VHF omnidirectional range

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VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio

navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to determine
their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a
network of fixed ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies in the very high
frequency (VHF) band from 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. Developed in the United States
beginning in 1937 and deployed by 1946, VOR is the standard air navigational
system in the world,[1][2] used by both commercial and general aviation. By 2000
there were about 3,000 VOR stations around the world including 1,033 in the US,
reduced to 967 by 2013[3] with more stations being decommissioned with the DVOR (Doppler VOR) ground
widespread adoption of GPS. station, collocated with DME.

A VOR ground station sends out an omnidirectional master signal, and a highly
directional second signal is propagated by a phased antenna array and rotates
clockwise in space 30 times a second. This signal is timed so that its phase (compared
to the master) varies as the secondary signal rotates, and this phase difference is the
same as the angular direction of the 'spinning' signal, (so that when the signal is being
sent 90 degrees clockwise from north, the signal is 90 degrees out of phase with the
master). By comparing the phase of the secondary signal with the master, the angle
(bearing) to the aircraft from the station can be determined. This line of position is
called the "radial" from the VOR. The intersection of radials from two different VOR
stations can be used to fix the position of the aircraft, as in earlier radio direction
finding (RDF) systems.

VOR stations are fairly short range: the signals are line of sight between transmitter On-board VOR display with CDI
and receiver and are useful for up to 200 miles. Each station broadcasts a VHF radio
composite signal including the navigation signal, station's identifier and voice, if so
equipped. The navigation signal allows the airborne receiving equipment to determine a bearing from the station to the
aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to Magnetic North). The station's identifier is typically a three-letter
string in Morse code. The voice signal, if used, is usually the station name, in-flight recorded advisories, or live flight
service broadcasts. At some locations, this voice signal is a continuous recorded broadcast of Hazardous Inflight Weather
Advisory Service or HIWAS.

Contents
1 Description
1.1 History
1.2 Features
1.3 Operation
1.4 Service volumes
1.5 VORs, airways and the en route structure
1.6 Future
2 Technical specification
2.1 Constants
2.2 Variables
2.3 CVOR
2.4 DVOR
2.5 Accuracy and reliability
3 Using a VOR
3.1 Testing
3.2 Intercepting VOR radials
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Description
History

Developed from earlier Visual Aural Radio Range (VAR) systems, the VOR was designed to provide
360 courses to and from the station, selectable by the pilot. Early vacuum tube transmitters with
mechanically-rotated antennas were widely installed in the 1950s, and began to be replaced with fully
solid-state units in the early 1960s. They became the major radio navigation system in the 1960s, when
they took over from the older radio beacon and four-course (low/medium frequency range) system.
Some of the older range stations survived, with the four-course directional features removed, as non-
directional low or medium frequency radiobeacons (NDBs).
VOR
A worldwide land-based network of "air highways", known in the US as Victor airways (below
18,000 ft (5,500 m)) and "jetways" (at and above 18,000 feet), was set up linking VORs. An aircraft
can follow a specific path from station to station by tuning into the successive stations on the VOR
receiver, and then either following the desired course on a Radio Magnetic Indicator, or setting it on a
Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) or a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI, a more sophisticated
version of the VOR indicator) and keeping a course pointer centred on the display.

As of 2005, due to advances in technology, many airports are replacing VOR and NDB approaches
with RNAV (GPS) approach procedures; however, receiver and data update costs[4] are still significant VOR/DME
enough that many small general aviation aircraft are not equipped with a GPS certified for primary
navigation or approaches.

Features

VOR signals provide considerably greater accuracy and reliability than NDBs due to a combination of
factors. Most significant is that VOR provides a bearing from the station to the aircraft which does not
vary with wind or orientation of the aircraft. VHF radio is less vulnerable to diffraction (course VORTAC
bending) around terrain features and coastlines. Phase encoding suffers less interference from
thunderstorms.

