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Methodological Clarity
or the Substantial Purity of Law?
Notes on the Discussion
between Kelsen and Pitamic*
MARIJAN PAVCNIK
Abstract. Leonid Pitamic was convinced that law could not be understood and
explored by a single method aiming at a pure object of enquiry. He argued that it
was necessary to employ other methods besides the normative one (especially the
sociological and axiological methods), which, however, should not be confounded.
Methodological syncretism can be avoided by clearly distinguishing between
different aspects of law and by allowing the methods to support each other. By
following this guideline, and by arguing according to a clear method, we can also
open up a space for dialogue and for the juxtaposition of contrasting points of view.
1. Introduction
In the Foreword to the second edition of Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtslehre (Main
Problems in the Theory of Public Law), Hans Kelsen (18811973) writes that the
Pure Theory of Law is the concerted work of a continually growing circle of
theoretically like-minded men (Kelsen 1923, XXIII).1 One person who joined this
circle was Leonid Pitamic (18851971). Kelsen recognised his valuable contribution
to the project of defining the basic norm as the presupposition of legal cognition.2
In the Preface to the first edition of Pure Theory of Law, Kelsen also speaks of a
number of like-minded individuals. The characteristics of his school, according
to him, is that each of us makes an effort to learn from the others without
abandoning his own programme (Kelsen 1934, IX).3 In the case of Kelsen and
Pitamic, these questions concentrate on the purity of the method of law and of its
substantial content.
* This article is an English summary of the plenary paper Methodologische Klarheit oder
gegenstndliche Reinheit des Rechts. Anmerkungen zur Diskussion Kelsen-Pitamic presented at the
25th Congress of the IVR, which was held in Frankfurt am Main in August 2011.
1
The English quotation is taken from Paulson and Litschewski Paulson 1998, 22.
2
Kelsen 1923, XV. The following articles by Pitamic are quoted in the cited work: Pitamic
1917, 1918, 1921b, 1922a. All these articles are reprinted in Pitamic 2005.
3
The English quotation is taken from Kelsen 1992, 1.
2014 The Author. Ratio Juris 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main
Street, Malden 02148, USA.
Methodological Clarity or the Substantial Purity of Law? 177
It would be false to say that Pitamic was not impressed or impassioned by the
Pure Theory of Law. As for questions addressing the understanding of law as a
normative system, Kelsens normative purism had a visible influence on him.
Kelsens starting point, i.e., that a norm (Sollen) can only arise from norms, not from
being (Sein), may have inspired Pitamics claim that the normative properties of law
can only be deduced from normative properties: What is of decisive importance
is only the relation of a group of norms defined by its formal characteristics
according to positive law, to the groups that are superior and subordinate to it
according to positive law, which is identical to the legal validity of the norm
(Pitamic 1922b, 9).
Pitamic extended the normative outlook also to the state, state organs, and the
relations between them. He already observed in his article, Plato, Aristoteles und die
Reine Rechtstheorie, that Plato, and most notably Aristotle, had followed a strict
normative model in their explorations of the notions of the state, the citizen, and
the law (Pitamic 1921b, 700), and had managed to avoid methodological syncre-
tism (ibid., 683). Drawing on the example of Aristotles Politics (Aristoteles 1989, III,
1278b), he illustrates how the idea of the state as an order, as a constitutional or
legal order, is fundamental to the notion of the state (Pitamic 1921b, 688). For any
association, what is relevant is the idea, the system, the nature of the connection,
and not what is connected (ibid., 688).4 Pitamic perceives a parallel between the
ancient Greek conception, which was free from the constructivist auxiliaries of
modern jurisprudence, and the Pure Theory of Law, which dissolves the eman-
cipation, materialization, and hypostasis of this device, and recognizes it merely as
an auxiliary for the cognitive economy of legal cognition (ibid., 684).
In the following, I will first briefly touch upon one of the starting-points of the
Pure Theory of Law: cognitive economy. It was certainly the question of the basic
norm which divided Kelsen and Pitamic most incisively. Pitamic transcended the
Pure Theory of Law and set out to find a common substantial denominator between
positive and natural law. He sought this common denominator in the nature of law.
However, the conclusion from this is not that Kelsens and Pitamics conceptions
are irreconcilable. Their views certainly differ, but they can complement each other
if linked in an appropriate way. The core contribution of the Pure Theory of Law
is that it erects a formal legal frame (structure), allowing substantial creativity
within it.
