Digitally controlled wind turbines in megawatt size

with doubly-fed induction generator without position sensor

The technology in wind turbines is in full progress and for every new turbine new
technologies emerge. The purpose of this publication is to describe one of these
technologies, the OptiSpeed TM, both in a popular and a more comprehensive
form.

Most wind turbines use a so-called three-phase generator, also called an

induction generator to generate alternating currents. A reason for choosing this
type of generator is that it is very reliable, and tends to be comparatively
inexpensive. The generator also has some mechanical properties, which are
useful for wind turbines. The rotor of the induction generator with short circuit
rotorwinding comprises a number of copper or aluminium bars, which are
connected electrically by aluminium end rings.The speed of the induction
generator will vary with the rotational force applied to it. In practice, the
difference between the rotational speed at peak power and at idle is very small,
about 1 per cent.

V80-2.0 MW Wind Turbine near Srup

This difference in per cent of the synchronous speed is called the generator's slip.
Thus a 4-pole generator will run idle at 1500 rpm if it is attached to a grid with a
50 Hz current. If the generator is producing at its maximum power, it will be
running at 1515 rpm. This is why the induction generator is called an
asynchronous generator. It operates asynchronous to the synchronous speed. It
is a very useful mechanical property that the generator will increase or decrease
its speed slightly if the torque varies. This means less wear and tear on the
tower, gearbox and other components in the transmission line, i.e. lower peak
torque, which is one of the most important reasons for using an asynchronous
generator rather than a synchronous generator on a wind turbine which is directly
connected to the electrical grid.

The slip in the induction generator, however, is a function of the (DC) resistance
(measured in ohms) in the rotor windings of the generator. The higher resistance,

1
the higher the slip. So one way of varying the slip is to vary the resistance in the
rotor. In this way one may increase generator slip to e.g. 10%. On motors this is
usually done by having a wound rotor, i.e. a rotor with copper wire windings
which are connected in star, and connected with external variable resistors, plus
an electronic control system to operate the resistors. The connection has usually
been done with brushes and slip rings, which is a clear drawback over the
elegantly simple technical design of a cage wound rotor machine. It also
introduces parts, which wear down in the generator, and thus the generator
requires extra maintenance. The Vestas OptiSlip function deals with that, avoiding
the problem of introducing slip rings, brushes, external resistors, and
maintenance altogether.

By mounting the external resistors on the rotor itself, and mounting the electronic
control system on the rotor as well, you just have to communicate the amount of
slip you need to the rotor. This communication is done very elegantly, using
optical fibre communications.

The newest stage of the technology of the slip is called OptiSpeed TM , giving
possibility of varying the speed up to 30%. In addition to the fact, that the
previously mentioned advantages are further enhanced, it is also possible to
design special operating strategies, where the possibility of operating at lower
speed is utilised. This feature is used in connection with reduction of noise.
Another advantage of the OptiSpeedTM feature is the possibility to exploit even
more of the energy in the rotor and transfer it to the grid, not forgetting the high
quality of the power delivered to the grid. The following chapters of this
document gives a much more comprehensive description of the OptiSpeed TM
advantages, together with a detailed look into the technology behind.

Ecological aspects

Released by the oil crisis and in view of the limited resources of the fossil sources
of energy, there was set focus on the possible use of renewable energy sources
for production of power. Reactor accidents and problems with the disposal as well
as the irreversible damage of the biosphere by increasing CO2-load did not
strengthen additionally the interest in new and exhaustive energy sources. In the
meantime economical concepts within the area of the solar and wind energy
arose. And the wind power technology had the largest focus, because of the
relatively high efficiency converting the mechanical energy into electricity.

The nature of the wind energy production

With all advantages of the wind energy also disadvantages can be found. On the
one hand it is the small power density of the wind, leading to those wide, material
intensive wind rotors and on the other hand the heavily varying wind supply,
which leads to fast fluctuations of the mechanical load, proportional in 3.rd power
to the wind velocity. In order to be able to perform in both weak winds and
storms, high demands is set, not only for the materials, but also to the dynamics
of the controlling mechanisms. Exploiting wind energy turns up the basic problem
that the power requirements usually do not correspond to the actual production.
This problem can be minimised by feeding the power into a huge grid with
alternative power sources, and in this way be able to match supply and demand.
It becomes problematic however again for wind turbines in the megawatt class,
because they are able to bring the wind gusts to the grid as large energy
portions, causing voltage fluctuations.

The technical challenge

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Due to the fast wind speed variations the demand rises for generators featuring
variable speed. The result of such a feature, varying the rpm around the nominal
point (e.g. 1500 rpm), is that no large additional portions of energy is put into
the grid. The high varying wind energy (turbulence) can be stored for seconds as
potential energy in the rotor blades, by changing their speed within an admissible
area. This increased number of revolutions prevents fluctuations on the grid and
relieves all the turbine mechanics. Furthermore, the load on the mechanism
turning the blades angle of attack (pitch mechanism) is reduced. By changing the
angle of the blade, this pitch control changes the impact of the wind on the rotor
in such a way that it remains at the desired number of revolutions. The pitch
mechanism must then go active only, if the rotor threatens to leave the
admissible speed range. There are two technically relevant generator types
meeting the request of varying number of revolutions. Both types are represented
on the market.

Synchronous generator

Synchronous generator is connected with its stator to DC-link converter system.

The principle is a generator, which supplies a voltage and a frequency dependent
on the number of revolutions. Since these do not fit directly a rigid grid, the
output voltages from the generator must be transformed over a bridge rectifier
into DC voltage (intermediate circuit). By means of a converter these DC voltages
are transformed to AC and shaped regarding amplitude, frequency and phase into
a voltage suitable for the grid. This principle enables a power production starting
from a low number of revolutions up to the maximum speed. This wide speed
range means a high energy yield. The entire amount of energy to the grid must
be led however by one or more parallel operating converters. In order to control
and limit the power output to the grid, the rotor field has to be controlled from its
own converter through a set of slip rings. The complexity of this construction, and
thereby the expenditure, affects the efficiency unfavourably.