VOR signals offer a predictable accuracy of 90 m (300 ft), 2 sigma at 2 NM from a pair of VOR beacons;[5] as compared
to the accuracy of unaugmented Global Positioning System (GPS) which is less than 13 meters, 95%.[5]

VOR stations rely on "line of sight" because they operate in the VHF bandif the transmitting antenna cannot be seen on
a perfectly clear day from the receiving antenna, a useful signal cannot be received. This limits VOR (and DME) range to
the horizonor closer if mountains intervene. Although the modern solid state transmitting equipment requires much less
maintenance than the older units, an extensive network of stations, needed to provide reasonable coverage along main air
routes, is a significant cost in operating current airway systems.

Operation

VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz (with 50 kHz spacing); this is in the Very High
Frequency (VHF) range. The first 4 MHz is shared with the Instrument landing system (ILS) band. To leave channels for
ILS, in the range 108.0 to 111.95 MHz, the 100 kHz digit is always even, so 108.00, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, and so on are
VOR frequencies but 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35 and so on, are reserved for ILS in the US.[6]

The VOR encodes azimuth (direction from the station) as the phase relationship
between a reference signal and a variable signal. The omnidirectional signal contains a
modulated continuous wave (MCW) 7 wpm Morse code station identifier, and usually
contains an amplitude modulated (AM) voice channel. The conventional 30 Hz
reference signal is frequency modulated (FM) on a 9,960 Hz subcarrier. The variable
amplitude modulated (AM) signal is conventionally derived from the lighthouse-like
rotation of a directional antenna array 30 times per second. Although older antennas
were mechanically rotated, current installations scan electronically to achieve an
equivalent result with no moving parts. This is achieved by a circular array of typically
60 directional antennas, the signal to each one being amplitude modulated by the 30 Hz
reference signal delayed in phase to match the azimuthal position of each individual
antenna. When the composite signal is received in the aircraft, the AM and FM 30 Hz components are detected and then
compared to determine the phase angle between them.

This information is then fed over an analog or digital interface to one of four common types of indicators:

1. A typical light-airplane VOR indicator, sometimes called an "omni-bearing indicator" or OBI[7] is shown in the
illustration at the top of this entry. It consists of a knob to rotate an "Omni Bearing Selector" (OBS), the OBS scale
around the outside of the instrument, and a vertical course deviation indicator or (CDI) pointer. The OBS is used to
set the desired course, and the CDI is centred when the aircraft is on the selected course, or gives left/right steering
commands to return to the course. An "ambiguity" (TO-FROM) indicator shows whether following the selected
course would take the aircraft to, or away from the station. The indicator may also include a glideslope pointer for
use when receiving full ILS signals.
2. A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) features a course arrow superimposed on a rotating card that shows the aircraft's
current heading at the top of the dial. The "tail" of the course arrow points at the current radial from the station and
the "head" of the arrow points at the reciprocal (180 different) course to the station. An RMI may present
information from more than one VOR or ADF receiver simultaneously.
3. A Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), developed subsequently to the RMI, is considerably more expensive and
complex than a standard VOR indicator but combines heading information with the navigation display in a much
more user-friendly format, approximating a simplified moving map.
4. An Area Navigation (RNAV) system is an onboard computer with display and may include an up-to-date navigation
database. At least one VOR/DME station is required for the computer to plot aircraft position on a moving map or to
display course deviation and distance relative to a waypoint (virtual VOR station). RNAV type systems have also
been made to use two VORs or two DMEs to define a waypoint; these are typically referred to by other names such
as "distance computing equipment" for the dual-VOR type or "DME-DME" for the type using more than one DME
signal.

In many cases, VOR stations have collocated Distance measuring equipment

(DME) or military Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) the latter includes both the
DME distance feature and a separate TACAN azimuth feature that provides
military pilots data similar to the civilian VOR. A collocated VOR and TACAN
beacon is called a VORTAC. A VOR collocated only with DME is called a VOR-
DME. A VOR radial with a DME distance allows a one-station position fix. Both
VOR-DMEs and TACANs share the same DME system.

