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GasTurbineEngines
BasicTheory,Principles
and lntakes
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 BasicPrinciple.
An aircraftthat is propelledby an air-breathingengine(asdistinctfrom
a rocket)obtainsits forward motion in exchangefor accelerating a mass
of air rearward.The differencebetweenpropellerand jet propulsionis
that the propelleracceleratesa relativelylargemassof air rearwardat
relativelylow speed,whereasthejet accelerates a much smallermassof
air but at a much greaterspeed.In eachcaseit is the reactionto the rate
of changeof momentumof the massof air that propelsthe aircraft.
137
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
138
THEORY,
BASIC ANDINTAKES
PRINCIPLES
w%-lb'
consequentlythe thrust actingon the aircraftwill be
139
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140
BASIC PRINCIPLES
THEORY, AND INTAKES
V. 2.
AIRCRAFTSPEEDIN KNOTS
141
Y-
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
l
the combustion chamberswill also be cooler. This reduced temperature
will allow a slightly greater quantity of fuel to be used than would be
possibleif a constant temperature were maintained.
The increase in temperature results from an increase in change of
momentum of the gas passingthrough the engine, so that one pound of
air now produces more thrust than at sealevel, this is becausethere is an
improved expansion ratio across the turbine, which increasesthe effi-
ciency. The total mass of air passing through the engine,reduceswith
increasedaltitude owing to the reduction in air density, and therefore if
the total mass airflow is lessthen the total mass weight will also be less.
It has been shown, however, that one pound of air produces more power
at height, so the power decreasesat a lower rate than the air density.
The power available from one pound of air is increasedif the air enters
the compressor at a lower temperature. If the air at sea level is cold the
density is higher. The thrust obtainable from a gas turbine engineis there-
fore greater on a cold day, not only due to the extra power obtained from
each pound ofair passingthrough the engine, but also becausethe total
weight of a given volume of air is greater due to its greater density.
Figure l-3 shows the effect of intake or inlet temperature on the power
delivered by a gas turbine.
It can be seenfrom the curve that the power increasesconsiderably as
the temperaturefalls: as much as 50 per cent increasein the sealevel power
is obtained at a temperature of 0 degreesF compared with the output
design temperature at 60 degreesF. With increased height and lower
temperature therefore, a considerable proportion of the power will be
regained by virtue of the lower temperature. As the aircraft gains height
the compressor load decreasesdue to the lower density and, unless the
fuel flow is reduced,the turbine overspeeds.This contingency is covered
by the use of a barometric unit which monitors the output of the fuel
pump and adjusts it accordingly. As altitude is increasedthe fuel output
for a given power setting will progressivelyreduce,and so fuel consump-
142
BASICTHEORY,
PRINCIPLES
AND INTAKES
F 160
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z
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80 100 120
COMPRESSORINTAKE-AIRTEMPERATURE
deq. F
Figure1-3 Effects
of Air Temperature
on
PowerOutput.
143
G A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
in an increasein propulsiveeff,rciency.
This increasein speedalsoresults
in greater ram effect, thus increasing the compressorefficiencywhich
thereforeabsorbs lesspower from the turbine to do the sameamountof
work on the air.
-)
l,-
COWLING NORMALSHOCKWAVE
STREAMLINE
144
THEORY,
BASIC AND INTAKES
PRINCIPLES
CONICALOR CENTREBODYINTAKE
VARIABLEBLEEDOFF
OBLIQUE
SHOCK
NORMALSHOCK
,WEDGE
TYPEINTAKE,
MAY BE FIXEDOR VARIABLE
VARIABLEBLEEDOFF
OBLIQUESHOCK
NORMALSHOCK
WEDGEINLET
AIRCRAFTSURFACE
VARIABLEWEDGEANGLE
145
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
1.8 IntakeShapes.
At subsonicspeedsa divergentintake duct is requiredto decelerate the
freestreamflow and increasethe pressure.SeeFig. l-6.
At supersonicspeedsa convergingintake duct is requiredto achieve
the sameobjectives.For aircraftwhich fly at high supersonicspeedsthe
convergingduct is usuallyfollowedby a divergingduct and the intersec-
tion betweenthesetwo ductsformsthe diffuser'throat'wherethe cross
sectionis at its minimum.SeeFigs.l-7 (a) and l-7 (b).
u' ,)
- DECREASING
VELOCITY
P R E S S U R-E I N C R E A S I N G
T E M P E R A T U R- E I N C R E A S I N G
Figure'l-6 A DivergentDuct.
)
V E L O C I T -Y I N C R E A S I N G
P R E S S U R-E D E C R E A S I N G
S T E M P E R A T U R_E D E C R E A S I N G
+-
146
THEORY,
BASIC ANDINTAKES
PRINCIPLES
-v
FLOWINCREASES TO
SONICVELOCITY
AT VENTURI
AMBIENT
PRESSURE
MACH1
NOZZLE
CHOKED
' l
NG
REDECREASI
PRESSU
|,*u.t*,roo.jlJo
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TNcREASTNG
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F i g u r e1 - 7 ( b ) .
1.9 CriticalConditions.
Three generaltypesof gasturbine intake operationare employedand
thoughlheycan6econsidered asbeingindependentof the locationof the
obliqueshockare dependenton the position of the normal shockwave
relativeto the intakeliP:
(a) Critical operationoccurswhen the normal shockwaveis near the
intakelip. This is the most desirablecondition becausemaximum
pressurerecoveryexists.Thereare no instabilitiesin the entering
flow and maximummassflow is captured.
(b) If a normal shockwaveoccursoutsidethe intake,sub-criticaloper--
ation existswith the shocksystemcompletelyexpelledupstreamof
the intakelip. The intakepressurerecoveryis lessthan in thecritical
conditiondueto the changesin the shocklocationwhichmay cause
'b.uzz'and resultin massspillageof flow. High dragis causedby the
air spilling around the intake lip but this can be reducedif the
spillageaii is exhaustedthrough a bleed-offbehindthe intakelip.
147
G A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
1.10 VariableIntakes.
Criticaloperationcanonly beachievedby continuouslyvaryingtheshape
of the intake to allow for changesin temperature(as experienced with
variationsin altitude)and engineairflow as well as by flight speed.The
oblique shockwave shouldbe positionedto occur at the intake lip just
like the normal shockwave,and bleed-offdoors may be usedboth to
divert any excessflow and to position the normal shockfor optimum
shockpatternsand pressurerecovery.The intake thereforetakesin the
full freeairstreamairflow without any streamlinedrag at the headof the
lip. A variablegeometryinlet is requiredto satisfythesedesirablecondi-
tions of shockwavelocation. 'r/i,,
CONICALSPIKE
INLET
WEDGEUNIT
TWO OBLIOUE
PLUSONENORMAL
SHOCK
ONEOBLIOUE
PLUSONENORMAL
SfMPLECOWL t SHOCK
TNLET--
ON NORMAL
SHOCK
BASICTHEORY, AND INTAKES
PRINCIPLES
V,,
CURVEFALLSEECAUSE
OF AIRTEMPERATURE
INCREASINGwlTH M No
MACHNUMSER
DOUELE;HOCK
CENTRE3ODY
I SINGLESHOCK
PITOTTYPE
I
I
MACHNUMEER
INFORMATIONFACTS
GENERAT
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
Section1 TestYourself
BasicTheory,Principlesand Intakes
is:
L ThegasturbinecomPressor
(a) drivenbYtheairflow'
to a commonshaft.
(b) drivenby theturbinewhichis connected
(c) driven by the turbine which is mounted on a separatedrive shaft.
Ref. 1.3.
151
Compressors
2.1 Introduction.
The axial flow type has an airflow path that flows parallelto the
compressorshaft.Axial compressors arethemostwidelyusedtype.A few
enginedesignsalso use a combinationof centrifugaland axial flow
compressors.
2.2 Design.
Compressordesignis mainly concernedwith aerodynamics, someprin-
ciple factorsaffectingthe performancebeingthe aerofoil sectionof the
blades,the bladepitch angles,and the length/chordratio of the blades.
Another important detailis the clearancebetweenthe bladetips and the
shroudaround them.Compressibilityeffectswithin the compressorcan
havea markedeffecton the performance.
To achievemaximumefficiencya compressor must satisfya numberof
requirements:
(a) It mustprovidethe requiredpressure
rise.
(b) Compressionmust be effectedwith the leastpossibleloss,as the
greaterthe lossthe greaterthe powerabsorbedby the turbine.
(c) stableover the operatingrangeof rpm.
It must be aerodynamically
152
COMPRESSORS
(d) The tip speedof the impeller,or rotors, should not approachtoo
closelyto sonicspeed,a maximumspeedof .9M at any point on the
radiusbeingpreferable.
Compressordesignin most enginesis a compromisebetweenhigh
performanceover a narrow band of rpm or moderateperformanceover
a wide band of rpm. Consequently, althoughit is possiblefor the
compressorto be designedso that very high efficiencyis obtainedat the
highestpower, any deviationfrom the designconditionsmay cause
seriouschangesin the aerodynamicflow conditionsand so a lossof effi-
ciencyand unstableconditionswithin the engine.As the flow varieswith
operatingconditionsit is usualto compromiseand designfor lower effi-
ciency,giving greaterflexibility of performanceand the retentionof the
highestpossibleperformanceover a wider rangeof rpm.
153
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
2-1 SingleEntrylmpeller.
Figure
nrn*
ENTERS
N E A RH U B
IMPELLER DIFFUSER C O M P R E S S OM
RA N I F O L D
Compressor.
Figure2-2 SingleEntryCentrifugal
The air then passesthrough the diffuser where the velocity energy is
converted into pressureenergy, so that the velocity is reduced and the
pressureincreaied. Work is done by the compressor in compressing
ihe air, and, sincethe processof compressioninvolves adiabatic heating,
a rise in temperature results.
154
COMPRESSORS
COMBUSTION
DIFFUSER CHAMBER
IMPELLER
AIR S I N G L ES H R O U D
INTAKE
Figure2-3 Passage
of Air ThroughCentrifugal
Compressor.
155
I
1,",'
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
I
2.5 CompressorDesignVariations.
There are two main types of centrifugal compressorsin use today, the
single entry, shown in Fig. 2-a@) and the double entry shown in Fig.
2-4(b).
A third basictype hasbeenusedin the past but is rarely seentoday, this
being the shrouded impeller, a sketch of which is shown in Fig. 2-4(c) for
information only.
156
COMPRESSORS
F i g u r e2 - 5 l m p e l l e irn
i t sC a s i n g .
157
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
lmPeller.
F i g u r e2 - 6 D o u b l eE n t r Y
2.6 DiffuserSystem.
Theobjectof thediffuseri'sto convertthevelocityenergyof theair leaving
the compressor to pressureenergybeforeit passes. into the combustion
chambeis.The diffuser may 6e formed as an integral part of the
compressor casing,or be bolted to it. It consists of a number of tangen-
tial vanes,the inier edges of which are parallel to the direction of the
resultantairflow from ihe rotating compressor, the passages between
thevanesbeingso proportionedthal the air pressureattlls the requisite
valueon entryto the combustionchambers. (SeeFig' 2-7')
The passages formed by the diffuser vanes are divergent,so that the
velocitydecreases and the pressure increases in the directionof the flow'
Thesepurrug., or ductsrequire very careful designing' as an excessive
angleof divirgencemay le-ad to a breakaway of the boundary layer,
carisinggenerafturbulenle and loss of pressure energy. The outside diam-
eter oI ih. tung.ntial portion of the diffuser variesconsiderably,
depending on wiether it completes the diffusionprocess or not. In some
.n'gin., frirtherdiffusiontakei place in the elbow leading to the combus-
tion chambers. The usualdesignof the diffuser passages is suchthat the
158
COMPRESSORS
area increasesvery gradually for the first 5 to l0cm from the throat,
therateof increasebeingsteppedup duringthe latterstagesof expansion.
The clearancebetweenthe tips of the diffuservanesand the compressor
tips is an importantfactor, becauseif placedtoo closetogether,ihe tips
may setup aerodynamicbuffetingimpulseswhich are communicatedto
the compressor, causingunsteadyflow and possiblyinitiatingdangerous
vibration.The usualclearanceis about 5cm.
THEORETICAL
FLOWLINES
ENTERING
DIFFUSER
A N G L EO F D I V E R G E N C E
Figure2-7 Diffuser.
2.7 Multi-StageCentrifugalCompressors.
This type consistsof two or more, singlecompressorsmounted in tandem
on the sameshaft. (SeeFig. 2-8.) The air compressedby the first stage,is
passedonto the secondstageat its point of entry near the hub. The second
stageprovides further compression before the air is diffused and passed
to the combustionchambers.
This type of arrangement is commonly used on modern helicopter free
turbine ensines.
r59
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
160
COMPRESSORS
2.9 CompressorRotor.
The rotor and statorvanesvary in lengthaccordingto the pressurestage,
the longestbeing at the low pressureor entry stage.To compressand
transferthe largeamount of air required,and to obtain a smoothflow
with the minimum of turbulenceand harmful characteristics, the vanes
are of aerofoilsection.
(a) VaneTwist.
The necessity for twist in the vanecanbe more readilyappreciatedif
two points on an untwistedvaneare considered,one nearthe tip of
the vaneand the othernearthe root. In an untwistedvanethe section
at both pointshasthe sameanglerelativeto a planethroughthe axis
of rotation,but theroot point hasa lowerrotationalspeedand there-
fore a differentangleof attack.To obtaintheoptimumangleof attack
at eachpoint over the whole lengthof the vane,the angleof the tip
sectionmust be reducedand that of the root sectionincreased.The
vane must thereforebe twistedso that the angleof incidenceof all
sectionsdecreases from root to tip giving a constantangleof attack
during rotation,aswith a propeller.
