each obligation.
Management should specifically consider how the proposals might change current business activities beyond
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accounting, including contract negotiations, key metrics (eg, debt covenants), budgeting, controls and processes, and
information technology requirements.
REFERENCES
Standarti Kombetar Kontabel nr 13, pp 10-20;

American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (1985), Statement of Position 85-3: Accounting by Agricultural
Producers and Cooperatives, Accounting Standards Division, New York. Argils, J. (2001),
Accounting information and the prediction of farm non-viability, The European Accounting Review, Vol. 10 No.
1, pp. 73-105.
Argils, J. & Slof, E. (2001), New opportunities for farm accounting, The European Accounting Review, Vol. 10
No. 2, pp. 361-383.
Barlev, B. & Haddad, J. (2003), Fair value accounting and the management of the firm, Critical
Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 383-415.
PAPER 255
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PESTICIDE RESIDUE LEVELS IN WATER FROM IRRIGATION CANAL

WITH LC-MS/MS AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Vojislava Bursi1, Sonja Gvozdenac1, Gorica Vukovi2, Magdalena Cara3, Mira Pucarevi4, Sanja Lazi1,
Slavica Vukovi1, Tijana Zeremski5, Duanka Ini1
1
Faculty of Agriculture, Department for Plant and Environmental Protection, University of Novi Sad, Serbia;
2
Institute of Public Health, Bulevar Despota Stefana 54a, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
3
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania;
4
Faculty for Environmental Governance and Corporate Responsibility, Educons University, Serbia;
5
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Maksima Gorkog 30, Novi Sad, Serbia;
ABSTRACT
The intensive use of pesticides during recent decades has led to the accumulation of their residues in the
environment which especially endangers water in canals. Since the water of rivers and canals are used for drinking
and irrigation purposes it has become imperative to study the extent and magnitude of pesticides in these water
bodies. The aim of this paper was to determine the trace levels of twenty-one pesticides and their transformation
products in irrigation canal (Kovilj, Serbia), belonging to the classes of triazine and urea herbicides which are
present in the commercially available NE7500 standard solution, LGC Standards. A simple multiresidue method
was used for the determination of triazine and urea herbicides in surface water using liquid chromatography coupled
with a triple quadrupole mass analyzer (LC-MS/MS) with electron spray ionisation (ESI). Biological effects were
assessed on physiological and morphological traits of Sorghum bicolor (L.) according to ISTA regulations, with
distilled water as control. Some herbicides (atrazine, desethylatrazine, desisopropyl-atrazine, metolachlor, simazine,
terbutilazine, linuron, cyazine, desethylterbuthylazine, propazine and chloridazon) were detected in water sample.
Manly, the detected concentrations were below maximum allowable concentrations (MACs), but atrazine
concentration was 3.01 g/L, which is above MACs of 2.0 g/L. Germination energy of sorghum seeds was
stimulated in water from irrigation canal, while germination was not affected by total chemistry of water sample.
Water also inhibited seedlings root elongation and fresh root weight, as well as shoot fresh and dry weights, while
shoot length of sorghum seedlings was stimulated by this sample.
Keywords: Herbicide residues, surface water, LC-MS/MS, Sorghum bicolor (L.), bioindicator
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INTRODUCTION
The intensive use of pesticides during recent decades has led to the accumulation of their residues in the
environment which especially endangers water in canals. Since the water of rivers and canals are used for drinking
and irrigation purposes not only in Serbia but in the whole world as well it has become imperative to study the
extent and magnitude of pesticides in these water bodies.
Pesticides used on agricultural crops for the control of weeds and insects can migrate to surface water, local
watersheds and ground water after the application to crops or soil (Asi et al., 2008). Also, rather frequently, farmers,
after completing their treatment, dispose of packaging material into canals or leave them by fields which is another
source of the environmental contamination (Kumari et al., 2007). Pesticide dynamics in the environment reveals
occurrence and movement of pesticide residues from soil by volatilization, from air, by wet precipitation, and aerial
fall-out into soil and water bodies (Kaushik et al., 2008). These pesticides also reach water bodies by drift during
spraying, soil erosion, and agricultural run-off, leaching, municipal and industrial wastes. In some cases, pesticides
used for plant protection may be applied to soil before planting, while for others, the application is made after
seeding. They are usually distributed in aqueous environments because of their high solubility in water. The
appropriate use and management of these chemicals and reduction of its negative influence on human health and
environment are global concerns. Water pollution by agricultural chemicals has become a growing concern in the
world because 40-50% of domestic drinking water is pumped from ground water resources. Aquatic pollution by
toxic chemical is a global problem (El-Mekkawi et al., 2009).
The aim of this paper was to determine the trace levels of twenty-one pesticides and their transformation products in
irrigation canal Kovilj, belonging to the classes of triazine and urea herbicides by LC-MS/MS and using cultivated
plants as bioindicators.
Water samples were collected during May 2012, for irrigation canal in Kovilj, Serbia (N 4514' 12.27" / E 20 00'
42.4"). Water samples (2.5 L) were stored in amber bottles in the dark, at 4 C, during transport to the laboratory and
until analysis.
Analytical method. The sample preparation was performed by OASIS HLB cartridges (200 mg). They were
conditioned with 2 mL of methanol and 2 mL of HPLC - grade water. After conditioning step, 250 mL volume of
water was enriched on OASIS HLB cartridge with the flow rate setled between 3 and 10 mL/min. The cartridge was
flushed with 10 mL of HPLC - grade water. Pesticides were eluted from the sorbent with 5 mL dichloromethane and
collected in the 12 mL amber glass vial. Solvent was evaporated in the stream of nitrogen in the Techne Dry block
and the residue was dissolved in the 0.25 mL of initial mobile phase. Amount of 10 L was injected into LC-MS-
MS system.
Stock standard solutions for each of the analytes were prepared in acetonitrile at 100 g/mL and stored in the dark at
4 C. Standard solutions of the mixtures of all compounds at concentrations ranging between 10 ng/mL and 200
ng/mL were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock solutions in acetonitrile. High purity standards (mixture of
pesticides) were purchased from LGC Standards.
The analytical conditions for the determination of pesticides are shown in Table 1. In LC-MS-MS, data acquisition
was performed in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes.
Tab. 1 Analytical conditions for pesticides
HPLC Agilent 1200

Column XBridge C18, 150 x 3.0 mm, 3.5 m, Waters
Column temperature 40 C
Mobile phase A = 0.1 % HCOOH in methanol
B = 0.1 % HCOOH in water
A : B = 70 : 30
Flow rate 0.5 ml/min
Injection 10 l
MS Agilent 6410
Ionisation ESI
Nebulizer gas 50 psi
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Dry gas 5 L/min at 350 C

Vaporiser 250 C
Charging Voltage 2000 V
Capillary 3500 V
MRM Tab. 2.
Bioassay. The effect of water quality on physiological (seed germination energy, germination - %) and
morphological traits (root and shoot length -cm and fresh and dry weight of root and shoot -g) of Sorghum bicolor
(L.) variety was evaluated using hydroponic method. For germination assessment, 50 sorghum seeds were placed in
glass jars (500ml) on cotton wool soaked in 50mL of sampled water and distilled water in the control treatment.
Seeds were incubated in dark at 252 C for four days after which germination energy was recorded and after eight
days the final germination was recorded and length of seedlings roots and shoots and their fresh weight were
measured. After the drying to the constant mass, the dry weight was also measured. Experiment was set in four
replicates.
Data were processed in statistical software SPSS 17, using t test (t value), for the confidence interval was 95%.
RESULTS
The developed LC-MS/MS chromatographic procedure exhibits excellent linearity (R2>0.99) in the 10 200 ng/mL
range with satisfactorily precision (RSD<15%). Detection limits were defined for a ratio of S/N of 3 from the less
intense (confirmation) MRM transition, calculated using a extract of MilliQ water (250 mL) sample spiked at the
50 ng/L level. The accuracy and precision were determined via recovery experiments, spiking reagent water at 20,
100 and 200 ng/L, at six replicates per level. The obtained recoveries were from 67.3 109.2% with the relative
standard deviation of 0.2 12.6 % for all compounds.
Tab. 2 MRM conditions for QQQ and coefficients of correlation with validation parameters
Pesticide MW MRM transition tR (min) R2 RecoveryRSD

(m/z) (%)
Atrazine 215 216174 16.724 1.000 82.935.77
21696
Carbetamide 237 238 72 10.464 0.9998 91.105.17
238 192
Chloridazon 221 222 104 4.959 0.9998 91.205.10
222 92
Chlorotoluron 212 213 46 16.209 0.9998 85.834.90
213 72
Cyanazine 240 241 214 10.912 0.9998 82.306.17
241 104
Desetilatrazin 187 188 146 6.165 0.9997 88.635.93
188 104
Desisopropyl-atrazine 173 174 104 3.036 0.9999 76.436.73
174 68
Dimefuron 338 339 256 22.103 0.9981 76.276.97
339 140
Diuron 232 233 72 18.474 0.9999 76.573.97
233 160
Ethidimuron 464 265 208 3.628 0.9987 107.776.93
265 162
Isoproturon 206 207 72 18.056 1.000 68.878.93
207 165
Linuron 248 249 160 22.163 0.9998 74.376.57
249 182
Metabromuron 258 259 170 16.469 0.9997 73.336.00
259 148
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Metamitron 202 203 104 4.401 0.9998 72.004.63

203 175
Metazachlor 277 278 134 18.067 1.000 81.635.50
278 210
Methabenzthiazuron 221 222 165 16.830 1.000 83.834.97
222 150
Metolahlor 283 284 252 24.409 0.9996 74.475.80
284 176
Propazine 229 230 146 22.054 0.9993 73.536.77
230 188
Simazin 201 202 132 11.658 0.9999 83.935.23
202 96
Terbuthylazine 229 230 174 22.499 0.9996 70.707.60
230 104
Terbuthylazine-desethyl 201 202 146 13.948 0.9997 85.63
202 110
The obtained limits of quantification - LOQs for all twenty-one investigated pesticides were 0.020 g/L.
Fig. 1 TIC MRM chromatogram from NE7500 0.1 g/mL
The applicability of the proposed method was evaluated by analyzing the mentioned sample of surface water from
the irrigation canal Kovilj. In Tab. 3 the concentration detected of the different compounds are presented.
Tab. 3 Detected pesticide in the sample
Pesticide Detected concentration (g/L)
Atrazine 3.010
Chloridazon 0.570
Cyanazine 0.335
Desetilatrazin 0.785
Desisopropyl-atrazine 0.659
Linuron 1.535
Metolahlor 2.585
Propazine 1.240
Simazin 0.640
Terbuthylazine 8.080
Terbuthylazine-desethyl 5.445
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Bioassay. The results on the effect of water quality on physiological and morphological traits of S. bicolor are
presented in Tab 4.
Water from irrigation canal in Kovilj significantly stimulated germination energy of sorghum seeds, while
germination was at the same level of significance with the control (t=4.69*; 3.46ns).
Root elongation of sorghum seedlings was significantly inhibited by water, 46.43%, indicating at presence of certain
compounds that affect root development (t=145.04**, p>0.01). Root fresh weight was also affected negatively by
water from the canal, i.e. 28.89% of inhibition was recorded (t=5.54**, p>0.01), while dry root weight was
stimulated in canals water compared to the control (t=23.08ns, p<0.05).
Opposite to root traits, shoot length was significantly stimulated by water from the canal, by 18.73%, while shoot
fresh and dry weights were inhibited in this treatment compared to the control (t=36.99**, 8,74**; p<0.01).
Tab. 4 Physiological and morphological traits of Sorghum bicolor in water sample and the control
Treatments
Trait
Kovilj Control t value
germination energy 96.75 0.96 a 93.50 1.00 b 4.69*
germination 97.00 0.82 a 95.00 0.82 a 3.46ns
root length 6.53 0.06 b 12.19 0.06 a 145.04**
root fresh weight 0.13 0.01 b 0.18 0.01 a 5.54**
root dry weight 0.09 0.00 a 0.04 0.03 b 23.08**
shoot length 15.64 0.00 a 12.71 0.09 b 63.12**
shoot fresh weight 0.96 0.02 b 1.53 0.02 a 36.99**
shoot dry weight 0.09 0.00 b 0.19 0.03 a 8.74**
root/shoot 0.42 0.96
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of chemical analysis of water sample it can be concluded that some pesticides were detected at
levels exceeding MACs. In bioassay morphological traits i.e. root elongation, root fresh weight, and shoot fresh and
dry weight of S. bicolor seedlings were significantly inhibited by water from irrigation canal indicating at negative
effect of detected pesticides on this plant species.
Acknowledgement. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Education and Science,
Republic of Serbia, Project Ref. III43005, III43010 and BTR 31072.
REFERENCES
Asi, M.R., Hussain, A., Muhmood, S.T. (2008) Solid phase extraction of pesticide residues in water samples: DDT
and its metabolites, International Journal of Environmental Research 2(1), 43-48.
El-Mekkawi, H., Diab, M., Zaki, M., Hassan, A. (2009) Determination of chlorinated organic pesticide residues in
water, sediments, and fish from private fish farms at Abbassa and Sahi Al-Husainia, Shakia governorate, Australian
Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 3(4), 4376-4383.
Kaushik, C.P., Sharma, H.R., Jain, S., Dawra, J., Kaushik, A. (2008) Pesticide residues in river Yamuna and its
canals in Haryana and Delhi, India, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 144, 329-340.
Kumari, B., Madan, V.K., Kathpal, T.S. (2007) Pesticide residues in rain water from Hisar, India, Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment 133(1-3):467-471.
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PAPER 257
EVALUATION OF FAO56 PENMAN-MONTEITH IN ESTIMATING REFERENCE

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND REAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION, APPLICATION IN ALBANIA
Aferdita Laska Merkoci1, Irena Ymeti1, Alma Ahmeti2, Magdalena Cara2

1
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Institute of Energy Water and Environment
2
Agricultural University of Tirana
E-mail: aferditamerkoci@yahoo.it
ABSTRACT
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed.
Several procedures have been developed to assess to evapotranspiration rate from this parameters. The evaporation
powered at the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ET 0). The reference crop
evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from standardized vegetated surface.
Several models have been used in computing reference evapotranspiration and they require local calibratiation in
order to validate their usage. Climatic data used in computing reference evapotranspiration (ET0) in some region
with diverse climate condition in Albania. Some models had been proposed by many authors include original
Penman, Thornthweit, Blaney Cridel, Turc, Penman Monteith etc. In this study the model of FAO-56 Penman-
Monteith method used to estimate Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) over a range of climate in Albania based
on weather data time period. The values of Reference Evapotranspiration vary 500-800 mm on the field area, 800-
1000 mm on the hilly area and 1000-12000 mm on the mountain area.The values of Real Evapotranspiration for the
field area vary about 500 mm, 600 mm on the hilly area and 800 mm on the mountain area.Pluviometric deficit (DE)
in Albania varies about 200mm on the coastal area to 2500 3000mm on the mountain. The evaluation of the
evapotranspiration and its components, including the evapotranspiration regionalization are presented. The ET
values have been updated and plotted on the 3D digital map, by employing G.I.S system.
Key words: Evapotranspiration,empirical method, FAO-56 PM, G.I.S.
INTRODUCTION
This paper is an attempt to introduce a general evaluation of the evapotranspiration in Albanian territory. The need
to develop a standard, precise and globally acceptable method of estimating reference evapotranspiration for
accurate computation of crop water requirement has been stressed by many authors (Doorenbous and Pruit, 1975;
Allen et al., 2001, etc). Several models had been proposed by many authors and this include Penman original,
Penman-Monteith, Blaney Cridel, Thornthweit, Fao Radiation, etc. (Allen et al., 1998; Pereira and Pruitt 2004; Dods
et al.. 2005). Many of this models are . Many of this models are subject to local calibration thereby making them to
have limited global acceptance. Due to the higher performance of FAO-56 Penman Monteith model in different
parts of the world when compared with other models, it has been accepted as the sole method of computing
reference evapotranspiration from meteorological data (Jensen et al., 1990; Allen et al., 200; Gavila et al., 2006 etc.).
In order to use FAO-56 PM model in computing daily evapotranspiration, specific meteorological data are required
such as daily maximum and minimum air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity. This data
can be obtained directly from automatic weather station or from meteorological stations which are in different part
of Albania with different climate. The evapotranspiration evaluated by using multi-annual archival hydro-
meteorological information of the Institute for Energy, Water and Environment. Evapotranspiration evaluation is
based on the observed period of 1975-2005. National topographical maps of 1:25000 scales are used to evaluate the
morphometric characteristics.
Study site and climate regime. The Republic of Albania is situated in South east Europe, in the western part of the
Balkan Peninsula facing the Adriatic Sea (sandy shore) and the Ionian Sea (rocky shore). Its terrain is mountainous,
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with the hilly and mountainous areas making up 77% of the countrys territory, with an average altitude of 708
meters, double that of Europe.
North and Northeast, Albania borders with Montenegro and Kosovo, East bordering with Former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia, while south and southeast with Greece (Figure. 1).
A number of rivers flow into the sea such as Buna, Drini, Mati, Ishmi, Erzen, Shkumbin, Seman, Vjosa and Bistrica
which constitute an important source of hydro power. The lakes are of varying origin: glacial lakes in the highlands,
carstic lakes in the hilly areas, and tectonic lakes Shkodra, Ohri and Prespa. Jaho S et al. (1984)
Albania belongs to the subtropical Mediterranean climate. It is characterized by mild winter with abundant
precipitation and hot, dry summer. The annual mean air temperature has a wide variation over the territory. All the
territory is characterized by the negative trend of annual mean temperature. The negative trend of annual mean
temperature comes out as a result of the influence of negative trend of minimum temperatures. The mean annual
precipitation total over the Albania is about 1,485 mm/year. The highest precipitation total (70%) is recorded during
the cold months (October-March). The richest month in precipitation over the whole territory is November, while
the poorest are July and August.
Figure 1 Geographic Map of Albania
Methods and analyses.

Evapotranspiration reference ET0. Since reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) was defined as atmospheric demand,
there were a lot of attempts to establish the formulae giving its dependence on meteorological observation. These
formulae can be classified into empirical formulae and formulae based on physics. In the empirical formulae we can
find: the radiation methods and the temperature methods (Thornthwaite). The physics formulae are Penman formula
original, Penman Monteith, Turc, Blaney Cridel, Penman Monteith ASCE, FAO56 Penman Monteith etc. Laska A et
al. (2011).The aims of this paper is to evaluate the evapotranspiration by employing different methods as explained
even in the above-mentioned instances Allen R.G (2001). The formula of the Penman original equation combines
the method of the energetic balance with that of the turbulent diffusion (Grazhdani S. 1998). Later, this equation was
subjected to numerous modifications by various scholars and researchers Allen R.G. et al. (2000). The most
significant modification for this equation is recognized as Monteith, whose mathematical expression has been
introduced as the Penman Monteith method Pereira and Pruitt (2004). Later, various modifications have been carried
out wherein the FAO56 Penman Monteith Allen et al. (1998) has been recently recognized as the most accurate and
physically comprehensive method, since his formula involves the exploitation of numerous climatic elements FAO,(
2000). In addition, it should be emphasized that this formula is closer to reality, apart from few differences, as
compared to the direct method (Lushnje Station in Lowland of Albania).
FAO-56PM model uses an hypothetical green grass reference surface actively growing and is adequately watered
with an assumed height 0.12m having a surface resistance of 70sm-1 and an albedo of 0.23 Allen et al. (1998).
The FAO-58PM model stated in (Allen et al.1998) is given as:
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Cn
0, 408 R0 G u2 es ea
ET0 T 273 (1)
1 Cd u2
where: ET0 is reference evapotranspirations (mm d-1 or mm h-1);
is slope of saturation vapor pressure curve (KPa 0C-1); Rn is Net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m-2 d-1);G is
Soil heat flux density (MJ m-2 d-1) for; T is the mean of monthly maximum and minimum air temperature (0C); u2
is wind speed at 2 m height (m s-1);es is saturated vapor pressure (KPa); ea is actual vapor pressure (kPa); es ea is
saturated vapor pressure deficit (KPa); is psychrometric constant (KPa 0C-1); Cn is the numerator constant that
changes with reference surface and calculation time step (900 0C mm s3 Mg-1 d-1 for 24 h time step and 37 0C mm s3
Mg-1 d-1 for hourly time steps for the grass reference surface);Cd is the denominator constant that changes with
reference surface and calculation time step (0.34 sm-1 for 24 h time step, 0.24 s m-1 for hourly time steps during
daytime, and 0.96 s m-1 for hourly night-time for the grass-reference surface).
Real evaporation
In the simple water balance method, the value of ETr was equal to the precipitation (input) minus the runoff at the
mouth (output) minus the water quantity captured at the wells inside the catchment (output).Pano.N., et al. (2010).
Monthly ETr was also calculated multiplying monthly ET0 with the monthly coefficient of correlation of reference
(K).
Considering the water balance concept and using the value of ETr for each month, the equation (2) was established
to quantify the groundwater flow.
HETP
Qs P ETR Q Qr or Qs P ETP K Q Qr or Qs P ETP Q Qr (2)
HETR
where Qs is the groundwater flow that enters into (+) or that leaves (-) the catchment (mm/month); P is the
precipitation (mm/month); ETR is the real evapotranspiration (mm/month); Q is the runoff (mm/month); and QP is
the captured water at the wells (mm/month).
Evaluation of Real evapotranspiration ET r calculated too and by some methods such as : Thornthwait, Turc, water
balance, Cotagne and Costandinov Pano N. (1986). which rely on the interdependence and interrelation existing
between the climatic factors and ET r.
Turc Formulae (3):
P
ETr (3)
P2
0.9 2
L
where: P Precipitation, L Parameter (L=300+25T+0.05T 3
Deficit evaporation
Some other components of evapotranspiration are the deficit evaporation and pluviometric deficit. Deficit

evaporation E is computed as the difference E ET0 ETR . E in Albanian varies about E = 425
450mm on the coastal area to E = 150 200mm in the mountains. Having already recognized the ET 0 values, it is
possible to determine the pluviometric deficit E referring to every period of the year, as a difference of reference
evapotranspiration with the respective rainfalls corresponding to this period (4).
DP P ET0 (4)
where: ET0 Reference evapotranspiration, P - Precipitation

It is in this way that the water balance-sheet for every month of the year is calculated, likewise the pluviometric
deficit is later determined during the dry months, whereas the superfluous water-supply is determined during the wet
months Laska et al.( 2011).
In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of a system. A system
can be one of several hydrological domains, such as a column of soil or a drainage basin. Water balance can also
refer to the ways in which an organism maintains water in dry or hot conditions. It is often discussed in reference to
plants or arthropods, which have a variety of water retention mechanisms, including a lipid waxy coating that has
limited permeability.
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A general water balance equation is (5):

P Q E S (5)
Where: P is precipitation, Q is runoff.,E is evapotranspiration.S is the change in storage (in soil or the bedrock)
This equation uses the principles of conservation of mass in a closed system, whereby any water entering a system
(via precipitation), must be transferred into either evaporation, surface runoff (eventually reaching the channel and
leaving in the form of river discharge), or stored in the ground. This equation requires the system to be closed, and
where is isn't (for example when surface runoff contributes to a different basin), this must be taken into account.
RESULTS
The values of ET0, calculated by different ways, result similar to be each-other. It is evidently seen in Figure 2, with
relevance to the distribution of months values of ET 0 by Turc, Penman original, Thornthwaite methods Laska, et al.
(2011). These values are relatively similar, to the results of the direct experimental observed method (the Lushnja
stations), the difference about ET0 = 510%.
The average monthly Reference evapotranspiration on the Albanian territory differs from about 10 40mm in
January, to about 120 170mm in June, referring to FAO56 Penman-Monteith. The average annual reference
evaporation for the multi-annual period is about 800 1100mm. The average annual ET 0 in the plains varies from
1000 1100mm and on the mountains about 800 850mm. (referring to FAO56 Penman-Monteith).
In the Figure 3 has been presented the distribution of reference evapotranspiration ET0 on the Albanian territory
evaluated a. By different methods and b. Distribution of ET 0 according to FAO565 PM. With a view to visually ET,
as well as representing it not only graphically, but also by employing other data as well, even the method of
representing them through the GIS systems was utilized. It is common knowledge that the GIS systems constitute an
extremely efficient method for the data collection, their digital processing, and their linkage to a database, their
graphical displaying and realizing QUERIES with a graphic interface Gjata G. et al. (2009).
The presentation of the map includes the morphometric factors that are determined by the topographical
characteristics . Analyzing and dividing the Albanian territory in homogeneous areas, region is accepted as the
smallest tecsinometric unit. The main parameters considered are: average altitude, and distance from the Sea level.
Composition methodology of the distribution for annual ETcomponents (ET 0, ETr, E) used in the paper consists in
the classification of the Albanian territory by the respective gradient PM X 0 h which were taken into
consideration by the GIS System.
A. B
Figure 2. A. The chart of the distribution of ET 0 in Albania a. by difference methods; B. according to the FA56
Penman Momteith.
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A. B.
Figure 2. A. The chart of the distribution of ET 0 in
Figure 3. A. The chart of Monthly distribution of ETr according Thornthweit Method ; B. The distribution of ETr
on the Albanian territory
It is exactly by implementing the formula of FAO56 Penman Monteith that we have managed to obtain the results
for monthly and annual ET0 for the territory of Albania. The annual distribution of the ET 0 values, for
the territory of Albania is represented through GIS in Figure 2.
The values of ETr, calculated by different methods, result relatively similar to each other. The monthly distribution
of the real evapotranspiration values according to the Thornthwait method haven been graphically represented in
Figure 3.
ETr in Albania varies from about 650 700mm in the coastal area to 300 400mm in the mountains, having
an average of ETr = 500 600mm all over the Albanian territory. Real Evaporation ETr is presented with water
balance method on Figure 4 (Laska et al., 2010).
In Fig. 5 there has been represented the annual distribution of pluviometric deficit E in Albania, wherein it is
evident that during the June-September period Et0 is greater than the rainfalls, consequently there is shortage of
water-supply. The opposite happens during the October-May period when the rainfalls are greater than
evapotranspiration, consequently there are excessive rainfalls.
Figure 4. The monthly distribution of Pluviometric deficit in Albania
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Figure 5.The evapotranspiration components ET0, ETr and DE in Albania
CONCLUSIONS
Following the evaluation of evapotranspiration reference based on the FAO56PM formula, it could be admitted that
this is conveniently adequate for our countrys conditions, since the values resulting from it, as compared to the
evaporation meter installed in the Lushnje Station are extremely approximate, with a 5-10% difference only.
ET0 values vary 500-800 mm on the field area, 800-1000 mm on the hilly area and 1000-12000 mm on the mountain
area. The values of ETr for the field area vary about 500 mm, 600 mm on the hilly area and 800 mm on the
mountain. Pluviometric deficit (DE) in Albania varies about 200mm on the coastal area to 2500 3000mm on the
mountain. Utilizing GIS as a means of visual representation of the numerous ET0 statistical data constitutes an
innovator approach for our article since it increases the community for the users of the relevant data. GIS enables
the monthly representation of various data, both those associated with Et 0, as well as the climatic elements. Figure 5
is a summarized presentation of the results of evapotranspiration with its constituent components, respectively ET 0
, ETr and DE for the Albanian territory respectively.
REFERENCES
Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Reas, D., Smith, M. (1998): Crop Evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop
water requirements. - Irrigation and Drainage, FAO Rome, Italy, 56 : 300pp.
Allen, R. G. (2001): REF-ET reference evapotranspiration software, version 2.0. For FAO and ASCE standardized
equations. Kimberly, Idaho.- University of Idaho Research and Extension Center.
Alen, R. G., Evans R.G.,Benhasm B.L., Trooien T.P. (2000): Issues, requirements, and challenges in selecting and
specifying a standardized ET equation. In.Proc 4- National Irrigation . Symposium , pp:201-208.
Dodds, P:M:, Meyer, W.S., and Barton, A. (2005). A review of Methods to estimate irrigated reference crop
evapotranspiration. Technical Report 04/05. Australia: Cooperative Research Centre for Irrigation Futures, CSIRO,
Land and Water.
Doorenbas, J., and W.O. Pruitt.(1977): Guidelines for prediction of crop water requirement.- FAO Irrigation and
Drainage, Paper NO. 24, Rome Italy. pp:156.
FAO 2000. (2000); Guidelines for predicting of crop water requirement. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56
Rome, Italy.
Gavilan, P., Lorite, I.J., Tornero, S., and Berengena, J. (2006). Regional calibration of Hargreaves equation for
estimating reference ET in semiarid environment. Agricultural Water Management, 81, 257-281
Grazhdani, S.(1998): Effect of irrigation water and nutrient management on soil water quality.- Albanian Journal of
Natural and Technical Sciences Volume 4,pp: 223-331.
Gjata, G.,Nurce, B., Como, B., Allaraj, S. (2009): Natonal Report of Albania "Developments on establishing the
Albanian Satelite Positioning System (ALBPOS)", EUREF2009- Symposium, Florence, Italy, 27-30 May.
Jaho, S., Selenica, A., (1984): Climatological and Hydrological Characteristics of Western Lowland. IHM.-
Monograph. Hydrometeorological Institute Press, Tirana Albania, pp:179-199.
Jensen, M.E., Burman, R.D. and Allen, R.G.(1990). Evapotranspiration and irrigation Water Requirements. ESCE
Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No 70. N.Y: ASCE.
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Laska, A., Pano N., Dvorani M. (2011), Evaluation of Evapotranspiration and its Components in Some
Regions of Albania. Albanian Journal of Natural and Technical Csiences. XVII (30), pp 121-134
Pano, N. (1986): Levapotranspiration en Albania. Hydrometeorological Institute.- Hydrological and
Meteorological Studies, Hydrometeorological Institute Press, Tirana, Albania. pp:125-143.
Pano, N.,Stratoberdha, P.,Frasheri, A., Mustaqi, V. (2010): Principal elements limnological regime of Scutary Lake,-
Proceedings Book, Balwois Conferenc, 25-29 May, Ohrid Macedonia pp :369.
Pereira, A.R., and Pruitt, W.O. (2004). Adaptation of the Thornthwaite scheme for estimating daily reference
evapotranspiration. Agricultural Water Management, 66, 251-257.
PAPER 258
STUDY OF DEGRADATION OF POLYETHYLENE DURING RECYCLING PROCESS BY USING FT-IR

AND RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY
Eldi Lio1, Spiro Drushku1, Elias Chatzitheodoridis2

1
Department of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tirana
2
School of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens
Email:eldi.lico@fshn.edu.al
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper was the recycling of low-density polyethylene LDPE using the extrusion method in industrial
scale up to four stages and the study of its degradation using vibration spectroscopic methods FT-IR and Raman.
Given the large volume of low-density polyethylene in plastic solid waste, this study was conducted to assess the
degradation of LDPE during a number recycling cycles, however not using additives that are added during the
recycling processes for the recovery of its properties. For recycling of LDPE an industrial extruder was used with
2kg capacity per cycle. For obtaining FT-IR spectra and Raman 20-30mgr polymer pellets were formed. The
instruments used were infrared spectrometer with Fourier transformation - Perkin Elmer GX1 and Raman
microspectrometer - RamaScope Renishaw RM1000. From the spectra analysis, vibration peaks of polar and non-
polar bonds of polyethylene were identified, as well as the changes in the intensities of vibration peaks and the
movement of spectra background as a result of LDPE degradation. Moreover, using the optical microscope the
surface structure for the presence of any foreign element was studied, before and after each recycling cycle.
Keywords: Recycling process, LDPE, FT-IR and Raman Spectroscopy, Optic microscophy
INTRODUCTION
One of the most troubling problems, in terms of environmental pollution, are plastic solid waste. Having analyzed
the growing trend of the use of plastic materials, in addition to goods and facilities that have brought into our daily
lives, they have also caused many problems in environmental pollution that have to do with their slow degradation
(Green paper 2013; J.H.Khan et al 2003). Their management focuses on three basic areas: recycling, energy
recovery and landfills (Plastic-The facts 2010). Most plastic waste are part of the thermoplastic category, which can
be mechanically recycled. Problems related to mechanical recycling are related to the identification and separation
of plastics waste, as well as the influence of additives on their properties (F.P.La Mantia 1998) We focused our study
on the degradation of industrially clean LDPE during the recycling process with vibration spectroscopic methods.
Low density polyethylene is one of the main products of plastic materials, used mainly as plastic bags for packaging.
Although in recent years the policies of the European Union prohibit food packaging plastic bags, LDPE bags still
find widespread use in many countries, as well as in Albania. Large quantities of LDPE (occupy a total of 17% of
the production of plastic materials) as plastic solid waste have made the recycling necessary. But during recycling,
plastic materials lose many of their properties due to their oxidation in the presence of air during processing at
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higher temperatures (An int. to plas.rec 2004; C. Vasile et al 2005)). The recovery of their properties is performed by
the addition of additives in polymeric materials, which are divided according to their function in various categories
(J.C.J. Bart 2005). These additives must be analyzed accurately when plastic bags are used for packaging food
products, because of the content, their migration to food and the problems that can cause to our health
(T.R.Crompton 2007). The first steps of recycling solid waste are: separation, sorting and cleaning. All three of
these technological processes are not fully effective and associated with the presence of foreign elements in
polymeric structures, as well as in those of LDPE's. To reduce to a minimum the presence of foreign elements in the
structure of LDPE, the recycling process was carried continuously and no additives were added that may also had
affected the technological process of recycling.
The material that was taken into the study was industrially clean low density polyethylene LDPE provided in form
of granules by the companies operating in the Albanian market, used as packing bags.
Density was determined according to ASTM standard D 792 (0.92gr/mol) and melt flow index according to ASTM
standard D1183 with 6MPa RayRan instrument (MFI = 32). Both of these properties affect the processing of plastic
materials in extruder, on temperature and rotation speed (S.F.Shen 1990). As recycling method was used extrude
methods, which was used a single screw industrial extruder with a capacity of 2 kg/cycle. Fixed temperatures are
shown in Figure 1 (four controlled temperature zone) while the speed of the screw was fixed at 18 rpm.
Figure 1: temperature controlled zone in extruder

(zone 1 T=2000C; zone 2 T=2100C; zone 3 T=2200C; zone 4 T=2300C)
From the stamps of extruder were extracted polymeric rods (fibers) with diameters 3-6mm. After each cycle the
fibers were left at room temperature to cool down and then were cut down in plastic grinder. Grinded material was
thrown back into extruder to continue the process of recycling. In this way it performs four recycling cycles. After
each recycling cycle the grinded material was analyzed.
Analysis of the clean and recycled LDPE was performed using vibration spectroscopic methods, FT-IR and Raman.
The instruments used were: the infrared spectrometer with Fourier transformation-Perkin Elmer GX1 equipped with
software Spectrum and micro spectrometer Raman - Renishaw RamaScope RM1000 with radiation wavelength laser
633nm (red) equipped with a microscope Optic Leica DMLM. The resolution of FT-IR instrument was 4cm-1 and
the recorded wavenumber range was from 400 - 4000 cm-1 (MID IR region). 10 spectra were taken to reduce noise.
The wavenumber range for Raman spectra was from 450 - 3500 cm-1. FT-IR and Raman spectra were taken on 20-
30mgr polymer pellets, with 13mm diameter that were formed in 160 0C temperature (more than 200 below glass
temperature) with the help of a Perkin Elmer hydraulic press (D.S.Achilias 2007). Crystallization of the pellets was
carried out in the room temperature.
The surface study of the structure was conducted using the polarized microscope XJP equipped with TS View 300
program Version 1.0.0.1 and a Sony camera TCC-8.1. It took microphotos with reflection and polarization angle 0 0
for each sample clean and recycled. Microphotos were taken on polymer pellets, used for FT-IR and Raman spectra.
RESULTS
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Once was determined density and melt flow index we identified the industrially clean LDPE with FT-IR and Raman
spectra, identifying also the presence of any foreign element in the structure of LDPE's. The spectra obtained are
shown in Figure 2.
In FT-IR spectrum can be clearly distinguished three main vibrating peaks (2916.5-2855.3cm-1, 1492.2-1466.1cm-1
and 749.5-723.33cm-1) of LDPE related to polar bonds CH. In Raman spectroscopy, in addition to peaks of polar
bonds can be observed also two other peaks having a wavelengths of 1061 cm-1 and 1127cm-1 related to C-C non-
polar bonds of LDPE (D.W.Mayo 2004). Comparing FT-IR spectra of industrially clean LDPE with reference
spectra to the clean-LDPE, was not the presence of any high-intensity peak, which may be a sign indicative of the
presence of foreign elements in significant quantities. Thickness of pellets influence in taking FT-IR spectra.
120
25000
PE CLEAN
100
20000
80
15000
Intensity
Intensity
60
10000
40
5000
20
0
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1 -1
Wavenumber cm Wavenumber cm
Figure 2: FT-IR and Raman spectra of industrially clean LDPE
For each recycle cycle were obtained FT-IR and Raman spectra. In Figure 3 are all FT-IR spectra by recycling
cycles.
PE Rec.1
PE Rec.2
PE Rec.3
PE Rec.4
Intensity
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