VORTACs and VOR-DMEs use a standardized scheme of VOR frequency to

TACAN/DME channel pairing[6] so that a specific VOR frequency is always paired
D-VORTAC TGO (TANGO)
with a specific collocated TACAN or DME channel. On civilian equipment, the
Germany
VHF frequency is tuned and the appropriate TACAN/DME channel is
automatically selected.

While the operating principles are different, VORs share some characteristics with the localizer portion of ILS and the
same antenna, receiving equipment and indicator is used in the cockpit for both. When a VOR station is selected, the OBS
is functional and allows the pilot to select the desired radial to use for navigation. When a localizer frequency is selected,
the OBS is not functional and the indicator is driven by a localizer converter, typically built into the receiver or indicator.

Service volumes

A VOR station serves a volume of airspace called its Service Volume. Some VORs have a relatively small geographic area
protected from interference by other stations on the same frequencycalled "terminal" or T-VORs. Other stations may
have protection out to 130 nautical miles (NM) or more. It is popularly thought that there is a standard difference in power
output between T-VORs and other stations, in fact the stations' power output is set to provide adequate signal strength in
the specific site's service volume.

In the United States, there are three standard service volumes (SSV): terminal, low, and high (standard service volumes do
not apply to published instrument flight rules (IFR) routes).[8]
 US Standard Service Volumes (from FAA AIM[9])
SSV Class
Dimensions
Designator
T From 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 25
(terminal) NM.
L (low
From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
altitude)
From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From 14,500
H (high AGL up to and including 18,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL up to and
altitude) including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM. From 45,000 feet AGL up to and including
60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.

VORs, airways and the en r oute structure

VOR and the older NDB stations were traditionally used as intersections along
airways. A typical airway will hop from station to station in straight lines. When
flying in a commercial airliner, an observer will notice that the aircraft flies in
straight lines occasionally broken by a turn to a new course. These turns are often
made as the aircraft passes over a VOR station or at an intersection in the air
defined by one or more VORs. Navigational reference points can also be defined by
the point at which two radials from different VOR stations intersect, or by a VOR
radial and a DME distance. This is the basic form of RNAV and allows navigation
to points located away from VOR stations. As RNAV systems have become more
common, in particular those based upon GPS, more and more airways have been
defined by such points, removing the need for some of the expensive ground-based The Avenal VORTAC (at
VORs. 35.646999,-119.978996) shown on a
sectional aeronautical chart. Notice
In many countries there are two separate systems of airway at lower and higher the light blue Victor Airways
levels: the lower Airways (known in the US as Victor Airways) and Upper Air radiating from the VORTAC. (click to
Routes (known in the US as Jet routes). enlarge)
Most aircraft equipped for instrument flight (IFR) have at least two VOR receivers.
As well as providing a backup to the primary receiver, the second receiver allows the pilot to easily follow a radial to or
from one VOR station while watching the second receiver to see when a certain radial from another VOR station is
crossed, allowing the aircraft's exact position at that moment to be determined, and giving the pilot the option of changing
to the new radial if they wish.

Future

As of 2008, space-based GNSS navigational systems such as the Global

Positioning System (GPS) are increasingly replacing VOR and other ground-based
systems.[10]

GNSS systems have a lower transmitter cost per customer and provide distance and
altitude data. Future satellite navigation systems, such as the European Union
Galileo, and GPS augmentation systems are developing techniques to eventually
equal or exceed VOR accuracy. However, low VOR receiver cost, broad installed
base and commonality of receiver equipment with ILS are likely to extend VOR
dominance in aircraft until space receiver cost falls to a comparable level. As of
VORTAC located on Upper Table
2008 in the United States, GPS-based approaches outnumbered VOR-based
Rock in Jackson County, Oregon
approaches but VOR-equipped IFR aircraft outnumber GPS-equipped IFR aircraft.