(b) VaneResearch.
Many yearsof researchand testinghaverevealedthe criticalfeatures
of compressordesignas:
(i) Surfaceeddieswhich appearas trailing edgevorticesat the
root and the tip of the vanes,causedby boundary-layer
effectsthroughthe stages.
(ii) Radialclearances
betweenthe vanetips and the compressor
casing.
(iii) Axial clearancebetweenrows of vanes.
(iv) Turbulenceof the wakesfrom precedingvanerows.
161
t
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
162
COMPRESSORS
AIR INTAKE
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
N O Z Z L EG U I D EV A N E S
E X H A U S TI N N E RC O N E
TURBINES
AIR INTAKE
Figure2-.10 Reverse
FlowCompressor
Design.
2.13 CompressorSurging.
163
G A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
164
COMPRESSORS
A I R R E L E A S EO R BLEEDVALVES
2.16 VariablePositionGuideVanes.
arefittedwith variablepositionguide
Manymoderngasturbineengines
vanes, more commonly referred to as variable inlet guide vanes, and
usually operatedautomatically.During enginestarting and low rpm the
guide vanesmove to the fully closedposition, but as rpm is increasedthey
either progressivelyor completely move to the fully open position.
In the closedposition the inlet guide vanesgive a swirl to the incoming
air so that the angle of attack of the low pressurebladesis kept moderate
and stalling is therefore avoided. In the open position they admit the
maximum quantity of air. Figure 2-12 shows an exampleof a variable
inlet guide vane assembly.
165
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
1.,' G
Figure2-12 VariableInletCuideVanes.
BLEED
SUPPLY v ."j
{
F i g u r e2 - 1 3 M a i n B l e e dS u p p l y .
COMPRESSORS v.'
HIGH
LOWPRESSURE PRESSURE
2."1 8 M u l t i - sp o o l E n g i n e s.
Many modern gas turbine enginesare fitted with multi-spool compres-
sors,that is to say, a singlespool comprisingperhapsfourteen stages.is
replacedwith two or three spoolsor compressorassemblies. Usually each
compressorspool is driven by a separateturbine.
Figure 2-14 showsa simplediagram of a twin or two spool compressor
englne.
Such a twin spool compressor is a further method of avoiding flow
troubles at high pressureratios. The low pressurespool runs at a lower
rpm than the high pressurespool and so the onsetof compressorstalling
ut lo* rpm is avoided.Further, the high pressurespool running at higher
rpm preventsthe last stagesoperating at large negativeanglesof attack.
Atttrough the low pressurecompressorruns at lower rpm than the high
pressrrreunit its speedincreaseswith the reduction of density with
increasedaltitude.As a result,the rate of decreasein thrust with increase
in altitude is lessthan that of a singlespool enginewith the samesealevel
output.
To further reducethe tendencyto stall, in particular at enginestarting,
the engineis startedby rotating the high pressurespool thus drawing air
through the low pressurespool and causing it to rotate. Intermediate
bleedialves are usually fitted betweenthe spools to further reduce the
tendencyto stall or surge.
lcing.
2.19 Compressor
Becauseof the high working rpm of the centrifugaltype compressorand
related high working temperatures,ice will not usually adhere to the
impeller in a quantity sufficient to affect the efficiency to any great extent,
167
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
(a) Power.
For a given temperature of the air entering the turbine, the power
output of a gas turbine engine is a function of the quantity of air
handled. The axial flow engine can handle a greater mass of air per
unit offrontalarea than can the centrifugal type.
(b) Weight.
In terms of unit weight of structure for unit thrust, axial flow gas
turbines in generaldeliver a given thrust for a lower weight than does
the centrifugal type, that is to say, the axial has a better power/weight
ratro.
(c) Efficiency.
The efficiency of eachcomponent of a gas turbine engineis displayed
in the fuel consumption. The centrifugal compressor may reach an
efficiencyof 75 to 80 per cent up to pressureratios as high as 4:1.
Above this, efficiency drops off at a rate which is prohibitive. The
axial flow compressor,by contrast, can have an efficiency of 80 to 90
per cent over a wide range of compression ratios. The centrifugal
compressor is therefore not as economic as the axial flow type in
terms of fuel used per pound of thrust generated (specific fuel
consumption).
(d) Design.
As the centrifugal compressor is of considerably simpler structure
than the axial flow type, this factor dictated its usein the early history
of the gas turbine engine.Equally important, much more was known
at that time about the mathematics of the centrifugal impeller as a
result of its long use in superchargedpiston engines.
168
COMPRESSORS
(f) Application.
tncreasing the power of the centrifugal engine is primarily confined
to increaiing t^hediameter of the impeller, or fitting a number of
impellersin iandem on the drive shaft. Increasingthe diameter will
..*lt in an increaseof drag due to the larger frontal area' Increasing
the number of impellers mounted in tandem on the drive shaft will
increasethe length of the engineand therefore nullify one of the major
advantagesof the centrifugal type: the compactnessof the-engine.As
a result,Tewcentrifugalcompressortypeshave beenfitted with more
than two imPellersin tandem.
The powei of the axial flow gas turbine, on the other hand, can be
increasedby using more stageJin the compressorwithout a marked
increasein diameter. For peiformance increasein modern high speed
aircraft, without incurring drag penalty, the axial type has major
advantages.
There-are,however,limitations: the greaterthe number of stages
the greater tire airflow problems incurred, hencethe increasinguse of
multi-spooledcomPressors.
Irrespectiveof ttri type of compressor,about l00bhp is requiredto
deliver one lb of air to the combustion chambers.Sincethis rate of
flow provides approximately 50 lb of thrust, the compressorof an
engine developing a thrusi of 5000 lb requires in the region of
10,000bhp to drive it.
169
t
1
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
Section2 TestYourself
Compressors
l. In a centrifugalcompressor.air enters:
(a) the centre of the impeller.
(b) the outer rim of the impeller.
(c) the diffuser.
Ref.
2. As air passesthrough the impeller of a centrifugal compressor:
(a) velocityremainsconstant.
(b) velocityincreases.
(c) velocity reduces.
Ref.
3. The compression
ratio is the:
(a) ratio betweenthe inlet to the engineand the exhaust
sure.
(b) ratio betweenthe pressureat the inlet to the compressorand the
outlet of the compressor.
(c) ratio between the entrance to the engine intake and compressor
outlet pressure.
Ref.2.l0.
4. Compressorsurgemay be indicatedby:
(a) a reduction in enginegas temperature.
(b) an increasein jet pipe temperature.
(c) a rapid increaseof power.
Ref.
5. Intermediatebleedvalvesare fitted:
(a) immediatelyafter the compressor.
(b) at the compressorinlet.
(c) at an intermediatestagewithin the compressor.
Ref.2.14.
170
COMPRESSORS
6. During compressorsurge,thrustwill:
(a) increase.
(b) remainconstant.
(c) reduce.
Ref.2.l5.
7. During enginestarting,variableinlet guidevaneswill be:
(a) fully closed.
(b) fully open.
(c) partiallyopen.
Ref.2.l6.
valves,or bleedvalves:
8. Air release
(a) haveno effecton massflow.
ft) increasemassflow.
(c) reducemassflow.
Ref.2.17
9. Compressorsurgemay be identifiedby:
(a) increasedenginerpm.
(b) a fall in enginegastemperature.
(c) an indicationof vibration.
Ref.2.l3.
engine
of thrustfrom a twin spoolcompressor
10.The rate of decrease
comparedwith a singlespoolengineasaltitudeincreases:
(a) is greater.
(b) is the same.
(c) is less.
Ref.2.18.
171
CombustionSystems
3.1 lntroduction.
The purpose of the combustionchamberis to burn a mixture of air and
fuel at a steadyrate and therebyproduce a continuous steadystream of
gas at a uniform temperature.The primary requirementsof the combus-
tion chamberare:
(a) high combustion efficiency.
(b) reliability.
(c) low pressureloss.
(d) low sensitivityto variationswithin a grade of fuel.
(e) ability to operate efficiently over the range of pressures,inlet
temperatures,and airlfuel ratios required.
(0 simplicity of control.
(g) easeand cheapnessof manufacture.
3.2
Figure 3-1 illustratesthe location of the combustion chamberswithin a
simpleaxial flow gas turbine engine.
Chambers'
Figure3-1 Locationof Combustion
Figures 3-2 and 3-4 show the basicconfigurationof the three main
typ.i of combustionchamber.Different manufacturerstend to call
tirf typesby differentnames,somealternativenamesare listedwith the
illustrations. u
173
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
3.4 MultipleCombustion
Chambers.
Althoughmultiplechambers,asfitted to numerousenginetypes,arebasi-
callysimilar,thereareconsiderablevariationsin detail,particularlyin the
methodsof mixing the fuel and air and obtainingthe desiredamount of
turbulence.Multiple combustionchambers,sometimes 6 to l4 in number,
may be arrangedfor direct or reverseflow accordingto designrequire-
ments.Theprincipaladvantageof the reverseflow typeis thetotal engine
lengthis reduced;this is sometimesvery usefulwhen appliedto an axial
compressorengine.An exampleof a reverseflow systemis shown in
ChapterTwo.
PRIMARY
ZONE
CORRUGATED
JOINT
(A)CONSTRUCTTON
174
COMBUSTIONSYSTEMS
(C)CIRCULATION
TOSTABILISE
FLAME
Chamber.
Figure3-3 The CannularCombustion
175
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
TUBES
P R E S S U RBEA L A N C E
C O M B U S T I OC
NH A M B E R S
Figure3-4 Pressure
BalanceTubes.
COMBUSTION
SYSTEMS
3.6 TheAnnularCombustionChamber.
Theannularcombustion (Fig.3-5)surrounds
chamber themainbodyof
the engineand is open at the forward end to the compressorand at the
rearwardend to the turbine.Within the annularchamberis an annular
flametube,similarin sectionto themultipletubetype.At thecompressor
end is a supportingplate for a seriesof burners,sometimesas many as
twenty, which inject the fuel downstreaminto the flame tube. In some
designsthe burnersare arrangedto inject the fuel up-stream;in these
typesthe sprayfrom the burnersis not diffusedin a wide angleas with
the down-streamtype, sincesomedegreeof penetrationof the incoming
air is required.The air is meteredand madeto swirl by suitablearranged
holesin the front plate.
) rt od t\
\o\
O 1 ,to
o l
t\o
o l llo
ilo
ol ilo
)
)
The annular chamber forms a continuous sheetof hot gas which flows
from the primary zone to the turbine; the design is similar to the multiple
chamber systemin that the primary air supports combustion in the high
temperatureturbulent zone, and the secondaryair and tertiary air cool
the flow of gas before entry into the turbine. The main advantagesof this
systemare:
(a) The total chamber area exposedto the gas is reduced,resultingin
reducedpressureloss.
177
G A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
3,7 Can-annular
or Tubo-annular
Combustion
Chamber.
The can-annular combustion chamber uses a seriesof individual flame
tubes within the main annular chamber. This hps the advantageof
providing more rigid control of the primary and other airflows. It should
be noted that althoughpoor distribution of the fuel and air was a common
defect of the original annular type combustion chamber arrangement, in
later typesthis has beenmuch improved.
Figure 3-2 showsan exampleof a cannular arrangement.
178
COMBUSTION
SYSTEMS
ATOMISATION
R A G G EEDD G E COIVMENCES
BREAKINGDOWN SPRAY
TOATOMISATION CONE
ANGTE
B U B B L ES T A G E T U L I PS T A G E F U L L YD E V E L O P ESDT A G E
A B c
F i g u r e3 - 7 D e v e l o p m e n o
t f Atomisation
3.10 Burners.
The function of the burner is to inject fr-relin a readilyignitableform into
the flame tubesof the combustionchambers.Four basictvnesof burner
will be discussedhere:
179
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
(a) Lubbock.
(b) Simplex.
(c) Duplex.
(d) Spill.
LubbockTypeBurners.
Figur. 3-8 showsan exampleof a Lubbock burner.In this type the area
ofitr" tangentialslotsthroughwhich the fuel entersthe swirl chamberis
controlledlAs the pressurein the fuel line increases, the effectiveareaof
the slots,and thereioretheamountof fueldischarged, areboth increased'
ittir u.tion pressurises the fuel linesat low flows without raisingthe
maximum pressurerequirementsto any greatextent; and it givesgood
results.Sometroublehasbeenexperienced with this type, however, due
to sticking of thepistonthat operates thevariableareaslots, and in most
"aaoptlon
casesthe of a simpleswirl atomiserhasbeenthe generalsolu-
tion. But because of thesepioblemsand improvedalternativedesignsthe
Lubbockburner is virtually a thing of the past'
SimplexTypeBurner.
The^Simplliburn.r waswidelyusedon manyearlygasturbineengines.
type.It consistsof a chamber,which
a fixed areaatomisingorifice'This
higherfuel flow rates,that is, at the
lowever,its Performanceat the low
n'JJ: #1,';?"?
li; : #,
:'i lil'J;
f theburner'sperformance,occurred
quite often. The reasonfor the poor low pressurepe-rformance was
'squa.re
primarilydue to the basicprinciple_of its designbeingthat of a
iu*; Uu.ir..,that is,theflow throughtheburnerwasproportionalto the
squareof the pressure drop acrossit. This meantthat if the minimum
pi"$u.. for effectiveatomisationwas 25psithe pressureneededto give
maximumflow wouldbe 2500psi.Generallythe fuel pumpsavailableat
the timewereunableto deliversuchpressures.
Duplexor DupleBurners.