-1
Wavenumber cm
Figure 3: FT-IR spectra of LDPE, due to recycling cycles.
From the analysis of the spectra can be seen the presence of all vibrating characteristic peaks of LDPE, identifying
exactly polymeric material even after several cycles of recycling. Small changes are observed in their intensity but
without any precise conclusion. There is also an extension of the curves of vibration related to the degree of
crystallinity.
In Figure 4 can be seen Raman spectra of LDPE for the four cycles of recycling.
All spectra show the characteristic peaks of LDPE, but with different intensities. As we can see we have an up shift
of the background of the spectra according to recycling cycles. Also the intensities of the peaks are reduced over
cycles. These are indicators of degradation of polymer and degradation assessment with Raman spectra. The
thickness of pellets does not affect the Raman spectra due to backscattering method used.
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32000
R1
30000 R2
28000 R3
26000 R4
24000
22000
Intensity
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Wavenumber cm
Figure 4: Raman spectra of LDPE, due to recycling cycles.
To see the presence of any foreign element in the structure of LDPE-optical images were taken with reflection and
polarization. At each stage we can observe the small white spots on which shows the presence of small quantities of
minerals, which is distinguished by their color. In figure 5 are shown microphotos for clean and recycled LDPE after
the fourth cycle.
a) b)
Figure 5: a) images of clean LDPE, b) images of recycled LDPE after the fourth cycle.
Also was visually observed the change in white color of LDPE to the dark after each recycling cycle, as a result of
oxidation processes of LDPE in the presence of air.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we studied the degradation of LDPE during recycling process with FT-IR and Raman spectroscopic
methods. FT-IR spectra accurately identify LDPE also after four cycles of recycling but do not give a clear idea of
the level of recycling. Non progressive changes were identified in intensity, as well as in the peaks width. While the
Raman spectra, over the stages of recycling, were decreasing the intensity of the peaks, as well background's up
displacement, that show its degradation during the stages of recycling. So while FT-IR spectroscopy is an accurate
method of identifying plastic materials even after many stages of recycling, Raman spectroscopy gives us a clear
idea about the level of recycling plastic materials. Also from optical images were observed in the presence of small
amounts of minerals in the structure of clean and recycled LDPE, which shows no clean processes in manufacturing
as well as in its processing.
REFERENCES
Green paper: On a European Strategy on Plastic Waste in the Environment, Brussels 2013
Javaid H. Khan & Neaz Ahmed (2003), Photo-oxidative degradation of recycled, reprocessed HDPE changes in
chemical, thermal and mechanical properties, , Bulg. J. Phys. 30 158169
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Plastics-The Facts 2010 An analysis of European plastic production demand and recovery for 2009
Francesco Paolo La Mantia (1998) Recycled plastics: additives and their effects on properties; Chapman &Hall,
An introduction of plastic recycling, Plastic Waste Management Institute 2004
Cornelia Vasile & Mihaela Pascu 2005, Practical guide to polyethylene, Smithers Rapra Press
J. C. J. Bart (2005), Additives In Polymers: Industrial Analysis And Applications John Wiley & Sons
T.R.Crompton (2007) Additive Migration from Plastics Into Foods, Smithers Rapra Press
Shan-Fu Shen (1990) Simulation of the processing of thermoset polymers, International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, Volume 30. Issue 8, pages 16331647
D.S.Achilias, C.Roupakias, P.Megalokonomos, A.A.Lappas, E.V.Antonakou ( 2007)Chemical recycling of plastic
waste made from polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) and polypropylene(PP) ELSEVIER 0304-3894
D.W. Mayo, F.A. Miller, and R.W. Hannah (2004) Course Notes on the Interpretation of Infrared and Raman
Spectra (Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken,).
PAPER 259
STUDY PALINOLOGYC OF POLLEN GRAINS, GYMNOSPERMIUM MALOI (KIT-TAN & SHUKA)

THE ENDEMIC SPECIES IN ALBANIA
Kapidani G., Dauti A., Pupuleku B 2., Kallajxhiu N2., Jane A 2., Turku S2
1
University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, Tirana, Albania
2
University ''A. Xhuvani ", Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Elbasan, Albania,
Email: gezimkapidani@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The article provides data on the morphologic study of pollen grains of the endemic species of our country
Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011). At the same time the data are compared with the other endemic
specie of our country, Gymnospermium shqiptarum Paparisto & Qosja (1976) synonim Gymnospermium
scipetarum E. Mayer & Pulevic (1984), Gymnospermium altaicum (Pall.) Spach subsp. scipetarum (E.Mayer &
Pulevi) Kit Tan & Mullaj, and with other Gymnospermium species taken from the literature. The polen grains of
Gymnospermium maloi are tricolpate, with elongated elliptical shape, long colpus, narrowed and directed to the
poles. Exina is composed of a reticular sculpture. The data related to Gymnospermium maloi, are provided for the
first time in the palinologic literautre of our country and of foreign countries. Through this study there is provided
more information on the morphological features of pollen grains, the manner of collection, storage and processing of
pollen in laboratory.
Key words: Gymnospermium, pollen grains, ribs, exina nets.
INTRODUCTION
Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) sht specie endemike e vendit ton. Ajo sht gjetur n malsit e
Picarit n Gjirokastr n lartsin 950-1450 m mbi nivelin e detit. (Kit Tan, Lulzim Shuka, etj. 2011).
Gymnospermium shqiptarum Paparisto & Qosja (1976) sinonim Gymnospermium scipetarum E. Mayer &
Pulevic (1984), Gymnospermium altaicum (Pall.) Spach subsp. scipetarum (E.Mayer & Pulevi) Kit Tan & Mullaj
(2001) sht gjetur n Malin e Krujs dhe n malsit e Shmilit t Elbasanit n lartsine rreth 900 metra mbi nivelin
e detit. Pra deri tani n vendin ton jan gjetur dy specie endemike Gymnospermium, njera n jug dhe tjetra n
Shqiperin e mesme.
Ato jetojn n areale t veuara, me elemente fitogjeografik, habitate dhe kushte ekologjike t ndryshme. (Kit Tan,
Lulzim Shuka, etj. 2011).
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Kokrrat e pjalmit t Gymnospermium jan tre brazdore, me form eliptike t zgjatur, me brazda t gjata, t ngushta,
t valzuara dhe shkojn deri tek polet. Ekzina sht me skulptur rrjetore. Rrjetat kan celula shum kndore e t
mbyllura.
Gjat studimit t kokrrave t pjalmit t Gymnospermium shqiptarum Paparisto & Qosja (1976) sinonim
Gymnospermium scipetarum E. Mayer & Pulevic (1984), Gymnospermium altaicum (Pall.) Spach
subsp. scipetarum (E.Mayer & Pulevi) Kit Tan & Mullaj (2001) krahasuar me speciet e tjera Gymnospermium t
marr nga litaratura (Arhangelsij & Tahtadzhdjan 1972) rezulton se specia e jon nga ana palinologjike
ngjashmrin m t madhe e ka me Gymnospermium altaicum (Pall.) Spach (Kapidani 1990). Zbulimi i
Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) sht br vitet e fundit. Pr kt specie nuk ka studime
palinologjike nga autor vendas dhe t huaj. Studimi i karakteristikave palinologjike t ksaj specie shton
informacionin mbi veorit e saj.Krahasimi i tipareve palinomorfologjike t dy specieve endemike Gymnospermium
t vendit ton me speciet e tjera Gymnospermium t marr nga literatura jep informacion dhe mundsi interpretimi
t mtejshm. Pr analizn sasiore palinomorfologjike t ksaj specie jan marr n konsiderat 31 kokrra pjalmi.
Tiparet palinotaksonomike t pasqyruara n kt punim jan: klasifikimi sipas tipit, forms, madhsis,
karakteristikave t brazds, skulpturimet e ekzins etj. Pr studimin e kokrrave t pjalmit sht prdorur mikroskopi
me drite Motic BA 310, matjet dhe fotografit mikroskopike jan realizuar me zmadhimin 400X, 600X dhe 1000X.
Objekti i ktij punimi sht prshkrimi palinomorfologjik i species endemike t vendit ton Gymnospermium maloi.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Materiali pr studim sht marr i freskt nga Shuka L. Pr t realizuar studimin e karakteristikave morfologjike t
kokrrave t pjalmit mund t prdoren nj sr metodash prpunimi, por m t shpeshtat pr studimin me
mikroskopin me drit jan metodat e mposhtme t cilat jan prdorur edhe nga ne gjat prpunimit t materialit
polenik:
Metoda e acetolizs s Erdtman (1956).
Metoda e thjeshtuar e acetolizs s Avetisjan B.M. (1950).
Metoda e fuksins bazike e Smoljaninov, Gollubkov S. (1953).
Fiksimi dhe prgatitja e preparateve t gatshme sht br me xhelatin glicerin sipas Kisser (1937). Sladkov A.N.
(1967)
Dy metodat e acetolizs japin rezultate shum t mira pr studimin e elementve t sporoderms, ndrsa metoda e
fuksins bazike t cil edhe ne e kemi prdorur jep rezultate shum t mira pr studimin e forms, madhsis dhe
aperturs, por n disa raste edhe pr elementt skulpturor t ekzins. T dhnat palinomorfologjike t paraqitura n
material i prkasin prpunimit t materialit me metodn e acetolizs.
RESULTS
Prshkrimi morfologjik i kokrrave t pjalmit

Gjinia Gymnospermium Spach 1839
Karakteristikat palinomorfologjike t ksaj gjinie jan: Kokrra e pjalmi trebrazdore, me form eliptike t zgjatur, me
brazda t gjata, t ngushta dhe shkojn deri tek polet. Ekzina sht me skulptur rrjetore.
Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011)
Bim barishtore shumvjeare me zhardhok t mdhej me diametr 415 cm. Krcejt 4-7 mm n diametr dhe
gjatsi 20-40 cm. Lartsi 950-1450 m mbi nivelin e detit. Mars Prill (Maj). Picar, Gjirokastr. Bim endemike e
Shqipris. (Kit Tan, Lulzim Shuka, etj. 2011).
Kokrrat e pjalmi jan trebrazdore, me form eliptike deri n eliptike t zgjatur. Brazda jan t gjata, t ngushta e
shkojn deri tek poli. Buzt e brazds jan pak t valzuara. Gjatsia e brazds luhatet 44 52(46) , gjrsia sht
rreth 2-3 . Shpesh pas prpunimit me acetoliz brazdat ahen.
Ekzina sht nj shtresore me skulptur rrjetore. Celulat jan t qarta, shum kndore, t mbylluara. Prmasat e
celulave t rrjets jan t ndryshme, pran buzve t brazds jan me t vogla dhe zmadhohen duke shkuar drejt
qendrs. Ato i japin kontureve t jashme t kokrrs s pjalmit valzime t lehta. Madhsia e tyre luhatet 1 2 .
Trashsia e ekzins sht rreth 1.5 . Gjatsia e kokrrave t pjalmit luhatet 52 - 59 (54) , gjrsia 28 -38(33)
Nga krahasimi i t dhnave palinologjike t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011). me ato t
Gymnospermium shqiptarum Paparisto & Qosja (1976) sinonim Gymnospermium scipetarum E. Mayer &
Pulevic (1984), Gymnospermium altaicum (Pall.) Spach subsp. scipetarum (E.Mayer & Pulevi) Kit Tan & Mullaj
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(2001) vrehet ngjashmri shum e madhe ndrmjet tyre. Kjo ngjashmeri verehet n zmadhime t ndryshme
mikroskopike me 400x, 600x, dhe 1000x.
N tabeln 1 jepen tiparet palinomorfologjike t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) t krahasuara me
speciet e tjera Gymnospermium t marr nga literatura Arhangelskij D. B.,Tahtadzhdjan A.L (1972); Kapidani
(1990).
Tabela 1. Tabela krahasuese e tipareve palinomorfologjike t Gjinis Gymnospermium.
Kakrra pjalmi Brazda Trashsia

Gjatsia Gjrsia Gjatsia Gjrsia e ekzins Madhsia e
Nr Specia celulave
52 - 59 28 -38 44-52
1 G. maloi (54) (33) (46) 2-3 1.5 1-2
47-57 24 -33
2 G. shqiptarum (52) (28) 44-45 2 1.5 0.5 - 1.5
3 G. smirnovii 61 - 67.5 -42 0 0 3 2.5
4 G. albertii 42 - 50.4 0 22.4 2.8 1.5 - 2.8 t vogla
5 G. altaicum 50-52 25 -28 42 0 1.5 - 2.8 t vogla
6 G. odessanum ngjan me G. Altaicum
7 G. darwasicum 58 - 65 22- 25 47.6 0 2.8 1.5
8 G. microrrhynchum 0 0 brazd e valzuar 0 t vogla
Gjat studimit palinologfjik t dy specieve endemike Gymnospermium t vendit ton t shprehura edhe n tabeln 1
vrehet nj ngjashmeri shum e madhe ndrmjet tyre. Nj veori pak e dallueshme ndrmjet tyre sht se celulat e
rrjets t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) n mjaft raste paraqiten pak m t mdha.
Nga krahasimi i tipareve palinotaksonomike t dy specieve endemike Gymnospermium t vendit ton me ato t
specieve t tjera Gymnospermium t marr nga litaratura vrehet se speciet tona ngjashmrin m t madhe e kan
me Gymnospermium altaicum (Pallas) Spach.
Foto.1.- Gymnospermium maloi n zmadhimi 400X
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Foto. 2. - Gymnospermium maloi n zmadhimi 600 X
Foto.3. - Gymnospermium maloi n zmadhimi 1000X
CONCLUSIONS
Nga analiza e tipareve palinotaksonomike t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) rezulton:
Tiparet palinotaksonomike t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) dhe t Gymnospermium shqiptarum
Paparisto & Qosja (1976) sinonim Gymnospermium scipetarum E. Mayer & Pulevic (1984), Gymnospermium
altaicum (Pall.) Spach subsp. scipetarum (E.Mayer & Pulevi) Kit Tan & Mullaj (2001) jan shum t ngjashme
ndrmjet tyre.
Celulat e rrjets t Gymnospermium maloi Kit-Tan & Shuka (2011) n mjaft raste paraqiten pak m t mdha.
Tiparet palinotaksonomike t dy specieve endemike Gymnospermium t vendit ton ngjashmrin m t madhe e
kan me Gymnospermium altaicum (Pallas) Spach.
REFERENCES
1.Arhangelskij D. B.,Tahtadzhdjan A.L (1972): Morfologia pilcevih zeren Leontice L. Gymnospermium Spach i
bliznih rodov semejsta Berberidaceae. Bot. Zhurnal. T. 57, Nr8, Fq. 921 926.
2. Avetisjan B. M 1(950): Uproshennij acetolinij metod obrabotniki pilci. Bot. Zhurnal. T. 35, N 4, Fq. 385 386.
3. Erdtman G. (1956): Morfologija pilci i sisitematika rastenij. Angiosperma. Moskva.
4. Nowicke J.W., Skvarla J.J (1981): Pollen Morphology and Phylogenetic Relationships
of the Berberidaceae. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington
5. Kapidani G. (1989): T dhna t pjesshme mbi studimin morfologjik t disa prfaqsuesve farzhveshur t
bimve t sotme t vendit ton. Buletini Nafta e gazi N 2, Fq. 78 89.
6. Paparisto K., Qosja Xh. (1976): Kontribut pr florn e RPS t Shqipris. Buletini i Shkencave t Natyrs. Nr 2.
Fq. 85 99.
7. Perven A; Qaiser M.(2010); Pollen flora of Pakistan LXV. Berberidaceae, Pak. J. Bot., 42(1): 1-6.
8. Sladkov A.N. (1967): V vedenie b sporovo-pilvevoj analiz. Nauka.
9. Smolianinova L. A. Gollubkova V. F. (1967): K metodike issledovania pilci. Dok. Ak. Nauk. SSSR T.L
XXXVIII. Nr 3. Fq. 125-126.
10. Tan K, Mullaj, A. (2001): Berberidaceae. In: Greuter W., Raus, T. (Eds.), Med-Checklist. Notulae. Wildenowia
31, fq. 319.
11. Tan K., Shuka L., etj. (2011): The genus Gymnospermium (Berberidaceae) in the Balkans. Phytotaxa 25: 117.
12. Takhtajan A (2009):Flowering plants.Springer.
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PAPER 260
FOREST LEGISLATION, EU STANDARDS AND THE ALBANIAN REALITY
Ariola B. Feraj
University of Tirana, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Political Sciences, Tirana Albania
Email: ariolaferaj@ymail.com
ABSTRACT
Forest areas in Albania occupy more than 62 % of the national territory and are represented by beech, oak, chestnut
ect. The forest annual growth is evaluated circa 2m3 hectares/year while the levels of Conifer wood and Foliar wood
are circa 31.7% and 68.3%. Forests are considered an important source of the national economy and a basis for the
wood industry, export, fuel, the construction industry and tourism. When it comes to ownership the state possesses
51% of the total tree fund, the municipalities and communes 46% and while private enterprises possess less than 3%
of the forests fund. Although there is an increasing trend of private administration. The forest system in Albania has
been objected to the legislation since the official creation of the Albanian state in 1912. Although the first Albanian
law about the forest legislation belongs to the year 1923, accompanied later by decrees that guided the
administration, protection and multiplication of the forest fund. Especially during the period 1945 -1990 the nurture
for the forests was supported with the creation of 27 Forest Enterprises and 112 Nurseries for the production of
young plants. During the period 1992-2013 have been attempts to integrate the forest system in the free trade
economy while the legislation has been approximated with the European Union legal framework. Because of this
approximation have been declared as National Parks, Natural Reserves or Protected Areas more than 15% of the
forest areas where projects are enforced to rehabilitate this areas with financial support from The World Bank, The
European Bank For Reconstruction and Development, USAID ect. But regardless to the present legislation, forest
areas are often a source for illegal profit and are affected by annual arson so while the physical fund is decreasing
with a few percents every year we are facing more and more environmental problems caused especially by the high
levels of erosion. The situation is a concerning matter because protecting the forests should be considered a national
obligation and an inheritance for the next generations.
Key words: forest, resources, national park, law, administration.
INTRODUCTION
The Albanian national history is always connected with our Forests, Pastures, their products and the relations
created from their traditional utilisation. The Albanian forestall tradition conserves some autochthones features and
has developed according to an internal evolution, but also influenced from the experiences our neighbours with
which we have had historical relationships along the centuries. Different contributions have offered the different
empires the Roman, Venetian, Byzantine, and Ottoman which have occupied Albania in different periods of time.
During the Ottoman occupation this reality comes across in the form of written documents and imperial laws with
which the Sultan used to manage the utilisation of the land. After the XV century the Canon codes that adjusted
the relations before the occupation were enforced. But the Canon was soon replaced with new laws and
institutions as the case of the feudal Sanxhak, and when our religion was converted to Muslim the Shariat law
was applied. In reality the Ottoman Empire did not have a particular law about the Forests and Pastures, but after
the year 1870 was applied the so called Law That Adjusted The Relationships With The Forest this law was
essentially an adaptation of some old French regulations. After the Independence in 1912 was changed the way that
Forests were managed and the according legislation for forests and pastures. With this argument the Ministry of
Botore Jobs in collaboration with different offices in all the country created a new law that was approved only
years later in 27. 01. 1923 by the National Council and the High King Council. This day has been announced as the
day of the creation of the forest administration in Albania. After the Italian occupation during the Second World
War, with the initiative of the Albanian Assembly in 1940 was approved an Imperial decree of Victor Emanuel The
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Third that prohibited the cutting of some special kinds of trees used for the production and export of calorific wood
coal in other countries.
During the years 1945-1990 the legislation for Forests and Pastures has developed various times, with clear
objectives especially in the scientific treatment, multiplication of the forest areas, production of young plants and
protection from illness, illegal cutting and arson.
For example according to the Summary of the legislation of the republic of Albania the act number 4407 of the date
26.06.1965 is changed to the act no 6727 of the date 20.01.1983, this act defines the forest fund of Albania.
According to this act forests are land areas covered by trees or bushes which must be bigger than 1 dynym, which
must be situated outside the town borders and the populated areas. In this fund can also be included mountain areas,
rocks, sandbanks or unusable areas.
The Council Of Ministers has treated different forest problems in continuation. So with an Act of The Council Of
Ministers no 96 of the date 21.11.1966 are decided the borders of the national parks and with the Act no 88 date 04.
05. 1978 are treated the norms of forestation and the number of plants for hectares for every type of land. The decree
no 124 date 03.04.1980 defines the rules for the complex development of the Forests and Pastures and the planting
of walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds and the effects of the forestation in battling erosion.
Decree no 4427, of the date 23.09.69 changed in the decree no 5913 of the date 26.06.1979, where are treated
problems of the protection of crops and forest plants. While the act no 9607 date 30.06.1977 treats the control, the
hunting rules and fauna protection considering the wild animals as a national property. While the act no 37 date
10.03.1971 determines the criterias for the Bureau of the Soil in the Republic of Albania. The decree of the Council
Of Ministers no 111 date 28.03.1985 treats the development and the rational utilization of the forests and the wood
materials.
The creation of the High Institute of Agriculture in 1951 brought positive developments in all developing areas in
the country. An organic part of the Institute Of Agriculture was the Faculty of Forests and Pastures that prepared
and still prepares forest engineers, processing engineers ect, that fulfill our necessities with qualified workers. Some
years later in Shkodra, Berat and Korca, was created a network of Forest High Schools while in the year 1971
were created the Institute of Forests and Pastures and different Training Centers that provided scientific and
sensible development of the Forest and Pasture system in Albania.
With the act no 8417 date 21.10.1988 is created the General Directory Of The Forests And Pastures and is defined
the way in which this structure will be organized. The structure is divided Forest Directories, and Pastures Sectors.
The General Directory had under subordination 27 Forest Enterprise, 12 Pasture Sectors and 112 Nurseries whose
main job was the production of young plants as well as basic protection, good administration and multiplication of
the Forest and Pasture Areas. According to the Ministry of Agriculture report the destruction of this Directory in the
year 2006 was the worst thing that could have happened to this sector, this is reflected in the difficult position of the
forests now, when almost all indices are lower than the year 1990.
After the year 1991 have been attempts to integrate the forest system in the economy of free trade, while the
legislation is being approximated to that of the European Union. For example the act no 7895 date 27.01.1995 For
the protection of the forests and pastures, or the act no 9385 date 04.05.2005 For the forests and the forest
service , ect. Because of this approximation measures have been taken, this is why it has been predicted that until
the year 2017 almost 15% of the forest areas will be treated as National Parks, Natural Reserves And Protected
Areas in accordance with the IUCN criteria. The main objective is the implementation of rehabilitating and
maintaining projects with financing from The World Bank, The European Bank For Reconstruction and
Development and the USAID
MATERIAL AND METHOD
For the conduction of this study have been utilized written materials form the Ottoman archives, the Albanian
archive during the time period 1912-1945, the Albanian archives and statistics during the time period from 1945-
1990 and the reports and statistic yearbooks during the period 1991-2010 offered by World Bank, The European
Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and the ministries of Agriculture and Environment ect. An important
part is also played by the International convents, different treaties and the EU legislation for the Forests and
Pastures.
RESULTS
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This analysis will be concentrated in the main indices that valuate the physical conditions of the forests, their
performance in the physical aspects, the according legislation, the implementation of the different laws, the
measures taken in different periods of time and the effects in the practical aspects. Attention will be paid also to the
European Union standards for the Forests, the level of the approximation of the legislation and the orientation of this
important asset in interest to the development of the country and creating a higher level of well being for the parts of
the population whose life depends on the Pastures and Forests. Between the most important indices we list;
The Physical Conditions Of The Forests And Protected Areas In Albania. According to the United Nations
statistics: in the physical aspect Albania is considered as a country with limited amount of land. In total our country
has circa 28 748 km2 land areas where the farm land occupies 24% of the surface while forests and pastures occupy
62% of the surface while un-used areas occupy 14% of the surface of the national territory. Statistics of the year
1970 prove that the forest fund and the pasture fund contains more than 1 782 300 hectares from which more than 1
302 000 hectares are Forests and 480 000 hectares are Pastures. According to the F o o d a n d Ag r i c u l t u r e
O r g a n i z a t i o n during the years 1971-1990 the forest areas were reduced with 256 000 hectares because of their
utilization in agriculture by the state program. In the year 1990 is reported that 1 724 000 hectares are part of the
Forest and Pastures Fund where the forest consists in less than 1 046 000 hectares , Pastures 480 000 hectares
while the un used areas cover more than 402 474 hectares .
Graph 3.1. The Physical Condition of The Forests during the years 1990 - 2010 (In 000 Hectare)
According to the World Bank indicators during the transition period 1991 2013, Albania has lost because of
illegal cutting, arson and lack of services more than 74 000 hectares of the Forest fund or a mean of 3750
hectares/year. This means that there is a mean of deforestation of 187.5%. While according to the Ministry of
Environment report especially during the years 2007-2012 there were severe fire damages. During this period of
time there are calculated more than 1300-1500 cases of fires for year while in total have been lost intentionally 14
500 ha forests/pastures. The situation is confirmed also by the official report of the World Bank. This report shows
that in the end of the year 2010 in Albania the forests covered circa 794 000 hectares, wood areas covered circa 178
000 hectares. During this period 74 000 hectares of Forest Fund have been alienated physically but are still part
General Forest Fund
The volume of the forest fund in the year 2010. According to different reports of the Ministry of Environment
and the World Bank the Forest Fund in the year 2010 is calculated 76 million m 3, from 81 million that was in 1990.
This shows us a general decrease of 5 million m3 or 7% of the total. From our data results that the annual growth
coefficient has suffered a decrease of 22.3% which means that from 1.8million m 3/hectare /year that was in 1985
the annual growth has became 1.4m3/hectare /year in the year 2010.
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Graph 3.2. Volume of the forest fund during the period 1990 2010
According to table above, not only the annual production but also other indices of the forest fund are object of a
constant decrease. In the national level we inherited a structure not well organized of forest areas where the high
forests represent 45% of the total forest areas and have a mean volume of wood of circa 125 m 3/hectares, while the
rest or 55% is represented by low trees and shrubs that represent consecutively 34% and 29% (World Bank report
2005 )
Mismanagement of the forest areas. Indices of the mismanagement and the lack of government control on the
forest territory in Hill and Mountain areas are the illegal cutting and arson that happens every year. According to
report of the Ministry of the Environment during the last 20 years were cut medially 1.7 million m 3 wood every
year. There is a negative balance between the tree cutting and the increase of the forests environments. According to
the last Ministry of Environment report only 200 000 m3/year are a result of legal cutting while more than 1 500
000 m3/year are consequences of illegal cutting. The reports show also that in Albania during the year 2009-2012 the
Primary Forest Fund has been reduced with more than 3000 ha especially in the regions of Krasta-Kruje where have
been lost 1200 hectares , Karaburun Vlore where have been lost 800 hectares and Dajt-Tirana where illegal
cutting has costed more than 169 hectares of trees ect.
Protected areas for the biodiversity. As Xhuveli L, (2012) has stated Albania is home of more than 3250 vascular
plant species, from which only 0.8% are endemic and 2% are classified in the category I & V of the IUCN. From
the total Forest Fund, circa 84% are producing forests, the rest or more then 12.5% is referred as Protected Areas.
According to a report of the Academy Of Sciences the increase of the Forest Areas in reality has been only a formal
action, because their conditions do not correspond to their status or their functions. Examples of this are Lura or
Brozdoveci that have been burned to the ground or the Dajti Park which because of the uncontrolled construction
and annual arson is alienated yearly from his basic destination. In both this cases an immediate action is needed.
Inside the forest fund Albania has more than 429 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles
according to the data gathered by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. But we do not possess endemic
species while more than 3.7% are considered in risk of disappearing.
The approximation of the Albanian legislation with the European standards. For the evaluation of the level of
legislation of the Albanian forests with the European standards different indices are taken in consideration. This
indices are important for different types of donors when they offer different analysis that are centered in the
Albanian forests. Trying to show the real situation we will center the data in indices like: Certified Forests, forest
areas with crown coverage, areas of ecosystems classified according to type, protected areas, reserves of the
biosphere ect.
Forests certified and protected according to the Forest Stewardship Council. According to the statistics of the
World Bank for the year 2005 and the Forest Stewardship Council , in Albania does not exist a category such as
Certified Forests. While the efforts to meet this standards have not yet reached the attention of the government and
the donors. Even the Protected Areas for the category of sub-tropical forests are approximately 50% less than the
level of the European Union and five times less than the World Mean.
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Table 1 Certified Forests According To The Forest Stewardship Council 2005
No Certified forests Ha In Albania In Europe In the

World
1. Natural Forests 0 4830994 11457393
2. Plantations 0 828507 3324996
3. Mixed Forests 0 10595766 11461154
4. Protected forest areas after 1990 % x x 9
4.1 Sub - tropical forests % 1.2 3 6
4.2 Rare plants and natural parks x 1 5.5
4.3 Number of species at risk 0 x
Surfaces of ecosystems classified according to their Plant Cover . For the evaluation of forest areas in the
category of Areas Of The Classified Ecosystems and Plant Cover are used standard methodologies, but are
changed when applied to different types of terrains, and different forest categories. This indices although are
measured in different ways, bring results that over-cover each other maximally in the aspects of guaranty for the
indices under monitoring. Loveland et al indices shows that the forest areas compared with the means of the
European countries and the world are 2.4-4 times lower. In our country only the Mosaic areas have prevalence by
being 4 times higher than the normal standards, while the low levels of vegetation are evaluated as 0.
Table 2 Areas of the ecosystems classified according to type. (World Bank report 2005)
No. Name Unit Included in the analysis

000/ha Albania Europe World
1. Total land area 2
2301873 13328979
874.8
2. Areas covered with : - - - -
2.1. Primary forests % 10 41 24
2.2. Bushes, savanna, grass, ect % 5 22 37
2.3. Mosaic % 82 27 20
2.4. Urban areas % 0.1 0.4 0.2
2.5. Low vegetation, ice and snow % 0 3.6 15.8
2.6. Water surfaces % 2.9 6
Types of trees and the different types of plant cover in Albania. According to the last reports on the forests of the
experts of the World Bank, is evaluated that the main categories of forests in Albania are, Natural Modifications,
Modified Plantations, Primary Forests, specified as such because of their plant constitution and the importance that
they have to the EU experts. According to this report the forest areas until the year 2010 have been reduced with
more than 14 500 hectares , this results are also supported by the data offered by different operators in the Directory
of Emergencies that works with the Council of Ministers and the Ministry of Environment. They monitor the
situation of fire damages especially during the summer period.
Statistics of the Ministry of the Environment, 2010.
Table 3 Types of forests and the differences of the plant cover in Albania.
According to the World Bank report of the year 2010
No. Name Unit Area %

1. Total forest land 000/ha 1 046 100
2 Forest cover in 2005 000/ha 794 75.9
2.1. Primary forests 85 8.1
2.2. Natural modifications 620 59.3
2.3. Plantations 86 8.2
2.4. New Areas 3 0.003
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3. Areas covers partially with forests/shrubs 000/ha 178 17

4. Alienated areas (fire, cutting) in the forest fund 000/ha 74 7
Total 1+2+3+4, year 2010 000/ha 1046 100
The basic legislation in Albania and the level of approximation with the EU Legal framework. The actual basic
legislation of Forests and Pastures is partially aproximated with the Directives of the European Union. It is in
proces the division of menagement functions from the controling ones through the realisation of the institutional
reform in the forests, the creation of The Regional Directories of the forest service and the new structure of the
advisory service but as Christoph Demmke has stated is a long and time consuming process.
Table 4 The existing legal framework and the approximation with the EU legislation
Law No. 9385, Date 04.05.2005 Forests and Forest service changed
Directive of the Council of Ministers 88/332/EEC 13 June 1988 for the improvement of some directives in the marketing
and distribution of seeds .
Verdict of the Council of Ministers 89/367/EEC i 29 May 1989 for the creation of the Permanent Committee of the
Forests
Verdict of the Commission 96/653/EEC of 11 November 1996 authorizes the member countries for temporal permission
for the trade of reproductive forest materials that do not meet the requirements of the Council Directive 66/404/EEC and
71/161/EEC.
Commission regulation (EC) Nr 1460/98 e 8 July 1998 that amends Te Regulation (EEC) Nr 1170/93 that removes some
detailed rules (EEC) Nr 2158/92 for the protection of EU countries from fire
Regulation (EC) Nr 2152/2003 Of the European Parliament and the European Council 17 November 2003 for
monitoring and interaction in the Member Countries (Focusing on the Forests).
Regulation of the Commission (EC) Nr 1737/2006 in 7 November 2006 for the removal of some detailed rules for the
implementation of the regulation of the Council (EC) Nr 2152/2003 Of the
European Parliament and the European Council for monitoring the forests and the environmental interaction Between
the Member countries
The degree of approximation : Partial
Law No.9693, Date 19.03.2007 "for the pasture fund
C. Reg. EEC No. 1257/99 Directivs for the clasification of the mountain areas
C. Reg. EEC No. 1698/2005 Politics of rural developement
C. Reg. EEC No. 796/2004 New agricultural politics
C. Reg. EEC No. 1259/99 Agriculture and the environement .
C. Reg. EEC No. 1782/2003 Measures for the rural developement
Drgree of aproximation : Partial
CONCLUSIONS
At the end of this analysis the data shows that :

The forests are considered an important national asset that must be protected more efficiently.
The legal framework has been constantly improved during the years, while the indices show very low
levels of improvement if compared to the European Standards.
Especially after the year 1991, the forest areas have decreased more than 60 000 ha because of damages
caused by fire and illegal cutting. According to the 2012 data, the approximation of the legislation with
the European Union standards is only partial.
Short-term and mid -term priorites.
The enforcement of the administrative capacities and their coordiantion in local and regional level.
The aproval of the strategie for the harmonization of the legislation with the acquisof the EU.
The developement of politics that encourage the different actors for the treatment of the forests, the
forestation, reforestatiton of the burnt areas ect.
The creatin and the consolidation of the structure of the advisory service in local and central level.
The realsation and implementation of complex studies for the forest and pasture economies.
The soustianble developement of the forest resources in complance with the long term developing
strategies in of our country.
REFERENCES
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Academy of Sciences, report Tole V., Pr ruajtjen e trashgimis kulturore shpirtrore, jomateriale, of the year
2003.
Country Profiles of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Sector:
http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index.asp?subj=5&iso3=ALB
Center for International Environmental Law publications , http://www.ciel.org/Publications/pubhre.html
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act number 4407 of the date 26.06.1965
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 6727 of the date 20.01.1983
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 96 of the date 21.11.1966
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 88 date 04. 05. 1978
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 124 date 03.04.1980
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 4427, of the date 23.09.69
Civil Code of The Republic of Albania act no 5913 of the date 26.06.1979,
Christoph Demmke, Towards effective environmental regulation: Innovative approaches in implementing and
enforcing European Environmental Law and Policy, European Institute of Public Administration, ISSN 1087-
2221
Development Data Group, The World Bank. 2002. World Development Indicators
European directives for The Protection Of The Environment, pp 2-4 and 8-14
EU environmental law [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/index_en.htm]
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000--
main Report. FAO Forestry Paper No. 140. Rome: FAO. Data available on-line at
http://www.fao.org/forestry/foris/webview/forestry2/index.jsp?siteId=101&langId=1
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2010. Forests Certified by FSC-Accredited
Certification Bodies. Document 5.3.3. Oaxaca, Mexico, FSC.
Available online at: http://www.fscoax.org/principal.htm.
General Directory Of The Forests and Pastures, report , year 2005
Loveland, T.R., Reed, B.C., J.F., Brown, J.F., Ohlen, D.O., Zhu, Z., Yang, L. Merchant. J. 2000. Global Land Cover
Characteristics Database (GLCCD) Version 2.0. Available online at: http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/glcc/globdoc2_0.html.
Ministry Of Agriculture Food and Consumer Protection , Statistical yearbook of the year 1990, Tirana, printing
House Kristalina
Ministry Of Agriculture , Food and Consumer Protection , Statistical yearbook of the year 2005, Tirana, Printing
House Kristalina
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Water Administration, Report of the Condition of the Environment for year
2010, prepared by the Environment and Forest Agency, Tirana
General Directory Of The Forests and Pastures, Statistical yearbook of the 1990, Tirana, Printing House Shqip
Summary of the legislation of the republic of Albania volume 1, years 1945-1985,
Summery of the legislation of the republic of Albania volume II , years 1985-1990.
UNEP/GRID. United Nations Environment Program/Global Resource Information Database. 1991. Global digital
data sets for land degradation studies: a GIS
U N E P /W C M C . U n i t e d N a t i o n s E n v i r o n me n t P ro g r a m /World Conservation Monitoring Centre/
Generalised Original and Current Forests database 1998. Global Digital Data sets that shows the original and
current extent of global forest cover
Xhuvleli L, Bimet dhe Shqiptaret (2012) Tirana, pp 120-150
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PAPER 261
HEMATOLOGIC STUDIES OF HUMANS EXPOSED TO SULPHUR DIOXIDE
Etleva Beliu1, Shpetim Leka
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Departement of Mathematical Engineering and Physical Engineering, Tirana,
Albania
Email: 1etlevallagami@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The detrimental effects of air pollution on health have been recognized for most of the last years. The outdoor
environment in industrial country without strong effective legislation remains a major health hazard. This papers
discusses the effect sulphur dioxide in hematologic parameters of humans. The study investigates venus blood
samples of 106 habitant of two areas in Albania, an industrial region where the observed ambient air included
sulphur dioxide, and the other a non polluted one. The factors that can be effective as risk of hematological problems
among habitants have been listed and regarding that, a database is taken.The parameters of blood samples of two
areas are compared using ANOVA method and as result, no statistically significant changes are seen in
erythrocytes or immunologic parameters examined and in leukocyte. The mean of erythrocytes is at minimum
normal value. All parameters of leukocytes formula are examined and using statistical methods is studied the role of
independent variables on these parameters. A possibly significant decrease is found in monocytes of rezidents that
have only 20 years of timestay, but this is recovered after 40 years timestay. A decrease effect (statistically
significant) was noted in lymphocyte.
Keywords: hematological problems, erythrocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes
INTRODUCTION
High concentrations-level of sulfur dioxide is a major human and environmental health concern. This pollutant can
cause health problems that may affect facility employees and the community. Scientific evidence indicates that
sulfur dioxid causes pneumalogical problems. But their opinion about the relationship of air pollution with
hematological factors remains controversial. While some studies reported the association of short-term1 and long-
term2 exposure to air pollution with SO2, some other studies did not confirm such association. 3 It is suggested that
differences in the extent of the response to air pollutants are influenced by the variation in susceptibility among
individuals.This fact increased our attention for the growth of knowledge regarding air pollution influence in the
hematological problems.
STUDY AREA
The aim of this study is to analyze the data collected in two areas: Ballsh-Marinza in Fier and Novosele, in Vlora,
not far from each other, located both in the South region of Albania. Marinza was discovered in 1928 as heavy oil
field and is the biggest on-shore field in Albania. So, the air around this city, where the petroleum is extracted and
refined, is polluted. The nevel of SO2 is statisticlly high (33 parts per billion). The other city in Vlora is consider to
be a non polluted zone, because it isnt an industrial zone, only an urban area.
106 human blood samples are investigated: 56 blood samples of residents from the polluted zone, who in this study
are treated as Investigated Group (IG), and 50 blood samples of residents from the non polluted zone, who in the
study are treated as the Control Group (CG). The people of both groups were residents of different ages and genders.
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Figure1.Study area Ballsh-Marinza in Fier and Novosele, Vlora, Fier, Albania
The data base used was named analizagjak (blood test). It contains the samples of erythrocyte, leukocyte and
hemoglobin for the IG and CG. It contains the samples of all the other parameters of leukocyte formula as
lymphocyte, monocytes, granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils).
A brief medical history was taken for each person. This history consisted of age, sex, length of residence at current
and previous address, history of blood illness,and the occupation of humans. General observations were made of the
home environment that included, categorizing the age of the home and, type of used water, distance of house from
oil rafinery.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The results of the test of blood samples on the population of the investigated group (polluted zone) are compared
with the results of blood samples on the population of the control group (nonpolluted zone).
Study results, Table1 show that:
There is no significant distiction between the mean of erythrocite level in the investigated group and in the control
one. The mean level of erythrocite in both of the groups analysed is under the normal.
It seems that the mean of leukocyte level is lower in IG than in CG.
It seems that the mean of hemoglobin level is lower in the IG than in CG, too. In both groups are included males
and females.
Table1.Descriptive statistics of principal blood components on the population
IG CG
Principal
blood MEAN ST.DEVIATION MEAN ST.DEVIATION
components
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Erythrocyte 4621000 654817 4718750 511579

