The Dictionary of Philosophy

ditd by ;

Dagobert D. Runes

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 CONTRIBUTORS
INITIALS NAMES INITIALS NAMES' *

A.C. ALONZO CHURCH /./?. IF. JULIUS R. WEINBERG

A.C.B. A. CORNELIUS BENJAMIN K.F.L KURT F. LEIDECKER
A.C.E. -A. C. EWING K.G. KATHARINE GILBERT
A.C.P. A. C. PEGIS L.E.D. LESTER E. DENONN
A.G.A.B. ALBERT G. A. BALZ L.M.H. LEWIS M. HAMMOND
A.J.B. ARCHIE J.
BAHM LV. LIONELLO VENTURI
B.A.G.F. B. A. G. FULLER L.W. LEDGER WOOD
C.A.B. CHARLES A. BAYLIS M.B. MAX BLACK
C.A.H. CHARLES A. HART M.T.K. MORRIS T. KEETON
C.G.H. CARL G. HEMPEL M.B.M. MARCUS B. MALLETT
C./.D. C J.
DUCASSE M.F. MAX FISHLER
C.K.D. C. K. DAVENPORT M. W. MEYER WAXMANN
D.C. DORION CAIRNS O.F.K. OTTO F. KRAUSHAAR
E.A.M. ERNEST A. MOODY P.A.S. PAUL A. SCHILPP
E.C. EMMANUEL CHAPMAN P.O.JC. PAUL O. KRISTELLER
E.P. ERICH FRANK P.P. IF. PHILIP PAUL WIENER
E.H. EUGENE HOLMES p. W. PAUL WEISS
E.S.B. EDGAR SHEFFIELD BRIGHTMAN R.A. RUDOLF ALLERS
F.L. IF. FREDERICK L. WILL KJ3.JF. RALPH B. WINN
F.M.G. FELIX M. GATZ R.C. RUDOLF CARNAP
F.K. FRITZ KUNZ R.M.J. RUFUS M. JONES
F.S.C.N. F. S. C. NORTHROP R.T.F. RALPH TYLER FLEWELLING
G.B. GEORGE BOAS S.v.F. SIGMAR VON FERSEN
G.R.M. GLENN R. MORROW S.S.S. S. S. STEVENS
G.W.C.G. WATTS CUNNINGHAM T.G. THOMAS GREENWOOD
H.G. HUNTER GUTHRIE T.M. THOMAS MUNRO
H.Go. HEINRICH GOMPERZ V.F. VERGILIUS FERM
H.H. -HERMAN HAUSHEER V.J.B. VERNON J. BOURKE
H.LG.H. L. GORDON V.JM.V. J.
McGiLL
/./.
IREDELL JENKINS 1F.JB. WALTER ECKSTEIN
/.JJ.B. JOHN EDWARD BENTLEY IF.F. ^WILLIAM FRANKENA

J.J.R.J. J.
ROLBIECKI IF.!. WILBUR LONG
J.K.F. JAMES K. FEIBLEMAN i. WILLIAM MARIAS MALISOFF
/.M. JOSEPH MAIER W. NORMAN PTTTENGER
J.A.F.JOSE A. FRANQUIZ W.S. IF. WILLIAM S. WEEDON
J.M.S. J. MACPHERSON SOMERVILLE IF.r.C W. T. CHAN
 ABBREVIATIONS

AS. Anglo Saxon Gr. Greek

C. Chinese Lat. Latin

Fr. French Heb. Hebrew

Ger. German Skr. Sanskrit

q.v. quod vide

 "ace

The aim of this dictionary is to provide teachers, students and laymen

interested in philosophy with clear, concise, and correct definitions and

descriptions of the philosophical terms, throughout the range of philo-

sophic thought. In the volume are represented all the branches as well as
schools of ancient, medieval, and modern philosophy. In any such con-

spectus, it is increasingly recognized that the Oriental philosophies must

be accorded ample space beside those of the western world.

The great field that must be compressed within the limits of a small
volume makes omissions inevitable. If any topics, or phases of a subject,
deserve space not here accorded them, it may be possible in future editions
to allow them room; I take this occasion to invite suggest iops and criticism,
to that end.

Clarity and correctness would be more easily secured if there were

concord among philosophers. Scarcely any two thinkers would define phi-
losophy alike ; nor are they likely to agree as to the significance of its basic
concepts. The value of a one-volume dictionary, nonetheless, makes the
effort worthwhile.

"Dictionaries are like watches,'* Samuel Johnson said; "the best can-
not be expected to go quite true, but the worst is better than none."

I trust that the present volume will serve as reliably as the chrono-
meter of today, in the time-pattern of the philosophic world.

I owe a debt of
profound appreciation to every one of the many
collaborators that have so generously contributed to the Dictionary. Espe-

cially do I wish to acknowledge my gratitude to Professors

William Marias
Malisoff and Ledger Wood. Needless to say, the final responsibility, as
to the general plan of the volume, together with the burden of any short-

comings, rests solely upon the editor.

THE EDITOR
(DiXoocxploc B(ou Ku6epvf|tT]q
Abailard, Peter: (1079-1142) Was born at Pal- reality or Parama Siva (cf.Indian Philosophy).
let in France > distinguished himself as a bril- Reflection, objectivity. K.F.L.
liant student of the trivium and quadriviumj Abheda: (Skr. "not distinct") Identity, particu-
studied logic with Roscelin and Wm. Cham-
of larly in reference to any philosophy of monism
peaux. He taught philosophy, with much em- which does not recognize the distinctness of

phasis on Melun, Corbeil, and' the

dialectic, at spiritual and material, or divine and essentially
schools of St. Genevieve and Notre Dame in human principles. K.F.L.
Paris. He was lecturing on theology in Paris Abravanel, Don
Isaac: Exegete and philosopher
c. 1113 when he was involved in the romantic (1437-1508), was born in Lisbon, Portugal,
and unfortunate interlude with Heloise. First emigrated to Toledo, Spain, and after the expul-
condemned for heresy in 1121, he became Ab- sion settled in Italy. He wrote a number of
bot of St. Gildas in 1125, and after returning philosophical works, among them a commentary
to teach theology in Paris, his religious views on parts of the Guide. He follows in most of
were censured by the Council of Sens (1141). his views Maimonides but was also influenced by

He died at Cluny after making his peace with Crescas. M.W.

God and Tactless, but very intelli-
his Church. Abravanel, Judah: Or Judah Leon Medigo
gent, Abailard set the course of mediaeval phi- (1470-1530), son of Don Isaac, settled in Italy
after the expulsion from Spain. In his Dial&gAi
losophy for two centuries with his interest in
the problem of universals. He appears to have d'Amore, i.e., Dialogues about Love, he con-
adopted a nominalistic solution, rather than the ceives, in Platonic fashion, love as the principle
semi-realistic position attributed to him by the permeating the universe. It emanates from God
older historians. Chief works: Sic et Non to the beings, and from the beings reverts back
(c.

1122), Theologta Christiana (c. 1124), Scito

to God. It is possible that his conception
Teipsum (1125-1138) and several Logical of universal love exerted some influence upon
Glosses (ed. B. Geyer, Abaelard y s Philos. Schrijt. the concept of Amor Dei of Spinoza. M.W.
BGPM, XXI, 1-3).
Absolute: (Lat. absolvere to release or set free)
G. Sickes, Peter Abaelard (Cambridge,
Of this term Stephanus Chauvin in the Lexicon
J.
Eng., 1932).F./.. Philosophicum, 1713, p2 observes: "Because one
thing is said to be free from another in many
Abdera, School of: Founded by the Atomist
ways, so also the word absolute is taken by the
Democritus. Important members, Metrodorus of
philosophers in senses."
many In Medieval
Chios and Anaxarchus of Abdera (teacher of
Scholasticism this term was variously used, for
Pyrrho, into whose hands the school leadership
example: freed or abstracted from material con-
fell), thus inspiring Pyrrhonism. See Democritus,
ditions, hence from contingency} hence applica-
Pyrrhonism. E.H.
ble to all being; without limitations or restric-
Abduction: (Gr. apagoge) In Aristotle's logic a
tions; simply} totally; independent} uncondi-
syllogism whose major premiss is certain but
tionally} uncaused} free from mental reserva-
whose minor premiss is only probable. G.R.M. tion.
In Peirce: type of inference yielding an ex- Much of this Medieval usage is carried over
planatory hypothesis (q.v.), rather than a result and expanded in modern philosophy. Absolute
of deductive application of a "rule" to a "case" and Absolutely signify perfection, completeness,
or establishment of a rule by induction. from lim-
universality, non-relativity, exemption
Ab esse ad posse valet, a posse ad esse non itation or qualification, unconditional ity; hence
valet consequential Adage expressing the per- also the ineffable, unthinkable, indeterminable}
of arguing from facts to possibility
missibility without reservation, not sym-
strictly, literally,
and denying the validity of arguments proceed- or "Absolute
bolically metaphorically. E.g.
ing from possibility to reality. J.J.R.
truth," "absolute space," "absolute Ego," "ab-
Abhasa, jibhasana: "Shining forth", the
(Skr.) solutely unconditioned," "absolutely true." W.L.
cosmopsychological process of the One becoming Absolute Ego: In Fichte's philosophy, the Ego
the Many as described by the Trika (q.v.) which or Subject prior to its differentiation into an
regards the Many as a real aspect of the ultimate empirical (or historical) self and not-self. W.L>
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Absolute Idealism :HegeLW.L.
See Idealism, Spinoza, the God of Malebranche and Berkeley,
Absolute, The: (in Metaphysics) Most broadly, the Energy of materialism, the Space-Time of
the terminus or referent of thought.
ultimate realism, the Pure Experience of phenomenalism,
The Unconditioned. The opposite of the Rela- the ding-an-sich (q.v.) of Kant.
tive (Absolute). A
distinction is to be made B. Generically "an absolute" or "the abso-
between the singular and generic use of the term. lute" (pi. "absolutes") means (a) the real

A. While Nicholas of Cusa referred to God (thing-in-itself) as opposed to appearance; (b)

the substantival,
absolute," the noun form of this term
as "the substance, reals (possessing
came into common use through the writings of aseity or self-existence) as opposed to relations;

Schelling and Hegel. Its adoption spread in (c) the perfect, non-comparative, complete of its
France through Cousin and in Britain through kind; (d) the primordial or uncaused; (e) the
Hamilton. According to Kant the Ideas of independent or autonomous.
Reason seek both the absolute totality of condi- Logic, (a) Aristotelian logic involves such
tions and their absolutely unconditioned Ground. absolutes as the three laws of thought and

This Ground of the Real Fichte identified with changeless, objectively real classes or species,
the Absolute Ego (q.v.). For Schelling the Abso- (b) In Kantian logic the categories and prin-
lute is a primordial World Ground, a spiritual ciples of judgment are absolutes, i.e. a priori,
while the Ideas of reason seek absolute totality
unity behind all logical and ontological opposi-
the self-differentiating source of both and unity, (c) In the organic or metaphysical
tions,
Mind and Nature. For Hegel, however, the logic of the Hegelian school, the Absolute is
Absolute is the All conceived as a timeless, per- considered the ultimate terminus, referent, or

fect, organic whole of self-thinking Thought. subject of every judgment.

In England the Absolute has occasionally been Ethics and Axiology. Moral and axiological
identified with theReal considered as unrelated values, norms, principles, maxims, laws are con-
or "unconditioned" and hence as the "Unknow- sidered absolutes when universally valid objects

able" (Mansel, H. Spencer). Until recently, of acknowledgment, whether conditionally or

however, it was commonly appropriated by the unconditionally {e.g. the law of the best pos-
Absolute Idealists to connote with Hegel the sible, the utilitarian greatest happiness principle,
the Kantian categorical imperative).
complete, the whole, the perfect, i.e. the Real
Aesthetics. Aesthetic absolutes are standards,
conceived as an all-embracing unity that com-
plements, fulfills, or transmutes into a higher norms, principles of aesthetic taste considered as
the and "self- objective, i.e. universally valid. W.L.
synthesis partial, fragmentary,
contradictory" experiences, thoughts, purposes, Absolutism : The opposite of Relativism.
values, and achievements of finite existence. The 1. Metaphysics: the theory of the Absolute
specific emphasis given to this all-inclusive per- (q-v.).
fection considerably, i.e. logical whole-
varies 2. Epistemology: the doctrine that objective or
ness or concreteness (Hegel), metaphysical com- absolute, and not merely relative and human,
pleteness (Hamilton), mystical feeling (Brad- truth is possible.
ley), aesthetic completeness (Bosanquet), moral 3. Axiology: the view that standards of value
perfection (Royce). The Absolute is also vari- (moral or aesthetic) are absolute, objective,
ously conceived by this school as an all-inclusive superhuman, eternal.
Person, a Society of persons, and as an imper- 4. Politics. Cult of unrestricted sovereignty lo-
sonal whole of Experience. cated in the ruler. W.L.
More recently the term has been extended to Absolutistic Personalism: The ascription of
mean also (a) the All or totality of the real, personality to the Absolute. R.T.F.
however understood, and (b) the World Ground, Absorption: The name law of absoiption is given
whether conceived idealistically or materialisti- to either of the two dually related theorems of
cally, whether pantheistically, theistically, or the prepositional calculus,
dualistically. It thus stands for a variety of [p v pq\ =S p, p[p v q] p, &
metaphysical conceptions that have appeared or either of the t\\o corresponding dually related
widely and under various names in the history theorems of the algebra of classes,
of philosophy. In China: the Wu Chi (Non- a -> (a *"* b) rr a, a n {a b) sr a,
-*

Being), T'ai Chi (Being), and, on occasion, Any valid inference of the prepositional calculus
Tao. In India: the Vedantic Atman (Self) and which amounts to replacing A v AB
by A, or
Brahman (the Real), the Buddhist B hutatat hata A[A v B"J by A, or any valid inference of the
(indeterminate Thatness), Vignapttmdtra (the algebra of classes which amounts to replacing
One, pure, changeless, eternal consciousness A " (A B) by A, or A (A B) by A,
grounding all appearances), and the Void of is called absorption.
Nagarjuna. In Greece: the cosmic matrix of Whitehead and Russell {Principia Mathema-
the Ionian*, the One of the Eleatics, the Being tica) give the name law of absorption to the
or Good of Plato, the World Reason of Stoicism, theorem of the prepositional calculus,
the One of Neo-Platonism. In patristic and [P 3 9] [P pg]. s s
scholastic Christianity: the creator God, the Ens A. C.
Realissimum, Ens Perfectissimum, Sui Causa, and Abstract: (Lat. ab, from -f- trahere, to draw)
the God of mysticism generally (Erigena, Hugo A designation applied to a partial aspect or qual-
of St. Victor, Cusa, Boehme, Bruno). In mod- ity considered in isolation from a total object,
ern thought: the Substance of Descartes and which is, in contrast, designated concrete. L.W.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Abstracts: Such neutral, purely denotative en- <?(A) to denote what is essentially the function
numbers, relations, logical con-
tities as qualities, in extension (the "Werthverlauf" in his termi-
cepts, appearing neither directly nor literally
in nology) obtained from A
by abstraction relative
time. (Broad) H.H. to e.

Abstractio imaginationis : According to the Thtfre is also an analogous process of func-

Scholastics a degree of abstraction below that of tional abstraction relative to two or more vari-
reason and above that of the senses, which do ables (taken in a given order), which yields a
abstract from matter, but not from the presence polyadic function when applied to a formula A.
of matter, whereas the imagination abstracts even Closely related to the process of functional
from the presence of matter, but not from its abstraction is the process of forming a class by

appendices, or sensible qualities. J.J.R. abstraction from a suitable formula A relative to

Abstractio intellect seu rationis: According a variable, say x. The formula

particular A
to the Scholastics the highest degree of abstrac- must be such that (under the given system of

tion is that of reason which abstracts not only interpretation for the notations appearing in
A)
matter and itspresence, but also from its ap- X*[A] denotes a propositional function. Then
x9(A) (Peano), or x (A) (Russell), denotes
pendices, that is, its sensible conditions and prop-
the class determined by this propositional func-
erties, considering essence or quiddity alone.
JJ.R. tion. Frege's e*(A) also belongs here, when the
function corresponding to A
(relatively to the
Abstraction: (Lat. ab, from +
trahere, to draw)
variable e) is a propositional function.
The process of ideally separating a partial aspect
Similarly, a relation in extension may be
or quality from a total object. Also the result
or product of mental abstraction. Abstraction,
formed by abstraction from a suitable formula A
relative to two particular variables taken in a
which, concentrates its attention on a single
given order. A.C.
aspect, differs from analysis which considers all Scholz and Schweitzer, Die sogtnannttn Dtfini-
aspects on a par. L.W. tionen dutch Abstrakthn, Leipzig, 1935. W. V.
In logic: Given a relation R which is transi- Quine, A
System of Logistic, Cambridge, Mass.,
1934. A. Church, review of the preceding, Bulletin
tive, symmetric, and reflexive, we may introduce of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 41
or postulate new elements corresponding to the (1935). pp. 498-603. W. V. Quine, Mathematical
members of the field of R, in such a way that Logic, New York, 1940.
the same new element corresponds to two mem- In psychology: the mental operation by which
bers x and y of the field of R if and only if we proceed from individuals to concepts of
xRy (see the Article relation). These new ele- classes, from individual dogs to the notion of
ments are then said to be obtained by abstraction "the dog." We abstract features common to
with respect to R. Peano calls this a method or several individuals, grouping them thus together
kind of definition, and speaks, e.g., of cardinal under one name.
numbers (q.v.) as obtained from classes by ab- In Scholasticism: the operation by which the
straction with respect to the relation of equiva- mind becomes cognizant of the universal (q.v.)
lencetwo classes having the same cardinal as represented by the individuals. Aristotle
number if and only if they are equivalent. and Thomas ascribe this operation to the active
Given a formula A containing a free variable, intellect (q.v.) which "illuminates" the image
say x t the process of forming a corresponding (phantasm) and disengages from it the uni-
monadic function (q.v.) defined by the rule versal nature to be received and made in-
that the value of the function for an argument telligible by the possible intellect. R.A.
b is -that which A
denotes if the variable * Abstractionism: (Lat. ab, from trahere, to +
is taken as denoting b is also called abstrac- draw) The illegitimate use of abstraction, and
tion, or functional abstraction. In this sense, especially the tendency to mistake abstractions
abstraction is an operation -upon a formula A for concrete realities. Cf. W. James, The Mean-
yielding a function, and is relative to a particu- ing of Truth, ch XIII. Equivalent to A. N.
lar system of interpretation for the notations Whitehead's "Fallacy of misplaced concreteness."
appearing in the formula, and to a particular L.W.
variable, as x. The requirement that A shall Abstractum (pi. abstracta): (Lat ab -f- trahere,
contain x as a free variable is not essential: to draw) An abstractum, in contrast to a con-
when A does not contain x as a free variable, cretum or existent is a quality or a relation
the function obtained by abstraction relative to envisaged by an abstract concept (e.g. redness,
x may be taken to be the function whose value, equality, truth etc.). The abstractum may be con-
the same for all arguments, is denoted by A. ceived either as an ideal object or as a real,
In articles herein by the present writer, the subsistent universal. L.W.
notation Xx[A] will be employed for the func- Ab universal! ad particular* valet, a particu-
tion obtained from A by abstraction relative to lar! ad universale non valet consequentia:
(or, as we may also say, with respect to) x. Adage stating the validity of arguments making
Russell, and Whitehead and Russell in Principin the transition from the general to the particular
Mathematica, employ for this purpose the for- and denying the permissibility of the converse
*
mula A with a circumflex placed over each process. JJ.R.
(free) occurrence of * but only for proposi- Academy: (Gr. akademia) A
gymnasium in the
tional functions. Frege (1893) uses a Greek suburbs of Athens, named after the hero Aca-
vowel, say e, as the variable relative to which demus, where Plato first taught j hence, the
abstraction is made, and employs the notation Platonic school of philosophy. Plato and hit
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
immediate successors are called the Old Aca- quality, thing or person which is in the direct

demy; the New Academy begins with Arcesilaus presence of the knowing subject. Acquaintance,
(c. 315 c. 241 B.C.)> and is identified with its in the strict sense, is restricted to the immediate
characteristic doctrine, probabilism (q.v.). data of experience but is commonly extended to
G.R.M. include the things or persons perceived by means
Accident: (Lat. accident} (in Scholasticism) Has of such data. See Description. Knowledge by.
no independent and self-sufficient existence, but L.W.
exists only in another being, a substance or an- Acroamatic: Communicated orally. Applied espe-
other accident. As opposed to substance the ac- cially to Aristotle's more private teachings to
cident called praedicamentale ; as naming fea-
is his select advanced students. Hence, esoteric,
tures of the essence or quiddity of a being ac- abstruse. C.A.B.
cidens praedtcabtle. Accidents may change, dis- Act: (in (1) Operation; as, the
Scholasticism)
appear or be added, while substance remains the intellect's act.In this sense, it is generally re-
same. Accidents are either proper, that is neces- ferred to as second act (see below).

sarily given with a definite essence (thus, the (2) That which determines or perfects a
"faculties of the soul" are proper accidents, be- thing; as rationality perfects animality.
cause to sense, strive, reason etc., is proper to Commanded: An act, originating in the will
the soul) or non-proper, contingent like color or but executed by some other power; as walking.
size. R.A. Elicited: The proper and immediate act of
In Aristotelian logic, whatever term can be the will) as love or hate.

predicated of, without being essential or peculiar First: (1) The prime form of a thing, in the
to the subject (q.v.). Logical or predicable sense of essence or integrity. The second act
its

(q.v.) opposed to property (q.v.) is that qual- is its operation. Thus the physical evil of blind-
ity which adheres to a subject in such a manner ness is the absence of the first act, i.e., a perfec-
that it neither constitutes its essence nor neces- tion due to man's integrity; while the moral
sarily flows from its essence; as, a man is white evil of sin is an absence of the second act, i.e.,
or learned. a perfection demanded by righteous
operation.
Physical or predicamental (q.v.) opposed to (2) First act also designate the faculty or
may
substance (q.v.) that whose nature it is to exist principle of operation, as the will; while second
not in itself but in some subject; as figure, act stands for its operations.

quantity, manner. H.G. Human: (humanus) Deliberate act; e.g. paint-

Accidentalism: The theory that some events are ing.
undetermined, or that the incidence of series of Of Man: (hominis) Indeliberate act; e.g. di-
determined events is unpredictable (Aristotle, gestion. Opposed to passive or subjective potency

Cournot). In Epicureanism (q.v.) such inde- (q.v.).

terminism was applied to mental events and Formal: A substantial or accidental form
specifically to acts of will. The doctrine then thought of as determining a thing to be what
assumes the special form: Some acts of will are it is rather than to be
something else. E.g. the
unmotivated. See Indeterminism. striking A substantial form of fire determines the composite

example of a more general accidentalism is in which it exists, to be fire and nothing else.
Charles Peirce's Tychism (q.v.). See Chance, Likewise the accidental form of heat determines
C.A ,B. a body to be warm rather than cold.
Contingency.
Acervus argument: A
Sophistical argument to Informative: Form, or that which is like a
the effect that, given any number of stones which form in some composite, e.g. the soul in man
are not sufficient to constitute a heap, one does or knowledge in the intelligent soul. H.G.
not obtain a heap by adding one more- yet Act-character: (Ger. Aktcharakter) In Husserl:
eventually, if this process is repeated, one has Intentionality. D.C.
a heap.--C.-4. B. Action: (in Scholasticism) Immanent: The ter-
Achilles argument: Zeno of Elea used a reductio minus is received in the agent, as in a subject;
ad absurdum argument against the possibility of as contemplation.
motion. He urged that if we assume itpossible Transient: The terminus is received in a
we are led to the absurdity that Achilles, the subject distinct from the agent; as ball-throwing.
fastest runner in Greece, could not catch a pro- H.G.
verbially slow tortoise. The alleged grounds for Activism: (Lat. activus, from agere, to act) The
this are that during the time, ti t, which it philosophical theory which considers activity,
takes Achilles to traverse the distance between particularly spiritual activity, to be the essence
his position and that of the tortoise at time ti, of reality. The concept of pure act (actus purus)
the latter even at his slow rate of speed would traceable to Aristotle's conception of divinity,
have moved on a finite distance farther. C.A.B. was influential in Scholastic thought, and persists
B. Russell, Scientific Method in Philos-
Cf. in Leibniz, Fichte and modern idealism. L.W.
ophy; Lewis Carroll, "Achilles and the Tor- Negatively, a repudiation of the intellectualistic
toise,* Mind. persuasion that an adequate solution of the truth
Acosmism: (Gr. kosmos, world) Theory of the problem can be found through an abstract in-
non-existence of an external, physical world. tellectual inquiry. Positively, a view of action
See Subjective Idealism. W.L. as the key to truth, similar to Fichte's view. The
Acquaintance, Knowledge by: (Lat. adcogni- true and sound standard of action is an inde-
tare, to make known) The apprehension of a pendent spiritual life, independent in bringing
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the world and life in accord with its values. bitrarily introduced as explanation after the fact.
Spiritual life grows by the active aid of human Adeism :
*
Max Muller coined the term which
cooperation to ever higher dimensions. Spiritual means the rejection of the devas, or gods, of
being is achieved by the vital deeds of indi- ancient India, similar to atheism which denies
viduals.(Eucken) //.#. the one God. J.J.R.
In the Personalistic sense activism applies Adequation: (Ger. Adequation) In Husserl: veri-
not only to the continuous creative willing fication) D.C.
fulfilment.
which underlies all reality but also to knowledge (Lat. adequatio) In Aquinas: relation of truth
which calls for an unceasing divine activity to being.
which is a sort of occasionalism. (Malebranche: Adhyatman: (Skr. adhi, over and atman, s.v.) A
Rechtrch* de la vlriti. Book I, Chap. XIV.) term for the Absolute which gained popularity
Charles Secre'tan: "To.be is to act." fl.r.F. with the reading of the Bhagavad Gita (cf. 8.3)
Act Psychology: (Lat. actum, a thing done) A and which Ralph Waldo Emerson rendered ap-
type of psychology traceable to F. Brentano, propriately "Oversoul" (cf. his essay The Over-
Psychologic vom empirischen Standpunkte ( 1 874) soul). K.F.L.
which considers the mental act (e.g. the act of Adiaphora: (Gr. indifferent) A Stoic term desig-
sensing a red color patch) rather than the con- nating entities which are morally indifferent.
tent (e.g. the red color) the proper subject mat- C.A.B.
ter of psychology. (See Intentionalism.) L.W. Adler, Alfred: (1870-1937) Originally a fol-
Acts: In ethics the main concern is usually lower of Freud (see Psychoanalysis} Freud), he
said to be with acts or actions, particularly vol- founded his own school in Vienna about 1912.
untary ones, in their moral relations, or with In contrast to Freud, he tended to minimize the
the moral qualities of acts and actions. By an role of sexuality and to place greater emphasis
act or action here is meant a bit of behavior or on the ego. He investigated the feelings of in-
conduct, the origination or attempted origina- feriority resulting from organic abnormality and
tion of a change by some agent, the execution deficiency and described the unconscious attempt
of some agent's choice or decision (so that not of the ego to compensate for such defects.
acting may be an act). As such, an act is often (Study of Organic Inferiority and its Psychical
distinguished from its motive, its intention, and Compensations, 1907). He extended the con-
its maxim on the one hand, and from its con- cept of the "inferiority complex" to include
sequences on the other, though it is not always psychical as well as physical deficiencies and
held that its moral qualities are independent of stressed the tendency of "compensation" to lead
these. Rather, it is frequently held that the to ov^r-correction. (The Neurotic Constitution,
Tightness of an act, or its moral goodness, or 1912} Problems of Neurosis, 1930.) L.W.
both, depend at least in part on the character Adoptionism: A christological doctrine prominent
or value of its motive, intention, maxim, or in Spain in the eighth century according to
consequences, or of the life or system of which which Christ, inasmuch as He was man, was
it is a part. Another question concerning acts the Son of God by adoption only, acknowledg-
ing, however, that inasmuch as He was God, as
in ethics is whether they must be free (in the
sense of being partially or wholly undetermined was also the Son of God by nature and genera-
by previous causts), as well as voluntary, in tion. The Church condemned the teaching.
order to be moral, and, if so, whether any acts 7.7.K.
are free in this sense. See Agent. W.K.F. Advaita: (Skr. "non-duality") The Vedintic (q.v.)
Actual: In Husserl: see Actuality. doctrine of monism advocated by ankara (q.v.)
Actual: (Lat. actus, act) 1. real or factual
(op- which holds the Absolute to be personal in rela-
posed to unreal and apparent) 2. quality which tion to the world, especially the philosophically
anything possesses of having realized its poten- untutored, but supra-personal in itself (cf. nir-
tialities or possibilities (opposed to possible and
guna, saguna)\ the world and the individual to
potential). In Aristotle: see Energeia. be only relatively, or phenomenally, realj and
Actuality: In Husserl: 1. (Ger. Wirklichkeit) salvation to consist in insight or jnana (q.v.)
Effective individual existence in space and time, after dispelling the may a (q.v.) of separateness
as contrasted with mere possibility. 2. (Ger. from the divine. K.F.L.
Aktualitat) The character of a conscious process Adventitious Ideas: Those ideas which appear
as lived in by the ego, as contrasted with the to come from without, from objects outside the
"inactuality" of conscious processes more or less mind. Opposite of innate ideas. Descartes' form
far from the ego. To say the ego lives in a of the ontological argument for God was built
particular conscious process is to say the ego upon the notion of adventitious ideas. V.F.
is busied with the object intended in that Aeon: According to the Gnostics a being regarded
process. Attending is a special form of being as a subordinate heavenly power derived from
busied. D.C. the Supreme Being by a process of emanation.
Actuality: The mode of being in which things af- The totality of aeons formed the spiritual world
fect or are affected., The realm of fact* the field which was intermediary between the Deity and
of happenings. Syn. with existence, sometimes the material world of sensible phenomena, which
with Opposite of: possibility or poten-
reality. was held to be evil. J.J.R.
See
tiality. Entrgeia.'J.K.F. Aequilibrium indifferentiae: The state or con-
Actus Purus: See Activism. L.W dition of exact balance between two actions, the
.

Ad hoc: A dubious assumption or argument ar- motives being of equal strength. Thomas Aquinas
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
held that In luch a condition "actus haberi non tion to pleasure and moral goodness, the pur-
potest, nisiremoveatur indifferentia." This is ef- pose of art, the nature of aesthetic value, etc.
fected by a determination ah intrinseco or ab t There has been controversy over whether such
txtrinseco, which disturbs the equipoise and empirical studies deserve to be called "aesthe-
makes it possible for the agent to act. JJ.R. tics", or whether that name should be reserved
Aesthetic Judgment: (German aesthetische for the traditional, dialectic or speculative ap-
Urteilskraft) The power of judgment exercised proach} but usage favors the extension in cases
upon data supplied by the feeling or sense of where the inquiry aims at fairly broad general-
beauty. Kant devotes the first half of the Critique izations.
of Judgment to a "Critique of Aesthetic Judg- Overlapping among all the above-mentioned
ment" (See Kantianism and Feeling.) O.F.K. fieldsis inevitable, as well as great differences
On
the origin of the term, see Aesthetics. in approach among individual writers. Some of
Aesthetics: (Or. aesthetikost perceptive) Tradi- these stress the nature and varieties of form in
tionally, the branch of philosophy dealing with art, with attention to historic types and styles
beauty or the beautiful, especially in art, and such as romanticism, the Baroque, etc., and in
with taste and standards of value in judging art.
studying their evolution adopt the historian's
Also, a theory or consistent attitude on such
viewpoint to some extent. Some stress the psy-
matters. The word aesthetics was first used
chology of creation, appreciation, imagination,
by Baumgarten about 1750, to imply the aesthetic experience, emotion, evaluation, and
science of sensuous knowledge, whose aim is Their work
preference. may be classed as
beauty, as contrasted with logic, whose aim is "aesthetic or
"aesthetics", psychology", "psy-
truth. Kant used the term transcendental aesthe-
chology of art". Within this psychological
tic in another sense, to imply the a priori
prin- group, some can be further distinguished as
ciples of sensible experience. Hegel, in the laboratory or statistical psychologists, attempting
1820's, established the word in its present sense more or less exact calculation and measurement.
by his writings on art under the title of Aesthetik. This approach (sometimes called "experimental
Aesthetics is now achieving a more independ-
aesthetics") follows the lead of Fechner, whose
ent status as the subject (whether it is or can studies of aesthetic preference in 1876 helped
be a "science" is a disputed issue) which studies to inaugurate modern experimental psychology
(a) works of art, (b) the processes of producing as well as the empirical approach to aesthetics.
and experiencing art, and (c) certain aspects of It has dealt less with works of art than with
nature and human production outside the field
preference for various arbitrary, simplified linear
of art especially those which can be considered color-combinations and
shapes, tone-combina-
as beautiful or ugly in regard to form and tions.
sensory qualities. (E.g., sunsets, flowers, human If the term "experimental" is broadly under-
beings, machines.)
stood as implying a general mode of inquiry
While not abandoning its interest in beauty,
based on observation and the tentative applica-
artistic value, and other normative
concepts, re- tion of hypotheses to particular cases, it includes
cent aesthetics has tended to lay increasing em-
many studies in aesthetics which avoid quantita-
phasis on a descriptive, factual approach to the
tive measurement and laboratory procedure. The
phenomena of art and aesthetic experience. It
differs from art history,
full application of scientific method is still com-
archeology, and cultural
monly regarded as impossible or unfruitful in
history in stressing a theoretical organization of
dealing with the more subtle and complex phe-
materials in terms of recurrent types and tend-
nomena But the progress of aesthetics
of art.
encies, rather than a chronological or genetic toward scientific status is being slowly made,
one. It differs from general psychology in
through increasing use of an objective and logi-
focusing upon certain selected phases in psycho- cal approach instead of adogmatic or personal
physical activity, and on their application to cer-
one, and through bringing the results of other
tain type* of objects and
situations, especially sciences to bear on aesthetic problems. Recent
those of art. It investigates the forms and char-
years have seen a vast increase in the amount
acteristics of art, which psychology does not do.
and variety of artistic data available for the
It differs from art criticism in seeking a more
aesthetician, as a result of anthropological and
general, theoretical understanding of the arts
archeological research and excavation, diversified
than usual in that subject, and in
is
attempting museum
a more consistently objective, collections, improved reproductions,
impersonal atti- translations, and phonograph records. TM.
tude. It maintains a philosophic
breadth, in
comparing examples of all the arts, and in as- Aetiology: (Gr. aitiologeo, to inquire into) An
sembling data and hypotheses from many sources, inquiry into causes. See Etiology. V.F.
including philosophy, psychology, cultural his- Aeviternity: (Lat. aevum, never-ending time)
tory, and the social sciences. But it is departing Eternity conceived as a whole, apart from the
from traditional conceptions of flux of tiraej an endless temporal medium in
philosophy in
that writing labelled "aesthetics" now often in- which objects and events are relatively fixed.
cludes much detailed, empirical study of particu- R.B.W.
lar phenomena, instead of Affect: (Lat. ad -f
restricting itself as facere, to do) The inner mo-
formerly to abstract discussion of the meaning tive as distinquished from the intention or end
of beauty, the sublime, and other of action. Cf. Spinoza, Btkics, bk. III.
categories, L.W.
their objective or subjective Affective: (Lat.
nature, their rela- affcctio, from afficcre, to affect)
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
The generic character supposedly shared by pleas- or again, any multiplicity which can be thought
ure) pain and the emotions as distinguished one} or better, any totality
as of definite ele-
from the ideational and volitional aspects of ments bound up into a whole by means of a
consciousness. See Affect. L.W. law. Aggregates have several properties: for
Affinity (chemical) : A potential of chemical en- example, have the "same power" when
they
ergy; driving force; attraction. The term should their respective elements can be brought into
be defined rigorously to mean the rate of change one-to-one correspondences and they are "enu-
of chemical energy with changes in chemical merable" when they have the same power as the
mass. WMM. aggregate of natural numbers. Aggregates may
Affirmation of the consequent: The fallacy of be finite or infinite) and the laws applying to
affirmation of the consequent is the fallacious each type are different and often incompatible,
inference fiom B and 3 B to A. The law
A thus raising difficult philosophical problems.
of affirmation of the consequent is the theorem See One-One} Enumerable.
Cardinal Number;
of the prepositional calculus, q 3 [p 3 <?]. Hence the practice to isolate the mathematical
A. C. notion of the aggregate from its metaphysical
Affirmative proposition: In traditional logic, implications and to consider such collections as
propositions A, I were called affirmative) and E, symbols of a certain kind which are to facilitate
O, negative (see logic , formal, 4). It is doubt- mathematical calculations in much the same way
ful whether this distinction can be satisfactorily as numbers do. In spite of the controversial
extended to propositions (or even to sentences) nature of infinite sets great progress has been

generally. A. C. made in mathematics by the introduction of the

A fortiori: A phrase signifying all the more; Theory of Aggregates in arithmetic, geometry
applied to something which must be admitted
and the theory of functions. (German, Man-
for a still stronger reason. JJ.R. nigfaltigkeit, Mengef French, Ensemble).
Agama: (Skr.) One of a number of Indian trea- , In logic, an "aggregate meaning" is a form
3.
tises composed since the 1st cent. A.D. which of common
or universal opinion or thought held
are outside the Vedic (q.v.) tradition, but are by more than one person.
regarded authoritative by the followers of Vish- 4. In the philosophy of nature, aggregate has

nuism, Shivaism, and Shaktism. Amid myth- various meanings: it is a mass formed into

ology, epic and ritualistic matter they contain
much that is philosophical. fC.F.L.
Agathobiotik : A good life or the good
Agathology: (Gr.) The science of the good.
Agent: In ethics an agent always a person
is
who is acting, or has acted, or is contemplating
action. Here it is usually held that to be a
moral agent, i.e. an agent to whom moral quali-
ties may be ascribed and who may be treated
accordingly, one must be free and responsible,
with a certain maturity, rationality, and sensi-
tivity which normal adult human beings are
taken to have. Ethics is then concerned to
determine when such an agent is morally good
or virtuous, when morally bad or vicious, or,
alternatively, when he is acting rightly and
when wrongly, when virtuously and when vici-
ously. See Act. W.K.F.
Agglutination: (Lat. ad -f glutinare, to paste)
clusters (anat.)j a compound or an organized
mass of individuals (zool.)j an agglomerate
life. (bot.); an agglomeration of distinct minerals
C.A.B. separable by mechanical means (geol.)j or, in
general, a compound mass in which the elements
C.A.B. retain their essential individuality. T.G.
(in mathematics): The concept of an aggregate
is now usually identified with that of a class
(q.v.) although as a historical matter this does
not, perhaps, exactly represent Cantor's no-
tion. A.C.
Agnoiology: (Gr. agnoio -f logos, discourse on
ignorance) J. F. Ferrier (1854) coined both this
term and the term epistemology as connoting
distinctive areas of philosophic inquiry in sup-
port of ontology. Agnoiology is the doctrine
of ignorance which seeks to determine what we
are necessarily ignorant of. It is a critique of
agnosticism prior to the letter's appearance.
Ignorance is defined in relation to knowledge
since one cannot be ignorant of anything which

Philologically, a method of formation in lan- cannot possibly be known. H.H.

guage whereby a modification of meaning or of Agnosticism: (Gr. agnostos, unknowing) 1.
relation is
given to a word by adherence or (epist.) that theory of knowledge which asserts
incorporation of distinct parts or elements. that it is impossible for man to attain knowledge
H.H. of a certain subject-matter.
Aggregate: In a general sense, a collection, a
1. 2. (theol.) that theory of religious knowledge
totality, a whole, a class, a group, a sum, an which asserts that it is impossible for man to
agglomerate, a cluster, a mass, an amount or a attain knowledge of God.
quantity of something, with certain definite Agnosy: Ignorance, especially universal ignorance.
characteristics in each case. C.A.B.
In Logic and Mathematics, a collection, a
2. Aham brahma asmi: (Skr.) "I am brahman",
manifold, a multiplicity, a set, an ensemble, an the formula of the BrhadSranyaka Upanishad
assemblage, a totality of elements (usually num- 1.4.10, denoting tfce full coincidence of the hu-
bers or points) satisfying a given condition or man and divine, arrived at not so much by a
subjected to definite operational laws. According spontaneous mystic insight at by logical deduc-
to Cantor, an aggregate is any collection of sepa- tion from the nature of world and self. K.F.L.
rate objects of thought gathered into a whole} Ahamkara: (Skr.) Literally "I-maker", the prin-
8 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ciple generating the consciousness of one's ego Of very broad interests in science, philosophy
or personal identity; the ground of appercep- and theology, Albert popularized a great part
tion. K.F.L. of the corpus of Aristotelian and Arabic philo-
Ahanta: (Skr. "I-ness") Selfhood, state of being sophic writings in the 13th century. His thought
an egoj the subject in knowledge. K.F.L. incorporates elements of Augustinism, Aris-
Ahimsa: (Skr.) Non-injury, an ethical principle totelianism, Neoplatonism, Avicennism, Boe-
applicable to all living beings and subscribed to thianism into a vast synthesis which is not
by most Hindus. In practice it would mean, e.g., without internal inconsistencies. Due to the lack
abstaining from animal food, relinquishing war, of critical editions of his works, a true estimate
rejecting all thought of taking regarding
life, of the value of his philosophy is impossible at
all living beings akin. It has led to such varied present. However, he must have had some in-
phenomena as the Buddhist's sweeping the path fluence on St. Thomas, and there was a lively
before him or straining the water, the almost Albertinian school lasting into the Renaissance.
reverential attitude toward the cow, and Gan- Chief works: Summa de Creaturis^ Comment,
dhi's non-violent resistence campaign. K.F.L. in IV Lib. Sent., Philos. Commentaries on nearly
Ahriman: (Middle Persian) Zoroaster, in build- all works of Aristotle, De Causis, De intellectu

ing upon an ancient Indo-Iranian antecedent, et intellig.y Summa

Theologiae (Opera Omnla t

expounded a thoroughgoing dualism in which ed. Borgnet, 38 vol., Paris, 1890-99). V.J.B.
Ormazd (s.v.) is the good, Ahriman the evil Alcuin: (c. 730-804) Was born in Northumbria
principle, corresponding to the Christian God and studied at the School of York under Egbert.
and Devil, locked in combat on all levels of In 781 he was called to head the Palatine
thought and existence. In that they are reciprocal School of Charlemagne. He died at St. Martin
and of a dialectic necessity, this dualism has, of Tours. It is his general influence on the re-
philosophically, the implication of a monism vival of Christian learning that is significant in
which was, indeed, ethically and eschatologically the history of philosophy. His psychology is a
elaborated in the Zoroastrian optimism that pos- form of simplified Augustinianism. His treatise,
tulates the ultimate victory of Ahura Mazdah De animae ratione ad Eulaliam Virginem } is
(s.v.) or Ormazd. K.F.L. extant(PL 101). V.J.B.
Ai: (C.) Love; love for all people as a practical way
between 500 Alexander, Samuel: (1859-1938) English thinker
to social welfare (chien ai) (Mo Tzu, who developed a non-psychic, neo-realistic meta-
and 396 B.C.)} love for all, which is identical
physics and synthesis. He makes the process of
with true manhood (jen) (Han Yu, 767-824
emergence a metaphysical principle. Although his
A.D.).W.T.C.
Akasa: (Skr.) "Ether") inquiry is essentially a priori) his method is em-
space} in Indian philoso-
pirical. Realism at his hands becomes a quasi-
phy the continuum that is to be postulated in
connection with the paramdnus (q.v.). K.F.L. materialism, an alternative to absolute idealism
and ordinary materialism. It aims to combine
Aksara: (Skr.) "Imperishable", a descriptive syno-
the absoluteness of law in physics with the abso-
nym for brahman (q.v.), the Absolute, in the
lute unpredictability of emergent qualities.
Upanishads (q.v.); has also the meaning of Whereas to the ancients and in the modern
"syllable". K.F.L.
classical conception of physical science, the orig-
Albertists: The appellation is conferred on any
inal stuff was matter and motion, after Minkow-
disciple of Albertus Magnus. In particular it
was applied to a of Scholastics at the
ski, Einstein, Lorenz and others, it became in-
group divisible space-time, instead of space and time.
University of Cologne during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. It was the age of the Thus nature begins as a four-dimensional matrix
in which it is the moving principle. Materiality,
struggles between the nominalists and the real-
ists, who controlled the University of Cologne, secondary qualities, life, mentality are all emer-
but were themselves split into factions, the gent modifications of proto-space-time. Mind is
Thomists and the Albertists. The latter taught the nervous system blossoming out into the
that the universalia in re and post rent were capacity of awareness. Contemplative knowledge,
identical, and that logic was a speculative rather where the object is set over against the mind,
. than a practical science. The principal Albertists and the actual being, or experiencing, or en-
were Heinrich von Kampen, Gerhard von joying of reality, where there is no inner duplic-
Harderwyk, and Arnold von Lugde. J.J.R. ity of subject and object, constitute the two
forms of knowledge. Alexander conceives the
Albertus, Magnus: St., O.P. (1193-1280)
Count of Bollstadt, Bishop of Ratisbon, Doctor deity as the next highest level to be emerged
was born at out of any given level. Thus for beings on the
Universalis, Lauingen, Bavaria,
studied at Padua and Bologna, entered the level of life mind is but for beings pos-
deity,
Dominican Order in 1223. He taught theology sessing minds there isa nisus or urge toward a

at the Univ. of Paris from 1245-48, when he

still higher quality. To such beings that dimlv
was sent to Cologne to organize a new course felt quality is deity. The quality next above any
of studies for his Order; St. Thomas Aquinas given level is deity to the beings on that level.
was his student and assistan/ at this time. Later For men deity has not yet emerged, but there is
his time was given over to administrative duties a nisus towards its emergence. S. Alexander,
and he was made Bishop of Ratisbon in 1260. Space,Time and Deity (1920). H.H.
In 1262 he gave up his bishopric and returned Alexandrian School: A convenient designation
to a life of writing, teaching and controversy. for the various religious philosophies that flour-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ished at Alexandria from the first to the fourth Algebraization t (Ger. Algebraisierung) In Hus-
centuries ofChristian era, such as Neo-
the serl: Substitution of algebraic symbols (inde-
Pythagoreanism, the Jewish Platonism of Philo, terminate terms) for the words (determinate
Christian Platonism, and Neo-Platonism. Com- terms) in which the material content of an
mon to all these schools is the attempt to state objective sense is expressed. See Formalization.
Oriental religious beliefs in terms of Greek D.C.
philosophy. G.R.M. Algebra of logic is the name given
Nine- to the
Alexandrists : A term
applied group to a of teenth Century form of the calculi of classes and
Aristotelians in Italy during the fifteenth and propositions. It is distinguished from the con-
sixteenth centuries. Besides the Scholastic fol- temporary forms of these calculi primarily by
lowers of Aristotle there were some Greeks, the absence of Normalization as a logistic system
whose teaching was tinged with Platonism. An- (q.v.) The prepositional calculus was also at
other group, the Averroists, followed Aristotle first either absent or not clearly
distinguished
as interpreted by Ibn Rushd, while a third school from the class calculus j the distinction between
interpreted Aristotle in the light of the com- the two was made by Peirce and afterwards
mentaries of Alexander of Aphrodisias, hence more sharply by Schroder (1891) but the identity
were called Alexandrists. Against the Averroists of notation was retained.
who attributed a vague sort of immortality to Important names in the history of the subject
the active intellect, common to all men, the are those of Boole (q.v.), De Morgan (q.v.),
Alexandrists, led by Pomponazzi, asserted the W. S. Jevons, Peirce (q.v.), Robert Grassmann,
mortality of the individual human soul after its John Venn, Hugh MacColl, Schroder (q.v.),
separation from universal reason. JJ.R. P. S. Poretsky A.C.
Al Farabi: Died 950, introduced Aristotelian Algedonic: (Gr. algos, pain -f- hedone, pleasure)
Ipgic into the world of Islam. He was Term applied to feelings of pleasure or pain.
known to posterity as the "second Aristotle". L.W.
He continued the encyclopedic tradition inaugu- Algorithm (or, less commonly, but etymologically
rated by Al Kindi. His metaphysical speculation more correctly, algorism) In its original usage,
:

influenced Avicenna who found in the works of this word

referred to the Arabic system of nota-
his predecessor the fundamental notion of a tion for numbers and to the elementary opera-
distinction between existence and essence, the tions of arithmetic as performed in this notation.
latter not implying necessarily in a contingent In mathematics, the word is used for a method

being the former which therefore has to be or process of calculation with symbols (often,
given by God. He also emphasizes the Aris- but not necessarily, numerical symbols) accord-
totelian notion of the "first mover". The con- ing to fixed which yields effectively the
rules
cretization of the universal nature in particular solution of any given problem of some class of
things points to a creative power which has problems. A. C,
endowed being with such a nature. Al Farabi's Al Kindi: Of the tribe of Kindah, lived in Basra
philosophy is dependent in certain parts on Neo- and Bagdad where he died 873. He is the first
Platonism. Creation is emanation. There is an of the great Arabian followers of Aristotle whose
anima mundi the images of which become cor- influence is noticeable in Al Kindi's scientific

poreal beings. Logic is considered as the pream- and psychological doctrines. He wrote on
ble to all science. Physics comprises all factual geometry, astronomy, astrology, arithmetic,
knowledge, including psychology 5 metaphysics music (which he developed on arithmetical
and ethics are the other parts of philosophy. Cl. principles), physics, medicine, psychology, me-
Baeumker, Alfarabi, Ueber den Ur sprung der teorology, politics. He distinguishes the active
WissenscAaften, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Philos. d. intellect from the passive which is actualized by
MA. 1916. Vol. XIX. M. Horten, Das Buck the former. Discursive reasoning and demonstra-
der Ringsteine Farabis. ibid. 1906. Vol. V. tion he considers as achievements of a third and
R.A. a fourth intellect. In
ontology he seems to
Al Gazali: Born 1059 in Tus, in the country of hypostasize the categories, of which he knows
five: matter, form, motion, place, time, and
Chorasan, taught at Bagdad, lived" for a time in
Syria, died in his home town 1111. He started
which he calls primary substances. Al Kindi
as a sceptic in philosophy and became a mystic inaugurated the encyclopedic form of philosophi-
and orthodox afterwards. Philosophy is mean- cal treatises, worked out more than a century

ingful only as introduction to theology. His at-

later by Avicenna (q.v.). He also was the
titude resembles Neo-Platonic mysticism and is first to meet the violent hostility of the orthodox
anti-Aristotelian. He wrote a detailed report on theologians but escaped persecution. A. Nagy,
the doctrines of Farabi and Avicenna only to Die philos. Abhandlungen des Jacqub ben Ishaq
subject them to a scathing criticism in Destructio al-Kindi, Beitr, z. Gesch. d. Phil. d. MA. 1897,
Vol. II. R.A.
philosophorum where he points out the self-
contradictions of philosophers. His main works All: All and every are usual verbal equivalents of
are theological. In his writings on logic he the universal quantifier. See Quantifier. A.C.
wants to ensure to theology a reliable method Allen, Ethan: (1737-1789) Leader of the Green
of procedure. His metaphysics also is mainly Mountain Boys and of their famous exploits
based on theology: creation of the world out of during the American Revolution. He is less
nothing, resurrection, and so forth. Cf. H. known but nonetheless significant as the earliest
Bauer, Die Dopnatik Al-Ghazalis, 1912. -R.A. American deist. His Reason, the Only Oracle
10 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of Man (1784), expressed his opposition to the conditioned movements. (Avenarius.) H.H.
traditional Calvinism and its doctrine of original Ammonius, Saccus: Teacher of Plotinus and
sin. He rejected prophecy and revelation but Origen and reputed founder of Neo-Platonism.
believed in immortality on moral grounds. He A/.F.
likewise believed in free will. L.E.D. Amnestic: Characterised by amnesia, loss of
memory. C.A.B.
Allgemeingiiltig: (Ger. allgemein -f~ gelten, uni-
versally valid) A proposition or judgment which
Amoral : Action, attitudes, state or character which
is neither moral nor immoral, i.e., which is out-
is universally valid, or necessary. Such proposi-
tions be side the moral realm. Neither right nor wrong.
may either
empirical, i.e., dependent
upon experience, or a
priori, i.e., independent of
Ethically indifferent. Non-moral. Non-ethical.
In
all experience. Kant's theoretical philosophy See Moral, Immoral, Ethics. AJ.B.
the necessary forms of the sensibility and under- Amphiboly: Any from ambiguity
fallacy arising
of grammatical construction (as distinguished
standing are declared to have universal validity
a priori, because they are the sine qua non of from ambiguity of single words), a premiss being

any and all experience. O.F.K. accepted, or proved, on the basis of one inter-
pretation of the grammatical construction, and
Al-Mukamis, David Ibn Merwan: Early Jew- then used in a way which is correct only on the
ish philosopher (died His philosophic
c. 937). basis of another interpretation of the gram-
work, Book of Twenty Tractates shows influence matical construction. A.C.
of the teachings of the Kalam (q.v.)} reasoning
follows along lines similar to that of Saadia. Ampliative: (Lat. ampliare, to make wider} Ger.
M.W. Erweiterungsurteil) Synthetic} serving to ex-

Als Ob: pand. In an ampliative judgment the predicate

(Ger. as if) Fictional} hypothetical} adds something not already contained in the
postulated} pragmatic. The term was given cur-
meaning of the subject-term. Contrasted with
rency by Hans Vaihinger's Die Philosophic des
analytic or explicative. O.F.K.
Als Ob (1911), which developed the thesis that
our knowledge rests on a network of artfully Anadi: (Skr.) Beginningless, said of the Absolute
contrived fictions which are not verifiable but and the world. K.F.L.
pragmatically justifiable. While such fictions, Analogic: (Gr. mystical) Usually employed as a
employed in all fields of human knowledge and noun in the plural, signifying an interpretation
endeavor, deliberately falsify or circumvent the of Scripture pointing to a destiny to be hoped
stream of immediate impressions, they greatly for and a goal to be attained; as an adjective it
enhance reality. O.F.K. means, pertaining to the kind of interpretation
Alteration: (Lat. alter, bther) In Aristotle's phi- described above. JJ.R.
losophy change of quality, as distinguished from Analogies of Experience: (Ger. Analogien der
change of quantity (growth and diminution) and Erfahrung) Kant's three dynamic principles (sub-
from change of place (locomotion). G.R.M. stantiality, reciprocity, and causality) of the un-
Altruism: (Alter: other) In general, the cult of derstanding comprising the general category of
benevolence} the opposite of Egoism (q.v.). Term relation, through which sense data are brought
coined by Comte and adopted in Britain by H. into the unity of experience. (See Kantianism.)
Spencer* O.F.K.
1. For Comte Altruism meant the
discipline Analogy: (in Scholasticism) Predication common
and eradication of self-centered desire, and a to several inferiors of a name, which is accepted
life devoted to the good of others} more par- in different senses, in such a manner, never-
ticularly, selfless love and devotion to Society. theless, that some principle warrants its com-
In brief, it involved the self-abnegating love of mon applicability. Accordingly as this principle
Catholic Christianity redirected towards Human- is sought in the relations of cause and effect,
ity conceived as an ideal unity. As thus under- proportion or proportionality there are distin-
stood, altruism involves a conscious opposition
guished various types of analogy.
not to understood
only egoism (whether as Analogy of attribution: Is had when the prin-
excessive or moderate self-love), but also to the
ciple of unity is found in a common concept to
formal or theological pursuit of charity and to which the inferiors are related either by cause
the atomic or individualistic social philosophy or effect. Moreover this common concept must
of 17th-18th century liberalism, of refer principally and per se to a prime reality to
utilitarianism,
and of French Ideology. which the inferiors are analogous. Thus food,
2. By extension the term has come to mean medicine and pulse are said to be healthy. In
the pursuit of the good of others, whether moti- this case the common concept is health which
vated by either self-centered or other-centered
applies principally and per se to the animal;
interest, or whether by disinterested duty. By however, food, medicine and pulse are related
some it is identified with the protective and to it through the various forms of cause and
other-regarding feelings, attitudes, and behavior effect.
of animal life in general} while by others its
Analogy of proportion: Is had when the prin-
use is restricted to mean such on the level of
ciple of unity is found, not in the relations of
reflective intelligence. W.L. two or more to a common concept but in the
Ambiguous middle, fallacy of: See quaternio interrelation of two concepts to themselves.
terminorum. This relation may be one of similitude or order.
Amechanical: Term applied to psychologically Thus being is predicated of substance and guan-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 11

tity, not because of their relations to a third fies these synthetically constituted structures of
reality which primordial!/ contains this notion, consciousness. See Phenomenology. D.C.
but because of a relation both of similitude and Analysis (mathematical): The theory of real
order which they have to each other. numbers, of complex numbers, and of functions
Analogy of proportionality: Is had when the of real and complex numbers. See numbers con*
principle of unity is found in an equality of tinuity ; limit. A . C.
proportions. This analogy is primarily used be- Analytic: (Gr. an a ly tike) Aristotle's name for
tween material and spiritual realities. Thus the technique of
logical analysis. The Prior
sight is predicated of ocular vision and intel- Analytics contains his analysis of the syllogism,
lectual understanding "eo quod sicut visus est in the Posterior Analytics his analysis of the con-
oculo, ita intellectus est in mente". H,G. ditions of scientific or demonstrable knowledge.