Figure 1: Synchronous generator on grid

Doubly-fed asynchronous generator

Doubly-fed three-phase generator is connected with its rotor to DC-link converter

system and with its stator to the grid. The advantage is that the slip is

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proportional to the power flowing through the intermediate circuit. In order to
prevent excessive load of the frequency converter, only speed fluctuations within
the range of +/-30 % (slip s) around the rated speed (n 0 = 1500 rpm) are
allowed. The generator deliver over-synchronised (s < 0, n > n0) as well as
under-synchronised (s > 0, n < n0) energy to the grid.

Active power at stator connectors:

PS = (1+s) Pmech
Active power at rotor connectors:
PR = -s PS
Active power sum:
PS + PR = Pmech
Slip:
s = (G PS m)/G
(PS = stator pole pairs)

Except from the losses, the main part of the energy is transferred to the grid via
the stator terminals. Thus the static frequency changer can be designed
substantially smaller. In order to minimise the loss due to the rotor efficiency PR,
the rotor energy is supplied to the grid through the intermediate circuit and a
controllable electric rectifier. By a relatively simple construction effort, a very high
efficiency is obtained.

Figure 2: Double-fed 3-phase generator.

Reason for the choice of the double-fed three-phase generator

The OptiSlip concept was mentioned in the introduction. The OptiSlip concept is
based on the induction generator with wound rotor circuit, and external rotor
resistors mounted on the shaft. This concept has successfully been used on
several thousands of turbines. At the OptiSpeed TM concept the same type of
generator is used. The only difference is that the external resistors are replaced
by highly reliable slip-rings. All the experience from the previous years of
operation is retained, so a highly reliable generator system with wound rotor

4
circuit is utilised in the OptiSpeedTM system. One new and very powerful feature
in the OptiSpeedTM system is the active transmission oscillation damping system.
This system constantly monitors oscillations in the speed of the generator, and if
needed active damping of this is performed. This system helps to increase the
lifetime of the drivetrain.

System configuration

Fig. 3 depicts that Vestas structured the generator system according to the
configuration presented in fig. 2. The shown directions of the voltages and
currents are in conformity with the following pictures.The stator of the generator
can be switched to the grid both in star and in delta mode. It keeps the current in
the stator relatively low also at high yield. Up to approx. 800 kW the system
operates in star mode, and above and up to 2 MW in delta mode. This 2-way
operation mode demands frequently connecting and disconnecting to the grid, for
the system to configure either star or delta mode. This switching process can
occur quite frequently in the middle of the capacity range, and it proves the
advantage of being able to switch on an off rapidly. The present system is able to
switch off in 3 grid periods and on again. In practice such quick switch on and off
is prevented by invoking a hysteresis mechanism.

5
Figure 3: Electrical system configuration

Control hardware

The complexity of the software solution made it necessary to utilise a 3-

processor hardware construction (Fig 4). The host processor dedicated to the
main functions and communication is supported by very fast DSPs in
Master/Slave configuration for the control functions. Although the DSPs are
floating point computers and programmed in C, the master DSP calculates and
controls the rotor connected converter with a sample frequency of 5 kHz
(switching frequency 2.5 kHz) and 10 kHz (switching frequency 5 kHz) for the
converter on the grid side. In order to support necessary bandwidth for the
reduction of current harmonics, the automatic controllers for the grid converter
(Slave DSP) have an extra high clock frequency.

6
Figure 4: Structure controller board

The dual port RAMs permits very effective communication between all processors.
Over a RS232-interface the DSP system and thus the control for test and line-up
can be operated independently of the host and the ArcNet connection. To be able
to keep all parameters and variables in case of power failures, all data are stored
in a static RAM. Time-critical monitoring and control functions are supported by
means of logic devices (LSI). By a LSI the sample timing of the ADC is
synchronised with the switch frequency and thereby the control frequency. This
ensures a minimum self- and mutual disturbance of the measured values. The
host communicates in the dual port RAM over an asynchronous handshake
protocol with the master DSP.

7
Theoretical basis of the control structures

The two following pictures show the electrical circuit diagrams of the generator,
the grid connected frequency converter with the choke coil, the transformer and
the grid. Additionally the current and voltage vectors with the appropriate angles
are drawn in. Thus the basis for the development of the control algorithms is
determined.

Figure 5.a) Vector scheme at generator

8
Figure 5.b) Vector scheme at grid side inverter

Over a PLL from the mains voltage UL the phase angle is the basis for the
rotating stator field co-ordinate system. Within that, red drawn rotor current
components IRd and IRq are defined (Fig. 5a). This stator field chart is identical to
the mains voltage chart in Fig. 5b. The shift of these co-ordinate systems around
/2 opposite G leads to the fact that in the rotating co-ordinate system all active
sizes in the q-axis and all reactive values in the d-axis are represented. Thus it is
forming the basis for the control of the converter. The measured rotor current IR
runs with slip frequency R and the angle off the mechanically rotating rotor and
therefore always an AC with variable frequency is also stationary. With a rotor
position giver the slip angle is found; from and G or is calculated (formula in

9
Fig. 5a) and thus could the measured rotor current of the components I Rd and IRq
be determined.

Control of the static rotor side inverter

Without rotor position sensor the slip angle needed for the transformation can be
calculated from the difference of The electrical angle is simply calculated
from the measured rotor current values IRa, IRb (the sliprings carry this
mechanical transformation out), while the angle from the rotor current values
measured in the rotor vector chart only can be calculated indirectly over the
generator model (Fig. 6). The generator model supplies the rotor current values
ISd, ISq with detailed stator current values IRd, IRq in the rotary stator field chart.
From these it is easy to calculate . Fig. 5b depicts the chart for the grid-side
rotary frequency converter and for the stationary earth connection. Both co-
ordinate systems have their congruent correspondences in the rotary stator-field
and stationary stator co-ordinate system in Fig. 5a. The equality of the co-
ordinate systems leads to using the same angle and makes it very easy to
calculate the levels of the controls distributed on different processors together.