Leukocyte 7516 1477 7866 1768
Hemoglobin 12.2 1.60 13.3 1.48
With ANOVA method it is aimed to study the influence of zone factor in the three blood parameters.
To set up the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses, let 1,2 denote the true average for each of the blood
components studied in the two zones above.
The null hypothesis is that in different zones the true averages response are equal. Ho: 1=2
The alternative claim is that there are differences between them. Ha: 12
Aiming to test the equality of means for three blood components, ANOVA procedure is used. The one-way output
contains these t-test p-values, P = 0.391 for erythrocyte and P= 0.274 for the leukocyte, indicating that there is no
significant distinction between the mean of the erythrocyte in the residents of the IC and CG and no significant
distinction between the mean of the leukocyte in the residents of the IC and CG.
The mean level of erythtrocite in both of the analysed groups seems to be under the normal parameters, so it is
neccesary to study if there are signs of anemia.
We set up null hypothesis (there are signs of anemia)

H0 : =3500000
alternative hypothesis (there are no signs anemia)
Ha: > 3500000
The test of this hypothese indicates that there are no signs of anemia (P<0.005) .
But the test of following hypotheses

null hypothesis H0 : =4500000
alternative hypothesis Ha: >4500000
indicates that the mean level of erythrocyte is at minimum normal value (P=0.07).
Using ANOVA procedure, a small but a significant difference in the value of the third studied blood component, in
the hemoglobin, was observed. The t-test p-value of 0.004 indicates the influence of the zone in this blood
component. It concerns with different sex of samples. The percent of females in IC (61.2%) is higher than in CG
(48%).
A detailed statistical analysis is needed on the other components of blood samples, lymphocyte, monocytes,
granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils).
Study result of Table2 shows that:
The means of all parameters of leukocyte formula in IG are lower then the means of these in CG
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of leukocyte formula components on the population
Descriptive statistics
MEAN ST.DEVIATION Q1 Q3
Leukocyte
Groups formula
Lymphocyte 33.46 1.2000 25.75 41.00
Monocytes 5.920 0.226 5.0000 7.0000
CG
Granulocytes
neutrophils 59.03 1.56 53.95 64.11
eosinophils 2.9800 0.147 2.00 4.00
IG Lymphocyte 24.04 2.60 0.37 37.75
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Monocytes
4.149 3.3.7 0.070 7.000
Granulocytes
neutophils 57.04 1.36 50.50 64.75
eosinophils 2.1150 0.2490 0.5200 3.000
The results displayed from oneway ANOVA table, for the lymphocyte, neutrophils and eosinophils variable (P=
0.002, F=9.98) and for the monocytes variable (P=0.001, F=11.74), show that there is significant evidence of zone in
these blood components.
The factors that can be effective as risk of hematological problems among habitants have been listed by Health
Public Institution and regarding that, a questionnaire is formed.
Aiming at having more significant indipendent variables that affect in each blood parameters, it is examined if these
blood parameters can be predicted by other indipendent variables.
The analyze of air pollutants on blood parameters of leukocyte formula categorized into quartiles5, and the lower
quartile was considered as elevated value. So, four variables yi for each of above hematologic parameters (upper
quartiles, y = 0 vs. lower quartiles, y = 1) are defined. The association of the each of yi for 1 i 4 across factors of
databaze, as age of the humans, history of blood illness in the family, permanent habitants or not and the kind of
used water, using logistic regression analysis is examined. These blood parameters levels were found to be most
influenced by two included variables. These variables are: permanent habitants or not in this industrial zone and age
of humans.
Analyzing the problem of influencation of time stay in this industrial zone, the following variables are defined
0 , if person is under 20 years rezident
timestay= 1, if person is 20 40 years rezident

2, if person is above 40 rezident

and age=
0 , if person under 25 years old

1, if person over 25 years old
All parameters of leukocytes formula are considered as continuous dependent variables6. Age ( two levels) and
timestay (three levels), can be considered as factors. So two-way MANOVA procedure is used to test the hypothesis
that the timestay or the age have a significant impact on the parameters of leukocyte formula, or not and to test the
intersection of the factors.
It is concluded that there is an interaction7 of two factors age and timestay, since Wilks =0.9367 and P=0.0478 in
MANOVA results. So the effect of timestay factor depends on level of age factor.
Considering this interaction effect7, using simple ANOVA test, its noted that three groups of timestay have not
statistically the same means of lymphocyte ( P=0.370). A decrease effect of timestay categorical variable in
lymphocyte in all levels of timestay factor is concluded.
While the mean of lymphocyte of residents for three levels of the timestay are respectively: 24.3 (for residents that
have 1-20 years in this area); 23.1 (for residents that have 21-40 years in this area); 22.3 (for residents that have
above 40 years in this area).
Using the same method, at least the means of two groups of timestay are different in monocytes level of rezidents,
F= 0.452 and P=0.062.
This statistic test can not tell which specific groups was significantly different from each other. So using Tukey
post hoc tests , a possibly significant decrease is found in monocytes of rezidents, which have until 20 years of
timestay ( p=0.04), but this is recovered after 40 years timestay (p= 0.21).
CONCLUSION
This study documented significant associations between exposure to air pollution and some hematologic parameters
of leukocyte formula, based on samples taken in the human population who live near a polluted zone. Our findings
highlight the association of hematologic parameters with the high level of SO 2 (its normal nevel of EPA8 is 25 parts
per billion), so its necessary to re-evaluate the environmental health policies and environmental quality standards,
which should be designed to protect susceptible subgroups of the population fully . The presence of these
associations with SO2 underscores that environmental protection concerns should be considered a top priority for
primary prevention of the diseases, too.
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REFERENCES
Riediker M. Cardiovascular effects of fine particulate matter components in highway patrol officers. Inhal Toxicol.(
2007)19 (suppl):99-105.
Chen JC, Schwartz J. Metabolic syndrome and inflammatory responses to long-term particulate air pollutants.
Environ Health Perspect.( 2008);116:612
Steinvil A, Kordova-Biezuner L, Shapira I, Berliner S, Rogowski O. Short-term exposure to air pollution and
inflammation-sensitive biomarkers. Environ Res.( 2008); 106:51-61
Forbes LJ, Patel MD, Rudnicka AR, Cook DG, Bush T, Stedman JR, et al. Chronic exposure to outdoor air pollution
and markers of systemic inflammation. Epidemiology.( 2009);20:245-253
VMR Muggeo (march 2004) Statistics in Medicine, Volume 23, Issue 7
https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/two-way-manova-using-spss-statistics.php
E. Beliu (Llagami), Sh.Leka, 2012. The role of the combination of factors in the ANOVA method's two
dimensional, Optime, Scientific Magazine "Albanian University".
http://www.ehow.com/info_8705908_normal-so2-levels-air.html
PAPER 263
COMPOSTING: A PROCESS TO REPLACE LANDFILLING IN KOSOVO
Bekim Selimi*, Edmond Rexhepi, Vehbi Sofiu
South East European University-SEEU, Tetova-Skopje, Macedonia
Email bekimselimi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Concerns with waste management in Kosovo are linked with issues deriving from illegal landfills, which pose a
potential for generating serious health and environmental problems. Burning biomass such as grasslands and
agricultural wastes releases particulate matter and contributes to air pollution. Furthermore, treatment and disposal
of waste is a major concern, reflecting the poor implementation of existing waste regulations. Landfill waste
management practices at Kosovos seven regional landfills are inadequate; for instance, without soil covers, wastes
are blown out of the landfill into communities and surface waters. Uncontrolled burning at these facilities is a
practice and this activity releases toxic substances into the air. One of the ways that can help reduce the amount of
waste in Kosovo is composting. As concerns about landfill space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by
means of composting is growing; the major reason for this interest is due to composting being a process for
converting decomposable organic materials into useful stable products. Organic wastes can be put back into the
agro-fields in the form of compost, can assist in reducing non-renewable mineral fertilizer applications maintaining
the quality of soils, conserve water and decrease the volume of wastes entering landfills. Instead of going to a
landfill these wastes might become a valuable resource in Kosovo as Compost and be used in such areas as agro-
fields. Composting is an economical and environmentally friendly waste management tool in compliance with local
standards and an effort toward implementation of the national law in compliance with EU Directive's.
Keywords: Compost, Landfill, Agro-Fields, Waste, Waste Management
INTRODUCTION
Lack of solid waste management is a major and a very sensitive problem in Kosovo. Rapid population growth,
urbanization and activity boom revealed an inefficient system of waste management.
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The developed world has created the concept of waste treatment which we should abide and begin implementation
in Kosovo. Waste treatment is a fairly complicated and expensive problem. It impacts significantly in reducing the
overall level of waste. Currently in Kosovo we have no major projects dealing with waste, but there are small private
initiatives resulting with some treatment points. Solid waste is discharged in inappropriate and prohibited places;
this phenomenon appears throughout the country. Waste usually gets burned thus polluting the surrounding
environment. All these allow the exposure of residents and the animals of the area to dangerous contaminants. Such
areas are often located close to rivers or other water bodies, some of which are used for drinking water supply and
that way are greatly threatening public health. Another long-term problem is that the existing regional landfills will
not have enough space in a short time and so the final costs (environmental and fiscal) will be very high.
Creating as well as closing landfills could pose a potential risk to groundwater due to leakage and drainage of
leachate and air quality due to release of gases. So with a more pragmatic and sustainable approach the number of
landfills constructed can be minimized and we can ensure their longevity in order so we do not continue the
usurpation of lands selected for waste disposal. It is therefore important to manage waste in current landfills through
reduction, recycling, composting,etc.
Composting is a method of recycling organic waste such as food waste, plant waste, rotten fruit, prune the branches
of trees (greenery in general), milled paper, sludge from sewage treatment (if any), etc. Over time, organic materials
during decomposition turn to a mass, as nutrient- fertilizer to enrich the land.[3]
Composting waste from gardens as wood, leaves, grass and food is a common strategy of waste management in
Europe. Composting improves the soil, increases plant growth, helps water drainage, prevents the formation of
weed, prevents erosion by 20% and reduces the application of artificial fertilizers.[3] Landfill and waste incineration
processes are harmful to the environment and are very expensive, while other options are more cost effective and
create jobs.
In Kosovo, a lot of waste is generated per person, the worse is that in Kosovo there is no recycling program or the
use of recycled products, e.g. use of paper bags in shops instead of plastic bags, for which decades are needed for the
decompose of plastics.
If we continue with this trend, we will face serious consequences. Clear and decisive action must be taken now to
avoid costly environmental consequences in the future.
The Law for Waste Nr.04/L-060 was approved by the Kosovos Assembly on May 24, 2012. This Law was prepared
according to relevant EU Directives and the experiences of neighboring countries. The most important document
which will need to be approved and enforced is the National and Municipal Waste Management Strategy with
Action Plan, where main directions for waste management will be defined and long-term needs in local and national
level will be assessed.
-Generation and treatment of waste in Kosovo

The total amount of waste in kg per person per day as calculated is approx. 2 kg/person. Whereas the daily amount
of household waste per person is 0.27 kg.
Table 1. Total waste generation in Kosovo, 2004
Daily Annual waste

Percentage Annual waste
Type of waste average in amount in
% (1 000 tones)
kg./capita kg./capita
Households 0.277 101 15 232 541
Commercial 0.25 91.25 12 209 875
Medical 0.0024 0.876 0.5 2 014.5
Mining and quarrying activities 0.907 331 45 761 426.5
Construction and demolition
0.2 73 10 167 900
activities
Other waste i.e. PVC, rubber,
0.36 131.4 18 302 220
pesticide, electronic, wooden, etc.
Total waste 2 729 100 1 675 977
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The objectives of the waste management policy are:

Reduction in waste generation in relation to economic growth and achieving significant reduction in the volume of
generated waste,
For the waste that is continuously generated, to achieve that:
Waste to be as less as possible harmful to environment and human health,
Waste to be introduced in the market for economic benefit, especially from the recycling process, or to be returned
to environment in a useful form (e.g. composting) or making them harmless waste,
Quantity of waste for disposal to be reduced up to minimal amount and their storage to be made in a safe way,
Waste to be treated as close as possible to the place where it is generated.
Table 2. Types and amount of waste treatment in Kosovo
Amount of waste per month Percentage

Type of waste
(1 000 tones) %
Metal 3 018.9 72.58
Paper 940 22.69
PVC 128 3.09
Organic waste 52.5 1.26
Rubber 4 0.1
Burning of waste as a way to treat the symptoms and not the cause of the problem is inadequate technology for
environment. By nature, waste incineration makes it impossible to eliminate air pollution, where any improvement
in equipment for the elimination of pollution only transfers the problem to other areas of the environment.[6] Today,
at the age of the energy crisis, however, a larger number of furnaces are being built which serve as small power
plants, in which the heat released from the burning of waste is turned into electricity. Organic waste in Europe
increasingly is being utilized as fertilizer. In reality, such a fertilizer present rich organic waste in manure, which is
previously by undergoing through aerobic-decomposition, loses the bad smell.[5]
-Generation and treatment of waste in Europe

In 2008, the EU-27 generated more than 2.6 billion tons of waste of which 98 million tones, or 3.7%, were
hazardous. Disposal at landfills is still the predominant waste treatment option but the volume dealt with in this way
declined by 67 million tones, or 5%, between 2004 and 2008. At the same time, there has been significant growth in
recovery (other than energy recovery), by 192 million tones or 21%, in particular for mineral waste. Incineration and
energy recovery have also shown steady growth, by 21 million tones, or 20%. As a result, 49% of waste treated in
2008 was disposed of, 46% was recovered and 5% was incinerated. The strongest increase within non-mineral waste
was reported for animal and vegetal wastes. The recovery of these has grown by about 15 million tones, or 30%
since 2004, and amounted to 67 million tones or 6.1% of total recovery in 2008. Animal and vegetal wastes
consisted mainly (at about 90%) of vegetal wastes from agriculture, forestry and food processing.[7]
Figure 1. Development of waste treatment in the EU-27 by waste category, 2004 to 2008 (1 000 tonnes)
Source: Eurostat
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As seen in European countries the treatment of waste as well as energy production from waste is growing. While in
Kosovo waste generation is growing and there is no significant increase in their treatment.
In order to harmonize environmental policies with those of the EU and the adoption of legislation with the Acquis
Communautaire in the field of waste management activities should be developed in such a way that more suitable
method suitable for waste management shall be chosen.[4]
-Composting
Composting represents the controlled process where organic waste collected and segregated are placed under
microbiological decomposition through aerobic conditions, giving the final product-compost with high organic
content with key features valuable as addition to soil to improve soil structure and quality as an additional form of
waste materials containing elements of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Composting operation suitable for composting waste so it can be composted; composting materials were wood
chips, hay, food waste, grease waste, waste from kitchens, green waste, waste paper products, shredded paper,
contaminated soil, etc. A particular problem in the future will be the treatment of sludge from plants. Primarily
should be started from risk evaluation that these sediments pose to the environment, land, water and human health.
The waste for composting should not have in his content uncompostable materials such plastic, metal or other
things. The materials will be sorted first by peoples in their dinning facilities or work places. The waste then will be
transported and will be stored at a designated place storage area and added to compost as soon as possible. The
wood should be chipped down to 6 cm and prepared for the compost. Some petroleum contaminated soil may be
used but suggest no more than 5 % of the total volume of the compostable material.
Composting processes are generally classified according to the three main types of systems: windrow, aerated static
pile and invessel systems. A system is classified by determining whether it is a reactor-or nonreactor-based system
and whether or not the composting materials are turned.[8]
The most commonly composting process in Kosovos condition is windrow system. A windrow system consists of
mixtures of biosolids and bulking agents placed on long rows (called windrows) that are turned periodically using
mobile equipment.
Windrow Composting is an economical and environmentally friendly waste management tool:
Keeps from overloading a broken infrastructure,
Liability Prevents pollution through illegal dumps,
In compliance with environmental law or local standards, whichever is more stringent,
Teaches local populace a sustainable waste management technique,
Economical,
Eliminate transport to the landfill and other cost associated with trash,
Portable, doesnt require permanent structures,
Sustainable.
Fig.2. Windrows in process Fig.3. Quality Soil & Compost
Source: Midwest Bio-Systems, Inc. Source: www.nottsrecycling.co.uk
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RESULTS
-The advantages of compost use are as follow:

Improves the soil structure, porosity, Erosion Control and bulk density, thus creating a better plant root
Environment,
Increases infiltration and permeability of heavy soils, reducing erosion and runoff,
Improves water holding capacity in sandy soils, reducing water loss and leaching,
Supplies a variety of macro and micronutrients,
Controls or suppresses certain soil-borne plant pathogens and nematodes,
Supplies significant quantities of organic matter,
Improves caution exchange capacity (CEC) of soils, improving their ability to hold nutrients,
For plant use,
Supplies beneficial microorganisms to soils,
Improves and stabilizes soil pH,
Can bind and degrade specific pollutants.
-Savings.
Reduced Landfill Costs
Reduced Incinerator Costs
Sewage Sludge Handling Costs
-Benefits. Benefits of Windrow Composting:
Not a burden on Local Infrastructure
It is economical relative to other methods
It is environmentally friendly
It supports goodwill between the institutions and local population.
CONCLUSIONS
From what was elaborated above, we can conclude that Kosovo still does not have a proper and efficient waste
treatment. From this it is suggested that waste treatment is a necessary process to achieve a gradual decrease in the
amount of waste at its source before its disposal, energy use, reuse and recycling, the gradual reduction of risk to
health and the environment in general.
In order for Kosovo to succeed in reducing the amount of waste and to preserve its natural assets and minimize
landfill construction, which pollute the land, should be working in all directions to reduce unnecessary production of
waste. To achieve this, government and ministries should be engaged which relate directly or indirectly to the
problem of waste, in order to develop strategy based on which will be acted in the future and on which more
regulations would derive that would regulate the import, domestic production that uses suitable packaging, the
behavior of citizens and other structures.[2]
Competent entities should start improving biodegradable waste management system based on the guidelines:
Encouraging prevention or reduction of biodegradable waste,
Developing a system for collection and treatment of biodegradable waste,
Construction of facilities and equipment to use and the use of biodegradable waste,
Encouraging operators to produce compost from kitchen waste and other biodegradable waste.
REFERENCES
Midwest Bio-Systems, Inc., The production of Humified Compost, ACS Compost Workshop
MMPH & AKMM, Raport, Gjendja e mbeturinave n Kosov, Prishtin, 2008.
MMPH & Enti i Statistikes se Kosoves, Disa fakte mbi Mjedisin, Prishtin, 2007.
MMPH, Strategjia e Republikes se Kosoves per menaxhimin e mbeturinave 2012 2020, Prishtin, 2012
Rozhaja, D. & Jablanoviq, M. (1983), Ndotja dhe mbrojtja e ambientit jetsor, ETMM, Prishtin.
REC, Mbeturinat, Paketimet dhe Mjedisi, Vellimi 9 (2012),
Schror, H., eurostat, Environment and energy (44/2011)
Washington State, Department of Ecology (1998), Criteria for sewage works design, Washington.
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PAPER 264
ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVE REPAIR TECHNIQUES OF RAFTER-TIE BEAM CONNECTIONS
Hektor Thoma1, Leonidha Peri1, Erald Kola1, Denisa Hajnaj1

1
Faculty of Forestry Sciences, Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania
E-Mail: hektor_thoma@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Timber trusses have been widely use in the medieval buildings, but also in the modern ones. In the timber trusses
structure the most important connection is the so-called rafter-tie beam. The destruction of the connections and as a
consequence the diffraction of the timber trusses normally occurs because of the overload or natural degradation by
biological agents of the truss structure. In those cases there is a need of connections repair and the identification of
simple and efficient repair techniques is very important for the normal function of the truss for a long period of time.
The evaluation of two repair techniques of rafter-tie beam is in the focus of this study.Tests are conducted in
connections composed of elements with 15x15 cm of section, from several timber species namely, poplar (Populus
sp.), white fir (Abies alba Mill.), spruce (Picea abies Carst.) and chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). The connections
tested originate partly from beams used in old/medieval buildings and partly from new beams. After the mechanical
tests, the rafter-tie connections were repaired and tested again, which allowed us to compare the functional
performance of the original and the repaired connections. We evaluated two repair techniques, one consisting in
adhesive bonding of heel above parts separated during the mechanical tests, using a special wood adhesive and the
second technique consisting in using metal tie elements, which dont affect the dynamics of the connection. Tests
results are showing that all the repaired rafter-tie beam connections, despite the repair techniques used are functional
under the same and in some tests under higher forces that the ones measured during the destructive mechanical tests.
Keywords: timber truss structure, connections, rafter-tie beam, repair techniques
INTRODUCTION
The restoration of the old timber structures is a complex and delicate process, where the applied restoration methods,
including here repair and reinforcements methods, have a special importance. Taking into account that the
restoration works are often done in buildings with historical and architectural significance, the restoration methods
should be simple, practical and respond to the repair needs of the timber structures (Tampone, 1996). In the
implementation of restoration and repair works on old timber structures is necessary the contribution and a
cooperation of experts from different fields like wood technologists, architects, structural designers, etc., in order to
realize a accurate restoration intervention (Uzielli, 2004). In many cases of restoration and repair interventions in the
past it can be found practices of complete change of the damaged old timber structures with other material structures
including recent timber with good physical and mechanical properties. Today the technological progress and
proposed modern restoration solutions, show that such extreme interventions are already surpassed. The most
frequent interventions in the old timber structures are done using external or internal connections parts in order to
reinforce and consolidate the old timber structure (Parisi and Piazza, 2000). Other techniques used in the past
consisted in the removal of the damaged parts of the structure and its replacements with adhesive materials as epoxy
resins. These techniques are not recommended any more, because the stiffening achieved excludes any displacement
of the connection members in the truss (Giordano, 1981). Uzielli et al. (1998) proposed the application of a
restoration method, specially related to connections repair, consisting in the replacement of the damaged part of the
rafter and tie-beam by timber prostheses.The implementation of the method includes also a support structure in
order to avoid the disassembling of the truss. In this study two simple and efficient techniques are applied to repair
the rafter tie-beam connection of timber trusses after its destruction. The repaired connection is then tested in order
to evaluate the effectiveness of both methods in restoring the connections performance and functionality.
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This study is focused on the evaluation of simple techniques for the repair of old timber truss structures in order to
restore the original undamaged rafter tie-beam connection, keeping the initial truss functionality. Tests are
conducted in connections composed of elements with 15x15 cm of section and the timber material tested is taken
from another study on the timber truss connections, build from poplar (Populus sp.), white fir (Abies alba Mill.),
spruce (Picea abies Carst.) and chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). This material is originating from ancient buildings
in the area of Tuscany in Italy. After destructive tests the heel in the tie-beam brake way and the rafter tie-beam
connection doesnt exist any more. The notched end face of the rafter cant rest in the V-shaped indentation in the
upper face of the tie-beam and starts sliding. Taking into account this displacement the repair techniques to be
applied should stop it. Two simple repair techniques are applied to restore the original undamaged condition of the
rafter tie-beam connection. The first technique consisted in gluing the heel in the fracture area of the tie-beam using
the adhesive DUOCOL EPOXY from BINDULIN, which gave the best results in a series of adhesive related
tests. In the Fig.1 below is shown the rafter tie-beam connection after the heel gluing.
Fig. 1 Rafter tie-beam connection after the heel gluing
The second technique consisted in a restore system of the rafter tie-beam functionality, without stiffing it, allowing a
small out of plane displacement between rafter and tie-beam and guarantee the structural design of the truss. The
restore system consisted in external clamps, which are devices that clasp the rafter and the tie beam in the notched
area. The clamps are assembled with two lateral tension threaded rods ( 16 500mm) bolted to two metal plates
(2505030 mm) that rested in V-shaped indentations on rafters upper surface and in a notch in the ties lower
surface. Between the metal plates and the nut are placed spherical joints to avoid the stress bending flexion in the
rods. The skew angle of the rods is chosen considering their length and the acting forces, measured by a strain gage
placed in the middle of the rods length. In the Fig.2 below are shown the parts of the external clams used for the
connection repair.
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Fig. 2 Rafter tie-beam connection and the metallic parts of the repair system
The tests are conducted with the same testing machine used for the rafter tie-beam destructive tests, which consists
in a hydraulic press of 100 t and a support rig designed to hold the tie beam.
RESULTS
Heel gluing repair technique. The tests on the repaired connection by heel gluing has been conducted in order to
evaluate the effectiveness of this connection repair technique. The tests procedure followed the same criteria as for
the tests on the undamaged connections. The only specific of the tests on repaired connections consisted in test
replications for the same connection tested. The fracture of the glued heel occurred always in a different plan than
the previous one, consenting several repairs of the same connection by heel gluing and testing again after each
repair. The test for each connection are repeated until there was no fracture of the heel, but a penetration in
compression of the notched end face of the rafter into the heel. In the Tab.1 are given the average values of the
destructive forces resulting from the tests on the original undamaged connections and on the repaired ones by heel
gluing.
Tab. 1 Average values of destructive forces resulting from the tests
Tests on original
Tests of repair connections
Materiali connections
Destructive force Destructive force in four replicated tests
Poplar 10,2 t 12,7 t 11,2 t 11,6 t 13,8 t
(Populus sp.) 100160 N 124587 N 109872 N 113796 N 135378 N
White fir 10,45 t 11,7 t 10,9 t 12,8 t 12,6 t

(Abies alba Mill.) 102514 N 114777 N 106929 N 125568 N 123606
Spruce 10,72 t 12,5 t 11,3 t 12,1 t 12,4 t

(Picea abies Carst.) 105163 N 122625 N 110853 N 118701 N 121644
Chestnut 10,79t 12,5 t 13,6 t 12,4 t 11,8 t

(Castanea sativa Mill.) 105849 N 122625 N 133416 N 121644 N 115758 N
From the Tab.1 we can see that the average values of the destructive forces measured in the tests on the repaired
rafter tie-beam connections are higher than the respective values of the tests on original connection taken from the
field literature shown in the second column of the table.
Repair technique using external metallic clams. This technique restores the functionality of the rafter tie-beam
connection and guarantees a small out of plane displacement between the rafter and the tie-beam. The acting forces
on the connection are shown in the Fig.3 below:
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Fig. 3 Forces acting on the connection and the forces triangle when the Fa=0
In the most extreme case the friction force between the rafter and tie-beam is zero and the sliding occurs in absence
of friction.Tests on connections repaired by metallic external clams are conducted for different skew angles between
the metallic rods of the clams and longitudinal axis of the tie-beam.
Opening of the skew angle, decrease the length of the clamps rod, increasing the force acting on it and decreasing
the connection strength. The repair in that case is not effective, cause of the rafter sliding, causing it penetration
between the rafter and the metallic steel plate. Closing the skew angle increase the length of the clam rods,
decreasing the acting force on the rods and avoiding the rafter sliding, because of the increase of the horizontal
component of the force.
The optimal combination of the rods length, skew angle, acting forces on the rods and on the connection and
effectiveness of the repair techniques is between 25 to 35 skew angle. In the case of the 35 skew angle, the acting
force on the clam rods for the same loading of the rafter results higher and the measured out of plane displacement
of the rafter and tie-beam is 8 mm. Compared to 4 mm displacement of the original undamaged connection, it can
be considered an acceptable value. For a 25 skew angle the acting force on the rods decreases, the horizontal
component of the force increases causing a out of plane displacement of the rafter and tie-beam by 6 mm.
From the tests result that for the same loading on the rafter, the force acting on the rods changes. For the same forces
acting on the rods, measured by the strain gage placed in the middle of the rods length, the loading acting on the
rafter changes, influenced by several factors. In the Tab.2 are given the measured values of the forces acting on the
repaired connections for skew angles 25 and 35 and for the same force acting on clam rods and values of the
destructive force measured for the undamaged connections.
Tab. 2 Measured forces acting on the original and repaired connections
Repaired connections Undamaged connections

Lloji
Force (ton)
Destructive force (ton)
25 35
Chestnut 12,0 10,9 10,8
Spruce 11,9 13,4 10,7
Poplar 12,0 13,0 10,2
White fir 16,1 15,8 8,3
As shown in the Tab.2, for close skew angles (25) and all tested species, except for white fir, the tests are
interrupted for forces around 12 ton. For open skew angles (35) the behavior is depending on the species and can be
explained by the change of the friction on the contact surface between rafter and tie beam, with the strength to
transversal compression (Giordano et al., 2003), or with the quality of the contact surface. The first two factors
mentioned above depend on the mechanical properties of timber species, while the third one from the contact
surface processing.
CONCLUSIONS
From the tests on the connections repaired by heel gluing can be shown that the measured values of the shear stress
are comparable to the same values achieved from the destructive tests on the undamaged connections. According to
these test values this repair techniques can be considered effective from the connection strength point of view.
The use of the adhesive at first glance, increase the stiffness of the connection. This is true, but only for the gluing
plan and not for all the connection members and its confirmed by the fact that the fracture occurs always in a plan
near the gluing one.The repair technique using external metallic parts can be also considered effective related to the
connection strength, if we take into consideration the higher values of the loading force on the rafter for the repaired
connection, compared to the destructive forces measured for undamaged connections.
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The optimal combination of the rods length, skew angle, acting forces on the rods and on the connection and
effectiveness of the repair techniques for a full functional rafter tie-beam connection is between 25 to 35 skew
angle of the clams rods and longitudinal axis of the tie beam.
The V-shaped indentations on rafters upper surface and in a notch in the ties lower surface, where are resting the
steel plates of the clams influence in decreasing the cross section of the rafter and tie beam and at the same time the
mechanical properties of the timber and the external view of the connection (Palma, 2013).
Different tests results for the tested timber species for open skew angles (35) can be explained by the change of the
friction on the contact surface between rafter and tie beam, with the reaction to transversal compression.
REFERENCES
Giordano, G. (1981), Tecnologia del legno, UTET, Milano, Italia

Giordano, G., Ceccotti, A., Uzielli, L. (2003), Tecnica delle costruzioni in legno, HOEPLI, Milano
Palma, P., Garciab, H., Ferreirac, J., Appletond, J., Cruza, H. (2012), Behaviour and repair of carpentry connections
Rotational behaviour of the rafter and tie beam connection in timber roof structures, Journal of Cultural Heritage
13, 64S73
Parisi, M., Piazza, M. (2000), Mechanics of plain and retrofitted traditional timber connections. J. of Struct. Eng.
126(12):13951403
Tampone, G. (1996), Il restauro delle strutture di legno, Hoepli, Milano, Italia
Uzielli, L. (2004), Manuale del legno strutturale (4 volumi), Vol. 4, anno XVI, 60-73, Mancosu Editore, Roma,
Italia
Uzielli, L., Ceccotti A., Bonamini, G., Ruffino, M. (1998) Restauro conservativo di capriate lignee: la Pieve di S.
Marino: progettazione, prove di lavoro, fasi esecutive, CLUT, Torino, Italia
PAPER 265
MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF NATURAL RECOURSES OF PRESPA LAKE BASIN WITH

EMPHASIS ON SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND IMPACT FROM NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC
FACTORS
Fiorentina Jorgji1; Lirika Kupe1

1
Agricultural University of Tirana Department of Plant Production
Email: jorgjif@yahoo.com; lirika_kupe@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Lake Prespa is situated on the border between Macedonia, Albania and Greece. Governments of the three countries
have agreed to work together to reduce pollution in the Prespa Lake Basin, and introduce environmental
management practices by integrating ecological, economic and social goals. Some of the main factors of
anthropogenic origin are causing impacts on Air, Soil and Water. Impacts on air are caused by usage of fire wood;
open burning of agriculture wastes and household related waste. A total of 720 kg per season of fungicides,
pesticides and herbicides are used in the Prespa Lake Basin (Albania portion), approximately 50% is assumed to be
washed in the lake due to the fact that the majority of the chemical used are non-contact. The objectives of this
research were to (i) establish a baseline for air, water and soil pollutants contributing to the PLB through a
monitoring network; (i) assess their impact these pollutants on the biodiversity and ecosystem functions; and (iii)
develop a spatially explicit soil potential erosion map for the PLB using digital soil modeling (DSM) techniques.
The results are showing significant correlations to the rate of urbanization. While in municipalities the specific waste
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production rate ranges between 0,65 and 0,95 kg per person and day is the range in the center of communes much
tighter from 0,45 until 0,55 kg in almost stabile in villages (0,35 until 0,42kg).
Key words: Prespa Lake Basin (PLB), Monitoring, Evaluation, Anthropogenic factors.
Introduction
The Prespa Lake Basin (PLB) is a significant resource for biodiversity and support of local population and beyond.
Situated at about 850 m elevation, PLB is a source of water for many rivers and Ohrid lake which provides water for
Drini river one of the main rivers in southwest Balkan. Political changes in the region along with increased pressure
from anthropogenic factors competing for natural resources including water resources have raised concerns about
irreversible impact on the region and the basin resources and its ecosystem functions (UNDP 2004 and UNDP, GEF,
2010). Because PLB is shared between Albania, FYR-Macedonia, and Greece the management of resources requires
special arrangements and tri-lateral agreements between the countries in order to increase the efficiency of managing
the resources while minimizing the impact of anthropogenic factors on biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Regional projects have been designed to protect globally the PLB significant biodiversity in all three countries that
share the resources. Governments of the three countries have agreed to work together to reduce pollution in the PLB,
and introduce environmental management practices by integrating ecological, economic and social goals. National
Development Plans of the three countries reflect issues related to environmental protection, and projects in the
respective countries have included ecosystem management into appropriate sector policies and practices at the
national level.
Some of the main factors of anthropogenic origin are causing impacts on Air, Soil and Water, (UNDP 2004 and
UNDP, GEF, 2010). Impacts on air are caused by usage of fire wood; open burning of agriculture wastes and
household related waste. These practices are also impacting soils by improper disposal of wastes, uncontrolled usage
of fertilizer and pesticides, and lack of year around ground cover (due to mono culture) which could lead to
desertification, erosion and landslides, (Grazhdani et al., 1995 and Kirkby M.J. and Cox N.J., 1995). Waters is also
directly impacted by the point source pollution mainly from discharge of untreated sewage (septic or black) waters
and grey waters. Indirectly, water is impacted by a lack of year around ground cover that allows the penetration of
substances into the waters or flushing of substances into surface waters. The air pollution is caused mainly from the
usage of firewood for heating purposes, combustion of agriculture waste and household waste and increased particle
maters (PM) 10 and 2.5 from soil erosion, (UNDP 2004 and UNDP, GEF, 2010). Also, dissolved air pollutants in
rain are impacting soil and water in the same way. The impacts of anthropogenic factors can be observed
throughout the entire PLB, however due to lack of efficient coordinated efforts from all three countries to address
the ecosystems threats it is impossible to have a comprehensive study. Thus, the following discussion and
subsequent analysis will be mainly for the Albania portion of the PLB. It is the hope and the expectation of the
authors of this paper that the results presented here will contribute to the overall goal of protecting and enhancing
the ecosystem functions of PLB and that future coordinated efforts from all countries would preserve the PLB
resources.
Site Description
Major Economic Factors with impact on the natural resources
Agriculture dominates the major land use in the PLB.
Agriculture engages currently 68% of the labor force, while
45% of the income is generated due to agriculture activities,
(Mitchell D.J.,1990). Traditionally, the population of the
region has predominantly engaged in agriculture and other
farming activities such as stockbreeding, forest raising and
fishing. A great number of state-owned industries have been
closed down in the last decade and the ensuing fragmentation
of the land into the ownership title of the rural households
produced a negative impact on the development of the
agricultural sector, (Grazhdani et al., 1995 and Kirkby M.J.
and Cox N.J., 1995). Within its administrative boundaries, the
Figure 1: Site description of Prespa Lake
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Region of Korca measures an area of 369,652 hectares of which 23.5% is cultivated while the Region of Prespa are
only 7% of the total available land arable is used with about about 22 % of land not being utilized, (Figure 1). Small
size farms coupled with very fragmented agricultural land, like other regions of the country, are typical for Prespa
basin region. The average farm size is approximately 1.3 ha which is fragmented in 4 -7 small plots. Only about 25
% of the agricultural land is flat, deep and, to a certain extent, fertile. This land is lying either along Prespa lake
shore or in the valleys. The remaining arable land is shallow, hard, less fertile and located on steep slopes, (UNDP
2004 and UNDP, GEF, 2010). Climatic conditions, in the area, are favorable for the growth of different crops,
vegetables, forager plants and some fruit trees. Because of lacks of irrigation, the main crops cultivated are those
ripen up to mid-summer, before the long drought starts. The wheat, maize, alfalfa, dry beans and some other
vegetables for self-consumption, are the main crops that are cultivated. Prespa Basin has favorable soil and climate
conditions, as well as tradition, in vineyard and wine production. There are 85 ha of vineyards, mainly with grapes
destined for wine and about 10 ha with table grapes. Usually the farmers use organic fertilizers and very little
chemical ones (only for wheat). Also they use very little the pesticides and other plant protection substances, only 2-
3 treating at vineyards. It is estimated that about 25kg N fertilization per ha is used annually, (UNDP 2004 and
UNDP, GEF, 2010). This translates in about 24,3 Mg N-fertilization for a total area 971.5 ha (653 Cereals, 286 For
ages and 32,5 Vegetables). The amountof fertilizer with an average N-content of 17% is 142.9 Mg per year. Due to
the high soil erosion factor of 31.7 Mg/ year / ha and the low absorptive capacity of the topsoil approximately 50%
of the applied fertilizer or 70 Mg of N is washed into the lake, (Kirkby M.J. and Cox N.J., 1995). A total of 720 kg
per season of fungicides, pesticides and herbicides are used in the PLB (Albania portion), approximately 50% is
assumed to be washed in the lake due to the fact that the majority of the chemical used are non-contact. Livestock
is very important for all the community of Prespa Basin. Depending on terrain characteristics and availability of
meadows/pastures of the different villages, households keep 1-2 dairy cows and normally a small flock of sheep
and/or goats, (UNDP 2004 and UNDP, GEF, 2010). They provide fresh milk, homemade dairy products and meat
for the family around the year. Rearing of calves, sheep and goats destined to livestock market are not common
because the far distance from markets and lack of slotted houses, cooling- and processing facilities.
There is a limited fishing in the lake mainly for local consumption. A daily production of 5 - 15kg fish, which is
mainly sold on the local, market (day-by-day) and partly smoked for preservation and later consumption.
General Characteristics of Prespa Lake Basin (PLB), (Albanian part)

The PLB has a Continental climate strongly influenced by Mediterranean climate due to its proximity to the
Mediterranean Sea. The area is characterized by an annual moisture deficit of 36 cm as the overall mean annual
precipitation is about 84 cm while potential evapotranspiration is about 120 cm. Mean annual temperature is about
110C but varies from
25
Mean Precipitation (cm) 1.5 in the winter to
200C in summer
Mean Temperature (0C) (Figure 2).
20 EVP (cm)
Air, Solid Waste and
Water Monitoring
15 Air samples
consisting of a
minimum of 100L
10 volume of air were
taken at 8 locations
close to the lake
shore (Table 1).
5
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 2: Distribution of mean annual precipitation,

Temperature and potential evapotranspiration for PLB.
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Table 1: Location Coordinates and Elevation of the air monitoring sites.