Analogy: Originally a mathematical term, Anal- G.R.M.

ogia, equality of ratios (Euclid VII Df.
meaning In Kant. One of two divisions of general
20, V. Dfs. 5, 6), which entered Plato's phi- logic (the other being Dialectic) which discovers
losophy (Republic 534a6), where it also ex- by analysis all the functions of reason as exer-
cised in thought, thus disclosing the formal cri-
pressed the epistemological doctrine that sensed
are related as theirandmathematical teria of experience and truth. (See Kantianism.)
things
ideal correlates. In modern usage analogy was O.F.K.
identified with a weak form of reasoning in See also Meaning, Kinds of.
which "from the similarity of two things in cer- Analyticity: See Meaning, Kinds of} Truth,
tain particulars, their similarity in other particu- semantical; Valid.
lars is inferred." (Century Die.) Recently, the Analytic Judgment: (Ger. analytisches Urteil)
analysis of scientific method has given the term In Kant: A judgment in which the predicate con-
new significance. The observable data of science cept included within the subject concept, as
is

are denoted by concepts by inspection, whose analysisshould or does disclose. Such a judg-
'

complete meaning is given by something immedi-

ment does not require verification by experience)
ately apprehendable; its verified theory designat-
its sole the law of contradiction.
criterion is

ing unobservable scientific objects is expressed by (See Kantianism.) O.F.K.

concepts by postulation, whose complete mean- Analytic, Transcendental: In Kant: The
section of the Critique of Pure Reason which
ing is prescribed for them by the postulates of
the deductive theory in which they occur. To deals with the concepts and principles of the

verify such theory relations, termed epistemic understanding. Its main purpose is the proof
correlations (7. Un. Sc. IX: 125-128), are re- of the categories within the realm of phenomena.

quired. When these are one-one, analogy exists A.C.E.

in a very precise sense, since the concepts by Analytical Jurisprudence: Theory of Austin,
inspection denoting observable data are then re- Markby, Holland, Salmond, etc., considering
lated as are the correlated concepts by postula- jurisprudence the formal science of positive law.
Its main task is to analyze the necessary notions
tion designating unobservable scientific objects.
F.S.C.N. of law. Term coined by Henry Summer Maine.

Analogy of Pythagoras: (Gr. analogia) The

.

_W.E.
equality of or proportion, between the
ratio**,
Anamnesis: (Gr. anamnesis) Calling to mind;
lengths of the strings producing the consonant recollection; in Plato, the process whereby the
notes of the musical scale. The discovery of
- mind gains true knowledge, by recalling the
these ratios is credited to Pythagoras, who is vision of the Ideas which the soul experienced
also said to have applied the principle of mathe- in a previous existence apart from the body.
matical proportion to the other arts, and hence G.R.M.
to have discovered, in his analogy, the secret of Ananda: (Skr.) Joy, happiness, bliss, beatitude, as-
beauty in all its forms. G.R.M. sociated in the thinking of many Indian philoso-
Analysis: (Chemical) The identification and esti- phers with moksa (q.v.)} a concomitant of per-
mation of chemical individuals in a mixture; fection and divine consciousness (cf. sat-cit-
the identification and estimation of elements in ananda).K.F.L.
a compound; the identification and estimation Ananya (Skr. "not other") Designating the non-
:

of types of substances in complex mixtures the j otherness of the cosmic principle from the indi-
identification and estimation of isotopes in an vidual. K.F.L.
"element". W.M.M. Anarchism: This doctrine advocates the abolition
Analysis, intentional: (Ger. intentionale Ana- of political control within society: the State, it
lyse) In Husserl: Explication and clarification contends, is man's greatest enemy eliminate it
of the essential structure of actual and potential and the evils of human life will disappear. Posi-
(horizonal) synthesis by virtue of which objects tively, anarchism envisages a homely life de-
are intentionally constituted. As noematic, in- voted to unsophisticated activity and filled with
tentional analysis discovers, explicates, and simple pleasures. Thus it belongs in the "primi-
clarifies, the focally and horizontally intended tive tradition" of Western culture and springs
objective sense (and the latter's quasi-objective from the philosophical concept of the inherent
substrates) in its manners of givenness, posited- and radical goodness of human nature. Modern
ness, etc., and yields clues to the corresponding anarchism probably owes not a little, in an in-
noetic synthesis. As noetic or constitutional, in- direct way, to the influence of the primitivistic
tentional analysis discovers, isolates, and clari- strain in the thought of Jean Jacques Rousseau.
12 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
In a popular sense the word "anarchy" is often sacramental position of Catholic Christianity,
used to denote a state of social chaos, but it is with insistence on the incorporation into that
obvious that the word can be used in this sense general position of the new truth of philosophy,
only by one who denies the validity of anarch- science and other fields of study and experience.
ism. M.B.M. Historically, the Anglo-Catholic divines (as in
Anatta-vada: (Pali) Theory (vada) of the non- Hooker and the Caroline writers) took over the
existence of soul (anatta), one of the funda- general Platonic-Aristotelian philosophy of the
mental teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) who schools; their stress, however, was more on the
regarded all ideas about the soul or self wrong, Platonic than the Aristotelian side: "Platonism",
inadequate or illusory. K.F.L. Dr. Inge has said, "is the loving mother-nurse
Anaxagoras, of Klazomene: (about 430 B.C.) of Anglicanism." Statements of this position,
As a man he settled in modified by a significant agnosticism concerning
middle-aged
Athens; later he was accused impiety and
of areas into which reason (it is said) cannot pene-
forced to leave the city. Anaxagoras taught that trate, may be found collected in Anglicanism
there is an infinity of simple substances, that (edited by More and Cross). A certain em-
is, such as are only divisible
into parts of the piricism has always marked Anglo-Catholic
same nature as the whole. These "seeds" are theological and philosophical speculation; this is

distributed throughout the universe.. Their com- brought out in recent writing by Taylor (Faith
ing together gives rise to individual things, of a Moralist), the writers in Lux Mundi
their separation entails the passing away of (edited by Gore) and its modern successor Essays
individual things. To account for the cause of Catholic and Critical.

motion of these "seeds" or elemental substances In genera, Anglo-Catholic philosophy has been
Anaxagoras conceived of a special kind of mat- an incarnational or sacramental one, finding
ter or "soul-substance" which alone is in motion God in the Biblical revelation culminating in
itself and can communicate this motion to the Christ, but unwilling to limit his self-disclosure
rest. Now, since the universe displays harmony, to that series of events. Incarnationalism pro-
order and purposiveness in its movements, Anax- vides, it is said, the setting for the historic
agoras conceived this special substance as a mind- Incarnation; general revelation is on sacra-
stuff or an eternal, imperishable Reason diffused mental giving meaning to the particular
lines,
throughout the universe. Anaxagoras was thus sacraments. For Anglo-Catholic philosophical
the first to introduce the Ideological principle theology, in its central stream, the key to dogma
into the explanation of the natural world. Cf. is the cumulative experience of Christian people,

Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy} Diels, Frag. d.
Vorsokr.M.F.
Anaximander: (6th Cent. B.C.) With Thales and
Anaximenes he formed the Milesian School of
Greek Philosophy} with these and the other
thinkers of the cosmological period he sought
the ground of the manifold processes of nature
in a single world-principle or cosmic stuff which
he identified with "the Infinite".
firstto step out of the realm of experience and
ascribed to his "Infinite" the attributes of eter-
nity, imperishability and inexhaustability. Cf.
Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy; Diels, Frag. d.
Vorsokr.M.F.
Anaximenes: (6th Cent. B.C.) With Thales and
Anaximander he belongs to the Milesian School
of Greek Philosophy; as an Ionian he sought a
cosmic material element which would explain
the manifold processes of the natural world and
declared this to be air. Air, he felt, had the
attribute of infinity which would account for the
tested by the Biblical revelation as source and
standard of that experience and hence "classical"
in its value. Revelation is the ultimate author-
ity; the Church possesses a trustworthiness about
her central beliefs, but statement of these may
change from age to age. Sometimes this main
tendency Anglo-Catholic thought has been
of
sharply criticized by thinkers, themselves An-
He was the glicans (cf. Tennant's Philosophical Theology)}
but these have, in general, served as useful warn-
ings rather than as normal expressions of the
Anglican mind.
In very recent years, a new stress has been laid
upon the dogmatic side of Christianity as ex-
pressed in liturgy. This has been coupled with
a revived interest in Thomism, found both in
older philosophers such as A. E. Taylor and in
younger men like A. G. Hebert (cf. his Grace
and Nature, etc.).W.N.P.
Angst: (Ger. dread) Concern or care, which are
the essence of dread. (Heidegger.) //.//.

varieties of nature more readily than water, Anima Mundi: See: The World Soul, Bruno.
which his predecessor Thales had postulated. Cf. Animalitarianism : A term used by Lovejoy in
Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy; Diels, Frag. d. Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity for
Vorsokr.M.F. the belief that animals are happier, more admir-

Anergy: The hypothesis interpreting sensations able, more "normal", or "natural", than human
in terms of the infinite phases of negative beings. G.B.
energy, which is motion less than zero. (Mon- Animism : (Lat. anima, soul) The doctrine of the
tague.)//.//. reality of souls.
Anglo-Catholic Philosophy: Anglo-Catholicism 1. Anthropology: (a) the view that souls are
is the name frequently used to describe the attached to all things either as their inner prin-
Church of England and her sister communions, ciple of spontaneity or activity, or as their
including the Episcopal Church in America. As dwellers, (b) the doctrine that Nature is in-
a system, it may be described as the
religious habited by various grades of spirits, (s. Spirit-
maintenance of the traditional credal, ethical and ism).
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 13

2. Biology, Psychology: the view that the ground

whatever has disowned its relations is an sick.
of life is immaterial soul rather than the mate- In this status it reveals its inner potentialities.
rial body.
Thus in Hegel's system an sich frequently refers
to that which is undeveloped, or in cer-
3. Metaphysics: the theory that Being is animate, latent,
Hylozoism, Personalism, tain connections, that which is unconscious.
living, ensouled (s.
Monadism). Kant used an sich more loosely to describe any-
4. Cosmology: the view that the World and the thing independent of consciousness or experi-
astronomical bodies possess souls (s. World ence. Thus he contrasted the "Ding-an-sich"
Soul). W.L. (thing-in-itself) with appearance (phenomenon),
Annihilationism : The doctrine of the complete the latter being a function of consciousness, the

extinction of the wicked or impenitent at death. former outside all consciousness. O.F.K.
Edward White in England in the last century Ansichtslosigkeit : (Ger. point-of-viewlessness)
taught the doctrine in opposition to the belief
in Objectivity, or the unmediated approach to bare
the eternal punishment of those not to be saved. fact. (Heidegger.) H.H.
V.F. Antar-atman: (Skr.) "Inner self", a term for the
found in the Upanishads (q.v.). A similar
Anoetic: (Gr. a +
noetikos, from nous,
the self

states concept is antar-ydmin, meaning "inner con-

mind) Applied to pure sensations, affective
troller." K.F.L.
and other pre-cognitive or non-cognitive states
L.W. Antecedent: In a sentence of the form A=>B
of mind.
("if A then B"), the constituent sentences A and
Anschauung: A German term used in epistem-
with a B are called antecedent and consequent respec-
ology to mean intuition or perception
It is a basic tively. Or the same terminology may be applied
quality of directness or immediacy.
to propositions expressed by these sentences.
term in Kant's philosophy, denoting that which
the intellect through the A.C.
presents materials to
forms of space and time. These forms predeter- Anthropocentric : Literally, centering in man. A
term which may be used in connection with ex-
mine what types of objects (schemata) can be
treme humanism, viewing the world in terms
set up when the understanding applies its own
forms to the facts of sense. Kant distinguished only of human experience. V.F.

"empirical" intuitions (a posteriori) objects of Anthropolatry : (Gr.) The worshipping or cult of a

human being conceived as a god, and Conversely
through sensation, and' "pure" intuitions (a
the forms of of a god conceived as a human being. The
priori) with space and
time as
The characteristics and functions of deification of individual human beings was prac-
sensibility.
discussed in the first division ticed by most early civilizations, and added much
Anschauung are
Pure Reason. colour to the folklore and religion of such
(Aesthetic) of the Critique of
countries as Greece, India and Japan.
Caird disputes the equivalence of the Kantian Egypt,
The human origin of anthropolatry is illustrated
Anschauung with intuition} but it is difficult to
find an English word more closely related to the by the failure of Alexander the Great to obtain
divine honours from his soldiers. In contrast,
German term. T.G.
the Shinto religion in Japan still considers the
Anselmian argument: Anselm (1033-1109) rea-
soned thus: I have, an idea of a Being than emperor as a "visible deity", and maintains
shrines devoted to brave warriors or heroes.
which nothing greater can be conceived} this
Monotheistic religions consider anthropolatry as
idea is that of the most perfect, complete, in-
a T.G.
Being, the greatest conceivable? now an
finite superstition.

idea which exists in reality (in re) isgreater Anthropology, Philosophical : (in Max Scheler)
one which
The philosophical science concerned with the
than exists only in conception (in
the greatest it questions about the essence of man. P.A.S.
intellectu); hence, if my idea is

must exist in reality. Accordingly, God, the Anthropopathism :

(Gr. anthropos, manj pathein,
suffer) Sometimes referred to as the pathetic
Perfect Idea, Being, exists. (Anselm's argument
fallacy,i.e., attributing human feelings illegiti-
rests upon the basis of the realistic metaphysics
of Plato.) V.F. mately to situations or things lacking such capac-
V.F.
of Canterbury, St.: (1033-1109) Was
ities.
Anselm
born at Aosta in Italy, educated by the Bene- Anticipation: (Lat. ante, before -f- cape re, to
1060. Most of take) The foreknowledge of future events and
dictines, entered the Order
c.

his writings were done at the Abbey of Le Bee experiences. Anticipation, in contrast to expecta-
In tion, is allegedly immediate and non-inferential
in Normandy, where he served as Abbot.
1093 he became Archbishop of Canterbury, which cognition of the future. See Expectation; Fore-
distinction till 'his death. knowledge. L.W.
post he occupied with
In Lucretius, the Scholastics, Fr. Bacon, and
Anselm is most noted for his much discussed
argument to prove the existence Leibniz, it means a hypothesis without confirma-
"ontological"
tion.
of God. His theory of truth and his general
philosophy are thoroughly Augustinian.
Chief Anticipations of experience: In Kant's Crit. of
works: Monologium, ^Proslogium, De Veritale, pure Reason (Antizipationen der Wahrneh-
Cur Deus Homo (in PL 158-9). VJ.B. mung) the second of two synthetic principles
An Sich: (Ger. literally in or by self. Lat. in se) of the understanding (the other being "Axioms
of Intuition") by which the mind is able to de-
Anything taken in itself without relation to
without relation to a termine something a priori in regard to what is
anything else, especially
consciousness. In Hegel's philosophy in itself empirical. While the mind cannot
knowing
L4 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
anticipate the specific qualities which are to be speculative, indeterminate notion. (See Kantian-
experienced, we can, nevertheless, Kant holds, ism.) O.F.K.
predetermine or anticipate any sense experi-
Antisthenes: Of Athens (c. 444-368 B.C.)
ence that "in all appearances the real, which is founder of the Cynic School of Greek Philoso-
an object of sensation, has intensive magnitude phy. See Cynics. M.F.
or degree." O.F.K. Antistrophon argument: (Gr. antistrophos,
Antilogism: If in the syllogism in Barbara the turned an opposite way) In rhetoric, any
in
conclusion is replaced by its contradictory there is argument by an opponent which can be turned
obtained the following set of three (formulas against him. J.K.F.
representing) propositions, Antithesis: (Gr. anti-against, tithenai- to set)
M(*) =.P(*), S(*) =>.M(*)> In a general sense, the opposition or contrast of
ideas or statements.
S(*) A. ~P(*),
from any two of which the negation of the third In philosophy, a proposition opposed to a
may be inferred. Such an inconsistent triad of given thesis expressing a fact or a positive state-
called an antilogism. ment. With Kant, it is the negative member of
propositions is
From the principle of the antilogism, together the antinomies of reason. With Hegel, it is the
with obversion, simple conversion of E and /, second phase of the dialectical process, which
and the fact that in the pairs-, A and O, E and denies the first moment
or thesis, and which
each proposition of the pair is equivalent to contributes to emergence of the synthesis
the
I,
the negation of the other, all of the traditional blending the partial truths of the thesis and the
valid moods of the syllogism may be derived antithesis, and transcending them both.
In rhetoric, the contrast involved by an anti-
except those which require a third (existential)
thesis is technically expressed by the position of
premiss (see logic, formal, 4, 5). With the
further aid of subalternation the remaining valid opposite words in one or more sentences or
moods may be derived. clauses. T.G.
This extension of the traditional reductions Antitypy: The property of concepts or objects of
of the syllogistic moods is due to Christine Ladd thought to resist attribution of qualities or postu-
lates incompatible with their semantic value and
Franklin. She, however, stated the matter with-
in the algebra of classes (see logic, formal, 7), ontological nature. T.G.
taking the three terms of the syllogism as Arm: (Skr.) Atom; point. K.F.L.
classes. From this point of view the three propo- Anumana: (Skr.) Inference. K.F.L.
sitions of an antilogism appear as follows: Aorist: (Gr.) Referring to unspecified past time
m rt
p ==: A, s n m A, e n p ^ A. without implication of continuance or repetition}
C.A.B.
A.C. indefinite; undefined.
A contradiction in terms, concepts, or propo- Apagoge: (Gr. apagoge) In Aristotle's logic (1)
a syllogism whose major premiss is certain but
sitions forming an inconsistent triad (Mrs.
Ladd-Franklin), a set of three propositions such whose minor premiss is only probable abduc- $

that if any two are true the third must be false, tion, (2) a method of indirect demonstration
thus any two will strictly imply the contradic- whereby the validity of a conclusion is estab-
lished by assuming its contradictory and showing
tory of the third. An antilogism may be ob-
tained from any valid Aristotelian syl- that impossible or unacceptable consequences fol-
strictly
logism by contradicting the conclusion, q.v. Anti- low} the reductio ad impossible. G.R.M.
logism. C.A.S. A parte ante: A phrase the literal meaning of
Agnosticism (q.v.). 2. Log-
1. which is, from the part before, referring to dura-
Anti-metaphysics:
ical Positivism (see Scientific Empiricism (1)) tion previous to a given event. J.J.R.
holds that those metaphysical statements which A parte post: A
phrase the literal meaning of
are not confirmable by experiences (see Verifica- which is. from the part
after, referring to dura-
tion 4, 5) have no cognitive meaning and hence tion subsequent to a given event. J.J.R.
aie pseudo-statements (see Meaning, Kinds of, Apathia: (Gr. apathia, no feeling) In Epicurean
1, S), R.C. (q.v.) and Stoic (q.v.) ethics: the inner equi-
librium and peace of mind, freedom from emo-
Antinomies, logical: See paradoxes, logical.
Antinomianism (Gr. anti, against) nomos, law)
: tion, that result from contemplation, for its own
A term introduced by Martin Luther. Johann sake, on the ends of life.
Agricola, contemporary of Luther, held that the Apeiron: (Gr. apeiron) The boundless} the in-
determinate $ the In the philosophy of
infinite.
gospel rather than the law is determinative in
man's repentance. The term is used, more gen- Anaximander the apeiron is the primal indeter-
erally, to designate freedom from law or com-
minate matter out of which all things come to
human be. The apeiron appears frequently elsewhere in
pulsion or external regulation to living.
r.F. early Greek philosophy, notably in the dualism
The mutual of the Pythagoreans, where it is opposed to the
Antinomy: (Ger. Antinomic)
contradiction of two principles or inferences rest- principle of th? Limit (peras), or number.
ing on premises of equal validity. Kant shows,
G.R.M.
in the Antinomies of pure Reason, that contra- Aperc.u: An immediate insight, not in itself

dictory conclusions about the cosmos can be analytical. C.A. B.

established with equal credit} from this he con- Apocata stasis: (Gr. apokatastasis, complete resti-
cluded that the Idea of the world, like other tution) In theology this term refers to a final
transcendent ideas of metaphysics, it a restitution or universal salvation. V.F.
purely
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 15

Apodeictic: See Modality. (b) In logic: a posteriori reasoning (as opposed

Apodictio Knowledge: (Gr. apodeiktikos) Knowl- to a priori reasoning) is inductive, i.e., the type
edge of what must occur, as opposed to knowl- which begins with observed facts and from these
edge of what might occur or is capable of infers general conclusions. V.F.
occurring, or of what is actual or occurring} Apparent: (Lat. ad +
par ere, to come forth) 1.
opposed to assertoric knowledge and problematic Property of seeming to be real or factual. 2.
knowledge. A.C.B. Obvious or clearly given to the mind or senses.
Apollinarianism: The view held by Apollinaris Appearance: 1. Neutrally, a presentation to an
(310-390), a Christian bishop. He defended the observer.
deity of Jesus Christ in a manner regarded by 2. Epistemology: (a) A sensuously observable
the orthodox church as too extreme. Jesus, ac- state of affairs.

cording to him, lacked a human soul, a human (b) The mental or subjective correlate of a
will, the Logos of God taking full possession. thing-in-itself.
V.F. (c) A sensuous object existent or possible, in
Apollonian: The art impulse in which one sees space and time, related by the categories
things as in a dream, detached from real experi- (Kant). It differs from illusion by its

ence. The theoretical, intellectual impulses striv- objectivity or logical validity.

ing after measure, order, and harmony. (Nietz- 3. Metaphysics: A
degree of truth or reality}
sche, Birth of Tragedy.) In Spengler, Decline a fragmentary and self-contradictory judg-
of the West, the classical spirit as contrasted ment about reality. W.L.
with the Modern Faustian age. H.H. Appearances: (Ger. Erscheinungen) In Kant, ap-
Apologetics: (Gr. apologetikos, fit for a defence) plied to things as they are for human experience
The discipline which deals with a defence of a as opposed to things as they are for themselves.
position or body of doctrines. Traditional Chris- A.C.E.
tian theology gave over to Christian Apologetics Apperception: (Lat. ad + percipere, to perceive)
(or, simply Apologetics) the task of defending (h) In epistemology. The introspective or re-
the faith. As such the discipline was also called flective apprehension by the mind of its own
"Evidences of the Christian Religion." Each inner states. Leibniz, who introduced the term,
particular faith, however, developed its own par- distinguished between perception, (the inner
ticular type of apologetics. V.F. state representing outer things) and apper-
as
Apology: (Gr. apologia) A
speech or writing in ception (the inner state as reflectively aware of
defense. Plato's Apology of Socrates purports to itself). Principles of Nature and of Grace, 4.
be the speech delivered by Socrates in his own In Kant, apperception denotes the unity of self-
defense at the trial in which he was condemned consciousness pertaining to either the empirical
to death. G.R.M. ego ("empirical apperception") or to the pure
Apophansis : A Greek word for proposition involv- ego ("transcendental apperception"), Critique of
ing etymologically a reference to its realist onto- Pure Reason, A 106-8.
logical background (Greek root of phaos, light). (b) In psychology The process by which new
In this sense, a proposition expresses the illumi- experienceis assimilated to and transformed by

nation of its subject by its predicate or predi-
cates} or again, it? makes explicit the internal
luminosity of its subject by positing against it
as predicates its essential or accidental consti-
tuents.
The Aristotelian apophansis or logos apophantikos
denotes the fundamental subject-predicate form,
either as an independent prepositional form or
as a syllogistic conclusion, to which all other
types of propositions may be reduced by analysis
and deduction. It cannot be said that the con-
troversies initiated by modern symbolic
have destroyed the ontological o^ operational
value of the Aristotelian apophantic form. T.G.
Apophantic: (Ger. apophantisch) In Husserl: Of,
or pertaining to, predicative judgments or the
the residuum of past experiences of an individual
to form a new whole. The residuum of past
experience is called the apperceptive mass. Cf.
Herbart, Psychologic als Wissenschaft, Part III,
Sect. I, ch. S.L.W.
In Kant: (1) Empirical apperception (Ger. em-
pirische Apperzeption). The consciousness of the
concrete actual self with its changing states,
sometimes, simply, the "inner sense". (2) Trans-
cendental apperception (Ger. transzendentale Ap-
perzeption). The pure, original, unchangeable
logic consciousness which is the necessary condition of
experience as such and the ultimate foundation
of the synthetic unity of experience. (See Kant-
ianism). O.F.K.
Appetite: Name given in Scholastic psychology to

theory of predicative judgments. D.C. all strivings. Sensitive appetites tend toward in-
Aporetics: (Gr. aporetikos, one who is inclined dividual goods. They are concupiscible insofar
to doubt, who is at a loss about a matter) as they are directed toward a sensible good or
Obsolete term for sceptics. H.H. strive to avoid a sensible evil} irascible if the
Aporia: (Gr. aporia) A theoretical difficulty or striving encounters obstacles. Their movements
G.R.M. are the cause of emotions. Rational or intel-
puzzle.
A posteriori: (Lat. following after) (a) In psy-
lectual appetite=will, tending towards the good
as such and necessarily therefore towards God as
chology and epistemology: refers to the data of
the mind which owe their origin to the outside the summum bonum. R.A.
world of human experience. Such data are ac- Appetition: (Lat. ad -f- petere, to seek) The in-

quired by the mind and do not belong to the ternal drive which in the Leibnizian psychology
mind's native equipment (a priori). effects the passage from one perception to an-
16 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
other. Leibnix, The Monadology,
15. L.W. twenty years (1254-1273). Among his worki
To Spinoza, appetition is conscious desire. It are: (a) Scriptum in IV Libras Sententiarum
is the essence of man insofar as he is conceived ( 1254-1256), Summa Contra Gentiles (c. 1260),

as determined to act by any of his affections. Summa Theologica (1265-1272)} (b) com-
J.M. mentaries on Boethius. (De Trinitate, c. 1257-
Appetitive: (Lat. ad -f petere, to seek) Adjec- 1258), on Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite (De
tive of appetite. Applied to desire based on ani- Divinis Nominibus, c. 1261), on the anonymous
mal wants e.g. hunger, sex, etc. The appetitive, and important Liber de Causis (1268), and espe-
along with the ideational and the affective, are cially on Aristotle's works (1261-1272), Physics,
the three principal phases of the conscious life. Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On
L.W. the Soul, Posterior Analytics, On Interpretation,

Appreciation: (Royce) The faculty by which an On the Heavens, On Generation and Corrup-
individual feels, likes or hates, or, in general, tion; (c) Quaestiones Disputatae, which includes
evaluates certain experiences, as opposed to the questions on such Targe subjects as De Veritate
faculty by which he describes them, communi- (1256-1259)} De Potentia (1259-1263)} De
cates them, and renders them permanent through Malo (1263-1268)} De Spiritualibus Creaturis,
the use of forms or categories. (Royce: Spirit of De Anima (1269-1270)} (d) small treatises or
Modern Philosophy, pp. 390-4.) A.C.B. Opuscula, among which especially noteworthy are
Apprehension: (ad -f- prehendere:
to seize) 1. the De Ente et tissentia (1256)} De Aeternitate
Act involving the bare awareness of the presence Mundi (1270), De Unitate Intellects (1270),
of an object to consciousness} the general rela- De Substantiis Separatis (1272).
tion of subject to object as inclusive of the more While it is extremely difficult to grasp in its

special forms, such as perceiving or remember- entirety the personality behind this complex theo-
ing, which the relation may take. logical and philosophical activity, some points
2. Act involving the awareness of the bare pres- are quite clear and beyond dispute. During the
ence of an object to consciousness, as opposed to first five years of his activity as a thinker and

any act which involves judgment about such an a teacher, St. Thomas seems to have formulated

object. A.C.B. his most fundamental ideas in their definite

Apprehension span: The extent or complexity of form, to have clarified his historical conceptions
material which an individual is able to appre- of Greek and Arabian philosophers, and to have
single, very brief act of atten-
hend through a made more precise and even corrected his doc-
Also called attention span. A.C.B.
tion. trinal positions, (cf., e.g., the change on the

Appresentation: (Ger. Apprasentation) In Hus- question of creation between In II Sent., d.l,

serl: The function of a presentation proper as q.l, a. 3, and the later De Potentia, q. Ill, a.4).
some- This is natural enough, though we cannot pre-
motivating the experiential positing of
thing else as present along with the strictly tend to explain why he should have come to
presented object. D.C. think as he did. The more he grew, and that
A priori: A
term applied to all judg-
(Kant) very rapidly, towards maturity, the more his
ments and principles whose validity is independ- thought became inextricably involved in the de-
ent of all
impressions of sense. Whatever is fense of Aristotle (beginning with c. 1260), his

pure a priori is unmixed with anything empirical. textsand his ideas, against the Averroists, who
In Kant's doctrine, all the necessary conditions were then beginning to become prominent in the
of experience (i.e., forms and categories) are faculty of arts at the University of Paris j against
a priori. Whatever is a priori must possess uni- the traditional Augustinianism of a man like St.
versal and necessary validity. Sometimes used Bonaventure} as well as against that more subtle
loosely to designate anything non-empirical, or Augustinianism which could breathe some of the
something which can be known by reason alone. spirit of Augustine, speak the language of Aris-

(See Kantianism). O.F.AT. totle, but expound, with increasing faithfulness

and therefore more imminent
Aquinas, Thomas: at Roccasecca, near
(Born disaster, Christian
ideas through the Neoplatonic techniques of
Naples, in 1225} oblate at the Benedictine mon-
Avicenna. This last group includes such different
astery, Monte Cassino, 1230-1239} student at
the
thinkers as St. Albert the Great, Henry of
University of Naples, 1239-1244} having de-
cided to become a Dominican, he studied at the Ghent, the many disciples of St. Bonaventure,
University of Paris under St. Albert the Great, including, some think, Duns Scotus himself, and
1245-1248} until 1252 he was in Cologne with Meister Eckhart of Hochheim.
St. Albert at the newly opened studium generate To be an Aristotelian under such extremely com-
of the Dominican Order} 1252 he returned
in plicated circumstances was the problem that St.
to study at the faculty of theology in the Uni- Thomas set himself. What he did reduced itself
versity of Paris where in 1256 he was given the fundamentally to three points: (a) He showed
licentia docendi in theology and where he taught the Platonic orientation of t.
Augustine's
until 1259} from 1259 until 1268 he taught at thought, the limitations that St. Augustine him-
the papal curia in Rome} returned to the Uni- self placed on his Platonism, and he inferred

versity of Paris to stem the tide against Aver-
roism, 1269-1272} from 1272 he began teaching
at the University of Naples. He died March 7,
1274 on the way to the Council of Lyons.)
St. Thomas was a teacher and
from this that St. Augustine could not be made
the patron of the highly elaborated and sophisti-
cated Platonism that an Ibn Gebirol expounded
in his Fons Vitae or an Avicenna in his com-
a writer for some mentaries on the metaphysics and psychology of
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Aristotle, (b) Having singled out Plato as the
thinker to search out behind St. Augustine, and
having really eliminated St. Augustine from the
Platonic controversies of the thirteenth century,
St. Thomas is then concerned to diagnose the
Platonic inspiration of the various commenta-
tors of Aristotle, and to separate what is to him
the authentic Aristotle from those Platonic aber-
rations. In this sense, the philosophical activity
of St. Thomas
in the thirteenth century can be
understood as a systematic critique and elimina-
tion of Platonism in metaphysics, psychology and
epistemology. The Platonic World of Ideas is
translated into a theory of substantial principles
in a world of stable and intelligible individuals}
the Platonic man, who was scarcely more than
an incarcerated spirit, became a rational animal,
containing within his being an interior economy
which presented in a rational system his mysteri-
ous nature as a reality existing on the confines of
two worlds, spirit and matter} the Platonic
theory of knowledge (at least in the version of
the Meno rather than that of the later dialogues
where the doctrine of division is more promi-
nent), which was regularly beset with the diffi-
culty of accounting for the origin and the truth
of knowledge, was translated into a theory of
abstraction in which sensible experience enters as
a necessary moment into the explanation of the
origin, the growth and the use of knowledge,
and which the intelligible structure of sensi-
in
ble being becomes the measure of the truth of
knowledge and of knowing.
(c) The result of this elaborate critique
Platonism is sometimes called the Aristotelian-
Thomistic synthesis. It is better, however, to call
it simply a Thomistic synthesis, not only because
St. Thomas criticized Aristotle on several occa-
sions, but also because the real and historical
meaning of Aristotle as
philosopher a
fourth century B.C. M still very much in dispute.
In any case it ought to be pretty much beyond
dispute that St. Thomas was quite aware that
Aristotle was not the author of all the doctrines
which he attributed to him.
What St. Thomas appears to have insisted on
most in thus using Aristotle as a pillar of his
own thought was the rehabilitation of man and
the universe as stable and genuine
realities
causes. This insistence has been by some called
his naturalism. Against the tendency of thir-
teenth century Augustinians to disparage the
native ability of the human reason to know
truth, St. Thomas insisted on the capacity of the
reason to act as a genuine and sufficient cause
of true knowledge within the' natural order.
Against the occasionalistic tendencies of Avicen-
nian thought, which reduced both man and the
world of change around him to the role of pas-
sive spectators of the sole activity of God (i.e.,
the intellectus agens), St. Thomas asserted the
subordinate but autonomous causality of man in
the production of knowledge and the genuine
causality of sensible realities in the production
of change. Ultimately, St. Thomas rests his de-
fense of man and other beings as efficacious
causes in their own order on the doctrine of
17
creation; just as he shows that the occasionalism
of Avicenna is ultimately based on the Neo-
platonic doctrine of emanation.
This rebuilding of the notion of creature per-
mits St. Thomas also to analyze the problems that
Averroism was making more and more promi-
nent. Philosophical truth was discovered by the
Greeks and the Arabians neither completely nor
adequately nor without error. What the Chris-
tian thinker must do in their presence is not to
divide his allegiance between them and Chris-
tianity, but to discover the meaning of reason
and the conditions of true thinking. That dis-
covery will enable him to learn from the Greeks
without also learning their errors; and it would
thus show him the possibility of the harmony
between reason and revelation. He must learn
to be a philosopher, to discover the
philosopher
within the Christian man, in order to meet
philosophers. In exploring the meaning of a
creature, St. Thomas was
building a philosophy
which permitted his contemporaries (at least, if
they listened to him) to free themselves from
the old eternalistic and
rigid world of the
Greeks and to free their thinking, therefore,
from the antinomies which this world could raise
up for them. In the harmony of faith and reason
which St. Thomas defended against Averroism,
we must see the culminating point of his activ-
ity. For such a harmony meant ultimately not
only a judicious and synthetic diagnosis of
Greek philosophy, as well as a synthetic incor-
poration of Greek ideas in Christian thought, it
of meant also the final vindication of the humanism
and the naturalism of Thomistic philosophy. The
expression and the defense of this Christian
humanism constitute one of St. Thomas' most
enduring contributions to European thought.
A.C.P.
in the A quo: (Schol.) from which indicates the prin-
ciple, starting point, from which something
proceeds. To whom (ad quern) or to which
(ad quod) indicates the terminus, the end point
to which something tends. For whom
(cut)
indicates for whom something is done. Thus
alms giving is done from charity, a quo} it
tends to the relief of the poor, as ad quod; and
It is a service done for God, as cut. H.G.
Arabesque:
Originally a method of ornament
consisting of fantastic lines. Recently, inner
design of a form. L.V.
Arabic Philosophy: The contact of the Arabs
with Greek civilization and philosophy took
place partly in Syria, where Christian Arabic
philosophy developed, partly in other countries,
Asia Minor, Persia, Egypt and Spain. The
effect of this contact was not a simple reception
of Greek philosophy, but the gradual growth of
an original mode of thought, determined chiefly
by the religious and philosophical tendencies
alive in the Arab world. Eastern influences had
produced a mystical trend, not unlike Neo-
Platonism? the already existing "metaphysics of
light", noticeable in the religious conception of
the Qoran, also helped to assimilate Plotinian
ideas. On the other hand, Aristotelian philoso-
ohv became imoortant. although more, at least
18 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in beginning, as logic and methodology.
the
The interest in science and medicine contributed
to the spread of Aristotelian philosophy. The
history of philosophy in the Arab world is de-
termined by the increasing opposition of Ortho-
doxy against a more liberal theology and phi-
losophy. Arab thought became influential in the
Western world partly through European scholars
who went to Spain and elsewhere for study, most-
ly however through the Latin translations which
became more and more numerous at the end of
the 12th and during the 13th centuries. Among
the Christian Arabs Costa ben Luca (864-923) has
to be mentioned whose DC Differentia spiritus et
animae was translated by Johannes Hispanua
(12th century). The first period of Islamic phi-
losophy is occupied mainly with translation of
Greek texts, some of which were translated later
into Latin. The Liber de causis (mentioned first
by Alanus ab Insulis) is such a translation of
an Arab textj it was believed to be by Aristotle,
but is in truth, as Aquinas recognized, a version
of the Stoicheiosis theologike by Proclus. The
so-calledTheologia Aristotelis is an excerpt of
Plotinus Enn. IV-VI, written 840 by a Syrian.
The fundamental trends of Arab philosophy are
indeed Neo-Platonic, and the Aristotelian texts
were mostly interpreted in this spirit. Further-
more, there is also a tendency to reconcile the
Greek philosophers with theological notions,
at least so long as the orthodox theologians
could find no reason opposition: In spite
for
of this, some of the philosophers did not escape
persecution. The Peripatetic element is more
pronounced in the writings of later times when
the technique of paraphrasis and commentary
on Aristotelian texts had developed. Beside
the philosophy dependent more or less on Greek,
and partially even Christian influences, there is
a mystical theology and philosophy whose sources
are the Qoran, Indian and, most of all, Persian
systems. The knowledge of the
writings too was of some importance.
Al Kindi, Al Farabi, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
were the first great philosophers who made large
use of Aristotelian books. Their writings are of
philosophorum t translated by Dominicus Gundis-
salinus. Gazali's criticisms were answered by
Averroes in his Destructio destructions.
The importance of Arab philosophy has to be
evaluated both in regard to the Oriental and
the Western world. The latter was influenced,
naturally, not by the originals but by the trans-
lations which do not always render exactly the
spirit of the authors. In the East, theology re-
mained victorious, but incorporated in its own
teachings much of the philosophies it condemned.
M. Horten, in Ueberweg-Heinze, Geschichte der
Philosophie, 3d ed., Berlin, 1928, pp. 287-342.
Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Vol. I, II,
Weimar, 1898-1902, Vol. Ill- VI, Leiden, 1936-
1941. The Encyclopedia 0} Islam, Leiden, 1913-
1918. R.A.
Arambha-vada: (Skr.) The theory of evolution
expounded by the Nyaya and Vaisesika (q.v.),
according to which atoms having been created
combine to form the complex world, a sort of
emergent evolution. K.F.L.
Aranyaka: (Skr.) One of early Indian treatises
composed in the forest (aranya) by Brahmans
retired from life and devoting their time to an
interpretation of the meaning of Vedic (q.v.)
ritual and usage. AT.FX.
Arbitrium, liberum :
Livy used the expression,
libera arbitria, signifying free decisions. Ter-
tullian used either liberum arbttrium or libertas
arbitrii, meaning freedom of choice. Augustine
spoke of the liberum voluntatis arbitrium, free
choice of the will. He held that voluntas and
liberum are the same. Since liberum arbitrium
implies the power to do evil, it is distinct from
libertas, which is the good use of the liberum
arbitrium, God is free, but He can do no wrong.
Anselm preferred the term, libertas arbitrii.
Thomas Aquinas taught that voluntas and
liberum arbitrium are one potency. The expres-
sion has come to mean free will or choice.
"Hermetic" J.J.R.
Arbor Porphyrii: (Tree of Porphyry) A repre-
sentation of the series leading from the indi-
vidual by means of the numerical and specific
differences (corporeal, animate, sentient, rational)

truly encyclopedic character and comprise the to the genus subaltemum et supremum. R.A.
whole edifice of knowledge in their time. Their Arcadic: Artificial with the pretence of ex-
art
Aristotelianism is, however, mainly Neo-Platon- pressing pastoral simplicity. L.V.
ism with addition of certain peripatetic notions. Arcanum: An old term almost identical with
Avicenna is more of an Aristotelian than his occultism, its recent equivalent. Arcana were
predecessors. Al Farabi, e.g., held that cognition originally used to cover the sacred objects, such
is ultimately due to an illumination, whereas as the Playthings of Dionysus in the Eleusinian
Avicenna adopted a more Aristotelian theory. rites,and a cognate is ark, as in the Ark of
While these thinkers had an original philosophy, the Covenant.
Averroes (Ibn Roshd) endeavored to clarify the Arcesilaus: (315-241 B.C.) Greek philosopher
meaning of the Aristotelian texts by extensive from Pitane in Aeolis. He succeeded Crates in
and minute commentaries. Translations from the chair of the Platonic Academy and became
these writings first made known to medieval phi- the founder of the second or so-called middle
losophy the non-logical works of the "Philoso- academy. In opposition to both Stoicism and
pher , although there existed, at the same time, Epicureanism, he advocated a scepticism that
some translations made directly from Greek was not so extreme as that of Pyrrho although
texts. he despaired of man's attaining truth. Suspended
The mystical trend is represented mostly by judgment was to him the best approach. L.E.D.
Al Gazali who also wrote a report on the phi- Archaic: A style which is primitive and incom-
losophies of Farabi and Aviceana followed by plete in comparison with a posterior style which
a devastating criticism, known as Destructio is considered perfect and complete. L.V,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 19

Archaism: A
revival of archaic style as a result people's support by appealing to their senti-
of dissatisfaction with a manner previously con- mental weaknesses; it may avail itself of
sidered perfect. L.V. patriotism, group and loyalties, and
interests
Arche: (Or. arche) The first in a series; that customary preferences, rather than of facts and
from which a thing either is or comes to be 5 reasons. "R.B.W.
origin ; principle; first cause (Aristotle).
Argumentum ad rent : An argument to the point
G.R.M. distinguished from such evasions as argtt*
Archelaus: A disciple of Anaxagoras; be- mentum ad hominem (q. v.), etc. A.C.
longed to the
Sophistic period) proclaimed Argumentum ad verecundiam: An argument
the conventionality of all ethical judg- availing itself of human respect for great men,
ments. He distinguished between man's natural ancient customs, recognized institutions, and
impulses and dispositions and the dictates of
authority in general, in order to strengthen
human moral laws. The former he held to be
one's point or to produce an illusion of proof.
superior guides to conduct. M.F. R.B.W.
Archelogy: The science of first principles.
C.A.B.
Argumentum ex concesso: An inference found*
ed on a proposition which an opponent hat
Archetype: (Gr. arche, first; and typos, form) already admitted. JJ.R.
The original pattern of forms of which actual
Arianism: named after Ariut (256-336),
things are copies. (Platonic). 7.AT.F. Ajriew
energetic presbyter of Alexandria, condemned at
Archeus: See Paracelsus. R.B.W.
a heretic by the ancient Catholic Church. Ariut
Architectonic: (Kant) (Gr. architcktonikosj Ger.
held that Jesus and God were not of the tame
Architektonik) The formal scheme, structural de- substance (the orthodox position). He main-
sign, or method of elucidation of a system. The tained that although the Son was subordinate to
architectonic of Kant's system rests throughout the Father he was of a similar nature. The
on the basic distinctions of the traditional logic.
controversy on the relation of Jesus to God in-
O.F.AT. volved the question of the divine status of Jesus.
Ardigo, Roberto: (1828-1920) Was the leader If he were not divine how could the church
in the Italian positivistic movement in philoso-
justify him as an object of worship, of trust,
phy. He was born in Padua and educated as a and adoration? If he is divine, how could tuch
Catholic priest, but he became interested in the a belief square with the doctrine of one God
views of Comte, abandoned the ministry and be- Arianism tended toward the
(monotheism) ?
came a professor^ at the Univ. of Padua. His doctrine of the subordination of Jesus to God,
emphasis on psychology differentiates his thought involving the .extreme Arians who held Jetut to
from Comtism. Chief works: La psicologia come be unlike God and the moderate Arians who
science positive (1870), La morale del posi- held that Jesus was of similar essence with God
tivtsti F./.tf.
(1885).- although not of the same substance. Some
Arete: See Virtue. eighteen councils were convened to consider this
Aretology: That branch of ethics concerned with burning question, parties in power condemning
the nature of virtue. C.A.B. and placing each other under the ban. The Coun-
Argument: See Function. cil of Nicea in 325 repudiated Arian tendencies
Argumentum a fortiori: An argument from but the issue was fought with uncertain outcome
analogy which shows that the proposition ad- until the Council of Constantinople in 381 re-
vanced is more admissible than one previously affirmed the orthodox, view. V.F*
conceded by an opponent. JJ.R. 435-366 B.C.) Orig-
Aristippus of Gyrene: (c.
Argumentum ad baculum: An argument deriv- inally a Sophist,then Socrates' disciple, and
ing its strength from appeal to human timidity finally the founder of the Cyrenaic School. He
or fears? it may contain, implicitly or
explicitly, taught that pleasure, understood as the sensation
R.B.W.
a threat. of gentle character, is the true end of life. All
Argumentum ad hominem: An irrelevant or pleasures are equal in value, but differ in degree
malicious appeal to personal circumstances} it and duration; they should be controlled and
consists diverting an argument from sound
in moderated by reason. R.B.W.
facts and reasons
to the personality of one's Aristippus the younger: A grandson of Aris-
opponent, competitor or critic. R.B.W. tippus of Cyrene, the founder of the Cy-
Argumentum ad ignorantiam: An argument renaic School; author of a physiological
purporting to demonstrate a point or to per- psychology which sought to trace the origin of
suade people, which avails itself of facts and human feelings. See Cyrenaics. Af.F.
reasons the falsity or inadequacy of which is Aristobulus: A philosopher of the second century
not readily discerned; a misleading arp-umrnt B.C. who combined Greek philosophy with Jew-
used in reliance on people's ignorance, R.B.W. ish theology. M.F.
Argumentum ad judicium : A reasoning ground- Aristocracy: 1. In its original and etymological
ed on the common mankind and the
sense of meaning (Greek: aw/oj-best, Ar/ox-power), the
judgment of the people. JJ.R. government by the best; and by extension, the
Argumentum ad misericordiam : An argument class of the chief persons in a country. At the
attempting to prove a point or to win a dpoaion standards by which the best can be determined
by appeal to pity and related emotions. R.B.W. and selected may vary, it it difficult to give a
Argumentum ad populum: An argument at- general definition of this term (Cf. C. Lewis,
tempting to sway popular feeling or to win Political Trms, X. 73). But in particular, the
20 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
implication! of aristocracy may be rational, his- denotes those who
hold active power in a totali-
torical, political, pragmatic or analogical. Their selection is by reference to
tarian State.
2. In its rational aspect, as developed espe- some narrow and pragmatic principles of effec-
cially by Plato and Aristotle, aristocracy is the tive service to the State, of hierarchized leader-
rule of the best few, in a true, purposeful, law- ship, or of training in accordance with the doc-
abiding and constitutional sense. As a political trines of 'the State.
ideal, it is a form of government by morally 6.In its analogical aspect, the term aristocracy
and
intellectually superior men for the common if applied to the leading persons in a profession
good or in the general interests of the governed, (intellectual or manual), who assume an attitude
but without participation of the latter. Owing to of exclusiveness or superiority on the strength
the difficulty of distinguishing the best men for of simply professional, religious or social motives.
directing the life of the community, and of T.G.
setting in motion the process of training and Aristotelianism : The philosophy of Aristotle
selecting such models of human perfection, aris- (384-322 B.C.). Aristotle was born in the
tocracy becomes practically the rule of those Greek colony of Stagira, in Macedon, the son
who are thought to be the best. [Plato himself of Nicomachus, the physician of King Amyntas
proposed his ideal State as "a model fixed in the of Macedon. In his eighteenth year Aristotle be-
heavens" for human imitation but not attain- came a pupil of Plato at Athens and remained
ment} and in the Laws he offered a combination for nearly twenty years a member of the Acad-
of monarchy and democracy as the best working emy. After the death of Plato he resided for
form of government.] Though aristocracy is a some time at Atarneus, in the Troad, and at

type of government external

to the governed, it Mitylene, on the island of Lesbos, with friends
is opposed to oligarchy (despotic) and to timoc- of the Academy; then for several years he acted
racy (militaristic). With monarchy and democ- as tutor to the young Alexander of Macedon.