Figure 6: Rotor side inverter control structure

The feeding power into the grid is regulated via the rotor current (Fig. 6 on the
right above). The control of the rotor current takes place in the co-ordinate
system rotating with slip frequency R, according to its transformation of the slip
angle . Since the measured rotor currents have the slip frequency as electrical

10
frequency likewise, it leads to the fact that the automatic controllers in the
stationary position see only direct currents and the automatic controller
interpretation thereby becomes very simple. The allocation of the rotor current in
field building d-component and a moment building q-component enables the
cascade overlay to the rotor current control with a grid effect, e.g. an automatic
grid reactive power controller (PMG, QMG).

In the lower half of fig. 6 is seen the calculation of the slip angle SIGMA from the
grid, indispensable of the co-ordinate conversion to the rotor current (IL, IR). Due
to the relatively high level of harmonics in the rotor current, the angle calculation
is filtered. This leads to a substantial phase shift, which is dependent on the slip
frequency. By means of a differentiating the feedback of the calculated slip angle
SIGMA the slip frequency OMEGAR is calculated and after priority of these with
the filter time constants TI_IR, an arc tangent operation leads to the current
angle of the phase shift. Via addition to the calculated angle value (EPS) a
compensation of the tracking caused by the filter takes place. In order to
calculate the stationary angle LAMDA, the stator current must be calculated. From
this the rotor current IRQ_SNL, IRD_SNL in stator field co-ordinates can be
calculated by means of a simple generator model (in fig. 5a it is the red drawn
components IRq und IRd). These currents may not be equated with IRQ and IRD in
the fig. 6, since IRQ and IRD are components of the rotor slip angle co-ordinate
system.

Control of the static grid side inverter

The control of the grid side static frequency inverter (Fig. 7) takes place in the
Slave DSP. Apart from the entry of the grid and the stator voltage angle (G,S)
the intermediate circuit voltage UDC on constantly 800 V is controlled here.
According to Fig. 5b the difference in phase angle of current and mains voltage
is regulated to zero. The active power is thus transported in both directions power
by the grid side static frequency inverter. The control operates in mains voltage
co-ordinates, so that the automatic controllers have to do it in the stationary
status only with equal sizes. Over a superior control also directed reactive power
over IRD_REF can be placed and be implemented through reactive power
compensation (phase shifters).

11
Figure 7: Grid side inverter control structure

Synchronising to the grid without rotor position sensor

12
Before the generator can be switched to the grid, it shall be ensured that the
voltages correspond regarding amplitude, frequency and phase. The larger the
deviation at the connecting is, the higher balance current flows. It can lead to
monitoring the current and to power-off of the system. In order to avoid any
disturbance of the grid, the differential voltage between generator stator and the
grid is kept on an insignificant level. This is not easy to implement due to the
harmonics in the generator voltage. Fig. 8 depicts steps in synchronisation to the
grid. In order to enable the synchronisation, the voltages between the lines 1 and
2 of the grid and the stator (UL12, US12) is compared regarding amplitude,
frequency and phase position. UD12 show the instant differences; the amplitude
difference delta U, the frequency difference delta f and the angle difference
between these two voltages DELTA_GAMMAGS. At the beginning of the
synchronisation
process the stator
voltage usually
deviates regarding
amplitude and
frequency from the
mains voltage. Point
(1) in Fig. 8 depicts
how the amplitude
equality is obtained by
an amplitude control.
The frequency of the
stator voltage US12 is
unknown, since it
consists of the
unknown mechanical
rotational frequency m
and the given electrical
slip frequency R. As
soon as the stator
voltage reaches
sufficient amplitude,
the frequency s of the
stator voltage can be
determined by zero
crossovers and the
difference to the
frequency G on the
controllable value for
the slip frequency can
be added (2). Thereby
the frequency
difference becomes 0.
In reality the zero crossover recognition reflects also the harmonics in the
generator voltage, so it becomes a measuring error regarding the basic frequency
of the stator. The switching of the frequency differences causes however at least
that the angles difference slowly changes. Thus the angle difference in a further
step can be diminished (3). Even if it could be diminished within one scanning
step, the reduction is slowly carried out, in order to avoid voltage steps in the
rotor. These would release natural oscillations in the rotor and would delay
reaching the steady bias point before connecting to the grid (4).

13
 Figure 8: Function of grid synchronisation

Due to the harmonics contents of the amplitude-, frequency-phase controllers

during the entire synchronisation process, the process becomes more difficult
when operating without rotor position sensor. A reason for that is mutual
influencing in the controllers. By optimisation of the parameters in the controllers,
a synchronisation time between 0.2 and 0.3 seconds could be achieved despite
these circumstances.

Reduction of the current-harmonics caused by the generator

With an extension in the grid side inverter control the 5th and 7th grid harmonics
together with the slip harmonics are significantly reduced until the THD value of
the line currents reaches a value less than 1%.

Measurements at the 2 MW prototype

Feeding performance independently of fast wind modifications

A variation of the supplied wind energy from the factor 8 (proportionally to the
3rd power of the wind velocity) remains the feeding performance of the generator
into the grid constantly on the desired value. These substantial energy
fluctuations are converted into rotation energy, whereby the adjustment of the
angle the rotor blades (pitch angles) ensures that the generator rate cannot run
out of the bias point (1680 rpm).

14
Figure 9: Feeding performance independently of the wind fluctuations

Dynamics and stiffness of the power adjustment at 1 MW operating point

15
Figure 10a) 150 KW active power change (Ch1: PMG_REF, Ch2: PMG,
Ch3: QMG)

Figure 10b) Speed variation with 200 rpm (Ch1: PMG, Ch2: QMG, Ch3:
SPEED)

The very good performance of the wind turbine is reflected also in a stable and
fast power adjustment under extreme conditions. Fig. 10a depicts that the power
adjustment has a response time of approx. 40 ms equal to approx. two grid
periods. Thus a stable operation is ensured also at weak grids. Fig. 6a depicts
that the decoupling of active and reactive power is very effective. Fig. 6b depicts
that even with the change from under- to over-synchronous operation the power
output can be kept constant and the reactive power with 0 kVA is kept constant,
which corresponds to a power factor of 1. This fast power adjustment enables a
fast response to wind turbulences or changes in the grid load, so that a stable
operation is obtained, even under extreme wind or grid conditions, with the grid
reactions remaining insignificant.