Site No. Location Northing* Easting* Elevation (m)
1 Zaroshke 4512624.2 492468.7 860
2 Liqenas 4515335.1 492035.5 862
3 Gollomboc 4522945.3 495502.1 864
4 Gorice e Vogel 4525126.0 493795.8 865
5 Gorice e Madhe 4525994.0 493446.9 864
6 Kallamas 4527589.7 494704.8 867
7 Buzliqeni 4503081.6 416595.3 909
8 Shuec 4503301.6 499549.3 861
*Coordinates are in WGS_84_UTM_34N coordinate system and Transverse Mercator projection.
Samples were analyzed for Sulphur Dioxide [SO2],Nitrogen Dioxide [NO2],and Ozone [O3] according to the
spectrophotometric standard method (James P and Lodge JR., 1988). Also, additional samples of 250L in volume
were taken for the determination of for the dedication of respirable particles matters (PM10). The PM10total
particles were measured based on standard gravimetric method prEN 12341 year 1999, Official Journal of EEC
for reference method on determination of PM, PM 10 and PM 2.5 (Grazhdani et al., 1995 and Kirkby M.J. and Cox
N.J., 1995).
RESULTS
Solid Waste Monitoring

A minimum of 20 households was monitored daily, including weekends for the amount of waste generated. The
daily amount of waste in grams and number of people for household was also recorded. A minimum of 0.5 m
volume waste collected for a 15 day period was analyzed for a quantitative assessment of the amount and type of
solid waste, (UNDP 2004 and UNDP, GEF, 2010). Each household was provided with plastic bags, hand scales (1-3
kg), calculators and forms to record the amount and type of solid waste, (Table 2).
Table 2: Locations of Solid Waste analysis Sites and number of samples per site.
Location Administrative Status Commune Samples
Zaroshke Village Liqenas 2
Liqenas Commune Liqenas 2
Gollomboc Village Liqenas 1
Kallamas Village Liqenas 1
Djellas Village Liqenas 3
Laithize Village Liqenas 1
Racicka Village Proger 1
Proger Commune Proger 2
Mancurist Village Proger 2
Vranisht Village Proger 1
Disposal of waste and fly tip Monitoring

An assessment of disposal of waste and flytips has been undertaken in order to identify the required budget for
controlled removal. All fly tips have been geographical positioned (with GPS) and kind of waste and amount have
been evaluated, (Bryan R. B., and Campbell I.A. 1986).
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Table 3: Coordinates of all investigated fly tips and disposal places Proger/Liqenas.
Location Northing Easting Elevation (m) Waste Type* Waste Volume (m)
Buzliqeni 498738 4502013 868 HH 200
Buzliqeni 500880 4502547 898 Animal Manure + HH 20
Buzliqeni 500613 4502566 904 C&D, Stones 5
Racicka 498309 4507024 1113 HH 10
Treni 499829 4505215 885 AM, HH 15
Treni 499798 4505270 873 AM, HH, C&D 5
Treni 499749 4504051 879 HH 3
Kallamas 494787 4528047 905 C&D; plastics 20
Kallamas 494888 4527168 857 HH 40
Kallamas 494780 4527497 868 Plastics, HH 3
Kallamas 494641 4527554 861 Plastics, AM, HH 2
Goric e Vogel 493747 4525026 857 HH 20
Goric e Vogel 493205 4525002 868 Waste collection point 120
Gollomboc 495515 4523034 858 C&D, HH 2
Gollomboc 495497 4522543 870 H 10
Djellas 492509 4516555 995 HH 5
Djellas 492192 4516948 1001 C&D, HH 5
Liqenas 491197 4515741 904 C&D, HH 5000
Liqenas 491461 4515456 887 HH 2
Liqenas 492002 4515225 866 AM, HH 10
Liqenas 492028 4515321 856 AM, HH, C&D 50
Lajthize 492336 4512755 844 HH 50
Lajthize 492598 4512596 845 HH 3
Lajthize 491726 4514780 858 HH 20
Lajthize 490863 4514350 902 HH, AM 25
Lajthize 490528 414168 924 AM, HH 50
*HH-; AM-; C&D-;
Water Quality Monitoring

Water quality was determined at one location (Latitude-40, 839167; Longitude-20, 961667). Water samples were
collected on March 3rd, June 6th, August 9th, and November 30th at surface, 10m and 15 m depth. In addition to water
temperature the samples were analyzed for pH; Alkalinity; Conductivity; Dissolved O2; COD; BOD 5; N-NO2; N-
NO3; N-NH4, Total P and Turbidity, (Grazhdani et al., 1995; Kirkby M.J. and Cox N.J., 1995; UNDP 2004 and
UNDP, GEF, 2010).
Erosion Estimation
Erosion rates estimates were based on Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and expressed in Mg ha -1 year-1.
A = R K L S C P [A=the soil loss (Mg / ha / year)]
where:
R rain fallerosivity factor; K - soilerodibility factor; L - slop length factor; S - slop gradient factor; C - cropping
management factor and P - the erosion control practice factor.
The cropping management factor C in PLB can be calculated as a product of percent annual erosion index and the
ratio of soil lost according to the crop phonological stage.The erosion control practice factor P is assumed to be
equal 1, which assumes no influence, (Grazhdani et al., 1995 and Kirkby M.J. and Cox N.J., 1995).
Results and Discussions
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Air Monitoring
As can be seen from the table of results and accompanying graph, all measured indexes are below permitted EU
limits. The areas around the Lake Prespa are quite clean in respect of PM10, SO2, NO2 and O3 contents in the
ambient air. Relatively high values of O3 are characteristic of all southern European countries, and are a regional
phenomenon, are related to the altitude and do not have anthropogenic sources. The correlation between altitude and
O3 level does not show any significance, (Bryan R. B., and Campbell I.A. 1986).
Table 4: Air monitoring
Village Respirable particles, PM 10 SO2 NO2 Elevation O3

g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 m g/m3
Zaroshke 4,5 2,5 6,2 860m 92,3
Liqenas 4,8 2,6 6,3 862m 94,5
Gollomboc 3,2 3,4 4,8 864m 98,7
Gorica e vogel 3,7 4,5 5,9 865m 95,4
Gorica e madhe 5,2 4,1 4,6 864m 86,2
Kalamas 4 3,5 5,7 867m 92,3
Buzliqeni 4,1 3 5,6 909m 84,7
Shuec 2,7 1,1 2,5 861m 88,3
EU 50 40 40 110
Solid Waste Monitoring (Qualitative and Quantitative waste analyses results in kg and %).
Due to the fact, that many organics are used for gardening and agriculture purpose (best example Racicka) is the
amount of organics uncertain low. Paper and especially cardboard have a high rate on components. Recyclable glass
(bottles) is rather high in respect to the circumstance, that most of glass bottles are reused for food storages. Even
the metal and recycle able plastic amount is high. All those high rates on recyclables in the waste are based on a
missing recycling structure. No companies within those areas are involved in collecting recyclables. The potential is
rather high and can be used for a structuring of income generating activities due to waste management and cleaning
issues. The financial potential is described in a later chapter.
Table 5: Qualitative waste analyses results in kg and %).
Mun/Com/Vil/ TOTAL Liqenas TOTAL Proger TOTAL PRESPA

Results kg Mass % kg Mass % kg Mass %
Organic 62,0 13,7% 32,0 11,2% 94,0 12,7%
Organic (<40mm) 60,0 13,2% - 0,0% 60,0 8,1%
Paper (I-III) 1,0 0,2% 7,0 2,5% 8,0 1,1%
Cardbord (IV) 35,2 7,8% 25,7 9,0% 60,9 8,3%
Glass bottles 37,0 8,2% 30,0 10,5% 67,0 9,1%
Other glass 7,0 1,5% 7,0 2,5% 14,0 1,9%
Ferro metal 21,5 4,7% 17,0 6,0% 38,5 5,2%
Al metals 6,5 1,4% 9,0 3,2% 15,5 2,1%
Other metal - none
2,0 0,4% 0,0% 2,0 0,3%
Ferro -
Wood 34,0 7,5% 20,0 7,0% 54,0 7,3%
Compound maerial 16,0 3,5% 19,0 6,7% 35,0 4,7%
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PET 27,6 6,1% 14,0 4,9% 41,6 5,6%

LDPE _Plastics 24,0 5,3% 18,0 6,3% 42,0 5,7%
HDPE_Plastics 3,0 0,7% 2,0 0,7% 5,0 0,7%
Styropor 14,0 3,1% 1,0 0,4% 15,0 2,0%
Plastics PS 23,0 5,1% 17,0 6,0% 40,0 5,4%
Other Plastics 1,0 0,2% 5,0 1,8% 6,0 0,8%
Textile 15,5 3,4% 5,0 1,8% 20,5 2,8%
Demolition Waste 57,0 12,6% 52,0 18,3% 109,0 14,8%
Table 6: Qualitative summary of components regarding waste streams
Mun/Com/Vil/ TOTAL Liqenas TOTAL Proger TOTAL PRESPA

Results kg Mass % kg Mass % kg Mass %
Organic 122,0 26,9% 32,0 11,2% 154,0 20,9%
Total Paper 1,0 0,2% 7,0 2,5% 8,0 1,1%
Total Cardboard 35,2 7,8% 25,7 9,0% 60,9 8,3%
Recycleable Glass 37,0 8,2% 30,0 10,5% 67,0 9,1%
Non-Recyclable Glass 7,0 1,5% 7,0 2,5% 14,0 1,9%
Recycleable Metal 30,0 6,6% 26,0 9,1% 56,0 7,6%
Wood 34,0 7,5% 20,0 7,0% 54,0 7,3%
Recyclable plastics 91,6 20,2% 52,0 18,3% 143,6 19,5%
Non-recyclable plastics 17,0 3,8% 24,0 8,4% 41,0 5,6%
Textile 15,5 3,4% 5,0 1,8% 20,5 2,8%
C&D Wasste 57,0 12,6% 52,0 18,3% 109,0 14,8%
Hazardous Waste - 0,0% - 0,0% - 0,0%
The quantitative analyses has been conducted in 2006 and several times crosschecked during 2007. The results are
showing significant correlations to the rate of urbanization. While in municipalities the specific waste production
rate ranges between 0,65 and 0,95 kg per person and day is the range in the center of communes much tighten from
0,45 until 0,55 kg in almost stabile in villages (0,35 until 0,42kg). Taken existing infrastructure and economical
factors into consideration is the urbanization rate ranked as 50%, while following waste production factors have
been taken into account: Center of Communes: 0,45kg / PE / day; Villages: 0,35kg / PE / day, (UNDP 2004 and
UNDP, GEF, 2010).
Those production rates are average and taking in addition household-related waste streams from small and medium
enterprises into consideration.
Waste production over the year and reduction potentials

Based on the experience gathered and data collected is it possible to analyses a yearly waste production rate to adjust
a sufficient logistic systematic to it. Consequently have only those villages taken been into consideration, which
have direct or indirect impact onto the lake eco system.
Table 7: Yearly waste production in Liqenas and Proger communes
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Waste Calculation

PE Production Density Volume loose
DISTRICT 2008 kg/PE*day Mg/year kg/m m/year
Liqenas 1167 0,45 192 192 998
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Djellas 567 0,35 72 175 414

Lajthize 259 0,35 33 175 189
Zaroshke 385 0,35 49 175 281
Gorice e vogel 410 0,35 52 175 299
Cerie 245 0,35 31 175 179
Gorice e madhe 554 0,35 71 175 404
Kallamas 745 0,35 95 175 544
Gollomboc 297 0,35 38 175 217
CommneLiqenas 4638 634 3526
Buzliqeni 194 0,35 25 175 142
Rakicke 327 0,35 42 175 239
Shyec 220 0,35 28 175 161
Commune Proger 741 95 541
SUM TOTAL 5379 729 4067
It can be assumed, that a total of 729 Mg (equal to 4,067 m loose) waste are disposed either backyard or on
improper disposal areas, mainly close to the shore as site investigations underlined. In proper disposal has crucial
impact on the aquatic life, the shore ecosystem, the visibility and therefore direct economic impact on tourism and
income. On several locations, as later in detail described, can be windblown litter observed. In addition are organic
components increasing the amount of NH4-N (fish toxicity) and BOD, which leads to an increased oxygen demand
around the disposal spot. Luckily is the amount of 729 Mg per year not affecting the lake significant due to a high
dilution potential.
CONCLUSION
The areas around the Lake Prespa are quite clean in respect of PM10, SO2, NO2 and O3 contents in the ambient air.
Relatively high values of O3 are characteristic of all southern European countries, and are a regional phenomenon,
are related to the altitude and do not have anthropogenic sources. Recyclable glass (bottles) is rather high in respect
to the circumstance, that most of glass bottles are reused for food storages. Even the metal and recycle able plastic
amount is high. All those high rates on recyclables in the waste are based on a missing recycling structure. While in
municipalities the specific waste production rate ranges between 0, 65 and 0, 95 kg per person. Organic components
increasing the amount of NH4-N (fish toxicity) and BOD, which leads to an increased oxygen demand around the
disposal spot.
REFERENCE
Bryan, R. B., and Campbell, I.A. 1986 Runoff and sediment discharge in semi arid drainage basin. Geomorphology
58, 121-143
CEPA Developing a Wetland Center, wetland link International, 55 pg.
Grazhdani S., Dhima S and Kovaci V., (1995) Sub-surface drainage effects on soil erosion and on nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium losses in southwestern Albania: In Proceeding of conference on erosion and land
degradation in Mediterranean.
James P. Lodge, JR., (1988) Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, Third Edition, Editor, Intersociety Committee
N.Y.-London, 1988
Kirkby M.J. and Cox N.J., (1995) A climatic index for soil erosion potential (CSEP) including seasonal and
vegetation factors . Catena 25, pg. 333-352.
Mitchell D.J., (1990) The use of vegetation and land use parameters in modeling catchment sediment yields. In J.
B. Thornes(editor). Vegetation and erosion, processes and environments, Wiley Chisheter, pg. 289-314.
UNDP, GEF, (2010) Prespa Lake Basin, Strategic Action Programme, 80 pg.
UNDP, (2004) UNDP full size project document. Integrated ecosystem management in Prespa Lake Basin of
Albania, FYR of Macedoionia and Greece, 70 pg.
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PAPER 266
DYNAMICS OF NITROGEN (N) AND PHOSPHORUS (P) DISCHARGE BY THE RIVER

SHKUMBINI OVER DIFFERENT PERIODS
Elvin omo,1 Elmaz Shehu,2 Bledar Murtaj,2 Afrditan Laska Merkoi,1Albana Hasimi,1 Gjergji
Shore,1
1
Institute of Geoscience, Energy, Water and Environment. Polytechnic University of Tirana.
2
Faculty of Natural Sciences. University of Tirana.
Email: elvincomo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate these nutrients transport from the river Shkumbini based on the
perennial database.These data are used to study the dynamics of the yearly distribution according to
seasons in the region of our study.The calculations performed in this study show that Shkumbini river
discharges into the Sea approximately 7.19 t nitrogen and 0.642 t phosphorus each year.Coefficient of
these nutrients discharge varies on average 25-32 kg N ha-1 yr-1, and 1.8-2.8 kg P ha-1 yr-1. By using these
perennial data and our experimental measurements in the field for many years it is noted that the values
of phosphorus discharge are mainly in summer when the flow are low, while its very low concentration
are observed during winter and spring.There is also repeated the same legitimacy in the case of nitrogen
notes in the river Shkumbini.The change of nutrients concentration reflects fully the different sources of
discharge in Shkumbini river such as: industrial, urban, agricultural etc.So the contents of nitrogen and
phosphorus in Shkumbini river are lower in the upstream of the river, while in its downstream is
higher.Also referring to the estuary study data of Shkumbini river it noted that indicators of nitrogen and
phosphorus content transported were higher than the two above references.
Key words: Shkumbini river, nutrient concentration ( nitrogen and phosphorus), seasonal change, water
flow, nutrient discharged coefficient.
INTRODUCTION
Enhanced vegetation growth and the imbalance of the aquatic ecosystems are the most common effects of
eutrophication. The degradation of water resources by eutrophication has also more far-reaching effects,
such as fishing, reduced biodiversity and conservation, human health threat through the production of
toxic cyanobacterial blooms rivers are particularly vulnerable due to their proximity to population centers
and sensitivity to land use changes. Nutrient concentrations in rivers are of great importance to the
ecology of the river itself, but river transport of nutrients is also relevant to any further receiving areas.
Reduction of nutrient input into sea should focus especially on decreasing the inputs by rivers, and
requires knowledge of the sources and their contribution to the transport by the Shkumbini river .
The relative importance of the different nutrient sources depending on anthropogenic pressures and
discharge. Therefore, qualitative and quantitative determinations of nutrients (i.e. concentrations and
loads) are required to characterize and predict system responses. However, detailed knowledge of
seasonal dynamics of nutrients in river is useful for the management and control of nutrient loadings into
the sea. In the present study we are focused on nitrogen and phosphorus because enhanced availability of
these nutrients is a worldwide cause for eutrophication of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal oceans. In
this study, we aimed at determining both the amount of nutrients loading to the sea and the seasonal
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distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in the Shkumbini river. The specific objectives of the study were
to estimate the concentration of nutrients and to compare nutrient export coefficients in basin; to examine
the seasonal dynamics of nutrients in the river discharging into the sea and the effect of seasonality, water
temperature, and discharge on the dynamics of nutrients.
Shkumbini river lies entirely within the territory of Albania and collects the waters of a mountainous
territory which is shown also by the average high of the catchment basin which is 753 m above sea level.
Shkumbini river has a catchment surface of 2445 km2. Along its course Shkumbini receives tributaries
like Rapuni, Gostima, Zaranika etc.
We used the water quality data of the Shkumbini river gathered within Albanian National Monitoring
Programme from 1998 to 2010. In accordance with the National Monitoring Program water sampling in the
river is conducted in 3 stations, with a frequency of 4 times per year.
Figure 1. Shkumbini watershed
The average discharges data of the Shkumbini river were obtained from the Institute of Geosciences,
Energy Water and Environment (IGEWE).The discharges were calculated from monthly measurements of
stream discharge with a portable propeller flowmeter using this regression formulae.
where K is conversion factor to take into account the period of record,

Ci is concentration associated with individual samples (mg l-1)
Qi is instantaneous discharge at the time of sampling (m3 s-1),
n is number of samples,
Qr is mean discharge for the period of record.
The annual inflow of water to the sea calculated as the mean value for the interval 1998-2010, was
estimated at 11.4 m3 s-1. The average annual load of nutrients discharged into the sea by Shkumbini river
during the same period comprised 42.5 tonnes of N and 7.8 tonnes of P according to our estimates (Table
1).
Table 1. Total annual discharge and loads of nutrients into the sea from the Shkumbini river during
interval 1998-2010.
Station Discharge NO2- NO3- NH4+ TP,

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Rrogozhine (m3 s-1) tones yr-1 tones yr-1 tones yr-1 tones yr-1
1998 14.1 3.11 9.33 40.4 9.95
1999 15.1 12.4 6.22 1.56 7.78
2000 15.3 9.33 15.6 6.22 4.67
2001 9.58 21.8 15.6 1.24 4.98
2002 11.4 24.9 46.7 1.56 9.02
2003 13.0 28.0 3.55 6.22 9.33
2004 13.0 2.05 2.33 109.5 6.22
2005 10.4 0.12 71.5 0.37 8.09
2006 9.93 0.28 1.56 2.86 9.33
2007 8.62 0.31 37.3 4.35 6.84
2008 6.01 0.78 2.33 6.22 12.4
2009 15.2 0.31 31.1 0.31 5.60
2010 6.34 0.62 36.7 0.31 7.15
Average 11.4 8.00 21.5 14.0 7.80
Figure 2. Transportation of NH4 Figure 3. Transportation of NO2

from Shkumbini river from Shkumbini river
The differences in the concentrations of NO2-N, NO3-N and NH4-N were mainly explained by variations
in water discharge. However, the effect of discharge on nutrient concentration in Shkumbini river
discharging into the Adriatic sea was different depending on season (Figs 2,3,4). We compared average
values of nutrient concentrations in river water in two periods, 1998-2004 and 2004-2010, characterized
by different loading.
The concentration of TP in lake water was not so sensitive to year-by-year changes in the river P load
(Fig. 5), and the effect of the load on the concentration was not significant.
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Figure 4. Transportation of NO3 Figure 5. Transportation of P-total

from Shkumbini river from Shkumbini river
Quantitative estimates of pollution load as well as water discharge values varied between different
stations in the study area depending on the size of the river basin.
Nitrogen export coefficients varied from 25 to 32 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (Table 2). The highest annual export
coefficient (area-specific load) of nitrogen was calculated for the Rrogozhina station.The range of
phosphorus losses was from 1.8 to 2.8 kg P ha-1 yr-1. The highest losses of TP in the study area were
calculated for the Rrogozhina station.
Table 2. Time-averaged specific runoff and export of nutrients from Shkumbini river during interval
1998-2010.
River station Specific runoff, TN, TP,

L s-1 km-2 kg ha yr-1 kg ha yr-1
Quks 21.9 18 0.9

Papr 29.8 25 1.8
Rrogozhin 37.8 32 2.8
Mean 29.8 25 1.83
The Shkumbini River showed higher levels of nitrogen round the year. The concentrations of TN (NO3-N;
NO2-N; NH4-N) displayed a very similar seasonal dynamics in the studied river (Figs 6,7,8), presenting a
typical sinusoidal pattern with low concentrations in winter and spring and high values during summer
with no significant differences between winter and spring.
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Figure 6. Average annual distribution of NH4 Figure 7. Average annual distribution of NO2
Figure 8. Average annual distribution of NO3 Figure 9. Average annual distribution of P-total
However, large differences existed between nitrogen concentrations measured during winter and summer.
The P dynamics had a slightly different pattern, with much more irregular variation and smaller amplitude
over the year. However, the total phosphorus was clearly the principal form of TP present in the
Shkumbini river (Fig 9).
Natural factors such as seasonality, temperature, and discharge are extremely important for determining
the dynamics of nutrients in Shkumbini river discharging into the sea. Temperature appeared to have been
an important factor for changes in dissolved inorganic nitrogen forms. The differences in the
concentrations of NO2-N and TP were mainly explained by variations in water discharge. However, the
effect of discharge on nutrient concentration in a specific river discharging into Sea was different
depending on season. The differences in the relationship between water discharge and river water nutrient
concentration were the most evident between winter and summer.
RESULTS
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The seasonal dynamics of nitrate concentration in Shkumbini river discharging into the Adriatic sea
attributed to the consumption of NO3-N uptake by crops and other biota, and denitrification processes in
soil and groundwater. The highest nitrogen concentrations, were observed in summer and spring. The
results of our study confirm that the mean values and the amplitude of the waves of nitrate concentrations
can clearly be accounted for by agricultural pressure. The high nitrate content of the water in this river
may be connected with intensive agriculture in period from 1998 to 2004. The release of nitrogen to many
European rivers was found to be controlled by slow mineralization of large pools of organically bound
nitrogen (Grimvall et al., 2000; Rike et al., 2003; Stlnacke et al., 2003, 2004; Oenema et al., 2005).
Therefore, NO3-N remained the principal form of nitrogen in the Shkumbini river, fluctuating around a
more or less constant level irrespective of season. Losses from agricultural soils probably represent the
major source of nitrate in the drainage area of the Shkumbini river, where the proportion of agricultural
areas is high. Their transport depends on the availability in soil solution rather than on flow conditions
(Quilb et al., 2006). Deviations on estimations of nutrient fluxes for the period 1998-2010 from
Shkumbini river can arise from different factors. According to (Quilb et al. 2006), the accuracy of the
methods of load estimation depends on the frequency of sampling, the length of the estimation period, the
size of the catchment, the behaviour of contaminants, as well as human activities. The routine monitoring
programmes with infrequent sampling often result in biased estimates of the nutrient transport (Kronvang
et al., 2007). According to( Johnes 2007), river sampling at monthly frequency (as was the case in this
study) gives highly uncertain load estimates. To achieve a less biased estimate of load at the monthly
sampling frequency we used the method recommended by (Johnes 2007). The amount of N into the sea
from Shkumbinis watershed decreased substantially from the period of intensive agricultural activity to
the present time (1998-2004), whereas the loading of P decreased a little. (Mourad et al. 2006) explained
the difference in response between N and P by greater susceptibility of P for retention along the
hydrological pathways between the soil surface and the river.
Phosphorus is delivered to the rivers from point and diffuse sources. Phosphate phosphorus originates
mainly from point sources. Depending on the pressure of the households in the basin, point source loads
coming with sewage water appear to be relevant during the dry season (Salvia-Castellv et al., 2005;
Edwards & Withers, 2007; Withers & Jarvie, 2008). In our study, this situation was demonstrated as an
inverse relationship between the flow and the concentration of PO4-P in summer for the Shkumbini river
(Fig 9). As PO4-P comprises a large fraction of TP, TP also showed the same seasonal pattern. The
Shkumbini river exhibited a pronounced seasonal pattern controlled by the river dilution capacity of point
sources. Nitrogen and phosphorus in Shkumbini river discharging into the Adriatic sea was less marked.
In the northern part of the Shkumbini river drainage basin, where the population densities are less than 3
inhabitants per km2, a smaller human impact can be expected. In the Shkumbini river, a significant
seasonal variability in TP rather than in PO4-P concentrations was observed. This was most likely due to
the concomitant influence of diffuse sources on TP inputs (agriculture is mostly concentrated in the
southern part of the drainage basin of the river). Withers & Jarvie (2008) emphasized that whereas
wastewater inputs are relatively continuous, diffuse P inputs occur more often intermittently and mostly
as a particulate form. The Shkumbini river has the largest basin and the dynamics of TP seems to be
controlled by a series of factors. The importance of accumulation of phosphorus in soils and the influence
of this on long-term P losses has been stressed by many authors (Rike et al., 2003; Stlnacke et al., 2003;
Iital et al., 2005). Leaching of nutrients can continue for a long time after reduced fertilization because of
the soils capacity to retain nutrients.
CONCLUSIONS
Different circumstances, such as multiple combinations of land use, household impacts, and geographical
and physical factors may be responsible for variation in nutrient export in the study area. The point-source
impact, expressed as a pronounced seasonal pattern of total-P controlled by the dilution capacity of point
sources by rivers, was observed in a smaller basin, characterized by a relative homogeneity inside the
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unit.The great variation in nitrogen concentrations between two seasons, winter and summer in
Shkumbini river discharging into the sea can be attributed to the agricultural pressure.The amount of
nitrogen in river was determined to a large extent by seasonality rather than by water discharge and
temperature. The amount of phosphorus did not change a lot year-to-year in Shkumbini river, while in the
case of nitrogen the effect of the river load on the sea water concentration was apparent.
In our opinion, the reduction of point sources may help to minimize the concentration of the nutrient
fluxes at the watershed river, while reduction of tributaries sources may help to restore a good water
quality.
REFERENCES
APHA. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. 20-th edition. American
Public Health Organization, Washington, USA.
Behrendt, H. & Opitz, D. 2000. Retention of nutrients in river systems: dependence on specific runoff
and hydraulic load. Hydrobiologia, 410, 111.122.
Carpenter, S. R., Caraco, N. F., Correll, D. L., Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A. N. & Smith, V. H. 1998.
Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl., 8, 559.568.
Dodds, W. K., Bouska, W. W., Eitzmann, J. L., Pilger, T. J., Pitts, K. L., Riley, A., Schloesser, J. T.&
Thornbrugh, D. J. 2009. Eutrophication of U.S. freshwaters: analysis of potential economic damages.
Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 12.19.
Edwards, A. C. & Withers, P. J. A. 2007. Linking phosphorus sources to impacts in different types of
water body. Soil Use Manage., 23, 133.143.
Grimvall, A., Stlnacke, P. & Tonderski, A. 2000. Time scales of nutrient losses from land to sea . a
European perspective. Ecol. Eng., 14, 363.371.
Iital, A., Stlnacke, P., Deelstra, J., Loigu, E. & Pihlak, M. 2005. Effects of large-scale changes in
emissions on nutrient concentrations in Estonian rivers in the Lake Peipsi drainage basin. J. Hydrol., 304,
261.273.
Jaani, A., Klaus, L., Prn, O., Raudsepp, U., Zadonskaja, O., Gronskaja, T. & Solntsev, V.
2008.hidroloogia. In Peipsi (Haberman, J., Timm, T. & Raukas, A., eds),
Mourad, D. S. J., Van der Perk, M. & Piirime, K. 2006. Changes in nutrient emissions, fluxes and
retention in a North-Eastern European lowland drainage basin. Environ. Monit. Assess., 120, 415.448.
Quilb, R., Rousseau, A. N., Duchemin, M., Poulin, A., Gangbazo, G. & Villeneuve, J. P. 2006.
Selecting a calculation method to estimate sediment and nutrient loads in streams: application to the
Beaurivage River (Quebec, Canada). J. Hydrol., 326, 295.310.
Rike, A., Pietilainen, O.-P., Rekolainen, S., Kauppila, P., Pitkanen, H., Niemi, J., Raateland, A. &
Vuorenmaa, J. 2003. Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers
and lakes in 1975.2000. Sci. Total Environ., 310, 47.59.
Johnes, P. J. 2007. Uncertainties in annual riverine phosphorus load estimation: impact of load estimation
methodology, sampling frequency, baseflow index and catchment population density. J. Hydrol., 332,
241.258.
Salvia-Castellv, M., Iffly, J. F., Borght, P. V. & Hoffmann, L. 2005. Dissolved and particulate nutrient
export from rural catchments: a case study from Luxembourg. Sci. Total Environ., 344, 51.65.
Sileika, A. S., Stlnacke, P., Kutra, S., Gaigalis, K. & Berankiene, L. 2006. Temporal and spatial
variation of nutrient levels in the Nemunas River (Lithuania and Belarus). Environ. Monit. Assess., 122,
335.354.
Smith, V. H., Tilnan, G. D. & Nekola, J. C. 1999. Eutrophication: impacts of excess nutrient inputs of
freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Environ. Pollut., 100, 179.196.
Stlnacke, P., Sults, ., Vassiljev, A., Skakalsky, B., Botina, A., Roll, G., Pachel, K. & Maltsman, T.
Kronvang, B., Vagstad, N., Behrendt, H., Bgestrand, J. & Larsen, S. E. 2007. Phosphorus losses at the
catchment scale within Europe: an overview. Soil Use Manage., 23, 104.116.
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Oenema, O., Lowie, V. L. & Schoumans, O. 2005. Effects of lowering nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses
in agriculture on the quality of groundwater and surface water in the Netherlands. J. Hydrol., 304,
289.301.
Withers, P. J. A. & Jarvie, H. P. 2008. Delivery and cycling of phosphorus in rivers: a review. Sci.
Total Environ., 400, 379.395.
PAPER 267
HUMAN HEALTH IN MOUNTAIN AREAS, CASE STUDY IN ALBANIA
Bilal DRAI
Geography Department, Faculty of History and Philology,Tirana University,Albania
E-mail: bilal_draci@yahoo.it
ASTRACT
In this paper we will be given some teorical, metodological and practical assessment about potential of mountain
areas to the Human Health, refer to international literatures and some cases from Albania as well, like: Qaf-Shtama;
Thethi; Voskopoja, Dardha and so on.. about this topic Even though the lack of statistical dates in this new field, we
can give some considerations and drawing up some conclusions and recomandations as well for Albania. As we
know more than 28% of albanian territory belongs to the highlands. So, this is a big natural resourses potential in
general but refer to the Human Health is still less known and profitable. In general up to now, this topic is involved
and practisise in the mountain tourism framework. But just in the few cases this topic is more special than practic,
like mountain sanatoriume in some places, very huge profitable.
In this paper will be given through the diagrams and some comparative cases, potentials and possibilities for the
further development in some places in Albania.
Key words: mountain areas; mountain climate; medical geography; human health; natural resourses; tourism..
INTRODUCTION
In June 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Rio de Janeiro)
addressed a range of issues pertaining to sustainable development as a means of reducing human-induced
environmental stress, in a document referred to as Agenda 21. Chapter 13 of this program is exclusively devoted to
mountain regions and, for the first time, an official and explicit recognition that mountains and uplands are a major
component of the global environment has emerged. Chapter 13 sets the scene by stating the role of mountains within
the global ecosystem, and expresses serious concerns related to the decline in the general environmental quality of
many mountains.
A summarized version (UN,1992) of Agenda 21/13 reads: Mountains are important sources of water, energy,
minerals, forest and agricultural products and areas of recreation. They are storehouses of biological diversity, home
to endangered species and an essential part of the global
ecosystem. From the Andes to the Himalayas, and from Southeast Asia to East and Central Africa, there is serious
ecological deterioration. Most mountain areas are experiencing environmental degradation.
About 26% of the worlds population resides within mountains or in the foothills of the mountains (Meybeck et al.,
2001), mountain-based resources indirectly provide sustenance for over half. Moreover, 40% of global population
lives in the watersheds of rivers originating in the planets different mountain ranges. About 28,1% of Albania
territory is considered as mountain areas in which is living than 5% of its population.
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Mountains also represent unique areas for the detection of climatic change and the assessment of climate-related
impacts. Some characteristics of mountain climate and mountain areas in general may summarize as below:
extremes are the norm; great environmental contrasts in short distances; large variations in short time shans; high
Complexity; effects on climates of adjacent regions; make their own weather, influencing on human health.
One reason for this is that, as climate changes rapidly with height over relatively short horizontal distances, so does
vegetation and hydrology (Whiteman, 2000). As a consequence, mountains exhibit
high biodiversity, often with sharp transitions (ecotones) in vegetation sequences, and equally rapid changes from
vegetation and soil to snow and ice. In addition, mountains ecosystems are often endemic, because many species
remain isolated at high elevations compared to lowland vegetation communities that can occupy climatic niches
spread over wider latitudinal belts. Certain mountain chains have been referred to as islands rising above the
surrounding plains (Hedberg, 1964), such as those in East Africa.
In socio-economic terms, mountain landscapes attract large numbers of people in search of opportunities for
recreation and tourism. However, the environmental stress imposed by growing numbers of tourists is placing an
increasingly heavy burden on mountain resources (Godde et al., 2000) and, in many parts of the developing world in
particular, on local communities. With the rapid industrialization and population growth that the 20th century has
witnessed worldwide, the natural environment has undergone unprecedented changes. While the causal mechanisms
of environmental and climatic change are numerous and complex, two factors can be highlighted to explain the
increasing stress imposed by human interference on the natural environment: economic growth and population
growth.
Health: changing climates may lead to new distributions of vector-borne disease. A particularly interesting example
in the context of mountains and uplands is the possible propagation of malaria as an indicator of climatic change.
Regions that are today unfavorable for the development of the disease, which is in part climatically-driven, may
open up to malaria in areas that would experience more favorable temperature and moisture conditions than today;
Tourism: over the last 25 years, tourism and recreation has been one of the fastest growing industries worldwide.
Tourism has both economic benefits for, and potential adverse effects on, mountain environments and local
mountain communities. Changing climates may alter the seasonal patterns of tourism (for example, skiing in
winter), and thus the environmental pressures associated with different forms of tourism.
MATERIAL AND METHODS.
Geographicly on this topic we are focusing on Four Major Climatic Controls: altitude; latitude; topography;
continentality. Even though the complexcity of relations among natural elements and human health, there are some
studies particulary for the urban and maritim climate and human health. But almost rarely we can find out studies
and publicities about this topic. Some of them needs to be deeply and on other hand some date comes from
laboratory date or from expert and training persons like sportsman, alpinists etc, so not from real life.
There are some solar radiation, air pressure, density, and oxygen; temperatures, humidity, windy date etc, that
influence directly our human halth. But above date doest collect and elaborate refer to human health. Thats way,
collecting and assessment of these date in our country particulary remain a big problem for studies in the future.
First of all we refered to international literatures and some concret case of neighbourhood mountain areas in order to
compare with albanian mountain areas. Also lacking of date and scientific studies about this topic we refered to date
some scientific institutions specially to Institut of Geoscientist, Energy, Water and Environment, INSAT and Health
Ministry and etc. Consulting with some field specialist particulary with phisician have been helped for some precise
and approch contexstualy. Some other date more scientific comes from proceedings, mostly foreigners. Meanwhile
in Albania there are not date and studies focused on this topic.
RESULTS
Some main results drawn, based on our researche and refer to international geomedical literatures are as below:
- Mountain climate often is considered as red globules of blood climate
- Mountain climate has profound healer effects for human health and its more profitable than maritime climate.
- Mountain climate effect on endocrine glands
- Phisical activity in the mountain climate reduce cardiovascular diseases
-Almost fully scarcity of microrganisms , bacteriums, virus etc, makes these areas without needs for antiviral
medicine, so with the minimum or less risk since absent of infection diseases.
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- Healthy effects of mountain solar baths and other microclimatic elements extend and increase immunitary sistem
activity and protectiv mechanism of human organism. Staying in the mountain zones, far from urban pollution has
pozitive effects in immunitary actions.
-Children visiting often heights increase their capacity of mental and phisic rezistence.
-Its well known that the sportsman increase their results where this climate is part of their training for the best
results. ( For example, Vllaznia team, for years was training in the Razma and Flamurtari team in the Llogara, both
mountain areas..). Also inhabitant dweller of Kaukaz, Andeve, etc, mountain areas has had the longer longevity over
100 years without any specific human disturb.
Phisiological Comfort. This term using in Medical Geography show a normal and pozitive situation of human
health. Its contain a sinteze of tempertures: normal from 14 to 24 C, and very well from 19 - 22 C; humidity (40-
60 % relative humidity) and windy effect (< 0.5 m/sek.) value.
Below in the diagram is griven capacity of some mountain places in Albania in term of Phisiological Comfort
Figure 1. Diagrama and graphics of some Albanian mountain places refer to phisiological comfort
Ecuria e temperaturave t ajrit

26.0 Ecuria e temperaturave t ajrit
25.0 24.0
24.0 23.0
23.0
Nivel optimal 110-190 22.0 Nivel optimal 110-170
22.0 21.0
21.0 temperaturash dit 20.0 temperaturash dit
20.0
19.0 te ajrit pr
19.0 te ajrit pr
18.0
18.0
komfort 17.0 komfort
17.0 16.0
16.0 optimal 15.0
optimal
Temperatura ne C
15.0 14.0
Temperatura ne C
14.0
13.0
13.0
12.0
12.0
11.0 11.0
10.0 10.0 PV
PV
9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
-1.0 Brataj Ku Voskopoje -1.0
-2.0 -2.0 Dragobi Korthpule Lajthize
-3.0 Ujanik Llongo Leskovik
-3.0 Shishtavec Razem Theth
-4.0 -4.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MUAJT MUAJT
Uncomfortable period mostly is in the winter season when shoud have a special attention. Staying in the mountain is
recommandet to the smoking and lungy disease persons. The sanatorium is known earler for the healer of these
diseas.
- Increasing the altitude decrease the air pressure, density, and oxygen (O2). Thats cause some disturb even the
disease. The most well known is the mountain disease etc.
The mountain disease
It is known early from the alpinists but studied later (XVIII century). In general problems started from 1500m
altitude and the big disturb started over the 2000m. But depend on the persons. There are in Albania these
problematic altitudes. The consequences are shown with organic disturb; physic disturb; and intellectual depression.
Disturb of atmospheric pressure (decreasing of the air pressure, density, and oxygen).
There are not the same, because these can be shown on the lower altitude and often from the baric centers in every
places apart from altitude. But for the mountain altitude they are part of each other. Every change of atmospheric
pressure caused change in the body volume; liquid level; and electrolytic balance. The consequences are shown in
the increasing of blood pressure; general irritation; eyes; in the zones of collection of body water; and channels of
areas exchange like; ears etc.
Also high percentage of humidity in these areas increases the prevalence of chronic bronchitis. (when more frequent
are in the North Europe places, but in the mountain areas as well).
A more complex form for the health human is the mountain tourism. There are some receptions and different
attractive forms for these reason every where in Albania. More frequented are the mountain areas in Korca regions,
(Dardha, Voskopoja, etc.); the north Albania (Thethi, Boga, Razma, Kelmendi, Valbona valley, etc.); Dajti
mountain; Qaf-Shtama; Llogara in Vlora etc. But needs more studies for this huge potential in the human health in
Albania. We are in the initial studies.
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CONCLUSIONS
Mountain areas as a huge human and development wealthy can and should apply also to the improving of human
health in general and in the treatment of special disease:
- Empirical experience comes since the earler time but the scientific treatment comes later refer to the case, since
XII century and so on.
- Today the climate and the mountain ecosistems there are prevention and therapy more recommandet for the
healthy and some kind of disease.
- Mountain climate for the human health has profound healer effects more than maritime climate.
- Besides the international literatures, the best experience in these aspects comes from some surroundings countries
as Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Kroacia, Kosova ect.
- Albania has big potential of mountain areas (more than 1/3 of territory) using not only for the economic
development but for the human health as well, at least for 150-160 days/year, refer to phisiological comfort and
maximum 190 days/year.
- Even though the absence of the statistic date, untill the 90 years, in some cases, mountain areas in Albania were
using not only for the mountain tourism, but directly for the health and disease, like Qaf-Shtama hospital in Kruja
district (hospitalized about 200 persons for the seasons), Dardha, Voskopoja etc.
-These human-health functions of mountain areas often are part or asset, added value of protective zone or parquet
with different status
- Possibilities for mountain tourism are well known in Albania, in some places and based on these possibilities we
can establish resorts with primary health functions or touristic complex for the different reasons
- Mountain area in Albania offer possibilities for renewable solar, windy and water energy using, full possibilities
for bio agriculture product as well
-Implementation of development policy in adaption with environmental principle would be a very important element
in better mountain territory valuation and arrangement
REFERENCES
Albanian Science Academi. (1975): Albanian Climate. Hidrometereological Institut. Tiran.