racy, it exhausts the classification of the main In 335 he returned to Athens, where he spent
forms of rational government. the following twelve years as head of a school
which he set up in the Lyceum. The school also
3. In its historical aspect, aristocracy is a
definite class or order known as hereditary no-
came to be known as the Peripatetic, and its
which possesses prescriptive rank and members Peripatetics, probably because of the
bility,
or covered walk, in which Aristotle
peripatos,
This group developed from primitive
privileges.
lectured. As
a result of the outburst of anti-
monarchy, by the gradual limitation of the regal
Macedonian feeling at Athens in 323 after the
authority by those who formed the council of
death of Alexander, Aristotle retired to Chalcis,
the king. The* defense of their prerogatives led
in Euboea, where he died a year later.
them naturally to consider themselves as a sepa-
rate class fitted by birthright to monopolize gov-
The extant works of Aristotle cover almost all
ernment. But at the same time, they assumed
the sciences known in his time. They are char-
acterized by subtlety of analysis, sober and dis-
a number of corresponding obligations (hence
passionate judgment, wide mastery of
and a
the aphorism noblesse oblige) particularly for
empirical facts; collectively they constitute one
maintaining justice, peace and security. [The
of the most amazing achievements ever credited
characteristics of hereditary aristocracy are:
(1)
to a single mind. They may conveniently be
descent and birthright, (2) breeding and educa-
arranged in seven groups: (1) the Organon, or
tion, (3) power to command, (4) administrative
logical treatises, viz.Categories, De Interpreta-
and military capacities, (5) readiness to fulfill
tione, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Top-
personal and national obligations, (6) interest and
mem- ics, Sophistici Elenchi; (2) the writings on
in field sports, (7) social equality of its
physical science, viz. Physics, De Coelo, De
bers, (8) aloofness and exclusiveness, (9) moral
Generatione et Corruptione, and Meteorological
security in the possession of real values regard-
(3) the biological works, viz. Historia Ani-
less of criticism, competition or advancement.]
malium, De Partibus Animalium, De Motu and
In certain societies as in Great Britain, birth-
De Incessu Animalium, and De Generatione
right is not an exclusive factor: exceptional men the on psychology,
Animalium; (4) treatises
are admitted by recognition into the aristocratic
De Anima and a
viz. works
collection of shorter
circle (circulation of the elite)) after a tincture known as the Parva Naturalia; (5) the Meta-
of breeding satisfying its external standards. The
physics; (6) the treatises on ethics and politics,
decline of hereditary nobility was due to eco-
viz. Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, Poli-
nomic rather than to social or political changes.
tics, Constitution of Athens; and (7) two works
Now' aristocracy can claim only a social influ-
dealing with the literary arts, Rhetoric and
ence.
Poetics. A large number of other works in these
4. In its political aspect, aristocracy is a form several fields are usually included in the Aris-
of government in which the sovereign power totelian corpus, though they are now generally
resides actually in a council composed of select believed not to have been Written by Aristotle.
persons (usually patricians), without a monarch, It is probable also that portions of the works
and exclusive of the common people (e.g. the above listed are the work, not of Aristotle, but
Italian republics). It rules by decisions of the of his contemporaries or successors in the
group arrived at by discussion; and tends to be Lyceum.
absolute and oppressive. Besides these treatises there are extant a large
5. In its
pragmatic aspect, aristocracy is syn- number of fragments of works now lost, some
onymous with the elite or the ruling class, and of them popular in character, others memoranda
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 21
or collection* of materials made in preparation rial cause (that of which a thing is made), the
for the systematic treatises. The most noteworthy efficient cause (that by which it comes into
member of the second class is the work dealing being), the formal cause (its essence or nature,
with the constitutions of one hundred fifty-eight i.e. whatit is), and the final cause (its end, or
Greek states, of which one part alone, the Con- that for which it exists). In natural objects, as
stitution of Athens, has been preserved. distinct from the products of art, the last three
The standard edition of the Greek text is that causes coincide; for the end of a natural object
of Bekker (5 vols. Berlin, 1831-1870). com- A is the realization of its essence, and likewise
plete English translation of the works included it is this identical essence embodied in another
in the Berlin edition has recently been pub- individual that is the efficient cause in its pro-
lished (Oxford, 1908-1931) under the editor- duction. Thus for Aristotle every object in the
ship of W. D. Ross. sense world is a union of two ultimate prin-
Aristotle divides the sciences into the theoreti- ciples: the material constituents, or matter
cal, the practical and theproductive, the aim (hyle), and the form, structure, or essence
of the first being disinterested knowledge, of which makes of these constituents the deter-
the second the guidance of conduct, and of the minate kind of being it is. Nor is this union
third the guidance of the arts. The science an external or arbitrary one; for the matter is
now called logic, by him known as "analytic", in every case to be regarded as possessing the
is a discipline preliminary to all the others, capacity for the form, as being potentially the
since its purpose is to set forth the conditions formed matter. Likewise the form has being
that must be observed by all thinking which has only in the succession of its material embodi-
truth as its aim. Science, in the strict sense of ments. Thus Aristotle opposes what he considers
the word, is demonstrated knowledge of the to be the Platonic doctrine that real being be-
causes of things. Such demonstrated knowledge longs only to the forms or universals, whose
is obtained by syllogistic deduction from prem- existence is independent of the objects that im-

ises in themselves certain. Thus the procedure perfectly manifest them. On the other hand,
of science differs from dialectic, which employs against the earlier nature-philosophies that found
probable premises, and from eristic, which aims their explanatory principles in matter, to the
not at truth but at victory in disputation. The neglect of form, Aristotle affirms that matter
center, therefore, of Aristotle's logic is the syl- must be conceived as a locus of determinate
logism, or. that form of reasoning whereby, potentialities that become actualized only through
given two propositions, a third follows neces- the activity of forms.
sarily from them. The basis of syllogistic in- With these principles of matter and form, and
ference is the presence of a term common to the parallel distinction between potential and
both premises (the middle term) so related as actual existence, Aristotle claims to have solved
subject or predicate to each of the other two the difficulties that earlier thinkers had found
terms that a conclusion may be drawn regarding in the fact of change. The changes in nature
the relation of these two terms to one another. are to be interpreted not as the passage from
Aristotle was the first to formulate the theory non-being to being, which would* make them
of the syllogism, and his minute analysis of its unintelligible, but as the process by which what
various forms was definitive, so far as the sub- is merely potential being passes over, through
ject-predicate relation is concerned} so that to form, into actual being, or entelechy. The phil-
this part of deductive logic but little has been osophy of nature which results from these basic
added since his day. Alongside of deductive concepts views nature as a dynamic realm in
reasoning Aristotle recognizes the necessity of which change is real, spontaneous, continuous,
induction, or the process whereby premises, par- and in the main directed. Matter, though indeed
ticularly first premises, are established. This in- capable of form, possesses a residual inertia
volves passing from the particulars of sense ex- which on occasion produces accidental effects; so

perience (the things more knowable to us) to
the universal and necessary principles involved
in sense experience (the things more knowable
in themselves). Aristotle attaches
tance, in this search for premises, to the con-
sideration of prevailing beliefs (endoxa) and the
examination of the difficulties (aporiai) that
have been encountered in the solution of the
problem in hand. At some stage in the survey
of the field and the theories previously advanced
the universal connection
hended} and apprehended, Aristotle eventually
says, by the intuitive reason, or nous. Thus
knowledge ultimately rests upon an indubitable
intellectual apprehension j yet
employment of the intuitive reason a
pirical acquaintance with
indispensable.
The causes which it is the aim of scientific
inquiry to discover are of four sorts: the mate-
that alongside the ideological causation of the
forms Aristotle recognizes what he calls "neces-
sity" in nature; but the products of the latter,
most impor- since they are aberrations from form, cannot be
made the object of scientific knowledge. Fur-
thermore, the system of nature as developed by
Aristotle is a graded series of existences, in
which the simpler beings, though in themselves
formed matter, function also as matter for higher
forms. At the base of the series is prime matter,
sought for is appre- which as wholly unformed is mere potentiality,
not actual being. The simplest formed matter is
the so-called primary bodies earth, water, air
and fire. From these as matter arise by the inter-
for the proper vention of successively more complex forms the
wide em- composite inorganic bodies, organic tissues, and
the subject-matter is the world of organisms, characterized by varying
degrees of complexity in structure and function.
In this realization of form in matter Aristotle
distinguishes three sorts of change: qualitative
22 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
change, or alteration } quantitative change, or an unmoved first mover. Furthermore, since
growth and diminution* and change of place, motion is eternal (for time is eternal, and time
or locomotion, the last being primary, since it is but the measure of motion), the first mover

it presupposed in all the others. But Aristotle is must be eternal. This eternal unmoved first
far from suggesting a mechanical explanation of mover, whose existence is demanded by physical
change, for not even locomotion can be ex- theory, is described in the Metaphysics as the
plained by impact alone. The motion of the philosophical equivalent of the god or gods of
primary bodies is due to the fact that each has popular religion. Being one, he is the source
its natural place to which it moves when not of the unity of the world process. In himself
opposed} earth to the center, then water, air, he is.pure actuality, the only form without mat-
and fire to successive spheres about the center. ter, the only being without extension. His activ-
The ceaseless motion of these primary bodies ity consists in pure thought, that is, thought
results from transformation into
their ceaseless which has thought for its object* and he influ-
one another through the interaction of the forms ences the world not by mechanical impulse, but
of hot and cold, wet and dry. Thus qualitative by virtue of the perfection of his being, which
differences of form underlie even the most ele- makes him not only the supreme object of all
mental changes in the world of nature. knowledge, but also the ultimate object of all
It is in his biology that the distinctive con- desire.

cepts of Aristotle show to best advantage. The In the Ethics these basic principles are applied
conception of process as the actualization of to the solution of the question of human good.
determinate potentiality is well adapted to the The good for man is an actualization, or active
comprehension of biological phenomena, where exercise, of those faculties distinctive of man,
the immanent teleology of structure and func- that the faculties of the rational, as distinct
is

tion is almost a part of the observed facts. It
is here also that the persistence of the form, or
species, through a succession of individuals is
most strikingly evident. His psychology is scarce-
ly separable from his biology, since for Aristotle
(as for Greek thought generally) the soul is the
principle of life} it is "the primary actual-
ization of a natural organic body." But souls
differ from one another in the variety and com-
plexity of the functions they exercise, and this
difference in turn corresponds to differences in
the organic structures involved. Fundamental to
all other physical activities are the functions of
nutrition, growth and reproduction, which are
possessed by all living beings, plants as well as
animals. Next come sensation, desire, and loco-
motion, exhibited in animals in varying degrees.
Above all are deliberative choice and theoretical
from the vegetative and sensitive souls. But
human excellence thus defined shows itself in
two forms, in the habitual subordination of
sensitive and appetitive tendencies to rational
rule and and in the exercise of reason
principle,
in the and contemplation of truth.
search for
The former type of excellence is expressed in
the moral virtues, the latter in the dianoetic or
intellectual virtues. A memorable feature of
Aristotle's treatment of the moral virtues is his
theory that each of them may be regarded as a
mean between excess and defect; courage, for
example, is a mean between cowardice and rash-
ness, liberality a mean between stinginess and
prodigality. In the Politics Aristotle sets forth
the importance of the political community as
the source and sustainer of the typically human
life. But for Aristotle the highest good for man

inquiry, the exercise of which makes the rational is found not in the political life, nor in any
soul, peculiar to man among the animals. Aris- other form of practical activity, but in theoreti-
totle devotes special attention to the various cal inquiry and contemplation of truth. This
activities of the rational soul. Sense perception alone brings complete and continuous happiness,
is the faculty of receiving the sensible form of because it is the activity of the highest part of
outward objects without their matter. Besides man's complex nature, and of that part which
the five senses Aristotle posits a "common sense," is least dependent upon externals, viz. the in-

which enables the rational soul to unite the tuitive reason, or nous. In the contemplation
data of the separate senses into a single object, of the principles of knowledge and being
first

and which also accounts for the soul's aware-
ness of these very activities of perception and
of its other states. Reason is the faculty of
apprehending the universal and first principles
involved in all knowledge, and while helpless
without sense perception it is not limited to the
concrete and sensuous, but can grasp the uni-
versal and the ideal. The reason thus described
as apprehending the intelligible world is in one
difficult passage characterized as passive reason,
requiring for its actualization a higher inform-
ing reason at the tource of all intelligibility in
things and of realized intelligence in man.
The necessity of assuming such a tupreme
form appears also from the side of physics. Since
every movement or change implies a mover, and
since the chain of causes cannot be infinite if
the world it to be intelligible, there must be
man participates in that activity of pure thought
which constitutes the eternal perfection of the
divine nature.
The philosophy of Aristotle was continued
after his death by other members of the Peri-
patetic school, the most important
of whom were
Theophrastus, Eudemus of Rhodes, and Strato
of Lampsacus. In the Alexandrian Age, particu-
larly after the editing of Aristotle's works by
Andronicus of Rhodes (about 50 B.C.), Aris-
totelianism was the subject of numerous exposi-
tions and commentaries, such as those of Alex-
ander of Aphrodisias, Themistius, John Philo-
ponus, and Simplicius. With the closing of
the
sixth century the
philosophical schools in the
knowledge of Aristotle, except for fragments of
the logical doctrine, almost disappeared in the
west. It was preserved, however, by Arabian
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 23

and Syrian scholars, from whom, with the re- 460b 20) Metaphysics lOlla 33 Problems 95 8b }

vival of learning in the twelfth and thirteenth 14, 9S9a, IS, 96Sa 36. G.RM.
centuries, it passed again to western Europe and Aristotle's Illusion I See Aristotle's Experiment.
became in Thomas Aquinas the philosophical
Arithmetic, foundations of: Arithmetic (i.e.,
basis of Christian theology. For the next few the mathematical theory of the non-negative in-
centuries the prestige of Aristotle was immense be based on the five
}
tegers,0, 1, 2, . . .) may
he was "the philosopher," "the master of those which are due to Peano
following postulates,
who know." With the rise of modern science whom Peano's ideas were
(and Dedekind, from
his authority has greatly declined. Yet Aris-
partly derived):
totelianism is still a force in modern thought:
.

in Neo-Scholasticism$ in recent psychology, N(x) =>. N(S(x)).

whose behavioristic tendencies are in part a re-
vival of Aristotelian modes of thought} in the
[* = y]]].
various forms of vitalism in contemporary biol-
N(x) = .~[S(* = 0].
ogy; in the dynamism of such thinkers as
F(0)[AT(*)F(*) *.
Bergson; and in the more catholic naturalism
which has succeeded the mechanistic materialism [#(*) =>.**(*)]
The undefined terms are here 0, N, S, which
of the last century, and which, whether by
ap-
may be interpreted as denoting, respectively, the
peal to a doctrine of levels or by emphasis on
immanent teleology, seems to be striving along non-negative integer 0, the prepositional func-
tion to be a non-negative integer, and the 'func-
Aristotelian lines for a conception of nature
broad enough to include the religious, moral and
tion + 1 (so that S(x) is *-H)' The underlying
logic may be taken to be the functional calculus
artistic consciousness. Finally, a very large part
of second order (Logic, formal, 6), with the
of our technical vocabulary, both in science and
addition of notations for descriptions and for
in philosophy, is but the translation into modern
functions from individuals to individuals) and
tongues of the terms used by Aristotle, and car-
the individual constant 0, together with appro-
ries with it, for better or worse, the distinctions
worked out in his subtle mind. G.R.M. priate modifications and additions to the primi-
tive formulas and primitive rules of inference
Aristotle, medieval: Contrary to the esteem in (the axiom of infinity is not needed because the
which the Fathers held Platonic and especially Peano postulates take its place). By adding the
Neo-Platonic philosophy, Aristotle plays hardly five postulates of Peano as primitive formulas to
any role in early Patristic and Scholastic writ- this underlying logic, a logistic system is ob-
ings. Augustine seems not to have known much tained which is adequate to extant elementary
about him and admired him more as logician methods
number theory (arithmetic) and to all
whereas he held Plato to be the much greater
of proof which have found, actual employment in
philosopher. The Middle Ages knew, until the
elementary number theory (and are normally
end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th
considered to belong to elementary number
century, only the logical texts, mostly in the
theory). But of course, the system, if consistent,
translations made by Boethius of the texts and
is incomplete in the sense of Godel's theorem
of the introduction by
Porphyrius (Isagoge). (Logic, formal, 6).
During the latter third of the 12th, mostly Peano postulates are formulated on the
If the
however at the beginning of the 13th century
basis ofan interpretation according to which the
appeared translations partly from Arabian texts domain of individuals coincides with that of the
and commentaries, partly from the Greek N
orig- non-negative integers, the undefined term may
inals. Finally, Aquinas had William of Moer- be dropped and the postulates reduced to the
beke translate the whole work of
Aristotle, who three following:
soon came to be known as the
Philosopher. (*)(y)[[S(*) = S(y)] =>
[* = y]L
Scholastic Aristotelianism is, however, not a sim- () ~[S(*) = 0].
ple revival of the Peripatetic views j Thomas is
said to have "Christianized" the
Philosopher as It is possible further to drop the undefined
Augustine had done with Plato. Aristotle was term and to replace the successor function 5
differently interpreted by Aquinas and by the
by a dyadic propositional function 5 (the con-
Latin Averroists (q.v. A
verroism)^ especially in templated interpretation being that S(x,y) is the
regard to the "unity of intellect" and the etern-
proposition y =
*-H) The Peano postulates
ity of the created world. R.A.
may then be given the following form:
Aristotle's Dictum (or the Dictum de Omni et (*)(Ey)S( x> y).
Nullo) The maxim that whatever
:
may be predi- (*)[$(*> y)
3 [(*,) =. [y = ]]].
cated affirmed or denied) of a whole may
(i.e. (*)[S(y,*) =>,[$(,*) =>.[y = ]]].
be predicated of any part of that whole j tradi-
(*)[[(*) ~S(*,y)l *[* = ]].
tionally attributed to Aristotle, though perhaps [(*) ~S(x, *)] 3. [F()[F(*) =>. [S(x,y)
on insufficient grounds. See Joseph, Introduction
to Logic, p. 296, note. See also Dictum de Omni For this form of the Peano postulates the under-
et Nullo.G.R.M.
lying logic may be taken to be simply the func-
.

Aristotle's Experiment: An experiment fre- tional calculus of second order without additions.
quently referred to by Aristotle in which an In this formulation, numerical functions can be
object held between two crossed fingers of the introduced only by contextual definition as in-
same hand is felt as two 'objects. De Somniis complete symbols.
24 DICTIONARY
In the Frege-Russell derivation of arithmetic literature. The problem of the distinction and
from logic (see the article Mathematics) neces- classification of the arts originated with Lessing
sity for the postulates of Peano is avoided. If in reaction to the interference of poetical values
based on the theory of
types, however, this in and vice versa. He distinguished
painting
derivation requires some form of the axiom of poetry dealing with consecutive actions from
infnity which may be regarded as a residuum painting concerned with figures coexisting in
of the Peano postulates. space. Later, aestheticians divided the arts into
See further the articles Recursion, definition many classifications. Zimmermann, a pupil of
by, and Recursion, proof by. A.C. Herbart, distinguished three groups:
B. Russell, Introduction to Mathematical Philoso- (1) arts of material representation (architec-
phy, London, 1919.
ture, sculpture, etc.).
Arithmetic mean: The simple average. Thus the (2) arts of perceptive representation (paint-
arithmetic mean of nquantities is the sum of
ing, music).
'
these quantities divided by n. Contrast with arts of the
(3) representation of thought
geometric mean. C.A.B.
(poetry).
Ars Combinatorial art or technique
(Leibniz) An This partition suggested to Fiedler the aesthe-
of deriving or inventing complex concepts by a tics of pure visibility, to Hanslick the aesthetics
combination of a relatively few simple ones of pure musicality. And from Fiedler's idea was
taken as primitive. This technique was proposed derived the so-called Science of Art independent
as a valuable subject for study by Leibniz in of aesthetics. L.V.
Df Arte Combinatoria (1666) but was never Art impulse: A term to account for the origin
greatly developed by him. Leibniz's program for of all matter falling under the consideration of
logic consisted of two main projects: (1) the aesthetics by describing it as due to non-intel-
development of a universal characteristic (char- lectualistic,psychical urges, thoroughly dynamic
acteristics universalis), and (2) the
development in nature, such as desire to imitate, proneness to
of a universal mathematics (mathesis ttniversalis
please, exhibitionism, play, utilization of surplus
q.v.). The universal characteristic was to be a vital energy, emotional expression, or compen-
universal language for scientists and philoso- sation. K.F.L.
phers. With a
relatively few basic symbols for Asana: (Skr.) "Sitting"} posture, an accessory to
the ultimately simple ideas, and a suitable tech- the proper discipline of mind and thinking
nique for constructing compound ideas out of deemed important by the Yoga and other sys-
the simple ones, Leibniz thought that a
language tems of Indian philosophy, according to psycho-
could be constructed which would be much more K.F.L.
physical presuppositions.
efficientfor reasoning and for communication Asat: (Skr.) "Non-being", a school concept dating
than the vague, complicated, and more or less back to Vedic (q.v.) times. It offers a theory
parochial languages then available. This lan- of origination according to which being (sat;
guage would be completely universal in the q.v.) was produced from non-being in the be-
sense that and philosophical con-
all scientific
ginning; it was rejected by those who believe
cepts could be expressed in it, and also in that in being as the logical starting point in meta-
it would enable scholars in all countries to
com- physics. K.F.L.
municate over the barriers of their vernacular Asceticism: (Gr. askesis, exercise) The view-
tongues. Leibniz's proposals in this matter, and now and then appearing in conjunction with
what work he did on it, are the grand predeces- and Buddhistic
religion, particularly the Christian
sors of a vast amount of research which has
one, or the striving for personal perfection or
been done in the last hundred years on the salvation for self and others that the body is
techniques of language construction, and specifi- an evil and a detriment to a moral, spiritual,
cally on the invention of formal rules and pro- and god-pleasing life. Hence the negative ad-
cedures for introducing new terms into a lan-
justments to natural functions, desires, and even
guage on the basis of terms already present, the needs, manifesting themselves in abnegation of
general project of constructing a unified lan- pleasures, denial of enjoyments, non-gratifica-
guage for science and philosophy. L. Couturat, tion of the senses, stifling of physical cravings,
La Logique de Leibniz, Paris, 1901} as well as self-torture which is meant to allay
C.I.Lewis,
A Survey of Symbolic Logic, Berkeley, 1918. or kill off physical and worldly longings b>
F.L.W. destroying their root, in preparation for a hap-
Ars magna Raymundi: A device by which Ray-
pier, perhaps desireless future, in a post mortem
mundus Lullus, Ramon Lul, thought to arrive existence. K.F.L.
at all
possible conclusions from certain given Aseitas: (LaO
Being by and of itself, asserted
principles or notions. A
very imperfect precursor only of God. All other beings are dependent in
of Leibniz's mathesis universalis. See Lullic art. their existence on God as creator, they are at
R.A. alio.R.A.
Art: (Gr. techne) (See Aesthetics) In Aristotle Asmita: (Skr. "I am-ness") A
kind of egoism
the science or knowledge of the principle* in- repudiated by the Yogasutras (q.v.) in whict
volved in the production of beautiful or useful lower states of mind are presumed to be the sell
objects. As 'a branch of knowledge art is dis- or purusa. K.F.L.
tinguished both from theoretical science and Asomatic: (Gr. a -f soma, body, Disembodied)
from practical wisdom) as a process of produc- The condition of a mind after separation from
tion it is contrasted with nature. C.K.M. its body. L.W.
In its narrower meaning, the fine arts and Assent: The act of the intellect adhering to a
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 25

truth because of the evidence of the terms} a often conjoined into the unity of a perception,
proof of the reason (medium rationale) \ or the e.g. the bell which I saw a moment ago and
command of the will. H.G. the sound which I now hear, while, on the other
Assertion: Frege introduced the assertion sign, hand, an idea may in certain cases be contempo-
in 1879, as a means of indicating the difference raneous with the sensation or idea by which it
between asserting a proposition as true and is revived. The dual application of the term
merely naming a proposition (e.g., in order to association to both natural and acquired asso-
make an assertion about it, that it has such ciation was made by J. Locke: "Some of our
and such consequences, or the like). Thus, with ideas," says Locke "have a natural correspond-
an appropriate expression A, the notation HA ence or connection with one another Besides
would be used to make the assertion, "The un- this there is another connection of ideas wholly
like magnetic poles attract one another," while owing to chance or custom." Essay Concerning
the notation A would correspond rather to Human Understanding (1690) Bk. II, ch. 33.
the noun clause, "that the unlike magnetic poles The usage of later authors, however, tends to re-
attract one another."
Later Frege adopted the strict the term association to acquired connec-

usage that prepositional expressions (as noun
clauses) are proper names of truth values and
modified his use of the assertion sign accord-
ingly, employing say (or A
A) to denote the
truth value thereof that the unlike magnetic
poles attract one another and A to express
the assertion that this truth value
The assertion sign was adopted by Russell,
and by Whitehead and Russell in Puncipia
Mathematicat in approximately Frege's sense of
1879, and it is from this source that it has
come into general use. Some recent writers
omit the assertion sign, either as understood, or
on the ground that the Frege-Russell distinc-
tion between asserted and unasserted proposi-
tions is illusory. Others use the assertion sign
in asyntactical sense, to express that a for-
mula a theorem of a logistic system (q. v.)$
is
this usage differs from that of Frege and Russell
in that the latter requires the assertion sign to
be followed by a formula denoting a proposi-
tion ((b) above) and to adopt some other ex-
pression such as cohesion, correlation (see
Correlation, Sensory) or combination (see Com-
bination) to designate natural connections ((a)
above).
I A further distinction is drawn between two
is truth. subvarieties of acquired association viz. spontane-
ous or free association, in which the revival of
associated ideas proceeds by chance and voluntary
or controlled association in which it is guided by
a dominant purpose. The distinction between
chance and voluntary association was also recog-
nized by Locke: "The strong combination of
ideas not allied by nature makes itself either
voluntarily or by chance." (Ibid.)
The phenomenon of acquired association has
long been recognized by philosophers. Plato
cites examples of association by contiguity and
similarity (Phaedo, 73-6) and Aristotle in his
treatment of memory enumerated similarity, con-
trast and contiguity as relations which mediate

tion, or a truth value, while the former requires recollection. (De Mem. II 6-11 (451 b)).
it to be followed by the syntactical name of Hobbes was aware of the psychological im-
also
such a fo mula. portance of the phenomenon of association tnd
In the prepositional calculus, the name laic anticipated Locke's distinction between chance
of assertion is given to the theorem: and controlled association (Leviathan (1651),
/>=[[# = ?]
=>
*] ch. 3} Human Nature (1650), ch. 4). But it
(The associated form of inference from A and was Locke who introduced the phrase "associa-
A => B to B is, however, known rather as tion of ideas" and gave impetus to modern
modus ponens.) A. C. association psychology.
The
of declaring a proposition
act Following Locke, the phenomenon of associa-
or prepositional form to be true (or to be neces- tion was investigated by G. Berkeley and D.
sarily true, or to be a part of a system). Hume both of whom were especially concerned
Assertoric: See Modality. with the relations mediating association. Berke-
Assertoric knowledge: Knowledge of what is ley enumerates similarity, causality and co-
actual or occurring, as opposed to knowledge of existence or contiguity (Theory of Vision Vin-
what might occur or is capable of occurring, or dicated (1733), 39)} Hume resemblance, con-
of what must occur opposed to" problematic
5 tiguity in time or place and cause or effect

knowledge and apodictic knowledge. A.C.B. (Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

Association: (Lat. ad +
ocius, companion) The (1748), 3} Treatise on Human Nature
psychological phenomenon of connection or (1739), Bk. I, Pt. I, 4). English associa-
union between different items in consciousness. tionism is further developed by D. Hartley,
The term has been applied to two distinct types Observations on Man' (174-9), esp. Prop. XII,
of connection: (a) the natural or original con- J. Mill, Analysis of the Phenomena of the
nection between sensations which together con- Human Mind (1829), esp. Ch. 3) A. Bain,
stitute a single perception and (b) the acquired The Senses and the Intellect
(1855)} J. S. Mill,
connection whereby one sensation or idea tends Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Phi-
to another idea. The first type of
reinstate losophy (1865). Continental exponents of as-
connection has sometimes been called simultane- sociation psychology are B. de Condillac
.

ous association and the second type successive (Essai sur I'origines de connaissances humaines)
association, but this terminology it misleading (1746)} Traite de sensations (1754), J. F. Her-
since successively apprehended sensations are bart Lehrbuch der Psychologie (1816). L.W.
26 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Association, Laws The psychological laws in
of: proposition. The motive for an assumption may
accordance with which association takes place. be (but need not necessarily be) a belief in the
The classical enumeration of the laws of asso- truth, or possible truth, of the proposition
ciation is contained in Aristotle's De Memoria assumed} or the motive may be an attempt to
proposition by reductio ad absurdum
et Reminisce ntia, II, 4S1, b 18-20 which lists refute the
similarity, contrast and contiguity as the meth- The word assumption has also sometimes
(q. v.).
ods of reviving memories. Hume (A Treatise been used as a synonym of axiom- or postulate
on Human Nature, Part I, 4 and An Enquiry (see the article Mathematics). A.C.
Concerning Human Understanding, 3) slightly Astika: (Skr.) "Orthodox" one acknowledging
i

revised the Aristotelian list by enumerating as the the authority of the Veda (q.v.). K.F.L.
sole principles of association, resemblance, con- Astikaya: (Skr.) Bodily or extended substance.
tiguity in time or place and causality contrast j In Jaina philosophy only time is not (anasti, the
was considered by Hume, "a mixture of causa- negation of asti) like a body (kaya), hence non-
tion and resemblance." L.W. extended. K.F.L.
Associationism : A theory of the structure and Ataraxia: The Epicurean doctrine that the com-
organization of mind which assrrts that, (a) plete peace of mind was a pleasurable state of
every mental state is resolvable into simple, dis- equilibrium. See Epicureanism. E.H.
crete components (See Mind-Stuff Theory, Psy- Atheism: (Gr. a, no} theos, god) Two uses of
chological Atomism) and (b) the whole of the the term: (a) The belief that there is no God.
mental life is explicable by the combination and (b) Some philosophers have been called "atheis-
recombination of these elemental states in con- tic" because they have not held to a belief in a
formity with the laws of association of ideas. personal God. Atheism in this sense means "not
(See Association > Laws of). Hume (Treatise on theistic."
Human Nature, 1739) and Hartley (Observa- The former meaning of the term is a literal
tions on Man, 1749) may be considered the rendering. The latter meaning is a less rigor-
founders of associationism of which James Mill, ous use of the term although widely current in
J. S. Mill and A. Bain are later exponents. L.W. the history of thought. V.F.
Associationist Psychology: See Associationism. Atman: (Skr.) Self, soul, ego, or I. Variously
L.W. conceived in Indian philosophy, atomistically (cf.
Associative law: Any law of the form, anu), monadically, etherially, as the hypothetical
x o (y o a) rz (x o y) o z, carrier of karma (q.v.), identical with the divine
where o is a dyadic operation (function) and (cf. ay am dtmd brahma; tat tvatn ast) or differ-
* o y is the result of applying the operation to ent from yet dependent on it, or as a metaphysi-
* and y (the value of the function for the argu- cal entity to be dissolved at death and reunited
ments x and y). Instead of the sign of equality, with the world ground. As the latter it is de-
there may also appear the sign of the bicondi- fined as "smaller than the small" (anor aniydn)
tional (in the prepositional calculus), or of or "greater than the great" (mahato mahiydn),
other relations having properties similar to i.e., magnitudeless as well as infinitely great.

equality in the discipline in question. K.F.L.

In arithmetic there are two associative laws, Atomism: (a) Ac contrasted with synechism, the
of addition and of multiplication' view that there are discrete irreducible elements
x + (y + .) = (x + y) + . of finite spatial or temporal span. E.g., the
* X (y X = ) (* X >) X *. atomic doctrine of Democritus that the real
Associative laws of addition and of multiplica- world consists of qualitatively similar atoms of
tion hold also in the theory of real numbers, diverse shapes. Lucretius, De Natura Rerum.
the theory of complex numbers, and various See Epicurus. Cf. K. Lasswitz, Gesch. d.
other mathematical disciplines. Atomismus.
In the prepositional calculus there are the (b) As contrasted with the view that certain
four following associative laws (two dually re- elements are necessarily connected, or even re-
lated pairs): lated at all, the doctrine that some entities are
[/> v [q v r]] E= [O v ?] v r]. only contingently related or are completely in-
[*[r]] S COM- dependent. In Russell (Scientific Method in
[*+[? + ']] S Up + *] + r}. Philosophy), Logical Atomism is the view that

[p = [q 3 r]]
= [[P S 7] ~ r]. relations are external and that some true propo-
Also four corresponding laws in the algebra of sitions are without simpler constituents in a
classes. given system, such propositions are "basic" with
As regards exclusive disjunction in the prepo- respect to that system. In political philosophy,
sitional calculus, the- caution should be noted atomism is syn. of particularism.
that, although p -f- q is the exclusive disjunc- (c) As contrasted with the view that certain
tion of p and q, and although -f- obeys an as- entities are analyzable, the doctrine that some
sociative law, nevertheless [p -f- q] -f- r is not entities are ultimately simple. E.g., Russell's doc-
the exclusive disjunction of the three proposi- trine that there are certain simple, unanalysable
tions p) q, r
but is rather, "Either all three or atomic propositions of which other propositions
one and one only of p, q, r." A. C. are constituted by compounding or generaliza-
Assumption: A proposition which is taken or tion. C.A.B.
posed in order to draw inferences from it 5 or A consistent atomistic theory of nature or
the act of 00 taking, posing, or assuming a even of bodily substances is hardly found in
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
medieval texts with the exception of William of or that which expresses the nature of a thing}
Conchea' Philotophia mundi and the Mutakal- or that without which a thing is unthinkable. Ai
lexnins, a Moslem school of atomists.
R.A. such, it implies necessarily a relation to some
Atomism, psychological: See Psychological substance of which it is an aspect or conception.
Atomism. But it
it does not exiit
cannot be a substance, as
Atonement Religious act of expressing- conscious-
:
by itself. transcendental attribute* are those
The
it a being:
ness of one's sins, penitence, reconciliation, giv- which belong to a being because it
a the true and
ing satisfaction. Specifically, theological there are three of them, the one,
doctrine meaning' the reconciliation between God the good, each adding something positive
to the
and man who had sinned against God, hence hat been and
idea of being. The word attribute
given offense to Him. This was effected through still is used more readily,
with various implica-
the Incarnation of Christ, the Son of God, His In the 17th cen-
tions, by substantial systems.
sufferings and death on the cross, who conse- it denoted the actual mani-
tury, for example,
the Saviour and Redeemer of the re-
quently is
festations of substance. [Thus, Deacartei
human race. This voluntary death and vicarious as the two ulti-
garded extension and thought
sacrifice constituted a full for the attribute* of reality,
reparation mate, simple and original
sins of humanity and satisfied the debt to divine else being modifications of
them. With
all
justice, thusmaking it again possible for men to Spinoza, extension
and thought became the only
attain eternal happiness in heaven. JJ.R. in a
known attributes of Deity, each expressing
Attention: (Lat. ad +
tendere, to stretch) The definite manner, though not exclusively,
the in-
substance. The
concentration of the mind upon selected portions finite essence of God as the only
after Hume
of the field of consciousness thereby conferring change in the meaning of substance
upon the selected items, a peculiar vividness and and Kant is best illustrated by this quotation
from Whitehead: "We diverge from
The field of attention may be divided Descartes
clarity.
into two parts: by holding that what
he has described as pri-
the
(a) the focus of attention, where attributes of physical bodies, are really
the degree
mary
of concentration of attention is maximal and forms of internal relationships
between actual
(b) the fringe of attention, where the degree occasions and within actual occasions" (Process
of
of attention gradually diminishes to zero at the and Reality, p. 471).] The use of the notion
still favoured by contem-
periphery. attribute, however, is
Attention considered with respect to its gene- Boodm speaks of
porary thinkers, Thus, John
sis, isof two types: the five attributes of reality, namely: Energy
involuntary, passive or spontaneous atten-
Time
(a) (source of activity), Space (extension),
which governed by external rtimulus or awareness), and
tion, is
(change), Consciousness (active
internal association of ideas and Form (organization, structure).
(b) voluntary, controlled or directed atten- 3. In theodicy, the term
attribute is used for
tion which is guided by the subject's purpose or the essential characteristics of God.
The divtne
intention. L.W. attributes are the various aspects
under which
a separate
Attention, Span of: The number of simultaneous God is viewed, each being treated as

or successive items or groups of items which can is free from composition,

we
perfection. As God
be attended to by a 'jingle act of thought} the know him only in a mediate and synthetic way
number varies from individual to individual and through his attributes.
for thesame individual at different times. L.W. 4. In logic, an attribute is that which ts predi-
Attitude: (Ger. Einttellung) In Husserl: A cated anything, that which
of is affirmed or
habitual positing or neutral intending by the denied of the subject of a proposition.
More
ego. The natural attitude: the fundamental pro-
specifically, an
attribute may be either a category
individual
todoocic attitude of the transcendental ego to- or a predicablej but it cannot be an
wards the world. The natural attitude underlies materially. Attributes may be essential or acci-
and enters into all other posi tings except those dental, necessary or contingent.
is an adjective, or
of the transcendental ego in the transcendental- 5. In grammar, an attribute

phenomenological attitude. D.C. an adjectival clause, or an equivalent adjunct

Attribute: 1. Commonly, what is proper to a referred to a subject
expressing a characteristic
a verb. Because, of this reference,
an
thing (Latin, ai-tribuere } to assign, to ascribe, through
to bestow). Loosely assimilated to a quality, a attribute also be a substantive, as a class-
may
name, but not a proper name
at a rule. An
property, a characteristic, a peculiarity, a circum-
never a verb, thus differing from
a
stance, a state, a category, a mode or an acci- attribute is

dent, though there are differences among all predicate which may consist of a verb often
these terms. For example, a quality is an in- wordi.
having some object or qualifying
6. In natural history, what is permanent
and
herent property (the qualities of matter), while
essential in a species, an individual
or In its
an attribute refers to the actual properties of a
thing only indirectly known (the attributes of parts.
it denotes the way (tuch
ai
God). Another difference between attribute and 7. In psychology,

quality isthat the former refers to the character- intensity, duration or quality) in which tenia-
from one
istics of an infinite being, while the latter is tions, feelings or imaget can differ

used for the characteristics of a finite being. another.

2. In metaphysics, an attribute is what is in- 8. In artr an attribute is a material or a con-

dispensable to a* spiritual or material substance) ventional symbol, distinction or decoration.

T.G.
28
Attributes, differentiating: Are
not essential to a substance, which if they belong
to any complex substance as a whole belong also
to its parts. (Broad). H.H.
Auctoritas: St. Augustine distinguishes divine
from human authority: Auctoritas autem partim
divina est, partim humana: sed vera, firma,
summa ea est quae divina nominator. Thus God
is the highest authority.
vantageous on authority: Auctoritati
to rely
credere magnum compendium est, nullus labor.
Both authority and reason impel us to learn:
Nulli autem dubium est gemino pondere nos
impelli ad discendum, auctoritatis atque rationis.
Aufklarung: In general, this German word
1.
and its English equivalent Enlightenment denote
the self-emancipation of man from mere author-
ity, prejudice, convention and tradition, with an
insistence on freer thinking about problems un-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
special, simple, Augustinianism: The thought of St. Augustine of
Hippo, and of his followers. Born in 354 at
Tagaste in N. Africa, A. studied rhetoric in
Carthage, taught that subject there and in Rome
and Milan. Attracted successively to Manichean-
ism, Scepticism, and Neo-Platonism, A. eventu-
ally found intellectual and moral peace with his
conversion to Christianity in his thirty-fourth
It is distinctly ad- year.Returning to Africa, he established numer-
ous monasteries, became a priest in 391, Bishop
of Hippo in 395. Augustine wrote much) On
Free Choice, Confessions, Literal Commentary on
Genesis, On the Trinity, and City of God,
are his most noted works. He died in 430.
J.J.R. St. Augustine's characteristic method, an in-
ward empiricism which hat little in common with
later variants, starts from things without, pro-
ceeds within to the self, and moves upwards to
God. These three poles of the Augustinian dia-
by his doctrine of moderate
lectic are polarized

critically referred to these other agencies. Ac-
cording to Kant's famous definition "Enlighten-
ment is the liberation of man from his self-
caused state of minority, which is the incapacity
of using one's understanding without the direc-
tion of another. This state of minority is caused
when its source lies not in the lack o under-
illuminism. An ontological illumination is re-
quired to explain the metaphysical structure of
things. The truth of judgment demands a noetic
illumination. A
moral illumination is necessary
in the order of willing; and so, too, an illumi-
nation of art in the aesthetic order. Other il-
luminations which transcend the natural order '

standing, but in the lack of determination and do not come within the scope of philosophy;
courage to use it without the assistance of an- they provide the wisdoms of theology and mys-
other" (Was ist Aufklarung? 1784). ticism. Every being is illuminated ontologically
2. In itshistorical perspective, the Aufklarung by number, form, unity and its derivatives, and
refers to the cultural atmosphere and contribu- order. A
thing is what it is, in so far as it is
tions of the 18th century, especially in Germany, more or less flooded by the light of these onto-
France and England [which affected also Ameri- logical constituents.
can thought with B. Franklin, T. Paine and the Sensation is necessary in order to know mate-
leaders of the Revolution]. It crystallized ten- rial substances.There is certainly an action of
dencies emphasized by the Renaissance, and the external object on the body and a cor-
quickened by modern scepticism and empiricism, responding passion of the body, but, as the soul
and by the great scientific discoveries of the is superior to the body and can suffer nothing
17th century. This movement, which was repre- from its inferior, sensation must be an action,
sented by men of varying tendencies, gave an not a passion, of the soul. Sensation takes place
impetus to general learning, a more popular only when the observing soul, dynamically on
philosophy, empirical, science, scriptural criticism, guard throughout the body, is vitally attentive
social and political thought. to the changes suffered by the body. However,
3. More especially, the word Aufklarung is an adequate basis for the knowledge of intel-
applied to the German contributions to 18th lectual truth is not found in sensation alone. In
century culture. In philosophy, its principal rep- order to know, for example, that a body is
resentatives are G. E. Lessing (1729-81) who multiple, the idea of unity must be present al-
believed in free speech and in a methodical ready, otherwise its multiplicity could not
be
criticism of religion, without being a free- recognized. If numbers are not drawn in by
thinker) H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768) who ex- the bodily senses which perceive only the con-
pounded a naturalistic philosophy and denied the tingent and passing, is the mind the source of
supernatural origin of Christianity; Moses Men- the unchanging and necessary truth of numbers?
delssohn (1729-86) who endeavoured to mitigate The mind of man is also contingent and muta-
prejudices and developed a popular common- ble,and cannot give what it does not possess.
sense philosophyj Chr. Wolff (1679-1754), As ideas are not innate, nor remembered from
J. A. (1739-1809) who followed
Eberhard a previous existence of the soul, they can be
the Leibnizian and criticized un-
rationalism accounted for only by an immutable source
successfully Kant and Fichtej and J. G. higher than the soul. In so far as man is en-
Herder (1744-1803) who was best at an dowed with an intellect, he is a being naturally
interpreter of others, but whose intuitional sug- illuminated by God, 'Who may be compared to
gestions have borne fruit in the organic correla- an intelligible sun. The human intellect does
tion of the sciences, and in questions of language not create the laws of thought} it finds them
in relation to human nature and to national and submits to them. The immediate intuition
character. The works of Kant and Goethe mark of these normative rules does not carry any con-
the culmination of the German Enlightenment. tent, thus any trace of ontologism is avoided.
Cf. J. G. Hibben, Philosophy of the Enlighten- Things have forms because they have numbers,
r.c.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 29

and they have being in so far as they possess cartes, considered the lower animals to be pure
form. The sufficient explanation of all formable, automata (Letter to Henry More, 1649) and
and hence changeable, things is an immutable man a machine controlled by a rational soul
and eternal form which is unrestricted in time {Treatise on Man). Pure automatism for man
and space. The forms or ideas of all things as well as animals is advocated by La Mettrie

actually existing in the world are in the things
themselves (as rations; seminales) and in the
Divine Mind (as rationes aeternae). Nothing
could exist without unity, for to be is no other
than to be one. There is a unity proper to each
level of being, a unity of the material indi-
vidual and species, of the soul, and of that union
of souls in the love of the same good, which
union constitutes the city. Order, also, is onto-
logically imbibed by all beings. To tend to
(Man, a Machine, 1748). During the Nine-
teenth century, automatism, combined with epi-
phenomenalism, was advanced by Hodgson, Hux-
ley and Clifford. (Cf, W. James, The Principles
of Psychology, Vol. I, ch. V.) Behaviorism, of
the extreme sort, is the most recent version of
automatism (See Behaviorism).
(b) In psychology. Psychological automatism
is the performance of apparently purposeful ac-
tions, like automatic writing without the super-

being is to tend to order) order secures being, intendence of the conscious mind. L. C. Rosen-
disorder leads to non-being. Order is the dis- field, From Beast Machine to Man Machine,
tribution which and unequal
allots things equal N. Y., 1941. L.W.
each to its own and integrates an ensemble
place Automatism, Conscious: The automatism of
of parts in accordance with an end. Hence, Hodgson, Huxley, and Clifford which considers
peace is defined as the tranquillity of order. man a machine to which mind or consciousness
Just as things have their being from their forms, is superadded ; the mind of man is, however,
the order of parts, and their numerical relations, causally ineffectual. See Automatism} Epiphe-
so too their beauty is not something superadded, nomenalism. L. W.
but the shining out of all their intelligible co- Autonomy: (Gr. autonomia, independence) Free-
ingredients.
dom consisting in self-determination and inde-
S. Aurelii
Augustini, Opera Omnia, Migne, pendence of all external constraint. See Freedom.
PL 32-47} (a critical edition of some works will Kant defines autonomy of the will as subjection
be found in the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasti- of the will to its own law, the categorical im-

corum Latinorum, Vienna). Gilson, E., Introd. perative, in contrast to heteronomy, its subjection
a V etude de to a law or end outside the rational will.
Augustin, (Paris, 1931) contains
s.

very good bibliography up to 1927, pp. 309-331. (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of
Pope, H., St. Augustine of Hippo, (London, Morals, 2.) L.W.
1937). Chapman, E., St. Augustine's Philos. of Autonomy of ethics: A doctrine, usually
Beauty, (N. Y., 1939). Figgis, J. N., The Po- propounded by intuitionists, that ethics is not a
litical Aspects of St. Augustine's "City of God", part of, and cannot be derived from, either meta-
(London, 1921). E.G. physics or any of the natural or social sciences.
Authenticity: In a general sense, genuineness, See Intuitioniim, Metaphysical ethics, Naturalistic
truth according to its title. It involves some- ethics.- W.K.F.
times a direct and personal characteristic (White- Autonomy (in Kant's ethics) The
of the will:
head speaks of "authentic feelings"). freedom of the rational will to legislate to it-
This word also refers to problems of funda- self, which constitutes the basis for the autonomy

mental criticism involving title, tradition, author- of the moral law. P.A.S.
ship and evidence. These problems are vital in Autonymy: In the terminology introduced by
theology, and basic in scholarship with regard Carnap, a word (phrase, symbol, expression) is

to the interpretation of texts and doctrines. autonomous if it is used as a name for itself

T.G. for thegeometric shape, sound, which it etc.