Grid Synchronisation and Connection

Fig. 11 depicts the sequence where the generator is connected to the grid. The
line current IL1 is the total of stator current and grid side static frequency
converter current. It is seen that no significant current spikes or inrush current is
present during grid connection, when K500 is switched from 0 to 1.

16
Figure 11: Synchronisation and connection (Ch1: US12, Ch2: UL12, Ch3:
IL1, Ch4: connector)

Effect of the harmonics reduction

17
Figure 12 a: Without harmonics reduction

18
Figure 12 b: With harmonics reduction

The two plots demonstrate the effectiveness of the compensation up to the 10 th

order of the generator and grid harmonics.

Figure 13 a: Flicker suppression in active power

19
Figure 13 b: Flicker suppression in reactive power

As it can be seen at Fig. 13 power fluctrations are controlled effectively so that

external disturbances ex. the blade/towerssage is not present in the power signal.
Due to this effective powercontrol flicker can be kept at a low level. Alltogether
the OptiSpeedTM concept results in high power quality.

Operation, safety and maintenance concept

The operation strategy is as follows. At very low wind speeds the blades of the
turbine will be placed in 45 and the rotor will start rotating. At increased wind
speed the rotor will accelerate and grid connection of the generator in Star
connection will happen very smoothly. The OptiTip control will now bring the
angle of the blades to an optimum angle, and speed of the rotor and the power to
the grid will follow a power versus speed reference curve. If the wind speed
increases further then the speed of the rotor will increase and hence the power
led to the grid will increase also. Operating in Star connection of the stator
winding means reduced losses in generator, but Star connection is not possible at
nominal power, so at a certain power the generator must switch from Star to
Delta connection. This is due to the fast and effective control of the rotor currents
possible to do within just a few seconds. At nominal wind and at nominal power
the power is no longer increased when the wind speed increases. Here the pitch
control combined with the buffering effect of the inertia in the rotor enables the
power to be controlled constant.

20
The safety strategy for the OptiSpeed TM system is the same as known from the
V29, V29, V39, V42, V44, V47, V63 and V66 turbines. For turbines with
individually controlled and actuated pitch system for each blade this concept
includes three completely separated control systems. Just one of these is able to
bring the turbine out of operation in a controlled manner. The mechanical brake is
not a safety component and its function is to help the pitch system to stop
rotation completely. For smaller turbines with one common pitch system for the
three blades in the rotor, here the brake is a safety component. When such a
turbine has to be stopped both the pitch system and the brake is utilised.

The speed of both the rotor and the generator is monitored by the turbine
controller. Further a separate and external over speed guard is present. Both of
these independent systems constantly monitor the wind turbine. Every six
months the turbine needs a scheduled service check. Additionally the turbine is
capable to contact Vestas Service department if anything extraordinary happens.
This is done through the remote control system connected to almost any Vestas
wind turbine. The service department is then capable of checking all sensors in
the turbine. This always enables Vestas to bring the wind turbine back in
operation within very short while.

Summary and overview

The OptiSpeedTM system is an optimal and powerful system which makes a Vestas
wind turbine even more efficient, more flexible with regards to acoustic noise,
and the power quality is excellent. The OptiSpeed TM system is offered in the
turbines: V52-850kW, V66-1.75/2.0MW, V80-2.0MW. A V80-3.0MW turbine
OptiSpeedTM turbine is under development. The above mentioned turbines will not
be offered in the USA and in Canada. Here the OptiSlip system is offered. In the
coming years Vestas Wind Systems expects to erect turbines all over the world.
In the countryside, in mountains, offshore any place where utilisation of the wind
energy is economically feasible. The physical dimensions of the turbines seems to
be without any limits. Therefore the turbines will grow in size and in power.
Technically the OptiSpeedTM is the most optimal and powerful technology ever
launched by Vestas Wind Systems.

The contents of the above application description was written, togeher with
Vestas Wind Systems, in the following publication

Ehrenberg, J.; Andresen, B.; Rebsdorf, A.:

Windkraftanlagen fr den Megawattbereich, Digitale Steuerung eines doppelt
gespeisten Asynchrongenerators ohne Lagegeber, Teil 1
Magazine Elektronik 2001, Issue 18, p 60 ... 67

Ehrenberg, J.; Andresen, B.; Rebsdorf, A.:

Windkraftanlagen fr den Megawattbereich, Digitale Steuerung eines doppelt
gespeisten Asynchrongenerators ohne Lagegeber, Teil 2
Magazine Elektronik 2001, Issue 19, p 78 ... 87

http://control-design.de/home_eng/Applications/Windenergy/windenergy.html

http://control-design.de/home_eng/Applications/Windenergy/windenergy.html

21
Passenger Lifts with regenerative power supply

The manufacturers of lifts are coming under increasing pressure to design mains
friendly systems, i.e. with the lowest possible mains pollution. Furthermore, the
necessary rectifier units should require less maintenance and be more robust to
mains faults than conventional equipment. Energy costs must be reduced by
feeding back the braking energy that arises regularly with lift operation. Schindler
Aufzge AG commissioned IAM GmbH to develop the corresponding equipment
that would take these criteria into account. In the meantime the resulting solution
is being incorporated in the most modern lifts of Schindler.

These requirements led to the development of a digitally controlled rectifier unit

that is much better with regard to mains pollution than even the most stringent
standards. The control is virtually maintenance-free because digitisation ensures
that the controlling parameters remain stable once they have been adjusted, i.e.
independent of ambient temperature or component ageing. Moreover, the
considerable braking energy that is generated is returned to the mains. The
control is extremely robust in regard of all types of mains faults. The production
costs for the control cards are very favourable due to the fact that the control
card for the field-orientated controlled lift motor is of almost identical design. The
control cards have an identical layout and differ only slightly by their assembly.
Figure 1 shows the configuration of this feed-back capable driving unit.

Fig. 1: Configuration of the drive systemt

Complete control of all kinds of mains faults

22
In Europe voltage changes are limited to maximum 10%. In the far East,
however, there are many weak networks with voltage changes that greatly
exceed this value. The step-up converter presented here can compensate such
voltage fluctuations and supply the necessary voltage for the driving motor.