There is some concern that GNSS navigation is subject to interference or sabotage, leading in many countries to the
retention of VOR stations for use as a backup. The VOR signal has the advantage of static mapping to local terrain.

The US FAA plans[11] by 2020 to decommission roughly half of the 967[12] VOR stations in the US, retaining a
"Minimum Operational Network" to provide coverage to all aircraft more than 5,000 feet above the ground. Most of the
decommissioned stations will be east of the Rocky Mountains, where there is more overlap in coverage between them. On
July 27, 2016 a final policy statement was released [13] specifying stations to be decommissioned by 2025. A total of 74
stations are to be decommissioned in Phase 1 (2016-2020), and 234 more stations are scheduled to be taken out of service
in Phase 2 (2021-2025).

In the UK, 19 VOR transmitters are to be kept operational until at least 2020. Those at Cranfield and Dean Cross were
decommissioned in 2014, with the remaining 25 to be assessed between 2015 and 2020.[14][15] Similar efforts are
underway in Australia,[16] and elsewhere.

Technical specification
The VOR signal encodes a morse code identifier, optional voice, and a pair of navigation tones. The radial azimuth is equal
to the phase angle between the lagging and leading navigation tone.

Constants

Standard[5] modulation modes, indices, and frequencies

Description Formula Notes Min Nom Max Units
on 1
i(t)
off 0
ident
Mi A3 modulation index 0.07
Fi A1 subcarrier frequency 1020 Hz
a(t) 1 +1
voice
Ma A3 modulation index 0.30
navigation Fn A0 tone frequency 30 Hz
variable Mn A3 modulation index 0.30
Md A3 modulation index 0.30
reference Fs F3 subcarrier frequency 9960 Hz
Fd F3 subcarrier deviation 480 Hz
Fc A3 carrier frequency 108.00 117.95 MHz
channel
carrier spacing 50 50 kHz
speed of light C 299.79 Mm/s
radial azimuth A relative to magnetic north 0 359 deg

Variables

Symbols
Description Formula Notes
t center transmitter
time signal left t+(A,t) higher frequency revolving transmitter
t(A,t) lower frequency revolving transmitter
c(t) isotropic
signal strength g(A,t) anisotropic
e(A,t) received

CVOR

The conventional signal encodes the station identifier, i(t), optional voice a(t), navigation reference signal in c(t), and the
isotropic (i.e. omnidirectional) component. The reference signal is encoded on an F3 subcarrier (colour). The navigation
variable signal is encoded by mechanically or electrically rotating a directional, g(A,t), antenna to produce A3 modulation
(grey-scale). Receivers (paired colour and grey-scale trace) in different directions from
the station paint a different alignment of F3 and A3 demodulated signal.

Conventional VOR
DVOR red(F3-) green(F3) blue(F3+)
black(A3-) grey(A3) white(A3+)
The doppler signal encodes the station identifier, i(t), optional voice, a(t), navigation
variable signal in c(t), and the isotropic (i.e. omnidirectional) component. The
navigation variable signal is A3 modulated (greyscale). The navigation reference
signal is delayed, t+, t, by electrically revolving a pair of transmitters. The cyclic
doppler blue shift, and corresponding doppler red shift, as a transmitter closes on and
recedes from the receiver results in F3 modulation (colour). The pairing of transmitters
offset equally high and low of the isotropic carrier frequency produce the upper and
lower sidebands. Closing and receding equally on opposite sides of the same circle
around the isotropic transmitter produce F3 subcarrier modulation, g(A,t).

Doppler VOR
red(F3-) green(F3) blue(F3+)
black(A3-) grey(A3) white(A3+)
USB transmitter offset is
exaggerated
LSB transmitter is not shown

where the revolution radius R = Fd C / (2 Fn Fc ) is 6.76 0.3 m .