Authoritarianism: That theory of knowledge exemplifies, or for the word as a historical and
which maintains that the truth of any proposi- grammatical unit. Autonymy is thus the same as
tion is determined by the fact of its having been the Scholastic suppositio materialis (q. v.), al-

asserted by a certain esteemed individual or though the viewpoint is different. A. C.

group of individuals. Cf. H. Newman, Gram-
Autotelic: (from Gr. autos, self, and telos, end)
mar Said of any absorbing activity engaged in for its
of Assentt C. S. Peirce, "Fixation of Be-
lief," in Chance, Love and Logic, ed. M. R.
own sake (cf. German Selbstztoeck), such as
higher mathematics, chess, etc. In aesthetics, ap-
Cphen.^.C.*. to and play which lack any
creative art
Autistic thinking: Absorption in fanciful or wish- plied
ful thinking without proper control by objective conscious reference to the accomplishment of
or factual material) day dreaming) undisciplined something useful. In the view of some, it may
A.C.B. constitute something beneficent in itself of which
imagination.
Automaton Theory: Theory that a living or- the person following his art impulse (q.v.) or

ganism may be considered a mere machine. See playing is unaware, thus approaching a heterotelic
Automatism. (q.v.) conception. K.F.L.
Automatism: (Gr. automates, self-moving) (a) Avenarius, Richard: (1843-1896) German phi-
In metaphysics: Theory that animal and human losopher who expressed his thought in an elaborate
organisms are automata, that it to say, are ma- and novel terminology in the hope of construct-
chines governed by the laws of physics and ing a symbolic language for philosophy, like that
mechanics. Automatism, as propounded by Des- of mathematics the consequence of his Spinoza
30 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
studies. As the most influential apostle of pure Averroes: (Mohammed ibn Roshd) Known to
experience, the positivistic motive reaches in him the Scholastics as The Commentator, and men-
an extreme position. Insisting on the biologic and tioned as the author of il gran comments by
economic function of thought, he thought the Dante (Inf. IV. 68) he was born 1 126 at Cordova
true method of science is to cure speculative ex- (Spain), studied theology, law, medicine, mathe-
cesses by a return to pure experience devoid of matics, and philosophy, became after having been
all assumptions. Philosophy is the scientific effort judge in Sevilla and Cordova, physician to the
to exclude from knowledge all ideas not included khalifah Jaqub Jusuf, and charged with writing
in the given. Its task is to expel all extraneous a commentary on the works of Aristotle. Al-
elements in the given. His uncritical use of the mansur, Jusuf's successor, deprived him of his
category of the given and the nominalistic view place because of accusations of unorthodoxy. He
that logical relations are created rather than died 1198 in Morocco. Averroes is not so much
discovered by thought, leads him to banish not an original philosopher as the author of a
only animism but also the categories, sub-
all of minute commentary on the whole works of
stance, causality, etc., as inventions of the mind. Aristotle. His procedure was imitated later by
Explaining the evolution and devolution of the Aquinas. In his interpretation of Aristotelian
problematization and deproblematization of metaphysics Averroes teaches the coeternity of a
numerous and aiming to give the natural
ideas, universe created ex nlhilo. This doctrine formed
history of problems, Avenarius sought to show together with the notion of a numerical unity
physiologically, psychologically and historically of the active intellect became one of the con-
under what conditions they emerge, are chal- troversial points in the discussions between the
lenged and are solved. He hypothesized a Sys- followers of Albert-Thomas and the Latin Aver-
tem C t a bodily and central nervous system upon roists. Averroes assumed that man possesses
which consciousness depends. R-values are the only a disposition for receiving the intellect
stimuli received from the world of objects. E- coming from without; he identifies this dis-
values are the statements of
experience. The position with the possible intellect which thus
brain changes that continually oscillate about an is not truly intellectual by nature. The notion
ideal point of balance are termed Vitalerhaltungs- of one intellect common to all men does
away
maximum. The E-valucs are differentiated into with the doctrine of personal immortality. An-
elements, to which the sense-perceptions or the other doctrine which probably was
emphasized
content of experience belong, and characters, to more by the Latin Averroists (and by the ad-
v^hich belongs everything which psychology de- versaries among Averroes'
contemporaries) is
scribes as feelings and attitudes. Avenarius de- the famous statement about "two-fold truth",
scribes in symbolic form a series of states from viz. that a
propositionmay be theologically true
balance to balance, termed vital series, all de- and philosophically false and vice versa. Aver-
scribing a series of changes in System C. In- roes taught that religion
expresses the (higher)
equalities in the vital balance give rise to vital philosophical truth by means of religious
differences. According to his theory there are two imagery j the "two-truth notion" came appar-
vital series. It assumes a series of brain changes ently into the Latin text through a misinterpreta-
because parallel series of conscious states can be tion on the part of the translators. The works of
observed. The independent vital series are physi- Averroes were one of the main sources of medi-
cal, and the dependent vital series are psychologi- eval Aristotelianism, before and even after the
cal. The two together are practically covariants. original texts had been translated. The inter-
In the case of a process as a dependent vital pretation the Latin Averroists found in their
series three stages can be noted: first, the texts of the "Commentator"
appear- spread in spite of
ance of the problem, expressed as opposition and condemnation. See Averroism,
strain, rest-
lessness, desire, fear, doubt, pain, repentance, Latin. Averroee, Opera, Venetiis, 1553. M.
delusion; the second, the continued effort and Horten, Die Metaphysik des Averroes, 1912. P.
struggle to solve the problem and finally, the
>, Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant et I'Averroistne
appearance of the solution, characterized by abat- Latin, 2d ed., Louvaln, 1911. R.A.
ing anxiety, a feeling of triumph and enjoyment. Averroism, Latin : The commentaries on Aristotle
Corresponding to these three stages of the written by Averroes (Ibn Roshd) in the 12th
dependent series are three stages of the inde- century became known
to the Western scholars
pendent series: the appearance of the vital differ- in translations by Michael Scottus, Hermannus
ence and a departure from balance in the System Alemannus, and others at the beginning of the
C, the continuance with an approximate vital 13th century. Many works of Aristotle were also
difference, and lastly, the reduction of the vital known firstuch translations from Arabian
by
difference to zero, the return to stability. By texts, though there existed translations from the
making room for dependent and independent ex- Greek originals at the same time (Grabmann).
periences, he showed that physics regards experi- The Averroistic interpretation of Aristotle was
ence as independent of the experiencing indi- held to be the true one by many} but already
vidual, and psychology views experience as de- Albert the Great pointed out several notions
pendent uoon the individual. He greatly in- which he felt to be incompatible with the prin-
fluenced Mach and James (q.v.). See Avenarius, ciples of Christian philosophy, although he relied
Empirio-criticisrh, Experience, pure. Main works: for the rest on the "Commentator" and
appar-
Kritik det reinen Erfahrung; Der menschliche ently hardly used any other text. Aquinas, basing
his studies mostly on a translation from the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 31

Greek texts, procured for him by William of Joh. Wittman, Die Stellung des hi. Thomas von
criticized the Averroistic interpreta- Aquino xu Avencebrol, ibid. 1900. Vol. III.
Moerbecke,
tion inmany points. But the teachings of the R.A.
Commentator became the foundation for a whole Avicenna: (Abu AH al Hosain ibn Abdallah ibn
school of philosophers, represented first by the Sina) Born 980 in the country of Bocchara,
Faculty of Arts at Paris. The most prominent of began to write in young years, left more than
these scholars was Siger of Brabant. The philoso- 100 works, taught in Ispahan, was physician to
phy of these men was condemned on March 7th, several Persian princes, and died at Hamadan in
1277 by Stephen Tempier, Bishop of Paris, after 1037. His fame
as physician survived his influ-
a first condemnation of Aristotelianism in 1210 ence as philosopher in the Occident. His medi-
had gradually come to be neglected. The 219 cal works were printed still in the 17th century.
theses condemned in 1277, however, contain also His philosophy is contained in 18 vols. of a
some of Aquinas which later were generally rec- comprehensive encyclopedia, following the tradi-
tion of Al Kindi and Al Farabi. Logic, Physics,
ognized as orthodox. The Averroistic proposi-
tions which aroused the criticism of the ecclesiastic Mathematics and Metaphysics form the parts of
authorities and which had been opposed with this work. His philosophy is Aristotelian with
noticeable Neo-Platonic influences. His doctrine
great energy by Albert and Thomas refer mostly
to the following points: The co-eternity of the of the universal existing ante res in God, in
created word, the numerical identity of the rebus as the universal nature of the particulars,
in all the so-called two- and post res in the human mind by way of
intellect men,
fold-truth that a abstraction became a fundamental thesis of medi-
theory stating proposition
be true theo- eval Aristotelianism. He sharply distinguished be-
may philosophically although
false. the first tween the logical and the ontological universal,
logically Regarding point
Thomas argued that there is no philosophical denying to the latter the true nature of form
proof, either for the co-eternity or against it}
in the composite. The
principle of individuation
creation is an article of faith. The unity of in- is'
matter, eternally existent. Latin translations
tellect was rejected as incompatible with the true attributed to Avicenna the notion that existence

notion of person and with personal immortality. is an accident to essence (see e.g. Guilelmus
It is doubtful whether Averroes himself held the Pansiensis, De Universo). The process adopted
two-truths theory it was, however, taught by the
>
by Avicenna was one of paraphrasis of the
Latin Averroists who, notwithstanding the oppo- Aristotelian texts with many original thoughts
sition of the Chuich and the Thomistic philoso- interspersed. His works were translated into
and soon domi- Latin by Dominicus Gundissalinus (Gondisalvi)
phers, gained a great influence
nated many in with the assistance of Avendeath ibn Daud. This
universities, especially Italy.
Thomas and weie convinced that
his followers translationstarted, when it became more gen-

they interpreted Aristotle correctly and that the erally known, the "revival of Aristotle" at the
Averroists were wrong} one has, however, to end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th
admit that certain in Aristotle century. Albert the Great and Aquinas -pro-
passages
allow for the Averroistic interpretation, especially fessed,notwithstanding their critical attitude, a
in regard to the theory of intellect. great admiration for Avicenna whom the Arabs
Lit.: P. Mandtfnnet, Siger de Brabant et used to call the "third Aristotle". But in the
VAverroisme Latin au Xllle Siecle, 2d. ed. Lou- Orient, Avicenna's influence declined soon,
overcome the
vain, 1911} M. Grabmann, Forschungen tiber by opposition, of the orthodox
die lateinischen Aristotelesitbersetzungen des theologians. Avicenna, Opera, Venetiis, 1495}
XIII. Jahrhunderts, Munster 1916 (Beitr. z. 1508j 1546. M. Horten, Das Buck der Gene-
Gesch. Phil. d. MA. Vol. 17, H. 5-6). R.A. sung der Seele, eine philosophische Enzyklopaedie
Avesta: See Zendavesta. Avicenna* S-, XIII. Teil: Die Metaphysik. Halle
a. S. 1907-1909. R. de Vaux, Notes et textes
Avicebron: (or Avencebrol, Salomon ibn Ga-
sur I'Avicennisme
birol) The first Jewish philosopher in Spain, Latin, Bibl. Thomiste XX
born in Malaga 1020, died about 1070, poet, Paris, 1934. R.A.

philosopher, and moralist. His main work, Fons Avidya: (Skr.) Nescience 5 ignorance} the state of
became influential and was much quoted mind unaware of true reality} an equivalent of
vitae,
by the Scholastics. It has been preserved only in tnayd (q.v.)> also a condition of pure awareness
the Latin translation by Gundissalinus. His doc- prior to the universal process of evolution
trine of a spiritual substance individualizing also through gradual differentiation into the elements
and factors of K.F.L.
the pure spirits or separate forms was opposed knowledge.
by Aquinas already in his first treatise De ente, Avyakta: (Skr.) "Unmanifest", descriptive of or
but found favor with the medieval Augustinians standing for brahman (q.v.) in one of its or
also later in the 13th century. He also teaches "his" aspects, symbolizing the superabundance of
the creative principle, or
the necessity of a mediator between God and designating the condi-
the created world} such a mediator he finds in tion of the universe not yet become phenomenal
the Divine Will proceeding from God and cre- (<*/, unborn). K.F.L.
ating, conserving, and moving the world. His Awareness: Consciousness considered in its aspect
cosmogony shows a definitely Neo-Platonic of act} an act of attentive awareness such as the
shade and assumes a series of emanations. Cl. sensing of a color patch or the feeling of pain
Baeumker, Avencebrolis Fons vitae. Beitr. z. is distinguished from the content attended to,
Gesch. d. Philo. d. MA. 1892-1895, Vol. I. the sensed color patch, the felt pain. The psy-
32 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
chological theory of intentional act was advanced
by F. Brentano (Psychologie vom empirischen
Standpunkte) and received its epistemological de-
velopment by Meinong, Husserl, Moore, Laird
and Broad. See Intentionalism. L.W.
Axiological: (Ger. axiologisch} In Husserl: Of
or pertaining to value or theory of value
(the latter term understood as including- dis-
value and value-indifference). D.C.
Axiological ethics: Any ethics which makes the
theory of obligation entirely dependent on the
theory of value, by making the determination
the Tightness of an action wholly dependent
a consideration of the value or goodness
something, e.g. the action itself, its motive,
itsconsequences, actual or probable. Opposed to
deontological ethics. See also ideological ethics.
W.K.F.
AxiologlC Realism: In metaphysics, theory that
value as well as logic, qualities as well as rela-
tions, have their being and exist external to
the mind and independently of it. Applicable
to the philosophy of many though not all
realists in the history of philosophy, from Plato
to G. E. Moore, A. N. Whitehead, and N.
Hartmann. J.K.F.
Axiology: (Gr. axios, of like value, worthy, and
logos, account, reason, theory). Modern term for
theory of value (the desired, preferred, good),
investigation of its nature, criteria, and meta-
physical status. Had its rise in Plato's
of Forms or Ideas (Idea of the Good); was
developed in Aristotle'sOrganon, Ethics, Poetics,
and Metaphysics (Book Lambda). Stoics and
Epicureans investigated the summum bonum.
Christian philosophy (St. Thomas) built on Ari-
stotle's identification of highest value with final
cause in God as "a living being, eternal, most
good."
In modern thought, apart from scholasticism
and the system of Spinoza (Ethica, 1677), in
which values are metaphysically grounded, the
various values were investigated in separate
sciences, until Kant's Critiques, in which the rela-
tions of knowledge to moral, aesthetic, and re-
ligious values were examined. In Hegel's idealism,
morality, art, religion, and philosophy were made
the capstone of his dialectic. R. H. Lotze "sought
in that which should be the ground of that which
is" (Metaphysik, 1879). Nineteenth century
evolutionary theory, anthropology, sociology,
psychology, and economics subjected value ex-
perience to empirical analysis, and stress was
again laid on the diversity and relativity of
value phenomena rather than on their unity and
metaphysical nature. F. Nietzsche's Also Sprach
Zarathustra (1883-1885) and Zur Genealogie
der Moral (1887) aroused new interest in the
nature of value. F. Brentano, Vom Ursprung
sittlicher Erkenntnis (1889), identified value
with love.
In the twentieth century the term axiology
was apparently first applied by Paul Lapie (Logi-
que de la volonte, 1902) and E. von Hartmann
(Grundriss der Axiologie, 1908). Stimulated by
Ehrenfels (System dtr Wertthtorie, 1897), Mei-
nong (Psychologiseh-ethische Unttrsuchungcn *ur
Werttheorie, 1 894-1 S99), and Simmel (Philoso-
phic des Geldes t 1900). W. M. Urban wrote the
first systematic treatment of axiology in English
(Valuation, 1909), phenomenological in method
under J. M. Baldwin's influence. Meanwhile H.
Munsterberg wrote a neo-Fichtean system of
values (The Eternal Values, 1909).
Among important recent contributions are: B.
Bosanquet, The Principle of Individuality and
Value (1912), a free reinterpretation of Hege-
lianismj W. R. Sorley, Moral Values and the
of Idea of God (1918, 1921), defending a meta-
on physical theismj S. Alexander, Space, Time, and
of Deity (1920), realistic and naturalistic; N.
or Hartmann, Ethik (1926), detailed analysis of
types and laws of value? R. B. Perry's magnum
opus, General Theory of Value (1926), "its
meaning and basic principles construed in terms
of interest"} and J. Laird, The Idea of Value
(1929), noteworthy for historical exposition. A
naturalistic theory has been developed by J.
Dewey (Theory of Valuation, 1939), for which
"not only is science itself a value ... but it is
the supreme means of the valid determination of
all valuations." A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth
and Logic (1936) expounds the view of logical
positivism that value is "nonsense." J. Hessen,
Wertphilo sophie (1937), provides an account of
recent German axiology from a neo-scholastic
standpoint.
theory The problems of axiology fall into four main
groups, namely, those concerning (1) the nature
of value, (2) the types of value, (3) the criterion
of value, and (4) the metaphysical status of
value.
(1) The nature of value experience. Is valua-
tion fulfillment of desire (voluntarism: Spinoza,
Ehrenfels), pleasure (hedonism: Epicurus, Bent-
ham, Meinong), interest (Perry), preference
(Martineau), pure rational will (formalism.
Stoics, Kant, Royce), apprehension of tertiary
qualities (Santayana), synoptic experience of the
unity of personality (personalism: T. H. Green,
Bowne), any experience that contributes to en-
hanced life (evolutionism: Nietzsche), or "the
relation of things as means to the end or con-
sequence actually reached" (pragmatism, instru-
mentalism: Dewey). (2) The types of value.
Most axiologists distinguish between intrinsic
(consummatory) values (ends), prized for their
own sake, and instrumental (contributory) values
(means), which are causes (whether as economic
goods or as natural events) of intrinsic values.
Most intrinsic values are also instrumental to
further value
experience} some instrumental
values are neutral or even disvaluable intrinsical-
ly. Commonly recognized as intrinsic values are
the (morally) good, the true, the beautiful, and
the holy. Values of play, of work, of association,
and of bodily well-being are also acknowledged.
Some Montague) question whether the
(with
true properly to be regarded as a value, since
is
some truth is disvaluable, some neutral; but love
of truth, regardless of consequences, seems to
establish the value of truth. There is disagreement
about whether the holy (religious value) is a
unique type (Schleiermacher, Otto), or an atti-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 33

tude toward other values (Kant, Hdffding), or Rickert), of human experience of value to reality
a combination of the two (Hocking). There is independent of man (Hegel, Pringle-Pattison,
also disagreement about whether the variety of Spaulding)? There are three main answers: (i)
values is irreducible (pluralism) or whether all subjectivism (value is entirely dependent on and
values are rationally related in a hierarchy or relative to human experience of it: so most
system (Plato, Hegel, Sorley), in which values hedonists, naturalists, logical
positivists)} (ii)

interpenetrate or coalesce into a total experi-
ence. (3) The criterion of value. The standard
for testing values is influenced by both psy-
chological and logical theory. Hedonists find
the standard in the quantity of pleasure derived
objectivism (values are logical essences or sub-
sistences, independent of their being known, yet
with no existential status or action in reality))
(iii) metaphysical objectivism (values or norms
or ideals are integral, objective, and active con-

by the individual (Aristippus) or society (Bent- stituents of the metaphysically real: so theists,
ham). Intuitionists appeal to an ultimate in- absolutists, and certain realists and naturalists
sight into (Martineau, Brentano).
preference like S. Alexander and Wieman). .$..
Some idealists recognize an objective system of Axiom: See Mathematics.
rational norms or ideals as criterion (Plato, Axiomatic method : That method of constructing
Windelband), while others lay more stress on a deductive system consisting of deducing by
rational wholeness and coherence (Hegel, Bosan- specified rules all statements of the system save
quet, Paton) or inclusiveness (T. H. Green). a given few from those given few, which are
Naturalists find biological survival or adjustment regarded as axioms or postulates of the system.
(Dewey) to be the standard. Despite differences, See Mathematics. C.A.B.
there is much in common in the results of the Ayam atma brahma: (Skr.) "This self is brah-
application of these criteria. (4) The meta- man", famous
quotation from BrhadSranyaka
physical status of value. What is the relation Upanishad 2.5.19, one of many alluding to the
of values to the facts investigated by natural central theme of the Upanishads, i.e., the identity
science (Koehler), of Sein to Sollen (Lotze, of the human and divine or cosmic. K.F.L.
 B
Babism: An initially persecuted and later schis-
matizing religious creed founded in Persia prior
to the middle of the last century. International
in its appeal the number of its followers in-
creased largely in America. As a development
against orthodox Mohammedanism, the Babis
Bacon's theory of poetry also deserves con-
sideration. Whereas reason adapts the mind to
the nature of things, and science conquers nature
by obeying her, poetry submits the shows of
things to the desires of the mind and overcomes
nature by allowing us in our imagination to

deny the finality of any revelation. The sect's escape from her. Out of present experience and
former extreme pantheistic tendency and meta- the record of history, poetry builds its narrative

physical hairsplittings have been effectively sub-

and dramatic fancies. But it may also, in al-
ordinated to more pronounced ethical impera- legory and parable, picture symbolically scientific
tives. H.H. and philosophic truths and religious mysteries
Background: (Ger. Hintergrund) In Husserl- in which case it creates mythologies. Fr. Bacon,
The nexus of objects and objective sense ex- Works, 7 vols., 1857, ed. Spedding and Ellis.
plicitlyposited along with any object} the B.A.G.F.
objective horizon. The perceptual background Bacon, Roger: (1214-1294) Franciscan. He
is part of the entire background in this broad
recognized the significance of the deductive ap-
sense. See Horizon. D.C. plication of principles and the necessity for ex-
Bacon, Francis: (1561-1626) Inspired by the perimental verification of the results. He was
Renaissance, and in revolt against Aristotelian- keenly interested in mathematics. His most fa-
ism and Scholastic Logic, proposed an inductive mous work was called Opus ntajus, a veritable
method of discovering truth, founded upon em- encyclopaedia of the sciences of his day. L.E.D,
pirical observation, analysis of
data,observed
Baconian Method: The inductive method as ad-
inference resulting in hypotheses, and verifica-
vanced by Francis Bacon (1561-1626). The pur-
tion of hypotheses through continued observation
pose of the method was to enable man to attain
and experiment. The impediments to the use of
vnastery over nature in order to exploit it for his
this method are preconceptions and prejudices,
benefit. The mind should pass from particular
grouped by Bacon under four headings, or Idols- facts to a more general knowledge of forms, or
(a) The Idols of the Tribe, or racially "wish-
generalized physical properties. They are laws
ful," anthropocentric ways of thinking, e.g. ex-
according to which phenomena actually proceed.
planation by final causes, (b) The Idols of the He demanded an exhaustive enumeration of posi-
cave or personal prejudices, (c) The Idols of
tive instances of occurrences of phenomena, the
theMarket fclace, or failure to define terms, (d)
recording of comparative instances, in which an
The Idols of the Theatre, or blind acceptance
event manifests itself with greater or lesser in-
of tradition and authority.
tensity, and the additional registration of nega-
The use of the inductive method prescribes
tive instances. Then experiments should test the
the extraction of the essential from the non-
observations. See Mill's Methods. JJ.R.
essential and the discovery of the underlying
structure or form of the phenomena under in- Bahya, ben Joseph Ibn Padudah: (c. 1050)
vestigation, through (a) comparison of instances, Philosopher and ethicist. The title of his work,
The Duties of the Heart (Heb. Hobot ha-leba-
(b) study of concomitant variations, and (c)
exclusion of negative instances. bot), indicates its purpose, i.e., to teach ethical

This process is facilitated by the choice of conduct. First part demonstrates pure concep-

prerogative, or, if possible, of solitary, instances

tion of God, unity and attributes. His basic prin-
in which the investigated data are comparatively ciple of ethics is thankfulness to God, for His
isolated and unadulterated. But under the most creating the wonderful world-, the goal of re-
favorable conditions inquiry must be a cautious, ligious ethical conduct is love of God. second A
and re- work ascribed to him Torot ha-Nefesh,
is the
laborious, plodding, step by step affair,
sults can never be more than provisional because i.e., Doctrines of the Soul, which deals primarily

of the possibility of undiscovered negative in- with the soul, but also with other subjects and
stances. evinces a strong neo-Platonic strain. See Jewish

Bacon had no system of his own, but openly Philosophy. M.W.

preferred the lonians, Atomists and Epicureans. Bahyanumeya- vada : (Skr.) A HinaySna Bud-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 35

dhist theory (vada), otherwise known as Sautr5n- philosophers as completely verifiable, while others
tika, based upon a realist epistemology. It as- believe that all factual sentences can be con-
sumes the reality and independence of mind and firmed only to some degree. See Scientific
object, which latter is inferred (anumeya) as Empiricist?. R.C.
being outside (bdhya) consciousness and appre- Bathmism: A name given by the Lamarckian
hended only when the sensory apparatus func- E. D. Cope to a special force, or growth-force,
tions and certain physical conditions are fulfilled. which he regarded as existing and as exhibiting
K.F.L. itself in the growth of organic beings. W.F.K.
Bahyapratyaksa-vada : (Skr.) A Hinayana Bud- Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb: (1714-1762)
dhist theory (vdda) of realism, otherwise known A German thinker of the pre-Kantian period
as Vaibhasika. It holds that objects exist outside and disciple of Christian Wolff whose encyclo-
(bdhya) the mind and consciousness, but that paedic work he tried to continue. Among his
they must be directly (pratyaksa) and not in- works the best known is Aesthetic* in which he
ferentially (cf. Bahydnumeya-vada) known. analyzes the problem of beauty regarded by him
K.F.L. as recognition of perfection by means of the
Banausic: (Gr. banausos) Vulgar} illiberal} ap- senses. The name of aesthetics, as the philosophy

plied particularly to arts, sciences, or occupations of beauty and art, was introduced by him for the
that deform the body or the mind. G.R.M. first time. R.B.W.
Baptism: A rite of dedication and induction of Becoming: (Medieval) Any kind of change is

an individual into a circle of social and religious actualization of

potencies. It is often called,

privilege. The rite is usually of a ceremonious following Aristotle, a "movement", because mov-
nature with pledges given (by proxy in the case ing is a striking instance of becoming, and be-
of infants), prayers and accompanied by some cause the thing "moves" from the lower level
visible sign (such as water, symbol of purifica- of potentiality to the higher of actuality. Actual-

tion, or wine, honey, oil or blood) sealing the ization is achieved only by a factor which it act
bond of fellowship. In its earliest form the rite itoelf. The act is in this sense prior to the
probably symbolized not only an initiation but potency not only in nature but also in time.
the magical removal of some tabu or demon See Being, Dialectic, Hegel. R.A.
possession (exorcism see Demonology), the Begging the Question: The logical fallacy of
legitimacy of birth, the inheritance of privilege, assuming in the premisses of an argument the
the assumption of a name and the expectancy very conclusion which is to be proved. See
of responsibility. In Christian circles the rite Petitio principii. G.R.M.
has assumed the status of a sacrament, the supei- Begriffsgef iihl : (Ger. Literally, conceptual feel-
natural rebirth into the Divine Kingdom. Vari- ing) The faculty of eliciting feelings, images
ous forms include sprinkling with water, immer- or recollections associated with concepts or cap-
sion, or the laying on of hands. In some able of being substituted for them. Sometimes,
Christian circles it is considered less a mystical the affective tone peculiar to a given concept.
rite and more a sign of a covenant of salvation O.F.AT.
and consecration to the higher life. V.F. Behaviorism : The contemporary American School
Baroque: A style o* art, produced especially in of psychology which abandons the concepts of
the XVIIth centufV> considered by classicists a mind and consciousness, and
both animal restricts

type of false art; by romantictists a product of
magic imagination. L.V.
Earth, Karl: (1886-) Swiss theologian, widely
influential among current
God, he holds, is wholly other than man, not
apprehensible by man's reason nor attainable by
human endeavor. Christianity is a revealed and
supernatural religion. Man must trust God's
plan of salvation or be doomed to utter ruin.
God is the sole judge and his judgments are
and human psychology to the study of behavior.
The impetus to behaviorism was given by the
Russian physiologist, Pavlov, who through his
social pessimists. investigation of the salivary reflex in dogs, de-
veloped the concept of the conditioned reflex.
See Conditioned Reflex. The founder of Ameri-
can behaviorism is J. B. Watson, who formu-
lated a program for psychology excluding all
reference to consciousness and confining itself to
behavioral responses. (Behavior: An Introduc-

beyond man's attainments. The Bafthian position
is called "crisis theology" (crisis, the Greek word
for judgment) and "dialectical theology" (be-
cause of the emphasis upon the contradiction
between God and this world). For a summary
of Earth's position see The Knowledge of God
and the Service of God (1939). V.F.
Basic Sentences, Protocol Sentences: Sentences
formulating the result of observations or percep-
tions or other experiences, furnishing the basis
for empirical verification or confirmation (see
Verification). Some philosophers take sentences
concerning observable properties of physical
tion to Comparative Psychology, 1914.) Think-
ing and emotion are interpreted at implicit be-
havior: the former is implicit or subvocal speech)
the latter implicit visceral reaction!. distinc- A
tion has been drawn between methodological and
dogmatic behaviorism: the former ignores "con-
sciousness" and advocates, in psychology, the ob-
jective study of behaviour} the latter denies
consciousness entirely, and is, therefore, a form
of metaphysical materialism. See Automatism.
L.W.
Being, hierarchy of: (Scholastic) The Neo-
Platonic conception of a hierarchy of "emana-

things as basic sentences, others take sentences tions" from the "One" persisted throughout the

concerning sense-data or perceptions. The sen- Middle-Ages, though it was given another mean-
tences of the latter kind are regarded by some ing. Emanationlsm properly speaking is incom-
36 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
patible with the notion of creation. But the process which, at its foundation, arises out of
medieval writers agree that there is a hierarchy, Being containing Non-Being within itself and
comprising within the visible world inanimate leading, factually and logically, to their syn-
beings, plants, animals, and rational beings, thetic union in Becoming. R.B.W.
men; above them rank the immaterial sub- In scholasticism: The English term trans-
stances (subsistent forms, angels) and finally lates three Latin terms which, in Scholasticism,
God Who, however, is so far distant from any have different significations. Ens as a noun is the
created being that he cannot be placed in line. most general and most simple predicate; as a
Whatever is asserted of God is so only "analogi- participle it is an essential predicate only in re-
cally" (see Analogy). There is analogy also be- gard to God in Whom existence and essence are
tween the grades of created beings; their various one, or Whose essence implies existence. Esse,
levels are not ofone kind, no transition exists though used sometimes in a wider sense, usually
between inanimate and animate bodies, or be- means existence which is defined as the actus
tween material and spiritual substances. Though essendi, or the reality of some essence. Esse
the original meaning has been abandoned, the quid or essentia designates the specific nature of
term "emanation" is still used, even by Aquinas. some being or thing, the "being thus" or the
R.A. quiddity. Ens is divided into real and mental
Being: In early Greek philosophy is opposed being (ens rationis). Though the latter also has
either to Becoming, or to Non-
change, or properties, it is said to have essence only in an
Being. According to Parmenides and his dis- improper way. Another division is into actual
ciples of the
Eleatic School, everything real and potential being. Ens is called the first of
belongs the category of Being, as the only
to all concepts, in respect to ontology and to psy-
possible object of thought. Essentially the same chology; the latter statement of Aristotle ap-
reasoning applies also to material reality in pears to be confirmedby developmental psy-
which there is nothing but Being, one and chology. Thing (res) and ens are synonymous;
continuous, all-inclusive and eternal. Con- a res may be a res extra mentem or only rationis.
sequently, he concluded, the coming into being Every ens is: something, i.e. has quiddity, one,
and passing away constituting change are il- true, corresponds to its proper nature, and
i.e.

lusory, for that which is-not cannot be, and good. These terms, naming aspects which are
that which ft cannot cease to be. In rejecting only virtually distinct from ens, are said to be
Eleatic monism, the materialists (Leukippus, convertible with ens and with each other. Ens
Democritus) asserted that the existence is an analogical term, i.e. it is not predicated in
very
of things, their corporeal nature, insofar as it the same manner of every kind of being, accord-
is subject to change and motion, necessarily ing to Aquinas. In Scotism ens, however, is
presupposes the other than Being, that is, considered as univocal and as applying to God
in the same sense as to created beings, though
Non-Being, or Void. Thus, instead of regard-
ing space as a continuum, they saw in it the they be distinguished as entia ab olio from God,
the ens a se. See Act, Analogy, Potency, Trans-
very source of discontinuity and the foundation
of the atomic structure of substance. Plato cendental*. R.A .

accepted the first part of Parmenides' argument, In Spinoza's sense, that which "is", pre-
namely, that thought as distinct
referring to gminently and without qualification the
from matter, and maintained that, though Be- source and ultimate subject of all distinc-

coming is indeed an apparent characteristic of tions. Being is thus divided into that which is
everything sensory, the true and ultimate reality, "in itself" and "in another" (Ethica, I, Ax. 4j
that of Ideas, is changeless and of the nature see also "substance" and 'mode", Defs. 3 and
of Being. Aristotle achieved a compromise 5). Being is likewise distinguished with respect

among all these notions and contended that, to "finite" and "infinite", under the qualifica-

though Being, as the essence of things, is tions of absolute and relative; thus God is de-
eternal in itself, nevertheless it manifests itself fined (Ibid, I, Def. 6) as "Being absolutely
only in change, insofar as "ideas" or "forms"
infinite". Spinoza seems to suggest that the
have no existence independent of, or tran- term, Being, has, in the strict sense, no proper
scendent to, the reality of things and minds. definition (Cog. Met., I, 1). The main char-
The medieval thinkers never revived the con- acteristics of Spinoza's treatment of this notion
are (i) his clear-headed separation of the prob-
troversy as a whole, though at times they
lems of existence and Being, and (ii) his care-
emphasized Being, as in Neo-Platonism, at
times Becoming, as in Aristotelianism. With fully worked out distinction between ens reale
the rise of new interest in nature, beginning and ens rationis by means of which Spinoza
with F. Bacon, Hobbes and Locke, the problem endeavors to justify the ontological argument

grew once more in importance, especially to (q.v.) in the face of criticism by the later

the of empiricism.
Scholastics. W.S.W.
opponents
rationalists,
Spinoza regarded change at a characteristic of Belief: Acquiescence in the existence of objects
modal existence and assumed in this connection (e.g. external things, other minds, God, etc.) or
a position distantly similar to that of Plato. assent to the truth of propositions (e.g. scientific,

Hegel formed a new answer to the problem moral, aesthetic, or metaphysical statements).
in declaring that nature, striving to exclude The belief in objects is frequently immediate

contradictions, has to "negate" them: Being and and non-inferential) the belief in proposition!
Non-Being are "moments" of the same cosmic usually rests on reflection and inference.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 37

mysticism (Boehme). He is a trenchant

critic
Theories of belief may be classified as:

(a) affective of systems as diverse as Communism and Thom-

(b) intellectual and istic Scholasticism. His most noted works are:
(c) volitional. Smyisl Istorii (The Meaning of History), Ber-
Hume's theory is a feeling of vivid-
that belief lin, 1923) Novoye Srednevyekovye (transl. as
ness attaching to a perception or memory but The End of Our Time, N. Y., 1933), Berlin,
not to a fiction of the imagination is an- example 1924) Freedom and the Spirit, N. Y., 193S.
of (a) (An Enquiry Concerning Human Under- V. J. Bourke, "The Gnosticism of N. Berdyaev",
standing, 5 Pt. II). Bain and James Mill rep- Thought, XI (1936), 409-22. VJ3.
resent (b), while W.James represents (c). (The Bergson, Henri: (1859-1941) As the most in-
Will to Believe, Etc., 1896). L.W. fluential of modern temporaliitic, anti-mechanis-
In scholasticism means either faith or opinion.
: tic and spiritualistic metaphysics, Bergson's
Opinion is a statement lacking evidence. Faith writings (Les donnees immediates de ^ex-
is a supernatural act, due to God's grace, re-
perience, Matiere et Memoire, devolution cria-
ferring to things reason finds beyond its capacity trice,Le rire, Introduction a la metaphysique,
of proof, though not contradicting its principles. Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion,
Statements capable of experimental proof are etc.) were aimed against the dogmatic and
not objects of faith. R.A. crude naturalism, and the mechanistic and static
Beneke, Fried rich Eduard: (1798-1854) A materialism which reached their heights in the
German thinker of Kantian tradition modified second half of the 'last century.
by empiricism) his doctrines exerted considerable The vital center of his doctrine is duration
influence upon the psychology and educational rather than intuition. Duration is the original
theory of the 19th century. Main works: .thing in itself, the "substance" of philosophic
it is a specific
Erfahrungseelenlehre, 1820) Physik d. Sitten, tradition, except that to Bergson
1822} Metaphysik, 1822j Logik als Kunstlehre experience, revealed to the individual in immedi-
des Denkens, 1832) Lehrbuch d. Psych, als ate experience. All things, consciousness, matter,
Naturwiss., 1833$ Erxiehungslehre, 1833j time, evolution, motion and the absolute are so
Pragmatische Psychol., nSO.R.B.W. many specialized tensional forms of duration.
Benthamism: Name The phrase elan vital sums up his vitalistic doc-
conventionally given to the
utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) trine that there is an. original life force, that it

who regarded the greatest happiness of the great- has passed from one generation of living beings
est number as the supreme ethical goal of human to another by way of developed individual or-

society and individual men. The morality of
men's actions is determined experimentally by
their utility, which means the power of an action
to produce happiness. The moral quality of any
action is estimated in accordance with its pleas-
ant or painful consequences ; for the sovereign
masters of man are pleasure, the only good, and
ganisms, these being the connecting links be-
tween the generations. Bergson regards as
pseudo-evolutionary the effort to arrange all liv-
ing beings into a grand uni-linear series. True
or creative evolution is pluri-dimensional, i.e.,
the life force is conserved in every line of evolu-
tion of living beings, causing all of the numer-

pain, the only evil. Ethics becomes a matter of ous varieties of living forms, creating all new
calculation of coiftequences. J.J.R. species, and dividing itself more and more as

Bentham, Jeremy: (1748-1832) Founder of the it advances. As the

impetus is not moving
vital

English Utilitarian School of Philosophy. In towards any fixed, predetermined and final end,
law, he is remembered for his criticism of Black- an immanent teleology is within the life force
stone's views of the English constitution, for his itself.

examination of the legal fiction and for his
treatment of the subject of evidence. In politics,
he is most famous for his analysis of the prin-
ciples of legislation and, in ethics, for his great-
est happiness principle. See Hedonic Calculus;
Utilitarianism. J. Bentham,'/V/>/#x of Morals
and Legislation, 1789) Outline of a New Sys-
tem of Logic, 1827j Deontology. L.E.D.
Berdyayev, Nikolai Alexandrovitch: (1874-)
It is an error to see Bergson's philosophy as
being exclusively an intuitive critique of knowl-
edge. Such a mode of exposition constructs of
his thought a mere "ism", a species of intui-
tionalism. Bergson was the first to try to give
the term intuition a scientific basis. He
transformed and regrounded the static pat-
tern of the older forms of intuitionism by giv-
a biogenetic and psychologically dynamic
ing it

Is a contemporary Russian teacher and writer on justification. Intuitive knowledge is not limited
the philosophy of religion. He was born in to the favored few, is not a private, purely so-
but a general property of all
Kiev, exiled to Vologda' when twenty-five j lipsistic affair) is

threatened with expulsion from the Russian thinking minds. Bergson's conception of intui-
Orthodox Church in 1917, he became professor tion represents a fusion of scientific objectivity
of philosophy at the Univ. of Moscow. In 1922, and artistic directness.
he was expelled from the Soviet Union and he Moreover, it is a serious wide-spread error of
went to Berlin, where he established his Academy interpretation to consider Bergson as an anti-
of Religious Philosophy. He moved his school intellectualist. His alleged anti-intellectualism
to Paris and established a Russian review called should be considered as a protest against taking
Putj (The Way). His thought resembles that the static materialism and spatialtzation of New-
of the Christian Gnostics (see Gnosticism), and ton's conception of nature as being anything but
it owes a good deal to German idealism and a high abstraction, as a rejection of the ex-
38 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
treme claims of mechanistic and materialistic things (formae nativae) are distinct from the
science, as an effort of reason to transcend itself exemplary Ideas in the Divine Mind. A treatise,
in harmony with the greatest idealistic think- De expositione Porphyrii has been attributed to
ers, as an effort of thinkers to stress the dynamic him. He is not to be confused with Bernard
nature of reality, and as a persistent criticism Silvestris of Chartres, nor with Bernard of
of reason, a continuation of the Kantian tradi- Tours. .
Gilson, "Le platonisme de Bernard
tion. His much misread conception of intuition de C.", Revue Neoscolastique, XXV (1923)
may be viewed as akin to Spinoza's intuitio, 5-19. F./.5.
to wit: a completion rather than a rejection of Best: The principle of the best of all possible
reason. H.H. worlds: according to Leibniz, the world which
Berkeleianism : The idealistic system of philosophy exists is the best possible because God's wisdom
of George Berkeley (168M753). He thought makes him know, his goodness makes him
that admission of an extramental world
the choose, and his power always makes him produce
would lead to materialism and atheism. Hence the best possible. See Optimism. JM.
he denied the existence of an independent world Bewusstsein Ueberhaupt: German expression
of bodies by teaching that their existence con- meaning "consciousness in general" that is, con-
sists in perceptibility, esse is percipi. The cause sciousness conceived as a real entity over and
of the ideas in our mind is not a material sub- above individual conscious centers. See Conscious-
stance, but spiritual being, God, who
a com- ness. L.W.
municates them to us in a certain order which Bhagavad Glta: (Skr. the song, glta, of the
we call thelaws of nature. Things cannot exist Blessed A
famed philosophic epic poem,
One)
unless perceived by some mind. Berkeley ac- widely respected in India and elsewhere, repre-
knowledged the existence of other or
spirits, senting Krishna embodied as a charioteer impart-
minds, besides that of God. J.J.R.
ing to the King Arjuna, who is unwilling to

Berkeley, George: (1685-1753) Pluralistic ideal- fight his kinsmen in battle, comprehension of the
ist, reflecting upon the spatial attributes of dis- mysteries of existence, clearly indicating the rela-
tance, size, and situation, possessed, according tionship between morality and absolute ethical
to Locke, by external objects in themselves apart values in a Hindu philosophy of action. K.F.L.
from our perception of them, concluded that Bhakti: (Skr. division, share) Fervent, loving de-
the discrepancy between the visual and the tac- votion to the object of \ contemplation or the
tual aspects of these attributes robbed them of divine being itself, the almost universally recog-
all objective validity and reduced them to the nized feeling approach to the highest reality, in
status of secondary qualities existing only in contrast to vidyd (s.v.) or jndna (s.v.), sanc-
and for consciousness. Moreover, the very term tioned by Indian philosophy and productive of a
"matter," like all other "universals," is found voluminous literature in which the names of
upon analysis to mean and stand for nothing Ramananda, Vallabha, Nanak, Caitanya, and
but complexes of experienced qualities. Indeed, Tutsi Das are outstanding. It is distinguished as
"existence" except as presence to consciousness, apard (lower) and pard (higher) bhakti, the
is meaningless. Hence, nothing can be said to former theistic piety, the latter phHosophic medi-
exist except minds (spirits) and mental content tation on the unmanifest brahman (cf. avyakta).
(ideas). Esse =
percipi or percipere. K.F.L.
At the same time, Berkeley, trusting the ex- Bhasya: (Skr. speaking) Commentary.
ternal reference of individual experience, argues Bheda: (Skr. different, distinct) Non-identity, par-
from it the existence of a universal mind ticularly in reference to any philosophy of dual-
(God) of which the content is the so-called ism which recognizes the existence of two op-
objective world. Finite spirits are created by posed principles or admits of a difference
God, and their several experiences represent his between the essentially human and the Abso-
communication to them, so far as they are able lute. K.F.L.
to receive of his divine experience. Reality,
it, Bhedabheda: (Skr. "different [yet] not different")
then, is composed of spirits and ideas. The A philosophy admitting the point of view oi
physical aspects of the world are reducible to bheda (s.v.) as well as that of abheda (s.v.)
mental phenomena. Matter is non-existent. depending on the mental and spiritual attain-
G. Berkeley, Treatise on the Principles of ment of the person. K.F.L.
Human Knowledge, 1710) Three Dialogues Be- Bhuta: (Skr. become) The "has-become", or th<
tween Hylas and Philonous, 1713) De Motu ultimate element or concrete thing as it hai
(critique of Newtonian mechanics), 1720} Al- evolved from the abstract, metaphysical unitj
ciphron, or the Minute Philosophert 1733) Siris, through a process of infinite particularization
1744.B.A.S.F. and limitation. K.F.L.
Bernard of Chart res: (died c. 1130) Has been Bhutatathata: (Skr.) "So-ness", the highest stat<
called the "most perfect Platonist of his century" conceivable by the Vijnina-vida (s.v.) in whicf
by John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, IV, 35, PL there is a complete coincidentia oppositorum 01
199, 938) but he is known only at second-hand beings and elements of knowledge; directlj
now. He taught in the school of Chartres from identified with the Adi-Buddha, or eternal Bud
1114-1119 and was Chancellor of Chartres from dha, in Vajray3na Buddhism. K.F.L.
1119-1124. According to John of Salisbury, Biconditional: The sentential connective t "i s
Bernard was an extreme realist in his theory of and only if." See Logic, formal, 1. A.C.
universals, but he taught that the forms of Binomio forces: Extra-biological forces, whicl
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 39
influence the direction and development of life. it No known theory can
definitely precludes
I.e. all physical, chemical and other environ-
meet allobjections and prove entirely satisfac-
mental forces which affect living organisms in the problem still persist*. See Descartes,
tory $
any way. The second law of thermo-dynamics Spinoza, Mind. /./.JR.
seems to vitalists to be an exception to their
Bochme, Jacob: (1575-1624) Of Gdrlitz, was
view that the creative life-force evolves up-
the son of poor parents, received little formal
wards. Nonetheless natural selection is influ-
schooling, studied the Bible and the works of
enced by binomic forces. C.K.D. Pastor Valentine Weigel assiduously. He be-
Biometry: The scientific application of mathe- came noted as a mystic, theosophist, and in his
matical analysis to
biological problems (also own day was called the German Philosopher.
spoken of as "mathematical biophysics" and He wrote in German but his early followers
"mathematical biochemistry"). The journal Bio- translated his works into Latin, hence it is
metrika was founded by Karl Pearson. .Af . WM difficult to distinguish his personal thought from
Blondel, Maurice: (1861-1939) A philosopher in that of his school. He thought that all reality,
the French "spiritualistic" tradition of Maine de even God, contains a duality of good and evil,
Biran and Boutroux, who in his essays L'Action the universe and man's soul are nothing with-
(1893), and Le Prods de ^Intelligence (1922), out God. He has had much influence on later
defended an activistic psychology and meta- German and Russian mysticism. Chief works:
physics. "The Philosophy of Action" is a volun- Aurora, Vierig Fragen von der Seele, Mys-
taristic and philosophy which, as re-
idealistic terium Magnum, Von der Gnadentaahl. Deus-
gards the of thought to action, seeks
relation sen, /. Boehme, iiber sein Leben u. seine Philos.
to compromise between the extremes of intellec- (Kiel, 1897).--F./.*.
tualism and pragmatism. In his more recent Boethius: (470-525) An influential commentator
book La Pensee (1934), Blondel retains his on Aristotle and Cicero, who, in his own think-
earlier philosophy combined with a
activistic ing, reflected a strong influence of Neo-Platon-
stronger theological emphasis. L.W. is'm andAugustinianism. De Consolation*
Qodhisattva: (Skr.) "Existence (sattva) in a state Philosophiae (Migne PL, 63-4, 69-70). R. B.W.
of wisdom (bodhi)", such as was attained by Bernard:
Bolzano, (1781-1848) Austrian phi-
Gautama Buddha (s.v.)} a Buddhist wise and
losopher and mathematician. Professor of the
holy man. K.F.L. philosophy of religion at Prague, 1805-1820, he
Body: Here taken in the sense of the material was compelled to resign in the latter year be-
organized substance of man contrasted with the cause of his rationalistic tendencies in theol-
mind, soul or spirit, thus leading to the problem ogy, and afterwards held no academic position.
of the relation between body and mind, one of His Wissenschajtslehre of 1837, while it is to
the most persistent problems of philosophy. Of be classed as a work on traditional logic, con-
course, any theory which identifies body and tains significant anticipations of many ideas
mind, or does not adequately distinguish the psy- which have since become important in symbolic
chical from the physical, regarding both as as- logic and mathematics. In his posthumously
pects of the same reality, eludes some of the published Paradoxien des Unendlichen (1851)
difficulties presented by the problem. Both mate- he appears as a forerunner in some respects of
rialism and idealism may be considered as forms Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers. A. C.
of psycho-physical monism. Materialism by deny- W. Dubislav, Bolzano als Vorlaufer der mathe-
matischen Loeik, Philosophisches Jahrbuch der
ing the real existence of spiritual beings and
Gorres-Gesellschaft, vol. 44 (1931), pp. 448-456.
reducing mind to a function of matter, and H. Scholz, Die Wtssenschaftslehre Bolzanos, Ab-
spiritualism, or that species called idealism, which handlungen der Fries'schen Schule, n. s. vol. 6
regards bodies simply as contents of conscious- (1937), pp. 399-472.
ness, really evade the main issue. All those, Bonaventure, St.: (1221-1274) Was born at

however, who frankly acknowledge the empiri- Bagnorea, near Viterbo, and his name originally
cally given duality of mind and organism, are
was John of Fidanza. He joined the Fran-
ciscans in 1238, studied at the Univ. of Paris
obliged to struggle with the problem of the rela-
tion between them. The two most noted rival under Alexander of Hales, and took his licen-
theories attempting an answer are interactionism tiate in 1248. He taught theology in Paris for

and parallelism. The first considers both body
and mind as substantial beings, influencing each
other, hence causally related. The second holds that
physical processes and mental processes
each other without any interaction or interference
seven years and received his doctorate in 1257.
In this year he was made Superior-General of
his Order and he taught no more. His chief
accompany works are: Commentaria in IV L. Sententiarurn,
Itinerariutn mentis in Deunt, Quaestiones Dis-

whatsoever, consequently they cannot be causally putatae (Opera Omnia, ed. crit., 10 vol. Quar-
related. The Scholastics advance the doctrine of acchi, 1882-1902). His philosophy is Augus-
the human composite consisting of body and soul tinian, with some Aristotelian modifications in
united into one substance and nature, constitut- his theory of intellection and matter and form.

ing the human person or self, to whom all ac-
tions of which man is capable must be ascribed.
There can be no interaction, since there is but
one agent, formed of two component elements.
This theory, like interactionism, makes provision
for survival, even immortality, while parallelism
But his Divine Exemplarism, Illumination the-
ory, and tendency to stress the psychological
importance of the human will, derive from St.
Augustine. E. Gilson, La philosophie de S.
Bonaventure (Paris, 1924). VJ.B.
Boodin, John Elof: American philosopher born
40 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in Sweden in 1869 who emigrated in 1886 to world-process is tragic, witness the sin and
the United States. Studied at the Universities suffering and imperfection with which it is
of Colorado, Minnesota, Brown and especially fraught. But in the infinite tragedy, as well as
Harvard under Royce with whom he kept a in the tragedies composed by men, evil is con-

life-long friendship though he was opposed to tributory to the perfection of the whole, and,
his idealism. His works (Time and Reality) when seen and accepted as such by the finite
1904 Truth and Reality, 1912 A Realistic individual, not only loses its sting but produces
Universe, 1916 Cosmic Evolution, 1925 a "catharsis" of his attitude towards it, in which
Three Interpretations of the Universe, 1934 he cheerfully accepts it, battles with it, and
God, 1935 The Social Mind, 1940) form finds his triumph over in nobly
it enduring it.
practically a complete system. His philosophy This "catharsis," identifying him as it does with

takes the form of a cosmic idealism, though the meaning of the life of the Absolute, is his
he was interested for a time in certain aspects peace and his salvation. Main works: Logic,
of pragmatism. It grew gradually from his 1888; The Philosophical Theory of the State,
early studies when he developed a new concept 1899; Value and Destiny of the Individual,
of a real and non-serial time. The structure of 1913.B.A.G.F.
the cosmos is that of a hierarchy of fields, as Bourgeoisie: (Fr.) In its strict sense in the

exemplified in physics, in organisms, in con- theory of historical materialism (q.v.) the class
sciousness and in society. The interpenetration of urban, commercial, banking, manufacturing
of the mental fields makes possible human and shipping entrepreneurs which, at the close
knowledge and social intercourse. Reality as of the middle ages was strong enough, by virtue
such possesses five attributes: being (the dynamic of its command of developing technics, to chal-

stuff of all complexes, the active energy), time lenge the economic power of the predominantly
(the ground of change and transformation), rural and agricultural (manorial) feudal nobil-

space (which accounts for extension), conscious- ity, and to supplant the latter in point of eco-
ness (active awareness which lights up reality nomic and social leadership. J.M.S.
in spots; it becomes the self when conative Boutroux, E.: (1845-1921) Teacher of Bergson
tendencies cooperate as one active group), and and M. Blondel, is best known for his defense
form (the ground of organization and structure of radical contingency and indeterminacy in
which conditions selective direction). God is metaphysics. Influenced by French "spiritualism"
the spirit of the whole. T.G. stemming from Maine de Biran, Boutroux was
Boole, George: (1815-1864) English mathema- critical of the current psychological and socio-
tician. Professor of mathematics at Queen's logical treatment of religious experience. Main
College, Cork, 1849-1864. While he made works: Contingency of the Laws of Nature (tr.
contributions to other branches of mathematics, 1920); Philosophy and War (tr. 1916); Science
he is now remembered primarily as the founder et religion, 1908. L.W.
of the Nineteenth Century algebra of logic and Bowne, Borden Parker: (1847-1910) His influ-
through it of modern symbolic logic. His ence was not merely confined to the theological
Mathematical Analysis of Logic appeared in world of his religious communion as a teacher
1847 and the fuller Laws of Thought in 1854. of philosophy at Boston University. His phi-
A. C. losophy was conspicuous for the combination of
R. Harley, George Boole, P. R. S., The British theism with an idealistic view which he termed
Quarterly Review, vol. 44 (1866), pp. 141-181.
Anon., George Boole, Proceedings of the Royal
"Personalism" (q.v.). He mainly discussed is-
Society of London, vol. 1) (1867), Obituary no- sues of philosophy which had a bearing on re-
tices of fellows deceased, pp. vi-xi. P. E. B.
ligion, ethics, and epistemology. Main works:
Tourdain, George Boole, The Quarterly Journal of
Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 41 (1910), Metaphysics, 1882; Philosophy of Theism,
pp. 332-332. 1887; Theory of Thought and Knowledge,
Boolean algebra : See Logic, Formal, 7. 1897; Personalism, 1908; Kant and Spencer,
Bosanquet, Bernard: (1848-1923) Neo-Hegelian 1912. tfJ?.
idealist, regards Reality as a single individual Bradley, Francis Herbert: (1846-1924) Dia-
all-embracing, completely rational experience, lectician extraordinary of British philosophy,
combining universality and concreteness. It Bradley sought to purge contemporary thought
alone exists. All other particulars minds or of the extremely sensationalistic and utilitarian
things are only partially concrete, individual elements embodied in the tradition of empiri-
and real. The incidental, incomplete, dependent cism. Though owing much to Hegel, he early
and only partially existent character of finite repudiated the Hegelian system as such, and his
consciousness is shown by the reaching, seeking own variety of Absolute Idealism bases itself
character of all its activities, sense-perceptions, upon no scheme of categories. His brilliant attack
thought, moral action, and even aesthetic con- upon the inadequate assumptions of hedonistic
templation all of which indicate that self- ethics (Ethical Studies, 1877) was followed in
realization means self-abandonment to something 1883 by The Principles of Logic in which his
larger than the self. dialectic analysis was applied to the problems
This something larger is the cosmic drama, of inference and judgment. It was, how-
written, staged, and acted by the Absolute, who ever, his Appearance and Reality (1893) with
is artist and actor' as well as a rational intelli- its famous theory of "the degrees of truth"
gence, intent no less upon dramatic than upon which first disturbed the somnambulism of mod-
intelligible unity and self-expression. The ern metaphysics, and led Caird to remark upon
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 41