The Duple* burn.. employstwo fuel manifolds:the Primaryand the
Main manifold.The actualburneralsoutilisestwo orifices,the primary
(fed by the primary manifold) designedto deal with the low flows, and
ih" se"ondor main-orificewhichcopeswith the higherflowsastheburner
pressure increases.
rB0
COMBUSTIONSYSTEMS 1t
L E A K A G ES P I L LT O C H A M B E R
TANGENTIAL
PORTS
Figure3-B A LubbockBurner
Assembly.
r- r;:)
PRESSURE
Efi eunNEn
C O M P R E S S OD
RE L I V E R Y
C A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
Spill Burner.
The spill burnercanbe describedasbeinga Simplexburnerwith an addi-
tional passage from the swirl chamberfor spillingfuel away.This makes
it possibleto supplyfuel to the swirl chamberat a continuoushigh pres-
sure.As thefuel flow ratedecreases with increaseof altitude,or reduction
in rpm, surplusfuel is spilledaway from the swirl chamber,leavingless
to passthroughthe atomisingorifice.Sincethe swirl chamberis designed
to convert the fuel pressureenergyinto the kinetic energyneededfor
atomisation,the constanthigh pressuresupplyto the spill burner (even
at very low flows into the combustionchamber)ensuresthereis atomi-
sationof the fuel at all times.When spill burnersare usedin an engine
meansare requiredto removethe spill flow under any particular set of
operatingconditions;this usuallytakesthe form of an additionalpump.
Figure3*10showsthe interiorarrangement of a spillburner.
F i g u r e3 - 10 S p i l lB u r n e r .
182
SYSTEMS
COMBUSTION
Section3 TestYourself
CombustionSystems
l. Theswirlassembly,or vanes,of a combustion chamberarefitted:
a rotarymotionto the mixturebeforeit entersthe
(a) to generate
combustionchamber.
a rotarymotionto theair in thesecondary
(b) to generate air flow.
(c) to generatea rotary motion to the air in the inlet to the primary
combustionzone.
Ref. 3.5.
183
I
Turbines
4.1 Introduction.
N O Z Z L EG U I D EV A N E S
TURBINES
184
TURBINES
/ H I G HP R E S S U R E
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINE
in a Twin SpoolTurbojet.
Figure4-2 TurbineArrangement
185
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
The design of the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blade passagesis
primarily bised on aerodynamicconsiderationsand as suchthe majority
bf such iomponents are of aerofoil shape.The shapesemployed are such
that the turbine functionspartly under impulseand partly under reaction
conditions,that is to say, ihe turbine bladesexperiencean impulse force
due to the initial impact of the gas on the bladesand a reaction force as
a result of the expansionand accelerationof the gas through the blade
passages. Although blade designwill vary the proportion of each prin-
lipl. in.orporated in the turbine, in generalit is approximately50 per cent
impulseand 50 per cent reaction.
Figur. 4-3 shbws a comparison between an imprr.lse/reactionturbine
and i pure impulse turbine. V' | '
T U R B I N ED R I V E NB Y
T H EI M P U L S EO F T H E
G A S F L O WO N L Y
T U R B I N ED R I V E N
B Y T H EI M P U L S EO F
T H EG A S F L O W A N DI T SS U B S E O U E N T
REACTION A S I T A C C E L E R A T ETSH R O U G H
T H EC O N V E R G I N G B L A D EP A S S A G E
186
TURBINES
V E L O C I T YD E C R E A S E S
S T A T I CP, R E S S U R T
P R E S S U RIEN C R E A S E S
VELOCITY F R O MR O O TT O T I P
A C R O S SN O Z Z L E S
P R E S S U RAEN D
V E L O C I T YU N I F O R M
ON ENTERING
E X H A U S TS Y S T E M
187
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
S T A G G E RA N G L E
DIRECTION>
OF FLOW
S T A G G E RA N G L E
:igure4-5 BladeTwistand
Stagger
Angle.
4.3 TurbineLosses.
The overall efficiencyof the turbine is normally approximately90 to 95
per cent.The losseswhich preventthe turbine being 100per cent efficient
are due to a number of causes:a typical three stageturbine would suffer
a 3.5 to 4 per cent loss due to aerodynamiclossesin the turbine blades;a
further 4.5 per cent would be due to aerodynamic lossesin the nozzle
guide vanes,and the remainder to gas lossesover the rotor bladesand
through the exhaustsystem.
4.4 Construction.
The primarycomponents
of the turbineassembry
arethe nozzleguide
vanes,the turbine disc, and the turbine blades.
The rotating assembly,comprising the bladesmounted on their discs
and.the disc being mounted on the main shaft or shafts, is normally
carried in ball and/or roller bearings.The main turbine shaft may be
directly connected to the compressor at the front end of the engine, or it
may be coupledto the compressorvia a self-aligningcoupling.
IBB
TURBINES
(a) NozzleGuideVanes.
The aerofoil shapeof the nozzleguidevanesand the bladepassage
U.l*!." theadjaientvanesformsi "oru"rge.rtdggt ]h.ey arelocated
in the turbinecasingby oneof severalmethodsall of which allow for
expansion.
The nozzleguidevanesaresubjectedto very high thermalstresses
of
und gu, loads-andthey are utuiily hollow to allow the passage
coolingair deliveredfrom the enginecompressor' - -
figfr.4-6 displaysthe attachmintarrangementof thebladesto the
discand the coolingair flow.
I _.,
C O O L I N GA I R D I S P E L L E D
I N T OG A S F L O W
NOZZLE
G U I D EV A N E
T U R B I N EB L A D E
H.P.coOLlNG AtRINLET
/,
and BladeCooling'
Figure4-6 BladeAttachment
(b) TurbineDisc.
The turbinedisc is forgedand then machinedeitherwith an integral
It alsohas
Jaft or with a flangeJn to which the shaftmay be b9lt9!
piouirion for the aitachmentof the turbine blades.To limit the heat
a flow of cooling air
conductionfrom the turbinebladesto the disc,
is passedacrossboth sidesofeachdisc'
r89
'-'
L-
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
D E L A V A LB U L B R O O T F I RT R E E B . M ..W .H O L L O WB L A D E
Methocrs
Figure4-7 BladeAttachment
190
TURBINES
in Lossof Efficiency.
4.5 Reduction
Lossof efficiencyoccursacrossthebladetips of theturbineandto combat
this problemshioudsarefitted to the tips of the blades.The shroudsare
formedby forginga smallsegmentat the tip of each_individual bladeand
whenassembted on thediscform a continuous peripheral ring aroundthe
bladetips. Figure4-8 showsexamplesof turbine bladeshrouding.
i l
Figure4-B BladeShrouding.
r91
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
4.6 Compressor
and TurbineMatching.
It is veryimportantthat theflow characteristics
of theturbinebematched
with the compressorin order that the maximumefficiencymay be
obtainedand engineperformancemaximised.If the compressorand
turbinearenot matchedthiscouldresultin too high a flow whichwould
causethe compressorto chokeand a lossof efficiencywould occurvery
rapidly. Similarly,if the nozzleguide vaneswere allowedtoo low a
maximum flow then a back pressurecould build up causingthe
compressor to surge.
4.7 TurbineBladeCreep.
one of the major limiting factors to higher turbine entry temperaturesis
the effects of the gas temperature on the nozzle guide vanes and the
turbine blades,and the tensile stressimposed on the turbine disc and
bladesby the high rotational speeds.The high stresses on the component
parts of the turbine assemblymake it necessaryto restrict the turbine
entry temperature so that the various components may do their very
arduousjob, and to do it for a reasonableworking life.
The combination of high rotational speeds,setting up considerable
centrifugal force, coupled with very high temperaturesresult in the blades
beginning to 'creep'.In other words, 'creep' is the action of the
blades stretching due to the high temperaturesand centrifugal force.
If suchblade creepwereallowed to continue unchecked,the tips of the
blades would foul the outer casing, and/or stretch to the point when
the bladesfracture.
h ' l ; i
FRACTURE
PRIMARY
a {
I-CREEP
a
U
F
o r- SECONDARYCREEP ---l
L
u
u
1TERTIARY
CREEP{
Figure4-9 Stagesof
TIME BladeCreep.
192
TURBINES
F R E ET U R B I N E I
TURBINE
DRIVING
COMPRESSOR
Figure4-.10 FreeTurbineEngine
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
Turbines
l. Nozzleguidevanes:
(a) tendto straighten
thegasflow.
(b) arefittedimmediately
aftertheturbineassembly.
(c) givethe gasa swirl.
Ref.4.2.
2. The nozzleguidevanesare normally:
(a) divergent.
(b) convergent.
(c) concave.
Ref.4.2.
3. Thegastemperature:
(a) increases
as it passesthrough the turbine.
(b) remainsconstantasit passes throughthe turbine.
(c) reducesas it passesthrough the turbine.
Ref.4.2.
4. The nozzlesand bladesof the turbine are manufactured with a state
of-
twist to:
(a) generatea stateof swirl as it passesthrough the assembly.
(b) enlur.e the gas flow enters the exhaust system at uniform
axial
velocity.
(c) increaseblade reaction.
Ref.4.2.
5. Lossof efficiencyof turbine bladetips areminimisedby:
(a) bladetip shrouds.
(b) fir treeattachments.
(c) air bleed.
Ref.4.5.
194
TURBINES
6. Turbineblade'creep'maybe reducedby:
(a) bladetip shrouds.
(b) materialand air cooling'
(c) creeprestrainers.
R e f . 4 . 7& 4 . 4 .
engineshaftis normallymountedon:
7. The main turbine/compressor
(a) needleroller bearings.
(b) ball bearingsonlY.
(c) ball or roller bearings.
Ref.4.4.
9. A freeturbineis:
compressorof a two-spoolengine.
(a) connectedto the high pressure
(b) not connectedto the compressor.
(c) connectedto the low pressurecompressor'
Ref.4.8.
195
4a
ExhaustSystem
4a."1 Introduction.
The exhaustsystemofthe gas turbine enginepassesthe dischargegases
to atmosphere.The gasleavesthe turbine and, on most subsonicaircraft,
the gasesfrom a turbojet engine, are directed at high velocity and pres-
sure to produce thrust. In a turboprop enginethe exhaustgas velocities
and pressuresare relatively low as most of the energy has been absorbed
in the turbinesto drive the compressorand also the propeller.
The designof the exhaustsystemexertsa considerableinfluenceon the
performance of the engine. The areas of the jet pipe and propelling, or
outlet, nozzle affect the turbine entry temperature, the mass airflow and
the velocity and pressureofthe exhaustjet.
The temperatureof the exhaust gasesentering the exhaust systemis
normally between550degC and 850degC accordingto the type of engine.
Turboprop and Bypassengineshave a much cooler exhaustgas temper-
ature. With the useof afterburning,or reheat,the temperaturesin the jet
pipe could be as high as l500deg C or higher, however,by virtue of the
pattern of the flame and the system of cooling the impact of the higher
temperatureis not felt by the walls of the jet pipe. A higher temperature
than normal will neverthelessdictate the use of materialsand a form of
constructionwhich will resistcracking and distortion and also minimise
the conduction of heat to the surrounding aircraft structure.The after-
burnerjet pipe alsorequiresa variableexhaust,or propelling,nozzle.This
may take the form of a simpletwo positionnozzleor a truly variableposi-
tionnozzle which can be positionedat any point betweenfully closedand
fully open. The purpose of such nozzlesisto give the enginethe capability
of matching the different volumes of gas flow which occur when after-
burning is on or off.
196
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
TURBINE
REARFACE
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
System.
Figure4a-1 A BasicExhaust
197
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
tr COOLBY-PASSAIR
t HOT EXHAUSTGASES
Figure4a-2 B y - p a sAs i r M i x e rU n i t .
198
4b
Reheat/Afterburning
4b.1 Introduction.
A F T E R B U R N EDRU C T
Unit.
Figure4b-1 Locationof Afterburner
199
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
200
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
4b.4 AfterburningControl.
The afterburner/reheat systemrequirestwo basic functions to be
controlled:the fuel flow and the propellingnozzle;it is important that
thesefunctions work perfectly in co-ordinationwith eachother.When
afterburningis selectid on, the propellingnozzlearea automatically
increases. The amount the propelling nozzleopenswill be dependent
upon the degreeof afterburningselected which,in turn, dictatesthe fuel
flbw to the ifterburners.When the nozzleareais increasedthe fuel flow
increases,andwhen thenozzleareais reducedthe fuel flow decreases. The
fuelflow sensing deviceensures that the pressureratio acrossthe turbine
remainsunchan-ged and that the engineii unaffectedby the operationof
the afterburning,regardless of the nozzleareaand fuel flow'
Due to the la-rgeluel flows requiredto supplythe afterburnerwhen it
ui additionalfueipumpis needed.
is in operatio.r, This pumpis normally
of a centrifugaltype and is energised automaticallywhen reheatis
selected.
201
4c
ThrustReversal
4c.1 Introduction.
The progressivedevelopment of the modern airliner has seena consider-
able increasein both aircraft weight and landing speed;as a result
constant researchhas sought meansof reducing the length of the landing
run. A major contribution has beenthe fitting of thrust reversalto the gai
turbine engine.Thrust reversalis normally fitted only to turbojet enginis,
arrd provides a simple method of rapidly slowing the aircraft by reversing
the direction of the exhaustgases,thus using enginepower as a decelera-
tion force. use of this method avoids overheating of wheel brakes, and
makeslanding on wet, or ice and snow coveredrunwaysmuch safer.Some
aircraft have been designedto use thrust reversal in flight to reduce
aircraft speed;this is not, however, the normal modern prictice.
Figure 4c-l shows examplesof the effects of use ol thrust reversal
againstwheelbrakesonly.