Furthermore, brief overvoltages and voltage dips are quite common. They are
usually in the order of a few milliseconds, differ significantly from the rated value
and their rise time is very short. Such faults are no problem for uncontrolled
diode bridges. However, it is not so simple with controlled power converters.
Therefore, it has been stipulated that it must remain stable for at least 10 ms
(half a mains period duration) before switching off.

Changeover from the mains to the emergency power pack and back again can
result in considerable sudden phase changes which do not cause any instability or
trigger overcurrents in the rectifier unit. Furthermore, phase failures and
asymmetrical phase voltages are not a problem for the rectifier unit.

Lowest mains pollution fulfils all standards

Sine-shaped current control reduces the mains pollution of the unit to such an
extent that the voltage waveform of the given mains remains virtually
unchanged. When under load the rectifier unit behaves in the mains like a three-
phase symmetrical ohmic resistance. Contrary to the uncontrolled bridge rectifiers
still used in many units and which level out the voltage peaks in the mains
(harmonic content increases) because they can only draw current from the mains
at maximum voltage levels, the rectifier unit withdraws current continuously
throughout the entire voltage characteristic, thereby only causing harmonic
waves that are below 1% in their entire spectrum. This means that the rectifier
unit fulfils even the most stringent standards. The power factor is so close to 1
that, for practical purposes, it can be equated with 1. No quality difference
regarding the current waveform was found between rectifier and feed-back. As a
result of the adjustable phase shift in conjunction with the possibility to
predetermine the reactive-current amplitude, a reactive power can be adjusted
which makes the unit a phase modifier. In this manner a consumer can
compensate its tapped reactive power at the mains connection so as to draw
energy from the mains at a favourable cost.

The control process

Figure 2 shows that, as a control system, the rectifier unit only has to control the
inductivity of the compensating reactor with the mains voltage as the influencing
variable. A phase-locked loop (PLL) records the rotating angle g g of the mains
voltage UL. The currents are measured and displayed, by way of input
transformation, as a co-ordinates system rotating with the mains voltage (Fig. 3).
By correcting the angle by /2, the current IGd equals the reactive current, and
IGq the active current of the rectifier unit with regard to the mains (Fig. 2). These
currents can be impressed by two independent current controllers (Fig. 3), and
thus the phase angle between the current IG and the mains voltage UL.
Normally, the reactive current IGd is maintained at zero with the result that the
current indicator IG falls together with the mains voltage UL (j = 0). The
intermediate circuit voltage is only controlled by way of the reactive current IGq
(Fig. 3). The voltage controller provides, accordingly, the target value of the cross
current IGq for the intermediate circuit. The intermediate circuit voltage is
maintained at a value of 800 V.

23
Fig. 2: Voltages and currents at the rectifier unit

The special feature of the control structure shown in Fig. 3 is that, as a result of
transforming the co-ordinates with the mains angle in stationary state, the
current and voltage controllers only have to control the zero-frequency variables.
Precontrol of the measured mains voltages at the outputs of the current
controllers means that the current controllers only have to control the voltage
drop by way of the compensating reactors. This permits low-level limitation of the
current controller outputs which is desirable for safety reasons. In the event of a
brief mains voltage failure due to a fault, then precontrol of this voltage also fails
so that there is no unwanted current increase in the compensating reactor.

24
Fig. 3: Mains angle oriented control of power supply

Implementation

The control algorithms were implemented in the dSMC signal processor

developed by sci-worx - Industrial Systems. The language of the signal processor
can be adapted to the requirements of electrical drive control. The control is
operated with a switching frequency of 10 kHz and a scanning frequency of 20
kHz. The mains voltage measuring channels are alternatively used for the tracks
of a sinusoidal transmitter so that an asynchronous motor can be controlled with
the same control card.

A detailed description of this development, combined with extensive

documentation of the fault behaviour and harmonics, is given in the subsequent
publication, which was jointly produced with Schindler Aufzge AG:

Ehrenberg, J; Drossmann, J.; Fan, Z.; Eugster, R.:

Aufzugsteuerung vollstndig digitalisiert. Elektronik 1997, No. 12, pages 72,
93...100

http://control-design.de/home_eng/Applications/Lifts/lifts.html

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Digital control of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
using an ASIC

Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS) are necessary for all applications
where electronic systems have to work also in case of power failure (i.e.
computer centers, hospital equipment, communication equipment etc.). Many
mainframe computers are fed by UPS systems.

UPS systems conventionally consist of a synchronous generator, a fly-wheel for

short-time energy storage and a battery powered motor or diesel engine.

By progress in power electronics static power converters can be realized,

especially for mid-range output power (i.e. 5 - 50 kVA). In recent times there is
increasing demand for UPS systems with low-distortion output voltages and
sinusoidal input currents. Even at non-linear loads producing output currents with
high harmonic content, sinusoidal output voltage is required. Due to this, even at
unsymmetrical loads a static inverter can be better than rotating converters.

On this background the Anton Piller GmbH & Co. KG asked the IAM GmbH to
design a high performance digital control together with an application specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) containing the new control structure.

Static UPS System Hardware

Static UPS systems consist of a rectifier with a single or three-phase mains

connection, a DC-link with a battery for power storage and a single- or three-
phase Output converter. The bypass serves as an energy link in times of system
failure or overload situations (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Static UPS system APOSTAT

The rectifier and inverter contain fast power devices (MOSFET or IGBT) capable of
switching frequencies of 10-20 kHz. This UPS system is completely digitally
controlled. All fast control loops are implemented within the ASIC. Slow control
and monitoring is done by a microcontroller.

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Mains Rectifier

A simple diode rectifier generates line currents with not satisfying harmonics.
Power supply companies are preparing regulations for the current distortion of
power equipment. Therefore a controlled rectifier with pure resistive sinusoidal
input currents was chosen for the UPS system.

The mains rectifier is a four-quadrant, three-phase inverter using fast switching

power transistors. Modified main circuits can be chosen for one-quadrant or
single-phase applications. In this configuration the dc-link voltage is higher than
the normally rectified line voltage. The rectifier inverter operates as a three-
phase step-up-chopper. For decreased DC voltages an additional auto
transformer can be used.