"the greatest thing since Kant". In later years, intended. Judgments may be self-evident and
Bradley's growing realization of ultimate diffi- thereby characterized as true and in an anal-
culties in his version of the coherence theory
ogous way love and hate may be characterized
led him to modify his doctrines in the direction as "right". It is on these characterizations that
'of a Platonic mysticism. See Essays on Truth a dogmatic theory of truth and value may be
and Reality, the second edition of the Logic based. In any mental experience the content is
Collected Essays, etc. W.S.W. merely a "physical phenomenon" (real or imagi-
Brahma: (Skr.) The creator or creative principle nary) intended to be referred toj what is
of the universe, main figure of the Hindu trinity psychic is merely the "act" of representing,
(see Trimurti). K.F.L. judging (viz. affirming or denying) and valuing
Brahma eva idam visvam: (i.e. loving or hating). Since such "acts" are
(Skr.) "Braliman,
indeed, is this famous passage of
world-all", evidently immaterial, the soul by which they are
Murjcjaka Upanishad 2.2.11, fore-shadowing the performed may be proved to be a purely spiritual
and imperishable substance and from these and
complete monism of Ankara's Vedinta (q.v.).
other considerations the existence, spirituality, as
K.F.L.
also the infinite wisdom, goodness and
Brahman, Brahma: (Skr.) The impersonal, pan- of God mayalso be demonstrated. It is most of
justice

theistic world-soul, the Absolute, union with all by his classification of psychic phenomena,
which is the highest goal of the Upanishads
his psychology of "acts" and "intentions" and
(q.v.)and Vedic (q.v.) thinking in general. It
by his doctrine concerning self-evident truths
isoccasionally identified with atman (q.v.) or and values that Brentano, who considered him-
made the exclusive reality (cf. brahtna eva idam
self an Aristotelian, exercised a profound influ-
visvam; sarvam khalv idam brahma), thus lay-
ence on subsequent German philosophers: not
ing the foundation for a deep mystic as well as
only on those who accepted his entire system
rational insight into the connaturalness of the
(such as A. Marty and C. Stumpf) but also
human and divine and an uncompromising
those who were somewhat more
monism which gave its impress to much of independent and
original and whom he influenced either directly
Hindu thinking. K.F.L.
(as A. Meinong and E. Husserl) or indirectly
Brahmana: (Skr.) One of several Vedic (s.v.)
(as M. Scheler and Nik. Hartmann). Main
dictums or treatises of a ritualistic and sacrificial
works: Psychologic des Aristoteles, 1867j Vom
character which prepared the way, sometimes Dasein Gottes, 1868} Psychologie vom em-
over an Aranyaka for the Upanishads
(q.v.), pirischen Standpunkt, 1874$ Vom Ur sprung
(q.v.) by incipient philosophic reflections. sittlichesErkenntnis, 1884; Ueber die Zukunft
K.F.L. der Philosophic, 1893; Die vier Pkasen der
Brahmanism: The predominant form of philo-
Philos., 1895. H.Go.
sophical, theological, and ethical speculation of
Broad, C. D.: (1887-) As a realistic critical
India, sponsored by the Brahman caste which thinker Broad takes over from the sciences the
traces doctrines back to the Vedas (q.v.) and
its
methods that are fruitful there, classifies the
Upanishads (q.v.) without ever having attained various propositions used in all the
sciences,
uniformity in regard to the main doctrines. and defines
f -K.F.L. _ beyond
basic scientific
he seeks to
concepts. In going
reach a total view
science,
Brahmasutras: (Skr.) An
aphoristic compilation of the world by bringing in the facts and
prin-
of Badarayana's, systematizing the philosophy of
ciples of aesthetic, religious, ethical and political
the Upanishads (q.v.). K.F.L. In
experience. trying to work out a much
Brain: According to Aristotle, it is a cooling more general method which attacks the problem
organ of the body. Early in the history of of the connection between mathematical con-
philosophy, it was regarded as closely connected cepts and sense-data better than the method of
with consciousness and with activities of the analysis in situ, he gives a simple exposition of
soul. Descartes contended that mind-body rela- the method of extensive
abstraction, which ap-
tions are centered in the pineal gland located plies the mutual relations of objects, first recog-
between the two hemispheres of the brain. nized in pure mathematics, to physics. More-
Cabanis, a sensualistic materialist, believed that over, a great deal can be learned from Broad
the brain produces consciousness in a manner on the relation of the principle of relativity to
similar to that in which the liver produces the measurement.
bile. Many have sought to identify it with the As an emergent materialist, he holds that
seat of the soul. Today consciousness is recog- everything happens by the blind combination of
nized to be a much more complex phenomenon the elements of matter or
energy, without any
controlled by the entire nervous system, rather guidance, excluding the assumption of a non-
than by any part of the brain, and influenced material component. While he
regards primary
by the bodily metabolism in general. R.B.W. qualities as physical emergents, he yet considers
BrentanO) Franz: (1838-1907) Who had orig- secondary qualities, such as color, taste, and
inally been a Roman Catholic priest may be smell, as transphysical emergents. He favors the
described as an un-orthodox neo-scholastic. Ac- emergence of laws, qualities and classes.Psyche,
cording to him the only three forms of psychic physical in nature, combines with other material
activity, representation, judgment and "phenom- facton to make the life of the mind. Broad
ena of love and hate", are just three modes of holds to a generative view of consciousness.
"intentionality", *.*., of referring to an object Psyche persists after death for some time, floats
42 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
about in cosmic space indefinitely, ready to com- in sciences. Main works: Let ftapes de la
bine with a material body under suitable con- philosophie mathematique, 1913} V'experience
ditions. He calls this theory the "compound humaine et la causalite physique, 1921) De la
theory of materialistic emergency." Sensa, he connaissance de sot, 1931 .
holds, are real, particular, short-lived existents. Buddhism: The multifarious forms, philosophic,
They are exclusively neither physical nor mental. ethical and sociological, which the
religious,
He replaces the neo-realistic contrast between
teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) have pro-
existents and subsistents, by a contrast between
duced. They centre around the main doctrine of
existents and substracta. Main works: Scientific the catvari arya-satydni (q.v.), the four noble
Thought, 1923; The Mind and Its Place in
truths, the last of which enables one in eight
Nature, 1925j Five Types of Ethtcal Theory,
stages to reach nirvana (q.v.) : Right views, right
1930. H.H.
resolve, right speech, right conduct, right liveli-
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan: (1881-) hood, righteffort, right mindfulness, right con-
Dutch mathematician. Professor of mathematics centration.In the absence of contemporary rec-
at the University of Amsterdam, 191 2-. Be- ords of Buddha and Buddhistic teachings, much
sides his work in topology, he is known for value was formerly attached to the palm leaf
important contributions to the philosophy and manuscripts in Pali, a Sanskrit dialect} but re-
foundations of mathematics. See Mathematics cently a good deal of weight has been given
and Intuitionism (mathematical)). A.C. also the Buddhist tradition in Sanskrit, Tibetan,

Bruno, Giordano: (1548-1600) A Dominican and Chinese. Buddhism split into Mahayanism
monk, eventually burned at the stake because of and Hinayanism (q.v.), each of which,
his opinions, he was converted from Christianity but particularly the former, blossomed into a
to a naturalistic and mystical pantheism by the variety of teachings and practices. The main
Renaissance and particularly by the new Coper- philosophic schools are the Madhyamaka or
nican astronomy. For him God and the universe Sunyavada, YogScara, Sautrantika, and Vai-
were two names for one and the same Reality bhasika (q.v.). The basic assumptions in
considered now as the creative essence of all philosophy are: a causal nexus in nature
things,now as the manifold of realized possibili- and man, of which the law of karma (q.v.) is
which that essence manifests itself. As God,
ties in but a specific application} the impermanence of
natura naturans, the Real is the whole, the one, things} and the illusory notion of substance and
transcendent and ineffable. As natura naturata soul. Man is viewed realistically as a conglom-

the Real is the infinity of worlds and objects eration of bodily forms (rupa), sensations
and events into which the whole divides itself (vedand), ideas (sanjna), latent karma (san-
and in which the one displays the infinite po- skaras), and consciousness (vijndna). The basic

tentialities latent within it. The world-process assumptions in ethics are the universality of suf-
is an ever-lasting going forth from itself and fering and the belief in a remedy. There is no
return into itself of the divine nature. The god} each one may become a Buddha, an en-
culmination of the outgoing creative activity is lightened one. Also in art and esthetics Bud-
reached in the human mind, whose rational, dhism has contributed much throughout the Far
philosophic search for the one in the many, East. K.F.L.
simplicity in variety, and the changeless and 1
"Bundle' , Theory of Self: The conception of the
eternal in the changing and temporal, marks self as a mere aggregate of mental states. The
also the reverse movement of the divine nature
designation is an allusion to Hume's famous
re-entering itself and regaining its primordial
description of the self as: "a bundle or collection
unity, homogeneity, and changelessness. The of different perceptions which succeed each other
human soul, being as it were a kind of boom- with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a
erang partaking of the ingrowing as well as perpetual flux and movement." (A Treatise on
the outgrowing process, may hope at death, not
Human Nature, Part LV, 6.) L.W.
to be dissolved with the body, which is borne

wholly upon the outgoing stream, but to return Buridan's Ass: The story of the ass, which died
to God whence it came and to be reabsorbed of hunger and thirst because incapable of decid-
in him. Cf. Rand, Modern Classical Philoso- ing between water and food placed at equal
phers, selection from Bruno's On Cause, The distances from him, is employed to support the
Principle and the One. G. Bruno: DC Vinfinito, free-will doctrine. A man, it is argued, if con-
universe e mundo, 1584} Spaccio dellA bestia fronted by a similar situation, would by the
trionfante, 1584; La cena della ceneri, 1584; exercise of his free-will, be able to resolve the
Deglieroici furori, 1585} De Monade, 1591. Cf. equilibrium of opposing motives. The story of
R. Honigswald, Giordano Bruno; G. Gentile, the ass is attributed to John Buridan, a 14th
Bruno nella storia della tultura, 1907. century nominalist who discussed the freedom of
B.A.G.F. the will Quaestiones in decem libros
in his

Brunschvicg, Leon: (1869-) Professor of Phi- ethicorum Aristotelis, 1489, Bk. Ill, quest. I, but
losophy at the Ecole Normale in Paris. Dis- is not, in fact, to be found in his writings. (Cf.
missed by the Nazis (1941). His philosophy is A. G. Langley, translation of Leibniz's New
an idealistic synthesis of Spinoza, Kant and Essays Concerning Human Understanding, p.
Schelling with special stress on the creative 116 n.) Dante relates the story in Paradise, IV.
rdle of thought in cultural history as well as
Caitanya: (Skr.) Consciousness, "superconscious-
ness", a quality near the in-it-self aspect of the
Absolute Spirit, and hence sometimes a synonym
for it. K.F.L.
Calculus: The name calculus may be applied to
any organized method of solving problems or
by the teachings of Professor G. . Moore
(mainly in unpublished lectures delivered at the
Cambridge University, 1911-1939). In earlier
years Moore stressed the need to accept the
judgments of "common sense" on such matters
as the existence of other persons, of an "external

drawing inferences by manipulation of symbols world", etc. The business of the -analytical
according to formal rules. Or an exact definition philosopher was not to criticise such judgments
of a calculus maty be provided by identifying it but to display the structure of the facts to which
with a logistic system (q. v.) satisfying the they referred. (Cf. "A defense of common-
requirement of effectiveness. sense in philosophy," Contemporary British Phi-
In mathematics, the word calculus has many losophy, 2 (1925) Moore's only discussion of
specific applications, all conforming more or the method.) Such analysis would be directional,
less closely to the above statement. Sometimes, terminating in basic or atomic facts, all of
however, the simple phrase "the calculus" is whose constituents might be known by acquaint-
used in referring to those branches of mathemati- ance. The examples discussed were taken largely
cal analysis (q. v.) which are known more ex- from the field of epistemology, turning often
plicitly as the differential calculus and the in- about the problem of the relation of material
tegral calculus. A. C. objects to sense-data, and of indirect to direct
Calkins, Mary Whiton: (1863-1930) Professor knowledge. In problems were
this earlier period
of Philosophy at We lies Icy College with often suggestedby Russell's discussion of de-
which institution she was associated from scriptions and logical constructions. The incon-
1891. She advanced an objective idealism of clusiveness of such specific discussions and an
the Roycean styling her views as
character, increasingly critical awareness of the functions
absolutistic personalism. She endeavored to find of language in philosophical analysis has in
psychological justification for her views in the later years tended to favor more flexible inter-

gestalt theory. Her works were in both fields pretationsof the nature of analysis. (Cf. M.
of her interest: An Introduction to Psychology, Black, "Relations Between Logical Positivism
The Persistent Problems of Philosophy, The and the Cambridge School of Analysis", Journal
Good Man and the Good, among others. of Unified Science (Erkenntnis), 8, 24-35 for
L.E.D. a bibliography and list of philosophers who have
Calvinism: A
term covering the current of theo- been most influenced by emphasis on directional
logical dating back to John Calvin
thought analysis.) M.B.
(1509-1564) whose famous Institutes embodies Campanella, Tommaso: (1568-1639) A Domi-
its historic principles. Generally speaking, Cal- nican monk in revolt against Aristotelianism,
vinistic thought is a system in which God is and influenced by the naturalism of Telesio, he
made the center of all that is and happens, God's arrived at philosophic conclusions in some ways
will pervading human and cosmic events, and prophetic of Descartes. Distrusting both the
upon whom man is utterly and cheerfully de- reports of the senses and the results of reason-
pendent. F.F. ing as indications of the nature of Reality, he
Cambridge Platonists: A small group of 17th found nothing trustworthy except the fact of
century Cambridge thinkers whose views repre- his own and the inferences drawn
existence,
sented a kind of revival of Platonism. Etp. from that As certain as his awareness of
fact.

Ralph Cudworth and Henry More. Remem- his own existence was the awareness of an ex-
bered chiefly, perhaps, for holding that ethics ternal world to which experience referred and
rests on certain absolute and self-evident truths. by which it was caused. Again, since the nature
W.K.F. of the part is representative of the nature of
Newton wasinfluenced by Henry More, e.g. the whole to which it belongs, the Universe of
in viewing space as the seniorium of God. See which the self is part must, like the part, be
Cudworth, Deism. Cf. M. H. Nicolson, Contvay possessed of knowledge, will, and power. Hence
Papers. I may infer from my own existence the exist-
Cambridge School: A term loosely applied to ence of a God. Again, I must infer other of
English philosophers who have been influenced the divine nature more or less perfect manifest**
44 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tions than myself descending from the hierarchy owns means of production and hires people at
of angels above man to the form or structure wages to work them, thereby realizing profits.
of the world, the ultimate corporeal elements, J.M3.
and the sensible phenomena produced by these Cardinal number: Two classes are equivalent
elements of the physical universe, below him in if there exists a one-to-one correspondence be-
the scale of perfection. tween them (see One-one). Cardinal numbers
All nature is suffused with a love of God are obtained by abstraction (q. v.) with respect
and a desire to return to him, witnessed by the to equivalence, so that two classes have the
laws of motion
governing inanimate
bodies, same cardinal number if and only if they are
the law of self-preservation in organic life, and equivalent. This may be formulated more ex-
by man's conscious search for the divine. actly, following Frege, by defining the cardinal
Campanella was a political philosopher. In number of a class to be the class of classes
his City of the Sun he conceived a Utopia built equivalent to it.

on Platonic lines. He was also an ardent cham- If two classes a and b have no members in
pion of the temporal power of the Papacy and common, the cardinal number of the logical
of its political as well as its religious sover- sum of a and b is uniquely determined by the
eignty through the world. B.A.G.F. cardinal numbers of a and b, and is called the
Canon: (Gr. kanon, rule) A
term reminiscent sum of the cardinal number of a and the cardi-
of the arts and crafts, sometimes applied, since nal number of b,
Epicurus who replaced the ancient dialectics by is number of the null class.
the cardinal
a canonics (kanonike), to any norm or rule 1 is number of a unit class (all
the cardinal
which the logical process obeys. Thus John Stu- unit classes have the same cardinal number).
art Mill speaks of five experimental methods A cardinal number is inductive if it is a
as being regulated by certain canons. Kant de- member of every class / of cardinal numbers
fined canon as the sum total of all principles which has the two properties, (1) Oe/, and (2)
a priori of the correct use of our powers of for all xt if xet and y is the sum of x and 1,
knowledge. See Baconian method, Mill's then yet. In other (less exact) words, the in-
methods. K.F.L. ductive cardinal numbers are those which can
Cantor, Georg (Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp), be reached from by successive additions of 1.
1845-1918, (Russian born) German mathema- A class b is infinite if there is a class a f differ-
tician. Professor of mathematics at Halle, 1872- ent from b, such that a = b and a is equivalent
1913. He is known for contributions to the to b. In the contrary case b is finite. The car-
foundations of (mathematical) analysis, and as dinal number of an infinite class is said to be
the founder of the theory of transfinite cardinal infinite, and of a finite class, finite. It can be
numbers (q.v.) and ordinal numbers (q.v.). proved that every inductive cardinal number is
See Infinite. A.C. finite, and, with the aid of the axiom of choice,
Gesammelte Abbandlungen Mathemathchen und that every finite cardinal number is inductive.
Philosophischen Inhalts, edited by E Zermelo, and
with a life by A. Fraenkel, Berlin, 1932. The most important number
infinite cardinal

Capacity: Any ability, potentiality, power or is number of the class of inductive

the cardinal
talent possessed by anything, either to act or to cardinal numbers (0, 1, 2, ..)} it is called .

suffer. be jnnate or acquired, dormant

It may aleph-zero and symbolized by a Hebrew letter
or active. The
topic of capacity figures, in the aleph followed by an inferior 0.
main, in two branches of philosophy: (a) in For brevity and simplicity in the preceding
metaphysics, as in Aristotle's discussion of po- account we have ignored complications intro-
tentiality and actuality, (b) in ethics, where an duced by the theory of types, which are con-
agent's capacities are usually regarded as having siderable and troublesome. Modifications are
some bearing on the question as to what his also required if the account is to be incorporated
duties are. W.K.F. into the Zermelo set theory. A. C.
Capitalism : A mode of economic production G. Cantor, Contributions to tJbe Founding of the
Theory of Transfinite Numbers, translated and
which is characterized by the fact that the in- with an introduction by P. E. B. Jourdain, Chicago
struments of production (land, factories, raw and London, 1913. whitehead and Russell. Prtn-
materials, etc.) are controlled to a greater or cipia Mathematica, vol. 2.

lesser extent by "private" individuals or groups. Cardinal Point and Value: Psychological terms
Since the control an individual can exercise having to do with relation of stimulus to in-
over means of production is never absolute and tensity of sensation. The point at which the
as a matter of fact fluctuates widely with the proportionate increase of both is in a direct

ever-changing natural and social environment, relation. C.K.D.

"capitalism" is a very loose term which covers Cardinal virtues: The cardinal virtues for a
a host of actually different economic systems. given culture are those which it regards as
An implication of this basic notion of individual primary, the others being regarded either as
control is that the individual will control pro- derived from them or as relatively unimportant.
duction in his own interests. The ideological Thus the Greeks had four, wisdom, courage,
counterpart to this fact is the concept of "prof- temperance, and justice $ to which the Christians
it," just as the ideological counterpart to the added three, faith, hope, and love or charity.
control itself is the myth of "private property" W.K.F*
and "free enterprise." M.B.M. Carlyle, Thomas: (1795-1881) Vigorous Scotch
Capitalists: The economic class (q.v.) which historian and essayist, apostle of work. He was
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 45
a deep student of the German idealists and did (preface to his Geometric^ Meteores, Dieptrtque)
much to bring them before English readers. Meditationes de prima philosophia t Principia
His forceful showed marked German char-
style philosophiae t Passions de Vame, Rfgulae ad
acteristics. He was not in any sense a systematic directionem ingenii, Le monde. Descartes is
philosopher but his keen mind gave wide influ- justly regarded as one of the founders of mod-
ence to the ideas he advanced in ethics, politics ern epistemology. Dissatisfied with the lack of
and economics. His whimsical Sartor Resartus agreement among philosophers, he decided that
or philosophy of clothes and his searching philosophy needed a new method, that of mathe-
Heroes and Hero-worship,remain his most matics. He began by resolving to doubt every-
popular works along with his French Revolu- thing which could not pass the test of his
tion and Past and Present. He was among criterion of truth, viz. the clearness and- distinct-
the Victorians who displayed some measure of ness of ideas. Anything which could pass this
distrust for democracy. L.E.D. test was to be readmitted as self-evident. From

^arnap, Rudolf: (1891-) successively Privat- self-evident truths, he deduced other truths
dozent at the University of Vienna, Professor which logically follow from them. Three kinds
of Philosophy at the German University of of ideas were distinguished: (1) innate, by
Prague, Professor of Philosophy at the Uni- which he seems to mean little more than the
versity of Chicago (since 1936)? one of the mental power to think things or thoughts; (2)
leading representatives of the positivism of the adventitious, which come to him from without;
Vienna Circle and subsequently of Scientific (3) factitious, produced within his own mind.
Empiricism (q. v.)j co-editor of The Journal He found most difficulty with the second type
of Unified Science (previously: Erkenntnis). of ideas. The first reality discovered through
Carnap's work has been devoted especially to his method is the thinking self. Though he
formal logic and its applications to problems of might doubt nearly all else, Descartes could not
epistemology and the philosophy of science. reasonably doubt that he, who was thinking,
His writings in formal logic include a text- existed as a res cogitans. This is the intuition
book of mathematical logic and a comprehensive enunciated in the famous aphorism: I think,
monograph devoted to logical syntax, a new therefore I am, Cogito ergo sum. This is not
branch of logical research to whose development offered by Descartes as a compressed syllogism,
Carnap has greatly contributed. but as an immediate intuition of his own think-
In his logical work, he has been specially ing mind. Another reality, whose existence was
interested in the nature of mathematics and its obvious to Descartes, was God, the Supreme
relation to logic. He has treated these topics Being. Though he
offered several proofs of the
in a number of special articles and in a mono- Divine Existence, he was convinced that he
graph. The latter also includes an introduction knew this also by an innate idea, and so, clearly
to the youngest field of modern logic, semantics. and distinctly. But he did not find any clear
Carnap's contributions to the study of epi- ideas of an extra-mental, bodily world. He
stemological and philosophical problems may be suspected existence, but logical demonstration
its

characterized as applications of the methods of was needed to establish this truth. His adventiti-
logical analysis to the languages of everyday ous ideas carry the vague suggestion that they
life and of science! His books contain applica- are caused by bodies in an external world. By
tions to the fundamental problems of epis- arguing that God would be a deceiver, in allow-
temology, expound the principles of physical- ing him to think that bodies exist if they do
ism (q.v.) which was developed by Carnap and not, he eventually convinced himself of the
Neurath and which offers, amongst others, a reality of bodies, his own and others. There
basis for a more cautious version of the ideas are, then, three kinds of substance according to
of older behaviorism and for the construction of Descartes. (1) Created spirits, i.e. the finite
one common unified language for all branches soul-substance of each man: these are immaterial
of empirical science (see Unity of Science). agencies capable of performing spiritual opera-
Main works: Logische Aujblou der Weltf Abriss tions, loosely united with bodies, but not ex-
der Logistik; Logische Syntax der Sprache tended since thought is their very essence. (2)
"Testability and Meaning," Phil, of Set. Uncreated Spirit, i.e. God, confined neither to
(1936). C.G.H. space nor time, All-Good and All-Powerful)
^arneadcs: (c. 215-125 B.C.) The most promi- though his Existence can be known clearly, his
nent head of the Middle Academy and opponent Nature cannot be known adequately by men on
of the Stoics. His most noteworthy contribution earth} He is the God of Christianity, Creator,
to philosophy consisted in the doctrine of logical Providence and Final Cause of the universe.
probabilism as a basis of scepticism. R.B.W. (3) Bodies, i.e. created, physical substances
^artesianism : The philosophy French
of the existing independently of human thought and
thinker, Rene Descartes (Cartes! us) 1596-1650. having as their chief attribute, extension. Car-
After completing his formal education at the tesian physics regards bodies as the result of
Jesuit College at La'Fleche, he spent the years the introduction of "vortices", i.e. whorls of
1612-1621 in travel and military service. The motion, into extension. Divisibility, figurability
remainder of his life was devoted to study and and mobility are the notes of extension, which
writing. He died in Sweden, where he had appears to be little more than what Descartes'
gone in 1649 to tutor Queen Christina. His Scholastic teachers called geometrical space. God
principal works are: Discours de la method* ',
is the First Cause of all motion in the physical
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
universe, which is conceived as
system operated by its Maker. Even the bodies
of animals are automata. Sensation is the criti-
cal problem in Cartesian psychology) it is
viewed by Descartes as a function of the soul,
but he was never able to find a satisfactory
explanation of the apparent fact that the soul
is moved by the body when sensation occurs.
The theory of animal spirits provided Descartes
with a sort of bridge between mind and matter,
since these spirits are supposed to be very subtle
matter, halfway, as it were, between thought
and extension in their nature. However, this
a mechanical German Phenomenology, French Spiritualism
and Positivism, Bergs on ism, and certain forms
of Catholic thought represented by J. Geyser in
Germany and M. Blondel in France, are off-
shoots of Cartesianism.
Oeuvres completes, ed. C. Adam et P. Tan-
nery, 13 vols. (Paris, 1896-1911). The PMlos.
Works of Descartes, transl. by Haldane and
Ross, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1911-12). Fischer,
K., Descartes and his School (London, 1887).
Gilson, .,
Le role de la pensee medievale dans
la formation du systeme cartesien (Paris, 1930).
Maritain, J., Le songe de Descartes (Paris,

theory of sensation is the weakest

link in the 1932). Gemelli, A. (ed.), Carttsio (symposium)
Cartesian explanation of cognition. Intellectual (Milan, 1937). 7.7.5.
error is accounted for by Descartes in his theory Cassirer, Ernst: (1874-) Has been chiefly inter-
ested in developing the position of the neo-
of assent, which makes judgment an act of
Where the will over-reaches the in-
Kantian Philosophy of the Marburg School as
free will.
it relates to scientific knowledge. Looking at
tellect, judgment may be false. That the will is
the history of modern philosophy as a progres-
absolutely free in man, capable even of choosing
sive formulation of this position, he has sought
what is presented by the intellect as the less
a to extend it by detailed analyses of contemporary
desirable of two alternatives, is probably
scientific developments. Of note are Cassirer's
vestige of Scotism retained from his college
course in Scholasticism. Common-sense and investigations in mathematics, his early consid-
eration of chemical knowledge, and his treat-
moderation are the keynotes of Descartes' famous
ment of Einstein's relativity theory.
rules for the regulation of his own conduct
Main works: Das Erkenntnisprobleme, 3 vols.
during his nine years of methodic doubt, and
(1906)) Substan*-u-Funktionsbegriff, 1910 (tr.
this ethical attitude continued throughout his
Substance and Function) ; Philosophic der Sym-
life. He believed that manresponsible ulti-
is
bolischen Forme (1923)} Phanom. der Er-
mately to God for the courses of action that he
kenntnis, 1929} Descartes ; Leibniz. C.K.D.
may choose. He admitted that conflicts may Casualism: The doctrine that all things and
occur between human passions and human rea-
events come to be by chance. E.g., the view of
son. A virtuous made
possible by the
life is
the Epicureans.
knowledge of what is right and the consequent
Casuistic: Adjective; pertaining to casuistry and
control of the lower tendencies of human nature.
casuists,or relating to case histories, especially
Six primary passions are described by Descartes;
cases of conduct. In a depreciative sense, sophis-
wonder, love, hatred, desire, joy and sorrow.
tical and misleading. JJ.R.
These are passive states of consciousness, partly
of conscience and a
Casuistry: Study of cases
caused by the body, acting through the animal method of solving of obligations by
conflicts
spirits, and partly caused by the soul. Under
applying general of ethics, religion,
principles
rational control, they enable the soul to will and moral theology to particular and concrete
what is good for the body. Descartes' terminol- cases of human conduct. This frequently de-
ogy suggests that there are psychological facul- mands an extensive knowledge of natural law
ties, but he insists that these powers are not and equity, civil law, ecclesiastical precepts, and
really distinct from the soul which is
itself, an exceptional skill in interpreting these various
man's sole psychic agency. Descartes was a norms of conduct. It becomes necessary to deter-
practical Catholic all his life and he tried to mine the degree of guilt and. responsibility and
develop proofs of the existence of God, an ex- weigh all the circumstances of the case, especially
planation of the Eucharist, of the nature of by taking into account all the conditions affect-
religious faith, and of the operation of Divine
ing motive and consent. JJ.R.
Providence, using his philosophy as the basis Catechetic: Noun in the
ordinarily employed
for a new theology. This attempted theology
plural, denoting the method and practice of
has not found favor with Catholic theologians
imparting religious instruction orally by means
in general.
of questions and answers, especially to children.
Apart from philosophy, Descartes' contribution JJ.R.
to the development of analytical
geometry, the Categorematic : In traditional logic, denoting
theory of music and the science of optics, are or capable of denoting a term, or of standing
noteworthy achievements. for a subject or predicate said of words. Op-
Descartes, is one of the fathers of modern posite of syncategorematic (q. v.). A. C.
philosophy 5 his general influence is too extensive Categorial: A priori or non-empirical elements.
to be detailed. Leibniz, Spinoza, Malebranche, (Alexander). H.H.
Clauberg, De La Forge, Geulincx, Placentius, (Ger. kategorial) In Husserl: Of
Chouet, Legrand, Cornell o these and many or pertaining to the function or the result of
others spread Cartesianism throughout Europe. ego-spontaneity as conferring logical form on
(See Boutroux, "Descartes and Cartesianism," substrates and producing syntactical objects.
Comb. Mod. Hist., IV, ch. 27.) At present, D.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 47

Categorical Imperative: (Kant. Or, kate- garded own being, he is, as it

as "cause" of his

gorischer Imperativ) The supreme, absolute were, efficient cause of his own existence (Des-
moral law of rational, self-determining beings. cartes). Since existence necessarily follows from
Distinguished from hypothetical or conditional the very essence of that which is cause of itself,
imperatives which admit of exceptions. Kant causa sui is defined as chat whose nature cannot
formulated the categorical imperative as follows. be conceived as not existing (Spinoza).
"Act on maxims which can at the same time A.G.A.B.
have for their object themselves as universal Causality: (Lat. causa) The relationship between
laws of nature." See Kantianism. O.F.K. a cause and its effect. This relationship has been
af- defined as (1) a relation between events, proc-
Categorical (Judgment): (Gr. kategorikos,
Aristotle: Affirmative}
firmative, predicative) esses, or entities in the same time series, such
explicit; direct. Commentators on Aristotle em- that (a) when one occurs, the other necessarily
phasized the opposition between categorical and follows (sufficient condition), (b) when the lat-
conditional propositions, although Aristotle did ter occurs, the former must have preceded (neces-
not stress this connotation of the term. G.R.M. sary condition), (c) both conditions a and b
(In Kant) A
judgment comprising two con- prevail (necessary and sufficient condition), (d)
cepts related by a copula, typically an attribute when one occurs under certain conditions, the
(predicate) asserted of a substance or thing other necessarily follows (contributory, but not
(subject). Kant denied that hypothetical and sufficient, condition) ("multiple causality" would
disjunctive propositions can be reduced to cate- be a case involving several causes which are
gorical ones and insisted that each of the forms severally contributory and jointly sufficient); the
of judgment denotes a distinct function of the necessity in these cases is neither that of logical
understanding. See Logik, 24. O.F.K. implication nor that of coercion; (2) a relation
Category: (Gr. kategoria) In Aristotle's logic (1) between events, processes, or entities in the
the predicate of a proposition) (2) one of the same time series such that when one occurs the
ultimate modes of being that may be asserted in '
other invariably follows (invariable ante-
predication, viz.: substance, quantity, quality, re- cedence); (3) a relation between events, proc-
lation, place, time, position, state, action, passion. esses, or entities such that one has the efficacy
G.R.M. to produce or alter the other; (4) a relation
(in Kant) Any of twelve forms or between events, processes, or entities such that
relating the understanding, con-
principles of without one the other could not occur, as in
stituting necessary conditions of experience. the relation between (a) the material out. of
Kant sought to derive an exhaustive list of which a product is made and the finished prod-
pure forms of the understanding from the uct (material cause), (b) structure or form and
forms of judgment in the traditional logic. the individual embodying it (formal cause), (c)
His list of categories comprises three each of a goal or purpose (whether supposed to exist in

quantity, quality, relation, and modality. See the future as a special kind of entity, outside a
Kantianism. O.F.K. time series, or merely as an idea of the pur-
Category of Unity: Kant: The first of three poser) and the work fulfilling it (final cause),
a priori, quantitative (so-called "mathematical") (d) a moving force and the process or result of
categories (the fothers being "plurality" and its action (efficient cause); (5) a relation be-
"totality") from which is derived the synthetic tween experienced events, processes, or entities
principle, "All intuitions (appearances) are ex- and extra-experiential but either temporal or non-
tensive magnitudes." By means of this principle temporal events, processes, or entities upon
Kant seeks to define the object of experience whose existence the former depend; (6) a rela-
a priori with reference to its spatial features. tion between a thing and itself when it is de-
See Crit. of pure Reason, B106, B202ff. O.F.K. pendent upon nothing else for its existence (self-
Catharsis: (Gr. katharsis) Purification; purga- causality); (7) a relation between an event,
tion; specifically the purging of the emotions of process, or entity and the reason or explanation
pity and fear effected by tragedy (Aristotle). for its being; (8) a relation between an idea
G.R.M. and an experience whose expectation the idea
In aesthetics: Purification of and liberation from arouses because of customary association of the
passions in art
(Aristotle). First idea of the two (9) a principle or category
in this sequence;
distinction between form and sentiment. L.V. introducing into experience one of the aforesaid
Gatvari arya-satyani: (Skr.) "The four noble types of order; this principle may be inherent
truths" of Gautama Buddha's (q.v.) teaching: in the mind, invented by the mind, or derived
Suffering exists; it has a cause; it may cease; from experience; it may be an explanatory hypo-
there is a path leading to its cessation. K.F.L. thesis, postulate, a convenient fiction, or a
a
Causa sui: Cause of itself; necessary existence. necessary form of thought. Causality has been
Causa sui conveys both a negative and a positive conceived to prevail between processes, parts of
meaning. Negatively, it signifies that which is a continuous process, changing parts of an un-
from itself (a se), that which does not owe its changing whole, objects, events, ideas, or some-
being to something else; i.e., absolute inde- thing of one of these types and something of
pendence of being, causelessness (God as un- another. When an entity, event, or process is
caused). Positively, causa sui means that whose said to follow from another, it may be meant
very nature or essence involves existence; i.e., that it must succeed but can be neither contempo-
God is the ground of his own being, and re- raneous with nor prior to the other, that it must
48 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
either succeed or be contemporaneous with and opposite; whereas for evidence, it is required
dependent upon but cannot precede the other, or that the intellect fully grasp that which it

that one is dependent upon the other but they knows. H.G.
either are not in the same time series or one is Chance: 1. Property of being
(Lat. cadere, to fall)
in no time series at all. At.T.K. undetermined. Property of being predictable
2.

Cause: causa) Anything responsible for

(Lat.
change, motion or action. In the history of
philosophy numerous interpretations were given
to the term. Aristotle distinguished among (1)
the material cause, or that out of which some-
thing arises; (2) the formal cause, that is, the
pattern or essence determining the creation of
a In Cournot, following Aristotle, the co-incidence
thing} (3) the efficient cause, or the force or
agent producing an effect} and (4) the final
cause, or purpose. Many thinkers spoke also of
(5) the first cause, usually conceived as God.
During the Renaissance, with the development
of scientific interest in nature, cause
conceived as an object. Today, it is generally
interpreted as energy or action, whether or not
connected with matter. According to Newton,
"to the same natural effects we must, as far as
possible, assign the same causes." But J. S.
Mill contended, in his doctrine of the plurality
of causes, that an effect, or a kind of effect (e.g.
heat or death) may be produced
causes. The first clear formulation of the prin-
ciplewas given by Leukippus: "Nothing happens
without a ground but everything through a cause
and of necessity." R.B.W.
In scholasticism Four causes are distinguished,
: laws or principles running through the phenom-
. in accordance with Aristotle. Efficient cause, by
which any change is brought about in the order
of execution, material cause, that out of which a
new being arises prime matter in regard to
substantial second matter in regard to accidental
forma (Cf. Form, Matter) formal cause, the
act by which a material substratum is determined
towards a r w being substantial or accidental
final cause, that because of which something is
or becomes. All things tend towards an end by
a "natural appetite". R.A.
Cause-theory (of mind, body) : The influence
of mind upon body or body upon mind or both
upon each other. This influence may be of any
type, e.g., productive, directive, or a stimulus to
activity. V.F.
Centre-theory: Ascribes the unity of the mind to
a certain particular existent centre, "which stands
in a common asymmetrical relation to all the
mental events" of a certain mind.
Certainty: (Lat. Certus, sure) The alleged in*
dubitability of certain truths, especially of logic
and mathematics. L.W.
Certitude: Consists in the firmness, by which the
mind adheres to any proposition, whereas evi-
dence, besides the firmness of adhesion, implies
also the quietude (or satisfaction) of the in-
tellect in the thing known either because from a
comparison of the term* we immediately know
the relation between a subject and predicate, or
because, immediately, with the help of deduction
we perceive an adequate reason for a thing.
Hence for certitude to exist in the
from which
sufficient that the cause
of such a nature as to exclude all fear of the
according to the laws of probability (?.v.).
A.C.B.
Chance events, according to Aristotle, are oc-
currences purposive in appearance but not actu-
ally the result of either conscious or unconscious
teleology. G.R.M.
of two causally determined series of events. In
Peirce (q.v.), a vera causa and metaphysically
grounded category. See Tychism.
Chang Heng-ch'u: (Chang Tsai, Chang Tzu-
hou, 1021-1077) Was a typical Confucian gov-
was usually ernment official and teacher. When young, he
was interested in military strategy. He studied
the Chung Yung (Golden Mean) at the advice
of a prominent scholar, and went on to Taoist
and Buddhist works. But he finally returned to
the Confucian classics, explored their meanings
and discussed them with the Ch'eng brothers.
His works called Chang Heng-ch'u' Hsien-sheng
by various Ch'uan-chi (complete works of Master Chang
Heng-ch'u) are indispensable to the study of
the Neo-Confucian (li hsueh) movement.
W.T.C.
Ch'ang: (a) "Invariables" or universal and eternal
enal change of the universe. (Lao Tzu).
(b) Constant virtues. See wu ch*ang. H.H.
Ch'ang sheng: (a) Everlasting existence, such as
that of Heaven and Earth, because of their "not
existing for themselves." (Lao Tzu).
(b) Long life, as a result of the nourishment
of the soul and rich accumulation of virtue.
(Taoist philosophy).
(c) Immortality, to be achieved through in-
ternal alchemy and external alchemy (lien tan).
(Taoist religion). -W.T.C.
Change, Philosophy of: (a) Any philosophical
doctrine dealing with the subject of change,
e.g., Aristotle's philosophy of change, (b) any
philosophy which makes change an essential or
pervasive character of reality, e.g., the philoso-
phies of Heraclitus and Bergson. W.K.F.
Ch'an wei: Prognostics in 300 B.C.-400 A.D., a
system represented by a group of prophetic
(Broad).
writings called ch'an and a group of apocryphal
H.H.
"complements" or "woofs" to the Confucian
called wei, in an attempt to interpret
classics,
the classics in terms of medieval Chinese the-
ology, the theory of correspondence between man
and the universe, and the Yin Yang philosophy.
(Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C., etc.).- W.T.C.
Chaos: (Gr. chaos) The formless,
confused, com-
pletely disorderly, absolutely lawless. H.H.
Character: (Gr. character from charassein to en-
grave) A namefor the collective traits, emo-
tional, intellectual and volitional, which consti-
tute an individual mind. L.W.
it is
Characteristic: Pertaining to the starting point
mind,
arises be
of the artist in his quest for beauty.
it (Goethe).
L.V.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 49

Hharacteristica Universalis: The name given vidual. Therefore the enormous influence of
by Leibniz to his projected (but only partially social factors. R.A.
realized) "universal language" for the formula- Characters: Statements or E-values like pleasant,
tion of knowledge. This language was to be true, known) all possible ego attitudes and feel-
ideographic, with simple characters standing for ings are so termed. (See Avenarius). H.H.
simple concepts, and combinations of them for Ch'eng: (a) Honesty) sincerity; absence of fault}
compound ideas, so that all knowledge could actuality.
be expressed in terms which all could easily (b) Reverence; seriousness.
learn to use and understand. It represents an (c) Being one's true self) absolute true self)
adumbration of the more recent and more suc- truth, in the sense of "fulfillment of the self,"
cessful logistic treatment of mathematics and which "is the beginning and end of material
science. It is to be distinguished, however, from existence," and "without which there is no mate-
the "universal calculus," also projected by rial existence." "Being true to oneself (or sin-

Leibniz, which was to be the instrument for cerity) is the law of Heaven. To try to be true
the development and manipulation of systems in to oneself is the law of man." "Only those who
the universal language. W.K.F. are their absolute true selves in the world can
L. Couturat, La Logique de Leibniz (1901). fulfill their own nature," "the nature of others,"

"the nature of things," "help Nature in growing

Characterology : This name originally was used
and sustaining," and "become equals of Heaven
for types; thus in Aristotle and Theophrastus,
and Earth." (Early Confucianism, Neo-Con-
and even much later, e.g. in La Bruyere. Grad-
fucianism.)
ually it came to signify something individual; a
development paralleled by the replacement of Being true to the nature of being (of man
and things), which is "the character of the
"typical" figures on the stage by individualities.
There is no agreement, even today, on the defi- sage," "the basis of the five cardinal moral
principles and the source of the moral life."
nition j confusion reigns especially because of an
It is "the state of tranquillity without move-
insufficient distinction between character, per-
ment." (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073.) "Sincerity
sonality, and person. But all agree that char-
acter manifests itself in the behavior of a person. (ch'eng) is the way of Heaven, whereas serious-
ness (ching) is the essence of human affairs.
One can distinguish a merely descriptive ap- When there is there is
seriousness, sincerity."
proach, one of classification, and one of interpre- "Sincerity means have no depraved thought'."
'to
tation. The general viewpoints of interpretation
(Ch'eng I-ch'uan, 1033-1107 and Ch'eng Ming-
influence also description and classification, since
tao, 1032-1086.)
they determine what is considered "important" "It also be expressed as the principle of
may
and lay down the rules by which to distinguish
reality." (Chu Hsi, 1
130-1200.) W.T.C.
and to classify. One narrow interpretation looks
Cheng hsin: Setting one's own heart right or
at character mainly as the result of inborn prop-
rectifying one's own heart. When one is upset
erties, rooted in organic constitution; character
by anger, disturbed by fear, blinded by love, or
is considered, therefore, as essentially unchange- involved in worries and anxieties, one's mind
able and predetermined. The attempts at estab-
has lost its balance. It must be rectified before
lishing correlations* between character and body-
personal cultivation is possible. (Confucianism).
build (Kretschmer a.o.) are a special form of W.T.C.
such narrow interpretation. It makes but little
Ch'eng I-ch'uan: (Ch'eng-I, Ch'eng-cheng-shu,
difference besides inborn properties, the in- Was younger brother of Ch'Sng
if, 1033-1107)
fluence of environmental factors is acknowl- He led an active life as a
Ming-tao. high
edged. The rationalistic interpretation looks at government official and prominent a teacher.
character mainly as the result of convictions. "There was no book which he did not read,
These convictions are seen as purely intellectual and he studied with absolute sinceritv. With
in extreme rationalism
(virtue is knowledge, the Great Learning, the Analects, Works of
Socrates), or as referring to the value-aspect of Menctus and the Chung Yung (Golden Mean)
reality which is conceived as apprehended by as basis, he penetrated all the six (Confucian)
other than merely intellectual operations. classics." He ranks with his brother as great
Thus, Spranger gives a classification according to Neo-Confucians. W.T.C.
the "central values" dominating a man's be- Cheng mini!: The doctrine of the "rectification of
havior. (Allport has devised practical methods names" which holds that names should corre-
of character study on this basis.) Since the idea to realities, and serve as standards for
spond
a person has of values and their order may social organization and personal conduct. The
change, character is conceived as essentially mu- actual must in each case be made to correspond
table, even if far going changes may be unfre- to the name. (Confucius; Hsiin Tzu, c. 335-
quent. Character-education is the practical ap- c. 288 B.C.) H.H.
plication of the principles of character logy and Ch'eng ming: (a) To arrive at understanding
thus depends on the general idea an author holds from being one's true self This is due to one's
in regard to human nature. Character is prob- nature, whereas to arrive at being one's true
ably best defined as the individual's way of pre- self from understanding is a matter of culture.

ferring or rejecting values. It depends on the (Confucianism).

innate capacities of value-apprehension and on (b) The knowledge that rises above distinc-
the way these values are presented to the indi- tions, attainable only when the human mind
50 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
completely comprehends Heaven, nature and the (d) In aesthetics: Rhythmic vitality; vitaliz-
moral law. (Chang Heng-Ch'u, 1020-1077). ing spirit; strength of expression or brush stioke.
W.T.C. W.T.C.
Ch'eng Ming-tao: (Ch'eng Hou, Ch'eng Po-tun, Ch'i: A material thing, whatever is within the
1032-1086) Served as government official both realm of matter j corporeality} whatever has
in the capital and in various counties with ex- form. (Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism.)
cellent records in social and educational achieve- W.T.C.
ments. For decades he studied Taoism and Chia: Specification, a method of appellation or
Buddhism but finally repudiated them. Together designation. "To say "a puppy* or
f
a dog* is

with his brother, he developed new aspects of specification.*' See chu and /'.
(Neo-Mohism.)
Confucianism and became the greatest Confucian W.T.C.
since Mencius and a leader of Neo-Confucianism Chia : The mefhod of hypothesis in argumentation.
(li hsueh). His works and those of his brother, See pien W.T.C,
called Erh Ch'eng Ch*uan-shu (complete works Chiao: (j) Teaching, a body of doctiines; a sys-
of the Ch'eng brothers), number 107 chuans, in tem of morality.
14 Chinese volumes. W.T.C. (b) Religion, especially used in tsung chiao.
Chen jen: "The true man", the supreme man, the K'ung Chiao (Confucianism) and Tao Chiao
pure man, the man of supreme inward power, (Taoism) may either mean (a) the ethical,
not in the moral sense but in the sense of "pure political, and philosophical teachings of Con-
fucius and Lao Tzu respectively and their fol-
gold", has limitless inward resources. One who
has transcended the self and the non-self, and lowers, or (b) the state cult of the worship of
life and death, and has reached a state of mysti- Heaven and ancestors and the folk religion of
cal union with the universe. (Chuang Tzu be- nature and spirit worship respectively. W.T.C*,

tween 399 and 295 B.C.) //.tf. Ch'i chia* Ordering one*? home life by the prac-
Chen ts'a : Lord who directs the opera-
The true
tice of such virtues as respect for one's
filial piety,

tion of the universe, towhose existence there is eldrr brothers, and parental kindness or love, as

no clue. (Chuang Tzu, between 309 and 295 a necessary condition for the ordering of na-

B.C.) W.T.C. tional life. (Confucianism). W.T.C.