The transmitter acceleration 4 2 Fn2 R (24,000 g) makes mechanical revolution impractical, and halves (gravitational
redshift) the frequency change ratio compared to transmitters in free-fall.

The mathematics to describe the operation of a DVOR is far more complex than indicated above. The reference to
"electronically rotated" is a vast simplification. The primary complication relates to a process that is called "blending".

Another complication is that the phase of the upper and lower sideband signals have to be locked to each other. The
composite signal is detected by the receiver. The electronic operation of detection effectively shifts the carrier down to
0 Hz, folding the signals with frequencies below the Carrier, on top of the frequencies above the carrier. Thus the upper
and lower sidebands are summed. If there is a phase shift between these two, then the combination will have a relative
amplitude of (1 + cos ). If was 180, then the aircraft's receiver would not detect any sub-carrier (signal A3).

"Blending" describes the process by which a sideband signal is switched from one antenna to the next. The switching is not
discontinuous. The amplitude of the next antenna rises as the amplitude of the current antenna falls. When one antenna
reaches its peak amplitude, the next and previous antennas have zero amplitude.

By radiating from two antennas, the effective phase centre becomes a point between the two. Thus the phase reference is
swept continuously around the ring not stepped as would be the case with antenna to antenna discontinuous switching.

In the electromechanical antenna switching systems employed before solid state antenna switching systems were
introduced, the blending was a by-product of the way the motorized switches worked. These switches brushed a coaxial
cable past 50 (or 48) antenna feeds. As the cable moved between two antenna feeds, it would couple signal into both.

But blending accentuates another complication of a DVOR.

Each antenna in a DVOR uses an omnidirectional antenna. These are usually Alford Loop antennas (see Andrew Alford).
Unfortunately, the sideband antennas are very close together, so that approximately 55% of the energy radiated is absorbed
by the adjacent antennas. Half of that is re-radiated, and half is sent back along the antenna feeds of the adjacent antennas.
The result is an antenna pattern that is no longer omnidirectional. This causes the effective sideband signal to be amplitude
modulated at 60 Hz as far as the aircraft's receiver is concerned. The phase of this modulation can affect the detected phase
of the sub-carrier. This effect is called "coupling".

Blending complicates this effect. It does this because when two adjacent antennas radiate a signal, they create a composite
antenna.

Imagine two antennas that are separated by their wavelength/3. In the transverse direction the two signals will sum, but in
the tangential direction they will cancel. Thus as the signal "moves" from one antenna to the next, the distortion in the
antenna pattern will increase and then decrease. The peak distortion occurs at the midpoint. This creates a half-sinusoidal
1500 Hz amplitude distortion in the case of a 50 antenna system, (1,440 Hz in a 48 antenna system). This distortion is itself
amplitude modulated with a 60 Hz amplitude modulation (also some 30 Hz as well). This distortion can add or subtract
with the above-mentioned 60 Hz distortion depending on the carrier phase. In fact one can add an offset to the carrier
phase (relative to the sideband phases) so that the 60 Hz components tend to null one another. There is a 30 Hz component,
though, which has some pernicious effects.

DVOR designs use all sorts of mechanisms to try to compensate these effects. The methods chosen are major selling points
for each manufacturer, with each extolling the benefits of their technique over their rivals.

Note that ICAO Annex 10 limits the worst case amplitude modulation of the sub-carrier to 40%. A DVOR that didn't
employ some technique(s) to compensate for coupling and blending effects would not meet this requirement.

Accuracy and reliability

The predictable accuracy of the VOR system is 1.4. However, test data indicate that 99.94% of the time a VOR system
has less than 0.35 of error. Internal monitoring of a VOR station will shut it down, or change-over to a Standby system if
the station error exceeds some limit. A Doppler VOR beacon will typically change-over or shutdown when the bearing
error exceeds 1.0.[5] National air space authorities may often set tighter limits. For instance, in Australia, a Primary Alarm
limit may be set as low as 0.5 on some Doppler VOR beacons.