The control scheme is shown in Fig. 2. Controlled quantities are the DC-link
voltage and the phase currents. Pl-algorithms are used for the current loop. The
reference is made up of an amplitude calculated by the DC-voltage regulator
multiplied with the sine functions of the mains phase angle.

To generate the sine values a PLL-algorithm is implemented. Regulating the DC-

link voltage has two conflicting goals: to achieve a stable DC-link voltage and to
produce sinusoidal input currents. Especially in single-phase application and with
unsymmetrical inverter loads the DC-link voltage has to vary to achieve power
storage in the DC-link capacitor. Therefore the DC-control consists of two
independent control circuits: a fast PI-controller normally working at its upper
limit is responsible for avoiding over voltage; by a slower combination of battery
current controller and battery voltage controller a well-filtered operation is
achieved.

Fig. 2: Control scheme of mains rectifier

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Output Inverter

Since output loads are not symmetrical, every output inverter is made up of four
power switches building a four-quadrant converter feeding the output
transformer. The stray filters the output voltage Inductance of the specially-
designed transformer and the output capacitance.

The control scheme of the output inverter is shown in Fig. 3. The Controlled
quantity is the output voltage. An underlying current control loop is implemented
for protection of the power devices. The output value is transformed to switching
signals by pulse width modulation (PWM).

PI-controllers for AC quantities normally have phase and amplitude errors, which
are not tolerable. On the other hand, PI-controllers provide predictable behavior
at all operating modes. To reduce undesired effects feed-forward signals from the
reference and output voltage are used. To eliminate the influence of the changing
DC link voltage on the gain of the current controller the current control output is
multiplied with the reciprocal value of the DC voltage.

The reference for the current controller is taken from the voltage controller. A
modified PI-controller was chosen; special algorithms are implemented to cope
with the saturation problem of the output transformer. The output of the voltage
controller is limited to the current capability of the devices.

Fig. 3: Control scheme of UPS output inverter

A sine generator running at a programmable frequency and amplitude produces

the reference for the output voltage. An additional voltage controller monitoring
the RMS-value of the output voltage during an output cycle calculates the
amplitude.

Universal Control Structure

It was decided to use only digital controllers in order to achieve stability, easy
parameter adjustment and additional monitoring features. Some of the controllers
have to be very fast to gain best response (current control, output voltage
control). For implementing these algorithms fast signal processors and application
specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are available. Signal processors do not contain
inverter specific peripheral circuitry like pulse width modulation, phase
measurement etc. For these functions, an ASIC was the solution with the best
price performance ratio. Signalprocessors are optimized for digital filtering and

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not for control algorithms. Integrating the control algorithms into the ASIC the
calculation times could be minimized by developing a processor structure
perfectly adapted to the application.

This ASIC containing both peripheral and signal processing hardware is a very
cost-effective solution for this UPS system. The disadvantage of having hardware
red algorithms was acceptable due to the fixed specification of the UPS system
and counterbalanced by an universal control structure performed by the ASIC
with many switches and load able parameters.

All inner current and voltage control loops are performed with a sampling rate
equivalent to the switching frequency of the power devices (10 or 20 kHz).

Output inverter and controlled rectifier both contain equivalent circuitry and
signal processing pulse width modulator, current control, sine-generation, DC-link
measurement and adaptation. The whole UPS family consists of both one- and
three-phase systems. Integrating the total functions for a three-phase rectifier
and inverter into one ASIC would be overloaded for single-phase applications.
Therefore it was decided to put the control of a three-phase inverter into one
circuit. This can be used for the three-phase output inverter, the three-phase
rectifier and also for both a one-phase rectifier and inverter.

Fig. 4: Universal control scheme of ASIC

Fig. 4 shows the universal control block diagram of the ASIC. It contains seven
PI-controllers in total. The pulse width modulation generates the signals for six
inverter legs. This allows for three independent four-quadrant DC-inverters being
used for a three-phase output inverter. The current controllers operate in two
modes: for the output inverter three current controllers are used to control the
three phases independently. For the rectifier only two controllers are used; the
third phase is calculated at the output voltage level. The voltage controllers are
only used for output inverter operation. They can be bypassed at the rectifier

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mode.

Some additional circuitry was included. The measurement of the phase difference
for the PLL-control of the line frequency is supported by the ASIC using phase
angle captures functions. To support the microcontroller to determine the
effective output voltage and current load the integrated squares of the measured
values are calculated during a period of the sine wave frequency.

The repetition cycle of all calculations performed by the ASIC is the switching
frequency of the inverter legs. This frequency normally amounts to 20 kHz. At the
beginning of the cycle the A/D-conversion is started. The ASIC calculates the
references and the UD-voltage controller. After at most 15 s the A/D-conversion
is ready and the calculation of the controllers starts being performed in 10 s for
all six PI-algorithms. New PWM-values are given to the modulator at the middle
of the switching cycle. In the remaining second half of the cycle the ASIC
performs the calculation of sum of squares of the measured values.

Measured Performance Results Of The UPS System

The inverter controller ASIC is used at the control board of a series of static UPS
systems (APOSTAT). This series consists of one-phase units with sinusoidal input
currents (6.6 kVA and 10 kVA) and three-phase units (10 kVA and 20 kVA).

Fig. 5: UPS-system APOSTAT: 100% load step; 6.6 kVA/1~ unit and 20
kVA/3~ unit

Due to the high sampling rate of the digital control algorithms an excellent
dynamic behavior of the UPS-system is achieved. This is important in case of
load-steps (Fig. 5) and non-linear loads (Fig. 6). The output inverter and the
output filter circuit provide high peak currents (crest factor 3). Harmonic
distortions of the output voltages range from 1% to 2% at linear loads and to 5%

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at non-linear loads.

Using a controlled step-up chopper the input currents of the single-phase

controlled rectifiers are pure sinusoidal. This transforms non-linear loads at the
output side into linear resistive loads at the line-side (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6: UPS-system APOSTAT 6.6 kVA/50 Hz (single phase) with

sinusoidal
input current and a mixed resistive non-linear load

The output transformer of the three phase units consists of three individually
controlled single-phase transformers. Therefore voltage distortions of one phase
resulting from the load (for example short circuit) do not affect the other phases.
Fig. 7 demonstrates the inverter being capable of clearing the short circuit by
blowing the fuse without transferring to bypass operation. The maximum peak
current available of the inverter during this operation is 300% of RMS-rating. If

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the output voltage exceeds the allowed voltage range for more than 4 ms the
system automatically switches from inverter to bypass operation.

