EMMU 7241-Advanced Machine Design

Q1. (a) What do you understand by Machine design? State and discuss the factors that influence
the design of products. (7 marks)
(b) With the help of neat sketches explain the process of crack initiation and propagation
(3 marks)
(c) A bar of circular cross-section is subjected to alternating tensile forces varying from a
minimum of 200 kN to a maximum of 500 kN. It is to be manufactured of a material with an
ultimate tensile strength of 900 MPa and an endurance limit of 700 MPa. Determine the diameter
of bar using safety factors of 3.5 related to ultimate tensile strength and 4 related to endurance
limit and a stress concentration factor of 1.65 for fatigue load. Use Goodman straight line as
basis for design. (6 marks)

(a) Design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a particular need and to create something with a
physical reality. A machine as a combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained
relative motions which are used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. This modification or
transformation of energy requires a number of machine elements, some small and some large.
Machine design involves primarily designing these elements so that they may transmit the forces
safely and perform their task successfully. In designing a machine component, it is necessary to
have a good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength
of Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing. (3 marks)

Factors to be considered in machine design - Some of the factors to be considered are as

follows:
(i) What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative arrangement of
the constituent elements.
(ii) Material: A wrong choice of material may lead to failure, over or undersized product or
expensive items.
(iii) Forces on the elements: The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and
these stresses must be determined accurately since these will be used in determining the
component size.
(iv) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also a major
concern.
(v) The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly. Care must always be
taken to ensure that the designed elements may be manufactured with ease, within the
available facilities and at low cost.
(vi) How will it operate?
(vii) Reliability and safety aspects
(viii) Inspectibility
(ix) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.
(4 marks)
(b) The Process of Crack Initiation and Propagation
i) The initiation stage can represent a large part of the life span; physically, cracks initiate from
an imperfection or an already existing crack or a damaged (locally weakened) area
ii) During the stable propagation stage the crack speed grows exponentially with the crack size
iii) Unstable propagation stage: The crack grows unstably until the ductile fracture
(3 marks)
(c)
Q2. (a) Define the Factor of Safety. State the considerations to be considered when selecting
factors of safety. Why should the factor of safety be right? (10 marks)
b) A cantilever beam made of cold drawn carbon steel of circular cross-section (as shown in the
figure below) is subjected to a load which varies from P to 3P. Determine the maximum load
that this member can withstand for an indefinite life using a factor of safety as 2. The theoretical
stress concentration factor is 1.42 and the notch sensitivity is 0.9. Assume the following values:
Ultimate stress = 550 MPa; Yield stress = 450 MPa; Endurance limit = 250 MPa; Size factor =
0.85; Surface finish factor = 0.90
(10 marks)

(a) Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of material strength and allowable stress;
Ultimate Stress ultimate load
= Working Stress; Or Factor of Safety = allowable load
The factor of safety is used to provide a design margin over the theoretical design capacity to
allow for uncertainty in the design process. Factor of safety is recommended by the conditions
over which the designer has no control that is to account for the uncertainties involved in the
design process. (2 marks)
The choice of the factor of safety that is appropriate for a given design application requires
engineering judgment based on many considerations, such as the following:
i) Variations that may occur in the properties of the member under consideration. The
composition, strength and dimension of the member are all subject to small variations
during manufacture. In addition material properties may be altered and residual stresses
introduced through heating or deformation that may occur during manufacture, storage,
transportation or construction.
ii) The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of the structure or machine.
For most material, the ultimate stress decreases as the number of load applications
increased. This phenomenon is known as fatigue and if ignored, may result in sudden
failure.
iii) The type of loadings that are planned for in the design or that may occur in the future.
Very few loadings are known with complete accuracy most design loadings are
engineering estimates. In addition, future alterations or changes in usage may introduce
changes in the actual loading. Larger factors of safety are also required for dynamic,
cyclic or impulsive loadings.
iv) The type of failure that may occur. Brittle materials fail suddenly usually with no prior
indication that collapse is imminent. On the other hand, ductile materials, such as
 structural steel, normally undergo a substantial deformation called yielding before failing,
thus providing a warning that overloading exists. However, most buckling or stability
failures are sudden whether the material is brittle or not. When the possibility of sudden
failure exists, a larger factor of safety should be used than when failure is preceded by
obvious warning signs.
v) Uncertainty due to methods of analysis. All design methods are based on certain
simplifying assumptions which result in calculated stresses being approximations of the
actual stresses.
vi) Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or because of
unpreventable natural causes. A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where
conditions such as corrosion and decay are difficult to control or even to discover.
vii) The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure. Bracing and
secondary members may in man) cases be designed with a factor of safety lower than that
used for primary members.
viii) The risk to life and property that a failure would produce. Where a failure would
produce no risk to life and only minimal to property, the use of a smaller factor of safety
can be considered.
ix) The practical consideration that unless a careful design with a non-excessive factor of
safety is used, structure or machine might not perform its design function. For example,
high factors may have an unacceptable effect on the weight of an aircraft.
(5 marks)
Why should the factor of safety be right?
The selection of the appropriate factor of safety to be used in design of components is essentially
a compromise between the associated additional cost and weight and the benefit of increased
safety and/or reliability. Generally, an increased factor of safety results from a heavier
component or a component made from a more exotic material or / and improved component
design. If a higher scale factor of safety is selected then an outlandish design can be made with a
higher costing. A high safety factor well over the required design factor sometimes implies
over engineering which can result in excessive weight and/or cost. The higher the factor of
safety, the higher the price of that product because the product need more material/strength in
order to make it withstand higher value of FOS. On the other hand the lower the factor of safety
the higher the likely hood of failure of the machine element. Therefore, the factor of safety must
be right. (3 marks)