Drai, B., Kraja, Dh. (2010): Medical and Health Geography. Tiran.
Jaho, S. et al. (1988): Klimatologjia. Tiran.
INSTAT - Albania
Kalkstein, L.S. & Valimont, K.M. (1987): Climate effects on human health. Washington D.C. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Titea D. et.al. (1972): Considerati privind factorii metereologici ai climatoterapiei i calculul frecventei lor prin
procedee mecanizate. Institutul de Meteorologie si Hidrologie. Bukuresht.
Trebbi, R. (2005: Teoria del Volo Conforme a JAR- FCL, Edizioni AVIABOOKS, Torino, Italy.
Zorba, P. (2009): Klimatologjia -AlbPAPER; Tiran.
Zorba, P., (2009): 2011 Klima pasuri kombtare, monitorimi, vlersimi dhe shfrytzimi i saj pr ekonomin e
vendit - International Conference UPT- Tirana.
Glossary of Meteorology (2000) American Meteorological Society, Second Edition USA.
http://www.who.int/globalchange/climate/en/ccSCREEN.pdf -www.who.int.
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PAPER 268
EFFECT OF GROWTH RING ON HARDNESS AND BENDING STRENGTH IN BEECH (

FAGUS SYLVATICA L)
Saimir BEQO, Entela LATO1, Doklea QUKU1

1
Agricultural University of Tirana, Forest Science Faculty
Email: saimirbeqo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L) is the most widespread deciduous wood in our forests. It is one of
the most widely spread materials not only in the Wood processing Industry but also in construction,
chemistry and paper industry. This study focuses on the effect of the growth rings on the mechanical
properties of beech and more specifically on the static bending and Janka hardness . The tests were
carried out in the Wood study laboratory in the Faculty of Forest Sciences. 240 samples in sizes 2x2x32
were prepared, following the UNI ISO standard 31-33 prerequisites, which were classified according to
the number of rings in the transversal section and according to the angle formed by the force direction
with the annual growth ring in the transversal section for the static bending and 138 samples in size.5 x 5
x 5 cm. After carrying out the tests in the static bending, it resulted that the maximum tension value was
144N/mm2.It is notised that acording to the number of the annual rings in the transversal section the
maximum tension is present in the samples that have a small number of rings in the transversal section (4-
5 rings) a value which is 3% higher than the group of samples that have 6-7 rings in the transversal
section and 10% higher than the group of samples which have 8- 11 rings in the transversal section .For
the hardness test resulted that the mean value was 538 kG in radial section, 640 kG in transversal section
and 546 kG in tangential section, the highest hardness was in transversal section and in samples with 8-10
growth rings.
Key words: beech, bending strength, growth ring, transversal section
INTRODUCTION
Beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L) is not only the most widespread deciduous kind in our forests, but it also
occupies 31 % of the forests and 63 % of the forest fund (Data collected from the IKPSH project general
albanian forest and pastures plan,2003). The beech is found in pure or mix forest formations mainly in the
Fagetum zone. It is also one of the most widely used materials in wood processing industry, paper
industry, construction and chemistry. It is red brown in color . In many trees in the interior part near
the sap is found the so called red heart of the beech (Lato& et. ,2008) which is dark in color and has
irregular shaped edges, which constitues a negative and devaluating factor for the wood .
The growth rings are narrow and have no clear cut edges, there is a thickening of the sap rays where they
meet the growth ring and diffusively separate vessels. The wood texture is fine, with fibres often deviant
in the helicoidal sense. The planing, sawing and milling are easily performed.
We get V-headed timbers from the sawing process when we notice strong inner tensions in the
trunk.(Lato, 2004).
The drying process is slow and is carried out in hot-aired ovens. We must make sure to avoid
malformations and the collapse phenomenon. The production of technical and decorative veneer is easily
done but it is always preceeded by a treatment with softening vapors. As far as the nailing and screwing
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are concerned we can proceed by drillingthe holes first. After it is finished this is a strong enough
juncture. The glueing and the polishing yield good results. The aplication of this material is vast. It is used
for the production of technical and decorative veneer, the production of furniture framework, furniture,
inner doors, wall and ceiling coating, staircases, floors, crates etc.
As beech wood obtains good plastic properties throw the evaporation, it is successfully used in the
production of bent furniture ( chairs,tables,coat hangers etc) as well as barrels used for storing food
products. (G.Boniamini & et. 2001). The study of beech wood properties in general and the mechanical
ones specifically is still a topic of great interest for the reseachers and especially the wood processing
industry.
MATERIAL DHE METHOD
Tests in hardness and static bending were carried to study wood mechanical properties (Kollman 1975).
Beech timber (from Valbona vallayes) of premium quality was used to carry out the tests. At first the
timbers were inventoried, labelled with letters and after that 2 beadings were choosen for each timber. For
the tests in the static bending have been used 120 samples in sizes 2x2x32cm acording to the UNI ISO
31-33 standard., samples were selected and divided into three groups acording to the number of growth
rings; 4 - 5 growth rings, 6 - 7 growth rings and 8 - 11 growth rings. For the tests in Janca hardness have
been used 46 samples in sizes 5x5x5 cm for three groups with different number of growth rings. The
wood material wereby the samples were taken resulted in 12% moisture content which was evaluated in
the laboratory by using the weighing method .
Figure 1.
The tests on static bending and Janca hardness were carried out with the material tests machinery in the
Wood study laboratory in the Faculty of Forest Sciences.
RESULTS
After collecting the values of the forces in breaking F by the material tests machinery, the tension in
bending was calculated with the formula:
Where:
F - force in breaking (N)
l- sample length (mm)
b- transversal section width (mm)
h- transversal section height (mm)
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Table 1
Tangential Bending Strength for samples with 4 and 5 growth rings

Force Strength Force Strength Mean Dev.Stand
Nr Nr
(Kg) (N/mm2) (Kg) (N/mm2) Strength
1 291 149.72 21 259 133.26
2 289 148.69 22 272 139.94
3 294 151.26 23 270 138.92
4 282.3 145.24 24 269 138.40
5 293.5 151.01 25 270 138.92
6 279 143.55 26 270 138.92
7 267 137.37 27 272 139.94
8 271 139.43 28 258 132.74
9 268 137.89 29 255.5 131.45
10 280 144.06 30 252.5 129.91
140.02 6.21
11 280 144.06 31 271 139.43
12 270 138.92 32 257 132.23
13 274 140.97 33 260 133.77
14 270 138.92 34 264 135.83
15 271 139.43 35 282.3 145.24
16 265 136.34 36 295 151.78
17 258 132.74 37 285.3 146.79
18 255 131.20 38 286 147.15
19 255 131.20 39 288.5 148.43
20 256 131.71 40 280 144.06
Table 2
Tangential Bending Strength for samples with 6 and 7 growth rings

Nr Nr
1 242 124.5 21 260 133.8
2 241 124.0 22 221 113.7
3 280 144.1 23 260 133.8
4 286 147.1 24 261 134.3
5 287 147.7 25 260 133.8
6 287 147.7 26 256 131.7
7 288 148.2 27 251 129.1
8 290 149.2 28 251 129.1
9 289 148.7 29 260 133.8 136.5
10.5
10 290 149.2 30 258 132.7
11 289 148.7 31 257 132.2
12 289 148.7 32 251 129.1
13 290 149.2 33 254 130.7
14 290 149.2 34 241 124.0
15 289 148.7 35 240 123.5
16 288 148.2 36 245 126.1
17 290 149.2 37 234 120.4
18 289 148.7 38 257 132.2
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19 270 138.9 39 249 128.1

20 268 137.9 40 249 128.1
Table 3
Tangential Bending Strength for samples with 8 - 11 growth rings
Nr Nr
1 261 134.3 21 252 129.7
2 261 134.3 22 249 128.1
3 260 133.8 23 251 129.1
4 262 134.8 24 251 129.1
5 261 134.3 25 250 128.6
6 255 131.2 26 247 127.1
7 259 133.3 27 244 125.5
8 260 133.8 28 246 126.6
9 260 133.8 29 231 118.8
10 253 130.2 30 232 119.4 127.1
5.5
11 251 129.1 31 233 119.9
12 251 129.1 32 235 120.9
13 249 128.1 33 223 114.7
14 251 129.1 34 223 114.7
15 253 130.2 35 234 120.4
16 251 129.1 36 231 118.8
17 253 130.2 37 234 120.4
18 252 129.7 38 236 121.4
19 251 129.1 39 239 123.0
20 253 130.2 40 239 123.0
For Janca hardness is measurement the necessary force for penetretion of steel sfere with surface 1cm2
Table 4
Hardness measurement
Force kG
Samples
Radial section Transversal section Tangential section

8 - 10 12 - 14 16 - 22 8 - 10 12 - 14 16 - 22 8 - 10 12 - 14 16 - 22
growth growth growth growth growth growth growth growth growth
rings rings rings rings rings rings rings rings rings
1 568 540 511 720 600 564 605 504 490
2 576 547 518 720 640 602 605 504 490
3 564 536 508 720 640 602 643 535 490
4 550 523 495 720 647 608 624 520 430
5 569 541 512 720 645 606 624 520 450
6 555 527 500 720 635 597 662 552 480
7 560 532 504 720 645 606 624 520 460
8 567 539 510 720 640 602 662 552 467
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9 555 527 500 720 647 608 624 520 478

10 546 519 491 720 645 606 624 520 430
11 565 537 509 720 635 597 624 520 450
12 556 528 500 720 645 606 624 520 480
13 567 539 510 720 645 606 662 552 460
14 578 549 520 720 635 597 624 520 467
15 579 550 521 720 645 606 662 552 478
16 578 549 520 720 640 602 624 520 480
17 568 540 511 720 645 606 624 520 460
18 567 539 510 720 635 597 662 552 467
19 561 533 505 720 645 606 662 552 478
20 569 541 512 720 640 602 624 520 478
21 555 527 500 720 600 564 624 520 430
22 560 532 504 720 640 602 662 552 450
23 567 539 510 720 640 602 662 552 480
24 556 528 500 720 647 608 624 520 460
25 556 528 500 720 645 606 624 520 467
26 564 536 508 720 635 597 662 552 478
27 568 540 511 720 645 606 662 552 460
28 546 519 491 720 640 602 624 520 467
29 578 549 520 720 645 606 624 520 478
30 560 532 504 720 640 602 662 552 478
31 578 549 520 720 600 564 624 520 430
32 579 550 521 720 640 602 662 552 450
33 578 549 520 720 640 602 662 552 480
34 560 532 504 720 647 608 624 520 490
35 567 539 510 720 645 606 624 520 430
36 569 541 512 720 600 564 662 552 450
37 567 539 510 720 640 602 662 552 480
38 570 542 513 720 640 602 624 520 460
39 556 528 500 720 647 608 624 520 467
40 549 522 494 720 645 606 662 552 478
41 558 530 502 720 635 597 662 552 430
42 561 533 505 720 645 606 662 552 450
43 578 549 520 720 640 602 624 520 480
44 560 532 504 720 645 606 624 520 460
45 567 539 510 720 640 602 662 552 467
46 558 530 502 720 640 602 643 535 478
Average 564 536 508 720 638 600 640 533 465
STDV 2.1 1.9 1.2 2 1.1 1.2 1.9 1.1 1.1
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CONCLUSIONS
After carrying out the tests in static bending the following results were drawn. The beech wood represents
a mean tension = 135N/mm2. In the case of tests carried out acording to the number of the annual
growth rings in the transversal section , it is notised that the maximum tension is represented by the
samples which have less rings in the transversal section (4-5 rings) value which is by 3% higher than the
group of samples with 6-7 rings in the section and by 10% higher than the group of samples with 8-11
rings in the section.
For the hardness test resulted that the mean value was 538 kG in radial section, 640 kG in transversal
section and 546 kG in tangential section. The highest hardness was in transversal section and in samples
with 8-10 growth rings. This happened because the smallest number of the growth rings in the the
samples leads to the higher propotion of later wood and so to the higher density of wood.
REFERENCES
Bonamini G., Noferi M., Togni M., Uzielli L. (2001) Il manuale del legno strutturale Vol 1
Giordano G. (1981) Tecnologia del legno
IKPSH General Albanian Forest and Pastures Plan (2003)
Lato E. (2004) Leksione te shkruara Struktura e drureve kryesore
Lato E. Quku D. (2008) Studimi i drurit, vetite makroskopike
PAPER 269
AGRICULTURE DIRECT GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
Safet Myftari, Stilian Apostoli, Edmond Kadiu, Irma Tabaku (Qinami), Erdit Nesturi
Agricultural University of Tirana-Albania, Economy and Agribusiness Faculty
Email: safetmyftari@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
We identify several types of support for agriculture, where it occupies a special place directly in our agricultural
practice since 2007. There is a strong legal basis to activate and some ingredient as to the non-bank bank financing
resulting minimal too. It is considered as a practice efficient, transparent and takes into account the reliability of the
recipients of subsidies, which is subject to a verification of control on the use of target amount. Realized on
principles of clearly defined criteria, this direct support has made progress over the years, expressed in increasing
the number of subsidized sectors, in addition to the operation and support measures in the variety of content,
increasing the size of the support for some measures and the fund as a whole, the increase of applicants, the
beneficiaries and territorial presence by giving priority to mitigating criteria mountainous areas, etc. Originally
implemented by the 2 KR project, now is as Paying Agency CAP instrument that performs this function to us.This
type of support is used in place of regionalization and concentration of production, working in groups of farmers and
agricultural intensification, in favour of rational land use in general and particularly those inherent in technological
upgrading of production, growth exports, the Welfare of rural households, etc. In perspective support schemes
should be built on the basis of production as more effective and transparent, expressed in quantitative-qualitative
indexes, food safety, etc.
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Key words: Subsidies, agricultural credit, supportive measures, the size of support, project applicants and
beneficiaries, principles and criteria.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is one of the key sectors of the national economy, contributing with about 20% to GDP in the economy.
It is the main alternative employment in rural areas and results far awayfrom its real potential. A SWOT analysis
identifies a number of obstacles in the macro-medium-microeconomics.
Thus, public support for agriculture is limited, (1.8-2%) of the budget and is affected by the volatility of regional
and global markets, faces tough competition from foreign products, irrigation and land drainage is problematic and
unsatisfactory, is based into torn and small farms, with insufficient manufacturing technologies, with a low level of
horizontal and vertical integration. It has poor quality connections with the market, has emphasized diversification
of farm production, etc..
On the other hand, among the strengths and development opportunities that the agricultural sector has, it is recorded
a weak point and complex of threats that hinder the development of agriculture, which slow down developments, or
make uncertain the rhythm of development. Thus, the missing solution of the problems of agricultural land
ownership, and the failure of considering agriculture as a priority sector and the main engine of economic
development, which would result in the reduction of poverty in the country, which is considered a rural
phenomenon, are issues that need to be seen with priority.
In these situations, among others, for a more normal and faster development of the agricultural sector,is required an
even stronger support, but also diverse measures, through direct subsidies to producers of various agricultural and in
agro-processing. This is the aim of this paper where is evidenced the progress and prospects of this measure for
agriculture.
MATERIAL AND METHOD.
This shown material for a scientific paper, results with a large support base, which is demonstrated in what follows:
Legal base, which is very wide in our countrie, in matters of direct subsides for farmers -Y.2007-2013.
Statistics resources from MBUMK, and DRBUMK, Y.2008-2012
Applied gruping methods, comparative, assay in the problem dinamics, analysis and sythesis, the tabular one, etc.
Counceling with specialist and experts and gathering opinions from farmers for practices implemented so far
RESULTS
The current practice highlights several types of supports for agriculture, which are; indirect state support, financial
support (non-bank and bank) and direct state support in agriculture through subsidies to farmers (7).
Indirect Support. As in the previous period (before 1991), but also in democratic transition (1991 onwards), for
agriculture, has been focused only indirect support.
Key aspects expressing this support, consists in the privatization and liberalization of the agricultural sector, in the
construction and rehabilitation of various agricultural infrastructures, the public consultation (technical,
technological, economic and financial, organizational, commercial, etc.) and the creation of a pro-business
environment, in supporting services towards farmers, in institutional strengthening and improvement of the legal
basis for the benefit of farmers and agriculture in general, etc..
Financial Banking and Non-banking Support. This type of support to agriculture is conditioned on the type and
structure of the agricultural farm, which in our state was created according to the principle of equality among
farmers regarding the land distribution, livestock and fruit trees, etc., the law of the land, no. 7501 Y. 1991. This
support depends on the production structure and the linking of the market of farms, by way of using the work factor
(inside and outside the farm), directions of remittances usage (to agriculture), by the level achieved of cooperation
and integration effected, by intended use of credit within the sector, etc..
Financial banking support has developed in three stages over time. The first phase (1991-1996) period as creating a
two-tier banking system; the second phase (1997-2001) as a period of consolidation of our banking system, with
mainly quantitative developments; third phase in 2002 onwards, as the period of quantitative and qualitative
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development of the banking system. It is evidenced the increased of competition among banks, leading to qualitative
developments in the financial sector, which provides credit, deposit, etc.
It must be said that agricultural activities and rural financing have been and are far from the bankslending
preferences. It has been low for a number of reasons related to size, fragmentation and very large number of peasant
farms, with the related risk and uncertainty associated with agriculture during the year, with insufficient income that
farm families provide, the lack of collateral to meet the requirements of banks, etc.In these conditions, the number of
banks that have increased the interest in crediting agriculture is limited and lending rate varies from 0.7-2% of total
credit granted to the economy by branches. Agricultural credit in 2012 was at the level of 1.5% of total loans granted
to the economy by sectors (7). Besides the National Commercial Bank (BKT), Raiffeisen Bank and Pro-Credit
Bank, has recently been added "Credit Agricole" - French bank branch, inaugurated in Tirana on 14.12.2012, to help
Albanian farmers, and this is the second French bank with French capital, after Societe Generale.
Lending by non-bank financial institutions is implemented within the projects supported by donors, has a pretty long
experience among us and a range of financial organisms, among which we mention as the most important: -
Albanian Savings and Credit Union (USHKK), and the Fund of financing mountainous areas. They are licensed and
monitored by the Bank of Albania, have quantitative and qualitative developments, since 1993, to over 60% of rural
space, with growing clientele, portfolio loan, deposits, etc., but the average the credit extended is about ALL
350,000, which has been growing over the years and priority lending have had commercial farms, which in this
country are still few in number.
Direct State Suport to the Agriculture. This direct support has resulted not present among us until 2007, when
first introduced as a new working practice for agricultural subsidies. The experience of the EU countries is very
present, offers experience and has clearly defined goals. Thus, the EU gives every year a fund of 50 billion euros to
about 7 million agricultural producer; Germany gives 5.5 billion euros annually, with half the farmers to receive
about 5,000 euros, conditioned on the size of fields (for 1 ha = 300 E), destination of production for export, etc. (7).
Direct support offers several advantages in its gained support, which relate to the fact that:
Has an experience in other countries which do direct support on agriculture.
Non banking funding (and banking) are still not good developed. Kontribuon n sektort prioritar t bujqsis duke
ndikuar direkt n rritjen e investimeve t ktij sektori.
Increase the quantity, quality and standards of products, improving income levels and livelihoods of rural
households.
It is considered as a efficient practice, transparent and takes into account the reliability of the recipients of the
subsidy, etc.
Among the reasons that have opposed direct support, is the idea of differentiating between beneficiaries, because a
portion of the funds will benefited by the banks for the service, etc.: As arguments "Pro" of this practice are more
and much more significant, it has been applied among us since 2007, the legal basis of which lies in Sector Strategy
of Agriculture and Food (Y.2007-2013), in the law "On agriculture and rural development" no. 9817, dated
22.10.2007 and in annuity series of DCM (Decision of the Council of Ministers) for these purposes (4).
For the period 2007-2008 the organization of direct support enforcement is carried out by the project 2 KR, which
was replaced by the Agency for Agricultural and Rural Development (Feb AP = Paying Agency) that started to
function from 2009 onwards until today. It was set up under the CE Regulation 1663/95 and 1258/99, which states
that any country aspiring to become an EU member, in order to benefit from EU financial support for agriculture
and rural development, should raise an own institution, called Paying Agency (PA) as an instrument of the CAP
(Common Agricultural Policy of the EU) (5).
The principles on which would be realized direct support for agriculture since 2007 and onwards have undergone
continuous improvements regarding clarification of priorities, measures and sizes of payment for each measure,
through more extensive consultation with regional stakeholders of the agricultural development, including farmers,
farmer associations, regional departments of agriculture food and consumer protection (RDAFCP), representatives
of local authorities, private operators of the agricultural market products and agricultural inputs, the central
structures of the Ministry of Agriculture, (State structures), etc. .
To implement these principles are formulated a set of criteria, as a base for allocation of support such as economic
efficiency and effectiveness, promoting teamwork of beneficiaries, market access of beneficiaries; basedalso on
several eliminating criteria and competitive for any support measure. So, those applications who do not respect the
requirements for regionalization of agricultural production, that are under the floor-limit of the size that determines
appropriate measures, etc.may be disqualified. On the other hand, can be evaluated with additional points, those
applications worthyof favours and promotions in perspective, because offered by groups of farmers, by farmers near
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major markets (local and central), from farmers associations of private agricultural cooperatives that promote the
concentration of land agriculture, improvement of production technology, production increased in quantity and
quality, the increase of agricultural exports, etc.
In its total, direct state support for agriculture is estimated as a very delicate process, but even more complex when
viewed from the aspect of planning, organization and effective implementation, from monitoring and control and
improvement of the modification of thereof, etc. As one of the sources of financing of rural farm along with the
savings and remittances from emigration or bank loans, etc., it must be said that the direct support dynamics in the
agricultural conditions of our country, has experienced positive result, as follows (7):
Table 1.
Year Found
2007 450......Million ALL
2008 850...... Million ALL
2009 900...... Million ALL
2011 1023.... Million ALL
2013 1100.... Million ALL
2013-2017 4.......... Million ALL
The data show that in the first two years, support has doubled for agriculture and it is judged(by the prime minister
statements lately) that for the next four years, to triple subsidies for farmers. Despite rapid growth, estimated support
is not only limited, but insufficient, given the "goal" of our country for in 2017 to be considered as developed, where
the economic recovery should be significantly more in the agricultural sector.
On the other hand, the situation of support measures during thisperiod, has been amore dynamic performance, the
ongoing of which results like (7):
Table 2.
Year Nr. of Measures %
2007 3 100
2008 10 330
2009 13 430
2010 16 530
2011 18 600
2012 21 700
From up above, it can be clearly evidencedthat:

From one sector in 2007, are subsidized eight sectors in Y.2012.
The number of measures has increased from 3 to 21, or 7 times growth.
Measures are perfected from year to year in the variety and content of implementing criteria.
Measures are differentiated by region, field, hill, mountain.
Have differences in production methods, extensive or intensive.
Many of the measures have had an increase in pay to previous years.
The size of the support is only part of the total project cost.
Since 2009, has been included the cofounding of farmers projects, in 50% of the total cost, etc.
A comparison for the years 2007, 2008 and 2012 highlights (6):
A) -For 2007;Results that support has been realised for only three measures:
1- Tree planting
2- Planting Vineyards
3- Olive Planting
In these measures total, have been prioritized fruit trees, as in the number of projects (about 47%), the surfaces of
planting (about 48%), and to fund spending (43.3%) to the total of the three measures. If with the olive trees was
conducted a planting from 337 ha in Y.2007, actually turns out that this surfaces has 9,000 ha planted by subsidies.
Number of olives growing in 2011/2005 has increased by almost 4 times.
B) -For 2008;identifies a situation more incentive to direct support, which is expressed in the following areas:
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1- Expanding the number of measures, from 3 in 2007 to 10 or 3.3 times increase. In addition to measures in the
sector of fruit trees, special measures have been added for planting in greenhouses, the pilgrimage of livestock
(sheep), certification of organic products, protection of olive groves, etc.
2- In nearly doubling the number of projects applying subsidies, from about 2109 such Y.2007, in 4109 for the year
2008. During this year, the largest share (about 63%) in the number of projects have planting of trees, vines and
olives, as dominant or single measures for the year Y.2007. Second place is occupied by projects for dairy cows
(about 21%), followed by those herds pilgrimage to the data (9.3%), and so on.
3- The increase of the subsidy fund in the amount of 190% versus 2007, where planting fruit trees are granted 68%
of the total amount, 14% cows, greenhouses nearly 7%, 5.2% drip irrigation and so on.
C) For 2012;includes21 supportme a suresofmany different nat uresandspecificationsforea chmeasure. Thus,

plantingthevineyard in blocks, bynot less than5acresforthe individualfarmerin 2009, for Y.2012isspecified as
measure above 2acres onthe benefitofthisaddedmassviticultureinour country. The sameis also observedforfruittrees,
olive trees, citrus(from about4acresin 2009, to over2acresinY.2012), butin 2012we havespecificationsfortraditional
and intensive formsofcultivation, wherethe size ofpaymentsdifferentiatebetween them, withnearly80thousandALL
/ha formoreintensity.
What is new in Y.2012 measures against previous years can be said:
Planting with walnut sapling grafted in the areas of Librazhdi, Kukes, Korca and Dibra, with 250 thousand ALL / ha
to 180 thousand ALL / ha for the free grafted seedlings. This measure stimulates the production regionalization
Extensive and intensive planting of hazelnuts, almonds, and pomegranates, with 180-200 thousand ALL / ha, which
directly stimulates the rational use of the undivided land in the whole country.
Organic agricultural products, with a salary of 70 thousand at ALL for farm, as a result of an increasing demand for
these products by domestic and foreign consumers, regardless of its price.
Production of olive oil extra-virgin, but with 100 ALL / liter, as in 2009, but in 2012 is made a provision for the
amount of product that should be up to 15 tons per year. It's a move that stimulates forms of horizontal and vertical
integration in agriculture, resulting in multifaceted benefits.
Payment of 5000 ALL / heads for farms with 10-30 heads ungulate, which stimulates in our creation of such
livestock farms with narrow specialization in numerical added benefit of equine, much needed in our agricultural
practices and wider, as in 2011/2000 they have decreased by 105 thousand heads in general, and about 30 thousand
heads just for horses
ALL payments to 20 thousand / head heifer clean race, aged over 15 months in areas with concentration of cattle,
farm or group of farms that breed livestock on 3 heifers. It promotes specific measure in our racial improving
agricultural fund.
Production of medicinal herbs such as sage, Lavanda, oregano, thymus, in blocks by specified areas for cultivation,
to the extent of 50% of the total project cost, but no more than 200 thousand ALL / ha.
During this period, the support scheme has made a number of important concrete results, expressed in number of
projects and applications in the area of irrigated crops, the number of heads paid, the amount of added products and
increased product quality, etc. . Thus, in 2007 the total hectares planted by support was 1200 ha, in 2009 were
planted 20-25% of fruit trees, vineyards 30-35% at a country level, and so on. The situation of applicants for such
period 2007-2011 results like (1):
Table 3. Direct Support Scheme
N/R Label 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012/2007
1 Number of Measures 3 10 13 16 18 21
2 Number of Applicants 3178 8614 12051 10090 14783 -
3 Number of Beneficiaries 2109 7603 10584 8045 4078 6840
Data shows clearly that:

The number of measures has increased to 5.7 times.
Applicants have increased every year from 3 to 5 times.
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Even beneficiaries have gained an increase during years but with a decrease after 2010 wich are almost 70% of the
applicants.
For 2011, almost 80% of the beneficiaries are in the fruit trees schemes and among them 60% is for olive planting.
After them, priority had the matriculation of cattle, bees and the increase of irrigation by points.
During the implementation of the scheme, it turns out, that had priority, applicants of the mountainous areas, with
mitigating criteria for surfaces, the number of heads, etc., that provide appropriate measures. For 2012 are
implemented 21 measures and a supporting fund of 8 million euros, almost 160% over that of 2011.
For 2013, (7) Ministry of Agriculture and AARD have set deadlines to apply for subsidy schemes, divided into five
groups, including nearly homogeneous measures for each group, starting from March 30 onwards for fruit trees and
specifying the maximum amount in ALL per hectare, heads, etc..
After 2007, it seems that the support has been added a boost and improving portfolio, but that is far from estimated
needs for a rapid and stable production. The portfolio of measures needs to be rationalized by applying with more
correctness the principles and criteria for support. It should be in accordance with the implementing capacity
building. Portfolio and size of support should be based on the results of consultation with stakeholders agricultural
development.Assessment should be done by independent experts and approved by the department AARD to avoid
formalities in this regard, knowledge or cases of corruption. This should lead to the addition of beneficiaries, as
currently is estimated that every 40 rural households, only one has benefited of the support subsidy schemes.
Verification and re-verification should be done by independent experts to guarantee real control results, which will
register the misapplication of projects in any case (as has happened), etc. In this framework, based on experience to
date, there are ideas and suggestions for the future support schemes constructed mainly on the basis of production,
eliminating gradually the criteria of surface, for heads, etc.
This form of support for farmers and agro processors assessed as positive, eliminates the shortcomings that were
noted above, will be more effective, fairer and increase transparency, which will be displayed in states with
significant quantitative indexes and outcome-quality and food safety.
The analysis can be extended for every district in particular, but in this case we highlight the situation for Delvina
circle, as in farming for the period 2007-2010, (3):
a) -In agriculture, it is concluded thefollowing:

Winner farmers number is small (about 120 in total), but over the years it has been growing by
doublingY.2010/2007.
Beneficiary farmers are expanded in all municipalities of the district, but 53% of them belong to Vergo municipality
that has six villages.
The subsidized surface, which is almost 80 ha, is grown over the years, being tripled in 2010/2007. Nearly 60% of it
belongs to the municipality of Vergo. From this area, 93% is composed by fruit trees (olives 80%, vineyards and
citrus are each 6% and other fruit trees 8%).
It results the subsidy for drops irrigation in 50% of municipalities with 6 ha of land, and also heating greenhouses
only in one municipality with 0.5 ha.
On average, each farmer was funded with ALL 220 thousand.
b) -In livestock, it is evidenced the following:
The number of winning farmers is twice of those in agriculture, and has been growing over the years. Their presence
in municipalities is evident, and in Vergo is dominant.
The sheeps number results in nearly 25 thousand heads. In addition the scheme is present also for 400 cows (31
farmers), for 2,800beehives (42 farmers) and for snail breeding to only one farmer in the municipality of Finiq.
On average, each farmer was fundedwith ALL 60 thousand.
Even this analysis shows that the supporting scheme is limited (despite the increase in years) to the number of
beneficiary farmers and to the diversity of implemented measures or territorial spread scale and to the uniformity of
weight by municipalities in districts.
It must be said that the weight of governance support in the total financial resources of the farm results small. Thus,
in the case of Korca farmers the financing structure is as below (2):
Savings and immigration....................almost 96 % of the total.
Loans..................................................none - % of the total.
Governance support...........................almost 4 % of the total.
By comparing the year 2011 with 2009, it is clearly evidenced an increase with 15% of vegetables, an increase with
12% of fruits, an increase with 40% of olives, an increase with 30% of exports, etc. which are attributable among
others to the direct support with subsidies, a contribution that definitely tends upward (1).
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CONCLUSIONS
The analysis and the treatment of the case made above about the subsidy directly to farmers leads naturally to some
key conclusions:
Direct governance supports (subsidies) are one of the types of supports to agriculture, which has been implemented
in our country since 2007, based on the experience of the EU countries.
The organization and implementation of direct support was initially started from 2 KR project, and currently is
followed by the Agency of Agriculture and Rural Development (AP, or AARD) as an instrument of the CAP.
The principles, criteria for the allocation of the support, the support measures are perfected over the years, are
expanded diversely, are differentiated by the regions of the country, are perfected in content and are grown in the
size of the support.
During the period, it is not only increased the number of subsidized sectors (from 1 to 8) or the measures (from 3 to
21), but it results also an expand of the support fund, which however, it is estimated that is not only scarce, but also
insufficient for the "revival" of agriculture, which in turn leads to "revitalize" the economy as a whole.
The number of beneficiaries even though is increasing over the years, it is considered too small (about 3% of the
total rural farm) and reduced against applicants in 30-40%.
Supporting measures deem to be in full view of the major issues affecting the agricultural sector such as: The
encourage of intensive and super intensive systems of production, organic products that have an increasing demand
in the market, regionalization of production, concentration of land, work in groups of farmers (various size and
forms), the rational use of unappropriated lands, the stimulation of agricultural exports, the improve of
manufacturing technologies, etc..
The portfolio and supports size should be based directly in the results of consultation with all the stakeholders of
agricultural development, where the verification of winning projects is realized by independent experts, even during
the ri-verifications in the process of implementation, which would avoid the chanses for corruption and
misapplication of the projects in practice.
There are some ideas that in the future the supporting schemes should based on the production, by gradually
eliminating them based on the surface, the number of heads etc.. We consider that this form is estimated to be more
positive, more effective, fairer, more transparent and that will be expressed with more significant and fruitful
indexes, both in terms of quantity, quality and food safety.
We appreciate that direct support schemes should have a more complete presence in beneficiaries - deserving, in the
territorial space and a more harmonized weight by municipalities, districts and beyond.
The supporting schemes by being perfected in their content and implementation form should create incentives and
premises for more profitable cultures by region, giving priority to vegetables, olives, vineyards or specific products
of each area, whether agricultural, livestock or trees.
We consider that the support schemes should evolve in the short term and the medium term from individual farmers
in producer groups, to associations and cooperatives farmers, this due to a better management of funds, due to
incentive cooperation of the farmers and faster and more notable results of these schemes from the implement of the
concentration concept and on this aspect.
REFERENCES
Mira Nasto, PhD, Y.2013.