Fig. 7: APOSTAT 20 kVA/3~: Single phase short circuit of the load (4 A-

Fuse) at 100% rated load
without transfer to bypass operation

The inverter is able to provide short time overloads (20%/100 ms, 1500%/5 sec,
120%/1min). If the load exceeds the current or time limit a current controller
reduces output currents and voltages. Fig. 8 shows that the bypass will be
activated to supply the output power.

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Fig. 8: APOSTAT 20kVA/3~ load step from 100% to 200% with
succeeding transfer to bypass
operation after approx. 100 ms

Conclusions

For the complete digital control of an UPS system an ASIC was designed
performing the fast current and voltage control loops. Using this ASIC the UPS
system achieves an excellent dynamic behavior (fast step response, low harmonic
distortions even at non-linear loads). The application specific integration of
peripheral functions and control algorithms proved to be a very efficient way for
implementing a digital inverter control.

A more detailed description of this work you can find in following publication done
together with the Anton Piller GmbH & Co. KG:

Kiel, E.; Schumacher, W.; Ehrenberg, J.; Letas, H.-H.; Schrader-Hausmann, U.:
High Performance Digital Control of uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) using an
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC).
Proceedings of EPE-Conference, Florence 1991

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Digital control improves tool machine

New developments in the field of CNC-controlled machine tools aim primarily at

increasing the productivity of the machines, i.e. the machining time must be
shortened and the contour accuracy must be increased. The new completely
digitized drive technology fulfils these demands in an ideal manner because it
offers faster acceleration rates,
greater path accuracy and a
higher drive availability
rate.The achievable production
accuracy and operating speed
depend primarily on the
position-controlled motion axes
of the machine tool. To fulfil the
growing demands with regard
to dynamics and accuracy, the
motion axes require minimal
inertia, hysteresis and
elasticity. These properties
depend primarily on the driving
mechanism, i.e. on the
transmission gears or belts.

High positioning accuracy, a

high maximum speed and a
large torque through
correspondingly adapted overall
mechanical/ electrical solutions
must be the aim of all new
developments. A modular
three-phase main drive is
presented here as a typical
example of such an extensive
assignment.

Motor and spindle bearing

united

In the past a servomotor, that

is swivelled into the C-axis,
positioned the main spindle
during milling (Fig. 1a).
According to the new development presented here, the motor and spindle bearing
is integrated into a direct drive (Fig. 1b). However, the associated high demands
expected of the controlling quality were no longer compatible with conventional
analog technology. This was therefore the major consideration for Grundig-
Gildemeister Automation GmbH to jointly develop with IAM GmbH (now sci-worx
GmbH - Industrial Systems) a fully digitized control for direct drives in the C-axis,
and thus a CNC-control for machine tools. This would give the motor the
demanded characteristics of a servo drive.

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 Fig. 1: Different drive mechanisms

A field-oriented control process was implemented for the asynchronous motor

used for the main spindle drive (Fig. 2). This, together with high-resolution
position acquisition, established the preconditions to achieve excellent results
regarding

Positioning accuracy
Speed control bandwidth
Dynamics and rigidity
Motor efficiency

Fig. 2: Field-orientated control process

Experiences gained with the integrated drive control in the tool machine

The first test of an integrated drive control (IAR) on the motor test stand for
several drives furnished promising results. This was then followed by Gildemeister
testing. The integrated drive control was used to establish the C-axis capability of
the main drive and the machining quality of workpieces in connection with two
different mechanical drive configurations: A separate main drive (7.5 kW) which
drives the spindle via a belt transmission, and a direct drive (10 kW) that is
integrated as a hollow-shaft built-in motor in the spindle box.

The IAR integrated drive technology significantly improved the dynamics, quality

35
and rigidity, even with the mechanically less favourable separate main drive.
Moreover, additional mechanical drive damping could be eliminated. The IAR
integrated drive technology, in conjunction with the direct drive, by far exceeded
all the properties regarding dynamics, quality and rigidity associated in the past
with this particular type of machine tool. As a result of its extreme rigidity, this
drive proved to be ideal for workpiece positioning while milling. Nowadays, this
control is incorporated in the CTX-product range of Gildemeister AG.

The main advantages of the digital solution include parameter-true control,

convenient setting into operation and parameterization of the drive. Further tests
showed that the next innovation step in machine development must be on the
mechanical side to ensure that the resulting precision will significantly improve
workpiece quality. It is now well worthwhile to especially concentrate on backlash
and elasticities in the chuck, turret, tool, motor and machine bed. It is essential
to eliminate inaccuracies that are not associated with the control circuit of the
control and therefore cannot be compensated by way of the software. The
accuracy and dynamics in connection with the workpiece are increased still
further with the IAR integrated drive control. Rapid traverse speeds of up to 60
m/min at a resolution of 0.003 mm can now be theoretically immediately
implemented with this fully digitized control. Torque-dependent compensation of
the spring rigidity of the x- or z-axes is now possible with IAR integrated drive
control. Other advantages are the result of the close coupling with CNC control
software that is now possible. Path profiles can be transmitted with all the
necessary pre-controls to the drive control. Inversely, interpolation software of all
state variables of the drive is now available. Digital interfaces thus open the way
to optimal close meshing between the drive and the higher-ranking software.

A detailed description of this development and the measurement results are given
in the following joint publications with Grundig Gildemeister Automation GmbH:

Eckhardt, V.; Ehrenberg, J.; Hentschke, B.; Korinth, L.:

Die Grenzen liegen jetzt bei der Mechanik.
Elektronik 1993, No. 18, pages 66..81.