ARINC 711 - 10 January 30, 2002 states that receiver accuracy should be within 0.4 with a statistical probability of 95%
under various conditions. Any receiver compliant to this standard should meet or exceed these tolerances.

All radio navigation beacons are required to monitor their own output. Most have redundant systems, so that the failure of
one system will cause automatic change-over to one or more standby systems. The monitoring and redundancy
requirements in some Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) can be very high.

The general philosophy followed is that no signal is better than a bad signal.

VOR beacons monitor themselves by having one or more receiving antennas located away from the beacon. The signals
from these antennas are processed to monitor many aspects of the signals. The signals monitored are defined in various US
and European standards. The principal standard is European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EuroCAE)
Standard ED-52. The five main parameters monitored are the bearing accuracy, the reference and variable signal
modulation indices, the signal level, and the presence of notches (caused by individual antenna failures).

Note that the signals received by these antennas, in a Doppler VOR beacon, are different from the signals received by an
aircraft. This is because the antennas are close to the transmitter and are affected by proximity effects. For example, the
free space path loss from nearby sideband antennas will be 1.5 dB different (at 113 MHz and at a distance of 80 m) from
the signals received from the far side sideband antennas. For a distant aircraft there will be no measurable difference.
Similarly the peak rate of phase change seen by a receiver is from the tangential antennas. For the aircraft these tangential
paths will be almost parallel, but this is not the case for an antenna near the DVOR.

The bearing accuracy specification for all VOR beacons is defined in the International Civil Aviation Organisation
Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 10, Volume 1.

This document sets the worst case bearing accuracy performance on a Conventional VOR (CVOR) to be 4. A Doppler
VOR (DVOR) is required to be 1.
All radio-navigation beacons are checked periodically to ensure that they are performing to the appropriate International
and National standards. This includes VOR beacons, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), Instrument Landing Systems
(ILS), and Non-Directional Beacons (NDB).

Their performance is measured by aircraft fitted with test equipment. The VOR test procedure is to fly around the beacon
in circles at defined distances and altitudes, and also along several radials. These aircraft measure signal strength, the
modulation indices of the reference and variable signals, and the bearing error. They will also measure other selected
parameters, as requested by local/national airspace authorities. Note that the same procedure is used (often in the same
flight test) to check Distance Measuring Equipment (DME).

In practice, bearing errors can often exceed those defined in Annex 10, in some directions. This is usually due to terrain
effects, buildings near the VOR, or, in the case of a DVOR, some counterpoise effects. Note that Doppler VOR beacons
utilise an elevated groundplane that is used to elevate the effective antenna pattern. It creates a strong lobe at an elevation
angle of 30 which complements the 0 lobe of the antennas themselves. This groundplane is called a counterpoise. A
counterpoise though, rarely works exactly as one would hope. For example, the edge of the counterpoise can absorb and
re-radiate signals from the antennas, and it may tend to do this differently in some directions than others.

National air space authorities will accept these bearing errors when they occur along directions that are not the defined air
traffic routes. For example, in mountainous areas, the VOR may only provide sufficient signal strength and bearing
accuracy along one runway approach path.

Doppler VOR beacons are inherently more accurate than Conventional VORs because they are less affected by reflections
from hills and buildings. The variable signal in a DVOR is the 30 Hz FM signal; in a CVOR it is the 30 Hz AM signal. If
the AM signal from a CVOR beacon bounces off a building or hill, the aircraft will see a phase that appears to be at the
phase centre of the main signal and the reflected signal, and this phase centre will move as the beam rotates. In a DVOR
beacon, the variable signal, if reflected, will seem to be two FM signals of unequal strengths and different phases. Twice
per 30 Hz cycle, the instantaneous deviation of the two signals will be the same, and the phase locked loop will get
(briefly) confused. As the two instantaneous deviations drift apart again, the phase locked loop will follow the signal with
the greatest strength, which will be the line-of-sight signal. If the phase separation of the two deviations is small, however,
the phase locked loop will become less likely to lock on to the true signal for a larger percentage of the 30 Hz cycle (this
will depend on the bandwidth of the output of the phase comparator in the aircraft). In general, some reflections can cause
minor problems, but these are usually about an order of magnitude less than in a CVOR beacon.