2. The Quest for a Basic Legal Norm (the Starting Point of the Pure
Theory of Law)
2.1. Cognitive Economy as a Precondition of Legal Science
Law understood as a system of norms would be utopian without some foundation.5
Kelsen (1914) and his circle (see especially Verdross 1915, 112, 1213, and 1347)
were searching for this foundation (see Walter 1992, 4759; 1993, 8599; see also
Paulson 1993, 5374).
4
See also Verdross 1963, 44. Cf. Kelsen 1922/23. Quoted from the reprint in Klecatsky et al.
1968, I, 180.
5
Cf. the earlier Jellinek 1913, 28.
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178 Marijan Pavcnik
In this choice concerning past as well as present law, a certain principle of economy has to
be considered; this principle does not consider the subjective political conviction in any way
and amounts to nothing more than objectively establishing the material conditions for
constructing such legal norms that will conform in the highest possible manner with
effective preconditions for what ought to be done, i.e., with those ideas about what ought
to be done that really motivate the people in the territory and time period whose law we
want to know.
Regarding the nature of this principle, he quotes the philosopher and physicist
Ernst Mach: This tendency to obtain a survey of a given province with the least
expenditure of thought, and to represent its facts with one single mental process,
may be justly termed an economical one (Mach 1882, 302; see also Mach 1905,
232).
Pitamic proposed methodological clarity in legal theory, without altogether reduc-
ing the object law as a priori to its normativity, and without completely divesting the
concept of all its non-normative elements. Pitamic sharply distinguishes between
the deductive-normative and the inductive-causal methods. The first only provides
a way of thinking which enables us to identify without contradiction the norms
of a given legal material in their relations to one another, as well as to apply them
in the face of factual events (Pitamic 1917, 3656). The core of this method is
normative imputation (Zurechnung), which is nothing but the conjunction of
normative constituent elements with relevant factual elements on the basis of a
norm (ibid., 342). It is a characteristic feature that a user of the deductive-
normative method presupposes the starting point of his research, whereas the
starting point itself (i.e., legal material as the object of research) can only be defined
by the inductive-causal method. The latter looks for a concrete starting point, i.e.,
such legal order that can be found in its concrete contents determined by time and
place (ibid., 344).
This methodological dualism, which legal science is unable to avoid, is illustrated
by Pitamic in a metaphorical way:
When Kelsen starts from a standpoint he presupposes as a givena complex of norms, and
from this formal condition (which permits any contents) derives consequences in a purely
deductive manner, he is, so to speak, on the top of a mountain from which he descends
normatively fighting his way down; yet Kelsen does not ask himself how to reach the top.
Others who try first to achieve the material conditions, the starting point of the norms, look
first for the top of a certain mountain; they fight their way to it, which is only possible by the
method of induction and causality because this means [. . .] establishing the psychological
effects of ideas about ought (Sollen), which belong to the area of the knowledge of is
(Sein). (ibid.)
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Methodological Clarity or the Substantial Purity of Law? 179
a halt by means of ideas produced according to another method (ibid., 355). Pitamic
calls this a jump (emphasis added) over an abyss, whose endless depth logically
separates the world of is (Sein) from the world of ought (Sollen) (ibid., 356). In
short: It is an unsolved, possibly even an insoluble epistemological problem that
can be bridged by mans value jump (the word value added by me) in such a
way that the normatively running deduction is interrupted by the fact of is
(Seinstatsache) (ibid.).
6
Kelsen 1923, XV. Four articles by Pitamic are quoted in the cited work: See note 2.
Ratio Juris, Vol. 27, No. 2 2014 The Author. Ratio Juris 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
180 Marijan Pavcnik
problem of the basic norm (Walter 1992, 49). In his article Reichsgesetz und
Landesgesetz nach sterreichischer Verfassung (Imperial Law and State Law According
to the Austrian Constitution), he explicitly states that any legal construction must
presuppose certain norms as valid legal rules (Kelsen 1914, 216). It is typical for
Kelsen that the choice of this starting point is understood not as a legal question,
but as a political one, and therefore must always seem arbitrary from the perspec-
tive of legal understanding (ibid.; see also 4134).