Chen yiin: The True Prime Unit, hy which the Chieh hsuan: Em-mcipation. See Hsuan chieh.

vital force (ch'i) is constituted. It is not mixed

W.T.C.
with, but nourished and cultivated by, the ex-
Ch'ien: Heaven, symbolized by in the Eight =
ternal force. (Neo-Confucianism). W.T.C. Trigrams (pa kua)-, the trigram of the male
cosmic principle, yang, opposite of k'un.
Chi: The moving power; the subtle beginning of
W.T.C.
motion} the great Scheme (or germs?) from Chien ai: The doctrine of "universal love" inter
which all things came and to which all things
preted wholly in terms of utilitarian standards.
return (Chuang Tzu, d. c 295 B.C.); a mechani-
^
(Mo Tzu, between 500 and 396 B.C.) H.H.
cal arrangement according to which heavenly
Chien pai: Solidity (of stone) and whiteness (ol
and earthly bodies revolve (Taoist mechanism,
a horse), central problems in the dispute over
especially Lieh Tzu, third century A.D.); man's the relationship of substance and quality between
pure nature (as in Chuang Tzu, between 399 the Sophists (pien che) and the Neo-Mohist*
and 295 B.C.). W.T.C.
(Mo che) in the third and fourth centuries B.C.
Ch'i: (a) Breath; the vital fluid. W.T.C,
(b) Force} spirit. Chih: (a) Memory, (b) Purpose, 'will W.T.C
(c) The vital force, as expressed in the oper- Chih: Uprightness; straightness, honesty, justice,
ation and succession of the active principle "exhausting one's sincere heart without any arti-

(yang) and the passive principle (yin) and the ficiality."-- W.T.C.
Five Agents or Elements (wu hsing). To Chou Chih: (a) Wisdom, one of the three Universallj
Lien-hsi (1017-1073), this material principle is Recognized Moral qualities of man (ta te), tru
identical with yin yang and the Five Elements. Three Moral Qualities of the superior man (san
To Chang Heng-ch'u (1020-1077) it is the te), the Four Fundamentals of the moral life
reality of the Ultimate Vacuity, having the two (ssu tuan), and the Five Constant Virtues (wi
aspects of yin and yang. It is to the Ultimate ch'ang). (Confucianism.)
Vacuity (Tai Hsu) as ice is to water. Ch'eng (b) Knowledge; intelligence.
I-ch'uan (1033-1107) Ch'eng and Ming-tao (c) Discriminate knowledge; small knowl-
(1032-1086) considered all that has physi- edge, which incapable of understanding Tao
is

cal form to be identical with the vital force. It (d) Intuitive knowledge (liang chih). (Wang
is the principle of differentiation and individua- Yang-ming, 1473-1 529.) W.T.C.
tion. When a thing disintegrates, the vital force Chih: Marks, designation, pointing at (with t
is at an end, not to appear again in the creative finger, chih), an obscure term in the logic oi
process. A
new entity is constituted of new vital Kung-sun Lung (c 400-c 300 B.C.) which car
force. Thus it is also the, principle of novelty in be interpreted as:
creation. It is produced by Reason (li). But to (a) Marks or qualities of a thing. All thingi
the Neo-Confucians, especially Chi Hsi (1130- are marks or predicates.
1200), Reason has no control over it. The two (b) That which is designated by a name.
can never be separated j without it, Reason would (c) An idea or concept which Kunp-sun Lunj
kaving nothing to be embodied in. used to designate the universal. W.T.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 51

Chih: Basic stuff; essence; solid quality j solid ity (p'u), "emptiness," tranquillity and enlight-
worth. (Confucianism). W.T.C. enment, all dedicated to the search for "long
Chih chih: Extension of knowledge or achieving life and lasting vision" (in the caw of Lao
true knowledge through the investigation of TzQ, 57Q B.C.?), for "preserving life and
things (ko wu) and understanding their Reason keeping the essence of our being intact" (in the
(li) to the utmost, not necessarily by investigat- case of Yang Chu, c. 440-360 B.C.), and for
ing all things in the world, but by thoroughly "companionship with nature" (in the case of
investigating one thing and then more if neces- Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.). The
sary, so that the Reason in that thing, and notes of the "equality of things and opinions"
thereby Reason in general, understood. In
is (ch'i wu) and the "spontaneous and unceasing
Wang Yang-ming (1473-1529), it means "exten- transformation of things" (tzQ hua) were par-
sion to the utmost of the mind's intuitive knowl- ticularly stressed in Chuang Tzu.
edge of good the knowledge of good which Confucianism on the other hand,
(ju chia),
Mencius calls the good-evil mind and which all advocated true manhood (jen) as the highest
people have." (Neo-Confucianism). W.T.C. good, the superior man (chun tzu) as the ideal
Chih jcn: "The perfect man", one who has reached being, and cultivation of life (hsiu shen) as the
a state of mystical union with the universe, or supreme duty of man. It was toward this moral-
"one who has not separated from the true." ism and humanism that Confucius (551-479
(Chuang Tzu between 399 and 295 B.C.) B.C.) taught the doctrines of "chung," or being
H.H. true to the principles of one's nature, and "shu,"
Chih kuo: The ordering of the national life, which or the application of those principles in rela-
is the intermediate step between the ordering of tion to others, as well as the doctrine of the
one's family life (ch'i chia) and the peace of Golden Mean (chung yung), i.e., "to find the
the world. (Confucianism). W.T.C. central clue of our moral being and to be
Chih shan: Highest excellence, perfection j the harmonious with the universe." Humanism was
ultimate good, the goal of Confucian ethics and further strengthened by Mencius (371-289 B.C.)
education. W.T.C. who insisted that man must develop his nature
Ch'i hsueh: The intellectual movement in the fully because benevolence (jSn) and righteous-
state of Ch'i. See Chi Hsta. ness (i) are natural to his nature which is
Chiliasm :
Teaching and belief of some Jews and originally good, and again reinforced by HsQn
Christians that the Messiah will appear at the Tzu (c. 335-286 B.C.) who, contending that
end of time to found a glorious kingdom on human nature is evil, advocated the control of
earth which is to last one thousand years; also nature. Amid antagonism between natural-
this
called Millenarianism. J.J.R. ism and humanism, however, both schools con-
Chin: Metal, one of the Five Agents or Elements, ceived reality as unceasing change (i) and in-
and fourth centuries B.C. where scholars (in- cessant transformation, perpetually in progress
cluding Shen Tao, Tsou Yen) gathered under due to the interaction of the active (yang) and
official patronage to write on and to freely dis- passive (yin) cosmic principles.
cuss philosophy and politics. Seat of learning Taoism, however, became too mystical, and
and freedom of thought at the time, which was Confucianism too formalistic. "Hundred
called Ch'i Hsuefc. W.T.C. schools" grew and flourished, many in direct
Chin: Metal, one of the Five Agents or Elements. opposition to Taoism and Confucianism. There
See tau hsing. W.T.C. was Mohism (Mo, founded by Mo Tzfi, be-
Ch'in: (a) Person.il experience, or knowledge ob- tween 500 and 396 B.C.) which rejected for-
tained through the contact of one's knowing malism in favor of "benefit" and "utility" which
faculty and the object to be known. (Neo- are to be promoted through universal love
Mohists.) (chien ai), practical observation and applica-
(b) Parents. tion, and obedience to the will of Heaven. There
(c) Kinship, as distinguished from the more was Neo-Mohism (Mo che, 300 B.C.) which,
remote relatives and strangers, such distinction in trying to prove the thesis of Mohism, de-
being upheld by Confucians as essential to the veloped an intricate system of logic. There
social structure but severely attacked by the Mo- was Sophism (ming chia, 400 B.C.) which dis-
hists and Legalists as untenable in the face of played much sophistry about terms and con-
the equality of men. cepts, particularly about the relationship between
(d) Affection, love, which it is important for substance and quality (chien pai). There was
a ruler to have toward his people and for chil- Legalism (fa chia, 500-200 B.C.) which advo-
dren toward parents. (Confucianism.) W.T.C. cated law, statecraft, and authority as effective
Chinese Philosophy: Confucianism and Taoism instruments of government. And finally, there
have been the dual basis of Chinese thought, was the Yin Yang school (400-200 B.C.) which
with Buddhism presenting a strong challenge in emphasized yin and yang as the two funda-
medieval times. The former two, the priority mental principles, always contrasting but com-
of either of which is still controversial, rivaled plementary, and underlying all conceivable ob-
each other from the very beginning to the pres- jects, qualities, situations, and relationships. It
ent day. Taoism (tao chia) opposed nature to was this school that provided a common ground

man, glorifying Tao or the Way, spontaneity for the fusion of ancient divergent philosophical

(tzu jan), "inaction" (wu wei) in the sense tendencies in medieval China.
of non-artificiality or following nature, simplic- Medieval Chinese philosophy was essentially
52 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
a story of the synthesis of indigenous philoso- in all," the T'ien-t'ai school (c. 550) which
phies and the development of Buddhism. In believes in the identity of the Void, Transitori-
the second century B.C., the Yin Yang move- ness, and the Mean, and in the "immanence
ment identified itself with the common and of 3,00t) worlds in one moment of thought,"
powerful movement under the names of the and the Chin-t'u school (Pure Land, c. 500)
Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzfi (Huang Lao). which bases is doctrine of salvation by faith

This, in turn, became interfused with Con-
fucianism and produced the mixture which was
the Eclectic Sinisticism lasting till the tenth
century A.D. In both Huai-nan Tzu
(d. 122
B.C.), the semi-Taoist, and Tung Chung-shu
(177-104 B.C.), the Confucian, Taoist meta-
physics and Confucian ethics mingled with each
other, with yin and yang as the connecting
links. As the cosmic order results from the
harmony of yin and yang in nature, namely,
Heaven and Earth, so the moral order results
from the harmony of yang and yin in man,
such as husband and wife, human nature and
passions, and love and hate. The Five Agents
(wu hsing), through which the yin yang prin-
ciples operate, have direct correspondence not
only with the five directions, the five metals,
etc., in nature, but also with the five Constant
Virtues, the five senses, etc., in man, thus bind-
ing nature and man in a neat macrocosm-
microcosm relationship. Ultimately this led to
superstition, which Wang Ch'ung (27-c. 100
A.D.) vigorously attacked. He reinstated natu-
ralism on a rational ground by accepting only
reason and experience, and thus promoted the
critical spirit to such an extent that it
gave
rise to a strong movement of textual criticism
and an equally strong movement of free politi-
cal thought in the few centuries after him.
In the meantime, Taoism degenerated and
identified itself with the lowest forms of
ous worship. Its was
naturalistic philosophy
carried to the point of fatalisticmechanism in
Lieh TKU (c. 300 A.D.) and was made the
theoretical basis for alchemy and the search for
longevity in Ko Hung (c. 268-c. 334 A.D.).
In Kuo Hsiang (c. 312 A.D.), however, the
true spirit of Taoism revived. He restored and
developed the Taoist doctrines of naturalism
and spontaneous transformation to a position
of dignity.
Parallel with these developments was
growth of Buddhism China ,a story too long
in
to relate here. Buddhist doctrines, latent
Many
in India, were developed in China. The nihi-
lism of MSdhyamika (Sun-Ian, c. 450-c. 1000)
to the effect that reality is Void in the sense
of being "devoid" of any specific character,
was brought to fullness, while the idealism of
VijnaptimStravada (YogScara, Fahsiang, 563-c.
1000), which claimed that reality in its imagi-
nary, dependent and absolute aspects is "repre-
sentation-only," was pushed to the extreme. But
these philosophies failed because their extreme
positions were not consonant with the Chinese
ideal of the golden mean. In the meantime,
China developed her own Buddhist philosophy
consistent with her general philosophical out-
look. We need only mention the Hua-yen
school (Avatamisaka, 508) which offered a
totalistic philosophy of "all in one" and "one
and salvation for all on the philosophy of the
universality of Buddha-nature. These schools
have persisted because they accepted both nou-
menon and phenomenon, both ens and non-ens,
and this "both-and" spirit is predominantly
characteristic of Chinese philosophy.
The most strange development was Ch'an
(Meditation, Zen, c. 500). It is basically a
method of "direct intuition into the heart to
find Buddha-nature," a method based, on the
one hand, on the eightfold negation of produc-
tion and extinction, annihilation and perma-
nence, unity and diversity, and coming and de-
parting, and, on the other hand, on the
affirmation of the reality of the Buddha-nature
in all things. Its sole reliance on meditation
was most un-Chinese, but it imposed on the
Chinese mind a severe mental and spiritual
discipline which was invigorating as well as
fascinating. For this reason ,it exerted tremend-
ous influence not only on Taoism which had
much in common with it and imitated it in
every way, but also on Neo-Confucianism,
which stood in diametrical opposition to it.
Neo-Confucianism developed in three phases,
namely the Reason school in the Sung period
(960-1279), the Mind school in the Ming
period (1388-1644) and the Moral-Law school
in the Ch-ing period (1644-1911). The central
idea of the movement is focused on the Great
religi- Ultimate (T'ai Chi) and Reason (li). The
Great Ultimate moves and generates the active
principle, yang, when its activity reaches its
limit, and engenders the passive principle, yin,
when it becomes tranquil. The eternal oscilla-
tion of yin and yang gives rise to the material
universe through their Five Agents of Water,
Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth. Thus, reality is
a progressively evolved and a well-coordinated
system.
This dynamic and orderly character of the
the universe is due to Reason and the vital force.
As the Ch'eng brothers (I-ch'uan, 1033-1077,
and Min-tao, 1032-1086) said, "All things have
the same Reason in them." Thus, Reason com-
bines the Many into One, while the vital force
differentiates the One into the Many, each with
its own "determinate nature." The two prin-
ciples,however, are not to be sharply contrasted,
for neither is independent of the other. Reason
operates through ,and is embodied in, the vital
force. It is this cooperative functioning of theirs
that makes the universe a cosmos, a harmonious
system of order and sequence. "Centrality is the
order of the universe and harmony is its un-
alterable law." As such the cosmos is a moral
order. This is the main reason why the greatest
of the Neo-Confucians, Chu Hsi (1130-1200)
said that "the Great Ultimate is nothing but
the Reason of ultimate goodness."
Furthermore, the universe is a social order,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and nothing can stand by itself. At the same & Co., Hamburg, 1938) Fung Yu-lan, A His-
time, everything has its opposite. "No two of tory, of Chinese Philosophy (ancient period), tr.
the productions of creation are alike," and the by D. Bodde, Henri Vetch, Peiping, 1937} Hu
Taoist doctrine of the equality of things must Shih, The Development of the Logical Method
be rejected. In the eternal sequence of appear- in Ancient China, The Oriental Book Co.,
ance and disappearance every creation is new, Shanghai, 1922.
and the Buddhist doctrine of transmigration Ching: (a) The classics, whether Confucian or
must be rejected. Taoist. Formerly spelled king.
In order to appreciate fully the meaning of (b) Cardinal standards or directions in Con-
the universe ,man must comprehend Reason. fucian ethics and government. W.T.C.
This can be done by "investigating things to Ching: (a) Reverence. (Ancient Confucianism.)
the utmost" (ko wu), that is, by "investigating (b) Seriousness, the inner state of respect or
the Reason of things to the utmost (ch'iung politeness (kung). With respect to daily affairs,
li)." When sufficient effort is made ,and under- it is expressed in tare,
vigilance, attention, etc.,
standing naturally comes, one's nature will be and with respect to the laws of the universe, it
realized and his destiny will be fulfilled, since is expressed in sincerity (ch'eng), especially to-
"the exhaustive investigation of Reason, the ward the Reason (li) of things. "Seriousness is
full realization of one's nature, and the fulfill- the basis of moral cultivation, the essence of
ment of destiny are simultaneous." When one human affairs, just as sincerity is the way of
understands he will find that "All
Reason, Heaven." It is "to straighten one's internal life
people are brothers and sisters, and all things and righteousness (i) is to square one's external
are my companions," because all men have the life." It means "unity of mind and absolute

same Reason in them. Consequently one should equanimity and absolute steadfastness." (Neo-
not entertain any distinction between things Confucianism.) W.T.C.
and the ego. This is the foundation of the Ching: (a) Essence. "Essence and vital force (ch'i)
Neo-Confucian ethics of jen, true manhood, constitute things."
benevolence or love. Both the understanding of (b) Purityj the pure nature.
Reason and the practice of jen require sincerity (c) Spirit) intelligence.
(ch'Sng) and seriousness (ching) which to the (d) Concentration) unity of thought. W.T.C.
Neo-Confucians almost assumed religious sig- Ching: (a) Tranquillity) rest) passivity) inactivity)
nificance. As a matter of fact these have a cer- "the constant feature of the passive principle."
tain correspondence with the Buddhist dhyana See tung. (Confucianism.)
and prajna or meditation and insight. Grad- (b) Quietude) quiescence) interpreted by the
ually the Neo-Confucian movement became an Taoist as absence of desire and unity of thought,
inward movement, the mind assuming more and by Confucians in general as the original state of
more importance. human nature, and by HsQn Tzfi (c 335-c 288
When it came to the Ming period especially in B.C.) as the mind not being disturbed by such
Wang Yang-ming (1473-1529), Reason became things as dreams. W.T.C.
identified with Mind. Mencius' doctrine of in- Ch'ing: Passions) feelings) emotions) interpreted
tuitive knowledge (liang chih) was revived and as*
made the basis of his theory of the identity of (a) Human nature (which is originally tran-
knowledge and conduct and the sacred duty of quil) when moved and awakened and expressed
man to "fully exercise his mind" and to "mani- in the seven feelings (joy, anger, sorrow, fear,
fest his illustrious virtues." love, hatred, and desire), like and dislike, and
considered desire as an the sense of advantage and disadvantage.
Wang Yang-ming
obstacle to the mind. The Neo-Confucians of (b) The impure side of man, born of the
the Ch'ing period, especially Tai Tung-yuan passive (yin) vital force (ch'i) as contrasted
(1723-1777), however, argued that since desire with the pure, the nature (hsing) born of the
is part of our nature ,it has its rightful place, active (yang) vital force and expressed in the

just as the vital force has its rightful place

Five Constant Virtues (wu ch'ang).
beside Reason. The main problem then would (c) Human nature, or feelings original in or
be to attain the harmony of human passion proper to man. W.T.C.
(ch'ing) and the originally good human nature Ch'ing (dynasty) philosophy: See li hsSeh and
(hsing). Thus Neo-Confucianism reasserted the Chinese philosophy. W.T.C.
principle of central harmony (chung yung), Ching shen: The spirit and soul of man, or "the
and central harmony isthe Moral Law (tao). vital force (ch'i) and the keeper of life of man,"
This Law
finds expression in constant and or- which is endowed by Heaven as against the
derly transformation ,the realization of which is physical form which is endowed by Earth.
Reason. (Huai-nan Tzfi, d. 122 B.C.) W.T.C.
It will be seen that Neo-Confucianism is es- Chin hsin: Exerting one's mind to the utmost)
sentially compatible with western philosophy complete development of one's mental constitu-
and science. It is to be expected, therefore, that tion, by which one knows his nature and there-
both Neo-Confucianism and western thought will by Heaven. (Mencius, Wang Yang-ming, 1473-
play a great role in any future philosophy in H29,and Tai Tung-yuan, 1723-1777.) W.T.C.
China. W-5T.C. Chin tan: Medicine of immortality. (Taoist al-
References: Alfred Forke, Geschichte der chemy, especially Pao-p'o Ttfi, c 268-c 334.)
neueren chinesischen Philosophic, De Gruyter See Wai tan. W.T.C.
54 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Chiu Duration, or "what reaches to different times,"
:
assumption was attacked by
explicitly stated the
or "what unites past and present, morning and many mathematicians as lacking in validity or
evening." (Neo-Mohism.) W.T.C. as not of legitimately mathematical character,
Chiu The Nine Categories of the Grand
ch'oti: but was defended by others, including Zermelo.
Norm (hung fan) of ancient Confucian philoso- An equivalent assumption, called by Russell
phy) consisting of the Five Elements (wu hsing), the multiplicative axiom and afterwards adopted
the reverent practice of the five functions (ofc by Zermelo as a statement of his Auswahl-
personal appearance, speech, vision, hearing, and prinzip, is as follows: Given a class K whose
thought), the intensive application of the eight members are non-empty classes no two of which
governmental measures, the harmonious use of have a member tn common, there extsts a class
the regulations of time, the establishment
five A (the Austvahltnenge) all of whose members
of the royal standard, the orderly practice of the are members of membets of K. and which has
three virtues, the intelligent practice of divina- one and only one member in common with each
tion, the thoughtful following of various indica- member of K. Proof of equivalence of the
and the rewarding with five kinds of good
tions, multiplicative axiom to the axiom of choice is

and punishment with six forms of evil. W.T.C.
Ch'iung H: Investigation of Reason of things to
the utmost. A thing is considered by the Neo-
Confucianists to be an event. A perfect under-
standing of an event can be obtained by investi-
gating to the utmost the Reason underlying it.
This does not require the investigation of the
Reason of all things. When the Reason in one
thing is extensively investigated, the Reason in
other things can be understood.
due to Zermelo. A.C.
E. Zermelo, Beweis, dass jede Menge wohl%eord-
net werden kann, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 59
(1904), pp. 514-516. B. Russell, On some difficul-
ties in the theory of transfinitf numbers and order
types, Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society, ser. 2, vol 4 (1906), pp. 29-53. E.
Zermelo, Neucr Beweis fur die Moelichkeit einer
Woklordnung, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 65
(1908), pp. 107-128. K Godel, The Consistency
of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized
Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set
(Neo-Con- Theory, Princeton, N. J 1940. ,

fucianism. ) W. T.C. Chou Tun-i: (Chou Lien-hsi, Chou Mao-shu,

Ch'i wu: The equality of things and opinions, the 1017-1073) Was active in government and was

identity of contraries. "Viewed from the stand- a renowned judge. He was the pioneer of Neo-
point of Tao, a beam and a pillar are identical. Confucianism (lihsueh), anticipating the Ch'eng
So are ugliness and beauty, greatness, wicked- brothers. He wrote the T'ung-shu (explanation
ness, perverseness, and strangeness. Separation of the of Changes) and the Taichi Tu-
Book
is the same as construction; construction is the shu (explanation of the diagram of the Great
same as destruction." Therefore the sages har- Ultimate), fundamental texts of Neo-Confucian
monize the systems of right and wrong, and rest philosophy. W.T.C.
in the equilibrium of nature (t'ien chiin). "This Chremati sties : (Gr. chrematistike, the art of the
is called following two courses at the same use of money) A term insisted upon by Ingram
time." (Chuang Tu, between 399 and 295 (1823-1900) and others in a restricted sense
W.T.C. to that portion of the science of political eco-
B.C.)
Choice: (a) In ethics the term choice refers to nomy which relates to the management and
an agent's act of volition in deciding between regulation of wealth and property, one of the
two or more alternatives. Sometimes it is said efforts to indicate more clearly the content of

that we may choose only between alternative classical economics. H.H.

courses of action, sometimes that we may also
choose between alternative ends of action. In
either case it is said that
and knowing, as compared with preference,
which may be spontaneous} and that it is one's
choices which both determine and express one's
moral character. Two further questions arise:
Christology: The totality of doctrines constituting
that part of theology which treats of the nature
choice is deliberate and personality of Christ. First of all Chris-
tology must concern itself with the promise of
a Saviour and Redeemer of the human race. It
includes the study of the prophecies foretelling
the Messiah, as well as their fulfillment. Further

(a) Are our choices free in the sense of not it must inquire into the mystery of the Incarna-
being determined by previous events? and (b) tion, of the Word made flesh, and examine all
Are our choices simply the determinations of the circumstances of the birth, passion, and
our strongest desires? W.K.F. resurrection Since He acknowledged
of Christ.
See Cause, Determinism, Will. that He was God, the Son of God, one with the
Choice, axiom of, or Zermelo's axiom, is the Father, it becomes necessary to examine His
name given to an assumption of logical or credentials, His own prophecies, miracles, and

logico-mathematical character which may be saintly life, which were to serve as evidence that
stated as follows: Given a class K whose mem- He was sent by God and really possessed all
bers are non-empty classes , there exists a (one- power in heaven and on earth. Christology must
deal with the human and Divine nature, their
valued) monadic junction f whose range is AT,
such that /(*) e x for all members x of K. relation to each other, and the hypostatic union

This had often been employed unconsciously or of both in one Divine Person, as well as the
relation of that Person to the Father and the
tacitly by mathematicians- and is apparently
necessary for the proofs of certain important Holy Ghost. Moreover, the authentic decisions
mathematical theorems but was first made ex- of the Councils of the Church form an exceed-

plicitby Zermelo in 1904, who used it in a ingly importantportion of all christological

theories and
doctrines, and also the interpreta-
proof that every class can be well-ordered. Once
tions of those decisions by theologians. JJ.R.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 55

Chrysippus: (280-209 B.C.) One of the leaders Moral Law (tao)j the "ultimate principle" of
of the Stoic School, whose voluminous writings the universe; "the great basis of existence"; "the
have been completely lost. In many respects he beginning and the end of the universe."
deviated from the Stoic speculative course; for (d) The principle of centrality, which is ob-
instance, he combined the principle of natural servable in everything, that everything should
necessity, or determinism, with the doctrine of have the proper balance of activity and tran-
Providence. R.B.W. quillity. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.;
Chu: Direct appellation, a method of designation. Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086.)
"To call out 'Puppy I' is direct appellation." See (e) Impartiality} the principle of neutrality
chia and '.
(Neo-Mohism.) W.T.C. which is present in every human heart.
Ch'uan: (a) A weight} a standard} a balance. (f) The inner life; the inner principle. (Lao
(b) Power} authority} force. Tzu.) W.T.C.
Expediency, a Confucian ethical concept
(c) Chung: (a) Being true to the principle of the
which justifies deviation from cardinal standards self, being true to the originally good nature
or directions (ching) in ethics and government of the self; being one's true self, the Confucian
under certain abnormal circumstances. W.T.C. "central thread or principle" (i kuan) with re-
Chuang Tzu: (Chuang Chou, Chuang Chi-yuan, spect to the self, as reciprocity (shu) is that
between 399 and 295 B.C.) The second greatest principle with respect to others. See i
kuan.
Taoist, was onre a petty officer in his native (b) Exerting one's pure heart to the utmost,
state, Meng (in present Honan), in the revolu- to the extent of "not a single thought not having
tionary and romantic south. A little-travelled been exhausted"; honesty} sincerity; devotion of
scholar, he declined a premiership in favor of soul, conscientiousness. (Confucianism.)
freedom and peace. His love of nature, his "Honesty (chung) is complete realization of
vivid imagination and subtle logic make his one's nature" whereas truthfulness (hsin) is
works masterpieces of an exquisite style. Only "complete realization of the nature of things."
the first seven and a few other chapters of "Honesty (chung) is the subjective side of truth-

Chuang Tzu (English transl. by H. Giles and fulness (hsin) whereas truthfulness is the objec-
by Feng Yu-lan) are authentic. W.T.C. tive side of honesty." (Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-
Ch'uan hsing: Preservation of one's original na- 1086.)
ture. (Taoism.) W.T.C, "Honesty is exerting one's heart to the utmost

Ch'uan sheng: (a) Preservation of life, by the whereas truthfulness is the observance of the

suppression of desires. (Taoism.) Reason of things." (Chu Hsi, 1230-1300.)

(b) Completeness of life, that is, "all desires (c)Impartiality, especially in love and profit.
reach a proper harmony." (Taoism.) W.T.C. (d) Loyalty, especially to one's superiors}
Chu Hsi: faithfulness. W.T.C.
(Chu Hui-an, Chu Yuan-hui, Chu
Chung-hui, 1130-1200) Early distinguished him- Chung: Identity, one of the proofs of agreement.
self as a patriot-scholar, having repeatedly peti- See Mo che. W.T.C.
tioned the emperor to practice the principles of Chung yung: (a) The Golden Mean. See Chung
"investigation of things" and "extension of and / kuan.
knowledge" and not to make peace with the (b) Centrality and harmony, a law "from
invading enemy. *But he prefeired life of pe^ce <\ whose operation we cannot for one instant in

and poverty, accepted a number of government our existence escape"; the central clue to man's
appointments with a great deal of reluctance moral being which unites him to the universal
His lectures at the White Deer Grotto attracted order (or to attain central harmony). (Early
all prominent scholars of the time. The works Confucianism.)
of this leader of Neo-Confucianism (li hsueh) (c) The Universal and the Changeless which
include the Chu Tzu Ch'uan-shu ("Complete is the true principle of things and the eternal
Works," really Selected Works, partial English law of the universe. (Neo-Confucianism.)
transl. by J. P. Bruce The Philosophy of Human W.T.C.
Nature by Chu Hsi) of 66 Chinese chuans in Chun tu: (a) The superior man, the perfect man,
25 volumes and the Yu Let (Sayings Arranged the moral man, the noble man. "There may
by Topics) of 140 chuans in 40* volumes. have been a superior man who is not a true
W.T.C. man (jen), but there has never been an inferior
Chu i wu shih :
Unity of mind, with absolute man (hsiao jSn) who is a true man." The
steadfastness or
impartiality, a state of rever- superior man "makes upward progress," "under-
ential seriousness (ching). (Ch'eng I-ch'uan, stands profit," and "despises the ordinances of

1033-1107, and Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086.) Heaven, great men, and the words of the sages."
W.T.C. (Confucius.)
Chung: (a) The Mean. See Chung yung. (Con- "The superior man's moral order is on the
fucius.) increase, while the inferior man's moral order is
(b) The moral being, in which
central self or on the decrease." "The superior man abides by
"the passions anger, grief, and
such- as joy, what is internal, whereas the inferior man abides
pleasure have not awakened," and which exists by what is external." (Ancient Confucianism.)
"in a state of absolute tranquillity without being "The superior man makes advance in the
moved." See ho. (Early Confucianism} Neo- moral law, whereas the inferior man makes
Confucianism.) advance in profit." "The superior man enjoys
(c) The central or the proper principle; the in the fulfillment of the moral law, whereas
56 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the inferior man enjoys in the fulfillment of his Whitehead and Russell, by introducing classes
desires." (Medieval Confucianism.) The su- into their system only as
incomplete symbols,
perior man "sees what is great and far" and is "avoid the assumption that there are such things
interested in "helping things to perfection," as classes." Their method (roughly) is to re-
whereas the inferior man "sees what is small interpret a proposition about a class determined
and near" and is interested in destroying things." by a prepositional function A as being instead

(Neo-Confucianism.) an existential proposition, about some preposi-

(b) A ruler. tional function formally equivalent to A.
(c) Husband (as in the Odes).W.T.C. See also Logic, formal, 7, 9. A.C.
Cicero: (Marcus Tullius, B.C.) Famous
106-43 Class: (Socio-economic) Central in Marxian so-
for his eclectic exposition of general scientific cial theory (see Historical materialism) the term
knowledge and philosophy, by which he aimed class signifies a group of persons having, in
to arouse an appreciation of Greek culture in respect to the means of production, such
a
the minds of his countrymen, the Romans. common economic relationship as brings them
M.F. into conflict with other groups having a different
Cicero: De Natura deorumi De officiis; Dis- economic relationship to these means. For ex-
putationes Tuscalanae; De finibus bonorum et ample, slaves and masters, serfs and lords,
malorum. proletariat and capitalists are considered pairs
Circular evidence: (Lat. circulus in probando) of classes basic respectively to ancient, medieval
Proof or evidence involving premisses which and modern economies. At the same time many
assume the conclusion which is to be estab- subordinate classes or sub-classes are distin-
O.F.K. guished besides or within such primary ones.
jished.
Git : (Skr.) Awareness. Cf. sat-cit-ananda. K.F.L. In "Revolution and Counter-Revolution" for in-
Citi: (Skr.) Spirit, highest intelligence. K.F.L. stance, Marx applies the term class to the fol-
Citta: (Skr.) In the philosophy of the Yogasutras lowing groups: feudal nobility, wealthy bour-
(q.v.) the phenomenal form of mind as the first geoisie, petty bourgeoisie, small farmers, pro-
creation of prakrti (q.v.) which is differentiated letariat, laborers, subdividing the
agricultural
into mental states (vrttis), such as true and class of small farmers into two further "classes",
false imagination, memory, sleep.
knowledge, peasant free-holders and feudal tenants. The
These being of the active, need restraining
states involved has many manifesta-
conflict of interests
(citta-vrtti nirodka; cf. Yoga) in order to have tions, both economic and non-economic, all of
the true and abiding nature of self (purusa) which are considered part of the class struggle
come into its own. K.F.L. (q.v.) J.M.S.
Claims : See prima facie duties. Class concept: A monadic prepositional func-
Clarification: (Ger. Klarung, Aufklarung) In tion,thought of as determining a class (q.v.).
Husserl: Synthesis of identification, in which A.C.
the noematic sense is given less clearly in an Class consciousness: The consciousness on the
earlier than in a later intending. The course of part of an individual of his membership in a
potential clarification is predelineated horizon- given economic class (q.v.). JM.S.
ally for every element of sense that is either Class Struggle: Fundamental in Marxian social
intended emptily or experienced with less than between
thought, this term signifies the conflict
optimal clarity. The horironal experiencings in classes (q.v.) which, according to the theory of
which "the same" would be given more clearly historical materialism (see the entry, Dialecti-
are explicable in phantasy. Thus, the essential cal materialism) may and usually does take
dimensions and the range of indeterminacy of place in all aspects of social life, and
which has
the object (and its essential possibility or im- existed ever since the passing of primitive com-
possibility) as intended can be grasped in evi- munism (q.v.). The class struggle is considered
dence. This is clarification in the usual sense. basic to dynamics of history in the sense
the
On the other hand, potential experiencings of that a widespread change in technics, or a
"the same" may be made actual rather than fuller utilization of them, which necessitates
fictively actual(phantasied) in which case, changes in economic relations and, in turn, in
the synthesis of clarification is a synthesis of the social superstructure, is championed and car-
fulfilment. See Fulfilment. D.C. ried through by classes which stand to gain from
Class: or set, or aggregate (in most connections the change. The economic aspects of the class
the words are used synonymously) can best be struggle under capitalism manifest themselves
described by saying that classes are associated most directly, Marx held, in disputes over
with monadic prepositional functions (in inten- amount of wages, rate of profits, rate of interest,
sion i.e., properties) in such a way that two amount of rent, length of working day, con-
prepositional functions determine the same class ditions of work and like matters. The Marxist
if and only if they are formally equivalent. A position is that the class struggle enters into
class thus differs from a prepositional function philosophy, politics, law, morals, art, religion
in extension only in that it is not usual to em- and other cultural institutions and fields in

ploy the notation of application of function to various ways, either directly or indirectly, and,
argument in the case of classes (see the article in respect to the people involved, consciously
Propositional function). Instead, if a class a or unconsciously, willingly or unwillingly. In
is determined by a prepositional function A, we any case the specific content of any such field or
say that * is a member of a (in symbols, xe*) institution at a given time is held to have a
if and only if A(x).
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 57

certain effect upon a given class in its conflicts (Ibid) I, Def. 6), and is thus beyond the grasp
with other classes, weakening or aiding it. of the human mind which can know only
Marxists believe that certain kinds of literature thought and extension (extensio, q.v.). W.S.W.
or art may inspire people with a lively sense Cogito: In Husserl: A collective name for spon-
of the need and possibility of a radical change taneous acts, acts in which the ego lives. D.C.
in social relations, or, on the contrary, with a "Cogito" Argument, The: (Lat. cogito, I think)
sense of lethargy or complacency, and that vari- An argumen.. of the type employed by Descartes
ous moral, religious or philosophical doctrines (Meditation II) to establish the existence of the
may operate to persuade a given class that it self. Descartes* Cogito, ergo sum ("I think,
should accept its lot without complaint or its therefore I exist") is an attempt to establish the
privileges without qualms, or may operate to existence of the self in any act of thinking, in-
persuade it of the contrary. The Marxist view cluding even the act of doubting. The cogito
is that every field or institution has a history, ergo sum is, as Descartes himself insisted, not
an evolution, and that this evolution is the so much inference as a direct appeal to intuition,
result of the play of conflicting forces entering but it has commonly been construed as an argu-
into the field, which forces are connected, in ment because of Descartes' formulation. L.W.
one way or another, with class conflicts. While Cognition: (Lat. cognoscere, to know) Knowl-
it is thus held that the class struggle involves edge in its widest sense including: (a) non-
all cultural fields, it is not held that any cul- propositional apprehension (perception, memory,
tural production or phenomenon, selected or introspection, etc.) as well as (b) propositions
delimited at random, can be correlated in a one- or judgments expressive of such apprehension.
to-one fashion with an equally delimited class Cognition, conation and affection,
along with
interest. J.M.S. are the three basic aspects or functions of con-
Classic: A. Art of the first class (Aulus Gellius)* sciousness. See Consiousness, Epistemology.
B. Greek and Roman art in which perfect bal- L.W.
ance between body and spirit is achieved (Hegel). In Scholasticism: Whatever is known is,
Contrasted with Modern and Romantic. L.V. as known, an accident of the knowing soul and
Classicism : Taste based on the imitation of classic therefore caused by an
informing agent. All
art. L.V. knowledge ultimately is due to an affection of
Classification: 1. Process of grouping objects into the senses which are informed by the agency of
classes on the basis of the discovery of common the objects through a medium. The immutation
properties, or the results of such grouping. 2. of the sense organ and the corresponding acci-
Process of grouping species into genera, genera dental change of the soul are called species
into still larger genera, and so on to the sum- sensibilis impressa. The conscious percept is the
mum genus A.C.B.
(q.v.). species expressa. Intellectual knowledge stems
Cleanthes: 310-230 B.C.) Zeno's disciple and
(c. from the phantasm out of which the active in-
one of the most prominent thinkers of the Stoic tellect disengages the universal nature which as
School. Of his writings only a hymn to Zeus species intelligibilis impressa informs the passive
is extant. R.B.W. intellect and there becomes, as conscious concept,
Clearness: (Ger. Klarheit) In Husserl: Intui- the species expressa or verbum mentis. Sensory
tional fullness, whether perceptual, fictively per- cognition is a material process; but it is not the
ceptual, memorial, or anticipational. See Clari- matter of the particular thing which enters into
fication, Distinctness, and Intuition. D.C. the sensory faculties; rather they supply the
Clement of Alexandria: (150-217) An early material foundation for the sensible form to be-
Christian thinker and theologian who attempted come existent within the mind. Cognition is,

to raise the attitude of faith to the level of therefore, "assimilation" of the mind to its ob-
knowledge, he was influenced by TNto, Aris- ject. The
cognitive mental state as well as the
totle, the Stoics, and Philo Judaeus. R.B.W. species by which it originates are "images" of
Co-conscious, The: (Lat. co- -f conscire, to the object, in a metaphorical or analogical sense,
know) Consciousness which is dissociated from not to be taken as anything like a copy or a
the central core of a personality and of which reduplication of the thing. The senses, depend-
that personality is unaware. The co-conscious ing directly on the physical influence exercised
and the unconscious consisting of neural struc- by the object, cannot err; error is of the judg-
tures and p-ocesses are, in the terminology of ing reason which may be misled by imagination
Morton Prince, the two species of the subcon- and neglects to use the necessary critique. R.A.
scious. (The Unconscious, pp. 247 ff.) L.W. Abstractive: That meaning of cognition
Coenaesthesis : (Gr. Koinos, common -|- aisthesis, which lacks one of the two requisites for in-
feeling) Organic sensation (circulatory, diges- tuitive knowledge* for in abstractive cognition
tive etc.) as distinguished from external sensa- either we know things through other things,
tion (visual, auditory, tactual etc.). See Somatic and not through their proper images or we
Datum. L.W. know things that are not present: e.g., the
Cogitatio: One of the two attributes (q.v.) of knowledge we now have of God, through crea-
God which, according to Spinoza, are accessible tures or the knowledge we have of Adam, a
to the human intellect (Ethica, II, passim). being not present to us.
Though God is an infinite thinking thing, it is Comprehensive: Strictly speaking, that which
not possible so to define him; God is "sub- is adequate to or fully commensurate with the

stance consisting of infinite attributes, etc." object, a knowledge in which the whole object
58 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
is known completely and way in which
in every Kant. Following up a suggestion first made by
it can be known
even to all the effects and Lotze they contended that the Ideas ought to
consequences with which it has an intrinsic con- be understood as laws or methods of thought
nection. This knowledge must be clear, certain, and that the current view ascribing any kind
evident, and quidditative, because it is the most of existence to them was based on a misunder-
perfect type of knowledge corresponding to the standing of Aristotle's. H.G.
God's complete knowledge of
object. E.g.) Cohen, Morris Raphael: (1880-) Emeritus Pro-
Himself. fessor of Philosophy of the College of the City
Intuitive: Requires two things: (1) that it re-
of New York. His contributions have been many
sult from the proper species, or the proper image in the of social, political and legal phi-
fields
of the object itself, impressed upon the mind by He describes his view in general as
losophy.
the object or by God} and (2) that bear realistic rationalism, a view that emphasizes the
it

upon an object that is really present with the importance of intellect or reason applied to as
greatest clearness and certitude. Our knowledge than in vacua. has found He
what is, rather
of the sun is intuitive while
are looking at we the principle of polarity a fruitful means of
the sun, and that knowledge which the blessed
resolving antinomies. His best known
works are
have of God is intuitive.
Reason and Nature and Law and the Social
Quidditative: In the strict sense, is that which Order. L.E.D.
arises from the proper image of an object, like knowl-
Coherence Theory of Truth: Theory of
intuitive knowledge, and besides, penetrates dis- edge which maintains that truth is a property
tinctly, with a clear, proper, and positive con- of
primarily applicable to any extensive body
cept, the essential predicates of a thing even to
consistent propositions, and derivatively applica-
the last difference. The knowledge which God
ble to any one proposition in such a system by
has of Himself is of this kind. But quiddilative A.C.B.
virtue of its part in the system.
knowledge in the wide sense is any knowledge
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor: (1772-1834) Lead-
of the quiddity or essence of an object, or any with
ing English poet of his generation along
definition explaining H.G. what a thing is.
friend and William Wordsworth.
his associate,
Cognitive Meaning, Cognitive Sentence: See He was for a time a Unitarian preacher and his
Meaning Kinds of, 1.
,
writings throughout display a keen interest in
Cognoscendum :
(pi. cognoscenda) (Lat. cog- spiritual affairs. He was among the first to

noscere, know) The object of

to a cognition. bring the German .idealists to the attention
of
Cognoscenda may be (a) real and existent e.g. the English reading public. Of greatest philo-
in veridical perception and
memory j (b) abstract sophic interest among his prose works are:
and ideal e.g. in conception and valuation} (c) Biographia Literaria, Aids to Reflection and
fictitious, e.g. in imagination and hallucination. Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit. His influ-
See Object, Objective. L.W. ence was great upon his contemporaries and also
Cohen, Hermann: (1842-1918) and Paul Na- upon the American transcendentalists.
L.E.D.
torp (1854-1924) were the chief leaders of the Collective and Distributive Properties: A
"Marburg School" which formed a definite general term is taken in its collective sense
branch of the Neo-Kantian movement. Whereas when what is predicated of its applies to its
designation as a whole, rather than to each
the original founders of this movement, O. of
Liebmann and Fr. A. Lange, had reacted to the individual members belonging to itj the
empiricism by again calling attention
scientific distributive properties are those that apply only
to thea priori elements of cognition, the Mar- in the latter way.
burg school contended that all cognition was Colligation: (Lat. con + ligare, l bind) The
exclusively a priori. They definitely rejected not assimilation of a number of separately observed
only notion of "things-in-themselves" but
the facts to a unified conception or formula. The
even that of anything immediately "given" in term was introduced by Whewell who gives the
experience. There is no other reality than one example of the idea of an eliptical orbit which
posited by thought and this holds good equally "unifies all observations made on the positions
for the object, the subject and God. Nor is of a planet" (see Philosophy of the Inductive
thought in its effort to "determine the object Sciences, I Aphorism 1). J. S. Mill appropri-
= x" limited by any empirical data but solely ates the term and carefully differentiates it from
by the laws of thought. Since in Ethics Kant induction: whereas colligation is a simple "de-
himself had already endeavored to eliminate scription" of observed facts, induction is an
all empirical elements, the Marburg school was extension to the unknown and to the future.

perhaps closer to him in this field than in See Logic, III, ii, 4. L.W.
epistemology. The sole goal of conduct is ful- Combination: combinare, to join) The
(Lat.
fillment of duty, i.e., the
achievement of a process of forming a new whole by the union
society organized according to moral principles of parts j also the product of such union. Two
and satisfying the postulates of personal dignity. types of combination are distinguishable: (a)
The Marburg school was probably the most in- Composition is a union of parts such that the
fluential philosophic trend in Germany in the component parts are discernible in the com-
last 25 years before the First World War. The pound. Thus the visual and factual data which
most outstanding present-day champion of their combine to form a total percept are recognizable
tradition is Ernst Cassirer (born 1874). Cohen in the resultant percept, (b) Fusion is a union
and Natorp tried to re-interpret Plato as well as of parts into a whole in which the identity of
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the parts is obliterated. Thus the amalgamation
of two sense images to form a new quality
would, if this phenomenon were
psychologically
possible, be an instance of psychic fusion. See
Psychic Fusion. L.W.
Combination of Ideas: According to Locke and
his followers, process by which the mind
the
forms complex ideas out of the simple ideas fur-
nished to it by experience, and one of the three
ways in which the mind by its own activity
can get new ideas not furnished to it from
without (Locke, Essay concerning Human Un-
derstanding, Bk. II, ch. 12, 22). Conceived
sometimes as a mechanical, sometimes as a
quasi-chemical process. W.K.F.
Combinatory Logic: A branch of mathematical
logic, which has been extensively investigated by
Curry, and which is concerned with analysis of
processes of substitution, of the use of variables
generally, and of the notion of a function.
The program calls, in particular, for a system
of logic in which variables are altogether elimi-
nated, their place being taken by the presence
in the system of certain kinds of function sym-
bols. For a more detailed and exact account,
reference must be made to the papers
below. A. C.
M. Schonfinkcl, fiber die Bausteine der mat he-
matischen Logik, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 92
(1924), pp. 305-316. H. B. Curry, Grundlagen
der kombinatorischen Logik, American Journal of
Mathematics, vol. 52 (1930), pp. 509-536, 789-834.
H. B. Curry, The universal quantifier in com-
btnatory logic, Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol.
32 (1931), pp. 154-180. H. B. Curry, Apparent
variables from the standpoint of combinatory hgtc,
Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol. 34 (1933),
pp. 381-404. HB. Curry, Functionality in com-
btnatory logic, Proceedings of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences, vol. 20 0934), pp. 584-590. J. B.
Rosser, A mathematical logic without variables,
Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol. 36 (1935), pp.
127-150, and Duke Mathematical Journal, vol. 1
(1935), pp. 328 t355. H. B. Curry, A revision of
the fundamental rules of combinatory logic, The
Journal of Symbolic Lo^ic, vol. 6 (1941), pp. 41-
53. H. B. Curry, Consistency and completeness of
the theory of combinators, ibid., pp. 54-61.
Comedy: In Aristotle (Poetics), a play in which
chief characters behave worse than men do in
daily life, as contrasted with tragedy, where the
main characters act more nobly. In Plato's
Symposium, Socrates argues at the end that a
writer of good comedies is able to write good
tragedies. See Cor.iic. Metaphysically, comedy
in Hegel consists of regarding reality as ex-
hausted in a single category. Cf. Bergson,
rire (Laughter).
Commentator, The: Name usually used
AverroSs by the medieval authors of the 13th
century and later. In the writings of the gram-
marians (modistae, dealing with modis signifi-
candi) often used for Petrus Heliae. R.4-
Common Sense: In Aristotle's psychology the
faculty by which the common sensible* are per-
ceived. It probable also that Aristotle attrib-
is
utes to this faculty the functions of perceiving
what we perceive and of uniting the data of
different senses into a single object. G.RM.
Common Sense Realism : A school of Scottish
thinkers founded by Thomas Reid (1710-96)
59
which attempted to set up a theory of knowl-
edge which would support the realistic belief of
the man on the street. (See Naive Realism.)
The school began a movement of protest against
Locke's theory which led to an eventual sub-
jective idealism and skepticism. V.F.
Common Sensible*: (Lat. sensibilia communia)
In the psychology of Aristotle the qualities of a
sense object that may be apprehended by several
senses; e.g. motion (or rest), number, shape,
size^ in distinction from the proper sensibles, or
qualities that can be apprehended by only one
sense, such as color, taste, smell. G.R.M.
A
Communication: term used to refer to a cer-
tain feature of sign-situations, viz. the identity,
similarity or correspondence of what is under-
stood by the interpreter with what is, or is
intended to be, expressed by the speaker.
By a familiar ambiguity the term is used in-
discriminately to refer either to the process by
which such accordance is brought about, or that
with regard to which accord between the speaker
and interpreter is achieved.
The definition is intended to cover the com-
. munication of attitudes, evaluations, desires, etc.,
cited as well as ofjudgments or assertions. See Func-
tions of Language, Speech Situation. M.B.
Communication: communicate, to share)
(Lat.
Intercourse minds or selves whereby
between
sensations, imagery or conceptional meanings are
transferred from one to another. Communica-
tion includes: (i) ordinary sense-mediated com-
munication by means of speech, writing, gesture,
facial expression and bodily attitude and (ii)
allegedly direct contact between minds by mental
telepathy and other occult means. See Teleg-
L.W.
nosis; Telepathy.
Communism: (Marxian)In its fullest sense,
that stage of social development, which, follow-
ing socialism (q.v.) is conceived to be character-
ized by an economy of abundance on a world
wide scale in which the state as a repressive force
(army, jails, police and the like) is considered
unnecessary because irreconcilable class antagon-
isms will have disappeared, and it will be pos-
sible to apply the principle, "from each accord-
ing to ability, to each according to need" (Marx:
"Gotha Program"). It is held that the release
of productive potentialities resulting from social-
ized ownership of the means of production will
create a general sufficiency of economic goods
Le
which in turn will afford the possibility of edu-
cational and cultural development for all, and
for that under such conditions people will learn to
live in accordance with valued standards with-
out the compulsion of physical force represented
by a special apparatus of state power. It is
considered that by intelligent planning, both
economic and cultural, it will then be possible
to eradicate the antagonism between town and
country and the opposition between physical
and mental labor. It is now considered in the
U. S. S. R. that the principal features of com-
munist society, with the exception of the "wither-
ing away" of the state, may be attained in one
country of an otherwise capitalist world.
60 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Trotsky considered this a false version of position it is assumed that what characterizes
Marxism. J.M.S. individualsqua individuals will likewise char-
Commutative law is any law of the form x o y acterize groups of these same individuals
=r o *, or with the biconditional, etc., re-
y qua groups. In that of division what is
placing equality- compare Associative law. Com- taken as validly applying to the group as a
mutative laws of addition and multiplication whole is then assumed to apply with equal
hold in arithmetic, also in the theory of real validity to the individuals constituting said
numbers, etc. In the prepositional calculus there group. Called semi-formal because they involve
are commutative laws of conjunction, both kinds passing from the distributive to the collective
of disjunction, the biconditional, alternative de- use of terms and vice versa. C.K.D.
nial and its dual; also corresponding laws in Compossibility: Those things are compossible in
the algebra of classes. A. C. Leibniz's philosophy which are literally "co-
Comparison: (Lat. com- -f par, equal) The act possible," i.e., which may exist together, which
of discerning or describing the common proper- belong to the same possible world. Since meta-
tiespossessed by two or more objects, or the physical possibility means for Leibniz simply
result of such discernment or description. the absence of contradiction, two or more things
A.C.B. are compossible if, and only if, their joint
Compathy: (Ger. Miteinanderfuhlen) Men feel ascription to a single world involves no con-
with each other the same sorrow, the same pain. tradiction. All possible worlds are held by
It is a with-each-other feeling. Only psychical Leibniz to have general laws analogous to those
suffering can thus be felt, not physical pain. of our own actual world. Compossibility for
There is no symagony. See Sympathy. H.H. any of things, consequently, involves their
set

Completeness: A logistic system (q. v.) may be capacity to be brought under one and the same
called if there is no formula of the
complete general system of laws. That this last provision
is important follows from the fact that Leibniz
system which is not a theorem and which can
be added to the list of primitive formulas (no affirmed all simple predicates to be compatible.
other change being made) without rendering the F.L.W.
system inconsistent, in one of the senses of Compound: (Lat. con -f- ponere, to place) A
consistency (q. v.). The pure prepositional cal- complex whole formed by the union of a num-
culus as explained under logic, formal, 1 is ber of parts in contrast to an element which is

complete in this sense.

a simple unanalyzable part. A mental com-
Given the concept of semantical truth (q. v.), pound is a state of mind formed by the com-
we may also define a logistic system as complete bination (see Combination) of simple mental
if every true formula of the system is a theorem. elements, either conscious or unconscious. L.W.
This sense of completeness is not, in general, Compound Theory of Mind The
conception of :

equivalent to the other, 'and may be the weaker mind as a compound of psychological elements
one formulas containing free variables occur.
if analogous to a chemical compound. See Psy-
See Logic, formal, 3, 6.A.C. chological Atomism. L.W.
Complex: (Lat. complecti, to entwine around, Comprehension: (Lat. com -}- prehendere, to
comprise) 1. Anything that possesses distinguish- grasp) The act or faculty of understanding,
able parts; or the. property of possessing dis- intellectualgrasp, or insight. Comprehension
tinguishable parts. 2. Anything that possesses may be achieved variously by: (1) unifying and

distinguishable parts which are related in such relating manifold facts or ideas; (2) deducing
a way to give unity to the whole, or the
as something from premises; (3) accommodating
property of having parts so related. A.C.B. new facts or ideas to established knowledge;
Complication: (Lat. com
-j- plicatio, folded to- (4) seeing a thing or idea in its proper or
gether) The union or act of combining more or significant context; (5) relating a fact or idea
less disparate elements into a single whole im- to something known, universal and subject to

pression or idea. The term usually has reference law. Comprehension carries sometimes the -spe-
to the synthesis of sense data in perceptions, or cial connotation of thorough
understanding.
of perceptions in a unifying idea. O.F.K. Logic: The sum which connote
of characteristics
a notion
(Scholastic) The as class symbolized by a general term.
Composite: existing being
composed (q.v.) and form
of prime matter Also, the features common to a number of in-
stances or objects. Thus, the connotation (q.v.)
(q.v.). The human composite: matter informed
or intension (q.v.) of a concept.
by the spiritual and rational soul. R.A. See Intension.
Composite idea: Any idea that consists of a O.F.K.
fusion of sentient elements, which together are Compresence: (Lat. com praesentia from praesse,
presumed to pass the threshold of consciousness.
to be present) The togetherness of two or more
In logic, a compound of undefined ideas by way items, for example, the coexistence of several
of definition. C.K.D. elements in the unity of consciousness. In the
Composition is the form of valid inference of terminology of S. Alexander (Space, Time and
the prepositional calculus from A 3 B and Deity), an unique kind of togetherness which
A 3 C to A 3 BC. The law of composition underlies cognition. L.W.
is the theorem of the prepositional calculus: Comte, Auguste: (1798-1857) Was born and
IP
= =>
'] =>[*=> f]. A-C. lived during a period when political and social
*][?
conditions in France were highly unstable. In
Composition and Division, fallacies of: Semi-
formal logical fallacies. In the fallacy of com- reflecting the spirit of his age, he rose against
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 61

the tendency prevalent among his predecessors or abstract representation. O.F.AT.

to propound philosophic doctrines in disregard In Husserl: 1. An expressible sense. 2. An
of the facts of nature and society. His revolt eidos as intended. D.C.
was directed particularly against traditional Conception: (Lat. concipere, to take together)
metaphysics with itsendless speculations, count- Cognition of abstracta or universals as dis-
less assumptions, and futile controversies. To tinguished from cognition of concreta or particu-
his views he gave the name of positivism. Ac- lars. (See Abstractum.) Conception, as a mode
cording to him, the history of humanity should of cognition, may or may not posit real or
be described in terms of three stages. The first subsistent universals corresponding to the con-
of these was the theological stage when people's cepts of the mind. See Conceptualism} Con-
interpretation of reality was dominated by super- ceptual Realism. L.W .

stitions and prejudices} the second stage was Conceptualism : A

solution of the problem of uni-
metaphysical when people attempted to compre- versals which seeks a compromise between ex-
hend, and reason about, reality, but were un- treme nominalism (generic concepts are signs
able to support their contentions by facts and 5
which apply indifferently to a number of par-
the third and final stage was positive, when ticulars) and extreme realism (generic concepts
dogmatic assumptions began replaced by to be refer to subsistent universals). Conceptualism
factual knowledge. Accordingly, the history of offers various interpretations of conceptual ob-
thought was characterized by a certain succession jectivity (a) the generic concept refers to a
of sciences, expressing the turning of scholarly class of resembling particulars, (b) the object of

interest toward the earthly and human affairs, a concept is a universal essence pervading the
but no from
namely: mathematics, astronomy, physics, chem- particulars, having reality apart
istry,biology, and sociology. These doctrines them, (c) concepts refer to abstracta, that is to
were discussed in Comte's main work, Cours de say, to ideal objects envisaged by the mind but

philosophic positive. R.B.W. having no metaphysical status. L.W.