(b)
Q3. (a) Briefly explain what you understand by pressure vessels. Describe three theories of
failure that are normally used in the design of pressure vessels. (8 marks)
(b) Briefly outline the three key aspects of machine component surfaces to be considered in
machine design. (3 marks)
(c) The cast iron used in the manufacture of an engineering component has tensile and
compressive strengths of 390 MN/m2 and 1050 MN/m2 respectively.
(i) If the maximum value of the tensile principal stress is to be limited to one-third of the tensile
strength, determine the maximum value and nature of the other principal stress using Mohrs
modified yield theory for brittle materials. (3 marks)
(ii) What would be the values of the principal stresses associated with a maximum shear stress of
450 MN/m2 according to Mohrs modified theory? (6 marks)

a) DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS

Vessels, tanks, and pipelines that carry, store, or receive uids are called pressure vessels. A
pressure vessel is dened as a container with a pressure differential between inside and outside.
The inside pressure is usually higher than the outside, except for some isolated situations. The
uid inside the vessel may undergo a change in state as in the case of steam boilers, or may
combine with other reagents as in the case of a chemical reactor. Pressure vessels often have a
combination of high pressures together with high temperatures, and in some cases ammable
uids or highly radioactive materials. (2 marks)
The most commonly used theories of failure for pressure vessels are:
i) Maximum principal stress theory (Rankines theory) Failure occurs when the greatest
principal stress reaches the elastic limit stress in a simple tension test, irrespective of the
other principal stresses; i.e., x o . This theory is fairly true for brittle materials not for
ductile materials. (2 marks)
ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Trescas theory) - Failure occurs when the greatest shear
stress reaches the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension test, i.e.,
x z o
or x z o . The theory gives good correlation with experimental result
2 2
obtained with ductile materials. (2 marks)
iii) Distortion Energy Theory or Shear strain energy (Von Misess theory) Failure occurs
when the shear strain energy stored per unit volume in a strained material reaches the shear
strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in a simple tension test, this is similar to the
preceding theory but it is assumed that volumetric energy plays no part in producing elastic
failure, i.e.,
1
6G
2 2 2

x y z x y y z z x
o2
6G
or x y z x y y z z x o
2 2 2 2

(2 marks)
(b) The three key aspects of machine component surfaces to be considered are:
i) Smoothness is important to fatigue strength, to wear resistance, and, to some extent, to
corrosion resistance.
ii) Hardness acts to improve fatigue strength, to provide resistance to wear, and to prevent
cavitation damage.
iii) Surface residual stress is important, for compressive residual stresses increase fatigue
strength, increase resistance to stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, and surface
fatigue (from contact stresses), and decrease damage from fretting corrosion.
(3 marks)
Maximum principal stress = 390/3 = 130 MN/m2
1 130 106 2
According to Mohrs theory; + 2 = 390 106 + =1
1050 106
Therefore, 2 = -700 MN/m2, i.e., 700 MN/m2 compressive (3 marks)
(ii) What would be the values of the principal stresses associated with a maximum shear stress of
420 MN/m2 according to Mohrs modified theory? (7 marks)