Pitamic is convinced that Kelsen took up his idea about the effectiveness of law
and expressed it in an altered normativized form: first through the norm of
international law and then as the content of the basic norm. Pitamic says that
Kelsen supplemented the mentioned idea because he entered into international
law as a norm that which I suggested as just a cognitive principle for concrete (state)
laws (Pitamic 1921a, 18).7 Kelsens epistemological principle became the content
of a legal norm and is therefore supposed to function as a legal principle. By
becoming the content of a norm, Kelsen writes, the factual undergoes a very
peculiar change in meaning, it is in a way denaturised, it makes a volte-face and
becomes normative itself (see Kelsen 1920, 99, and 2401). Pitamic (1921a, 18; see
also 1922a, 351) is not satisfied with this solution, because in this way the basic
epistemological problem [. . .] is only posed back and must appear again in
international law.
He expresses the same concerns with regard to the basic norm as it is formulated
by Kelsen in the first edition of Pure Theory of Law (1934, 65ff.).
The development of Kelsens theoretical standpoints confirms the accuracy of
Pitamics statements that Kelsen (to a certain extent8) accepted his critical remarks
about how to substantiate the effectiveness of law so as to make it acceptable and
compatible with the Pure Theory of Law. Irrespective of the intensity of this
influence upon Kelsen,9 it is a fact that Kelsen did not deepen it at the point where
the normative and the factual, the factual and the normative intersect (see Pitamic
1928, 642) and depend on each other (and are also mutually connected), but
accepted and channelled it in such a way that the starting points of the Pure Theory
of Law remained unaffected.10
7
Cf. also his review (Pitamic 1928, 6412) of the works of Kelsen.
8
This problem is also treated in the comprehensive letter which Pitamic sent to Kelsen in
August 1957: See Pavcnik 2010, 87103.
9
Cf. Pitamic 1960, 210; see also Behrend 1977, 73ff., 94, and Thienel 1991, 1178.
10
Cf. Kelsens formulations of the basic norm in his later works; see especially Kelsen 1945,
1167; Kelsen 1960, 209, and Kelsen 1979, 203ff.
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Methodological Clarity or the Substantial Purity of Law? 181
situated outside of it, but are also a different, heterogeneous (emphasis added)
system reaching into the legal system, vitalizing it, and supporting its interpre-
tations of legal norms. The dependence of law on this different, heterogeneous
system is most delicate and also most sensitive and also evident in the interpre-
tation of the constitution, which is at the top of the hierarchy of state law (Pitamic
1920, 14; see also 18.).
The descent to law and its nature shows Pitamic that the main elements thereof
are order and humane behaviour. For him order is so essential that it is no longer
law when it ceases to be order. When the norms of a legal order are no longer
carried out permanently, they do not serve the order in the community for which
they are intended; then disorder rules, a lawless state, or another legal order has
started to work (Pitamic 1956, 192).
Yet the order that is of such importance for law is not some order emptied of
content, but an order regulating the behaviour of men. This regulation must
consider its object to at least such an extent that it does not take away its content.
If law is to remain law, it may only command or permit humane external behaviour
and not its opposite, inhumane behaviour, if it does not want to lose the qualities
of law (Pitamic 1956, 194; cf. also Verdross 1963, 296).
The order ensured by law loses the nature of law if its inhumanity exceeds the
extent that still allows for the existence of an individual and humane coexistence.
This is the minimum content of law determined in a most general way and
acceptable by anyone accepting humanity as a value.
Ratio Juris, Vol. 27, No. 2 2014 The Author. Ratio Juris 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
182 Marijan Pavcnik
11
The English quotation is taken from Kelsen 1992, 84.
12
See also Kelsen 1945, 146ff., and 1960, 251ff. The English quotation is taken from Kelsen
1992, 85.
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Methodological Clarity or the Substantial Purity of Law? 183
develop a method for filling in the discovered frame correctly (ibid., 95).13 Kelsen
explicitly underlines that the norm only constitutes a frame within which various
possibilities for application are given (ibid., 94f.).14 If additionally we combine
these findings with the hierarchical structure of the legal order (Stufenbau der
Rechtsordnung), we discover that both interpreting and applying legal acts (e.g.,
laws) are creative acts; science cannot answer the question which direction we have
to take, but it can expose the uncritical ideology upholding the notion that we are
merely dealing with the mechanical application of laws.