Conation: See Scholasticism.
(Lat. conatio, attempt) Referring to
voluntary activity. V.F. Conceptual Realism: Theory which ascribes ob-

Conatus: The jectivity of some sort to conceptual cognition}

drive, force, or urge possessed by a
is directed towards the preservation
includes extreme or Platonic realism and con-
thing which
of its own being. Since, for Spinoza, all things ceptualism but excludes nominalism. See Con-
are animated, the term is used by him in a ceptualitm. L.W.
broader meaning than that accorded it, for ex-
Concomitance: (Latin concomitantia, accompani-
ment), literally the act or state of being asso-
ample, in the Stoic philosophy. Spinoza main-
ciated, the term has received wide currency in
tains that there is no conatus for self-destruction
(Ethica, III, 4, see also IV, 20 Schol., etc.)}
logic, particularly sinceJohn Stuart Mill clear-
ly formulated the method of concomitant varia-
rather, the conatus relates to a thing's "power
of existence", and he thus speaks of it as a tions, as the concurrent existence, appearance or

kind of amour propre (natuurlyke Liefde) which disappearance of certain characters which, under
characterizes a specific thing. See Short Tr., circumstances, admit but do not necessarily
postulate causal interrelatedness. K.F.L.
App. II W.S.W.^ Precise conjunction or accompaniment, spatial
Conceivability : The quality or condition of tak-
or temporal. C.A.B.
ing into and holding an idea in mind. It has
come to mean any affection of the mind or any Concrete: Anything that is specific or individ-
ual. The term is opposed to "general" or to
apprehension, imagining or opinion of the mind.
It is a necessary though not sufficient criterion "abstract", terms which stress common char-

for the truth of said idea or affection, etc. acteristics or qualities considered apart from
C.K.D their specific setting. V.F.

Concept: In logic syn. either with propositional

Concrete Universal: In Hegel's system a cate-

junction (q. v.) generally or with monadic gory is concrete when it possesses the basic

propositional junction. The terminology asso- character of the

i.e. tension,
real, change
ciated with the word junction is /lot, however, dialectical Such a universal com-
opposition.
usually employed in connection with the word prises a two
synthesis of
opposite abstractions}

concept', and the latter word may serve to and with one exception, it in turn becomes an
avoid ambiguities which have arisen from loose abstract member of a pair of logical opposites
or variant usages of the word junction (q. v.) }
united or "sublated" in a higher category. The
or it may reflect a difference in point of view. lowest of such dynamic or concrete universals is
A.C. Becoming, which is a dialectical synthesis of
In scholasticism: the "word of the mind" Being and Not-Being. The only absolutely con-
(verbum by which the possible in-
mentis)
creteuniversal, however, is Reality itself, the
tellect expresses (therefore also in later writers
World Whole, conceived as an all-inclusive,
species expressa) the universal nature disengaged organic system of self-thinking Thought.
2. Nco-idealism (q.v.) in Italy introduces a
by the active intellect from the phantasm and
transmitted as species intelligibilis to the possible second type of concrete universal whose elements
intellect. R.A. lack the character of dialectical opposition and

In Kant: In the logical abstractness. W.L.

strict sense, any generic
or class term, exclusive or relational terms Concretion: (Lat. concresco, to grow together)
or categories. Sometimes, loosely, any general A uniting or growing together. V.F.
62 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Santayana calls universal "concretions of dis- believers in Christ, who become the children of
course." (Life of Reason, vol. I (Reason in God, and denying that thehuman soul is im-
Common Sense)). mortal by nature. JJ.R.
Concupiscence: (Lat. con -f- cupere, to desire Conditional Morality: Any system of morals
wholly or altogether) Desire for pleasure or de- which has for its basic principle what Kant
light of the senses; as such it is a desire which callsa hypothetical imperative, e.g., a system
is natural, necessary and proper to man. But of morals which reasons that we should act in
when this desire operates independently of, or certain ways because such actions will bring us
contrary to the right rule of reason, then con- happiness, assuming that we want happiness.
cupiscence is a bad habit or vice, contrary to See Hypothetical imperatives. W.K.F.
nature, and thus opposed to the virtue of tem- Conditioned Reflex: See Conditioned Response.
perance or "nothing in excess." In an extended Conditioned Response: Response of an organ-
sense, concupiscence may apply to desire for ism which, originally produced by its "natural"
objects arousing appetites other than those of stimulus, is subsequently produced in the absence
the senses. L.M.H. of the original stimulus by a substitute or "con-
Concurrence: The doctrine of Augustine that be- ditioning" stimulus. Thus if S represents an
fore the was possible for man not to
Fall it original stimulus (in Pavlov's experiment, the

sin, but he needed God's help, adjutorium

sine presentation of food to a dog) and R is the
natural response (the salivary flow of the dog)
quo non. After the Fall man needs God's grace
or concurrence which acts with him, adjutorium and if S' is a conditioning stimulus associated
with 5 (the ringing of a bell at the time of
quo, with which he must co-operate. The term
also signifies, concursus, or the general co- presenting food to the dog) then R, produced
operation of God, the primary cause, with the by S' in the absence of 5 is said to be a con-
ditioned or conditional response. See Behavior-
activity of all creatures, as secondary causes.
JJ.R. ism. L.W.
Concursus dei (or divinus) : (Lat. Divine con-
Conditiones sine quibus non: A phrase descrip-
current activity) The divine activity in its re- tive of accompanying conditions without
such

lation to the finite causes in the the presence of which it is impossible for a
development
of the world and the free will of man. The cause to produce an effect, conditions for which

term suggests that divine activity runs parallel there are no substitutes. JJ.R.
with the activity of things and creatures. The Conduct: (Lat. conducere, to bring together) (a)
concursus dei differently conceived depending
is Voluntary behavior of any sort, actual or in-
on whether the stress is laid on the divine tended. Action for which a person may be held
action or on the action of secondary causes. responsible. Subject-matter of ethics which seeks
to determine right and wrong action or proper
H.H.
and improper conduct. Deportment.
Condignity: A which im-
characteristic of merit
(b) In psychology: Behavior of a living or-
plies equality and proportionality between service
rendered and its recompense, to which there is ganism reacting to environmental stimuli. See
Behaviorism. AJ.B.
a claim on the ground of justice. Merit of this
Configuration: (Lat. configurate from con, to-
description is called condign merit, or merilum
de condigno. JJ.R. gether and figurare, to form) A structural pat-
tern at the physical, physiological or psychologi-
Condillac, Etienne: (1715-1780) French sensa- The term has been
cal level. suggested to
tionalist. Successor of Locke. In his Traite
translate German
the Gestalt. See Gestalt
des he works out the details of a
sensations,
Psychology. L.W.
system based on Lockean foundations in which A
Configurationism : suggested English equivalent
all the human faculties are reduced in essence
for Gestalt Psychology. See Gestalt Psychology.
to a sensory basis.
Understanding, in all its

is deemed nothing more than the com- Confirmation, Confirmable: See Verification 3, 4.
phases,
or multiplication of sensations. He Conflict: The psychological phenomenon of
parison is

for struggle between competing ideas, emotions or

important today his having followed the
lead of Locke in pointing the way to psychology
tendencies to action. J. F. Herbart (Lehrbuch

to profit by observation and experience.

der Psychologie, 1816) enunciated a doctrine of
L.E.D.
which ideas
conflict of ideas in accordance with
E. Condillac, Traite des systemes, 1846$ Traite
opposed to the mind's dominant ideas are sub-
des sensations, 1854} Langue des calculs, 1858.
merged below the threshold of consciousness.
Condition: (Lat. conditio, agreement, condition) The doctrine of conflict has been revived by
1. The if-clause in an implicative proposition.
recent psychoanalytic psychology (see Psycho-
2. Cause (q.v.). 3. Necessary cause (q.v.) as
analysis) to account for the relegation to the
opposed to sufficient cause. A.C.B.
subconscious of ideas and tendencies intolerable
Conditional: The sentential connective =>. See to the conscious mind. L.W.
Logic, formal, 1.
Confucius: (K'ung Ch'iu, K'ung Chung-ni,
A sentence of the form A =5 B (or a proposi- K'ung Fu-tzu or Grand Master K'ung, 557-479
tion expressed by such a sentence) verbally, "if B.C.) Was born of a poor and common family
A then B" may be called a conditional sentence in the state of Lupresent Shangtung), a
(in
(or proposition). A. C. descendant of the people of Sung. His father
Conditional Immortality: A teaching affirming died soon after his birth. When he grew up,
that immortality is a gift of God conferred on he was put in charge of a granary, then cattle
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 63
and sheep, and then public works in his native pleasure and sadness, etc. Synonymous with
state. Later he became Grand Secretary of Jus- conncxio.
tice and then Chief Minister. He regained some (e) Metaphysics: In Aristotle, De Gen. et
territory lost to a neighboring state purely by Corr. t the pairings of opposites in the
simple
his moral force, executed a minister who created bodies: dry and hot (fire), hot and moist
(air),
disorder, and brought peace to the land to the moist and cold (water), cold and dry (earth).
extent that things lost on the highways were L.M.H.
not stolen. Conjunction: See Logic, formal, 1.

In 496 B.C., he began 14 years of travelling Connexity: A dyadic relation R is called con-
from state to state, offering his service. He was nected if, for every two different members *, y
of
politely consulted by princes and dukes, but no at one of xRy, yRx holds.
its field, least
one would put his moral doctrines into practice. Connotation: 1. The sum of the constitutive
He was even sent away from Ch'i, threatened notes of of a concept as it is in
the essence
in Sung, driven out of Sung and Wei, and sur- itself and not as it is for us. This logical prop-

rounded between Ch'en arid Ts'ai. When in erty is thus measured by the sum of the notes
difficulty, he exclaimed, "Heaven has endowed of the concept, of the higher genera it implies,
me with a moral destiny. What can Huan of the various essential attributes of its nature
Tuei (who threatened him) do to me?" Eventu- as such. This term
is synonymous with inten-

ally he retired to Lu to study, teach and write. sion and comprehension; yet, the distinctions
He lived in the time when the moral and between them have been the object of contro-
cultural traditions of Chou were in rapid de- versies. 2. J. S. Mill identifies connotation with
cline. Attempting to uphold the Chou culture, significationand meaning, and includes in it
he taught poetry, history, ceremonies and music much less than under comprehension or inten-
to 3,000 pupils, becoming the first Chinese edu- sion. The connotation of a general term (singu-
cator to offer education to any who cared to lar terms except descriptions are non-connota-
come with or without tuition. He taught litera- ti've) is the aggregate of all the other general
ture, human conduct, being one's true self and terms necessarily implied by it as an abstract
honesty in social relationships. He wrote the possibility and apart from exemplification in the
chronicles called Spring and Autumn. His tacit actual world. It cannot be determined by de-
judgments on social and political events were notation because necessity does not always refer
such that "unruly ministers and villainous sons to singular facts. Logicians who adopt this view
were afraid" to repeat their evil deeds. distinguish connotation from comprehension by
He severely disciplined himself and practiced including in the latter contingent characters
what he taught. He loved poetry, ceremonies which do not enter in the former. Comprehen-
and music. He was serious, honest, polite, filial- sion is thus the intensional reference of the
ly pious towards his mother, stern toward his concept, or the reference to universals of both
son, and friendly to his pupils. His most re- general and singular terms. The determination
liable teachings are found in the Lun Yu of the comprehension of a concept is helped by
(Analects), aphorisms recorded by his followers. its denotation, considering that reference is made

W.T.C. also to singular, contingent, or particular objects

Confused: (Ger. vertvorren) In Husserl: Not exhibiting certain characteristics. In short, the
given distinctly, articulatedly, with respect to
connotation of a concept is its intensional refer-
In sensations ence determined intensionallyj while its com-
implicit components. Descartes,
are confused ideas. D.C. prehension is its intensional reference extension-
Confusion: (logical) May be due to the am- ally determined. 3. It may be observed that
such a distinction and the view that the connota-
biguity which is always a possible accompaniment
of the use of words or terms with respect to tion of a concept contains only the notes which
their several meanings. It may also refer to serve to define it, involves the nominalist prin-

any logical misapprehension which results in a ciple that a concept may he reduced to what we
semi-formal or material fallacy. C.K.D. are actually and explicitely thinking about the
notes we use to define it. Thus the
Congruity: A characteristic of mer|t which im- several
connotation of a concept is much poorer than its
plies an intrinsic disproportionality between ser-
vice rendered and its recompense, to which there actual content. Though the value of the concept
is no claim on the ground of justice, but on that seems to be saved by the recognition of its com-
of equity alone. Merit of this description is prehension, it may be argued that the artificial
called congruous merit, or meritum de congruo. introduction into the comprehension of both
JJ.R. necessary and contingent notes, that is of actual
Conjugation: (Lat. con + jungere, yoke together) and potential characteristics, confuses and per-
verts the notion of connotation as a logical prop-
(a) Grammar: The inflections of a verb.
(b) Biology. The union of male and female erty of our ideas. See Intension. T.G.
plant or animal. Conscience: knowledge) Any
(Lat. conscientia,
(c) Logic: Joining' the extreme terms of a emotionally-toned experience in which a tend-
syllogism by the middle term* joining dissimilar ency to act is inhibited by a recognition, socially
things by their common characteristics or by conditioned, that suffering evil consequences is
analogy. likely to result from acting on the impulse to
(d) Ethics: Conjugations or pairings of the
passions: love and hate, desire and avoidance, Conscientalism : The doctrine that contends that
64 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the entities we apprehend must be necessarily and conation.
mental, idealistic; that the real objects are reali- Locke, Reid and others restricted conscious-
ties of consciousness. H.H. ness to the reflective apprehension of the mind
Conscientialism : (Lat. conscientia -{" al, per- of its own processes but this usage has been
taining to conscience) Originally denoting sim- abandoned in favor of the wider definition indi-
ple consciousness without ethical bearing, the
cated above and the term introspection is used
term conscience came in modern times to mean to designate this special kind of consciousness.
in contrast to consciousness, viewed either as a See Behaviorism. L.W.
purely intellectual function or as a generic term
1
(Ger. Betvusstsein) In Husseil
for mind, a function of distinguishing between 1. Noematic intentionality in general. The in-

right and wrong. With the rise of Christianity tentional constituting of the temporal stream-
the term came to be described as an independent of-consciousness itself is an instance of "con-
source of moral insight, and with the rise of sciousness" in this broad sense, though it is

modern philosophy it became an inner faculty, intrinsically prior to the constituted stream.
an innate, primeval thing. H.H. 2. The stream of subjective process, or any part
Conscious: (Ger. betvusst) In Husserl 1. of it, as having the characteristic of noematic
Broadest sense: noematically intentional, con- intentionality. 3. The stream of "actual" sub-
scious of something. A process may be "con- jective process, or any part of it, the "ego
scious" in this sense even if it is not "conscious" cogito". D.C.
in the following sense. 2. Narrower sense Consciousness, Field of: The sum-total of items
"Actual", belonging to the cogito. As living embraced within an individual's consciousness at
in a process that is "conscious" in this second any given moment. The total field consists of
sense, the ego is also said to be "conscious", (a) the focus, where the concentration of atten-
"awake", and "conscious of" (awake the tion is maximal and (b) a 'margin, penphery or
to)
intentional object of the process. As objects of fringe of a diminishing degree of attention

processes that are conscious (in either of the which gradually fades to zero. L.W.
first two senses), objects are occasionally ic- Consciousness-in-general: (Kant's Betvusstsein
ferrcd to as "conscious". D.C. Ueberhaupt} Consciousness conceived as purely
Conscious Illusion Theory: The theory that logical, objective, universal, necessarily valid, in
conscious self-illusion, semblance and deliberate contrast to the eccentricity, particularity, subjec-
make-believe are constant factors in art and art tivity, irrationality, and privacy of the psycho-

appreciation which free the individual momen- logical consciousness. See Kant. W.L.
tarily from the practical and hum-drum and thus Consectarium consectarius) Peculiar to
:
(Lat.
enhance and refresh his life. See Konrad Lange, the philosophical vocabulary of Cicero, it means
Die betvusste Selbstfduschung als Kern des an inference, a conclusion. It is the substantive
aesthetischen Gennsses, 1895 O.F.K. for the phrase "that follows logically". H.H.
Consciousness: (Lat. conscire, to know, to be Consensus gentium: (Lat. agreement of people)
cognizant of) A designation applied to conscious A ciiterion of truth: that which is universal
mind as opposed to a supposedly unconscious or among men carries the weight of truth. V.F.
subconscious mind (See Subconscious Mind; Un- Consent Agreement or sympathy
: in feeling or
conscious Mtnd), and to the whole domain of thought. V.F.
the physical and non-mental. Consciousness is Consentience: (Lat, con -{- sentire, to feel) Con-
generally considered an indefinable term or scious unity existing at the level of sensation
rather a term definable only by direct intro- after the subtraction of all conceptual and in-
spective appeal to conscious experiences. The terpretative unity. Consentience includes both:
indefinability of consciousness is by
expressed (a) the intra-sensory unity of a single sensory
Sir William Hamilton. "Consciousness cannot continuum (e.g. the visual, tactual or auditory)
be defined' we may be ourselves fu !y awaie and (b) the inter-sensory unit embracing the di-
what consciousness is, but we cannot without verse sensory continua. Consentience plays an
confusion convey to others a definition of what important role in the psychological doctrine of
we ourselves clearly apprehend. The reason is the presentation-continuum of J. Ward and G. F.
plain consciousness lies at the root of all knowl- Stout. An allied concept is the sensory organiza-
edge." (Lectures on Metaphysics, I, 191.) tion of Gestalt Psychology. See Gestalt Psy-
Ladd's frequently quoted definition of conscious- chology. L.W.
ness succeeds only in indicating the circum- Consequence: (Ger. Konsequenz) In Husserl:
stances under which it is directly observable The relation of formal-analytic inclusion which
"Whatever we are when we aie awake, as obtains between certain noematic senses.
contrasted what we are
with when we sink Consequence: See Valid.
into a profound and dreamless sleep, that is to Consequence-logic: (Ger. Konsequenzlogik)
be conscious." Consistency-logic (Logik der Widerspruchdostg-
The
analysis of consciousness proceeds in two keit), pure apophantic analytics (in a strict
principal directions, (i) a distinction may be sense) , a level of pure formal logic in which
drawn between the act of consciousness and the the only thematic concepts of validity are con-
content of consciousness and the two may even sequence, inconsequence, and compatibility. Con-
be considered as separable ingredients of con- sequence-logic includes the essential content of
sciousness, and (ii) consciousness is analy/ed into traditional syllogistics and the disciplines mak-
its three principal functions: cognition, affection
ing up formal-mathematical analysis. D.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 65

Consequent: See Antecedent. stitutive"; products, "constituted" (q.v.).

its

Consilience: Whewell calls "consilience of induc- The synthetic structure of the constitutive proc-
tions" what occurs when a hypothesis gives us ess, regarded either as a
static or as a tem-
the "rule and reason" not only of the class of porally genetic affair, is called the constitution
facts contemplated in its construction, but also, of the intentional object. 2. Narrower tense:

unexpectedly, of some class of facts altogether The structure of intentionality in its character
different.CJ.D. as rational, i.e., as productive of valid objects
Consistency: (1) A logistic system (q. v.) is and correct, justified, habits (convictions, etc.).
consistent if there is no theorem whose negation See Evidence and Reason. D.C.
is a theorem. See Logic, formal, 1, 3, 6} Constitutive: Of the essential nature} internal}
also Proof theory. component} inherent. Internal relations are
Since this definition of consistency is relative constitutive because they are integral parts or
to the choice of a particular notation as repre- elements of the natures which they relate}
senting negation, the following definition is whereas external, non-constitutive relations may
sometimes used instead: (2) A logistic system be altered without change in the essential natures
is consistent if not every formula (not every of the related entities,
sentence) is a theorem. In the case of many In Kant: Whatever enters into the structure of
familiar systems, under the usual choice as to actual experience. Thus, the categories are con-
which notation represents negation, the equiva- stitutive of
knowledge of nature because they
lence of this sense of consistency to the previous are necessary conditions of any
experience or
one is immediate. knowledge whatever. In contrast, the trans-
Closely related to (2), and applicable to lo- cendent Ideas (God, the total
Cosmos, and the
gistic systems containing the pure prepositional immortal Soul) are not constitutive of
anything,
calculus (see Logic, formal, 1 ) or an
appropri- since they do not serve to define or compose
ate part of it, is the notion of consistency in real objects, and must be restricted to a
regula-
the sense of E. L. Post, according to which a tive and speculative use. See Crit. Pure of
system is consistent if a formula composed of a Reason, Transc. Dialectic, Bk. II, ch. II, Sec. 8.
single prepositional variable (say the formula p) O.F.K.
is not a theorem. A. C. Construct, Imaginative: (Lat. to
construere,
*
Consistency proof s : See Proof theory, and build) See Construction, Psychological.
Logic formal, 1, 3, 6. Construction: (Lat. constructio, from construere,
Constant: A constant is symbol employed as an
a to build) The mental process of
devising imagi-
unambiguous name distinguished from a vari- native constructs or the products of such con-
able (q. v.). structional activities. A
construction, in contrast
Thus in ordinary numerical algebra and in to an ordinary hypothesis which professes to
real number theory, the symbols x, y, z are represent an actual state of affairs, is largely

variables, while 0, 1, 3, TT, e are constants.

, arbitrary and fictional. L.W.
In such mathematical contexts the term constant Construction, Psychological: (In contrast to
isoften restricted to unambiguous (non-variable) Logical) A framework devised by the com-
names of numbers.^ But such symbols as -f-, =, mon-sense, or philosophical imagina-
scientific

< may also be called constants, as denoting tion for the

integration of diverse empirical
particular functions and relations. data. In contrast to an hypothesis, a construc-
In various mathematical contexts, the term tion is not an inference from experience but is
constant will be found applied to letters which an arbitrary scheme which, though presumably
should properly be called variables (according not a true picture of the actual state of affairs,
to our account here), but which are thought of satisfies the human imagination and
promotes
as constant relatively to other variables appear- further investigation. Perceptual objects,
space
ing. The actual distinction in such cases, as and time, physical atoms, electrons, etc. as well
revealed by logistic formalization, either is be- as philosophical world-views, have by certain
tween free and bound variables, or concerns the philosophers been called logical constructs. (Cf.
order and manner in which the, variables are B. Russell, Our Knowledge of the External
bound by quantifiers, abstraction operators, etc. World, Ch. IV.) L.W.
In mathematics, the word constant may also Contemplation: (Lat. contemplate, to gaze at-
be employed to mean simply a number ("Euler's tentively) (a) In the mystical sense: Knowl-
constant"), or, in the physical sciences, to mean edge consisting in the partial or complete iden-
a physical quantity ("the gravitational constant," of the knower with
tification the object of
"Planck's constant"). A. C. knowledge with the consequent loss of his own
Constituted: (Ger. konstituiert) In Husserl: individuality. In Hugo of St. Victor (1096-
Resultant from constitutive synthesis; intention- 1141), Contemplatio is the third and highest
ally synthetized. See Constitution. D.C. stage of knowledge of which cogitatio and
Constitution: (Ger. Konstitution) In Husserl: meditatio are the two earlier levels.
1. Broader sense: Intentionally in its character (b) In recent epistemology: Contemplation is
as producing, on the one hand, intentionally knowledge of an object in contrast to enjoy-
identical and different objects of consciousness ment which is the minds' direct self-awareness.
with more or lessdeterminate objective senses (Cf. S. Alexander, Space, Time and Deity, Vol.
and, on the other hand, more or less abiding I, p. 12.) JLW.
ego-habitudes (see Habit) is said to be "con- Content of Consciousness: (Lat. contentus
66 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
from continere, to contain) The totality of (verites de raison); Hume
(q.v.) regarded all
qualitative data present to consciousness in con- causal assertions as contingent upon certain
trast to the act of apprehending such data. See habits of the mind. See Cause, Probability.
Act Psychology} Datum. L.W. Continuant: "That which continues to exist while
Contextual definition: Sec incomplete symbol. its states or relations may be changing" (John-

Contiguity, Association by: A type of associa- son, Logic I, p. 199). The continuant is in
tion, whereby one of
recognized by Aristotle, Johnson's metaphysics a revised and somewhat
two mind, which have been coexistent
states of more precise form of the traditional conception
or successive, tends to recall the other. This of substance;it includes, according to him, that

type of association has sometimes been con- residuum from the traditional conception of sub-
sidered the basic type to which all others are re- stance which is both philosophically justifiable
ducible. See Association, Laws of. L.W. and indispensable.
Continence: In Aristotle's ethics the moral con- A "substantive", or "existent"
is defined by

dition of a person able to control his

bodily Johnson as manifested in space or
anything
desires by reason. Aristotle distinguishes con- time. The substantives divide into two sub-
tinence from temperance in that the former classes, continuants and occur rents: those which
implies a conflict between bodily desires and continue to exist, and those which cease to exist.
rational choice, whereas in the temperate man Every occurrent is referable to one or more
there is no such conflict. G.R.M. continuant.

Contingency: (Lat. contingere, to touch on all While continuants are collections or sets of
sides) In its broadest philosophical usage a state occurrents, every collection of occurrents does
of affairs is said to be contingent if it may and not constitute a continuant, but only those pos-
also may not be. A certain event, for example, sessing a certain type of unity. This unity is
is contingent if, and only if,
it may come to not an "unknown somewhat" supporting the

pass and also may not come to pass.

For this observable nor does it imply the
properties;
reason contingency is not quite equivalent in permanence of any given property. Rather it is
meaning to possibility (q.v.), for while a pos- a "causal unity of connection between its tem-
sible state of affairsis one which may be, it porarally or spatially separated manifestations"
may at the same time be necessary, and hence (I bid., Ill, p. 99).
it would be false to say that it may not be. Johnson recognizes two fundamentally distinct
In this broad sense contingency appears al- types of continuant: physical and psychical,
ways to imply a reference to some basis in rela- the "occupant" (of space), and the "experient".
tion to which a given thing may be said to be F.L.W.
contingent) and in view of the two referents Continuity: A class is said to be compactly (or
most commonly employed it is possible to dis- densely) ordered by a relation R if it is ordered

two chief types: (1) logical contingency,

tinguish by R
(see Order) and, whenever xRx and x^x,
and (2) physical contingency. The first is there is a y, not the same as either x or z, such

contingency with respect to the laws of logic, that xRy and yRx. (Compact order thus be may
the second contingency with respect to the laws described by saying that between any two distinct
of nature. A given state of affairs, e.g., the members of the class there is always a third, or
existence of a snowflake with a given shape, is by saying that no member has a next following
logically contingent in that the laws of logic do
member in the order.)
not suffice to establish that such a thing does or If a class b is ordered by a relation R, and
does not exist. This same state of affairs would a <= ly we say that x is an upper bound of a
not ordinarily be held to be physically con- if, for all X, xea implies xRz; and that at is a
least upper bound of a if e is an
tingent, however, for, although the laws of upper bound of
nature alone do not suffice to determine that a and there is no upper bound y of a, different
there is such a snowflake, still it would be held from x, such that yRx.
on the general hypothesis of determinism that, A class b ordered by a relation R is said to
given the specific conditions under which the have continuous order (Dedekindian continuity)
water was frozen, it was determined by physical if it is compactly ordered
by R and every non-
laws that a snowflake would exist and that it empty class a, for which a = b, and which has
would have this shape and no other. an upper bound, has a least upper bound.
Anarrower, less philosophical employment of An important mathematical example of con-
"contingent" emphasizes the aspect of depend- tinuous order is afforded by the real numbers,
ence of one state of affairs upon another state ordered by the relation not greater than. Ac-
of affairs in accordance with the laws of nature. cording to usual geometric postulates, the points
In this usage an event A is said to be contingent on a straight line also have continuous order,
upon B when the occurrence of A depends upon and, indeed, have the same order type as the
the occurrence of B; and it is usually implied real numbers.
that the occurrence of B is itself uncertain. The term continuity is also employed in
F.L.W. mathematics in connection with functions of
In metaphysics: The opposite of determinism, various kinds. We
shall state the definition for
which holds that free activity may enter causally the case of a monadic function / for which the
into natural processes. See Boutroux. R.T.F. range of the independent variable and the range
Leibnic distinguished contingent truths (vi- of the dependent variable both consist of real
, rites de fait) from necessary truths of reason numbers (see the article Function).
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 67
Let us use R for the relation not greater than ib. 6a-17. Thus
of contraries belong to
pairs
among real numbers. A
neighborhood of a real the same genus, or contrary sub-genera, or are
number c is determined by two real numbers m themselves sub-genera, ib. 14a-18.
and n both different from c and such that Strictly speaking, there are no contraries in
mRc and cRn and is the class of real numbers the category of substance, since substances are
x, other than m and it, such that mRx and the subject of contraries, nor in the category
xRn. The function / is said to be continuous at of quantity, since these are relative. Two con-
number c
the real if the three following con- trary states cannot obtain in one and the same
ditions are satisfied: (I) c belongs to the range individual at the same time and in the same
of the independent variable; (2) in every respect) cf. contradiction. Some contraries, e.g.
neighborhood of c there are numbers other than good-bad, black-white, have intermediaries j
c belonging to the range of the independent while others do not, e.g. odd-even. (Xi)
Propo-
variable; (3) corresponding to every neighbor- sitions: Two
universal propositions, having op-
hood b of /(c) there is a neighborhood a of c posite quality (i.e. one affirmative and one
such that, for every real number * belonging to negative) are contrary j De Interpretation , 17b-
the range of the independent variable, xea im- 4, See Logic, formal 4, 8.
plies /(x) b. A function may be called con- (b) Physics: In Greek philosophy, the ulti-
tinuous if it is continuous at every real number, mate principles of nature and change were con-
or at every real number in a certain set deter- traries: e.g. love-strife}
motion-rest) potential-
mined by the context. A. C. ity-actuality.All motion is between contraries.
E. V. Huntingtori, The Continuum, Cambridge, See Heraclitus, Empedocles, Aristotle. L.M.H.
Mass.. 1917.
Contrast: In aesthetics: the term may refer
Continuum, Sensory: (Lat. continuere, to hold either to the presence in the
object contemplated
together) The unity of a single sensory field, of contrasting elements (colors, sounds, char-
(visual, auditory, etc.) or of the total
tactual,
acters,etc.), or to the principle that the pres-
sensory experience of an individual. (Cf. G. F. ence of such contrasting elements is a common
Stout, Mind and Matter, Bk. IV, Ch. III.) See feature of beautiful objects
L. W. which, within limits,
Consentfence. enhance^ their beauty. W.K.F.
Contraction of a genus or species: (in
Contrast: (contrastare, to stand opposed to)
Scholasticism) Is the determination or applica-
tion of a genus to some species, or of a species Relation, complementary to resemblance, obtain-
to some individual. H.G. ing between qualities. In a continuous qualita-
tive series, the contrast increases as the re-
Contradict 10 in adjecto:
v
A
logical inconsistency
semblance diminishes. L.W.
between a noun and itsmodifying adjective. A
favorite the phrase "round square."
Contrast, Association by: (Lat. contrastare, to
example is
stand opposed to) Association in accordance
A.C.
with the principle proposed by Aristotle but re-
Contradiction, law of, is given by traditional
jected by Hartley, J. S. Mill and other associa-
logicians as "A is B and A is not B cannot
tionists that contrasting qualities tend to rein-
both be true." It is usually taken to be the state one another in consciousness. See Associa-
theorem of the prepositional calculus, ~[p
tion,Laws of. L.W.
~p]. In use, however, the name often seems Convention:
to refer to the syntactical
(Lat. convenient, suitable) Any
principle or precept
proposition whose truth is determined not by
which may be formulated as follows: A logical fact but by social agreement or usage. In
discipline containing (an applied) prepositional
Democritus, "Sweet is sweet, bitter is bitter,
calculus, or a set of hypotheses or postulates to
color is color by convention (nomoi)." (Diels,
be added to such a discipline, shall not lead to
Frag. d. V orsokratiker B. 125) The Sophists
two theorems or consequences of the forms A
(q.v.) regarded all laws and ethical principles
and ~A. The law is explicitly stated in a
as conventions. A.C.B.
syntactical form, e.g. by Ledger Wood in his
The Analysis of Knowledge (1940). A.C. Conventionalism: Any doctrine according to
which a priori truth, or the truth of propositions
Contrapletes: The two opposites or
*
poles of a
of logic, or the truth of propositions (or of
relationship which while they stand over
sentences) demonstrable by purely logical means,
against each other at the same time fulfil one is a matter of linguistic or
another. Polarity, Dyadism, Harmony of postulational conven-
op- tion (and thus not absolute in character). H.
posites. R.T.F. 1

Poincare (q.v.) regarded the choice of axioms

Contraposition: The recommended use of this as conventional (cf. Science et hypothise, p. 67).
word is that according to which the contraposi-
A.C.
tive of S(*) =. P(*) is ~P(*) =>.
~S(*). Converse: See logic, formal, 4, 8.
This is, however, not quite strictly in accordance
with traditional terminology} see
Coordinates: (from Lat. co + ordinare, to regu-
Logic, formal, late) Logical: Items of the same order and
* A.C. rank in a scheme of classification. Also, class
Contraries: (a) Logic f (5) Terms: According to characteristics as indices of order or
serving-
Aristotle,Categ. lib- 18, contrariety is one of distinction among the elements of a series or
the four kinds of opposition between O.F.W.
concepts: assemblage.
contradictory, privative, contrary, relative. Those In mathematics, any system of designating
terms are contrary "which, in the same
genus, points by means of ordered sets of n numbers
are separated by the greatest
possible difference" may be called an n-dimensional coordinate tyt-
68 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tern, and the n numbers so associated with any the existence of some one-one correspondence
point are then called its coordinates. Coordinates between the terms of the proposition and the
may also be used in like fashion for various elements of some fact. Supporters of this view
other things besides points. A.C. differ as to the nature of the determinate rela-
Copula: The traditional analysis of a proposition tion by which the alleged correspondence is

into subject and predicate involves a third part, constituted.

the copula (is, are, n not, are not), binding Contrasted with the Coherence Theory of
the subject and predicate together into an as- Truth. Cf. B. Russell, An Inquiry into Mean-
sertion either of affirmation or of denial. It is ing and Truth, 1941, for defence, and F. H.
now, however, commonly held that several Bradley, Essays on Truth and Reality, for crit-
wholly different meanings of the verb to be icisms of the theory. M.B.
should be distinguished in this connection, in- In more general epistemology: Theory of
cluding at least the following: predication of knowledge which maintains that truth attaches
a monadic prepositional function of its argu- to a proposition by virtue of its capacity to
ment (the sun is hot, 7 is a prime number, represent or portray fact. A.C.B.
mankind is numerous)) formal implication Cosmogony: (Gr. cosmos a. gonia, producing or
(gold is heavy, a horse is a quadruped, mankind creating the world) Is a pictorial treatment of
is sinful) } identity (China is Cathay, that is the way in which the world or the universe
the sun, I am the State) ; formal equivalence came into being. In contrast to the most primi-
(lightning is an electric discharge between parts tive civilizations, the great ethnic stocks of man-
of a cloud or a cloud and the earth). A. C. kind have originated cosmogonies. The basal
Corollary: (Lat. corollarium, corollary) An im- principles common to all mythological cosmog-
mediate consequence of a theorem (?.v.). onies are: They deduce the creation of the
- A.C.B. world either from the fewest possible elements
Corporative State: A type of state in which or from a single material principle such as
political and economic life is regulated through water, ocean, earth, air, mud of river, slime,
the medium of occupational associations. "Cor- two halves of an egg, body of a giant, or from
porations" in Italy are the central liaison organs a spiritual or abstract principle such as an
through which the employers and the workers anthropomorphic god, deities, chaos, time, night,
organizations are brought together. W.E. That. The genesis being a slow development
Corrective Justice: Justice as exhibited in the characterized by an orderly sequence of periods,
rectification of wrongs committed by members the creation process is variously divided into
of a community in their transactions with each definite periods of specified units of years. The
other; distinguished from distributive justice process of creation being self-originating, in its
(?.v.) (Aristotle's Ethics). G.R.M. final stages the genealogy and origin of deities

Correlation, Sensory: (Lat. co -f relatus, re- is a large admixture. There is no apparent

ethical import attached to the cosmogonies. Few
lated) Correspondences between data of
differ-

ent senses, especially visual and tactual, by of them assume the idea of design as underlying

which the apprehension of perceptual objects is the creation. They hold that the world had a
effected. Intersensory correlations depend upon beginning in time. The process of creation
the co-appearance rather than the comparison from less perfect to more perfect, from an

of data of different senses. L.W. original chaos to

the final creation of man,
there some deter- the predominance of water in the original con-
Correspondence: Suppose is

minate relation R between members a of a class dition of the earth, the evolution of a spiritual
A and membersb of a class B. Consider a sub- or luminous principle reacting on the primeval
class B' of B, consisting of all the b's (in B) water and the emphasis upon the godlike origin
which are related by R to each member of some of man or his immediate relation to the deity,
one sub-class A* of A. Then the members of are all permeating threads of cosmogonic myths.
be said to correspond to the members In dualistic religions the world originates as a
B' may
of A*. If a class D corresponds to C as so de- result of a hostile conflict of two
opposing prin-
fined (by means of and the class
the relation R ciples, or as a result of the parallel develop-
C also corresponds to D (by means of the ment of two opposing forces. The conception
common relation R), the two classes may be of creation ex nihilo was almost universally
said to correspond to each other. unknown H.H.
in antiquity.
If the relation R
is such that when C and D Cosmological argument: Attempted to prove
so correspond, C must always have exactly k that God's existence follows from the fact that
members and D exactly 1 member, the cor- things exist. It aims to prove that there is a

respondence is termed a k-\ correspondence. By God by showing that causes presuppose causes,
an obvious extension it is customary to speak also no matter how far back we go. The series of
of many-one, one-many, and many-many cor- causes of causes can only come to an end in a
respondences. cause which does not depend upon something
Thus the heads and tails of coins are said to Being the most basic proof
else for its existence.
be in one-one correspondence} the square roots of God's existence as it starts with the existence
of positive integers in two-one correspondence of anything, it is the favorite of most philoso-
with the positive integers. See One-one. M.B. phers and theologians. H.H.
Correspondence Theory of Truth: The theory Cosmology: A branch of philosophy which treats
that the truth of propositions is determined by of the origin and structure of the universe.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 69

It is to be contrasted with ontology or meta- O'Neil, Cosmology i Burtt's Metaphysical Foun-

physics, the study of the most general features dations of Modem Science. P.W.
of reality, natural and supernatural, and with Cosmopolis: (Cosmopolitan) type of uni- A
the philosophy of nature, which investigates the versalism, derived first from the Cynic doctrine
basic laws, processes and divisions of the objects of the cosmopolis which proclaimed that the
in nature. It is perhaps impossible to draw or family and the city were artificial and that the
maintain a sharp distinction between these dif- wise man was the cosmopolitan. Taught also by
ferent subjects, and treatises which profess to the Cyrenaics. Later with the Stoics it came to
deal with one of them usually contain con- mean a franchise of world citizenship with no
siderable material on the others. differences as to class and race, a doctrine not

The main of cosmology, according to always followed by the Roman Stoics. See
topics
Cynics, Cyrenaics, Stoicism. E.H.
Hegel (Encyclopedia, section 35), are the con-
tingency, necessity, eternity, limitations and for- Cosmos: (Gr. kosmos in order, duly) hence,
mal laws of the world, the freedom of man and good behavior, government) mode or fashion,
the origin of evil. Most philosophers would ornament, dress (cf. cosmetic); a ruler; the
add to the foregoing the question of the nature world or universe as perfectly arranged and
and interrelationship of space and time, and ordered; cf. providence.)
would perhaps exclude the question of the The early Greek notion of the universe as
nature of freedom and the origin of evil as ordered by destiny or fate was gradually re-
outside the province of cosmology. The method fined until the time of Plato and Aristotle who
of investigation has usually been to accept the conceived the world as ordered by an intelligent
principles of science or the results of meta- principle (nous} of divine justice or harmony;
physics and develop the consequences. The test Plato, Phileous, 30: ". . there is in the uni-
.

of a cosmology most often used is perhaps that
of exhibiting the degree of accordance it has
with respect to both empirical fact and meta-
physical truth. The value of a cosmology seems
to consist primarily in its capacity to provide an
ultimate frame for occurrences in nature,
and to offer a demonstration of where the
limits of spatio-temporal world
the
verse a cause of no mean power, which orders
'and arranges . . ."; and Aristotle, Physics,
252a-12: "nature is everywhere the 'cause of
order". This cosmic view was an essential ele-
ment of the Stoic metaphysics, and was later
incorporated into medieval philosophy and theo-
logy as the divine governance or ordering of
are, and creation,i.e. providence.

how they might be transcended. This "widespread instinctive conviction" in

the order of nature, without its theological im-
Most of the basic problems and theories of
plications, became the basis and primary article
cosmology seem to have been discussed by the
of faith of modern natural science, whose aim
pre-Socratic philosophers. Their views are modi-
fied and expanded in the Timaeus of Plato, and
is to express this rationality of nature as far
as possible by the laws of natural science. Cf.
rehearsed and systematized in Aristotle's Physics*
Despite multiple divergencies, all these Greek Whitehead, Science and the Modern World, p.
5ff). Opposed to chaos, disorder, absence of
philosophers seem to be largely agreed that
the universe is limited in space, has neither a law, irrationality. L.M.H.
beginning nor end in time, is dominated by a Cosmothetic Idealism : A name given by Hamil-
set of unalterable laws, and
and has a definite ton to that form of dualism (held e.g. by
recurring rhythm. The cosmology of the Mid- Descartes and Locke) which affirms (a) that
dle Ages diverges from the Greek primarily there are both minds and material objects, and
through the introduction of the concepts of (b) that a mind can have only a mediate or
divine creation and annihilation, miracle and representative perception of material objects.
providence. In consonance with the tendencies W.K.F.
of the new science, the cosmologies of Descartes, Counterpoint: Art of combining with a given
Leibniz and Newton bring the medieval views melody, one or more simultaneous and inde-
into closer harmony with
those of the Greeks. pendent melodies. L.V.
The problems of cosmology were held to be
(Lat. computare, to reckon, compute)
Counting:
intrinsically insoluble by Kant. After Kant The process of determining the number of a
there was a tendency to merge the issues of class of objects by establishing a one-to-one
cosmology with those of metaphysics. The post- correspondence between the class in question and
Kantians attempted to deal with both in terms a portion of the class of natural numbers begin-
of more basic principles and a more flexible ning with 1 and ordered in the usual way*
dialectic; their opponents rejected both as with- A.C.B.
out significance or value. The most radical
Courage: In ethical discussions courage is usually
modern cosmology is with its
that of Peirce
regarded as a virtue (it is one of the traditional
three cosmic principles of chance, law and con- cardinal virtues), and either enjoined as a duty
tinuity} the most relent is that of Whitehead, or praised as an excellence. When thus re*
which finds its main inspiration in Plato's
garded as a courage is generally said
virtue,
Timaeus. to be a disposition, not merely instinctive, to
Bibliography: Hermann Diels, Doxographi exhibit a certain firmness, stopping short of
Graecif Dunem, Le System* du Mond*t Cher- rashness, in the face of danger, threat, tempta-
niss, Aristotle's Criticisms of Hit Predecessors / tion, pain, public opinion, etc. (thus including
70 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"moral"as well as physical courage, and pas- case of certain doctrines on the soul, the formal
courage or "fortitude" as well at active
live cause is produced ex nihilo without any intrinsic
courage)) which disposition, if it is to be a dependence on the material cause of the total
virtue, must, it it thought, be exhibited in the entity,man; which material cause in this case
course of what the bearer knows or believes to would be the body. H.G.
be his duty, or at least in the support of some Creative Theory of Perception: The creative
cause to which one is seriously committed or theory, opposition to the selective theory,
in
which is generally regarded as worthwhile. asserts the data of sense are created or
that
W.K.F. constituted by the act of perception and do not
Gournot, Antoine Augustin: (1801-1877) exist except at the time and under the condi-
French mathematician, economist, and philoso- tions of actual perception, (cf. C. D. Broad,
pher, is best known for his interest in probabil- The Mind and its Place in Nature, pp. 200tf.)

ity* His philosophical writings, long neglected, See Selective Theory of Perception. The theories
disagreement both with the positivism of
reflect of perception of Descartes, Locke, Leibniz and
his own day and
with the earlier French ration- Berkeley are historical examples of creative
His place between the two is manifest in
alism. theories) Russell (Problems of Philosophy, Ch.
his doctrine that order and contingency, con- II and III) and the majority of the American
tinuity and discontinuity, are equally real. This critical realists defend creative theories. L.W.
metaphysical position led him to conclude that Credo quia absurdum est: Literally, I believe
man, though he cannot attain certain truth of because it is absurd. Although these particular
nature, can by increasing the probable truth of words are often wrongly attributed to Tertullian
his statements approach this truth. Cournot's (born middle of the 2nd century) they never-
mathematical investigations into probability and theless convey the thought of this Latin church
his mathematical treatment of economics thus father who maintained the rule of faith on the
harmonize with his metaphysics and epistem- basis of one's trust in the commands and au-
ology. Main works: Exposition de la thtorie thority of Christ rather than upon the compul-
des chances et des
probabilitis, 1843$ Essai sur sion of reason or truth. To believe in the
Its de la connaissance, 2 vols.
jondements absurd, in other words, is to reveal a greater
1851Consid. sur Its marches des idees, 1872j
f faith than to believe in the reasonable. V.F.
Matirialitm*, Vitalising, 1875} Credo I believe in
Rationalism, lit intelligam: Literally,
Traiti dt I'Enckainement d*s idees jondamen- order that I may understand. A
principle which
tab* Jans Us science* tt dans 1881. affirms that after an act of faith a philosophy
I'histoire,
C.K.D. begins, held by such thinkers as Augustine,
Cousin, Victor: (1792-1867) Was among those Anselm, Duns Scotus and many others.
V.F.
Pro-
principally responsible for producing the shift Creighton, James Edwin: (1861-1924)
in French philosophy away frorh sensationalism fessor of Logic and Metaphysics at Cornell
in the direction of "spiritualism"} in his own
University. He was one of the founders and
a
thinking, Cousin was first influenced by Locke
president of the American Philosophical
Asso-
and Condillac, and later turned to idealism ciation, American editor of Kant~Studien
and
under the influence of Maine de Biran and editor of The Philosophical Review. He was
Schelling. His most characteristic philosophical greatly influenced by Bosanquet. His Intro-
are contained in Fragments Philos-
insights ductory Logic had long been a standard text.
ophiques (1826), in which he advocated as the His basic ideas as expressed in articles published
basis of metaphysics a careful observation and at various times were posthumously published
analysis of the facts of the conscious life. He in a volume entitled Studies in Speculative
lectured at the Sorbonne from 1815 until 1820
Philosophy, ft term expressive of his intel-
when he was suspended for political reasons, lectualistic form of objective idealism. L.E.D.
but he was reinstated in 1827 and continued to Don Hasdai: (1340-1410) Jewish
Crescas,
lecture there until 1832. He exercised a great
philosopher and theologian. He was the first
influenceon his philosophical contemporaries
European thinker to criticize Aristotelian cos-
and founded the spiritualistic or eclectic school
mology and establish the probability of the
in French Philosophy. The members of his existence of an infinite magnitude and of in-
school devoted themselves largely to historical finite space, thus paving the way for the modern
studies forwhich Cousin had provided the ex-
conception of the universe. He also took ex-
ample in his Introduction d I'Histoire General ception to the entire trend of the philosophy of
de la Philosophic, 7th ed. W2.L.W. Maimonides, namely its extreme rationalism,
Cratylus of 'Athens: A Heraclitean and first and endeavored to inject the emotional element
teacher of Plato. Carried the doctrine of irre- into religious contemplation, and make love an
concilability of opposites so far that he re- attribute of God and the source of His creative
nounced the use of spoken language. Plato's activity. He also expressed original views on
dialogue of same name criticized the Heraclitean the problems of freedom and creation. He un-
theory of language. E.H. doubtedly exerted influence on Spinoza who
Creation: (in Scholasticism) Is the production of quotes him by name in the formulation of some
a thing from nothing either of itself or of a of his theories. See Jewish Philosophy. Cf.
subject which could sustain the finished product. H. A. Wolfson, Crescas* Critique of Aristotle,
In other words, both the material as well as for- 1929. M.W.
mal causes are produced ex nihilo, or, as in the Criterion: Broadly speaking, any ground, basis,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 71

or means of judging anything as to its quality. are immanent in the One although in a sense
Since validity, truth, goodness, justice, virtue, beyond it.

and beauty are some of the most fundamental (b) In epistemology: A variety of "critical
.
qualities for philosophic enquiry, criteria for realism." The view which holds that in the
these are embodied in almost all philosophies knowledge-relation the subject or percipient is
and are eitherassumed or derived. In logic, at one (monism) with the object or the thing
consistency is a generally recognized criterion >
objectively existent and perceived) and that
in epistemology, evidence of the senses, compari- the subject contributes qualities not inherent in
son, or reason may be regarded as criteria) in the object (hence, critical) and the object con-
metaphysical speculation have been suggested, tains qualities not perceived. V.F.
as criteria for truth, among others, correspond- Critical Realism: A
theory of knowledge which
ence, representation, practicability, and coher- affirms an objective world independent of one's
ence) in religion, evidences of faith, revelation perception or conception of it (hence realistic)
or miracle) in ethics, pleasure, desirability, util- but critical in the sense of acknowledging the
ity, self-determination of the will, duty, con- difficulties in affirming that all in the knowing
science, happiness, are among common criteria, relation objective. The theory must be dis-
is

while in aesthetics there have been cited inter- tinguished further as follows:
est, satisfaction, enjoyment, utility, harmony, (a) In general, critical realism is distin-
guished from naive or uncritical realism.
Criterion, ethical: In ethics the main problem
K.F.L. (b) It may refer to any number of realists,
such as those of the Scottish critical
Criterion ethical: In ethics the main problem School,
is often said to be the finding of a criterion of monism, (See under proper headings.)
etc.