4c.2 TurbopropAircraft.
on turboproppoweredaircraft,thrustreversal is achieved
by reversing
thepitchof thepropellers,thismethodis widelyusedandis discussed
in
depthin Part3 of thisvolume.
202
\
THRUSTREVERSAL
-t
120 c
m
roof
c
z WET RUNWAY
80o L A N D I N GW E I G H T- 6 0 , O O O I b
a
ooil
on2
' - x
z
zo9
the ducts
On selectionof reversethrust the doorsrotateto uncover
direct the
urJ "for. the normal gasstreamexit. Deflectorvanesthen
jet opposes
thrys-t the
nu, ,t..u* in a forwa"rddirectionso that the
the aircraft.Ideallythe gal shouldbe directed in
Fffi;ilil;;-;i
but thii is generallyimpracticable and
;;"fil"t.iyforwarddirection
; ;i;;til":angle of approximately 45-degrees is normally,chosen'
Reversethrust power is'normatty about halithe amount availablefor
forward proPulsion.
Thereareanumberofsafetyfeaturesincorporatedinthesystem
the engine
The pilot is preventedfrom selectingthrustreversalunless
throttle
ir-irriini.rgut u lo* power setting'bn selection'the engine
moveinto
.unnotbJopenedto u t'igttpoweisettingif thedoorsfail to
pressurefall
a full thrust reversepo"sition.Should the operating
during thrust reue.saliamechanical.lock holdi the doorsin the fully
ioi*u?0, or full thrust'reversal, position.This lock cannotbe released
until the air pressure is restored'
Fisure4c-2showsanexamplethrustreversalunitandFig.4
shorvsa moredetailedexampleof the clamshelltype'
203
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
=-----.---.f--
tl \ =-\ t t\
l \ :
V-.) V:
oPEN / RETRACTED
Figure4c-2 ExampleThrustReversalUnit'
(b) RetractableEiectorSYstem'
hydraulicallyand
The retractableelectorsystemrs normally both
door to reversethejet
pneumaticailyopirui.o und ur., a buckettype
stream.
Onselectionofreversethrust,hydraulicpressuremovestheejecto
rearwardsovertl;;;;;il*t norLl",thebucketsarethen rotatedby
in a forwarddirection.
a pneumati"u"t.,ut6,to deflJctthe gasstream
A number"f ,"f;;ti;;*i., ur" fittJ_to_providethe samebasicsafetv
type'
i"""tiont asthosefittedto the clamshelldoor
204
THRUSTREVERSAL
FIXEDCASCADE
CASCADETURNING T U R N I N GV A N E S
VANES(OPEN) C L A M S H E L ILN
REVERSETHRUST
REVERSE THRUST
POSITION
CLAMSHELLSTOWED
CASCADEVANESCLOSED
FORWARDTHRUST
Figure4c-3 ClamshellTypeThrustReverser.
COLDSTREAMFEVERSER IN IN
COLDSTREAMREVERSER
FORWARDTHRUSTPOSITION BEVERSE POSITION
THRUST
205
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
206
FuelSystems
5.1 Introduction.
The primary function of an aircraft gas turbine fuel system is to supply
clean fuel, free from vapour, to the engine at the required pressureand
flow rates and under a wide variety of operating conditions. Generally
speaking, the fuel system is designed to satisfy the requirements of the
particular aircraft in which it is installed'
5.2 BasicFuelSystem.
The followingis a basicfuel systemto familiarisethe readerwith the
essentialcomponents and their function within the fuel system.
207
FUELSYSTEMS
(c) General.
The fuel tank incorporates:
(i) A fuel contenis sensorwhich, through a transmitter, indi-
cates the fuel contents in the cockpit.
(ii) A filter at the outlet from the tank and sometimesa filter
is also fitted within the filler neck.
(iii) On many types a meansof pressurisingthe tank, usually
by bleedair from the enginecompressor,suitably cooled
and pressureregulated. The object of pressurisingthe
tank is to prevent the fuel bubbling at high altitude'
FILLERPOINT
FILTER
L O W P R E S S U R EO R
B O O S T E RP U M P
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
210
SYSTEMS
FUEL
tOW PRESSURE
FILTER
HEATEXCHANGER
SwashPlateTypePumpPrincipleof Operation,
VariableVolumeTYPe.
PISTON BLOCK
CYLINDER
YOKE
Figure5-3 SectionalDiagramof SwashPlatePump'
211
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
212
FUEL
SYSTEMS
H I G HP R E S S U ROEF M A I N H I G HP R E S S U R E
E N G I N ED R I V E N
PUMP -,- cocK
F U E LF L O WC O N T R O LU N I T
5.3 EngineFuelManifold.
Fuelis suppliedfrom thefuelsupplysystemto theenginefuelmanifold
system. On most modern aircraft there are two manifolds: the main
burner manifold and the primary burner manifold, both of which are
explainedin the sectionon combustionchambers.
(a) Introduction.
As with a piston engine,the maximum power output of a gas turbine
engine dependslargely upon the density of the airflow passing
through the engine.As altitude is increasedthe densityof the atmos-
phere reducesand as a result power declines.Equally power will be
lost, or a reductionin thrust will occur, when the ambient air temper-
ature increases.Under such conditions power output may be
213
C A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
(b) Injection.
There are two basicmethodsof introducingthe coolant (water/
methanol)into the engineairflow:
(i) The coolant on someenginesis sprayeddirectly into the
intake, or compressorinlet. When the injectionsystemis
switchedon, water/methanolis pumped from a tank
mountedin the airframeto a control unit. The control unit
metersthe flow of mixtureto the compressorinlet through a
meteringvalvewhich is operatedby a servopiston. Engine
oil is usedas the mediumto operatethe servosystemand a
THRUSTCONTROLLED
BY POWERLIMITER
?*x
U)
l
I
r
tr
4 ^ ^
a
X
10
- Deg.C.
AIR TEMPERATURE
214
FUELSYSTEMS
Figures 5-5 and 5-6 show the effects of coolant injection in a turbojet
engine and a turboprop engine.
G A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
70
-30 -10 10
- Deg. C.
AIR TEMPERATURE
216
FUELSYSTEMS
Section5 TestYourself
FuelSystems
fuelPumP:
l. Thelowpressure
(a) is normallydrivenmechanicallyby the engine.
driven.
(b) is normallyelectrically
(c) is drivenhydraulicallyby the enginelubricationsystem'
Ref.5.2.
217
EngineStartingSystems
6.1 Introduction.
StartSequence.
The start sequenceis automaticallyco-ordinatedand controlled in most
modern systems,and is typically as follows:
(a) Start Selected.
The selectionof enginestart will initiate rotation of the compressor
in order to createthe necessaryairflow to sustainengineoperation.
The most common methods used to initiate rotation are by an elec-
trically operatedstarter motor or an air start system.
(b) As the start button is depressed,with electricalpower'on'the starter
motor or air systemrotates the engine, and at the sametime ignition
is also switched'on'.
(c) After a pre-settime delay,which willnormally correspondto a given
218
NG SYSTEMS
ENCINE STARTI
90
I D L ER . P . M .
PEAK
,.7
r
STA T I N GT .T
S E I.F-SUSTAN I N GS PE E D
I D L tT , G . T
E
i ? n a \
JTARTERCIRCUI
CANCELLED
t
t--
X
/
.J rrcHr-up /
/ l l
' H . PF
, U E LO N
I
10
(l
- l G N r T rNoO N
/ / l ?n
START 10 15 20 25 30
SELECTED
SECONDS
START SEOUENCE
219
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
6.4 lgnition.
As alreadystatedin para6.2,initiationof ignitionis an automaticfunc-
tion oncethe start sequence has beenselected, and it is alsocancelled
a u t o m a t i c a l l yH. o w e v e r ,i g n i t i o ni s n o t o n l y u s e dd u r i n g t h e s t a r t
sequence: it may alsobe usedduringtake-off,relightingtheengineafter
220
SYSTEMS
ENCINESTARTING
2 8 V O L TD , C S
, UPPLY
{
D I RELIGHT
".]ICATORLIGHT'ON'
\rlt/,
-. --lo. tZ:
CUT.OFF
TIMESWITCH
FULLCURRENT
TIMESWITCH
it;
'?B.J
iit
i!
SLOWSTART
MAIN RELAY RESISTOR
PLUG
IGNITER
MoroR
STARTER
srARTcrRcurr
RELIGHT
CIRCUIT
BLOWOUTCIRCUIT
221
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
weather
a'flame-out'hasoccurred,andcontinuousoperationin adverse
conditions.
(a) Relighting.
As cln be seenin Fig.6-1, provisionis madefor relightingthe
enginein the eventof a flame-out.
P R E S S U RA
EI R
SUPPLY
VALVE
NON-RETURN
A.P.U.ELECTRIC
STARTER
NON-RETURN
VALVES
/
GROUND
START
SUPPLY
AIR STARTER
EXHAUSTAIR
222
S T A R T I NS
ENCINE GY S T E M S
6.s Relighting.
If a flame-out occursin flight the airflow passingthrough the enginewill
maintain a degreeof rotation of the compressorand turbine assembly.To
relight the engine all that is required is the operation of the ignition.
assumingan adequatefuel supply is available.Operation of the complete
start sequenceis not required,as the engineis still rotating (windmilling).
A separateswitch is provided in the ignition systemto permit the start
sequenceto be by-passedand ignition only provrded;this is termed the
relight switch.The ability of the engineto successfullyrelight varieswith
forward speed and altitude of the aircraft. Details relating to relight
proceduresare given in Engine Performanceand Handling.
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
Section6 TestYourselfEngineStartingSystems
l. In an automatic electricalstarting systemthe:
(a) ignition commencesten secondsafter the start button has been
pushed.
(b) ignition commencesat the sametime the starter motor engages.
(c) ignition commenceswhen fuel startsflowing into the combustion
system.
Ref. 6.2.
2.In an electricallyoperatedgas turbine start system,the electricmotor:
(a) must be manually disconnectedwhen the enginehas reachedthe
requiredrpm.
(b) is automatically switched off when the required rpm are reached.
(c) is automatically switched off after a specifiedperiod of time or the
engineis at sustainingrpm.
Ref. 6.3.
3. When relighting the enginedue to a flame-out:
(a) the full start sequencemust be used.
(b) the full start sequencemay be by-passedand use of the relight
button is made.
(c) auto ignition must be selected.
Ref. 6.5.
4. In an air start system:
(a) air is blown through the compressorinlet to rotate the engine.
(b) air is blown through the turbine to rotate the engine.
(c) air is suppliedto an air starter motor.
Ref. 6.3.
5. On a twin-spooledcompressorengine.on starting:
(a) both compressorelementsare rotated by the startermotor.
(b) the low pressurecompressoris startedby the motor.
(c) the high pressurecompressoris startedby the motor.
Ref. 6.3.
11 /1
7
Systems
Lubrication
7.1 Introduction.
The primary function of the gas turbine enginelubrication systemis to
srppiy oil to the main bearingsof the main drive shaft in order both to
prbuiAe adequatelubrication and also to cool the bearings.Figure 7-l
,ihowsthe location of the main bearingsin a typical gas turbine engine.
The number of main bearingsvariesdependingon enginetype, but gener-
ally thereare at leastfour or five and they are normally of a ball or roller
ty'pe.As well as lubricating the main bearingsoil is also fed to ancillary
drive gearboxeswhich drive such componentsas generators,hydraulic
pumpi and many other such items.In turboprop engines,the lubrication
iystem also provides oil to the reduction gearing of the propeller drive
mechanism.
The majority of gas turbine engine lubrication systemsare of a self
contained recirculatory type, that is a system with its own storage tank
from which a pump draws the lubricating oil and circulates it round the
system,lubricating and cooling the bearings, gears, drives and other
components,and then returns the oil to the tank.
7.2 RecirculatoryLubricationSystem.
(a) Tank.
The recirculatory type systemfirst requiresa storagetank which holds
a reserveof oil to compensatefor minor leakage,expansion of the oil
due to temperature increase,and also allows a spaceabove the oil in
the tank for frothing.
The tank usually incorporates a filter in the filler neck to prevent
any foreign objectsentering the tank and contaminating the oil. Some
tanks also have an additional filter at the outlet from the tank.
Figure 7-2 showsan exampleoil tank.
225
-a -
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
uJ lYi
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uJ
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SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
AERATORTRAY S I G H TG L A S S
FILTER
INLET
6
oa
'c= FILTERASSEMBLY
G
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6
c
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G
T
f
9p
L
+
OUTLET
227
r
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
(c) Strainers.
In each return line a straineris fitted to remove any particlesof dirt,
metal, or other form of contamination to prevent their continuing
recirculation and the consequentdamage they may inflict on the
systemand its components.
CONTINUOUS
G R O O V ET Y P E A L T E R N A T I VCEO N T I N U O U S
GROOVE
THREADTYPEOIL SEAL R I N GT Y P EO I L S E A L
Figure7-4 Examples
of Air ControlledOil Seals.
228
SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
7.3 LubricationSystem.
Expendable
The expendable, or total loss,lubricatingsystemis includedin this book
for comparisonpurposes.Generallythis type of systemwas used on
earliertypesof engineand is only seenon older operationalmachines.
Also theuseof thistypeof systemtendedto be confinedto smallengines.
The systemis light in weight,asit requiresno oil cooler,scavenge pumps
or filters,and thereforeis very simplein design.
primarilyof:
lubricatingsystemconsists
The expendable
229
-
-
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
system.