Shekulli Newspaper. Dt. 24.2.13; 14.3.13; 10.2.13.
Evidences from the Department of Agriculture of Delvina, Y. 2007-2010.
Sector Strategy of Agriculture and Food, Y.2007-2013.
Law "For Agriculture and Rural Development", Y. 2007.
D.C.M-s for agricultural support over the years, Y.2007-2012.
Other data.
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PAPER 271
THE MAIN CHANGES BETWEEN WESTERN MODEL OF COOPERATIVES AND SOCIALIST

MODEL APPLIED IN ALBANIA
Bislim AHMETAJ1*, Fatmira Allmuaj1

1
Ministry of Agriculture Food and Consumer Protection, Tirana - Albania
ABSTRACT
Still there is no a pure cooperative movement. The farmers are sceptic referring to the negative tradition in the
dictatorial system. Some models of cooperatives are established in different agriculture areas but still are not
competitive in the market and to provide quality services for their members obstructive factors of the development
of cooperative sector in Albania could classified in some types: Factor of social nature, factors of economical nature,
factors of entrepreneurs factors of institutional nature. The cooperatives will influence directly in the increase of
agriculture and livestock production enabling the vertical integration of farmers in the food chain, enhance the
employment and will reduce the informality level in the rural areas, will improve the quality of life .Through defined
programme would enable the preparation of woman as manger in the rural areas, professional /management
education of young farmers in order to establish successful social business. Also will enable the conservation and
sustainability of environment.
Key words: Cooperative, management, production, prosperity.
E-mail: ahmetajb@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Even than the last years the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with different projects supported by foreign
donors has worked to increase the awareness of Albanian farmers to cooperate between them in Albania still there is
no a pure cooperatives movement. Some models of cooperatives are established in different agriculture areas but
still they are not competitive in the market and to provide quality services for their members .Also many farmers are
sceptical for the model of cooperation because they cannot understand the difference that have a cooperative
entrepreneurship with a democratic management comparing with the cooperative of totalitarian system.
Consequently it considered to explain in details the substantial changes between these to different models of
cooperatives
1.The essential difference between socialist model with western model of cooperatives is the principle of
membership and voluntary moving away. During the totalitarian system in Albania was applied the voluntary
entrance but in fact we are all testimony that the entrance in cooperative of Albanian farmers was made with
obligation .In such way the Albanian farmers unified the land benefited from the agrarian reform after the
liberation ,the livestock and their means of production loosing the ownership on them .Consequently the Albanian
farmers does not consider the cooperative like something that belong and serving to their interest so they have not
the necessary motivation to work. In the European cooperative the entrance and leaving of cooperative is free , in
general the farmers bring in the cooperative a part of their capital as a condition to be member being always the
owner of this capital and in the moment that for a reason defined they intend to move away ,the cooperative turn
back their capital.
2.The socialist cooperatives was mainly production cooperative, where the members have brought in the capital of
cooperative the land and livestock, while in the western cooperatives are mainly focused in the processing,
marketing and the purchase of inputs. So with other words the members of western cooperatives contributes with a
monetary value in a common capital , for the building of the stores, the purchase of processing lines and transport
vehicles which are a common ownership and serve to them to process and sell agriculture products individually
produced by each farmer in their farm or to by inputs and carrying out the works. In such way the farmers unified
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their money to by these means and equipment that cannot by individually and use together as they are in their
common ownership, whereas that farms are in individual ownership of each farmer.
3.The socialist cooperatives was controlled by the State who nominates political persons in the direction posts,
while in the western cooperatives the leaders are selected in democratic way from the members .Totalitarian State
exercised a strong control on the socialist cooperatives defining at the beginning of the year the amount of
production to be delivered by the cooperative in the collecting state enterprise which play a role of seller as well
as fixing the price of buying of cooperative products . This planning extremely become poor the Albanian farmers
and the cooperatives ,which delivered all the production in the state ,while they purchases for themselves products
of lower quality for familiar consumption (it is well known the fact that the cooperatives delivered the wheat in the
state and purchased corn for their members).It is pointed out the difference with western cooperatives where the
members decide themselves in democratic way for planning of planting while the leaders selected by them manage
and sell the production in the interest of the members. At the end of each financial year the cooperative distribute the
income to the members in a direct way and according of their contribution in the cooperative
Which are the main obstructive factors of the development of agriculture cooperatives in our country ?
The obstructive factors of the development of cooperative sector in Albania could be classified as follows;
1.Factors of social nature
-The lack of mutual trust between the farmers .In general the Albanian farmers are not confident toward each
other,so they prefer to work individually than to establish a common entrepreneurship. They dont have the courage
to invest in a common capital as they think they will lose this money or that the cooperative will not manage in a
transparent way.
-Mistrust of Albanian farmers towards the cooperative model .There is a mistrust of farmers towards the
entrepreneurship as result of negative impact of socialist model of cooperative which impede them to cooperate
between them. In the memory of Albanian farmers the cooperative model is a model which brings their poverty and
loosing of the ownership.
-Mistrust of members towards the leaders. In a few cooperatives existing in Albania .frequently there is a lack of
transparency from the leaders ,which create the ideas that management of cooperative is made in such way
favouring some persons and not all the members in equal way. There are a lot of cases when the leader keeps the
accounting of cooperatives and the members have not access or make manipulation with the contribution of each
member in the cooperative. Consequently in such cases the distribution of income at the end of economical year
cannot be right.
-Mistrust of members towards the state institutions. Albanian farmers looks with non confidence the state
institution, mainly the organ of taxes .They believe that if they establish a joint entrepreneurship which is a taxed
subject they will pay high taxes and consequently their income would be reduced .The dilemma that they set forth
is : where as individual farmers they dont pay taxes for our products , why to create a cooperative and to be taxed
?
-The lack of cooperation between the cooperatives . In general, the cooperatives consider each other a competitors in
the market and in the benefiting of grants and donation that can benefit from the state or different donors .For this
reason ,the cooperatives are too much closed in the provision of information and can happen that can be near each
other and not having information for their existence. Whereas that the cooperation between cooperatives is one of
most important principle of cooperatives and bring mutual profits.
2.Factors of economical nature :

-The lack of financing in the social capital from farmers themselves .In most of the cases the Albanian farmers
dont dispose the necessary financial resources to invest in the capital of the cooperative, without it cannot be
assured their establishment and their functioning. But in the cases when the farmers dispose sufficient savings to
create e joint capital ,they hesitate to invest as they have no trust in the cooperative model and feared that will lose
their savings .it
-Lack of grants from government and their institutions. Since several years the Albanian government and different
foreign foundation have supported with modest grants some groups of farmers aiming to enhance the cooperation
between them and to create models to be followed by the farmers .In some cases, these are models of enhancement
of cooperation from bottom up ,so have borne as a necessity of farmers themselves to cooperate .Consequently
can happen that financing taken in form of grants to conclude in the common capital of the cooperative in the
pocket of designed individual.
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-Lack of financing from the banks and high rates of interest of credits offered by them. Frequently in Albania ,the
banks dont finance activities in the field of agriculture and livestock, as they consider as non-profit sector and
having a high risk to pay back the credit. So, in the case of application of microcredits from different Banking
Unions ,it is pointed out that the high interest rate which surpass the limit of 15% and in some cases over 20 % are a
constraint factor of crediting the farmers and entrepreneurship of cooperatives .
3.Factors of entrepreneurship nature
-Lack of professional training of leaders of cooperatives .In general there is a low leve of professional education of
leader staff of the cooperatives. For this reason the cooperatives are manage worst ,there is no a clear vision
regarding the planning of cooperative activity, and often there is lack of a pure business plan in the entrepreneur
cooperative.
-Lack of diversification of products and services in the existing cooperatives. In most of the cases the cooperatives
of farmers in Albania are in embryonic stage. They offer few services for their members and are focused only in
one direction (for example in the purchasing of agriculture inputs or only in the selling of products ).The setting up
of different sector in the cooperative as the sector of purchasing of agriculture inputs,
Which are the main obstructive factors the development of agriculture cooperatives in our country ?
The obstructive factors of the development of cooperative sector in Albania could be classified as follows : sector of
advisory services, sector of agriculture machinery ,marketing,storing and processing sector of agriculture products
etc would make more attractive the model of cooperative in view to be member other farmers.
-Lack of quality marks which differentiate the agriculture products (Bio certification).Denomination of origin
(PDO,PGI) etc. In a market becoming more competitive after the signing of Free Trade Agreement, the Albanian
farmers must be aware that the quality of products will make the difference in the market. In the absence of
cooperation the farmers cannot certify their products ,while the existing cooperatives must understand that is
imperative to have access in the market with their mark which offer trust to the consumer.
4.Factors of institutional nature
-Lack of technical support from public institutions

It would be said that the agriculture specialist have a lack of education related with the establishment and
functioning of cooperatives as well as their promotion as model of entrepreneurship which influence positively in
the rural development of the country. The setting up of a particular structure in the Ministry of Agriculture as well as
training and capacity building of experts will give a great impetus to the cooperative movement in the country. This
doesnt mean that this sector will set up cooperatives, but in the case where there are initiative of cooperation must
support them with legal assistance for drafting of statute, registration and technical assistance related with the
management of cooperatives, drafting of a business plan, planning of planting, keeping of documentations of
cooperatives etc.
5.Factors of legislative nature
-The last year was approved the law for agriculture cooperation society, but still has not given effects in the
development of cooperative sector. Many Albanian farmers which want to be united in a cooperative of farmers
association that intend to be converted in SHBB , are expecting sub-legal acts which reflect fiscal facilities as well
as the support that they will have by the state. They hesitate to undertake a such pace without having a legal
guaranty that Albanian government will support concretely in their cooperation initiative
Also is important that the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with line Ministries to draft a strategy
plan/visionary for the development of cooperatives and clear polices to support the cooperatives
RESULTS
Taking into consideration the current situation of agriculture in Albania as well as the specific of this sector may be
concluded that the establishment of cooperative is the key for the rural development of the country. The
cooperatives will give solution to several problems and difficulties which is facing the agriculture and livestock
sector in Albania.
The cooperatives will :
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Influence directly in the increase of agriculture and livestock production of the country
The cooperatives reduce the cost of production through the common buying of agriculture inputs as well optimize
the production factors through the improvement of mechanical and agriculture technology. Also the cooperatives
realize market study and orientate the production of members according to the requirements of market and
consumers .Based on the market studies is carried out the planning of planting of members in order to ensure the
amount, the quality and the continuity of products requested by the consumers.
Enable the vertical integration of farmers in the food chain.
Actually the Albanian farmers realize only the production and selling in the markets. The other elements of food
chain ,as agriculture inputs, storing and processing of agriculture products ,wholesale and retail selling ,are
concentrated in the their hands which in general are not farmers .Especially are those who add the value to the
products and get the bigger part of profit. In such way, Albanian farmer is not recompensed as it is needed for its
work and the rural areas remains undeveloped .If the farmers cooperate they can concentrate in their hands the links
of food chain, as buying of agriculture inputs ,processing, wholesale of products and direct sale to the consumer .In
such way would be avoided the intermediaries and the farmer will benefit the added value of agriculture products.
So as the production, processing and trading of products is concentrated inside the cooperative are created most
advantaged conditions to guarantee food security and traceability offering products of high quality for the
consumers.
Will promote the employment and reduce the level of informality in the rural areas. Actually ,the agriculture
holdings are characterized of a high level of informality, where the farmers are considered as self employed in
their farms and dont declare the selling realized .
The creation of cooperative is associated with the need of employment of persons trained in economical aspects,
management, technical legal etc. Also the entrepreneurship created as the forms of business is obliged to keep the
documentations for all activities related with the selling of products .In such way the cooperatives will make
legal the production and commercial activity of Albanian farmers which will have the possibility to
commercialize their products in local market as well as to export.
Will improve the quality of life. The services provided by the cooperative to their members will influence in the
improvement of quality of life of farmers, breeders and their family in the rural areas .It would be enhanced the
participation of young people in agriculture and will increase significantly the role of woman in the decision taking
promoting the tender equity .Through defined programs would be enable the formation of female manager in the
rural areas, professional /management training of the young people in order to achieve the creation of successful
social businesses.
Enable the conservation and sustainability of environment. Actually the farmers have limited knowledges dealing
with good practices of production animal welfare or protection of environment. In the moment of purchasing of
agriculture inputs they refer frequently from the recommendation of sellers who intends to increase their incomes
and consequently advice the farmers to buy as much as possible fertilizer, pesticide or other inputs which influence
negatively in the environment and consumer health. In the agriculture operative are employed capable experts who
advice the farmers to use production practices which are in compliance with the environment and animal welfare.
Also the cooperatives enable the maintaining of population in the rural areas and eliminating the phenomenon like
erosion and damages of forest ,influencing in the conservation and sustainability of environment
CONCLUSIONS
In order not to be long in the type recommendation which require a global involvement of policy makers and
contributors stakeholders of establishment of cooperatives it is necessary to point out as a first step and
indispensable the drafting of a Strategic Plan For the development agriculture and agri-food cooperatives as an
immediate need of education of farmers with the requirements of market (standards of production/competitiveness)
and absorbing of funds for Rural Development (IPARD)
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PAPER 272
TRENDS OF LIVESTOCK FARMS DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Valdete Vorpsi 1*, Etleva Jojic1, Enkelejda Sallaku2, Erta Dodona1
Department of Plant Production, Agricultural University of Tirana,

Department of Animal Production, Agricultural University of Tirana,
Email: etlevajojic@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Livestock production in Albania accounts about 50% of agriculture production. The sustainable economic
development in rural areas increases the demand for electric energy. One of the alternatives with a positive impact
on the environment and economical and social development of these areas is the use of the green energy as biogas.
In this contest the objective of the study are: To find out the tendency of livestock farms development and the
possibilities of biogas production from these farms in Albania.
The study was undertaken in Shkodra district. It analyses the data from 192 farms. According to this data the daily
quantity of animal waste, the daily quantity of biogas as well as the theoretical and practical potential energy, was
calculated. The calculation was done based on ASAE 2003 and NRCS 1998 standards.
In conclusion we can say that the use of biogas as an energy resource is a real potential for our farms. It can cover
15% of heating and cooking needs of families living in farms, as well as heating and lighting needs of school and
kinder garden. The system of biogas implant for the farmers of this commune can be family type, or in cooperation
cases, a middle sized system
Key words: farm, livestock, animal waste, biogas, energy.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing need for power due to industrial development and growth of world population has led to reduction of
global energy reserves. For these reasons developing countries along with developed countries are seeking
alternative energy sources to meet their needs. Albania is also working to combine power policies generated from
renewable sources (solar , wind, hydro, biomass and geothermal), making them part of a whole strategy for energy,
based in directives of the European Union (2001/77, 2003/54/EC; 2003/55/EC; etc.) Currently, the National Energy
Strategy (2007-2020), has involved not only the development of classical sources (fossil), but also the strategies for
the development of renewable energy resources use and its efficiency. Their involvement in the Energy Strategy is
coupled with predictions of all steps needed for their application.
Biomass as energy source is closely related to forests, agriculture (plant remains, dedicated plants, and animal
waste), food industry and urban waste. Therefore, to evaluate the potential of biomass in Albania, it is important to
know the development of these sectors and the policies pursued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
Economical use of renewable energy resources for the realization of sustainable supply of energy and minimizing
the harmful impact on the environment as a support for the sustainable development of rural areas requires the
application of schemes for the use of biomass and biogas production from plant and animal remains.
Bio-Gas is mostly methane (around 60%) with carbon dioxide (around 40%) and a little hydrogen and hydrogen
sulphide. Biogas has an energy content of about 5.720 kcal / m, compared to 8.380 kcal / m for mashed methane
gas, because carbon dioxide is present in the biogas. (Pimentel, D. 2001).
Based on the growing trend of dairy farms in our country 1.7% in the year 2007 (MAFCP 2007), this study is
focused on the evaluation of biogas potential production from animal waste in district of Shkodra.
Goal: Assessment of biogas production capacity in the livestock farms in Albania

Objectives: The trend of livestock development in Shkodra district
Assessment of animal waste
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The potential production of biogas

The study was undertaken in Shkodra district
Analyses indicators: The number of livestock for every category

The structure and size of farms
Calculations: Quantity of animal waste. According to formula:

Total waste (kg/day) = No animals unit* waste (kg/day)/AU *collection factor.
Quantity of biogas expressed in m/day and m3/year.

Quantity of the produced energy (based on the quantity of CH4 in biogas)
Theoretical Yield- Energy Potential (Energy gross relieved from the cremation of 1m3 biogas)
Technical Yield -Energy potential (The energy produced in: thermo engine: = 30-40%; electric engine: = 20-
30%; Combined used: =60-70%)
Achievable Energy potential (Exploit energy direct dependence from technology and efficiency of the equipment to
be used)
All account done according to:
ASAE D384.1 FEB03; Manure Production and Characteristics;
NRCS 1998; Manure Characteristics
RESULT
Shkodra district is located in the northern part of Albania, with

The map of mayor economic and social problems. This district is situated
between two major natural ecosystems, Shkodra Lake and Drini
Shkodra district River. There are 17 communes and 139 villages in Shkodra district
with a total number of inhabitants of 24500. Total number of farms is
28866 and the number of families living in communes is 37000.
From observations in the area has been noticed the phenomenon of
their pollution. One of the factors of pollution is animal waste of the
villages which are not treated but deposited in river flows and into
the lake. Analyzing it from local point of view (area of north
Albania) and rural development point of view (average level) this
commune serves as a reference point for many other communes in
Albania. The sustainable development of the area, farming
development and increased quality of life has led to increasing
demand for energy consumption. Currently the requirements for
electricity are covered only by hydro resources of the area. The use
of biogas from animal waste is an opportunity to meet potential
demand for electricity. In figure 1 is been presented the numeric development of the livestock in Shkodra district for
every category of animal and in table 1 the structure and size of farms.
Figure.1 The numeric development of the livestock in Shkodra district
The number of livestock for every category in Shkodra district
40
20
0
Cattle sheep pigs goats poultry equidaue
-20
Increase of livestock years 2006-2007(%)

Icrease of livestock yaers 2007-2008(%)
Source: MAFCP 2007 and personal interview
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Table 1: The structure and size of farms
Nr. The Structure of farms Shkodra Nr. The Structure of farms Shkodra
District District
1. Farms with 1-9 dairy cattle 21385 6. Farms sow 1 5 head 980
10 20 117 6 10 25
11 50 40 11 50 5
more than 51 3 more than 51 6
2. Farms with 5-10 calves 45 7 Pigs farm 40
that circulate in a year 10 -50
head
11 50 4 51 100 head. 15
4. Farms sheep till 50 head 1280 101 500 7
51 100 75 more than 500 12
101 200 18 8. Poultry farms 4
more than 200 4 9. Turkey farms 21-50 head 60
5. Farm goats till 50 head 1235 50-150 head 1
51 100 50
101 200 2 TOTAL 28866
Source: MAFCP 2007 and personal interview
From the analysis of farm size and structure was noticed that livestock production in this zone is about 60% of
agricultural production, but the large number of farms with an average size of 0.9-1.4 ha and a very small number of
heads, shows that these are small family units and not genuine farms. They averagely grow only to cover their
family needs 3-4 heads of cattle, 10 sheep and goat, pigs 1-2 and 20-25 birds. These "family farms" constitute
approximately 80% of all farms in rural areas not only in Shkodra district but also in whole Albania.
Based in these data, in order to determine the potential production of biogas from animal waste, there were included
only farms which grow over 10 dairy cows or farms which grow 10 animal units. In our country for ships and goat
growth, it is used only the extensive system and primarily pasture system, that is why they were not counted in the
study. In Figure 2 is been presented the number of farms and number of animals considered in the research.
Figure 2 The Farms and the number of livestock considered in the research
150000
100000
50000
0
cattle pigs poultry equidae Totali
farms 164 23 5 0 192
heads 3344 7962 116500 1268 129074
The farms taken under study are situated in 9 communes (from 17 communes in total) and 2 municipalities.
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Figure 3: The distribution of farms according to communes and municipalities
Guri zi, 10 Rrethina, 3

Municipality of Municipality of
Postribe, 6 Hajmet, 4
Vau Dejes, 3 Shkoder, 4 Bushat, 42
Ana Malit, 5
Dajc, 37 Velipoje, 19
Berdice, 31
The total quantities of animal waste were calculated based on the above mentioned features. In order to have a fair
trial it is also done their uniformity by using indicator animal unit. (NRPH 2008)
Table 2. The theoretical quantity of the animal waste in farms
Tons
animal
Number Animal Number waste
of Unit of Animal per AU Total
animals Factor1 Unit 2
(Tons)
CATTLE 3344
Cow of milk productivity of 3000 kg 574 0.73 419 10.59 4437.4
Cow of milk productivity of 5000 kg 1500 1.0 1500 11.50 17250
Calf (6-12 month old) 715 0.56 400 10.57 4232
Heifers 445 0.75 334 12.50 4172
Fatling cattle (18-21 month old) 100 0.68 68 10.59 720
PIGS 7962
Fatling pigs
(one animal from 20-100 kg weight per
fatling cycle of 180d.) 7043 0.04 282 14.68 4136
Sow 853 0.35 299 6.11 1824
Reproductive pigs 66 0.4 26 6.11 161
POULTRY 116500
Chicken 103000 0.004 412 11.47 4726
Broilers 12500 0.002 25 14.95 374
Turkeys 1000 0.02 20 9.12 182
EQUIDAE 1268
Horses 976 1.1 1074 16.5 17714
Mares 292 0.8 237 12.35 2921
Organic waste of family farms 192 0.3 80
TOTALI 5096 58492
1
Animal Unit - An animal unit (AU) is one mature cow of approximately 1000 pounds and a calf up to weaning,
usually 6 months of age, or their equivalent (NRPH, 2008)
2
(NRCS, 1998)
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The theoretical potential of animal waste which can be exploited from the analyzed farms is 58492 ton/year. The
values represent fresh (as voided) feces and urine. Actual values vary due to differences in animal diet, age, usage,
productivity and management (ASAE 2003). The coefficients of waste collection in Albania were taken into
consideration during the preparation of the study. Practically, there are 43317 ton/year animal waste collected,
including organic waste of family farms.
Tabela 4 The real quantity of the animal waste in Farms

Total Total
Total animal animal
Animal Collection Waste waste
Head Waste factor 1 (Tons/D.) (Tons/a)
Cattle 3344 26374 80 58 21099
Pigs 7962 6121 95 16 5815
Poultry 116500 5282 75 11 3962
Equidae 1268 20635 60 34 12381
Organic waste of family farms 192 80 75 0.16 60
TOTALI 58492 119 43317
1
(Karaj,SH. 2007.)
The amount of biogas produced by methanisation of these wastes will be:

1299510 m3/year or 3560 m3/day.
Based on the quantity of produced biogas and assuming that the amount of CH4 in it will be 55-60%, potential
energy results:
Theoretical Energy Potential (Used 100% of calorific value)
3560 m biogas = 76902 MJ/day = 21362 kWh/day
Technical Yield -Energy potential
The energy produced in a thermo engine = 30 40%; 8545 kWh/day
The energy produced in a electric engine = 20 30%; 6408 kWh/day
The combined used (Ethermo+ Eelectric) = 60 70%; 12178 kWh/day
On the one hand, referring to the number of farms and farm families taken in the study, losses in transmition
network and equipment efficience put into work and on the other hand the daily average consumption the quantity of
biogas produced can cover 15% of heating and cooking needs of families living in farms as well as heating and
lighting needs of school and kinder garden.
CONCLUSIONS
The sustained development of livestock in Albania is accompanied by important social, economic and environment
impacts. Today, the biogas usage in rural areas, is not only an renewable energetic resource, but in the meantime
brings positive impacts in the environment, as well as in economic development of Albania
Animal waste of 192 farms in Shkodra district are a potential energy resource for biogas production.
Theoretical potential energy produced by animal waste, is calculated 76902 MJ/day =21362 kWh/day
This potential may be used for electricity, heating and cooking. Technical energetic potential can be used by 50-70%
of these family farms and by 5 schools and kindergartens.
Family size biogas system is recommended for our family farms, while for medium farms or cooperative farms is
recommended medium size biogas
REFERENCE
ASAE 2003. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1998 Natural Resources Conservation Service, Appendix II MANURE
CHARACTERISTICS
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/NRI/pubs/nlapp1b.html
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National Range and Pasture Handbook (NRPH), 2008. Definition of Animal Units
http://techreg.sc.egov.usda.gov/nte/tspnte2/animalunits.html
Pimentel, D. 2001. Biomass Utilization, Limits of. In Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology Third
Edition (Vol 2: pp. 159-171), Academic Press, San Diego.
Fear et al. 2005 Biomass Inventory and Bioenergy, Assessment An Evaluation of Organic Material Resources for
Bioenergy Production in Washington State
Karaj, Sh. 2007, Master, Analysis of Biomass Residues Potential for Electrical Energy Generation in Albania
Statistic yearbook 2007, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Protection (MAFCP), Albania
PAPER 273
CULTIVATION AND NUTRIENT ANALYSIS OF THE MUSHROOM PLEUROTUS SP
Magdalena Cara1, Jordan Merkuri1, Vojislava Bursic2, Aferdita Laska-Merkoci3, Bora Qesja4, Enri Shkoza5
1
2
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
3
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania
4
Canadian Institute of Technology, Albania
5
Divjaka Mushroom, Albania
Email: magdacara@ubt.edu.al
ABSTRACT
Pleurotus sp,a member of oyster mushrooms, has been successfully cultivated in the last few decades due to its
ability to grow on a broad range of temperatures, humidity, light and simple cultivation methods on lignocelluloses
substrates. This study was conducted in the Research Laboratory of Mycelium in the Department of Plant
Protection, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment and in the private farm of Divjaka Mushroom. The purpose
of the study was assessing the nutritive values of two edible mushrooms namely: Pleurotus ostreatus (DO - VT,
JOM) and Pleurotus eryngii (PE-MT, PE-IT). Both types of mushrooms were rich sources of proteins and fibers.
Pleurotus ostreatus, on average, was composed of 25.83% proteins and 7.01% fibers, while the percentages for
Pleurotus eryngii were 27.41% and 6.74% on dry weight basis. The average results for moisture content, lipid, ash
and carbohydrates, for both types of mushrooms, were relatively low.
Pleurotus eryngii (PE-MT) strain showed maximum protein (35.2%) and maximum moisture (90.21%) content. The
crude fiber and lipids content in the fruiting bodies were recorded 8.10% and 2.8% in the Pleurotus ostreatus (DO
VT) strain.
Key-word: Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus eryngii, nutrients, protein, moisture, lipid.
INTRODUCTION
Mushrooms are one of the useful, delicious and mysterious members of the biosphere (Verma et al., 1987). Today,
mushrooms are being considered as an alternative food source for the provision of adequate nutrition to world's
increasing population. Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) cultivation has increased tremendously throughout the
world during the last few decades (Chang, 1999; Royse, 2002). Oyster mushroom accounted for 14.2 % of the total
world production of edible mushroom in 1997 (Chang, 1999).
It was reported by Bobek et al., (1991) that the consumption of a mushroom-containing diet prevented serum
cholesterol increase at the end of a four week period and lowered it by almost 40% as compared with control groups
which had not included mushrooms in their diet. Kabir & Kimura (1989) reported that dietary mushrooms have
reduced the blood pressure in rats.
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Seeing the importance of mushroom consumption, the present study was designed to evaluate the nutrients value of
two different strains of Pleurotus spp. on wheat straw substrate.
Location
The spawn production was carried out at the Research Laboratory of Mycelium in the Agricultural University of
Tirana, in a pre-built mushroom hut at the Faculty of Agriculture and Environment. Experiments focused on
Divjaka Mushrooms and occurred during 2012.
Stock pure cultures (mycelium)
Stock pure cultures of Pleurotus ostreatus (Po), (DO - VT, JOM), and Pleurotus eryngii (Pe), (PE-MT, PE-IT), were
prepared, preserved in mineral oil, inoculated to a medium of potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated at 28 C for
10 days until they were fully recovered and there was mycelium growth.
Pleurotus spp. were placed in a PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) medium, in Petri dishes, at 4C, as described by Furlan
et al. (1997). Mushroom strains were collected and maintained on potato-dextrose agar (PDA), pH = 7.0 (Das et al.
2007).
Spawn production, inoculums cultivated in solid medium

In order to prepare the spawn, 1 kg of wheat grain, previously boiled for 20 min, was used. The grain was drained
and 2 g of calcium carbonate and 8 g of calcium sulphate were added and mixed manually (Akyz and Yildiz, 2007;
Akyz and Yildiz, 2008). Calcium salts were used to adjust and buffer the pH of the substrate near 6. The substrate
was then poured into glass flasks of 0.75 liters that were sealed with aluminum and plastic film. The latter were
sterilized at 121C (1,013 x 105 Pa) for 45 min. 10 mm Petri dishes of culture of each strain previously prepared in
medium of culture of PDA, were transferred to the flasks containing the sorghum grains. Next the grains were
incubated at 28C in the dark for 15 20 days or until there was colonization of the grains by the fungus, making up
the spawn. The bottles containing the "solid inoculum" were kept at 4C for further use.
Preparation of substrate
The substrate (wheat straw) was sterilized by boiling it in water (80C for 40 minutes). Polythene bags of size 35 x
45 cm were filled with sterilized substrate for spawning. The moisture content of the substrate must be 65-70 %.
After inoculation, the bags were kept in a greenhouse where the temperature and humidity were maintained around
25 C and 80-90% respectively with sufficient light and ventilation for 20 days and light provided for 4 to 12 hr/day
500 1500 lux for P.eryngii and 1000-1500 (2000) for P.ostreatus (Stamets, 1993). The sufficient fresh air was
introduced to lower CO2 levels below 2000 ppm and 1000 ppm for P.eryngii and P.ostreatus respectively (Stamets,
1993), (Table 1).
Table 1: Environmental parameters for fruiting of oyster mushrooms
Species Temperature Relative CO2 (ppm) Light (lux)

[P Pleurotus] (oC) humidity (%)
P.eryngii (King Oyster Mushroom) 15 21 85 90 < 2000 500 1500
P.ostreatus (Tree Oyster Mushroom) 10 21 85 90 < 1000 1000-
1500(2000)
Source: Stamets, 1993
Harvesting of mushroom
The first primordia appeared after 2-4 days; the mushroom matured generally 48 hours after the appearance of the
primordia.
Sampling
The samples were selected by informal random sampling procedures from the greenhouses where P. ostreatus and P.
eryngii were being cultivated. The samples, taken from the bags periodically (spawn running, primordia initiation,
and fruit body yield phases), consisted of 2-3 pieces/bags during 2012. They were oven dried at 60 oC for 24 hours.
For preparation of chemical analyses the dried samples were ground in a laboratory mill.
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Moisture content
The moisture content was determined by measuring the material before and after the water was removed by
evaporation. The fresh weight of each mushroom sample was determined by chemical balance. The sample with 5 g
initial weight was oven dried separately at 95C for 24 h until constant weight was attained. To obtain an accurate
measurement of the moisture content, the evaporation method was deemed necessary for the removal of all water
molecules. The loss in weight obtained after drying was regarded as the moisture content in percentage (Manzi et al.,
1999), which was calculated using the following formula:
In the formula above Wo and W1 represent the mass of sample before and after drying respectively.
Lipid
3.0 g of dried mushroom sample were extracted with 25 cm3 of petroleum ether in a soxhlet extractor for 16 h. The
extract was evaporated to dryness in a weighed beaker using a vacuum evaporator. The weighed flask was dried in
the oven at 105C for 30 min. The weight of the extract was recorded after cooling in desiccator. The difference
between the initial and final weight was regarded as the lipid content of the sample (Parent and Thoen, 1977).
Crude fiber
3g of dried and fat free mushroom sample were placed in a 1000 ml beaker. 200 ml of 1.25% H2SO4 were added.
The level of the beaker was marked. The contents of the beaker were boiled for 30 min with constant stirring and the
level of the water was supplemented. The content was washed 3 times with hot water (150 ml) until it was acid free.
The procedure was repeated with 1.25% NaOH. The alkali free residue was carefully transferred to a crucible and
dried in an oven at 100C for 4 hours until constant weight was obtained. The sample was heated on oxidizing (blue)
flame until smoke ceased to come out. It was then placed in a muffle furnace at 550C for 4 hours until a grey ash
was obtained. As a final step, the sample was cooled in desiccators and weighed (AOAC, 1990). The difference in
weight serves to evaluate the amount of crude fiber:
Total ash
1.0 g of the sample was weighed accurately into a crucible. The crucible was initially placed and heated over a low
flame until all the material was completely charred, followed by heating in an oven for about 6 hours at 600OC. It
was then cooled and weighed. Total ash was calculated using the following equation (Raghuramalu et al., 2003):
Protein content
The protein content of the sample was determined by the use of the Kjeldahl method applied by James (1995) and
Chang (2003) in which the nitrogen content was determined and multiplied with 6.25 to obtain the protein content
(N x 6.25).
0.5 g of the powdered and mushroom sample was extracted with 50.0 cm3 of 2.5% NaCl in a water-bath at 60C for
1 h. The extract was filtered out and treated with 3% copper acetate to precipitate the protein. The precipitated
protein was centrifuged and dissolved in 0.1 M NaOH. The quantity of protein in the alkaline solution was
determined using the folins-phenol method (Kadiri and Fasidi 1990).
Total carbohydrate estimation

The content of the available carbohydrate was determined by the following equation:
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(Raghuramulu et al., 2003).
RESULTS
Several nutritional parameters such as total protein, lipids, fiber, ash, moisture and carbohydrate content were
measured for both Pleurotus spp. mushrooms. The moisture content of P. eryngii (Table 2) ranged from 85.21% to
90.21% with an average value of 89.01. Total protein content ranged from 19.3 to 35.2 % with an average value of
27.41 %, while lipid content ranged from 1.4 to 2.7% with an average of 1.79 %. The minimum value of fiber
content was found to be 5.98 %, while the maximum 7.2 %, averaging at 6.74 %. Ash content ranged from 4.9 to
8.03% with an average value of 6.99 %. The minimum and maximum carbohydrate content values were 40.21 and
51.23% respectively, averaging at 48.81 %.
Table 2: Chemical composition (g in 100 g dried matter) Pleurotus eryngii (PE-MT, PE-IT)
No. Total Protein Lipids Fiber Ash Moisture Carbohydrate

1. PE-MT 29.9 1.8 5.98 4.9 87.62 45.04
2. PE-MT 28.1 1.9 6.31 6.82 90.21 56.87
3. PE-MT 19.3 1.7 7.2 7.09 89.23 64.71
4. PE-MT 35.2 2.7 6.98 8.03 90.01 47.09
5. PE-MT 20.5 1.8 6.56 6.52 85.21 64.62
6. PE-IT 26.9 1.4 7.1 6.89 88.85 57.71
7. PE-IT 28.2 1.7 6.34 7.12 89.56 56.64
8. PE-IT 27.5 1.4 6.9 7.09 89.45 57.11
9. PE-IT 30.1 1.7 7.09 7.58 89.95 53.53
10. PE-IT 28.4 1.8 6.98 7.85 89.97 54.97
Min 19.3 1.4 5.98 4.9 85.21 45.04
Max 35.2 2.7 7.2 8.03 90.21 64.71
Average 27.41 1.79 6.74 6.99 89.01 55.83
Stand dev 4.59 0.36 0.42 0.87 1.53 6.34
The average values of total protein, lipids, fiber and ash content for P.eryngji can be observed in graph 1, while
graph 2 shows the averages values of carbohydrate and moisture content.
Graph 1: Average values of total protein, lipids, fiber and ash content for P.eryngji
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Graph 2: Average values of carbohydrate and moisture content for P.eryngii.
The moisture content of P. ostreatus (Table 3) ranged from 85.21% to 90.1% with an average value of 88.77. Total
protein content ranged from 19.6 to 30.1 % with an average value of 25.83 %, while lipid content ranged from 1.5 to
2.8% with an average of 2.03 %. The minimum value of fiber content was found to be 5.81 %, while the maximum
7.01 %. Ash content ranged from 5.1 to 7.1% with an average value of 6.55 %. The minimum and maximum
carbohydrate content values were 42.8 and 54.5% respectively, averaging at 47.35 %.
Table 3: Chemical composition (g in 100 g dried matter) Pleurotus ostreatus (DO - VT, JOM)
Total Protein Lipids Fiber Ash Moisture Carbohydrate