The productivity I am speaking of is only possible if the form of the law is
harmonised with its content. A case in point of a divergence between form and
content is Kelsens conception of the legal norm. The social-teleological purpose of
legal norms is to strengthen and guide the external behaviour and conduct of legal
subjects. Their primary aim is the implementation of permissions, commands, and
prohibitions; a sanction, as their secondary aim, only comes in when a breach of the
law occurs. As already expressed by Modestinus in the Digest of Justinian, 1, 3, 7:
The capacity of law is thus: to command, to prohibit, to allow, to punish (Legis
virtus haec est: imperare, vetare, permittere, punire). Kelsen departed from this simple
truth. What he treated as primary legal norms in Pure Theory of Law are norms of
sanctioning (Sanktionsnormen), which are particularly characteristic of criminal law
and in general of norms immediately relating to breaches of the law. Norms of
conduct (Verhaltensnormen), stating what we are entitled to do, what is prescribed,
and what is prohibited, were only secondary legal norms. For Kelsen, they were
norms specifying how people had to behave in order to avoid the threatened
coercive act (Kelsen 1934, 30).15 In the posthumously published work Allgemeine
Theorie der Normen (General Theory of Norms), he amended his view and returned
to the point from which he should have started. The main capacities of legal norms
are their possibilities to command, prohibit, allow, authorisei.e., authorise the
implementation or application of the norms , derogate existing norms, and replace
them with new ones (Kelsen 1979, 76ff.). Finally, these possibilities of action again
become the content of primary norms, while the norms prescribing sanctions are
referred to as secondary norms (ibid., 115).
13
The English quotation is taken from Kelsen 1992, 81.
14
See also Kelsen 1960, 347ff. The English quotation is taken from Kelsen 1992, 80.
15
The English quotation is taken from Kelsen 1992, 29. See also the critique which Peter
Koller (1988, 13647) addresses to Kelsen.
Ratio Juris, Vol. 27, No. 2 2014 The Author. Ratio Juris 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
184 Marijan Pavcnik
normative method (especially the sociological and the axiological methods), which,
however, should not be confounded. Methodological syncretism can be avoided by
distinguishing clearly between different aspects of law and by allowing the
methods to support each other.
Step by step, these results prompted Pitamic to combine the positive-law and the
natural-law-conception of the nature of law. For Pitamic, to sum up once again, the
essential elements of law are order and human behaviour. These elements are
interdependent. The order is associated with legal norms regulating external
human behaviour. It is so essential that law ceases to be law when its norms cease
to be at least grosso modo effective (Pitamic 1956, 1923). However, not any order can
function as an element of law; the condition is that it is an order which prescribes
only external humane behaviour and does not prescribe or allow its contrary,
inhumane behaviour, otherwise it loses its legal quality (ibid., 194).
However, the legal norm ceases to be law when its content seriously threatens
the existence and social interaction of the people subject to it (ibid., 199). For this
it is not sufficient that there is some kind of inhumanity in the content of the legal
norm (e.g., high taxes which are unjust); there has to be a conspicuous, obvious,
severe case of inhumanity [such as the mass slaughter of helpless people (Pitamic
1960, 214)]. There has to be a crude disturbance (for instance, the extermination
of the members of another race) which interferes so intensely with law that its
nature is negated (Pitamic 1956, 199; see also Pitamic 1960, 215).
Ulfrid Neumann convincingly observes that Pitamic does not invoke ethical
criteria beyond law, but appeals to elements of the legal concept itself (Neumann
2011, 281). This form of justification is to some extent in accordance with Radbruch
and his formula. The similarities between Radbruch and Pitamic consist predomi-
nantly in the fact that their projects both aim at the justification of the legal concept,
and that they both, in a similar way, explore the boundary which may not be
transgressed by a conflict between single elements of law in order to remain within
lawfulness. The Rubicon is crossed once the order is blatantly inhumane (krass
unmenschlich). We are here faced with an obvious parallel to Radbruchs formula
of intolerability (Unertrglichkeitsformel).16
It cannot be concluded from Pitamics oeuvre that he drew on Radbruchs
theories. In An den Grenzen der Reinen Rechtslehre (2005), Radbruchs name is only
mentioned once in association with heteronomous obligations (Pitamic 1918, 750).
In Pitamics central book, Drava (The State, 1927), Radbruch is not quoted at all.