Figure 7-6 showsan exampleof an expendablelubrication
7.4 LubricatingOils.
gasturbineenginesusea.lowviscosity oil
(thin)lubricating
Generally mineral
whichis normallyr'ntnil. based,ie doesnot originatefrom
based
- crude oil-
properttes
c", turbine lubricating oils must retain their lubricating
remain resistant to oxida-
*nil" op"ruting at high temperaturesand also
There are many
co"nOitio-ns. types of synthetic oils used for
ii;;l"iuctr
manufactured to rigid speci-
nastu.bine enginesand they are necessarily
ffi;;J.'o;fth;;.commended
^'-i1'; for a particularenginemust be used'
to
g;r tuibine..rgin. is ableto uselow viscosityoils due mainly
heavy gearloadings. The
the ab#nce of reciprJcatingcomponentsand
startingthe
Dowerrequiremenii, tn.r."foreionsiderablyreducedand
prour"-, particularly at iow temperatures.Normal
;;;il ;;l;;;i;
at temperaturesas low as
;;;t;; siartscan be achievedwith gasturbines
-40degreesC.
230
SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
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C A ST U R B I NE
EN G I N E S
Section7 TestYourself
LubricationsSystems
oil pump:
1.Theoutputof theengine-driven
(a) varieswithengine
rpm.
(b) remainsconstantat all enginerpm values.
(c) varieswith enginedemand.
Ref.7.2.
2. Gasturbineenginemain bearingoil sealsarenormally:
(a) of the syntheticrubbertype.
(b) of the air controlledtype.
(c) of a nylon type.
Ref. 7.2.
3. Strainersarenormallyfitted:
(a) in the pressure
line.
(b) in the oil tank.
(c) in the return line.
Ref.7.2.
4. Oil meteringvalvesarenormallyfitted to theenginelubricationsystem
to ensure:
(a) an equalamountof oil is suppliedto eachbearing.
(b) a balancedsupplyof oil is providedfor the front bearing.
(c) a constantoil pressure
throughoutthe system.
Ref.7.3.
5. Gas turbine enginelubricating oils are normally:
(a) mineral based.
(b) naturalbased.
(c) synthetic based.
Ref.7.4.
232
B
FireProtection
8.1 lntroduction.
Gas turbine installations and their associatedequipment are designedand
constructedto minimise the occurrenceof an enginefire. It is essential,
ho*.u.., that if a failure does occur provision is made to detect and
*piorv extinguishany fire, and wherepossible,through the construction
oitfr. aircr#t airframe, coupled with the extinguishing systems,also
ensurethat the fire is prevented from spreading'
8.4 FireContainment-
In the eventof a fire occurringin an aircraft engine,or in its respective
from
i 6uVo,.pod, it is vital to containthe fire in that areaand preventit
rpieaOingto otherpartsof the aircraft. The cowlings which surround the
;G;;;;. nor*uily manufactured from light alloy which would be
,rrr"ubl.to contain the fire when the aircraft is static on the ground- In
nigfrt however,the airflow around the cowlings provides sufficient
"o"oti"gto renderthem fireproof. Bulkheadswhich are designedto
'fireproof bulkheads'or 'firewalls'and
contaii a fire, normally termed
do not havethe benefifof airflow over them in flight, are usuallymanu-
facturedfrom steelor titanium.
234
FIREPROTECTION
CONNECTIONS
7 2
TO FIREINDICAT-OR //
/ / /
FIRESEAL
it //
OVERHEATDETECTOR
C O N N E C T I O NTSO
OVERHEATINDICATOR
_
r -i- zoNE2 *.
FigureB-1 FireDectectorSYstem.
SYstem.
8.5 FireExtinguishing
Normally when a fire is detected,in particular on multi-enginedaircraft,
it is usuaj to shut down the engineimmediately.If the causeof the fire is
a fuel leak, allowing the engineto continuerunning simply meansthe fire
willcontinue to be*fedby the engine'sfuel system.In shutting the engine
down the high pressurefuel coCk *ill be closed,starving the engineof
further fuel.-It is also essentialto isolate the fuel systemrelated to the
affectedengine by closing the low pressurefuel cock. Any fuel pumps or
other components within the isolated area of fuel supply should be
switched off.
The fire extinguishantsused most commonly for gas turbine engines
are methyl-bronide or one of the freon compounds. The fire extinguisher
is normaily cylindricalin shapeand is pressurised. Suchextinguishersare
'Fixed Fire Extinguishers',that is to say they are not portable as
termed
may be found clippedto the cockpit or cabin wall. Methyl-bromide extin-
guishers
" are normally coloured grey or blue.
Th. extinguisherii locatedouisidethe fire zonefor which it is intended'
Normally srichextinguisherswould be located in the wing or an area of
the airframe fairly close to its fire zone.
235
J-
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
FIREPROOF P R E S S U RR
EE L I E F
BULKHEAD INDICATORS
SPRAYTUBE
BOTTLEFIRED
INDICATORS
FIRE
C O N T R O LH A N D L E
FIRINGUNITS
CARTRIDGE
System'
FigureB-2 Two-ShotFireExtinguisher
270
FIREPROTECTION
8.6 Extinguisher.
Extinguishers vary in construction but normally comprise two main
comp6nents(i) the steelor copper container and (ii) the dischargeor oper-
atins head.A sectionedview olan extinguisherwidely usedin a two-shot
systJmis shown in Fig. 8-3.The containeris in the form of a steelcylinder
and has an externally threaded neck to which the dischargehead is
screwed and solderea. fne discharge head contains two annular
machined diaphragms, each bearing an externally-threadedspigot on
inner end
which a hollow plug is screwedto form an annulus betweenits'flash'
and its respectivedftphragm. Each annulusis connectedby a hole
to a port iontaining the appropriatecartridge unit. Below, and concen-
tric with each diaphragm-and charge plug, is an adjustablehollow
junction box fitted with i union to which an extinguisherdischargepipg
ls connected.The lower end of the junction box is closedby a cap which
embodiesa dischargeindicator pin.
A banjo coupling-is fitted in the main body of the operating head and
servesaJa connectionfor a pressuredischargeindicator'
CONTAINER
OPERATING
HEAD
BANJO
COUPLING
TO PRESSURE
DISCHARGE
INDICATORDISCS
F i g u r eB - J M e t h y l - B r o m i dEex t i n g u i s h e r
237
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
z)o
FIREPROTECTION
Fire Protection
1. The majority of fixed aircraft fire extinguishersystemsuse:
(a) Methyl-bromideextinguishant.
(b) COzextinguishant.
(c) CarbonTetraFluorideextinguishant.
Ref.8.5.
systemis activated:
in a fixedfire extinguisher
l. Theextinguisher
(a) manuallybY a mechanical valve.
(b) electrically.
(c) by COzgasPressure.
Ref.8.5.
outletof a fixedfire extinguisher
3. A burstred discat the atmospheric
system indicates:
(a) the systemhasbeenusedto extinguisha fire'
(b) the systemis unserviceable.
(c) the extinguisherhasoverpressurised.
Ref.8.5.
4. In flight, enginecowlingsarefireproofedby:
(a) the airflow.
(b) titanium.
lagging.
(c) asbestos
Ref.8.2.
9.1 Introduction.
Icing of gasturbineenginescan occurduring flight_whenflying through
"io"?r c6ntainingsupJrcooledwater droplets,and also during ground
operationsin conditionsof poor visibility with an air temperaturenear
-
freezing.
in. las turbine enginerequiresprotectionagainstthe formation and
brilJ-6 of ice in frJnt of tire etrginein the intake region, and on the
---eig,ir.edgesof air intakeducts.
leading
qll showstheareasof theengineand intakewhichareequipped
with ice protection devices.
240
SYSTEMS
ICEPROTECTION
INTAKELEADING INTAKESTRUTS
EDGE
I
F U E LH E A T
=l EXcHANGER
>!l*,q
:rY ff--"
t.y u-,eb -a
aT ,ror o,,-
7 PUMP'l
scnverucE
I r or ar n
6 ott-
@ etectatcat
OIL COOLER
NOSECOWLING
I N T A K EG U I D EV A N E S
PRESSURE
REGULATING
VALVE
TO NOSE
OUTLET
COWLING
9.5 ElectricalSystem.
Electricalsystemsare more commonlyusedon turboprop engines
primarily because this form of iceprotectionis bestsuitedfor the protec-
iion of propellersagainst ice formation. Electricallyheated pad
assemblies aie bondedto air intakecowlings,the propellerbladesand
spinner (where applicable)and alsoon someinstallations the oil cooler
intakecowling.
The electricallyheatedpadsconsistof strip conductorssandwiched
betweenlayersof Neoprene,or glassfibrecloth impregnated with epoxy
resin.Someheatersare heated continuously, as an anti-icing system
preventing theformationof iceon theleading edges,whilstother elements
areheatedintermittently.
The latter type of elementis dividedinto sectionsby breakerstrips
whichareheatedcontinuouslY.
Figure9-3 showsan electricallyheatedelementassembly includingthe
breakerstriptypeof installation.
LAYERSOF GLASSCLOTH
ELECTRICAL
JUNCTION
BOX
E L E C T R I C AELL E M E N T S
u C O N T I N U O U S LH Y E A T E DE L E M E N I ' S
tr I N T E R M I T T E N T LHYE A T E DE L E M E N T S
HeatedElementAssembly.
Figure9-3 Electrically
242
SYSTEMS
ICEPROTECTION
a
LU
AIR PROPELLER AIR
ITJ
o_
INTAKE AND INTAKE
cYcLtc SPINNER cYcLtc
AIR INTAKECONTINUOUS
SLOW SPEED O 60 15 165 180
FAST SPEED O 20 25 55 60
SECONDS
Figure9-4 CycleSequence.
The continuously heated breaker strips limit the size of the area on which
ice can form on the intermittently heated areas.
The cycling time of the intermittently heated elements is arranged to
ensuretlrat tfr'eenginewill not be seriouslyaffectedby the amount of ice
that may buil<l-upduring the heat-off period, and the heat-ontime is long
enough to "nruri that any ice which has formed will be freed from the
area.
A two-speedsystemis often used to accommodatethe propeller and
spinner requirements,a fast cycle at higher atmospheric ternperatures
when the water concentrationis usually greater,and a slow cycle when
lower atmospherictemperaturesprevail.
Figurc 9-4 showsan examplecycling sequencechart'
243
G A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
HEATINGELEMENTS
OR PADS
Heated
9-5 Electrically
Figure Propeller
lceProtectiorr.
244
ICEPROTECTION
SYSTEMS
Section9 TestYourself
Ice ProtectionSystems
of iceprotection
I . Hot air for thepurpose is normallyobtained
systems
tiom:
(a) heaterelements.
(b) the low pressurestagesof the compressor.
(c) the high pressurestagesof the compressor.
Ref. 9.4.
L The air pressurein the heatedair systemof ice protection is:
(a) the sameas the enginecompressorpressure.
(b) controlled by a pressurerelief valve.
(c) controlled by a pressureregulator valve.
Ref. 9.4.
3. The electricallyheatedice protection system:
(a) heats air which is then ducted to specific areas.
(b) heatspads which are bonded to certain points.
(c) heatsoil which is ducted to certain points.
Ref. 9.5.
4. Ice is most likely to form:
(a) at low atmospherictemperatures.
(b) at high atmospherictemperatures.
(c) at any atmospherictemperature.
Ref.9.6.
5. Propellerice protection pads are:
(a) heatedby hot air.
(b) locatedtowards the blade tip.
(c) locatedtowards the blade root.
Ref. 9.7.
245
10
EnginePerformance
and Handling
10.1 lntroduction.
The handling requirementsof gasturbine enginesvary accordingto type,
and this chapteris a guideto someof the more generalfeaturesand prob-
lems.For specificdata the particular enginesmanualsmust be consulted.
10.3 Starting.
On most gas turbine aircraft the engine starting sequenceis automatic
once enginestart has beenselected.Prior to initiating the start sequence,
the low pressureand high pressurefuel cocksmust be turned ON, and the
low pressurefuel pumps must be turned ON to allow a fuel flow to the
engine-drivenhigh pressurefuel pumps. Normally the throttle should be
kept closed during the engine start sequence.On some installations
protection devicesprevent the start sequencebeing initiated unlessthe
throttle is in the closed position. Failure to ensurethat the throttle is
closed during the start sequencecan on some engines result in over-
fuelling of the engine.
With an electricalstarting systemthe start button should be pushedin
and held for two to three secondsand then released.The starter sequence
relaywill first supplya low voltagecurrent to drive the startermotor, then
current to the boostercoils for the ignition systemigniters,and linally a
high voltagecurrent to the startermotor which then accelerates the engine
at a great rate.
During the initial stagesof engineaccelerationthe fuel pressurerises;
'on
the high pressureor engine-drivenfuel pumps will have moved to the
load' or'on stroke' position when the enginewas previously shut down
246
E N C I NP AC
EE R F O R M A N DH A N D L I N C
NE
247
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
Note: Insufficient power on engine starting will also reduce the effec-
tivenessof the igniters.
10.6 EngineResonance.
During starting of the engine,resonancemay occur on light-up and can
be recognisedby a rumbling sound from the engine.This situationusually
occurs due to a degree of overfuelling, and may be overcome by partial
248
E N G I NP
EE R F O R M A N
ACNE
DH A N D L I N C
10.9 Taxying.
Rapid and unnecessarilyfrequent opening and closing of the throttle
should be avoided while taxying, becauseit can lead to overfuelling
which, in turn, can causesurgingand resonance,and this in turn will lead
to increasedenginegas temperature.
The initial responseof the engine to throttle movement is generally
slow, and considerablepower may be required to start moving some
larger types of aircraft. Once the aircraft starts to move, however, the
power requiredduring taxying is relativelysmall.