In any Mohr circle construction, the radius of the circle equals the maximum shear stress value.
To answer this part of the question, therefore, it is necessary to draw the Mohr failure envelope
on - axes as shown in the figure below and to construct the circle which is tangential to the
envelope and has a radius of 420MN/m2. This is achieved by drawing a line parallel to the failure
envelope and 420 MN/m2 (to scale) from it. Where the line cuts the -axis is then the center of
the required circle (with radius FL =420). The desired principal stresses are then, as usual, the
extremities of the horizontal diameter of the circle i.e., 1 and 2.
Thus, from the figure: KL/KM = JL/MH;
JL = FL FJ = 420 390/2 = 225; and KM = 1050/2 + 390/2 = 720
MH = 1050/2 390/2 = 330;
Therefore, KL = (225/330) x 720 = 490.9; K1 = KL 420 = 490.9 420 = 70.9;
Therefore, 1 = 420/2 70.9 = 139.1 MN/m2
But 1 + 2 = 2x420 =840 MN/m2; Therefore, 2 = 840 139.1 = 700.9 MN/m2

(7 marks)

Q4. (a) What is meant by endurance strength of a material? How do the size and surface
condition of a component and type of load affect such strength?
(b) Briefly explain what you understand by surface fatigue failure. Explain how surface fatigue
failure can be reduced on machine elements.
(c) A steel ring with internal diameter of 200 mm and external diameter 400 mm is shrunk onto a
solid steel shaft. The interference is arranged such that the radial pressure between the mating
surfaces will not fall below 30 MN/m2 whilst the assembly rotates in service. If the maximum
circumferential stress on the inside surface of the ring is limited to 240 MN/m 2, determine the
maximum speed at which the assembly can be rotated. It may be assumed that no relative slip
occurs between the shaft and the ring. For steel, = 7500 kg/m3, = 0.3.

(a) Endurance Strength

The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the
term endurance strength is used when referring to the fatigue strength of a material; endurance
strength is, therefore, defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine
part working under actual conditions. When a machine member is subjected to a completely
reversed stress, the maximum stress in tension is equal to the maximum stress in compression.
But in actual practice, many machine members undergo different range of stress than the
completely reversed stress.

The endurance limit will be different for different types of loading being higher with bending
and lower with shearing. The endurance limit of the material also depends upon the surface
conditions; the endurance limit for mirror polished material is maximum and it goes on reducing
due to surface condition. The endurance limit of the material decreases as the size of the material
becomes longer; this is due to the fact that a longer specimen will have more defects than a
smaller one. In addition to the surface finish factor (Ksur), size factor (Ksz) and load factors Kb,
Ka and Ks, there are many other factors such as reliability factor (Kr), temperature factor (Kt),
impact factor (Ki) etc. which affect the endurance limit of a material.

(b) Surface Fatigue Failures

Surface fatigue failures result from the repeated application of loads that produce stresses in and
under the contacting surfaces. Cracks initiated by these stresses propagate until small bits of
surface material become separated, producing pitting or spalling. Pitting originates with surface
cracks, and each pit has a relatively small surface area. Spalling originates with subsurface
cracks, and the spalls are thin flakes of surface material. These types of failure occur
commonly in gear teeth, ball and roller bearings, cams and followers, and metal wheels rolling
on rails. (2 marks)

The tendency for surfaces to fail in fatigue can be reduced by decreasing loads and decreasing
sliding. Better lubrication helps in at least three ways:
i) less friction reduces the surface tangential shear stress and also the tensile stress;
ii) less friction plus improved heat transfer reduces thermal stresses; and
iii) the presence of a good lubricating film usually allows a more favorable distribution of
pressure over the contact area.
(1 marks)
(c)
Q5. Q4 a) The bending stress in a machine shaft fluctuates between a tensile stress of
360MN/m2 and a compressive stress of 275MN/m2. If the yield stress of the shaft is to be
between 50% and 80% of the ultimate tensile strength, the endurance strength = 0.5 Ultimate
strength; and factor of safety = 2.0; determine the minimum ultimate tensile strength of this shaft
to carry this fluctuation indefinitely according to: (i) Goodman's formula, and (ii) Soderberg
formula; (8 marks)
b) A simply supported shaft with a span of 600mm is subjected to a point cyclic load at its mid
span. The load varies from a minimum value of 40 KN to maximum value of 60 KN. The load
direction is transverse to the shaft axis. Find the diameter of the shaft, if the Ultimate strength =
650MN/m2, the Yield strength = 500MN/m2 and the Endurance strength = 400MN/m2. Assume a
factor of safety = 2, a factor of size effect = 0.85 and a factor of surface finish = 0.80.
(12 marks)
(a)
(b)
Q6. (a) Explain the following terms about the design of machine members subjected to variable
loads: (8 marks)
i) Endurance limit,
ii) Size factor,
iii) Surface finish factor, and
iv) Notch sensitivity.
(b) An initially unstressed steel cylinder, internal radius 200 mm and external radius 240 mm, is
subjected to a temperature distribution of the form T = a + b loger to ensure constant heat flow
through the cylinder walls. With this form of distribution, the radial and circumferential stresses
at any radius r, where the temperature is T. are given