1. DO - VT 20.5 2.1 6.1 5.1 88.3 54.5
2. DO VT 27.3 1.9 5 5.6 89.9 50.1
3. DO VT 21.1 2.2 8.1 6.7 88.9 50.8
4. DO VT 26.7 2.5 8.09 7.1 90.1 45.71
5. DO VT 19.6 2.8 7.9 6.7 87.2 50.2
6. JOM 29 1.9 6 6.5 89.1 45.7
7. JOM 27.2 1.8 7.8 7.1 88.1 44.2
8. JOM 30.1 1.5 6.7 6.8 89.6 44.5
9. JOM 27.7 1.9 7.9 6.8 87.1 42.8
10. JOM 29.1 1.7 6.5 7.1 89.4 45
Min 19.6 1.5 5 5.1 85.21 42.8
Max 30.1 2.8 8.1 7.1 90.1 54.5
Average 25.83 2.03 7.01 6.55 88.77 47.35
Stand dev 3.90 0.39 1.10 0.67 1.06 3.78
The average values of total protein, lipids, fiber and ash content for P.ostreatus can be observed in graph 1, while
graph 2 shows the averages values of carbohydrate and moisture content.
Graph 3: Average values of total protein, lipids, fiber and ash content for P.ostreatus.
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Graph 4: Average values of carbohydrate and moisture content for P.ostreatus.
The moisture content of fresh mushrooms for both varies within the range of 85.21 - 90.21 % depending upon the
harvest time and environmental conditions, whereas it is about 9.79 14.79 % in dried mushrooms. The protein
content of the cultivated species ranges from 1.6 to 6.1 % of their fresh weight. It has been estimated that an average
value of 3.5 to 4.0 % would be more representative. This means that the protein content of edible mushrooms in
general, is about twice that of onion (1.4 %) and cabbage (1.4%), and four and 12 times the protein content of
oranges (1.0 %) and apples (0.3 %) respectively. In comparison, the protein content of common meats is as follows:
9-16 % for pork; 12-20 % for beef; 18-20 % for chicken; and18 -20 % for fish. On a dry weight basis, mushrooms
normally contain 19 -35 % protein, as compared to 7.3 % in rice, 12.7 % in wheat, 38.1 % in soybean, and 9.4 % in
corn.
The average values for lipid content in both types of mushrooms were 1.79 to 2.03% respectively. A non-significant
difference was observed in fat content as mushrooms are recognized for their low lipid contents.
Other authors have also been reported various amounts of fat contents in oyster mushrooms grown on different
substrates (Raghunathan et al. 1996; Gupta et al. 2004).
The average values of ash contents for both types of mushrooms were 6.99 and 6.55 % respectively. A non-
significant difference was observed in ash contents.
The average values of fiber contents on dry weight for both types of mushrooms were 6.74 to 7.01% respectively. A
non-significant difference was observed in crude fiber contents of oyster mushroom grown on wheat substrate.
Similarly, Gupta et al. (2004) reported 11.72 and 13.23% crude fiber contents in oyster mushroom grown on banana
leaves and paddy straw substrates.
Total carbohydrate contents determined by the difference method were 55.33 and 47.35%, respectively in oyster
mushroom grown on two substrates. The results are in conformity with those of various other workers in different
mushroom varieties (Goyal, 2002; Ekanem and Ubengama, 2002). Tshinyangu (1996) reported that nutritional
values of mushroom largely depend on the chemical composition of the compost which causes variation in the
composition data of same species of mushroom.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the chemical composition of edible mushrooms was observed to determine their nutritional valueand
sensory properties as also mentioned by other authors (Shah et al., 1997; Manzi et al., 2001).
Moisture content of both types of mushroom was 89.01 and 88.77% on fresh weight basis which differed non-
significantly. Similarly, a non-significant difference was also observed in crude fibre, crude fat and ash contents,
whereas significant difference was noticed in crude protein (25.30 and 26.99%) and total carbohydrates (52.34 and
50.52%).
We found different nutritional values in the different part of cultivated mushrooms. These data suggest that dietary
mushrooms cultivated in Albania are a good source of nutrients especially for protein and fiber. Mushrooms are rich
in protein, edible fiber and minerals but the fat content is low. These results also indicate that the studied mushrooms
have good nutritive values. Proteins are an important nutritional component and protein deficiency is the worlds
most serious human nutritional problem. So mushrooms are a promising food that may overcome protein energy
malnutrition in the third world.
Edible fungi are also helpful in improving the nutritive condition of diets when they are consumed as a vegetable in
daily life (Wang et al., 1990).
REFERENCES
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Akyz M, Yldz A (2007). Cultivation of Pleurotus eryngii (DC. ex Fr.) Quel. on agricultural wastes. Philipp.
Agric. Sci. 90 (4): 346-350.
Akyz M, Yldz A (2008). Evaluation of cellulosic wastes for the cultivation of Pleurotus eryngii (DC. ex Fr.) Quel.
Afr. J. Biotechnol. 7(10): 1494-1499.
AOAC,1990. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, The
Association:Arlington, VA. Vol. II, 15th ed. Sec.985:29.
Breene, W.M. 1990. Nutritional and medicinal value of specialty mushrooms. Journal of Food Protection. 53 (10):
883-894.
Bobek, P., E. Ginter, M. Jurcovicova and L. Kunlak. 1991. Cholesterol lowering effect of mushroom Pleurotus
ostreatus in hereditary hypercholesterolomic rats. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 35: 191-195.
Chang, S.T. (1999). World production of cultivated and medicinal mushrooms in 1997 with emphasis on Lentinus
edodes. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 1: 291 300.
o_kuner, Y. and zdemir, Y. 2000. Acid and EDTA blanching effects on the essential element content of
mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus). J. Sci. Food Agric. 80:2074-2076.
Das N and Mukherjee M. Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus on weed plants, Bioresour.Technol, 2007. 98, 2723-
2726.
Ekanem, E.O. and Ubengama, V.S. (2002). J. Food Sci. Technol. 36:81-83.
Furlan, S. A.; Virmond, L. J.; Miers, D.; Bonatti, M.; Gern, R. M. M.; Jonas, R. Mushroom strains able to grow at
high temperatures and low pH values. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, v. 13, p.689-692, 1997.
Goyal, R. (2002). Ph.D. Thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India.
Gupta, M., et al. (2004). J. Food Sci. Technol. 41:584-586.
Kabir, Y. and S. Kimura. 1989. Dietary mushrooms reduce blood pressure in spontaneously hypertansive rats. J.
Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol., 35: 191-194.
Kadiri, M., and Fasidi, I.O.1990.Variation in chemical composition of Chlorophyllum molybditis (Mayerex Fr)
Masses and Pleurotus tuber-regium (fries) during fruit body development. Nigerian journal of science, 24:86-89
Manzi, P.,Aguzzi, A., and Pizzoferrato, L.2001. Nutritional value of mushrooms widely consumed in Italy. Food
Chemistry, 73:321-325. CA. 552 P.
Manzi, P., Gambelli, L., Marconi, S., Pizzoferrato, L. and Vivanti, V., 1999. Nutrients in edible mushrooms an
inter-species comparative study. Food Chemistry, 65:477- 482.
Raghuramulu, N., Madhavan, N. K. and Kalyanasundaram, S. 2003. A Manual of Laboratory Techniques, pp. 56-58.
National Institute of Nutrition. Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad, India.
Raghunathan, R., et al. (1996). Food Chem. 55:139-144.
Royse, D.J. (2002). Influence of spawn rate and commercial delayed release of nutrient levels on Pleurotus
conocopiae yield, size and time to production. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 17: 191 200.
Shah,H., Iqtidar, A.K., and Shagufta, J. 1997. Nutritional composition and protein quality of Pleurotus mushroom.
Sarhad Journal of Agriculture , 13(6): 621-626.
Stamets, P. 1993. Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Ten Speed Press. Berkeley,
Parent,G. and Thoen, D.1977. Food value of edible mushroom from Upper Shaba region. Economic Botany,31:
436-445.
Tshinyangu, K.K. (1996). Die Nahrung. 40:79-83.
Verma, A., G.P. Keshervani, Y.K. Sharma, N.J. Sawarkar and P. Singh. 1987a. Mineral content of edible
mushrooms. Ind. J. Nutr. Dietet., 24: 241-245.
Wang Lin, Yugue L and Yan Xlaozian. 1990. Analysis of amino acid content of 30 varieties of edible fungi.
Mushroom Journal Tropics. 10: 74-78.
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PAPER 274
YIELD FORECASTING FOR OLIVE TREE BY METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AND POLLEN

EMISSION
Magdalena Cara1, Aferdita Laska-Merkoci2, Bora Qesja3, Mirela Dvorani2

1
2
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania
3
Canadian Institute of Technology, Albania
Email: magdacara@ubt.edu.al
ABSTRACT
The paper aims to forecast the olive product based on the application of a statistical model by use of meteorological
factors and pollen emission. Nowadays there are a number of models and approaches related to the yield forecasting.
All of them have their advantages and disadvantages and moreover different behaviours for climate conditions of
Albania. Thus, after a preliminary evaluation the best fitted model was chosen and its result were analysed. The
model was based on the multiple equations of regression, which took into consideration some climate factors. These
factors are rainfall in May followed by rainfall in June. Minimum temperatures during spring and summer were also
an important consideration due to the influence of night temperature on energy collected for fruit development.The
use of pollen emission and monthly meteorological data from 1985-2004 as predictive variables has enabled the
production of a forecast up to 8 month prior to the end of harvesting.The forecasting of yield production in this study
has been made in November, which reflects the EPP and the meteorological factors like minimum temperature,
maximum temperature, rainfall from May to October etc. In addition, as the model requires, the most significant
periods for this plant were chosen and evaluated for the Vlora region of Albania with the highest productivity in the
country. Results were compared with real olive crop data and estimates from the equation resulted to have a
correlation coefficient about 0.77 and SE=3.0.
Keywords: equations of regression, forecasting, meteorological factor, olive, yield product.
INTRODUCTION
The study of the effects of meteorological factors on crop production and the development of models for forecasting
the yield has been the concerns of agro meteorologists worldwide. Crop yield forecasting is important for national
food security including early determination of the import/export plan and price. It is also important in providing
timely information for optimum management of growing crops (Horie et al. 1992).Therefore, the initiative to study,
evaluate and estimate olive production based on the most favorable model for the conditions of Albania was
undertaken.
In agro meteorological studies different models are used to evaluate expectancy yield. All of them have their
advantages and disadvantages. Hence, after a thorough evaluation, the most appropriate model was chosen and its
results were analyzed.
The model of multiple regression equation that takes into account all climate elements is used for conditions of
Albania.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Study Area .Overview of Albanias olive culture
Albania is a Mediterranean country where the olive tree is thought to have originated from. For more than 3,000
years olives and olive oil have been one of the most celebrated food products; they represent a traditionally valued
source of healthy nourishment.
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Fig.1: Geographic distribution of olive trees by districts.

Olives are among the most important fruit tree crops grown in Albania, covering an estimated 8% of the arable land.
As shown in Figure 1, the Albanian olive production zone covers the entire coast from Saranda (South) to Shkodra
(North) and inland river valleys in the districts of Peqin/Elbasan, Berat/Skrapar, and Tepelene/Permet.
At the end of the Second World War, Albania had about 1.5 million olive trees. By 1990, the number of olive trees
increased to 5.9 million covering 45,000 hectares (Saranda,Vlora, Berati, districts etc. During the privatization of
farm land in 1991 and 1992, 45,000 hectares of olive groves were distributed to 110,000 households, resulting in
highly fragmented olive production.
Statistical and Modeling Analyses
The study was performed in the Vlora area (South West) in a territory characterized by olive groves. The early olive
yield, considered as a dependent variable in the study, expresses the total olive production for these regions
(Fornaciari et al.). The data used for the regression analysis were obtained from the data bank of the Institute of
Geosciences, Energy, Water and Environment.
The pollen was monitored using volumetric pollen trap, located at the Agricultural University of Vlora about 530m
above see level. Phenological observations in the field were made at the same time as the pollen monitoring to test
the significance of the monitoring itself (Edmonds, 1979).
The pollen monitored in the atmosphere has been captured continuously since 1985 and is reported as the number of
daily pollen grains/m3 (Fornnaciari, 2005), during the entire flowering period. Starting with daily data, annual EPPs
where constructed (1985-2010) by ending pollen concentration peak in the atmosphere. This period corresponds to
maximum flowering. The EPPe was derived from the interaction between the EPP values and the mean values of
precipitation, maximum and minimum average temperatures during the EPP. The EPPe value was derived from the
direct proportional ratio [EPPe=(EPPxT)/1000, where T Temperature in 0C] and the inverse [-EPPe =
(EPPxT/100] between the EPP values and the mean values of the meteorological variables indicated (Clementi et al
2001)
Meteorological data were obtained by, IGEWE (ex Hydrometeorological Institute), which registers a series of
meteorological parameters (e.g. precipitation, temperature, solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, wind, etc. (Laska
2008). The meteorological station has been located in the regions under study and collects this data. Daily values
were elaborated to obtain chilling units (CU), growing degree hours (GDH) and GDD for the year being studied, t,
and the preceding year, t-1, for all years considered.
Chilling units were calculated using the Utah method (Richardson et al., 1974). A thermal range of 30C to 90C was
considered optimal, and the maximum chilling value was assigned. Above and below these temperatures, the
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chilling effects were reduced. The chilling amounts were calculated starting from two different dates (1 December
and 1 January) until six final dates (15 January, 1 February, 15 February, 1 March, 15 March and
1 April), giving 12 different values. The onset was determined in other studies taking into account the biological
cycle of olive in the investigation area (Orlandi et al., 2002).
The GDH were calculated by using the method of Anderson (Anderson et al., 1986) while the GDD were calculated
using the method proposed by Baskerville and Emin (1969), which uses 12 threshold temperatures from 4 0C to
150C.
The GDH and GDD amounts were calculated from daily values starting from two onset dates (1 January and 1
February) until the dates of maximum pollen concentrations in the atmosphere (peak of pollination).
Regarding the meteorological variables, the sums of the monthly and total cumulative values were calculated for the
maximum, minimum and average temperatures in the summer (June-September) to obtain a summer thermal stress
indicator and indirectly, a water stress indicator. A linear regression model was constructed using the S-Plus
statistical software to apply the normal test for verifying the robustness of the model (Cammen et al.2008).
RESULTS
In Table 1 are presented the annual values of EPPe used in the forecasting model. For the periods under study (1985-
2004), better results were obtained using the average temperature in the direct proportion ratio with the annual EPP
values compared with the values obtained using the precipitation and the minimum and maximum temperatures
values. This is probably due to the fact that the average of temperature expresses the thermal trend better for a given
period by mediating the extreme values that can be recorded with the other temperature variables. In addition, in a
summer-flowering, the precipitation is not correlated with the event while it plays a determining role in the phases
immediately proceeding the phenomenon (Fornaciari et al., 1998). At the Table 1,a, certain annual variability can be
observed that are closely linked to the production variability.
Table1 EPPe : Effective pollination period elaborated values realized calculating the direct proportionality ratio
between EPP- effective pollination period and meteorological data (average variable in the same periods)
Year EPPe
Tmin Tmax Tmean Precipitation
1985 213 460 336 16
1986 120 180 150 92
1987 305 820 562 8
1988 120 215 167 0
1989 110 225 167 0
1990 150 310 230 0
1991 80 145 112 0
1992 125 192 158 160
1993 260 430 345 0
1994 305 480 392 0
1995 240 465 351 0
1996 715 1210 962 24
1997 350 632 491 0
1998 108 172 140 0
1999 854 1387 1120 0
2000 187 198 192 8
2001 120 215 167 0
2002 165 278 221 0
2003 172 280 226 0
2004 270 468 369 20
The high performance values of the pollen parameter confirm the relationship between the flowering event and the
phases of fruit formation. It also explains the particular collaboration used in this study. It can also be said that with
higher average temperature, the pollen transport capacity increases.
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The analyses of correlation between production and meteorological variables (CU, GDD, GHD) in the years t and t-
1 showed the best result with the cold accumulation December-February t-1 period while scarcely relevant results
were obtained with the two parameters related to heat accumulation in both years. Therefore, it can be deduced that
there exists a strong relationship between cold and olive production in the region of Vlora on the Albanian territory.
This relationship could also be determined by the regime of the climate.
The use of pollen emission and monthly meteorological data from 1985-2004 as predictive variables has enabled the
production of a forecast up to 8 month prior to the end of harvesting.
The forecasting of yield production can be made in different phenological periods. But in this study the forecast has
been made in November, which reflects the EPP and the meteorological factors like minimum temperature,
maximum temperature and rainfall from May to October.
According to the results of table 1, the independent variables of multiple regressions were chosen. The regression
coefficients were calculated using the meteorological data of the period 1985-2004. The equation for the region
under study is presented as follows:
Y 129234 6592 x1 51x2 7198x3 1498x4 7698 x5 71926 85213x7
R=0.77 SE=3.0 F=2.6
Where: Y product; X1- rainfall in May (RfMy);, X2-pollen (EPP); X3- maximum temperature in October (MxTO);
X4-rainfall in October (RfO); X5-rainfall in July (RfJl); X6-maximal temperature in October; X7-minimum
temperature in July (MnTJl)
It can be observed that the EPP and precipitation values that have been entered in the equation are positive. Other
parameters that were taken into account were the air maximum and minimum temperatures, with minimum
temperature affecting crop development negatively and maximum temperature favoring fruit production. During
October, the temperature exerted an opposite effect with maximum temperature negatively influencing crop
development and minimum temperature being positive for crop production.
6 The calculated values

5 Factic values
0
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Fig.2:Yield forecasting for Olive Trees in Vlora region
Integrating aerobiological, field phenological and meteorological data is an important advance in estimating olive
crop production. The reliable results confirm the validity and accuracy of the globally used Hirst volumetric traps as
a tool for olive crop yield forecasting in high density olive-growing areas. Pollen content in the air can provide
accurate predictions of expected olive yield up to 8 months in advance. These are an asset in enabling farmers and
governments to better plan marketing strategies and define agricultural policies in Albania and the Vlora region
specifically.
CONCLUSIONS
The pollen data gained from aerobiological monitoring was necessary for the construction of a forecasting model for
olive plants. The method notes that only a certain amount of pollen has real reproductive in the fruit formation. In
the growing and maturation phenological phases the relationship between the meteorological data became evident.
Influenced by meteorological parameters prior to the flowering period (rainfall, and to a lesser extent temperature) in
Vlora region. Nevertheless, meteorological parameters during and after the flowering period have the most influence
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on final olive crop production. The main meteorological factor in the model was rainfall in May, followed by
rainfall in June. Minimum temperatures during spring and summer were also an important consideration due to the
influence of night temperature on energy collected for fruit development. And, autumn is the key season for fruit
development. For this reason, different equations were constructed for different periods of the year. Results were
compared with real olive crop data and estimates from the equation has a correlation coefficient about 0.77 and
SE=3.0.This results confirm the validity of regression equation for forecasting of product of olive by Pollen
emission and meteorological factors.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J.L., E.A. Richardson and C:D:Kesner (1986). Validation of chill unit and flower bub phelology models
for Montmorency sour cherry. Acta Hortic. 184, 71-78
Laska A,(2008) The agro meteorological evaluation of wheat crop in Albania, Dissertation,
Varga-Haszonits.(1983) Agrometeorology and Agrometeorological Forecasting, Budapest
Candau, P., F.Minero, J. Morales and C:Tomas (1998). Forecasting olive (Olea Europea L.) crop production by
monitoring airborne pollen. Aerobiololgia 14:185-190
Clementi M., S.Clementi, M.Fornaciari, F.Orlandi and B.Romano (2001). The golpe procedure for predicting olive
crop production from climate parameters.
Carmen Galan, Luis Vazquez, Herminia Garca-Mozo, Eugenio Domnguez (2003) Forecasting olive (Olea
europaea) crop yield based on pollen emission
C. Galn, H. Garca-Mozo, L. Vzquez, L. Ruiz, C. Daz de la Guardia and E.Domnguez-Vilches Modeling Olive
Crop Yield in Andalusia, Spain
Edmonds, R.L. (1979), Aerobiology: The ecological system approach. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross. Inc.
Stroutsberg. PA.
Erta Dodona, Hairi Ismaili, Antonio Cimato, Alma Imeri, Valdete Vorpsi (2010); Administration of Biodiversity of
the Autochthones Olive Trees in Albania
Marco Fornaciari, Fabio Orlandi and Bruno Romano 2005 Yield Forecasting for Olive Trees: A New Approach in a
Historical Series (Umbria, Central Italy)
Marta Luigi, Ariana Manglli, Fadil Thomaj, Roberto Buonaurio, Marina Barba and Francesco Faggioli 2009;
Phytosanitary evaluation of olive germplasm in Albania.
WMO, (2004) Agrometeorology, UNEP etc. Odessa.
PAPER 276
TRACE ELEMENTS IN LIGNITE OF THE KOSOVA BASIN AND ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Naser Peci1, Prparim Hoxha2, Halime Hajra3

1
University of Prishtina, Faculty of Geosciences and Technology, Mitrovice, Kosovo;
2
Polytechnic University, Faculty of Geology and Mining, Tirane, Albania
3
Independent Commission for Mines and Minerals, Prishtine, Kosovo,
Email: naser.peci@uni-pr.edu
ABSTRACT
Coals contain diverse amounts of trace elements their overall compositions. Certain trace elements such as lead,
arsenic, cadmium, chromium and mercury, if present in high amounts, could preclude the coal from being used in
environmentally sensitive situations. Others have detrimental effects on the metallurgical industry: these include
boron-titanium-vanadium and zinc. Coal is an important component in enabling energy demands in Kosovo. Kosovo
coal is lignite type. Production of electricity in Kosovo, until now, is mainly realized in power plant with lignite
(Kosova A and B), 98% and the small part (approximately 2%), in hydroelectric power plant.As a result of the high
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tonnages of coal used in industry, significant amounts of trace elements may be concentrated in residues after
combustion. This paper focuses on the selected trace elements (Sb, As, Pb, Ba, Be, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Cr, Mo, Ni,
V, Sn and Zn) released by the combustion of coal. There are four trace elements which occur in concentrations
greater than 100 mg/kg d.m in lignite. These are barium (550.42 mg/kg d.m), boron (263.54 mg/kg d.m), chromium
(142.21 mg/kg d.m) and nickel (219.88 mg/kg d.m). The environmental impact of trace elements is related, in the
first instance, to their modes of occurrence in the coal. The presence of trace elements in fly ash can lead to serious
environmental impacts and consequently have an impact on the inhabitants of the environment if the disposal of the
fly ash is not performed correctly.
Key words: lignite, trace elements, lignite combustion, environmental concern
INTRODUCTION
The Kosovo Basin according to the situation from 2007 contains 10.4 billion metric tons geological reserve of
lignite (INKOS 2008). In 2012, about 8 million metric tons of the Kosova Basin lignite were mined from the lignite
field and combusted at mine-mouth power plants for electrical power generation (KEK,2013). The quality of the
lignite is variable because: the lignite contains multiple inorganic layers that were not removed before combustion;
inorganic elements are irregularly dispersed throughout the lignite in discrete minerals. To evaluate the possible
environmental and technological consequences of using the Kosova Basin lignite, a study was designed to determine
of occurrences of selected trace elements within the lignite (Ruppert et al, 1996).
Sparse data have been published on the geochemistry of the Kosova basin lignite: Daci et al (1983, 1985), Djekic
(1988), Ruppert et al (1995). To obtain additional information on the presence of trace elements in the Kosova
Basin lignite are used sample analysis from drilling carried out from Institute INKOS in 2007 and analyzed in
Swedish laboratory Analycen in Lindkping that is accredited laboratory according to ISO/IEC 17025.
The extensive basic sampling on the Kosova basin field lignite resource in the 1970s comprised only the general
analysis of the heat value, volatiles, moisture, ash and sulphur contents (STEAG, 2006). There were more than 8000
different samples analyzed giving fairly exact information on the field. Using this data identified lack of information
on the concentrations of trace elements in the lignite. That information is important for determining the content of
trace elements in lignite trace and analyze them in terms of environmental significance (EAR,2007).
Institute INKOS sh.a. was assigned to get the samples from the field and initially to analyze the samples. The
samples were transferred to Swedish laboratory Analycen in Lindkping that is accredited laboratory according to
ISO/IEC 17025
The drilling and sampling program included eight different drilling holes relatively evenly distributed over the
Sibovc field, 21 km2. Three samples are taken from each drilling i.e. one some 5 meters below the top of the lignite
seam, one from the middle of the seam and one 5 meters above the bottom of the seam.
The drilling locations to collect samples for the lignite analyses are located as presented in the next picture (fig.1).
The total length of the drilling holes was 875 meters (EAR,2007).
Figure1. Drilling locations (source EAR,2007).
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Certain trace elements such as lead, arsenic, cadmium and mercury, if present in high amounts, could preclude the
coal from being used in environmentally sensitive situations. Others have detrimental effects on the metallurgical
industry; these include boron, titanium, vanadium and zinc.
RESULTS
Coal contains a wide range of trace elements due predominantly to the presence of mineral matter arising from the
deposition of sedimentary rock during the formation of the coal beds. Trace elements were also present in the plant
material that was the precursor to the formation of the coal. Secondary mineralisation caused by the presence of
calcareous elements, calcium and magnesium, also accounts for the presence of associated trace elements. Iron-rich
sideritic minerals may also be formed by this process (Dale,2003 ).
Many trace elements of environmental concern are present in common minerals due to co-crystallisation (Turekian
and Wedepohl, 1961). This is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Elements which co-crystallise with common minerals (Dale L, 2003)
The results of chemical analysis are defined trace elements contained in the Kosova basin lignite. These trace
elements are presented from: Sb, As, Pb, Ba, Be, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Cr, Mo, Ni, V, Sn, Zn (table 2).
Table 2. Comprehensive analysis of the content of trace elements in Kosova basin lignite
Analysis summary
Analysis Unit Average Maximum Minimum
Antimony Sb mg/kg d.m 3.35 5.00 2.50
Arsenic As mg/kg d.m 45.13 81.00 20.00
Lead Pb mg/kg d.m 21.48 53.00 8.00
Barium Ba mg/kg d.m 550.42 1000.00 270.00
Beryllium Be mg/kg d.m 2.63 3.20 2.50
Boron B mg/kg d.m 263.54 570.00 69.00
Cadmium Cd mg/kg d.m 0.51 0.56 0.50
Cobalt Co mg/kg d.m 15.29 24.00 8.30
Copper Cu mg/kg d.m 51.17 92.00 17.00
Mercury Hg mg/kg d.m 0.05 0.09 0.05
Chromium Cr mg/kg d.m 142.21 230.00 63.00
Molybdenum Mo mg/kg d.m 15.50 34.00 10.00
Nickel Ni mg/kg d.m 219.88 480.00 90.00
Vanadium V mg/kg d.m 99.33 180.00 42.00
Kallaj Sn mg/kg d.m 2.80 4.20 2.50
Zinc Zn mg/kg d.m 53.71 110.00 25.00
The variation of trace elements in the ash is seen in Figure 2 (Peci,et al, 2012). The leachability of heavy metals is
strongly dependent on the CaO-content of the ash (AER, Pyry . 2007)
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Figure 2 Content (mg/kg ash) of trace elements in the ash
A comparison of the abundances of trace elements in Kosova Basin lignite, world coals and crustal abundances are
given in Table 3.
Table 3: Abundances of trace elements in Kosova basin lignite, most coals and the Earths crust (mg/kg)
Kosova Basin Most coals Crustal (Taylor,

Analysis lignite (Taylor, 1998) 1964)
Antimony Sb 3.35 0.05 - 10 0.2
Arsenic As 45.13 0.5 - 80 1.8
Lead Pb 21.48 2 - 80 12.5
Barium Ba 550.42 20 - 1000 425
Beryllium Be 2.63 0.1 - 15 2.8
Boron B 263.54 5 - 400 10
Cadmium Cd 0.51 0.1 - 3 0.2
Cobalt Co 15.29 0.5 - 30 25
Copper Cu 51.17 0.5 - 50 55
Mercury Hg 0.05 0.02 - 1 0.08
Chromium Cr 142.21 0.5 - 60 100
Molybdenum Mo 15.50 0.1 - 10 1.5
Nickel Ni 219.88 0.5 - 50 75
Vanadium V 99.33 2 - 100 135
Kallaj Sn 2.80 1 - 10 2.2
Zinc Zn 53.71 5 - 300 79
As seen from table 3 Kosova Basin lignite contain significantly lower levels of arsenic, boron, mercury and
cadmium than most coals traded worldwide. Selenium did not report to the results of analyzes. These are elements
of major environmental concern.
Trace elements that were enriched in lignite compared to the most coals are nickel (average 219.88 mg/kg),
chromium (average 142.21mg/kg) and molybdenum (average 15.50 mg/kg).
Based in the classification of elements of concern by the US National Research Council in 1981 molybdenum is
classified in the group of major concern. High levels of molybdenum and boron in plants are of concern.
Molybdenum affects the lactation of cows and boron is phytotoxic (Dale, 2003).
Nickel and chromium belong to the group of moderate concern. These elements are potentially toxic and are present
in coal combustion residues at elevated levels. Bio-accumulation is of some concern (Dale, 2003). Presence of
increased values of Ni and Cr may be related to the fact that the near of coal seam exist deposit of nickel-silicate and
serpentines rocks. Th high Ni and Cr contents in the lignite field in Kosovo Basin are associated with Ni_ and Cr-
bearing detrital minerals. These minerals were probably transported into the Kosova paleopeat swamp by rivers
draining serpentinized ultramafic bodies (Ruppert et al, 1995)
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CONCLUSION
Lignite remains the main source of electricity in Kosovo. As a result, a certain amount of trace elements may be
released upon combustion. During combustion trace elements present in the feed coal are distributed between the
waste products. These waste streams are the bottom ash, fly ash, stack particulates and stack gas.
In general Kosova Basin lignite has low levels of trace elements of major environmental concern.
Increase the value of the contents of trace elements in Kosovo Basin lignite comparing with levels on most of coals
appear for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Molybdenum is considered according classification in the group of
elements with major concern while chromium and nickel belong to elements of moderate concern. There are
opinions that the presence of added values of Ni and Cr associated with the proximity of the Ni-silicate deposit.
Better knowledge of the modes of occurrence of trace elements in coal would enable the processes in the
combustion chamber and the convection path to be understood. More sensitive microprobe techniques would greatly
assist in assigning mineral associations. Trace elements will continue to be an environmental issue as restrictions on
emissions tightens through legislative controls.
REFERENCES
Department of environment (2013). Environmental report on Korporate Energy of Kosova (KEK).

European Agency for Reconstruction -EAR: Pyry-CESI-Terna-Decon (2007). Studies to support the development
of new generation capacities and related transmission Kosovo. Lignite Quality Data Collection November 2007.
Thomas L, (2002): Coal Geology, Wiley, England
Dale L, (2003). Significance of trace elements in coal an overview. Ultra-Systems Technology Pty Ltd
Ruppert L, Finkelman R, Boti E, Milosavljevic M, Tewalt S, Simon N, Dulong F, (1996). Origin and
significance of high nickel and chromium concentrations in Pliocene lignite of the Kosovo Basin. International
Journal of Coal Geology, pp 235-258
Peci N, Shala B, Hajra H, Baruti B, (2012): Spatial analysis of the Drenica coal basin field Skenderaj, Kosovo.
12th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference, Albena, Bulgaria, 2012.
STEAG Consortium. European Agency for Reconstruction (2006). Complementary Mining Plan for Sibovc SW.
Final report. KEK
PAPER 278
STUDY OF THE PHYSICO- CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HAZELNUT FRUIT (CORYLUS

AVELLANA L.) CULTIVATED IN KRUJA REGION
Vorpsi V1*, Osmani-Lataj L1, Topi D2

1
Agricultural University of Tirana, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Kamz, Tirana, Albania
2
University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Boulevard: Zogu I, 110, Tirana,
Albania
Email: vvorpsi@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Hazelnut belongs to the Corylaceae family; order Fagales; genera Corylus L. and species Corylus avellana L.
Corylus avellana L. is considered as an indigenous species of Europe and western Asia. The hazelnut cultivation
varies from 37-750 m above sea level. Statistical data for the cultivation of this plant in Albania dates from 1926,
located in the South-western hilly region of Mallakastra. The plant is a shrub type, self-pollinating, the general high
vary to 3 - 4.5 m, and the maximum height established to 7m. The trunk is slender and developed and the branches
are coated with fluff. In modern intensive agriculture, hazelnut is a culture with great interest. The fruit begins to
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form in May. It is aken of different shapes, round, wearing a strong peel. The average dimensions of 100 grains
hazelnut fruit (in cm) are: length 1.6-2.2cm, width 1.5-2.0 cm, and thickness 1.3-1.8 cm. Fruits base is flat and
sharp top. The husk is very strong, and its color changes during growth and ripening stage from open green to
brown. The average dimensions of 100 hazelnut kernels vary: length 1.5-2.0 cm, width 1.3-1.6 cm, and high 1.0-1.4
cm. in some cases the kernel is wrapped in a thin brown membrane. The yield can reach 25 quintals per ha. The
major constituents of the hazelnut are: 16% carbohydrate, 17% protein, 66% fats, minerals 2:21%.
Keywords: Corylus avellana L., physico-chemical characteristics, kernel, carbohydrates, proteins, fats
INTRODUCTION
Albania presents a geographical diversity, regarding to the litho-climate conditions, favorable to grow a number of
fruity trees, including the hazelnut. Hazelnut tree, Corylus avellana L, belongs to the continental zone and is
cultivated up to the height 1600m in Southern regions and up to 400-750m in Northern regions. In wild form it is
distributed across the country in bush form, and presents an economic potential in case of applying some agricultural
techniques. The cultivated area stands in modest values, compared to the real possibilities, and calculated to 85 ha.
Actually, the areas where is cultivated the hazelnut are Mallakastra, Mati, Kruja and Pogradeci. Regarding to the
nutritional values the hazelnut fruit is considered with enormous importance. A quantity of 100g dried fruit results to
a carbohydrate content of (16%), proteins (17%), lipids (66%), and ash content (2.21%). The aim of this study was
evaluation of the biochemical parameters of the hazelnut kernel to the Visoka cultivar, for the region of Kruja.
This study analyzes the values and compares them with the data from the same cultivar from other regions of the
country, as well as with data from Eastern Mediterranean region.
The study was conducted during the period 2011-2012 by focusing on the evaluation of biochemical indicators of
hazelnut fruit to local cultivar "Visoka" cultivated in the Kruja region. Studying of physical characteristics was
conducted on a typical cohort of 50 plants, which were labeled. Sample preparation was carried out to every tree
where was taken 100 grains. Studying of sample characteristics included the measurement of dimensions for each
grain: length, width and height (thickness). To determine the substance (seed), weight measurement were carried out
for beans hazelnuts, and was further hulled the shells and weighed. Determination of biochemical indicators of
hazelnut fruit became the method (FAO, 1990).
Determination of moisture samples was conducted in parallel. In each case were taken 5 g sample and placed to
thermostat for 24 hours at 100 2C, following individual sample weight measuring. Final Report to the initial
weight will determine the level of humidity for variety is the study (TSE. 1978).
Determining the level of ash to the samples in the study was based on published methods by AOAC. An amount of
15 g of sample were passed in oven cups. In conclusion, the remaining ash amount was weighted (AOAC. 2000).
The fats and protein content was analyzed based on official methods of analysis of AOAC. It was also determined
the percentage of carbohydrates based on the difference of values, according to the starting point key ingredient fats,
protein and ash. In the study was taken samples of fruit hazelnut, from three sites of Kruja region (Larushk, Bilaj
and Borizan Hill), 6 of these samples were selected for analysis. Initially was conducted the sample preparation, by
mixing according to the indications of the work methodology and relevant areas. Mixing of samples and data for the
three areas are listed in Table 1.
Table 5. Sites of collection of the samples according to the year

Genera Variety Site Sample code Year of sample
collection
A 2011
Visoka Larushke
B 2012
C 2011
Corylus Visoka Bilaj
D 2012
avellana L.
Koder E 2011
Visoka
Borizane F 2012
RESULTS
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Starting from literature Academy Mauk (1991) in which is stressed the importance of dimensions for fruit hazelnut
kernels, connected with the performance of the core dimensions of the grains were measured length, width, height
(or thickness) of the 6 samples, and presented in Table 2 as the average value for each sample.
Table 6: Average values of the fruit dimensions (cm)
Sample Number of grains Length Width Height (thick)
code
A 100 1.521 1.7529 1.5281
B 100 1.7493 1.6207 1.4428
C 100 1.8046 1.4842 1.5863
D 100 1.8894 2.1894 1.9402
E 100 1.6143 1.8130 1.6643
F 100 2.0022 1.6745 1.6738
By comparing the dimensions of the fruit kernel in the study sample with those of certain paper in the literature
show that they are close to, or even in some cases the same. So in our sample length of grains varies from 1.5-2.0
cm, the largest (in literature, 1.2-2.1), width in our samples varies from 1.5-2.1 cm (1.4-1.9 in literature) and
thickness of 1.4-1.9 cm (in literature 1.2-1.8). By calculating the correlation coefficients between the dimensions for
6 studied samples, showed that good correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.89921) exists only between width and
thickness, and between length / width and length / thickness korelim not exist. Ie the correlation coefficients for the
latter are: length / width-0, 03 709 and length / thickness 0.9363, thus unacceptable levels. This phenomenon was
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Relation among the fruit dimensions for studied samples
In all the samples was determined the percentage of fruit kernel or otherwise called as (kernel yield). The
determination was accomplished by weighing 100 kernels and nuts complete fracture after removal of shell and core
by weight. The results are shown in table 3, as the percentage of the substance in the fruit.
Tabela 3. The percentage of the substance in the fruit

Sample code Number of weighted Total weight Kernel contribution (%)
kernels (gr)
A 100 161.5 40.8
B 100 146 41.6
C 100 136.2 45.2
D 100 129.7 39.9
E 100 188 44.2
F 100 187.6 42.4
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As shown from the statement the kernel content varies from 39.9 - 45.2%, depending on the area of variety origin.
The comparison with literature data for several similar varieties, the kernel content in the analyzed samples is
slightly smaller, where in varieties quoted at literature it moves from 42-55%. By comparing the data presented in
tables 2 and 3 do not appear to have average dimensions correlated between grains and percentage of kernel.
Determination of moisture, ash, sugars, proteins and fats was conducted in the samples constituted of milled kernels,
according to the methods described in the section materials and methods". In table 4 are presented the results of the
determination of moisture and ash content.
Table 7. The humidity and ach content for studied samples (in %)
Sample code Humidity (%) Ash content (%)
A 4.03 2.27
B 4.08 2.14
C 4.1 2.25
D 4.56 2.23
E 3.96 2.21
F 4.88 2.19
Almost in all the samples the kernels humidity is 4%, with the exception of sample D (4.56%) and sample F
(4.88%). These data coincide with those of the literature according to which it is necessary that the moisture content
of nuts is low (4.6%), to increase their storage time longer. Low ash content, is a clear indication of the low content
of mineral salts in hazelnuts, which is consistent with the literature describing varieties (Cjepotev, 1978). Observed
oscillations relates to samples in accordance to the terms and agrochemical areas of land to grow hazelnut
plantations.
Table 8. Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in studied samples (in % per 100g dry weight).
Sample Kernel percentage Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids

code (%) (%) (%)
A 40.8 16.12 16.97 67
B 41.6 15.9 17 -
C 45.2 16 17.3 -
D 39.9 16.03 17 65
E 44.2 16.3 16.65 -
F 42.4 16 16.8 -
The data from table 5 reveals that the carbohydrate content moves to similar values in the analyzed samples. The
lowest value in the carbohydrate content belongs to the sample B respectively 15.9%, and the highest values to the
sample A, 16:12%. In the literature are presented some hazelnut varieties, to which the carbohydrate content moves
from 15 to 16.5% (rarely up to 17%). From the above conclusions, results that the analyzed samples contain a good
amount of carbohydrates. In terms of total protein content, some remarks can be concluded, that all the samples
contain a significant amount of protein. Even in this sample F protein content is lower (16.8%), compared with the
protein content of some types of hazelnuts in the literature, it is higher. The literature data on the protein content of
hazelnut type moves from 15.5 to 18.5%, and the samples analyzed protein content is higher. The determinations of
the fat content in all samples as not accomplished due to the time consumption. It is for this reason that the
definition of fats was accomplish to the A and D samples. The fat content, 65% and 67%, it not only compared with
literature data, but it figures to maximum values. In the literature value as the highest value cited results 72% fat
content. Given the above definitions of carbohydrates, protein and fat (although the two samples) we arrive at an
important conclusion that the nutritional value of hazelnut analyzed kernels stands in high levels.
Also high content of fat creates opportunities for industrial processing of these nuts to extract fat, which has wide
use in pharmaceutical industry and perfumery. The given kernel content of the fruit and the amount of carbohydrates
and protein, are grouped, and are shown in table 5, to see whether or not there is correlation between them. As
clearly seen in table 5, there is no correlation between the kernel and the content of carbohydrates and proteins. So
basically the coefficient of correlation is 0.098-protein, protein-carbohydrate 0.197, 0.191 and sugar-essentially, that
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in all cases the coefficient of correlation stands in no acceptable level. In conclusion, the kernel content of
carbohydrates and protein is characteristic for the typical to the hazelnut and cultivation area.
CONCLUSIONS
From this study we arrive at the following conclusions: From the definitions of dimensions: length, width, thickness,
of 600 kernels divided in 6 groups of hazelnut samples there is a good correlation between width and thickness of
the fruit.
There is no correlation between the percentage of fruit and crumb of its dimensions. It is characteristic of the variety
and cultivation area.
The moisture content in all analyzed samples reveals to 3.96 - 4.88% is in acceptable limits, which allows storing
them for a long period of time.
The low ash content (2.14 to 2.27%) indicates that the analyzed samples contain less mineral salts.
All samples containing hazelnuts carbohydrate (15.9-16.3%), protein (16.6 - 17.3%), fat 65-67%), the same level as
previously cited from the literature and their promising content, are very good indicators nutritional value of fruit
hazelnut.
REFERENCES
Akademija Mauk SSSR-Djevnja i kurtarviki SSSR II-Moskva 1991.