Axial flow enginesare, as stated in previous chapters,susceptibleto
compressorstall and surge,particularly at low enginerpm, which can be
considerablyaggravatedin crosswind conditions. The combination of
low enginerpm and crosswindsis likely to occur during taxying and it
may be necessaryto use a slightly higher rpm to reducestall tendencies.
In extreme conditions the turning of the aircraft into wind to recover
from enginestall may be the only answer.It is therefore essentialto avoid
rapid throttle movements in such situations.Should the engine
stall, then the throttle must be closedslowly and then re-openedslowly to
249
C A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
10.10 Take-Off.
As in the caseof aircraft taxying in crosswindconditions and the conse-
quent danger of engine surge,the situation is even more critical during
take-off in crosswind conditions. Should engine stall or surge occur
during take-off, not only will engine power be lost at a critical time, the
surgeor stall could also leadto a 'flame-out'. Modern gasturbine engines
are equippedwith various aids to minimise the onset of enginestall and
its relatedconditions;even so, every precautionmust be taken to ensure
any such situation does not arise.The throttle must be moved smoothly
and slowly as engine rpm are increasedfor take-off, and the engine must
be monitored closelyto ensurethere is not the slightestindication of the
onset of surge or stall. Engine gas temperaturemust be correct, neither
too high nor indeed, too low. Monitor that such devices,discussedin
previous chapters are functioning correctly. For take-off Inlet Guide
Vanesmust be fully open, IntermediateBleedValvesoperatingcorrectly,
Variable Statorsoperatingcorrectly,and rear or main BleedValvesoper-
ating correctly.
Additionally, most modern aircraft require as further protection that
the Auxiliary Power Unit be running during take-off as an insurance
againstmain generatorsupply failure, and the igniter systemoperatingto
give instant re-light in the event of a flame-out occurring.
10.11 Climbing.
If the correct climbing speedsare not used,and particularly if the speed
is too low, the rate of climb is thereforereduced.At high altitudes,unless
the correct speedis used the aircraft will not climb at all. During climb
at the recommendedrpm and airspeed,a careful watch must be kept on
the engine gas temperature (which should not exceed the permitted
maximum), the throttle being closedslightly if necessary.
Under certain conditions some engines are prone to surge while
climbing at higher altitudes. With centrifugal compressor enginesthe
symptom of a surgeis a muffled detonation in the engineand to reduce
or rectify the situation, the throttle should be closed slightly and/or the
airspeedincreased.
With an axial flow enginethere may be indication of surgeby a loud
'cough' 'bang'
or from the engine or there may be no audible warning
beforethe surge,the first symptom being a lossof power or a 'flame-out'.
If a suddenlossof power occursthe throttle must be closedimmediately;
250
ENGINE
P E R F O R M A NA
CNED H A N D L I N C
if a flame-out has also occurred then the high pressurefuel cock must be
.-losedaswell asthe throttle. This type of surgenormally only occursif the
climbing speedis lower than normal. If the climbing speedfalls below
the correct figure at high altitude, power should be reduced below the
climb rpm while speedis restored by diving the aircraft until the correct
speedis obtained.
In spite of the Barometric PressureControl, the rpm for a given throttle
setting may tend to increasewith increaseof altitude. With increase of
altitude the atmospherebecomeslessdenseso reducingthe back pressure
on the engine and thereby causing the engine rpm to increasewhile the
thrust will reduce.
Therefore to maintain constant rpm the throttle should be progres-
sivelyclosed.The more modern types of gasturbine with improved engine
control systemshave a reducedtendencyfor rpm to vary with altitude for
a given power setting.
'10.12 GeneralHandling.
The principles of handling the gas turbine engine are determined by the
fact that it best operatesat a fixed throttle setting. The engine consistsof
a matched set of primary components which are designedto give an
optimum performance at a given throttle setting, therefore any deviation
from such matched settings, such as low fuel/air ratio, excessivelyhigh
massflow at intake, will be a deviation from normal engineoperation. By
the sametoken, movement of the throttle, from the optimum setting will
also constitute a deviation from normal operation. It must also be noted
that constant changesof the throttle setting will increasewear and there-
fore reduce the life of the engine.
Various devicessuch as variable inlet guide vanes (Swirl Vanes),
Barometric PressureControl, Automatic Control Unit, Bleed Valves and
others, are there to assistthe pilot in maintaining a balanced control of
the engine when changing the thrust condition. Even with such devices,
however, great care must be taken when operating the throttle. Should
any device suffer a malfunction, successfulcontrol of the engine can still
be maintained but even greater attention must be paid to throttle
handling and the preservation of a good flow in the compressor.
At high altitudes gas turbine engines become extremely sensitive to
throttle movement and the range of movement between idling and full
power may be very small due to:
(a) The lower limit which is dictated by the higher idling rpm required
to provide adequatefuel pressurefor combustion and/or cabin pres-
surisingrequirements.
251
G A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
(b) The upper limit dictated by the throttle position above which the
rpm and/or engine gas temperature limits are exceeded.
If the throttle is opened too rapidly this may result in a momentary
increasein enginegastemperaturefollowed by a flame-out.In this event,
or if the engine is intentionally stopped in flight, the high pressurefuel
cock should be closedimmediately.Note that when relighting an engine
at altitude the enginestarter motor systemshould not normally be used
as this may damage the engine; the airflow through the engine will
normally give adequaterpm for relighting.
"10.14
Axial Flow Type Engines.
If, when the throttle is opened, the rpm remain constant and the engine
gastemperaturerisesto the maximum permitted level,the throttle should
be fully closed immediately:thesesymptoms indicate that surging or a
stalled compressor condition exists. After the throttle has been fully
closedit may be openedagainprovided that the throttle movementis kept
slow. At the sametime specialattention must be paid to the enginegas
temperatureto ensurethat it remainswithin limits and a repeatsurgeor
stall doesnot occur.
Low enginerpm should be avoided as much as possible;if, however,
the rpm has beenallowed to drop below the flight minimum value,when
the throttle settingis thereafterincreasedthe movement must be carried
out slowly, againdue to the possibilityof surgeor stall in the compressor.
Particular attention must be paid to this when on the approach with the
airspeedlow and the aircraft sinking in a nose-up attitude which may
causethe airflow to stall at the lips of the engineintakes. If the rpm are
kept at or above the recommendedvalue on the landing approach,until
the decisionactuallyto land has beenmade,suchsurgeor stall conditions
can be avoided.
Above 3000ftthe effectof the AccelerationControl Unit is reducedon
someengines,and any rapid accelerationof the enginecausesoverfuelling
which can then leadto stallingor surgingof the compressor.Engineaccel-
eration deteriorateswith increasedaltitude and care must therefore be
taken when increasingpower at high altitudes.For the samereasoncare
P E R F O R M A NA
ENCINE CNED H A N D L I N G
1 0 . 1 8 En g i n el ci n g .
Centrifugalcompressorenginesdo not encounterseriousicing problems,
mainly becauseof the combination of centrifugalforce,temperaturerise
and ruggedconstructionfound in this type of gasturbine.The only condi-
tion which may presenta problem to this type is the occurrenceof severe
ambient icing.
Axial flow compressorsare seriously affectedby the sameatmospheric
conditionsthat causeairframe icing. Ice may form on the inlet guidevanes
253
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
255
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
10.23 Relighting
TurbojetEngines.
In the event of a flame-ou_toccurring in flight a relighting of the engine,
providing there is no.mechanical or system failure,ls noimally poriiut.
on modern gas turbine engines. with some engines relighting is
possibleup to 35,000feet, but in most casesmuchlower altiludes-are
recommendedand, generally,the lower the altitude the greaterthe degree
of success.
If flame-out occurs the following actions should be taken.:
(a) clo_se,thehigh pressurefuel cock immediately to prevent the accu-
mulation of fuel in the engine which wourd make relighting much
more difficult.
(b) Fly at the recommendedrelighting indicated air speedand altitude.
(c) Ensure that at least one low pressurefuer cock and booster pump
are on, that the fuel pressurewarning light is out, and that there is
enough fuel in the selectedfuel tanr<s.
(d) Switch on the relight and emergencybooster pump if fitted.
(e) Set the throttle to the recommended position. This will vary with
aircraft types, as experience has shown that, while some engines
relight more readily with the throttle in the fully closed posltion
others relight more effectively with the throttle paitially open.
(0 Ensurethat the master starting switch and ignition switch, if fitted,
are in the ON position.
(g) Pressthe relight button and open the high pressurefuel cock to the
fully open position.
(h) Immediately a rise in rpm or engine gas temperature is indicated,
releasethe relight button and closethe throttie. The engineshould
then accelerateto_idlingrpm for the altitude and may thei be opened
up slowly to the desired figure.
10.24 GasTurbineEngineRatings.
Introduction.
Generallyengines of theturbojettypeareratedin poundsof thrustdevel-
oped,and this in turn is divided into specificthrust ratingsfor specific
functions.Broadlytheyareasfollows:
(a) Take-offRatedThrust.
(b) MaximumContinuous.
256
E N C I NP AC
EE R F O R M A N NE
DH A N D L I N C
rc) MaximumClimb.
rd) MaximumCruise.
le) Idle.
For practicalpurposesthe enginerating is normally interpretedin terms
.-rfenginepressureratio (EPR) or on someengines,mostlymilitary, by a
specificthrottle setting.
(a) Take-offRatedThrust.
will normallybe obtainedat a throttle settingbelowthe full forward
positionand may be sub-divided into two categories:
Take-off(Wet)
This is the maximumtake-offthrustcertifiedfor enginesthat use
waterinjection.Theratingis selected by operatingthewaterinjec-
'Wet'
tion system and settingthe throttle to obtain the computed
Take-offThrustin termsof enginepressure ratio. This ratingis
restricted normally to take-off, is time limited, and has altitude
and ambientair or waterlimitations.
Take-off(Dry)
This is themaximumthrustcertifiedwithout waterinjection.The
rating is selectedby settingthe throttle to obtain the computed
Take-off (Dry) thrust in terms of enginepressureratio for the
prevailingconditionsof ambienttemperatureand barometric
pressure.The rating is time limited,and is usedonly for take-off,
and as required,for ReverseThrust whenlanding.
257
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
(e) Groundldle.
Ground Idle is the minimum thrust at which the enginemust
be operatedat specifrcground or flight conditionswhen the
throttleleveris placedin the groundidle position.
Commercialenginesare part throttle engines,that is, rated thrust is
obtainedat lessthan full throttle position.Taking their namefrom the
shapeof the take-offthrustcurve,the so calledpart throttleenginesare
alsoknownas'FlatRated'engines.
Section10 TestYourself
and Handling
EnginePerformance
l. A gasturbineengine,on starting,acceleratesto a figurebelowidle rpm
andfails to above
accelerate that value,this indicates:
(a) a wet start.
(b) a hungstart.
(c) a surgecondition.
Ref. 10.3.
L Whenthegasturbineengineis shutdown,thehigh pressurefuel pump:
(a) will moveto the off loadposition.
(b) will remainat the settingit is in at time of shut down.
(c) will moveto the on loadposition.
Ref. 10.3.
3. Prior to enginestarting,the throttle:
(a) mustbe setat groundidle.
(b) mustbe setat a valueabovegroundidle.
(c) mustbe closed'
Ref. 10.3.
4.If an enginefailsto start,the:
(a) highpressurecockshouldbeclosedwhentheenginehasstopped.
(b) highpressurecockshouldbeclosedassoonasignitionis switched
off.
(c) high pressurecock shouldbe closedas soon as failureto start
becomes apparent.
Ref. 10.4.
may be reduced,duringstartingby:
5. On someenginetypes,resonance
(a) increasing
thethrottlesetting.
(b) fully closingthehighpressure
cock.
(c) partiallyclosingthehigh pressure
cock.
Ref. 10.6.
259
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
260
'11
GasTurbineControlsand Instrumentation
11.1 Introduction
This chapteris intendedto give the readera basicknowledgeof the
generalcockpit controls and instrumentsrelating to the gas turbine
enginein the averageaircraft. Controls and instrumentationvary from
oneaircrafttypeto another,but most of the primary controlsand instru-
mentsto be found are listedbelow.
(e) Reheat.
Reheat, or afterburning, is controlled by a lever in the cockpit. On
most modern aircraft the variable exhaust or propelling nozzle is
controlled automaticallv.
261
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
11.3 GasTurbineInstrumentation.
Although engineinstallationsmay differ, dependingupon the type of
aircraftand engine,gasturbineenginecontrol will usuallydependupon
use of the following instrumentation.Enginethrust indication will be
dealtwith separately.
262
CASTURBINE
CONTROLS
AND INSTRUMENTATION
(c)
FuelFlow Indicator- The fuel flow indicatorshows
the fuel flow to the fuel nozzlesin pounds(or kilo-
grams)per hour. Fuel flow is of fundamental
interestfor monitoring inflight fuel consumption,
for checkingengineperformance,and for inflight
cruisecontrol. The relationshipof abnormal fuel
flow to the readingsof the other instruments will provide one of the best
indications of the probable causeof an engine malfunction.
(d) Oil Pressure Indicator - To guard against engine
failures resulting from inadequate lubrication and
cooling of the various engineparts, the oil supply to
critical areas must be monitored. The oil pressure
indicator shows the pressurerelayed by the oil pres-
sure transmitter. On most installations, the oil
pressure
transmittertakesbreatherpressure relaying
into consideration,
drop acrossthe oil jets in the oil system.
thetruepressure
(e) Oil Inlet TemperatureIndicator - The ability of the
engine oil to perform its job of lubricating and
cooling is a function of the temperature of the oil, as
well as the amount of oil supplied to the critical
areas. An oil inlet temperature indicator is
frequently provided to show the temperature of the
oil as it entersthe enginebearing compartments. Oil
inlet temperature also servesas an indication of proper operation of the
engineoil cooler.