If the temperatures at the inside and outside surfaces are maintained at 250C and 150C
respectively, determine the maximum circumferential stress set up in the cylinder walls. For
steel, E = 200 GN/m2, = 0.3 and = 12 x 10-6 per 0C
(12 marks)
(a) Explanation of terms:
i) Endurance Limit is the highest stress that a material can withstand for an infinite
number of cycles without breaking called also fatigue limit;
ii) Size factor - To design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual
components), good practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit (EL) value
be reduced by several adjustment factors. These reductions are necessary to account
for: (a) the differences between the application and the testing environments, and (b)
the known statistical variations of the material.

This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors; these factors influence
on fatigue life of a material. Those factors are: (a) Surface finish factor (ka): such as:
polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc. Surface is perhaps the most
important influence on fatigue life; (b) Size factor (kb): This factor accounts for
changes which occur when the actual size of the part or the cross-section differs from
that of the test specimens. The larger the size the higher the probability of internal
defects, hence lower the fatigue strength; others are (c) Load (Kc); (d) Temperature
(kd); (e) Reliability (ke); and (f) Miscellaneous (Kf)
iii) Surface finish factor see above
iv) Notch sensitivity - The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive
a material is to notches or geometric discontinuities.

(b)
Q7. (a) Define the three modes of fracture with the aid of sketches. (6 marks)
(b) What causes fatigue failure? State the factors that influence fatigue failure in machine
elements. (7 marks)
(c) A pulley is keyed to a shaft midway between two bearings. The shaft is made of cold drawn
steel for which the ultimate strength is 550 MN/m2 and the yield strength is 450 MN/m2. The
bending moment at the pulley varies from 250 N-m to + 400 N-m as the torque on the shaft
varies from 200 N-m to + 300 N-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft for an indefinite life.
The stress concentration factors for the keyway at the pulley in bending and in torsion are 1.5
and 1.2 respectively; the factor of safety = 1.8; the load correction factors = 1.0 in bending, and
0.7 in torsion; the size effect factor = 0.85; and the surface effect factor = 0.85. Take endurance
strength = 0.5 Ultimate strength and yield stress in shear = 0.5 yield strength.
(14 marks)

(a) Three Modes of Fracture

There are three ways of applying a force to enable a crack to propagate:
Mode I fracture Opening mode (a tensile stress normal to the plane of the crack),
Mode II fracture Sliding mode (a shear stress acting parallel to the plane of the crack
and perpendicular to the crack front), and
Mode III fracture Tearing mode (a shear stress acting parallel to the plane of the crack
and parallel to the crack front).

(b) Failure Due to Fatigue

Fatigue failure is defined as the tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive
brittle cracking under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses of an intensity considerably below
the normal strength. A load of insufficient magnitude to cause failure in a single application may
lead to failure if it is removed and reapplied repeatedly. Metal fatigue is, therefore, a progressive
localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue cracks
initiate and propagate in regions where the strain is most severe.

The process of fatigue consists of three stages:

Initial crack formation
Progressive crack growth across the part
Final but sudden fracture of the remaining cross section.
The main factors that affect the fracture of a material are:
Stress concentration
Speed of loading
Temperature
Thermal shock.

Factors that influence fatigue failure in machine elements

The main factors that affect the fracture of a material, and therefore influence fatigue failure, are:
Stress concentration
 Speed of loading
Temperature
Thermal shock.
Composition of the Material
Service Conditions - Service conditions such as temperature, corrosive environment and
fluctuating loads can all affect fracture toughness and, therefore, influence fatigue failure.
(7 marks)
(c)