Using a VOR
If a pilot wants to approach the VOR station from due east then the aircraft will have
to fly due west to reach the station. The pilot will use the OBS to rotate the compass
dial until the number 27 (270) aligns with the pointer (called the Primary Index) at
the top of the dial. When the aircraft intercepts the 90 radial (due east of the VOR
station) the needle will be centered and the To/From indicator will show "To". Notice
that the pilot sets the VOR to indicate the reciprocal; the aircraft will follow the 90
radial while the VOR indicates that the course "to" the VOR station is 270. This is
called "proceeding inbound on the 090 radial." The pilot needs only to keep the needle
centered to follow the course to the VOR station. If the needle drifts off-center the
aircraft would be turned towards the needle until it is centered again. After the aircraft
passes over the VOR station the To/From indicator will indicate "From" and the
aircraft is then proceeding outbound on the 270 radial. The CDI needle may oscillate A mechanical cockpit VOR
or go to full scale in the "cone of confusion" directly over the station but will recenter indicator
once the aircraft has flown a short distance beyond the station.

In the illustration on the right, notice that the heading ring is set with 360 (North)
at the primary index, the needle is centred and the To/From indicator is showing
"TO". The VOR is indicating that the aircraft is on the 360 course (North) to the
VOR station (i.e. the aircraft is South of the VOR station). If the To/From indicator
were showing "From" it would mean the aircraft was on the 360 radial from the
VOR station (i.e. the aircraft is North of the VOR). Note that there is absolutely no
indication of what direction the aircraft is flying. The aircraft could be flying due
West and this snapshot of the VOR could be the moment when it crossed the 360
radial. An interactive VOR simulator can be seen here. Oceanside VORTAC in California
Testing

Before using a VOR indicator for the first time, it can be tested and calibrated at an airport with a VOR test facility, or
VOT. A VOT differs from a VOR in that it replaces the variable directional signal with another omnidirectional signal, in a
sense transmitting a 360 radial in all directions. The NAV receiver is tuned to the VOT frequency, then the OBS is rotated
until the needle is centred. If the indicator reads within four degrees of 000 with the FROM flag visible or 180 with the TO
flag visible, it is considered usable for navigation. The FAA requires testing and calibration of a VOR indicator no more
than 30 days before any flight under IFR.[17]

Intercepting VOR radials

On the Course Deviation Indicator we select the radial and together the needle and TO/FR flag shows our position.

There are many methods available to determine what heading to fly to intercept a radial from the station or a course to the
station. The most common method involves the acronym T-I-T-P-I-T. The acronym stands for Tune Identify Twist
Parallel Intercept Track. Each of these steps are quite important to ensure the aircraft is headed where it is being
directed. First, tune the desired VOR frequency into the navigation radio, second and most important, Identify the correct
VOR station by verifying the Morse code heard with the sectional chart. Third, twist the VOR OBS knob to the desired
radial (FROM) or course (TO) the station. Fourth, bank the aircraft until the heading indicator indicates the radial or course
set in the VOR. The fifth step is to fly towards the needle. If the needle is to the left, turn left by 3045 and vice versa.
The last step is once the VOR needle is centred, turn the heading of the aircraft back to the radial or course to track down
the radial or course flown. If there is wind, a wind correction angle will be necessary to maintain the VOR needle centred.