(0 Fuel Inlet PressureIndicator- Fuel systemcharac-
teristicsfrequentlymakeit advisableto monitor the
luelpumpinletpressure. In caseof fuelflow stoppage
in flight, it is desirableto determinewhethertrouble
has developedin the engineor in the aircraft fuel
263
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
j""fiJ,,rffi'JJ,1?'J'irEf "i:
'lr:l c,,ril, \ .T
usedtogether
-on for indicating
andsetting
/ :i:,L 1i-,'
'f--=,
t*ffi i=i -* \v thrust un engineinsLiled in an
x{i.$/ &Liiy il:"Jlli'l#:X;,x':'#:#:ii?l:
obtainedby the pilot at 100per centrpm and a specifiedEGT. The speci-
fied EGT is establishedon a thrust-measuringground test stand by
varyingthe exhaustnozzleareaofthe engineas necessary
to achievethe
desiredtemperature.
264
E O N T R O LASN D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N
G A ST U R B I N C
TAKEOFF
THRUST
M A X I M U MC O N T I N U O U S
RATEDTHRUST
cc -
f
F = z
E 500
a
Ul
tr
I a
i! I l uJ
F -J
i UJ
2 4so l
an 1' z
tr
F uJ z o
a z
l 5 =
tr L
I L
X f
l
U u,J
l = = v
X
x F
E P E R A T I NCGO N D I T I O N
E N G I NO
CasTemperature
Figure11-1 Exhaust Limitsfor
TypicalCommercialEngine.
265
G A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
with the exception noted in para (a), engine rpm is considereda very
poor parameter for setting and checking engine thrust on axial flow
turbojet and turbofan-engineshaving fixed exhaust nozzle areas. Many
complications arise when rpm is utilised as the controlling variable on
such engines.The most important of theseare:
(i) Sincethe high pressurecompressorrpm on dual axiar flow engines,
or the rpm of the whole compressoron singlecompressorengines,
is governed by the fuel control, rpm does not provide an accurate
means of determining whether or not the complete engine is func-
tioning properly. As an example, rpm will not enabG an engine
operator to detect a damaged or dirty compressor unless rpm is
carefully used in conjunction with other engine variables suih as
fuel flow, exhaustgas temperature,and enginepressureratio.
(ii) Becausethe enginesare'trimmed'by a fuel contror adjustmentto
produce full rated thrust at a fixed throttle position on a standard
day, rpm for any given thrust condition will vary slightly among
individual engines, depending upon the engine trim speed. The
variation in rpm must be taken into considerationwheneverrpm
is used to measurethe thrust being developed by the engine. This
introduces a complication which cannot be torerated whenever
precisethrust settingsare necessaryduring flight.
(iii) on dual compressoraxial flow engines,one per cent variation in
rpm results in approximately four per cent variation in thrust at
the higher thrust settings for the low pressure compressor (N,),
and five per cent variation for the high pressurecompressor (Nr),
whereas one per cent variation in turbine discharge pressure or
enginepressureratio resultsin only one and one half per cent vari-
ation in thrust.The five per centvariation in thrust foi one per cent
variation in rpm also holds true for single compressor axiar flow
engines.
(iv) Rpm does not vary in direct proportion to the thrust being
produced by the engine over the entire thrust range.
For these reasons some manufacturers recommend that turbine
dischargepressure,or enginepressureratio, be used as the enginevari-
able for indicating thrust on axial flow engineswith fixed arei exhaust
nozzles.The use of either of theseis not only much simpler under most
conditions than the use of rpm for enginesof this type, but is consider-
ablv more accurateas well.
266
E O N T R O LASN D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N
C A ST U R B I N C
for MeasuringThrust(andPowerfor
11.4 Instrumentation
Turboprops).
For enginesotherthan thoseusingfully variableexhaustnozzles,turbine
discharge pressureor enginepressure ratio can be usedto indicateor set
enginethrust becausetheyvary proportionallyto the thrust the engineis
developing.Most turbojet- and turbofan-poweredaircraft today are
instrumentedfor enginepressureratio, and this is the parametergener-
allyusedto setor measure enginethrustduringtake-off,climbandcruise.
For very accuratethrust measurement, suchas during groundtrimming
of an engine,turbinedischarge pressure is often employedto measure
is
thrust.In suchcases,it common practice temporarilyto connecta
turbinedischarge pressure indicatorto the enginefor thedurationof the
enginetrim run.
Thisis how thetwo methodsof enginepressure measurement function:
-
TurbineDischargePressureIndicator This instrumentindicatesthe
internalenginepressure upstreamof thejet nozzle,immediately aft of the
laststageof theturbine(P,,or P,r),andserves asan indicationof thepres-
sureavailableacrossI"henozzleto generatethrust. Turbine discharge
pressuremustbe usedin conjunctionwith T,, and P,r,aswill beexplained
later.
| 1.5 EnginePressureRatioIndicator.
This instrument indicatesthe
e n g i n e p r e s s u r er a t i o a s a
measure of the thrust being
developedby the engine.This
is the ratio of the turbine
dischargetotal pressureto the
equivalent of the compressor
inlet total pressure (P,r/P,, or
P,7/P,J.Values for P,, must be
corrected for inlet duct loss
on the enginepressureratio
curves or charts by the
aircraft manufacturer.
Therefore, both for static (ie take-off) and flight use, the actual value for
P,, will vary among different aircraft types and models becauseof instal-
lation effects.However, the relation of P,, at the engine face to both P.-
for static conditions and for Po- plus P, (the pressuredue to ram) in flight
is determined during early flight testing for each aircraft model, and is
used thereafter as the referencepressure for P,r/P,, or P,r/P,r.The true
(field) barometric pressureon the take-off runway is P.- and P"- plus P,
267
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
268
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
GASTURBINE
11.6 RelatedTerms.
Lpl Lv Specificheatsat constantpressureand volume
C Coefficient or constant
ESHP Equivalent shaft horsepower (turboprop)
ESFC Equivalent specific fuel consumption (turboprop)
Fs Gross thrust (lb)
Frr Net thrust (lb)
'J
D
Acceleration due to gravity, and mass conversion factor,
32.174
k,y Gamma - ratio of specifrcheats (co,c')
M Mach number (velocity of airspeeddivided by the speedof
sound at the appropriate air temperature)
N Compressor speed (rpm or per cent) for a single
compressorenglne
Nr Speed(rpm or per cent) of the low pressurecompressoroI
a dual compressor engine, or the compressor speed(rpm
or per cent) of a singlecompressorengine equipped with a
free turbine.
Nz Speed(rpm or per cent) of the high pressurecompressorof
a dual compressor engine, or the free turbine speed(rpm
or per cent) of a single compressorengine equipped with a
free turbine.
N; Free turbine speed(rpm or per cent) of a dual compressor
engine equipped with a free turbine.
269
G A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
270
CASTURBINE AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
Construction
Compressors/Intakes
I Compressionratio is the ratio betweencompressorinlet pressure
and compressoroutlet pressure.
2 Stator bladeson an axial flow compressorconvert kinetic energy to
pressureenergy.
3 Inlet guide vanes(IGVs) reducethe possibility of compressorstall,
by guiding the intake air on to the first stageof rotor bladesat the
correct angle.
4 Bleedvalvesare open at low rpm to bleedoff somecompressorair,
to reducethe possibilityof a surge.
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
Assembly
Turbines/Exhaust
I Nozzle guide vanes(NGVs) are fitted to acceleratethe gas flow and
direct it onto the turbine at the correct angle of attack.
2 Across the turbines, velocity, pressureand temperature decrease.
3 Turbine blade creep is a product of heat and centrifugal force.
4 A tight fit between the turbine disc and blades is ensured by
centrifugalforce and blade compressionloads.
272
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
CASTURBINE
CombustionChambers
I In the combustion chamber, the pressureremains constant and
combustionis self-suPPorting.
2 The chemicallycorrect mixture ratio of air to fuel is l5:1, but the
overallairlfuel ratio can vary between45:1and 130:I during normal
runningconditions.
3 The highest temperature, of approximately 2,000"C, is experienced
in the combustionzone.
4 Aswirl vane is fitted in the noseof the flame tube around the burner
head and its function is to anchor and stabilise the flame.
5 A toroidal vortex is a region in the combustion chamber of low
velocity recirculation which anchors and stabilisesthe flame.
273
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
Systems
Fuel Systems
I The LP cock isolatesthe airframefuel systemfrom the enginefuel
system,to enablemaintenance to be carriedout'
2 The LP cock shouldnot be usedto shut down the engine,because
the fuel pump and other fuel componentswould run dry'
3 The LP cockwould beturnedoff in theeventof a crash,to minimise
the possibilityof an enginehre.
4 The dangerof ice formation in the fuel systemfiltersis reducedby
usinga heatingsystemor a fuel cooledoil cooler.
5 When the engineis stopped,the fuel pump servo-pistonspringwill
put the pumPto maximumstroke.
6 If the swashplate(yoke) of the fuel pump is perpendicularto the
axisof the pump drive shaft,the flow will be minimum'
7 The maximumrpm of the engineis affectedby the specificgravity
of the fuel,ie, higherSG - lower max rpm.
8 The hydro-mechanical governorwhich controlsmaximumengine
rpm is unaffectedby the SG of the fuel.
9 The barometricpressurecontrol (BPC) variesthe fuel flow to the
burnersby meansof spill valveswhich are adjustedby changesin
aircraft speed,altitudeand throttle position.
l0 Attenuatorsarefitted in the flow control unit (FCU), to damp out
pressuresurges.
II The accelerator control unit (ACU) is fitted to limit the rate of fuel
flow increaseduring acceleration, to correspondwith massairflow
throughtheengine.
12 The ACU will preventstalling and surgingduring fast accelera-
tions.
l3 The pressurecontrol systemand the proportionalflow control
systemareboth hydro-mechanical.
274
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
CASTURBINE
Lubrication,CoolingandSealing,ReverseThrust
I The type of oil usedin a gas turbine is synthetic,anti-freeze,low
viscosityand hasa high flashpoint'
2 The scavenge pumphasa greatercapacitythan thepressure pumps,
but the pressurepump providesa higher pressure'
3 filter.
The return oil is filteredby a scavenge
4 To give early warning of bearingfailure, magneticchip detectors
arefitted in scavenge lines.
5 Reversethrust is usedto reduceaircraft speedafter landing, by
changingthe directionof the exhaustgasflow.
6 to reduceairflow
Cascadevanesarefitted in reversethrust systems,
turbulenceand guidethe exhaustgasesforward'
7 Reversethrustshouldnot beengagedat low aircraftspeed,because
of the dangerof ingestionof hot exhaustgasesinto the intake.
8 Reversethrustcannotbe engagedunlessthe engineis at idle.
9 An interstagesealis used to form controlledrestrictionto the
passage of air or gas.
10 Oil is preventedfrom leakingby sealsand air pressure'
275
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
276
GASTURBINE AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
277
G A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
GroundHandling
I Jetaircraftarepositionedinto wind for groundruns,to preventthe
re-entryof hot gasesinto the air intake.
2 Ifjet piperesonance is experienced on start-up,the HP.cockshould
Uepaitiattyclosedandthenopenedfully immediatelytheresonance
stops.
3 A 'hung' start occurswhen the enginelights up, but fails to accel-
erate.
4 When ground running at high rpm, the throttle shouldbe closed
slowlyind theengineallowedto idle beforeshuttingdown,to allow
the engineto cool down and relievethermalstresses.
.Run-down'time is the time taken for an engineto stop after the
5
HP cockis closed.
6 Gasturbinepressureratio (EPR) is the ratio of thejet pipepressure
to thecompressor inletPressure.
Reduction in engine efficiency could by causedby ice formation tn
the intake.
Compressor run-down time is dependent upon the freedom of the
compressor,turbines and engine-driven accessories.
Heavy tropical rain at high ambient temperaturesmay require the
use of ignitors during take-off.
l0 by a low fuel flow and a high EGT.
A,hung'start is accompanied
278
12
TheModernCasTurbineEngine
12.1 Introduction.
The progressivedemand for greater efficiency,economy and quieter
enginesf,as produceda number of variationsof the basic gas turbine
engine.
F.* "o--ercial aircraft are poweredby a conventionalturbojet as
discussedin previouschapters.The majority now useby-pas.s enginesor
turboprops. The following listed are
engines the main typesin useat the
presenttime:
12.2 Turbojet.
Axial FlowTurbojet.
Figure12-1 5ingle-Spool
279
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
Turbojet(LowBy-pass).
12.3 Twin-SpoolBy-pass
The compressorof this engineis in two parts,a low pressurecompressor
consistingof four stagesat the front of the unit. These.are driven by the
rearmostset of turbines via a common drive shaft. Aft of the Low
Pressure is
compressoris the High Pressurecompressorwhich separately
driven by the high pressureturbine (locatedin front of the low pressure
turbine)via its own concentricdrive shaft.Each spool is able to rotate
independently of the other and therebyallowscompressorpressureto be
increasedat a much steadierrate so that stall tendenciesare much
reduced.
The low pressurecompressorof this enginesuppliesair to the core,or
hot engine,as well as to the by-passduct. This permitsa much lighter
constructionand producesa greaterpower-to-weightratio. The by-pass
ratio is I to l, ie the output of the low pressurecompressoris divided
equallybetweenthe by-passduct and the coreengine.
BY.PASS
DUCT
Turbojet(low by-passratio).
Figure12-2 Twin-SpoolBy-Pass
Low PressureCompressor.