Cjepotev F.Li, etj. Orjehoplodovie ljesnje kulturi Moskva 1978.
3.Alasalvar C, Shahidi F, Liyanapathriana MC, Ohshima T (2003). Turkish Tombul hazelnut (Gorylus avellana L.).
1. Compositional characteristics. Journal of Agriciculture and Food Chememistry., 51: 3790-3796.
Erdogan V, Aygun A (2005). Fatty acid composition and physical properties of Turkish tree Hazelnuts. Chemistry
of Natural Compounds., 41(4): 378- 381.
Koksal A, Arti N, Simsek A, Gunes N (2006). Nutrient composition of hazelnut (Gorylus avellana L.) varieties
cultivated in Turkey. Food Chemistry, 99: 509-515.
zdemir F, Akihci I (2004). Physical and nutritional properties four major commercial Turkish hazelnut varieties.
Journal of Food Engineering, 63: 341- 347
Ruggeri S, Cappelloni M, Gambelli L, Nicoli S, Carnovale E, (1998). Chemical composition and nutritive value of
nuts grown in Italy. Ital. J. Food Sci., 10: 243-252.
Ternus EM, Lapsley K, Geuger, CJ (2009). Health Benefits of Tree Nuts. Nutritional Science Technology, 9: 37-65.
FAO, 1990
AOAC. (2000). In: Horwitz W (Ed) Official methods of analysis of AOAC international Vol. II, 40: 1-3.
TSE (1978). Turkish Standart shelled hazelnut TS 3075, Ankara: Institute of Turkish Standards.
PAPER 279
BIOASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY OF OSUMI, DEVOLLI AND SHKUMBINI RIVER USING

SOME DIFFERENT BIOTIC INDEX OF BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES ON SPRING 2012 .
Bledar pepa. 1 , Anila Paparisto 1, Erjola Kei1
Tirana University, Faculty of Natural Sciences,

Department of Biology, Tirana, Albania
E-mail: bled_pepa@hotmail.com
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ABSTRACT
Many Europe countries have a long history of using macro invertebrates to evaluate the ecological status of river
and stream ecosystems. Albania is not a member of EU, even though as all European waters, according to WFD
have to achieve good ecological and chemical status by 2015. Nowadays in Albania threat to water quality of
rivers come from organic pollution, chemical and physical changes to water courses, such as new dams. Our study
was focused on assessment of some biotic index based on benthic macro-invertebrates of Osumi, Devolli and
Shkumbini River during period spring 2012. The biodiversity of species represents different value of biotic index
related that with impact level.During investigation based on the collection in 3 different stations of each river we
identified out that: Osumi River 596 individuals, (26 taxon), Devolli River 374 individuals (19 taxon) and
Shkumbini River 308 individuals (25 taxon). The results shows: ASPT-Biotic Index represent values: Osumi River
St 1 =6.93, St 2=5.90, St 3 =6.92; Devoll River: St 1 =6.67, St 2=6.27, St 3 =5.44; Shkumbini River: St 1 =7.13, St
2=7.18, St 3 =6.09. Following the obtained data the water quality of each river is still good. Also others parameters
(EPT-Biotic Index, FBI - Family Biotic Index,) are in accordance with EPT- Biotic Index. Three Rivers have still a
good water quality with a slight impact.
Keywords: Macro-invertebrates, Family Biotic Index, EPT -Biotic Index, ASPT.
INTRODUCTION
Many Europe countries have a long history of using macro invertebrates to monitor the ecological status of river
ecosystems Hellawell (1986). Benthic macro invertebrates, especially aquatic insects, have been traditionally used
in the bio monitoring of stream and river ecosystems for various environmental stress types, such as organic
pollution Zamora-Muozet et al. (1996), heavy metals Winner et al. (1980), Smolders et al. (2003), Poulton et al.
(1995), hydro morphological degradation Buffagni et al. (2004), Lorenz et al. (2004), Friberg et al. (2009), nutrient
enrichment Hellawell (1986), Hynes (1960), Johnson et al. (2006) acidification Sandin et al. (2000), Davy-Bowker
et al. (2005) and general stressors Barbour et al. (1999), Doldec et al. ( 1999), Karr and Chu (1999). Indeed, the
assemblages constitute the basis of most bio monitoring program currently in Europe and North America.
Functional freshwater ecosystems are essential parts of human life in many ways which need to be more
recognized Arthington et al. (2010); Ormerod et al.( 2010). Benthic invertebrates are one of the biological quality
elements used in assessing freshwater ecological status within the EU Water Framework
Directive, (Directive 2000/60/EC, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006).
The same river can contain dierent water bodies, since the status of the water may change. One river with high-
quality water at its source, which gradually becomes more polluted downstream and this degradation of water
quality is due to organic pollution arising from sewage discharges (Barbour et al. 1999).
Benthic invertebrates are commonly used as indicators in the evaluation of impacts to stream ecology and entire
watersheds from a variety of point and nonpoint pollution sources Barbour et al. (1999; Karr and Chu (1997);
Lenat and Crawford (1994); Plafkin et al, (1989). A high number of macro invertebrates are very sensitive from the
pollution (0-10) Plafkin et al. (1989); Bode et al. (1991).
As part of the Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini River watershed assessments, aquatic benthic macro invertebrate bio
monitoring was conducted to evaluate the biological health of portions of the different urban area related with rivers
(Paparisto et al. 2008, 2009)
The main objective of study (Spring 2012)was bio monitoring in Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini River
watershed were: To determine the biological health of each river under some main urban area located at both sides
of rivers by conducting assessments based on aquatic macro invertebrate communities.
The data have been analyzed by measuring some important indexes based in tolerance values which are:
EPT- Biotic Index (Bode et al. 1995, 1997, 2002); Schmiedt et al. (1998; McGonigle (2000), FBI, Family-Biotic
Index Plafkin et al. (1989); Bode et al. (1991). ASPT Biotic Index (Average Score Per Taxon) Friedrich et al.
(1996). The last parameters was suggested by WFD ( Water Frame Directive) for evaluation of freshwater
water quality . The relations between the determinate values and water bio -classification have been
also studied.
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Three bio monitoring stations for which river were sampled to monitor the effects of nonpoint and point source
stressors on the aquatic communities of the watershed. These stations sampled periodically on each session were
revaluated to determine if water quality and habitat conditions have improved or worsened over time. To minimize
the effects of temporal (seasonal and year-to-year) variability, sampling was conducted at approximately the same
time of the month as previous bio surveys.
Material has been collected based on method proposed by Dowing &Ringler (1984); Campaioli et al. (1994);
Rundle et al. (2002); Bode et al. (1997); Barbour et al. (1999); Bailey et al. (2001).
The macro invertebrates were sampled from the bottom of the river at the depth 40-60 cm, using a kick-net with
mesh 0.5 mm and surface 1200 cm2. This net was put vertically in the rivers bed, while in a one meter distance, we
dag with feet for 30 seconds.
The sampled macro invertebrates were stored and preserved with an alcohol solution (70%).
In the laboratory the samples were poured into a large watch glass. Approximately one teaspoon of materials was
removed from the sample and processed in a white enamel pan. Macro invertebrates were removed randomly from
the detritus and gravel and placed in a smaller watch glass for identification under a dissecting microscope. Most
taxa were identified to family but some were indentified to species. Organism in orders EPT were identified at least
family, Tachet et al. (1980); Campaioli et al. (1994); Taxonomic Key to Macro invertebrates Families of Maryland
Streams, (2004).
The study area
Osumi River
This river is a main branch of Semani river that originates from the Vithkuqi mountain and has this morpho-
metric parameters: a length 161 km, watershed surfaces 2150 km2 , average altitude 828 m, average debit 32.5
m3/sec and flowing module 17.51sec/km2. The average mineralization is 345mg/l. At the both sides of Osumi river
there are located three urban area regions [orovode city], [Berati city], [Ura Vaj-Gurore city].
Devolli River
It originates from Gramozi Mountain and has length 196 km. It is also a branch of Semani river and has
following morpho-metric parameters, a watershed surfaces 3139 km2, average altitude 960 m, average debit 49.5
m3/sec, and mineralization of water is 390 mg/l. It feeds by surfaces waters. There are three urban area regions at
the both sides of watershed surfaces where are taken samples [Gramshi city], [Cerrik city area ], [Kuova city].
Shkumbini River
Has a length of 181.4 km. Its average flow is 61m/sec, with a flowing module from 25,21l sec/km to 27,3l sec/km
and flowing coefficient varying from 0, 59 [Rrogozhin] to 0, 73 [Quks]. Shkumbini is one of the most erosive
rivers of our country. Its solid flow varies from 36kg/sec [Murrash] to 180 kg/sec [Rrogozhin]. These figures are
related to the relieve contrast fissure of draw, soft formations, poor flora, etc. At the both sides of Shkumbini River
there are located three urban regions and industrial zone [Librazhd city], [Elbasani city], [Peqini city] Miho et al.
(2005), Pano (1984).
In addition sampling plots were taken to be representative whereas within a station samples were taken randomly.
The stations (figure 1) and their respective codes are as following: Osumi river; St.1- Urban area orovode; St.2-
Urban and industrial area Gorica Bridge (Berat); St.3- Urban area, Ura Vajgurore Bridge. Devolli river; St.4- Urban
area Gramsh; St.5- Urban area Gostima Bridge (Cerrik ); St.6- Urban area Kucove. Shkumbini river; St.7- Urban
area Librazhd; St.8- Urban and industrial area Paper bridge (Elbasan ); St.9- Urban area Peqin bridge.
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7
Peqin 8
9
Mollas
5 msh
6 4
Kuov
Gramsh
Devolli River
Ura
3
Berat
Vajgurore
2
1
Polian
Osumi River
Figure: 1 Monitoring stations and sampling codes of Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini River
RESULTS
Bio-classification of water in Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini Rivers is carried out taking in consideration three
biological parameters. All the collected data were estimated according to each biotic index:
ASPT - Biotic Index b) EPT - Biotic Index, c) FBI (Family- Biotic Index),
a - Water quality bio-classification based on ASPT (Average Score per Taxon)

This parameter was suggested Friedrich et al. (1996). The Average Score per Taxon (ASPT) shows the average
tolerance score of all taxa within the community, and was calculated by dividing the BMWP (Biological Monitoring
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Working Party) by the number of families represented in the sample. All the data are used to assess and make a bio
classification for each station and results are in the table below (Table 1).
Table: 1 Water bio-classification by Friedrich et al. (1996), ASPT - Biotic Index calculated for all the sampling
stations of Osumi, Devoll and Shkumbini River on spring 2012
ASPT - VALUE FOR EACH STATION

BIOCLASSIFICATION OSUMI DEVOLLI SHKUMBINI
ASPT Water Quality Assessment ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3
VALUE
>6 Clean Water 6.93 - 6.92 6.67 6.27 - 7.13 7.18 6.09
5-6 Doubtful quality - 5.90 - - - 5.44 - - -
4-5 Probable moderate pollution - - - - - - - - -
<5 Probable severe pollution - - - - - - -- - -
In the table 1 are shown all calculated average tolerance score of all taxa within each station and was made water
quality assessment according to respective value (table 1). Where the first and third station of Osumi River, first
and second station of Devolli river and all the station of Shkumbini river belong to bio classification of ASPT
>6 with description Clean water. Mean while the second station of Osumi river and third station of Devolli
river belong to bio classification of ASPT 5-6 with description Doubtful quality. Is obvious that based on this
biotic index the situation of all rivers taken in study seems good with slight impact.
b - Water quality bio-classification based on parameter FBI (Family- Biotic Index)

This parameter that was described and developed by Hilsenhoff (1982) to provide a single tolerance value which is
the average of the tolerance values of all species within the benthic arthropod community.
FBI was further developed by the State of New York to include other macro invertebrates for the use of the U.S.
EPA (United State, Environment Protection Agency) Rapid Bio assessment Protocol II Plafkin et al., (1989); Bode
et al., 1991, 1996, 2002). Although the FBI may be applicable for toxic pollutants, it has only been evaluated for
organic pollutants. The formula (1) for calculating the Family -Biotic Index is:
(1)
xi = number of individuals within a taxon; ti = tolerance value of a taxon; n = total number of organisms in the
sample (100). The FBI was then used to evaluate the water quality of each river according to below table (table 2).
Table: 2. Bio classification of water quality based on Family Biotic Index (FBI) according to U.S. EPA Rapid Bio
assessment Protocol II Plafkin et al.( 1989); (Bode et al. 1991,1996, 2002). FBI- calculated for all the sampling
stations of Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini Rivers on spring 2012
VALUE OF FAMILY BIOTIC INDEX /STATIONS

Family Biotic Water Quality ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3
Index
0.00-3.75 Excellent - - 3.42 - - - - - -
3.76-4.25 Very good - 3.97 - - 3.94 - 4.20 - -
4.26-5.00 Good 4.40 - - 4.59 - 4.31 - 4.58
5.01-5.75 Fair - - - - - - - 5.17 -
5.76-6.50 Fairly poor - - - - - - - - -
6.51-7.25 Poor - - - - - - - - -
7.26-10.00 Very poor - - - - - - - - -
According to FBI seven different classes are used in bio classification of water quality (table 2), Based on result
of FBI ( Family Biotic Index) the water quality in third station of Osumi River belong to bio classification
Excellent (0.00-3.75) . While the second station of Osumi River, second staion of Devolli River and the first
station of Shkumbini River have bio classification Very good (3.76-4.25). The first station of Osumi River, first
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and third station of Devolli River and third station of Shkumbini River belong to bio classification Good (4.26-
5.00). Only the second station of Shkumbini River represents with bio classification Fair. From all stations most
of them have water quality with categorization Very good and Good.
c - Water quality bio-classification based on EPT - Biotic Index

This parameter represent relation between water quality and the number of sensitive group of insect EPT
(Ephemeroptera: E-mayflies, Plecoptera: P-stoneflies and Trichoptera: T-caddisflies). EPT- Biotic Index is
described and documented by Schmiedt et al. (1998) (table 3). An aquatic environment with a negative impact of
stressor factors reduces a lot of species with a low tolerance value.
EPT - Biotic Index is calculated for all the sampling stations for the three rivers of our study (table 3) by the
following formula (2) (Schmiedt et al. 1998; Bouchard 2004),
[EPT - Biotic Index ]

(TV) * d (2)
D
Where with TV, are given tolerance values for the families constituting EPT group, Bouchard (2004, McGonagall
(2000), d is the density of each family and D the total amount of densities.
Table: 3. Water bio-classification by Schmidt et al. (1998), EPT - Biotic Index calculated for all the sampling
stations of Osumi, Devoll and Shkumbini Rivers on spring 2012
Value Of EPT Biotic Index For Each Station

EPT BIOTIC INDEX Water Quality ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3 ST.1 ST.2 ST.3
0-3.75 No impact 3.52 3.37 3.01 - 3.64 3.43 3.56 - -
3.76-6.50 Moderate impact - - - 4.30 - - 3.80 3.95
>6.50 High impact - - - - - - - -
All the calculating data of EPT Biotic index for each station are present on table 3. Referring to EPT-Biotic Index
value and bio classification of water quality is obvious that of all station of Osumi river, second and third station
of Devolli river and the first station of Shkumbini river was without impact (0-3.75). While the first station
of Devolli river, second and third station of Shkumbini river was within bio classification moderate impact
(3.76-6.50). The higher value of this Index was calculated for first station of Devolli River (4.30) while the
lower value was calculated for third station of Shkumbini River (3.01).
CONCLUSIONS
During the monitoring period spring 2012, in each station of Osumi, Devolli and Shkumbini Rivers are collected a
total number of1278 individuals. From these in Osumi River are found 596 individuals, (26 taxon), Devolli River
374 individuals (19 taxon) and Shkumbini River 308 individuals (25 taxon).
From calculating of parameter EPT-Biotic Index the water quality of all station for three rivers was without high
impact.
According to FBI (Family Biotic Index) the situation of water quality was for one station excellent, three station
very good, four station good and one station fair.
In accordance with other parameter and ASPT Biotic Index represent clean water for seven station and doubtful
quality for two stations.
Based on these biotic indexes of benthic macroinvertebrate community biological health of each river represents
good with slight impact.
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PAPER 280
NATIONAL PARK BJESHKT E NEMUNA THE BIGGEST DEVELOPMENT IN NATURE

CONSERVATION IN KOSOVO
Zeqir Veselaj1, Behxhet Mustafa2, Avni Hajdari2, Zenel Krasniqi1,

1
Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina Hasan Prishtina
2
Faculty of Math and Natural Sciences, University of Prishtina Hasan Prishtina
E mail: zeqir.veselaj@uni-pr.edu
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ABSTRACT
This paper presents process, benefits and challenges of the biggest undertaking so far for the protection of
biodiversity in the Republic of Kosovo. In December 2012, Assembly of Kosovo, after nearly 43 years long process,
passed the law on designation of the second national park Bjeshket e Nemuna. This is the first park declared in the
independent Kosovo and the largest one with an area of 62,488 ha. With the new park, the total of protected areas at
the country level is increased significantly, more exactly in about 109.794 ha or 10.03% of the territory of Kosovo.
This park is one of the floristic centers of Europe and designation as national park aims to ensure better conservation
of over 1,500 plant taxa, 8 species of fish, 13 species of amphibians, 10 species of reptiles, 148 species of birds, 37
species of mammals and 129 types of butterflies. Legal protection after adoption of the law provides protection only
in paper. Now the real challenge starts for the protection of biodiversity in the area that has been under long, wild
and intense degradation during these years that procedure of designation lasted. There are many accumulated
problems that represent difficult challenges for the administration that will manage the national park: loss of rare and
threatened plant and animal species, unplanned and non-legal interventions and constructions, low level of economic
development and investments in the area etc.
Key words: National Park, endemic, biodiversity, law.
INTRODUCTION
Bjeshket e Nemuna as part of the Albanian Alps mountains complex, and Sharri Mountain with their expansion in
the territory of Kosovo, make the Balkans one of the 16 centers of floristic diversity centers of Europe. Bjeshket e
Nemuna have been of the particular focus because of characteristics of landscapes, geomorphology and hydrology,
richness of flora and fauna, high cultural and touristic values.
There are about 43 years that lasted the process of designation the Bjeshket e Nemuna as national park. There are
dozens of professional scientific studies, hundreds of scientific papers from local and international scientists,
dissertations published so far Bjeshket e Nemuna natural and biodiversity. Identification of the region of Bjeshket e
Nemuna as IBA, IPA and PBA regions, proposal for biosphere reserve and Natura 2000 site (Mustafa, 2009), argue
sthe great values of biodiversity contained within one massive that is rare in the Balkans and Europe.
The authors of the paper have been part of process of finalizing the national park declaration during the last decade.
There are analyzed their previous work and identify key problems in the process and recommendations for concrete
steps after the announcement.
RESULTS
In December of 2012, the Assembly declared the second national park, Bjeshket e Nemuna in the area of 62,488 ha.
This increases the surface area and the number of protected areas in Tab. 1.
This was one of the longest processes thought to have taken for the declaration of a national park. The first initiative
to declare the Bjeshket e Nemuna National Park dates back to 1970. In 1975 former Kosovo Institute for Nature
Protection has issued a special volume of "The Nature of Kosovo", which devoted a whole to Bjeshket e Nemuna
and its value as a national park.
In 1985, the second attempt started, involving parts of the territory of two municipalities: Peja and Dean. Dean
municipality, at that time refused the process of designation. For this reason, in procedure was included only in part
of the territory of Peja in the area of 32.492 ha. For the proposed area is developed "Study on the feasibility of a
declaration part of the Bjeshket e Nemuna National Park in Peja municipality" Veselaj (2012). After the study, for
various reasons the procedure was stopped until year 2002. On May 29, 2002, in Peja is organized scientific
conference on "Bjeshket e Nemuna to date and further strategy for protection and management". After the
Conference, the Working Group was established by experts in different fields has developed "Study to feasibility of
the declaration of Bjeshket e Nemuna National Park." The study showed that the area of 62.488 ha meets all national
and international criteria of an area to be declared a National Park; Veselaj et al. (2003).
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Tab 1. The most updated network of protected in Kosovo
IUCN
Type category Number Area/ha
Nature reserves I 11 847
Floristic 2
Fauna 2
Special 2
National parks II 2 121,488
Natural monuments III 83 6,296
Speleologic 4
Hidrologic 15
Geomorphologic 6
Botanic 55
Memorial 1
Forest park 1
Nature museum 1
Protected landscape V 2 1,683
Total 98 130,314
Fig. 1. Location of national park in Kosovo map
Government soon established Working Group for drafting the law on the National Park "Bjeshket e Nemuna". The
municipalities, whose territory extends national park, formally expressed written consent about the proposal and
process. After the first draft-law was prepares, two public debates are organized: in Prishtina with residents of
Rugova and Peja (December, 2003) and in Deani (February 2004) with residents of Decani villages. The debates
brought to light numerous problems such: ownership issues, different conflicts of interest that were not addressed
during drafting stages.
Draft-law has been processed for the first time in the Assembly of Kosovo in March 2004, but removed from the
agenda. In June 2004, the same draft-law is sent back for approval to the Assembly and passes the first reading. Law
never goes to the second reading. With dissolution of the first legislature, all laws that were not passed the second
reading have been returned to the Government for re-proceeding (including law on Bjeshket e Nemuna).
In 2006, the Assembly has reviewed the first draft-law on the national parks: Bjeshket e Nemuna and Sharri
Mountain. After numerous requests for greater involvement of community stakeholders, public hearings were held:
in all municipalities the territory will be covered by law national park.
There are a number of issues which have caused delay of designation of National Park.
The name of the park is followed by various dilemmas. The earliest name and the most frequently used is Bjeshket e
Nemuna (Muratagic, 1975). These mountains in the local peoples and throughout history are known also as:
"Rugova Mountains", "Albanian Alps" etc. In first part of the XIX century, for the first time name Bjeshket e
Nemuna is used in the scientific literature by Ami Boue(Mustafa 2009). Name "Rugovske Planina" have been used
by Koshanin (1992), Rudski (1936) Kushan (1936) etc.
Often used name is "Albanian Alps" because of the similarity of landscape with Alps as described from many
European scientists. Name Rugova Mountains is mostly used by residents of Rugova valley and central part of the
area, but this name is not used much in Decani, Gjakova and Istogu. In 2004, the Kosovo Academy of Sciences has
confirmed that Bjeshket e Nemuna is original and can be used as an official name of the park; Veselaj (2010).
Regarding bordering of the national park there are differentiated three aspects of problems: the outer boundary of the
park, the border between the five municipalities and border with Montenegro within the national park area. While in
terms of external border and the line between municipalities there no serious problems encountered, bordering with
Montenegro, is often raised as a problem. Protected zone and boundary of the park in the law is proposed as
temporary, and the law provides that detailed border area has to be determined with the Spatial Plan for the National
Park.
Many comments have been addressed about the extension of the areas of first protection regime (accordin to law on
nature protection provisions) within the national park. Those are areas serves to protect from further threat rare and
endangered plants and animals species. In fact, these areas have status of strict nature reserves within the park.
Currently, such areas within the park are 4, with a total area of 210 ha or 0.03% of the territory of national park as
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shown in Tab. 2; Veselaj (2010). Studies have also identified a number of areas to be proposed as strict protection
zone, due to the extremely high values of biodiversity such: Hajla, Liqenat, Zhleb, Rusolia etc.
Tab. 2. List of protected areas before the law adoption
Name of zone Category Year Surface/ ha Municipality

Rugova Valley natural monument 1985 4,301 Pej
Drini i Bardh Spring natural monument 1983 89,94 Pej
Rops peak Nature reserve 1955 20 Pej
Black peak natural monument 1977 112.5 Pej
Kozhnjeri Nature reserve 1955 150 Dean
Prilep mountains Nature reserve 1963 0,92 Dean
Deani pines natural monument 1968 15.18 Dean
Gubavci Nature reserve 1957 38.24 Dean
In the adopted Spatial Plan of Kosovo due to the high natural values, Bjeshket e Nemuna, is proposed as a area of
special interest for Kosovo; Veselaj (2010), and a separate spatial plan is required.
Property and ownership issues have been one of the main obstacles for the adoption of the law. In continuation, the
declaration of the area is closely connected to property issues especially by residents of the Rugova valley.
Ownership issues are significant problem not only in the National Park area, but also at the national level.
According to the local residents and experts, the sealant lands of local residents, either ownership or the right to use,
were collected by the Serbian government in 1928, with the aim of: "registration of property and regulation of
ownership of land". To the majority of the residents "titles" never returned back and was not even registered any of
their properties. The registration of properties 1932 definitely "stripped" them of their property rights. All properties
were recorded latter by the Serbian government interests for the purpose of bringing settlers from other parts of the
kingdom at that time. Titles by local residents can be found in the archives of Turkey, Cetinje and Skopje; Veselaj
(2010).
After World War II, there is a wave of nationalization of the properties of local residents. During 1948-1952, in
Kosovs is applied so-called "prinudni kadastar" (violent cadastre) by which all owners that have had over 10 ha
property, is confiscated by the state.
The right of use is another problematic property aspect. There are many cases when various governments (Turkish
and Serbian), have given the entire property rights of use to the residents of villages for cattle grazing, forest
exploitation and other goods. For this use they have been assigned taxes to be paid. Even in certain cases, such as
village Isniq, the mountains that used according to this practice, have banned the use from foreign residents (1967)
with justification "they do not preserve and protect forests and pastures as Isniq villagers"; Veselaj (2010). In some
cases as with villages of Milisheci, Zllanopoja and Rroshkodoli, due to high taxes and not able to afford them,
residents have waived the right to use.
This complex situation creates a big confusion between the right of use and ownership. From the above very
complex issue is difficult to determine areas of private and non-private land ownership in the national park.
In so large a territory of national park has undoubtedly combination situation, despite the fact that all agree for the
protection of the area. Political conflicts were expressed with the submission of the first draft, though not expressed
openly in public. Institutional conflicts can be seen in vertical and horizontal terms. In the vertical context are
addressed with remarks of municipalities that will be taken their territory for the national park administration by
central government. In the horizontal context, the key issue was the disagreements between the Ministry of
Environment and Spatial Planning (MESP) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development
(MAFRD). While MESP administers protected areas in Kosovo, MAFRD manages forests and forest lands,
including those within national parks. And, as the first aims conservation, the second main aim is the exploitation of
forest resources.
Kosovo Forestry Agency (KFA) officials stressed the fact that with the new national park they will be deprived of
forest exploitation in about 25% of the most productive forest areas in Kosovo. Therefore, KFA and MAFRD
permanently opposed the declaration of national park with various justifications.
During this time, it wasnt identified any conflicts between five municipalities that belongs to the National Park.
With entry into force of the Law, Government has established the Authority for the administration of the National
Park Bjeshket e Nemuna, which has not yet fully operational in the field.
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Consequences . Delay in announcement of several decades of National Park area had significant consequences for
the area. In this paper we will indicate some of the negative most consequences for the park.
Investments in Bjeshket e Nemuna area have been far from priorities of all previous governments. This has been the
main reason to local residents that abandoned villages, seeking for a better life. Road infrastructure is very weak and
except asphalted Rugova Valley road, rest is mainly paved with sand and gravel. These roads, during the winter are
almost un-passable, because of the high snow cover, rain erosion and thickness.
Regarding education, in the Bjeshket e Nemuna area operates only two primary schools: in Drelaj and Shtupeq. The
water supply system is lacking, but residents uses water through free fall system, taking it from numerous water
springs in the area. The sewage system in best cases is solved with septic tanks. Electric power even distributed in
the area, is old and difficult to maintain especially during the winter.
Private investors have managed to make some investments, mainly in the form of hotel and restaurant, only with
great effort and numerous challenges, without any institutional support, however.
Massive logging and forest degradation are constant development. Another phenomenon is the forest fires of recent
years that are happening often especially during the hot summer months. Reliable data on the extent of legal or
illegal logging is difficult to find, but one fact is clear: the amount of logging is very large and alarming;
consequence is that every day is less forests in the area of Bjeshket e Nemuna.
Bjeshket e Nemuna area is characterized by a richness of plant and animal biodiversity, which unfortunately decades
and in recent years has been under a tremendous threat. Area is characterized with an exceptional floristic diversity
and represents one of the main florist centers in the Balkans, especially in terms of floristic endemism; Rexhepi
2000. Their vascular flora in the Kosovo part consists of 1,611 taxa (species and subspecies): 435 genera, 105
families, 50 orders and 6 classes; Hoxha et al (2004). According to the existing records there are 255 endemic
species and subspecies of the Balkans. There are 19 plant taxa have been included in the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. There are many endemic and relict plant species, especially trees (even centuries old such
samples of Pinus hildreichii) through cutting are brought to the brink of danger; Veselaj et al. (2012).
There are evidences that existence of the some rare and threatened animal species is under a great question.
Population of the wild goat (Rupicapra rupicapra) is being sporadically shot, even with Kalashnikov. Also, the
brown bear (Ursus arctos) and lynx (Lynx lynx) are brought in very narrow habitat due high degradation of forests in
the area. These animals are globally threatened and are protected by international conventions and local laws for the
protection of living species; Veselaj et al. (2012).
The same situation is with rare plant species at risk. Yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea), a very important medicinal
plant of the Bjeshket e Nemuna, is being exploited without control, even from illegal collectors outside Kosovo.
There is no control in this process because of the lack of management of the area.
Wild and uncontrolled construction of is very much present in the park area. There are numerous hotel facilities,
residential facilities etc. that are built last years, most of them without legal permits and criteria. This is due to the
lack of Spatial Plan area, so buildings are being made without urban and environmental criteria. The phenomenon
rapidly increased after 2003, when the process of designation of national park re-started. Some of the hotels in the
area do not meet any minimal environmental criteria, having no minimum septic tank for treatment of wastewater
and discharging directly into rivers of the Lumbardhi of Peja and Decani. Such areas of high environmental impacts
are evident in Rugova Valley area, Boge and Liqenat; Veselaj (2010).
Pollution and environmental degradation has become an integral part of the image, even in the most beautiful areas
of Kosovo including Bjeshket e Nemuna. There are dozens of waste small illegal landfills in the park area, located
near to major touristic sites such as in Boge. All hotel facilities in the area, stores waste immediately close their
location and everything remains there.
Water pollution is another aspect. Discharge of wastewater in the rivers and streams without any prior treatment
even with septic tanks is daily. All discharged pollution through Lumbardhi river flows towards Peja. Erosion is also
very present in certain areas of the park. Some attempts have been noticed for the exploitation of gravel in the
Lumbardhi River, even in areas that are already protected by previous laws (Natural monument of Rugova Valley).
CONCLUSIONS
With the designation of Bjeshket e Nemuna National Park and extension of area of existing Sharr National Park with
another 20,000 hectares, the total protected area in Kosovo increased from 47.842 to a 130.314 ha or 11.9%
expressed as percentage of the territory. Designation of the second national park national "Bjeshket e Nemuna" is
considered as a greater contribution to the conservation of biodiversity and promoting sustainable development in
Kosovo. This act brings upon steps for its implementation in practice taking urgent measures to stop the degradation
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of the area, endangering its biodiversity and orientation towards sustainable development projects in the area.
Conditions for the development of all types of tourism are confirmed in all studies and in this direction should be
developed national park management plans.
REFERENCES
Muratagic M. 1975, Prokletije-prirodne vrednosti i principi zastite Natyra e Kosovs, Enti pr Mbrojtjen e Natyrs
s Kosovs, Prishtin
Rexhepi F. 2000 Bimt endemike t Kosovs Prishtin
Mustafa B. et al. 2009, Zonat potenciale pr Natura 2000 n Kosov PM International, Prishtin
Hoxha E., Mustafa B., & Veselaj Z. (2004) Aspekti i flors dhe vegjetacionit pr shpalljen e Bjeshkve t Nemuna
park nacional- Studime Gjeografike nr. 15 (f. 267-272) Akademia e Shkencave t Shqipris, Tiran.
Veselaj Z. & al. (2003) Vlerat natyrore t Kosovs Instituti pr Mbrojtjen e Natyrs s Kosovs, Prishtin;
Veselaj. Z. et al. 2006 Species of international significance and their distribution in Kosovo Proceedings of IV
Balkan Botanical Congress-, Sofia
Veselaj Z. 2010 Bjeshkt e Nemuna- perla natyrore e Kosovs REC and KFOS, Prishtina
Veselaj et al. 2012 Biodiversity conservation in Kosovo with focus on biodiversity centres Journal of
Environmental Biology Vol. 33, p. 307-310.
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International Conference of Ecosystems (ICE) Tirana, Albania, May 31- June 5, 2013

Proceeding Book ICE _2013

THE STUDY OF SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS DURING DYNAMICS OF OLIVE

Erta Dodona1, Hairi Ismaili2

Key word: olea europaea; pericarp; percentage; olive oil; dehydration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

(S)-0,1N, (N)- normality of Na2S2O3 (P)- sample weight (gram)

Table 1. Some datas for Ullirin e Zi of Tirana

Figure 4 and Figure 5.

raports: vegetative growth, differentiation; Vegetative-growth-fructification/linking up - growth, vegetative growth-

Figure 8 and figure 9

Majlinda ALCANI, Altin Dorri, Angjelin SHTJEFNI

Department of Energy, FIM, UPT

The state of treatment of MSW in our country

MATERIAL AND METHOD

2. Quantity and Characterization of MSW generated in our country

MSW for all the country

MSW for Tirana

Fig. 2 Percent by weight of each waste constituent of MSW for Municipality

3. Problems caused by some specific fractions of SW

3.3. Dry fraction: (aluminium, glass, metals, etc.).

3.4. Used tires

4.1. The adapting of the technology to local conditions

5. Regulations and policies

5.1. Barriers to innovation in waste treatment

6. Implementation of technologies locally

6.1. The failure of Italian policy regarding MSW

7. Recovery and reuse of objects and materials

8. Technologies for the treatment of MNU

[1] MEFWA: State of the Environment Report for: 2001-2010

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS ON THE

Sukru Aslan*, Ugur Savas Topcu, Hasan Bayrak, Ramazan Aydn

Department of Environmental Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 58140, Sivas, Turkey

Keywords: Dissolved Oxygen, nitritation, NO2-N/NOx-N ratio, temperature

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the SB and growth media

NH 4 -N removal eff. (%)

Fig. 3. NO2-N productions and NH4-N consumptions at various DO concentrations

17 NH 4 N (mg / L) 10 pH (1) 47 NO2 N (mg / L) 2)

NH 4-N removal eff. (%)

Figure 5. NO2-N productions and NH4-N consumptions at various temperatures

GAS SENSING PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT CALIXARENE DERIVATIVES

Farabi Temel*, Gulsevil Gok, Ayse Gul Ture, Mustafa Tabakci

Seluk University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 42075, Konya, Turkey

Keywords: Calix[4]arene; VOCs; QCM; Gas sensor

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fig. 1. Molecular structure of calix[4]arenes

Acetone DMF Methanol Toluene

Calix 1 Calix 2 Calix 3

THE ROLE OF PROHEXADIONE-CALCIUM(REGALIS) ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH IN PEAR VAR.

Maxhun Shehaj1, Ptrit Rama2, Bari Hodaj 2

Email: agro36@hotmail.com; ramapetrit@yahoo.gr;

Key words: prohexadione-Ca, Regalis, Growth retardant. Passe Crassane

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Table1. Effect of Prohexadione calcium (Regalis) on length of shoot

* Separation by Duncans multiple range tests, at P< 0.05(+Mean of four replications)

Table2. The mean number of internodes per shoot

V0 3,5 3,1 3,2 3,5 3,970a*+

V1 3,4 3 3 3,5 3,225b

Table.4 the mean number of leaves per shoot

F= 0,163039. F ref= 3,490295

THE ROLE OF CYTOKININS (BENZYLAMINOPURINE, BAP) ON ROOT INDUCTION IN OLEA

Adhurim Lazaj1, Petrit Rama2, Bari Hodaj2, Edlira Kukali2

Email: adhurimlazaj@yahoo.com; ramapetrit@yahoo.gr;