Another method to intercept a VOR radial exists and more closely aligns itself with
the operation of an HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator). The first three steps above
are the same; tune, identify and twist. At this point, the VOR needle should be
displaced to either the left or the right. Looking at the VOR indicator, the numbers
on the same side as the needle will always be the headings needed to return the
needle back to centre. The aircraft heading should then be turned to align itself with
one of those shaded headings. If done properly, this method will never produce
reverse sensing. Using this method will ensure quick understanding of how an HSI
works as the HSI visually shows what we are mentally trying to do.

In the adjacent diagram, an aircraft is flying a heading of 180 while located at a

bearing of 315 from the VOR. After twisting the OBS knob to 360, the needle
deflects to the right. The needle shades the numbers between 360 and 090. If the Aircraft in NW quadrant with VOR
aircraft turns to a heading anywhere in this range, the aircraft will intercept the indicator shading heading from 360 to
radial. Although the needle deflects to the right, the shortest way of turning to the 090 degrees
shaded range is a turn to the left.

See also
TACAN
Direction finding (DF)
Instrument flight rules (IFR)
Transponder Landing System (TLS)
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Non-directional beacon (NDB)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
Head-up display (HUD)
Airway (aviation) (Victor Airways)
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS)

References

1. VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range(http://www.kispo.net/fsportugal/p8-2e.htm), Aviation Tutorial Radio Navaids, kispo.net

2. Kayton, Myron; Fried, Walter R. (1997). Avionics navigation systems, 2nd Ed.(https://books.google.com/books?id=1KL TUWLz8jcC
&pg=PA122) (2nd ed.). USA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 122.ISBN 0-471-54795-6.
3. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/library/satnav/media/SatNav%20New
4. Airplane Owners and Pilots Association (March 23, 2005)."Inexpensive GPS Databases"(http://www.aopa.org/whatsnew/air_traffic/
gps_databases.html). AOPA Online. Airplane Owners and Pilots Association. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
5. Department of Transportation and Department of Defense (March 25, 2002)."2001 Federal Radionavigation Systems"(http://www.n
avcen.uscg.gov/pdf/frp/frp2001/FRS2001.pdf)(PDF). Retrieved November 27, 2005.
6. http://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/osmhome/redbook/4d.pdf
7. CASA. Operational Notes on VHF Omni Range (VOR)(http://www.casa.gov.au/wcmswr/_assets/main/pilots/download/vor .pdf)
8. FAA Aeronautical Information Manual 1-1-8 (c)
9. Federal Aviation Administration (April 3, 2014)."Aeronautical Information Manual"(http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/me
dia/aim.pdf) (PDF). FAA. Retrieved Jun 29, 2015.
10. Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security and Department ofransportation
T (January 2009). "2008 Federal
Radionavigation Plan"(http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/frp/frp2008/2008_Federal_Radionavigation_Plan.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved
June 10, 2009.
11. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/mobileAll/VOR_MON.pdf
12. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/library/satnav/media/SatNavNews_W
in
13. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/07/26/2016-17579/provision-of-navigation-services-for -the-next-generation-air-
transportation-system-nextgen
14. http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/7/20090813NATMACConsultativeVOR.pdf
15. Clued Up, Autumn/Winter 2014. CAA.
16. http://www.casa.gov.au/scripts/nc.dll?WCMS:STANDARD::pc=PC_101178
17. Wood, Charles (2008)."VOR Navigation" (http://www.navfltsm.addr.com/vor-nav.htm). Retrieved January 9, 2010.

External links
UK Navigation Aids Gallery & Photos
Wikimedia Commons has
Navigation aid search from airnav.com media related to VHF
VOR Navigation Simulator omnidirectional range.
Macromedia Flash 8 Based VOR Navigation Simulator

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VHF_omnidirectional_range&oldid=788325931"

Categories: Avionics Aircraft instruments Radio navigation Aeronautical navigation systems

This page was last edited on 30 June 2017, at 20:39.

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