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36
X-ray chest system with master-slave drive control
for image scanning drum

Philips Medizin Systeme in Hamburg have developed a new type of digital X-ray
chest system that produces the X-ray image negative without the traditional
chemical photographic process. The X-ray image is formed by the electrostatic
principle on the surface of a rotating drum. The image is applied by a scanner
that scans the radiographic information and stores it electrostatically on the
drum. The read/write head continuously scans, in the m-range, the information
and deposits it in the circumferential direction on the cylinder surface and in a
vertical direction for read-out with the same precision. This requires two drives
operating in precise synchronism with each other. One drive turns the drum while
the other drives the read/write head in synchronism in a vertical direction.
Moreover, positioning is time optimized without giving rise to any torsion
vibrations between drum and drive.

CAN-bus software and hardware made the chest system network compatible so
that the digital information of the X-ray image can be digitally processed. The
image information can be produced and called at a remote point from the
electrostatic store.

IAM GmbH in Brunswick was commissioned with the development of the drive
control by means of a control card and CAN interfaces. The concept was
implemented in such a manner that all tasks in the field of control technology of
multi-axis units (e.g. machine tools, robotics) can be fulfilled. The new feature in
this context is the possibility to operate any number of servodrives with the
utmost precision as a master drive. The slaves can be coupled "on the fly"
separately from the master. The control synchronizes the slave with the master
via a parameterizable transient process. The hardware and software for resolvers,
six-step transmitters and encoders, or appropriate combinations of these
transmitters, were designed to be configurable with each other to ensure that the
most favourable transmitter solution on the market can be selected, even in the
future.

The master-slave drive unit can be controlled with the following commands:
* Fast stop without brake ramp (emergency stop)
* Stop with braking ramp (regular stop)
* Approach a target position with the trajectory generator (TG)
* Approach a target position relative to the current position with the trajectory
generator (TG)
* Travel to an end position with the trajectory generator (TG)
* Travel at a constant speed and start ramp for rotating axes
* Travel at constant speed and start ramp for linear axes up to maximum to an
end position
* The drive follows a master position
* The drive follows a master speed
* Search for, and travel to, the reference point.
Control was divided between an 8-bit micro-controller (80537) and a signal
processor (DSP56001) (Fig. 1).

37
Fig. 1: System configuration

The micro-controller handles the functions that are not time critical:
* Switch on self-test
* Operation of the CAN interface
* Initializing and parameterizing
* Scaling user units
* Reference formation
* Sequence control
* Monitoring and fault treatment
* Periphery operation

The signal processor takes over the following control-relevant functions:

* Controller cascade with position, speed, torque and stator-flux control
* Co-ordinates transformations
* Read-in of position and current actual values
* Generation of the PWM switching times
* Reference variable generator
* Master-slave coupling

The contracting party developed a matching ASIC parallel to the development of

the hardware and software control, and then transferred it to production and
testing. In addition to the generation of the PWM signals, the ASIC also evaluates
two incremental transmitters (own position and master position). The times at
which counting pulses arise are stored for high-resolution speed calculation (24
bits) above a minimum speed. Suitable software algorithms guarantee adequately
accurate speed control within the range standstill and minimum speed. In
practice the drive remains within this range for only a very brief period so that
the problem of stationary accuracy is not relevant in this area.

Control structure

38
The master drive of the drum and the slave drive of the read/write head is a
permanent-field non-salient pole synchronous machine. Figure 2 shows the
control structure that is required for this purpose. The controllers for TORQUE and
stator flux (ST-FLUX) are located where the current controller is normally located.
As the stator currents ISD and ISQ are proportional to the stator flux and drive
torque with the permanent-field non-salient pole synchronous machine, these
control sections correspond with the current control circuits. The stator flux is
controlled at 0 because it is not necessary to change the motor flux in deviation
from the permanent flux. The reference variable generator is given a target
position from which it calculates a time-optimized set-point profile for position,
speed and torque while maintaining the speed limitation as well as the
acceleration and braking torque specifications. The reference variable generator is
only activated for the master drive. Another feature is that the time when braking
commences is calculated in such a manner that the drive stops precisely at the
target position when changing from speed-controlled mode to position-controlled
mode.

Fig. 2: Control for the synchronous motor in the DSP

Master-slave coupling

The slave receives its position target value from the actual position of the master
(POS2) and instantly compares its actual position (POS1) with the master position
when it receives the coupling command. The position ramp for the position value
of the master is then calculated for an adjustable compensation speed so that it
can enter into synchronism with the master with any measure of softness (fig. 3).
The speed of the master is calculated from the master position and supplied to
the output of the position controller (fig. 2). This pre-control eliminates the
following error otherwise associated with master movement. Figure 3 shows that

39
the compensation time t3 - t1 only depends on the position difference DPOS0 and
the adjusted compensation speed. Movement of the master during this
compensation process does not change this time. In practice a transmission ratio
between the master and slave position is taken into account (not described in this
context).

Fig. 3: Master-slave position compensation

Damping the torsional vibrations

The torsion vibrations generated by time-optimized movement of the image drum

(approx. 80 cm diameter) with a low-power motor can be successfully attenuated
by the principal of differential speed application. The speeds for the drum and
drive are available for this purpose.

Implementation

The control algorithms were implemented on the DSP56001 by Motorola. The

control is operated at a switching frequency of 20 kHz and a scanning frequency
of 20 kHz. Customer benefits When the development work has been completed
customers will have at their disposal a high-dynamic and flexible servo-drive
control that will not only permit digital control of the X-ray chest system, but also
the integration in the local data processing network of a hospital. All control
parameters and status variables can be activated or read within the framework of
the remote control or remote diagnosis. In the subsequent years this has resulted
in a high quality product that is well ahead of its time in the entire field of x-ray

40
diagnostics.

A detailed description of this development is given in the following joint

publications with Philips Medizin Systeme:

Ehrenberg, J.; Heins, E-J; Leymann, P; Schumacher, W.:

CAN-Bus mit OSI-Schicht 7 ffnet Tor zur Fabrik
Teil 1: Voll digitale Motorregelung in Medizinsystemen.
Elektronik 1991, No. 22, pages 70...80.

Ehrenberg, J.; Heins, E-J; Leymann, P; Schumacher, W.:

CAN-Bus mit OSI-Schicht 7 ffnet Tor zur Fabrik
Teil 2: Voll digitaler Motorregler fr universellen Einsatz.
Elektronik 1991, No. 23, pages 62...70.

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