The majority of reasons for their affinity lie in the fact that Radbruch and Pitamic
underwent a similar development, which ultimately led to similar results.
Radbruch as a Neo-Kantian endorsed value-theoretical relativism and held the
view that legal values cannot be identified (erkennen) but only acknowledged
(bekennen).17 Given the fact that the supreme value of law cannot be known, it is
necessary, for the sake of legal security, that this content be defined by the state
authority (Radbruch 1973, 1645). His experiences under Nazism motivated
Radbruch to make his points of view complete, and partly also to complement
them in the light of the condition of legal values. This was done after the Second
16
See Neumann 2011, 281.
17
Radbruch 1914; quoted from the reprint in Radbruch 1993, 22, 162. The English quotation
is taken from Paulson 2006b, 31. See also Radbruch 1973, 96; 1934.
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Methodological Clarity or the Substantial Purity of Law? 185
World War. The definitive derivation states that when the conflict between positive
statute and justice reaches an intolerable degree, the statute as flawed law
(unrichtiges Recht) must yield to justice (the formula of intolerability). Besides this
formula, there is also the formula of deniability (Verleugnungsformel); this formula
applies when the law deliberately betrays equality. In this case, the law is not
merely flawed law, it completely lacks the very nature of law.18
Pitamics development was similar. He first encountered theory and philosophy
of law as Kelsens disciple and was impassioned by normative purism as a form.
He was not deeply affected by the sharp distinction between the is (Sein) and the
ought (Sollen), as he also contemplated law sociologically and axiologically. From
the very beginning, he was perturbed by the self-sufficiency of law as a normative
system. In the face of the assertion that an ought can only be derived from an
ought, he advanced the thesis, inspired by Aristotle, that man is by his very nature
implanted into normative relations (see Pitamic 1960, 212; see also Pavcnik 2010,
934). His experiences with the barbarism of the twentieth century certainly had an
influence on Pitamic, who, just like Radbruch, placed law in relation to values.
Radbruch argues that law strives for justice, while Pitamic seeks the solution in a
concept of law which also has to be humane. Radbruchs formula is articulated
more thoroughly than Pitamics legal concept. However, Pitamic can also be
understood as saying that conscious disavowal of equality is inhumane, and that
an inequality which is intolerably inhumane lacks legal character.
An exhaustive comparison of Radbruch and Pitamic is not the object of this
enquiry. Yet a comparison was necessary because it highlighted a parallel with
Kelsens normativity thesis. Kelsen stuck to this thesis until the very end and thus,
from the point of view of his theory, he was indifferent to the content of positive
law. This content simply was not an object of his formal, normative analysis of law.
Radbruch and Pitamic included the content into their arguments and, in their
respective way, made it a yardstick for their concepts of law. This enabled them to
posit that their respective investigative methods were outside of natural law and
legal positivism. More precisely, in the words of Alexy (2009, 15166; 2010, 16782;
see also Koller 2006, 18096; 2008, 15780), their investigative methods can be
described as dual. This means that, again both in their own way, they combine the
factual and the ideal side in their investigations. The factual side encompasses the
positive legal order and the effectiveness of this order, while the ideal side
addresses the (moral) adequacy of its content. Their common denominator is that
law only remains law as long as its content is not extremely unjust or extremely
inhumane.
The discovery that the nature of law is dual also opens up the possibility of a
dialoguein such a manner as by Koller as wellbetween all those who are not
radical positivists or moralists (see Koller 2008, 160ff., 175ff.). Radical positivists
accept any imaginable content of law, while radical moralists grant only a law
which conforms to their moral ideal. The Pure Theory of Law is not an example of
radical positivism; it only assumes arbitrariness (Beliebigkeit) of content in order to
18
Radbruch 1946. Quoted from the reprint in Radbruch 1973, 3456. The English quotation
is taken from Paulson 2006b, 26. For more on Radbruch and Radbruchs Formula, see, e.g.,
Alexy 1992, 52 ff.; Dreier and Paulson 1999; Radbruch 1999; Kaufmann 1987, 988; Saliger
1995; Sprenger 1997, 37. See also Dreier 1997, 193215.
Ratio Juris, Vol. 27, No. 2 2014 The Author. Ratio Juris 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
186 Marijan Pavcnik
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Law
Poljanski nasip 2
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Email: Marijan.Pavcnik@pf.uni-lj.si
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