This consistsof the Large Front Fan which,in generalterms,delivers5
partsof air throughthe by-passduct for everypart deliveredto the inter-
mediatecompressorand core, or hot, engine.The by-passratio of this
engineis thus5:1.
Most of the thrust producedby this engineis developedby the Low
Pressurecompressoror Large Front Fan. It shouldbe noted,however.
2BO
T H EM O D E R NC A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
LOWPRESSURE INTERMEDIATE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOB
DUCT
BY-PASS
TRIPLE-SPOOLFRONTFANTURBOJET
(HIGHBY-PASS
RATIO)
'l2-3.
Figure
that for a given massflow through the enginea pure turbojet (single
spool)will producemore thrust than a High by-passengine.Remember
Thrust= Mass x acceleration.
lntermediateandHigh PressureCompressors.
Thesecompressorassemblies further raisethe total coreenginepressure
process.
prior to thecombustion
281
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
F 8 0
z
U.l
o
(r
U
L 6 0
O
z
g
tr,^
U
IlJ
izo
(r
I
282
N A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E
T H EM O D E R G
COMBUSTION
LOWPRESSURE CENTRIFUGAL REVERSE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR CHAMBER
Figure12-4 Twin-SpoolTurbo-Shaft
(with free-powerturbine).
283
G A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
I General
EICAS hasbeendesignedto categorizealertsand displaysaccording
to function and use.This has resultedin threemodesof display:
Operational,Statusand Maintenance.
2 OperationalMode
The OperationalMode displaysthoseengineparametersand crew
alertsrequiredin flight, and providescontinuousmonitoring of
aircraftand enginesystems.
The upperdisplayis dedicatedto primary engineparameters,and
crewalertsfor monitoringby the crew.The lower displayis showing
secondaryengineparameters.
At power-up all engine parameters appear automatically.
Status Mode
The status mode displays data needed by the crew to determine the
readinessof the airplane for dispatch, and is closely associatedwith
the minimum equipment list (MEL). The status mode displays
control surface position, selectedsub-system parameters, and
systems/equipmentstatus messages.The status mode is manually
selectedand shown on the lower display.
MaintenanceModes
The maintenancemodes display maintenance information to aid the
ground crew in troubleshooting and verification testing of the major
subsystems.The maintenance modes are manually selected and
shown on the lower display.
284
N A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E
T H EM O D E R C
Backgroundcolour is black.
L C R
HYDoTY0.99 1,00 0.98
ApuEGr rt40RPM103 CABINALTAUTO't
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1750
oxvpness
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Mode DisPlaY'
EICAS-status
I General
Statusmodedisplaysprovidesdata neededby the crewto determine
the readines of th. aircraft for dispatchand are closelyassociated
with the Minimum EquipmentList (MEL).
2Bs
C A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
12.9 Display
The statusmodecanbe displayedon the lower CRT and is manually
selectedby the crewusingthe displayselectpanelstatusswitch.The
displayshowscontrol surfaceposition,selectedsubsystems parame-
ters,and system/equipment statusmessages.This is donemanually on
the ground,as part of pre-flightcheckof dispatchitems.Use of the
statusmode in flight can be usefulin anticipatingpossibleground
maintenance actions.For thispurpose,a STATUScueis providedon
the upper left cornerof the lower CRT whenevera changeis status
messages occursand the STATUS pageis not displayed.
The systems statusmessage(s) aredisplayedon theright sectionof the
page.
TAT+12
eo.r 131 eo.l
EICASDISPLAY
, lffit 7"@
&/,{U/
r @ L @
70 orlPREss65
v),",w 428 rer 428
105 oTLTEMP100 95 ru, 95
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ECSMSO
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0.780.800.00
PAcHouT 2 3
DUcT
PREss 40 42
PAoH
FLow 62 64
TEMPVALVE0.75 0.80
rNDooR 0.82
RAM 0.71
286
T H EM O D E R G
N A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E
12.10EICAS - Maintenance
Mode Display- ECS/MSGFormatin
R.ealTime
I General
The maintenance modedisplaysaredesignedto providea flight deck
displayof maintenance informationfor theconvenience
of flight crew
whenmakingpost-flightlogbookentries,and to aid the groundcrew
in troubleshootingand verificationtestingof the major subsystems.
They are alsousedto recordsystemparametersat the time of an in-
flight fault, for later readouton the ground.Theseformats are not
availableto thecrewin flight unlessa by-passswitchoption is selected
by the airlines,to allow monitoringof the maintenancemodedisplay
on non-revenue flights.
, lfr] .t lfril
ty*tg
? E 7[3
\J \J
EGT
VWVVVV
t3IE ) @ ) @ l
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\7*\7
@"1"@
ffi[lffi
TWIN-SPOOL
and Secondary
EICAS-Primary EngineDisplay.
287
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
MaintenanceMessages
All the maintenance messages(M) can appear on the ECS/MSG
format page only when this format is selected.Thesemessages,white
in colour, are for most casesa repeat of the status messagesdisplayed
on the statusformat.
:'f.{Y
v*::8
kTkY
+I'F**r=e,'<-r=
wtm.:
S,.i-ff"8:e^
@L "lm
VIB
ry?)^ TT
TRIPLE-SPOOL
At power-up,all engineparameters
appearautomatically.
2BB
T H EM O D E R NC A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
EngineIndicator(SEl).
EICAS-Standby
2.ll StandbyEngineIndicator(SEI)
General
The StandbyEngineIndicator displaysin digital readoutall critical
engineparameters.
The valueson the left and right of the displayare safelimit decals.
I EngineDisplaySwitch
A momentarypush switch usedto removeor display secondary
engineparameterson the lower displayunit.
2 StatusDisplaySwitch
A momeniarypushswitchusedto display(on the lower displayunit)
control surfacepositions,hydraulicfluid quantity;crewoxygenpres-
sure,APU enginegastemperature,and statusmessages relateditems
requiringcrew awareness prior to dispatchor in flight.
289
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
EventRecordSwitch
A momentarypushswitchwhenusedwith the aircraftin the air or on
the ground recordsall environmentalcontrol system,electrical,
powerunit parameterdata for
hydraulic,and performance/auxiliary
storagein the manualeventnon-volatilememory.
ComputerSelectSwitch
A three-positionrotary switchfor selectingdisplaysignalsource.In
AUTO position,left computeris primarysignalsource.Automatic
switchingto right computeroccurswhen left computerbecomes
invalid. In the L (left) position,the left computeris supplyingthe
displaysignals,and in the R (right) position,the right computeris
supplyingdisplaysignals.
DisplayUnits BrightnessControl
Dual concentriccontrolswith the innercontrol increasingbrightness
of both displayunits when rotated in the clockwisedirection.The
the brightnessof the upper displayunit and
outer control increases
decreasesthe brightnessof the lower displayunit when rotatedin a
clockwisedirection.Rotatingthe outer control counterclockwisehas
the oppositeeffect.
MaximumIndicatorResetSwitch
A momentarypush switchusedto clearmaximumexceedance read-
outs from the displayunit. Only that data for which the exceedance
no lonserexistsis cleared.
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T H EM O D E R NG A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
EICASDISPLAYBRIGHTNESS
CONTROL MANUALTHRUST SET KNOB
. INNEHKNOBCONTROLS . PULLINGAND ROTATINGTHE INNERKNOB
BRIGHTNESS
INTENSITY THE REFCURSORON THETHRUST
POSITIONS
. OUTERKNOBCONTROLSBRIGHTNESS (EPROR Nl) FORTHEENGINE(S)
INDICATOR
BALANCEBETWEENDISPLAYS SELECTEDBY THE OUTERKNOB
DISPLAYSWITCH MAXIMUMINDICATOR
RESETSWITCH
S DISPLAYSWITCH
S'I''ATU . RESETS
. PRESSING THEENGINEOR OVERLIMIT
WILLSELECT
SWITCH READOUTS
STATUS
THATFORMAT ONTHELOWER EICAS SELECT
COMPUTER KNOB
DISPLAY - SEI.ECTS
. AUTO THEPRIMARY COMPUTER (L)
Z PRESSINGTHE SAMESWITCH A SWITCHES
ANDAUTOMATICALLY TO
SECONDTIMEWILL BLANKTHE THEOTHER COMPUTERUPONA
LOWERDISPLAY FAILURE
RECORD SWITCH MANUALLY A SPECIFIC
SELECTS
EVENT
. RECORDSMAINTENANCE DATAEVENT COMPUTER
INNON.VOLATILEMEMORYFORTHE
EGS,ELEC/HYDR,ANDPERF/APU
PARAMETERS- SIMULTAN
EOUSLY
12.12EICAS- Operational
Format
I PowerUp
At power-up,all engineparametersappearautomatically.
I StatusSwitch
Pressingthe Statusswitch,the lower CRT changesto the Status
mode.
3 Engine Switch
Pressingthe Engine switch returns the secondary engine parameters
to the lower CRT.
To return to the Statusmode, pressStatusswitch again.
-l Lower CRT-Blank
The lower CRT can be turned to normal blank mode either by press-
ing the Statusswitchif the Statuspageis displayed,or by pressingthe
Engine switch if the secondaryengine parameters are displayed'
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C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
I General
The EICAS Systemmonitors over 400 inputs from engineand system
sensorsfor the generationof alert, status,and maintenancemessages,
depending on the urgency of the detected abnormality. Alert
messagesare displayed in red and yellow, and Status and
Maintenance messasesin white.
2 Aleft Messages
There are threelevelsof Alert Message:warnings,cautionsand advi-
soriesthat are displayed on the left side of the upper CRT depending
upon the urgency of the malfunction, and are displayed in parallel
with individual lights in the flight compartment.
Up to I I messagescan appear on the upper CRT. If an overflow
condition exists,page I notation replacesthe eleventh line.
The following graphics explain the various Alert messagesand the
cancel/recallcapability.
(trgll))
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T H EM O D E R NG A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
Level B Cautions
w
These cautions require immediate crew awarenessand future
crew action. They are displayedin yellow on a CRT, and in amber
on master caution lights, and panel lights. Their associatedaural
sound is a caution aural repeatedtwice.
C . Level C Advisories
These advisoriesrequire crew awareness.They are displayedin
yellow on CRT and amber on panel lights.
No master caution liehts and no aural tones are associatedwith
this level.
. NOAURALTONES
. NO MASTER
LIGHTS
EICAS-LevelC AdvisoryMessage.
293
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
WARNINGS
CAUTIONS
ADVISORIES
EICAS-AlertMessages
Overview.
A. Cancel Switch
Momentary push, singlepole, singlethrow switch.
When activatedprovides lessthan +3v dc to EICAS computer and
removes caution and advisory messagescurrently displayed, or
pagingcapability to display thosestoredin memory that are in excess
of the elevenmessagecombinations currently displayed.
Warnings are not cancellable.
B. Recall Switch
Momentary push, singlepole, singlethrow switch.
When activatedprovideslessthan +3v dc to EICAS computer.
Re-displaysthe caution and advisory messagesremoved by cancel
switch.
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T H EM O D E R NG A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
PracticePaper1
l. On leavingthe compressor,the air:
(a) passesinto the primary zone of the combustion chamber.
(b) passesthrough the diffuser.
(c) passesinto the primary and secondary zone of the combustion
chamber.
(d) passesinto the swirl assemblyof the combustion chamber.
Ref. 1.3
l. Fuel, on enteringthe combustionchamber,is primarily atomisedby:
(a) the swirl vanes.
(b) the diffuser.
(c) the dilution holes.
(d) the burner feed.
Ref. 1.3
3. The diffuser after the compressor:
(a) converts the velocity energy into pressureenergy.
(b) converts the pressureenergy into velocity energy.
(c) straightensthe airflow.
(d) createsa swirl effect in the airflow.
Ref. 1.3
4.lna basicturbojet engine,of the total energyproduced,approximately:
(a) 60%oleavesthe engine as thrust.
(b) 400%leavesthe engine as thrust.
(c) 90% leavesthe engine as thrust.
(d) 2|0/oleavesthe engine as thrust.
Ref. 1.3
295
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
a turbojet enginerequires:
5. At subsonicspeeds,
(a) a convergentintake.
I
(b) a variableintake.
(c) a convergent/divergent
intake.
(d) a divergentintake.
Ref. 1.8
6. The compressoris:
(a) rotatedby freestreamair.
(b) drivenby the inlet guidevanes.
(c) drivenby an electricmotor.
(d) drivenby the turbine.
Ref. 1.3
generallyproducesa pressureratio of:
7. A basiccentrifugalcompressor,
(a) 4 to 4.5to one.
(b) 30 to one
(c) 130to one.
(d) 15to one.
Ref. 2.4
producea balanceof air compression
8. Moderncentrifugalcompressors
betweenthat done by the impeller,and that done by the diffuser as
approximately:
(a) 20o/oto80%.
(b) 40%to 600 .
(c) 50%to 50%.
(d) r0%to90%.
Ref. 2.5
296
T H EM O D E R NC A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
297
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
298
T H EM O D E R C
N A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E
thrustpoweravailableis:
18.Reverse
(a) 90%.
(b) 100%.
(c) 50%.
(d) 2s%.
Ref. 4c.3
thrustis directed:
19.Reverse
(a) completely
in the oppositedirectionto normalflow.
(b) at 90 degrees
to the relativeairflow.
(c) at 45 degrees
to the relativeairflow.
(d) at l5 degrees
to the relativeairflow.
Ref. 4c.3
10.Iceis prevented
from:
(a) blockingthe HP filter by pre heatingthe fuel.
(b) blockingthe LP filter by pre heatingthe fuel.
(c) forming in the fuel by pre heatingthe fuel tank.
(d) blockingthe LP filter by pre heatingthe filter element.
Ref. 5.2
299