virtue, or of Tightness, or of goodness, depend-

(c) A
special school called "Critical Realists"
arose as a reactionary movement against, the
ing on which of these concepts is taken as basic j
and the quest for a moral standard, or for an alleged extravagant views of another school of
ethical first principle, or for a summum bonum realists called the "New Realists" (?.v.). Ac-

may generally be construed as a quest for such cording to the "Critical Realists" the objective
a criterion (e.g., Kant's first form of the cate- world, existing independently of the subject, is
gorical imperative may be interpreted as a separated in the knowledge-relation by media
criterion of Tightness). Hence to find a criterion or vehicles or essences. These intermediaries
are not objects but conveyances of knowledge.
of, say, goodness is to find a characteristic whose
The mind knows the objective world not di-
presence, absence, or degree may be taken as a
mark of the presence, absence, or degree of rectly (epistemological monism) but by meant
of a vehicle through which we perceive and
goodness. Thus hedonists hold pleasantness to
be such a characteristic. think (epistemological dualism). For some, this
Often, finding a cri-
terion of a characteristic is taken as equivalent vehicle is an immediate mental essence referring

to to existences, for some a datum, for some a sub-

finding a
definition of that characteristic.
sistent realm mediating knowledge, and for one
Strictly, this is not the case, for a characteristic
serve as a criterion of another with which there is not so much a vehicle as there is a
may
not peculiar transcendental grasping of objects in
it is identical Pleasantness might be a
criterion of goodness without being identical cognition. In 1920 Essays in Critical Realism
with was published as the manifesto, the platform
only the above relation held between
it, if
of this school. Its collaborators were: D. Drake,
pleasantness and goodness. However, the dis-
of A. O. Lovejoy, J. B. Pratt, A. K. Rogers, C.
covery a definition of a characteristic does
normally furnish a criterion of that charact- Santayana, R. W. Sellars, and C. A. Strong.
eristic. Vide the definition of a right act as an V.F.
act conducive to the greatest happiness. Criticism: (Kant.) An investigation of the
nature and limits of reason and knowledge,
To some minds the ethical quest results in a
conducted in a manner to avoid both dog-
failure to findand in a denial of the existence
matism and skepticism. The term is generally
of any single moral criterion this is the posi-
used to designate Kant's thought after 1770.
tion of such intuitionists as G. E~. Moore and
See Kantianism. O.F.K.
W. D. Ross and of some relativists. W.K.F.
Critique of Pure Reason: (Ger. Kritik der
Critical Idealism: Kant's designation for his reinen Vernunft) The first of three Critiques
theory of knowledge. See Idealism, Kant. written by Immanuel Kant (1781) in which
W.L. he undertook a critical examination of pure
Critical Monism:(a) In ontology: The view reason, its nature and limits, with a view to
of reality which holds that it is one in num- exhibiting a criterion for judging the validity
ber but that the unity embraces real multiplicity. of propositions of metaphysics. The first Cri-
Harald Hoffding (1843-1931) gave the ^title tiquewas followed by the Critique of Practical
of critical monism to the theory that reality, Reason (1788), and the Critique of Judgment
like conscious experience, is one although there . (1790). See Kantianism. O.F.K.
are many items, within that experience. Another Croce, Benedetto: Born at Percasseroli (Abruzzi)
example: both the One and the Many exist and Italy,February 25, 1866. Senator, Minister of
in the closest relation without either merging Public Education. Lives in Naples. Has influ-
or cancelling the other. The One it immanent enced every branch of Italian culture.
in the Many although transcendent) the Many Considers all human experience an historical
72 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
experience) philosophy being the methodology of
history.
His aesthetics defines art as an expression of
sentiment, as a language. His logic emphasizes
the distinction of categories, reducing opposition
to a derivative of distinction. According to his
ethics, an autonomous and abso-
economics is
lute moment of spirit. His theory of history
regards all history as contemporaneous. His
philosophy is one of the greatest attempts at
elaboration of pure concepts entirely appropriate
to historical experience. B. Croce, Estetica,
1902$ Logica, 1905-1909$ Filosofia delta prat-
tica (1909)$ Teorta e storia delta storiografia,
1917$ What is Living and What is Dead of
Hegel (tr. 1915)$ Historical Materialism and
Econ. of K. Marx (tr. 1922)$ History as the
Story of Liberty (tr. 1941). L.V.
Gross-Roads Hypothesis: Theory of the
tion between the mental and the physical which
holds that an identical item (e.g. a red color
patch) may in one relational context be con-
sidered physical and in another context be
mental. The neutral entity may accordingly be
represented as the point of intersection of the
physical and mental cross-roads. Cf. W. James,
Essays in Radical Empiricism, Chaps. I, II and
VIII and The Meaning of Truth, pp.
See Neutral Monism. L.W.
Cudworth, Ralph: (1617-1688) Was the leading
Cambridge Platonist (q.v.). His writings were
devoted to a refutation of Hobbesean mate-
rialism which he characterized as atheistic.
accepted a rationalism of the kind advanced by
Descartes. He found clear and distinct funda-
mental notions or categories reflecting universal
reason, God's mind, the nature and essence of
things and the moral laws, which he held to be
as binding on God as the axioms of mathe-
matics. His two most important works are The
True Intellectual System of the Universe, and
A Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable
Morality. L.E.D.
Culture: (Lat. cultura, from colo, cultivate) The
intrinsic value of society. Syn. with civilization.
Heidelberg, Padua and Cologne. He became a
Cardinal in 1448, Bishop of Brixen in 1450,
and died at Todi. He was interested in mathe-
matics, astronomy, philosophy and ecclesiastical
policy. His thought is Neo-Platonic and mysti-
cal; he is critical of Aristotelian Scholasticism.
His theories of "learned ignorance" and the
"concordance of contraries" have been histori-
cally influential. Chief works: De concordantia
Catholtca,De docta ignorantia, De conjecturis
(Opera, Paris, 1514). E. Van Steenberghe, Lt
Card. N. de Cuse, Faction, la pensee (Paris,
1920). V.J.B.
Customs: (a) Behavior patterns participated in
by persons as members of a group, contrasted
with personal or random group behavior pat-
terns, including folkways, conventions, mores,
institutions.
rela- (b) Behavior patterns long established in a
group as contrasted with newly enacted laws or
newly acquired conduct practices.
(c) Group behavior patterns which are un-
enforced (folkways) or moderately enforced
(conventions) or morally enforced (mores) as
contrasted with institutions which are legally
enforced. A.J.B.
Cynics: A school of Greek Philosophy, named
46-50. after the gymnasium Cynosarges, founded by
Antisthenes of Athens, friend of Socrates. Man's
true happiness, the Cynics taught, lies in right
and intelligent living, and this constitutes for
them also the concept of the virtuous life. For
He the Cynics, this right and virtuous life consists
in a course of conduct which is as much as
possible independent of all events and factors
external to man. This independence can be
achieved through mastery over one's desires and
wants. The Cynics attempted to free man from
bondage to human custom, convention and in-
stitution by reducing man's desires and appetites
to such only as are indispensable to life and by
renouncing those which are imposed by civiliza-
tion. In extreme cases, such as that of Diogenes,
this philosophy expressed itself in a desire to
live the natural life in the midst of the civilized

Employed by Spengler to define a civilization Greek community. M.F.

in its creative growth-period. The means, i.e. Cyrenaics : A
school of Greek Philosophy founded
the tools, customs and institutions, of social by Aristippus of Cyrene. The teachings of this
groups; or the employment of such means. In school are known as the philosophy of Hedon-
psychology: the enlightenment or education of ism, or the doctrine of enjoyment for its own
the individual. Some distinguish culture from sake. For the Cyrenaics the virtuous or the
civilization (q.v.): the former being the effect good life is that which yields the greatest
on personal development and expression (art, amount of contentment or pleasure derived from
science, religion) of the institutions, materials the satisfaction of desire. Education and intelli-
and social organization identified with the gence are necessary so as to guide one to proper
latter. J.K.F. enjoyment, that is to such satisfaction of desire
Cusa, Nicholas of: (1401-1464) Born in Cusa as yields most pleasure and is least likely to
(family name: Krebs), educated in the mystical cause one pain. It also aids one in being master
school of Deventer, and at the Universities of of pleasure and not its slave. M.F.
 D
D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond: (1717-1783) Biil- thought. See Evolutionism, Natural Selection)
liant French geometer. He was for a time an Struggle for Existence. L.E.D.
assistant to Diderot in the preparation of the Dasein: (G. in Scheler) Factuality. ?.4.S.
Encyclopaedia and wrote its "Discours Prelimi-
Datum: That which is given or presented, (a) In
naire." He advanced a noteworthy empirical facts from which inferences may be
logic:
theory of mathematics in opposition to the stand drawn, (b) In epistemology: an actual presented
of Plato or Descartes. He was greatly influ- to the mind} the given of
enced by Bacon in his presentation of the order knowledge, (c) In
psychology: that which is given in sensation}
and influence of the sciences. He was greatly
the content of sensation. J.K.F.
opposed to organized religion and sceptical as
to the existence and nature of God. His ethical
Daud, Abraham Ibn: (of Toledo,
1110-1180)
views were based on what he characterized as Jewish historian and philosopher with distinctly
the evidence of the heart and had
Aristotelian bent. His Emunah Ramah (Al-
sympathy as Akida Al-Rafia), Exalted Faith, deals with
i.e.,
their mainspring. L.E.D.
the of both
principles philosophy and religion
Damascius: The last head of the Platonic Acad- and with ethics. He also enunciated six dogmas
emy and a commentator on the works of Plato. of Judaism to which
M.F. every Jew must subscribe.

Dance The M.W.

: art of following musical rhythm with
the movement of the human It is con-
Deanthropomorphism :
(</, a privative} Gr.
body.
sidered the most anthropos, man, and morphe, form) The philo-
elementary art because the
sophic tendency, first cynically applied by Xeno-
product is not detached from the body of the
artist. L.V. phanes ("if cattle and lions had hands to paint
. . .") and since then by rationalists and addicts
Dandamti: (Skr.) Political K.F.L.
science.
of enlightenment, to get rid of an understand-
Dandyism : A form of aestheticism which pretends
able, if primitive, desire to endow phenomena
to give aesthetic val'ue to a smart life. L.V.
and the hypostatized objects of man's thought
Darsana: (Skr. view) Philosophy, philosophical
and aspirations with human characteristics.
position, philosophical system. Six systems
K.F.L.
(saddarsana) are recognized as orthodox in Decadence: Period of art considered destructive
Indian philosophy because they fall in line with .
of the aesthetic values of an age
Vedic tradition (cf. Indian Philosophy). previously be-
lieved perfect. L.V.
K.F.L.
Decision: (Lat. de -f caedere, to cut) The act
Darwin, Charles: (1809-1882) The great Eng- of assent in which volition normally culminates.
lish naturalist who gathered masses of data on
Set Volition. L.W.
the famous voyage of the Beagle and then spent Decision problem: See Logic, formal, 1, 3.
twenty additional years shaping hit pronounce- Decurtate syllogism: A syllogistic enthymemc}
ment of an evolutionary hypothesis in The
a syllogism with one premiss unexpressed.
Origin of Species, published in 1859. He was
C.A.B.
not the first to advance the idea of the kinship
of all life but is memorable as the expositor of
Dedekind, (Julius Wilhelm) Richard: (1831-
1916) German mathematician. Professor of
a provocative and simple explanation in his
mathematics at Brunswick, 1862-1894. His con-
theory of natural selection. He served to estab-
tributions to the foundations of arithmetic and
lish firmly in all scientific minds the fact of
analysis are contained in his Stetigkeit und
evolution even if there remains doubt as to the
Irrational* Zahlen (1st edn., 1872, 5th edn.,
precise method or methods of evolution. From
his premises, he elaborated a subsidiary doctrine
1927) and Was Sind und Was Soil en die
ZaAlenf (1st edn., 1888, 6th edn., 1930).
of sexual selection. In addition to the biological
A.C.
explanations, there appear some keen observa- Gesammtltt Mathtmat'ucbt Wtrk three vol-
t
tions and conclusions for ethics particularly in umes, Brunswick, 1930-1932.
his later Descent of Man. Evolution, since Dedekind's postulate: If Ki and K, are any
his day, has been of moment in all fields of two non-empty parts of K, such that every ele-
74 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ment of K Ki or to Kt and
belongs either to shall stand (the definiens) being placed at the
every element of Ki precedes every element of right, or head, of the arrow. Another sign
Ka> then there is at least one element x in K commonly employed for the same purpose '(in-
such that (1) any element that precedes x be- stead of the arrow) is the equality sign with =
longs to Ki, and (2) any element that follows the letters Df, or df, appearing either as a sub-
x belongs to Ks. Here is a class ordered by K script or separately after the definiens.
a relation R (see order) , and it is said that y This use of nominal definition
(including
precedes z, and that * follows y,
if yR* and contextual definition see the article Incomplete
VT^V. If AT is densely ordered by R and in symbol) in connection with a logistic system is
addition satisfies Dedelcind's postulate, it is said extraneous to the system in the sense that it
to have continuous order. C.A.B. may theoretically be dispensed with, and all
Deduction: (Lat. deductio, a leading down) Nec- formulas written in full. Practically, however,
essary analytical inference, (a) In logic: infer- it may be necessary for the sake of brevity or

ence in which a conclusion follows necessarily
from one or more given premisses. Definitions
given have usually required that the conclusion
be of lesser generality than one of the premisses,
and have sometimes explicitly excluded immedi-
ate inference} but neither restriction fits very
well with the ordinary actual use of the word,
perspicuity, or for facility in formal work.
Such methods of introducing new concepts,
functions, etc. as definition by abstraction (q. v.),
definition by recursion (q. v.), definition by
composition (see Recursiveness) may be dealt
with by reducing them to nominal definitions;
i.e., by finding a nominal definition such that

(b) In psychology: from analytical reasoning the definiens (and therefore also the definien-
general to particular or less general. The mental dum) turns out, under an intended interpreta-
drawing of conclusions from given postulates. tion of the logistic system, to mean the con-
Deduction of the Categories: (In Kant: De- cept, function, etc. which is to be introduced.
duktion der Kategorien) Transcendental deduc- In addition to syntactical or nominal defini-
tion: An exposition of the nature and possibility tion we may distinguish another kind of defini-
of a priori forms and the explanation and tion, which is applicable only in connection with
justification of their use as necessary conditions interpreted logistic systems, and which we shall
of experience. Empirical deduction: Factual ex- call semantical definition. This consists in intro-
planation of how concepts arise in experience ducing a new symbol or notation by assigning
and reflection. See Kantianism. O.F.K. a meaning to it. In an interpreted logistic sys-
Deduction theorem: In a logistic system (q. v.) tem, a nominal definition carries with it im-
containing prepositional calculus (pure or ap- plicitlya semantical definition, in that it is
plied) or a suitable part of the prepositional intended to give to the definiendum the mean-
calculus, it is often desirable to have the prop- ing expressed by the definiens} but two different
erty that if the inference from to B is a A nominal definitions may correspond to the same
valid inference then s B is a theorem, or, A semantical definition. Consider, for example,
more generally, that if the inference from Ai, the two following schemata of nominal defini-
As, . .
., An to B is valid then the inference from tion in the prepositional calculus (Logic, formal,
Ai, Aa, . .
., An_i to An = B is valid. The syn- 0:
tacticaltheorem, asserting of a given logistic [A] =
[B]
- ~A v B.
-
system that it has this property, is called the [A] =>
[B] -[A ~B].
deduction theorem for that system. (Certain cau- As nominal definitions these are inconsistent,
tions are necessary in defining the notion of since they represent => as standing for
[A] [B]
valid inference where free variables are present) different formulas: either one, but not both,
cf.
Logic, formal, 1, 3.) A.C. could be used in a development of the preposi-
Definition: In the development of a logistic sys- tional calculus. But the corresponding semanti-
tem (q. v.) it is usually desirable to introduce cal definitions would be identical if as would
new notations, beyond what is afforded by the be possible our interpretation of the preposi-
primitive symbols alone, by means of syntactical tional calculus were such that the two definientia

definitions or nominal definitions, i.e., conven- had the same meaning for any particular A
tions which provide that certain symbols or ex- and B.
pressions shall stand (as substitutes or abbrevia- In the formal development of a logistic sys-
tions) for particular formulas of the system. tem, since no reference may be made to an in-
This may be done either by particular defini- tended interpretation, semantical definitions are
tions, each introducing a symbol or expression precluded, and must be replaced by correspond-
to stand for some one formula, or by schemata ing nominal definitions.
of definition, providing that any expression of Of quite a different kind are so-called real
a certain form shall stand for a certain cor- definitions, which are not conventions for intro-
responding formula (so condensing many often ducing new symbols or notations as syntactical
infinitely many particular definitions into a and semantical definitions are but are proposi-
single schema). Such definitions, whether particu- tions of equivalence (material, formal, etc.) be-
lar definitions or schemata, are indicated, in tween two abstract entities (propositions, con-
by the present writer, by an ar-
articles herein cepts, etc.) of which one is called the definien-
row new notation introduced (the
-fr, the dum and the other the definiens. Not all such
definiendum) being placed at the left, or base, propositions of equivalence, however, are real
of the arrow, and the formula for which it definitions, but only those in which the definiens
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 75
embodies the "essential nature 1 ' (essentia, illustration. Deism, it is clear, is a form of
ovffla) of the definiendum. The notion of a theism.
real definition thus has all the vagueness of the (b) Deism is a term referring collectively
quoted phrase, but the following may be given and somewhat loosely to a group of religious
as an example. If all the notations appearing, thinkers of the 17th (and 18th) century in
including =,
have their usual meanings (re- England and France who in attempting to jus-
garded as given in advance), the proposition tify religion, particularly Christianity* began by
expressed by establishing the harmony of reason and revela-

<F)?)[[F(*) =<?(*)] H tion and developed what, in their time, was

(*)[~F(*) v <?(*)]] regarded as extreme views: assaults upon tradi-

tional supernaturalism, external revelation and
is a real definition of formal implication to
be contrasted with the nominal definition of the dogmas implying mysteries, and concluding that
notation for formaj implication which is given revelation is superfluous, that reason is the
3. This formula,
touchstone to religious validity, that religion
in the article Logic, formal,
and ethics are natural phenomena, that the
expressing a real definition of formal implica-
a primitive formula traditional God need hardly be appealed to
tion, might appear, e.g., as
in a logistic system.
since man finds in nature the necessary guides
for moral and religious living. Not all deists,
(A situation often arising in practice is that so called, went toward the more extreme ex-
a word or symbol or notation which already
pressions. Among the more important English
has a vague meaning is to be given a new exact deists were Toland, Collins, Tindal, Chubb and
meaning, which is vaguely, or as nearly as pos- Morgan. Voltaire (1694-1778) influenced by
sible, the same as the old. This is done by a English thought is the notable example of deism
nominal or semantical definition rather than a in France. On the whole the term
represents
real definition) nevertheless it is usual in such a tendency rather than a school. V.F.
a case to speak either of defining the word or
Delusion: (Lat. de -f ludere, to play) Erroneous
of defining the associated notion.)
or non-veridical cognition. The term is prop-
Sometimes, however, the distinction between erly restricted to perception, memory and other
nominal definitions and real definitions is made non-inferential forms of knowledge but is at
on the basis that the latter convey an assertion times extended to include inferential beliefs and
of existence, of the definiendum, or rather, where theories. See Veridical. The two principal types
the definiendum a concept, of things falling
is of delusion are: (a) illusion or partially delu-
thereunder (Saccheri, 1697)) or the distinction sive cognition, the ordinary distortions of
e.g.
may be made on the basis that real definitions sense and memory which nevertheless have a
involve the possibility of what is defined (Leib- basis infact, and (b) hallucination or totally
niz, 1684). Ockham makes the distinction rather delusive cognition such as dreams, pseudo-mem-
on the basis that real definitions state the whole which nothing corresponds in fact.
ories, etc. to
nature of a thing and nominal definitions state
See Illusion; Hallucination. L.W.
the meaning of a word or phrase, but adds that
Demiurge: (Gr. demiourgos) Artisan j craftsman)
non-existents (as chimaera) and such parts of
the term used by Plato in the Timaeus to desig-
speech as verbs, adverbs, and conjunctions may nate the intermediary maker of the world.
therefore have only nominal definition. ~A.C.
G.R.M.
Definition of a term: (in Scholasticism) Nomi-
Demooritus of Abdera: (c. 460-360 B.C.) De-
nal: Is discourse (language, speech, oratio) by
which the meaning of a term is explained. veloped the first important materialist philoso-
phy of nature, unless we are to count that of
Positive: That which rev .als the essence of a
Leukippus. His influence was transmitted by
thing in positive terms, e.g., man is a rational
the Renais-
animal.
Lucretius' poem till the centuries of
sance when scholars' attention began to turn to-
Negative: That which states the nature of a ward the study of nature. He taught that all
thing in negative terms, e.g. God is not mortal, substance consists of atoms, that is, of indivisible
not corporeal, etc. Cf. La Logifue dt Port' and imperceptibly small particles. The variety
Royal, Pt. I, ch. XII. and accounts
of atomic forms corresponds to,
De Interpretatione: (Gr. peri hermeneias) The the finest,
for, the variety of material qualities)
second treatise in the Aristotelian Organon, smoothest, and most agile atoms constitute the
dealing with the logical analysis of judgments substance of mind. Human perception is ex-
and propositions. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M. plained by him as an emanation of tiny copies
of sensible things (eidola), which, through their
Deism: (Lat. deus, god) Two uses of the term:
writers the term covert the view impact upon the atoms of mind, leave impres-
(a) By many
sions responsible for facts of memory. Diets,
that God has no immediate relation with the
Fragm der Vorsokr, 4a) F. A. Lange, Geseh.
world) God indeed is responsible for the world
but for reasons unknown or conjectured God
der Materialisms, bd. l.R.B.W.
has no commerce with it) accordingly, the sup- Demonology: Referring to a study of the wide-
plications and hopes of men are illusory and spread religious ideas of hostile superhuman
fruitless. This doctrine is sometimes referred to beings called demons. These creatures were
as the "absentee landlord" view. Thomas generally thought of as inhabiting a super- or
Hardy's famous poem "God Forgotten" is an under-world and playing havoc with the for-
76 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tunes of man
by bringing about diseases, mental of the algebra of classes appears to be histori-
twists and calamities in general.
Ridding an cally more correct.
individual supposedly held in possession by such Sometimes referred to as generalizations or
a demon was an ancient practice (technically analogues of De Morgan's laws are the two
known as "exorcism") and continued in some dually related theorems of the functional calculus
Christian liturgies even to our own day. De- of first order,
monology as a theory of demonic behavior ~(E*)FM a M~FM,
throve among the Egyptians, Babylonians, ~ <)*<) a (S*)~F(*) t

Assyrians, Persians, post-exilic Hebrews, Jews, and similar theorems in higher functional cal-
Greeks and many scattered peoples including culi. These make possible the definition of the
the hoary ancients. Elaborate demonic ideas existential quantifier in terms of the universal
appear in the Mohammedan religion. V.F. quantifier (or inversely). A. C.
Demonstration: Denial of the antecedent: The fallacy of denial
(Lat. de -f- monstrare,to show)
Proof of a proposition by disclosure of the of the antecedent is the fallacious inference from
deductive processes by which it can be inferred. ~A and A 3 B to -^B. The law of denial of
A.C.B. the antecedent is the theorem of the preposi-
tional calculus, ~p =>
[p = A. C.
De Morgan, Augustus: English
(1806-1871) q].
Denomination: (Lat. denominatio) Literally: a
mathematician and logician. Professor of mathe-
matics at University College, London, 1828- naming of something from some other thing.
In Scholastic logic, it is the operation of apply-
1831, 1836-1866. His Formal Logic of 1847
contains some points of an algebra of ing a term to a subject, when the term is de-
logic
rived from something to which the subject is
essentially similar to that of Boole (q. v.), but
related. Thus a substance may be denominated
the notation is adequate than Boole's and
less
the calculus is less fully worked out and applied.
by deriving a name from its accidents. Extrinsic
denomination is dependent upon wholly external
De Morgan, however, had the notion of logical
relationship. See Denotation. V.J.B.
sum for arbitrary classes whereas Boole con-
Denotation: The subjects those entities
templated addition only of classes having no
(i.e.,
which possess attributes) of which a term may
members in common. De Morgan's laws (q. v.)
as they are now known were also enunciated
be predicated) e.g., the term "man" denotes
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc. (J. S. Mill)
in this work. The treatment of the syllogism
"Denotation" in this sense should be distin-
is original, but has since been superseded, and

does not constitute the author's real claim to guished from "extension" in the sense in which
that signifies the subclasses of the class deter-
remembrance as a logician.(The famous con-
mined by the term. The former indicates the
troversy with Sir William Hamilton over the
various individual instances in which a common
latter'scharge of plagiarism in connection with nature is manifested) the latter signifies the
this treatment of the syllogism may therefore
be dismissed as not of present interest.) variety of kinds over which the predication of a
term may extend. (H. W. B. Joseph.) C.A.B.
Through his paper On the syllogism, no. IV
In common usage, "denotation" has a less
in Transactions of the Cambridge Philo-
the
specialmeaning, denote being approximately
sophical Society, vol. 10 (read April 23, 1860),
synonymous with designate (q.v.). A proper
De Morgan is to be regarded as the founder of name may be said to denote that of which it is a
the logic of relations. A. C.
name. Or, e.g., in the equation 2+2=4, the
Sophia Elizabeth De Morgan, Memoir of Augustus
sign be said to denote addition and the
may
De Morgan, London, 1882. -f~

De Morgan's laws: Are the two dually related ign = denote equality (even without neces-
to

sarily intending to construe these signs as proper

theorems of the prepositional calculus,
names).
~[p v q] a [~p ~q\,
Concerning Frege's distinction between sense
~lPti a l~P v ~f],
and denotation see the article Descriptions. A.C.
or the two corresponding dually related theorems Denotation is a semantical concept, see
of the algebra of classes, Semiotic 2. R.C.
(a *
b) = a rt
o, Dense order: See Continuity.
(a *) = a ^ o.
Deontological ethics: Any ethics which does not
In prepositional calculus these laws (to-
the make the theory of obligation entirely depend-
gether with the law of double negation) make ent on the theory of value, holding that an
it possible to define conjunction in terms of action may be known
to be right without a
negation and (inclusive) disjunction, or, alter- consideration the goodness of anything, or
of
natively, disjunction in terms of negation and at least that an action may be right and be
conjunction. Similarly in the algebra of classes known to be so even though it does not flow
logical product may be defined in terms of from the agent's best motive (or even from a
logical sum and complementation, or logical sum good one) and does not, by being performed,
in terms of logical product and complementa- bring into being as much good as some other
tion. action open to the agent. Opposed to axiologi-
As pointed out by Lukasiewicz, these laws of cal ethics. Also called formalism and intuition-
the prepositional calculus were known already ism. See Intuitionism. W.K.F.
(in verbal form) to Ockham. The attachment Depersonalization: A personality disorder in
, of De Morgan's name to the corresponding laws which the subject's own words and actions as-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 77

sume for him a character of strangeness or un- struing descriptions incomplete symbols, by as
reality 5 in
its extreme form, the subject is distinguishing two kinds of meaning, the sense
obsessed with the fear of complete dissolution (Sinn) and the denotation (Bedeutung) of an
of personality. The English term is an appro- expression (formula, phrase, sentence, etc.).
priation of the French depersonnalization. L.W. Scott and the author of Waverley have the same
Deproblematization : (Ger. Deproblematisierung) denotation, namely the man Scott, but not the
The gradual cessation of the former problemati- same sense. The King of France has a sense
cal tone of any object or idea. (Avenarius.) but no denotation; so likewise the sentence, The
H.H. King of France is bald. Two expressions hav-
De Sanctis, Francesco: Born at Morra Irpina ing the same sense must have the same denota-
(Avellino), March 28, 1817. Died at Naples, tion if they have a denotation. When a con-
December 19, 1883. Imprisoned and exiled be- stituentpart of an expression is replaced by
cause liberal, 1848. Professor in Zurich and another part having the same sense, the sense
later in Naples. Minister of Public Education. of the whole is not altered. When a constituent
His History of Italian Literature (1870) is still part of an expression is replaced by another
considered fundamental. having the same denotation, the denotation of
Applied Hegel's idealism to literary criticism. the whole (if any) is not altered, but the sense
Gave a new interpretation to poets' sentiments may be. The denotation of an (unasserted)
and ideals, and linked them to the civil history declarative sentence (if any) is a truth-value,
of Italy. New Italian idealism of about 1900 whereas the sense is the thought or content of
was based on his thought. L.V. the sentence. But where a sentence is used in
Descartes, Rene: See Cartesianism. indirect discourse (as in saying that so-and-so
Description, Knowledge by: (Lat. de- -f scri- says that . .
., believes that . . ., is glad that
bere, to write) Knowledge about things in con- . .
., etc.) the meaning is different: in such a
trast to direct acquaintance with things. See context the denotation of the sentence is that
Acquaintance, Knowledge by. Description is wnich would be its sense in direct discourse.
opposed to exact definition in the Port Royal (In quoting some one in indirect discourse, one
Logic (Part II, ch. XVI). Among the first to reproduces neither the literal wording nor the
contrast description and acquaintance was G. truth-value, but the sense, of what he said.)
Grote (Exploratio Philosophica, p. 60. See also Frege held it to be desirable in a formalized
W. James, Principles of Psychology, Vol. T, pp. logisticsystem that every formula should have
221 ff. and B. Russell, Problems of Philosophy, not only a sense but also a denotation as can
ch. V.) L.W. be arranged by arbitrary semantical conven-
Descriptions: Where A containing a
a formula tions where necessary. When this is done,
free variable say,example, * means a
for Frege's sense of a sentence nearly coincides
true proposition (is true) for one and only one with proposition (in sense (b) of the article
value of x, the notation ( r)A is used to mean of that title herein). Alonzo Church
that value of x. The approximately equivalent G. Frege, Vber Sinn und Bedeutung, Zeitschrift
fiir Philosophic und philosophische Kritik, n. s..
English phraseology is "the x such that A" or vol. 100 B. Russell, On de-
(1892), pp. 25-50.
simply 'the F," where F denotes the concept noting, Mind, 14 (1905), pp. 479-493.
n. s., vol.

(monadic prepositional function) obtained from Designate word, symbol,

: or A
expression may be
A by abstraction (q. v.) with respect to x. said to designate that object (abstract or con-
This notation, or its sense in the sense of crete) to which it refers, or of which it is a

Frege, is called a description. name or sign. See Name relation. A.C.

In Principia Mathematics descriptions (or Designated values: See Prepositional calculus,
notations serving the same purpose in context) many-valued.
are introduced as incomplete symbols (q. v.). Designatum : The designatum of a word, symbol,
Russell maintains that descriptions not only may or expression is that which it designates (q. v.).
but must be thus construed as incomplete sym- A.C.
bols briefly, for the following reasons. The Destiny: (Fr. destiner, to be intended) Future
alternative is to construe a description as a necessity) the legal outcome of actuality. Divine
proper name, so that, e.g., the description the foreordainment, or the predetermined and un-
author of Waverley denotes the man Scott and alterable course of events. Defined by Peirce
is therefore synonymous with the name Scott. (1839-1914) as the embodiment of generals in
But then the sentences "Scott is the author of existence. J.K.F.
Waverley" and "Scott is Scott" ought to be Determination: (Lat. determinate, to limit) The
synonymous which they clearly are not (al- limitation of a reality or thought to a narrower
though both are true). Moreover, such a de- field than its original one. In a monistic phil-

scription as the King of France cannot be a osophy the original, single principle must be
proper name, since there is no King of France considered as narrowed down to various genera
whom it may denote) nevertheless, a sentence and species, and eventually to individual exist-
such as "The King of France is bald" should ence such be admitted, in order to introduce
if

be construed to have a meaning, since it may that differentiation of reality which is required
be falsely asserted or believed by one who falsely in a multiple world. In Platonism, the Forms
asserts or believes that there is a King of or Ideas are one for each type of thing but are
France. "determined" to multiple existence by the addi-
Frege meets the same difficulties, without con- tion of matter (Timaeus). Neo-Platonism is
78 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
even more interested in real determination, since concept of freedom. The following are among
the One is the logical antecedent of the Many. Deustua's most important works: Las Ideas de
Here determination is effected by the introduc- Orden Libertad en la Historia del Pensamiento
tion of negations, or privations, into successive Humano; Historia de las Ideas Esteticas} Es-
emanations of the One. With Boethius, medi- tetica General} Estetica Aplicada. J.A.F.
aeval philosophy became concerned with the Dewey, John: (1859-) Leading American phi-
determination of being-in-general to an actual losopher. The spirit of democracy and an abid-
manifold of things. In Boethianism there is a ing faith in the efficacy of human intelligence
fusion of the question of real determination run through the many pages he has presented in
with that of logical limitation of concepts. In the diverse fields of metaphysics, epistemology,
modern thought, the problem is acute in Spinoz- logic, psychology, aesthetics, religion, ethics,
ism: universal substance (substantia, natura, politics and education, in all of which he has
Deus) must be reduced to an apparent manifold spoken with authority. Progressive education
through attributes, modes to the individual. owes its impetus to his guidance and its tenets
Determination is said to be by way of nega- largely to his formulation. He is the chief ex-
tion, according to Spinoza (Epist. 50), and this ponent of that branch of pragmatism known as
means that universal substance is in its perfect instrumentalism. Among his main works are:
form indeterminate, but is thought to become Psychology, 1886} Outline of Ethics, 1891}
determinate by a sort of logical loss of absolute Studies in Logical Theory, 1903} Ethics (Dewey

perfection. The theory is brought to an almost

absurd simplicity in the Ontology of Chr. Wolff,
where being is pictured as successively deter-
mined to genera, species and individual. De-
termination is also an important factor in the
developmental theories of Hegel and Bergson.
VJ.B.
Determinism: -\- terminus, end) The
(Lat. de
doctrine every fact in the universe is
that
guided entirely by law. Contained as a theory
in the atomism of Democritus of Abdera (q.v.),
who upon the impenetrability, transla-
reflected
tion and impact of matter, and thus allowed
only for mechanical causation. The term was
applied by Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856)
to the doctrine of Hobbes, to distinguish it
from an older doctrine of fatalism. The doc-
trine that all the facts in the physical universe,
and hence also in human history, are absolutely
dependent upon and conditioned by their causes.
In psychology: the doctrine that the will is not
free but determined by psychical or physical
conditions. Syn. with fatalism, necessitarianism,
J.K.F.
destiny.
Deus ex machina: Literally, the god from the
machine} an allusion to the device whereby in
ancient drama god was brought on the stage,
a usually
sometimes to provide a supernatural solution to
a dramatic difficulty; hence any person, thing,
or concept artificially introduced
difficulty. G.R.M.
Deustua, Alejandro: Born in
(Peru), 1849. Professor of Philosophy at the
University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru. Ac-
cording to Deustua, there are two kinds of free-
and Tufts), 1908} How We Think, 1910}
Influence of Darwin on German Philosophy,
1910} Democracy and Education, 1916} Essays
in Experimental Logic, 1916} Reconstruction in
Philosophy, 1920} Human Nature and Conduct,
1922$ Experience and Nature, 1925} The Quest
for Certainty, 1929} Art as Experience, 1933}
Logic: The Theory of Inquiry, 1939. Cf. J.
Ratner, The Philosophy of John Dewey, 1940}
M. H. Thomas, A Bibliography of John Dewey,
1882-1939} The Philosophy of John Dewey,
ed. P. A. Schilpp (fcvanston, 1940).
Dharma: (Skr.) Right, virtue, duty, usage, law,
social as well as cosmic. K.F.L.
Dhyana: (Skr.) Meditation or the full accord of
thinker and thought without interference and
without being merged as yet, the last but one
stage in the attainment of the goals of Yoga
(q.v.). K.F.L.
Diagram: A line drawing} commonly used in
See Euler,
logic to represent class relationships.
and Venn. C.A.B.
Dialectic: (Gr. dia -f legein, discourse) The
beginning of dialectic Aristotle is said to have
attributed to Zeno of Elea. But as the art of
debate by question and answer, its beginning is
associated with the Socrates of the
Platonic dialogues. As conceived by Plato him-
self, dialectic is the science of first principles
to solve a which differs from other sciences by dispensing
with hypotheses and is, consequently, "the cop-
Huancayo, Junin ingstone of the sciences" the highest, because
the clearest and hence the ultimate, sort of
knowledge. Aristotle distinguishes between dia-
lectical reasoning, which proceeds syllogistically

dom, the Static and the Dynamic. The former from opinions generally accepted, and demon-
accounts for the cosmic order and harmony strative reasoning, which begins with primary
of phenomena. Dynamic liberty, however, is, and true premises} but he holds that dialectical
above all, creativity and novelty. The world, reasoning, in contrast with eristic, is "a process
not as it is ontologically, but as we experience of criticism wherein lies the path to the prin-

it, that is, as it comes within the area of con- ciples of all inquiries." In modern philosophy,
sciousness, results from a Hegelian contraposition dialectic has two special meanings. Kant uses
of the two types of freedom^ In this contraposi- it as the name of that part of his Kritik der

tion, the synthesis is alwaysmore of the nature reintn Vemunft which deals critically with the
of dynamic than it is static. With
freedom (antinomies, paralogisms and
special difficulties
these presuppositions, Deustua finally works up Ideas) arising out of the futile attempt (trans-
a kind of practical philosophy leading up to an cendental illusion) to apply the categories of
-axiology which he himself finds implied in his the Understanding beyond the only realm to
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 79

which they can apply, namely, the realm of ob- These laws, connecting ontology with logic,
jects in space and time (Phenomena). For are contrasted to the formalistic laws of identity,
Hegel, dialectic is primarily the distinguishing difference and excluded middle of which they
characteristic of speculative thought thought, are considered qualitatively enriched reconstruc-
that is, which exhibits the structure of its sub- tions. Against the ontology of the separateness
ject-matter (the universal, system) through the and self-identity of each thing, the dialectical
construction of synthetic categories (synthesis) laws emphasize the interconnectedness of all
which resolve (sublate) the opposition between things and self-development of each thing. An
other conflicting categories (theses and anti- A all parts of which are always becoming non-A
theses) of the same subject-matter. G.W.C. may thus be called non-A as well as A. The
Dialectical materialism: The school of philoso- formula, A is A and cannot be non-A, becomes,
phy founded by Marx and Engels and developed A is A and also non-A, that is, at or during
by manysubsequent thinkers. the same instant: there is no instant, it is held,
Ontologically, its materialism means that mat- during which nothing happens. The view taken
ter, nature, the observable world is taken "with- is that these considerations apply as much to
out reservations," as real in its own right, neither thought and concepts, as to things, that thought
deriving its reality from any supernatural or is a process, that ideas gain their logical con-

transcendental source, nor dependent for its tent through interconnectedness with other ideas,
existence on the mind of man. It is considered out of and into which they develop.
scientifically evident that matter is prior to Consequently, the dialectical method means
mind both temporally and logically in the sense basically that all things must be investigated in
that mind never appears except as an outgrowth terms of their histories) the important consid-
of matter, and must be explained accordingly. eration not the state in which the object ap-
is

Space and time are viewed as forms of the exist- pears at themoment, but the rate, direction and
ence of matter. probable outcome of the changes which are tak-
1

The term dialectical expresses the dynamic ing place as a result of the conflict of forces,
Intel-connectedness of things, the universality of internal and external. The necessity of observa-
change and its radical character: everything
tion and prediction in every field is thus on-
possessing any sort of reality is in process of tologically grounded, according to dialectical
self-transformation, owing to the fact that its materialism, which not only rejects a priorism,
content is made up of opposing factors or forces holding that "nature is the test of dialectics"
the internal movement of which interconnects (Engels: Anti-Duhring} y but claims to express
with much more fidelity than formal logic, with
everything, changes each thing into something
else. Mechanism in the sense of non-dialectical its emphasis on unmoving form rather than
materialism as well as metaphysics in the sense changing content, the basis of the method mod-
of idealistic ontology are thus rejected. ern science actually uses. There is an equal re-
The position taken is that investigation re- jection of theory without practice and practice
veals recurrent of ex- without theory.
basic, patterns change,
pressible as laws of materialist dialectics,
which One may assert that the human brain,
are seen as relevant to every level of existence, capable of forming ideas, does so not prior
because validattJd by past evidence, as in- to or independently of the rest of the natural
and,
dispensable hypotheses in guiding further investi- world, but in relation to it, moved and
stimulated by its manifold content. Ideas reflect
gation. These are: (1) Law of interpenetration,
but the reflection, like everything else,
unity and strife of opposites. (All existences, things,
is dialectical, not inert, but active. Ideas grow
being complexes of opposing elements and forces,
have the character of a changing unity. The out of and lead back to things, sometimes very

unity is considered temporary, relative, while may be reflected fancifully,

circuitous!/} things
the process of change, expressed by interpenetra- new combinations as well as
by abstraction or in
tion and strife, is continuous, absolute.) (2) directly. While there is a perfectly objective
Law of transformation of quantity into quality reality to reflect, the reflection is never perfect:
truth is absolute, but knowledge relative.
and vice versa. (The changes which take place
in nature are not merely quantitative) their Thesocial theory, termed historical material-
accumulation eventually precipitates new quali- ism, represents the application of the general
ties in a transition which appears as a sudden principles of materialist dialectics to human
leap in comparison to the gradualness of the society, by which they were first suggested. The
quantitative changes up to that point. The new fundamental changes and stages which society
quality is considered as real as the original has passed through in the course of its complex
quality. not mechanically reducible to it:
It is evolution are traced primarily to the influence of
it is not merely a larger amount of the former changes taking place in its economic base. This
quality, but something into which that has de- base has two aspects: material forces of produc-
veloped.) (3) Law
negation of negation.
of tion (technics, instrumentalities) and economic
(The changes and emerg-
series of quantitative relations (prevailing system of ownership, ex-
ing qualities unending. Each state or phase
is change, distribution). Growing out of this base
of development is considered a synthesis which is a social superstructure of laws, governments,
resolves the contradictions contained in the pre- arts, sciences, religions, philosophies and the
ceding synthesis and which generates its own like. The view taken is that society evolved as
contradictions on a different qualitative level.) it did primarily because fundamental changes in
80 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the economic base resulting from conflicts of in- unrestricted production, a disappearance of the
terest in respect to productive forces, and in- antagonism between town and country and that
volving radical changes in economic relations, between mental and physical labor, and, be-
have compelled accommodating changes in the cause irreconcilable class conflicts will have
social superstructure. Causal action is traced ceased to exist, a "withering away" (Engels:
both ways between bajje and superstructure, but Anti'Duhring) of the state as an apparatus
when any "higher" institution threatens the of force. What will remain will be a state-less
position of those who hold controlling economic "administration of things."
power at the base, the test of their power is The general theory of historical materialism
victory in the ensuing contest. The role of the claims to be a methodological basis for all
individual in history is acknowledged, but is specific social sciences, as well as for aesthetics
seen in relation to the movement of underlying and ethics. Cf. Trotsky: Literature and
forces. Cf. Plekhanov, Role of the Individual Revolution.
in History. Art, to dialectical materialism, is an activity
The general direction of social evolution, on
of human beings which embodies a reflection of
this view is from collectivist forms the reality surrounding them, a reflection which
classless,

(primitive communism) to class

forms (slave- may be conscious, unconscious, reconstructive or
master, serf-lord, worker-capitalist) to classless, deliberately fantastic, and which possesses posi-
tive aesthetic value in terms of rhythm, figure,
socialist, communist forms on the modern
level
of highly complex technics. Classes are defined color, image and the like. Art is good to the

as groups having antagonistic economic relation- extent that it is a faithful and aesthetic reflec-

ships to the means of production. The resultant

tion of the reality dealt with. Accordingly,
conflict called the class struggle,
of interests is proletarian or socialist realism is
(q.v.)not
which, involving the means and way of life, is photographic, static, but dialectical, conscious
carried on in all fields, often unconsciously. that any given period or subject is moving into
It is held that society has not accomplished its future, that class society is becoming class-

many basic transformations peacefully, that less society. This realism is optimistic, involv-
fundamental changes in the economic system or ing a "revolutionary romanticism".
the social superstructure, such as that from medi- The central ethical conception, called prole-
eval serf-lord to modern
worker-capitalist econ- tarian humanism, sees the source and signifi-

omy, have usually involved violence wherein the cance of all mankind and, accepting
values in
class struggle passes into the acute stage of revo- general ends like justice, brotherhood, the prin-
lution because the existing law articulates and ciple of all for each and each for all, sees the
the state power protects the obsolete forms and main problem as that of reconstructing social

minority-interest classes which must be super- institutions so as to permit the functioning of

seded. The evolution of capitalism is considered such principles in respect to the whole people.
to have reached the point where the accelerating It held that only classless society, where there
is

abundance of which its technics are capable is is productive employment and security for all,
frustrated by economic relationships such as those will permit all to lead the good life. See
Marx,
involved in individual ownership of productive Engels, Lenin, Soviet philosophy, also, separate
entries for detailed definitions of specific terms.
means, hiring and firing of workers in the light
of private profits and socially unplanned produc- Bibliography: Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe
tion for a money market. It is held that only (complete works of Marx and Engels currently
technics collectively owned and production so- adding to its volumes). Marx, Karl: Capital
cially planned can provide employment and Contribution to the Critique of Political Econ-
abundance of goods for everyone. The view taken omy. Value, Price and Profit. Class Struggles
is that peaceful attainment of them is possible, in France. Paris Commune (for extensive bibli-
but will probably be violently resisted by privi- ography of Marx,
Marx). Engels,see Karl
leged minorities, provoking a contest of force in Friedrich: Anti-Duhring. Dialectics of Nature.
which the working class majority will eventually Ludtvig Feuerbach and the Outcome of Classical
triumph the world over. German Philosophy. Origin of the Family,
The working Private Property and the State. Marx and En-
class, in coming to power, is seen
to establish itsown state form, based upon the gels: German Ideology. Communist Manifesto.
dictatorship of the proletariat, which is maintained Lenin, V. I.: Collected Works. Selected Works.
so long as a state is necessary, and which is con- Materialism and Empirio -Criticism. State and
sidered to extend democracy to the majority by Revolution. Filosofskie Tetrady (Philosophical
establishing collective ownership of the means Notebooks). Many of Lenin's briefer philosophi-
of production. This first stage is defined as social- cal writings may be found in Selected Works,
"from each vol. XI. J.M.S.
ism, the economic principle of which is,

according to ability, to each according to work Diallelon: A vicious circle (q. v.) in definition.

performed". The second stage is defined as A.C.

communism, the economic principle of which is, Diallelus: A vicious circle (q. v.) in proof.
"from each according to ability, to each accord- A.C.
ing to need" (Marx: "Gotha Program"). In Dialogic method: The presentation of a thesis
its fullest sense, on a world wide scale, this or argument in dialogue form. C.A.B.
stage is considered to include an economy of Dialogism: Inference from one premiss of a
abundance made possible by social utilization of (categorical) syllogism to the disjunction of the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 81
conclusion and the negation of the other premiss which makes a distinction (or division) by some
is a dtalogism. Or, more generally, if the in- separable accident, as when we say that this per-
ference from A and B to C is a valid inference, son is sitting and that one
standing. By this
that from A to C v /-"B may be called a dialo- differencea person can differ not only from
gisn> A. C. another but also from himself, as one who is
Dianoetic Virtues: (Gr. aretai dianoetikai) In now old differs from himself as he was when
Aristotle's ethics the virtues or excellences of young. H.G.
the dianoiaj intellectual virtues. The dianoetic Dilemma: See Proof by cases, and Logic, formal,
virtues are distinguished from the moral virtues 2.
in having for their end the explicit apprehen- Dilettantism: Opposite of It
professionalism.
sion of rational principles, whereas the moral
contributed to art appreciation because it op-
virtues are concerned with the rational control the
posed too intellectual rules ot traditional
of the sensitive and appetitive life. See Aris-
taste, particularly in Rome, 2nd centuryj in
totelianism; Dianoia; Nous} Phronesis. France and England, 18th century. L.V.
G.R.M. Dilthey, Wilhelm: (1833-1911) A devoted stu-
Dianoia: (Gr. dianoia) The faculty or exercise dent of biography, he constructed a new meth-
of thinking, as exhibited especially in the dis- odology and a new interpretation of the study
criminating and conjoining or disjoining of of society and culture. He formulated the doc-
concepts} the discursive understanding (Aris- trine of
Verstehungs-psychologie, which is basic
totle). G.RM. to the study of social ends and values. He was
Diaspora: Literally the Greek word signifies a the founder of Lebensphilosophie. Being the
scattering or dispersion. Name given to the first humanistic philosopher historian of his
age,
countries through which the Jews were dis- he led in the comprehensive research in the
persed after being exiled or deported from their of
history intellectual development. Main
homeland and also to the Jews living in those works: Etnleitung in die G'e ts te stv es sens
chaj ten,
lands. Also applied to converts from Judaism
1883; Der Erlebnis und dte Dichtung, 1905$
to Christianity of the early Church living out- Das Wesen der Philosophie, 1907} Der
side of Palestine. JJ.R. Aufbau
der geschtchtlichen Welt in der Geisteswissen-
Dichotomy: (Gr. dicha, in two, temno, to cut) schaften, 1910} Die Typen der Weltanschauung,
Literally, a division into two parts. In a specific 1911} Gesammelte Schriften, 9 vols., 1922-35.
example the view that man consists of soul and
H.H.
body. The earlier view of the Old Testament
Dimension:
writers} also, a view found in certain
(scientific) 1.Any linear series or
expres- order of elements.
sions of St. Paul. See also Trichotomy. V.F.
2. Any quantity of a given
kind, capable of increase or decrease over a
Dictum de omni et nullo: The
leading prin- certain range} a variable. 3. In the physical
ciples of the syllogisms in Barbara and Celarent,
system: mass, length and time. A.C.B.
variously formulated, and attributed to Aris-
totle. "Whatever is affirmed (denied) of an
Dimensions of Consciousness: (Lat. dimensus,
pp. of dimentire, to measure off) Pervasive ana
entire class or kind may be affirmed (denied)
mutually irreducible features of conscious proc-
of any part." The four moods of the first
esses such as quality, intensity,
figure were held to Ue directly validated by this extent, duration
and intentionality. (Cf. E. B.
dictum, and this was given as the motive for Titchener, Lec-
tures on the
the traditional reductions of the last three syl- Elementary Psychology of Feeling
and Attention, Lect. IV } E. G,
logisticfigures to the first. See also Aristotle's Boring, The
Physical Dimensions of Consciousness, Ch.
dictum. A ,C. 3.)
L.W.
Didactics: (Gr. didaktikos, taught) The branch
of education concerned with methods of teaching Ding an sich: (Ger. thing in itself) A Kantian
and instruction. In theology and religion didac- term referring to what lies beyond human ex-
tics in contradistinction to catechetics, is instruc- perience and observation. "Things in them-
selves" are transcendent, not transcendental or
tion in fundamentals of religious doctrine.
L.W. applicable to any human experience. The "thing
in itself" exists independent and apart from all
Diderot, Denis: (1713-1784) He wa*s editor-in-
chief of the French Encyclopaedia and as such knowledge. It has an independent reality apart
had a far reaching influence in the Enlighten- from the subjectivity of human knowledge.
ment. His own views changed from an initial H.H.
deism to a form of materialism and ended in a Diogenes Laertius: (also B.C.) A late biographi-

pantheistic naturalism. He displayed a keen in-

cal doxographer, to whom is owed most of the
terest in science and may be viewed as a fore- biographical and source material of Pre-Socratic
runner of positivism. He issued severe polemics philosophy. Cf. R. Hope, Diog. Laertius E.H.
against the Christian religion. De la suffisance Dionysian: The art impulse in which life is re-
de la
religion naturelle, 174-7 (publ. 1770)} lived, in which and pains are re-
life's joys
Lettre sur Its aveugle* . (1749), Le Reve
. . experienced. The dynamic and passionate of the
d'Alembert, 1769 (publ. 1830); La religieuse, will of life and power. (Nietzsche.) H.H.
1760} Le neveu de Rameau, 1761} Jacques le Diorism: The Greek term in Plato's usage sig-
fataliste, 1773. Cf. J. Morley, Diderot and the nifies division, distinction} in that of Aristotle,
Encyclopedists, 1878, 2d ed. 1886. L.E.D. distinction, definition, which is also the mean-
Difference: (in Scholasticism) Common: That ing today. In mathematics, a statement of the
82 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
condition! needed in order to solve a problem. be called a disjunctive sentence (or proposition).
JJ.R. A.C.
Direct knowledge: A
thing is said to be known Disjunctive syllogism: See Logic, formal, 2.
directly when our cognition terminates in and Disparate: (Lat. dis -f par, equal) (a) In psy-
refers immediately to the thing itself) a thing is chology and epistemology: a term descriptive of
known reflexly, when our cognition terminates the qualitative heterogeneity between sensations
in and refers immediately to the image or con- of different senses. Sensations of the same sense
cept of the thing previously known. E.g. I (e.g. a red and a green color patch) are dis-
know man directly upon seeing him, but upon similar (see Similarity; Resemblance) , sensations
seeing his image, I know him rejlexly, because of different senses (e.g. a red patch and a cold
then I know him through the cognition of the surface) are disparate. The criterion of psy-
image. H.G. chological disparity between two sensations is
Direct theories of knowing: Any theories of the absence of intermediate sensations by which
knowledge which maintain that objects are it possible to pass continuously from the one
is

known directly without the intermediary of per- to the other. (Wundt, Physiol. Psychol., 4th
cepts, images or ideas. A.C.B. ed., I, 286.) The disparity of the fields the
Discourse: Orderly communication of thought, several senses divides them into so many water-
or the power to think logically. C.A.B. tight compartments and thus raise the epistem-
Discovery: (Lat. discooperire, to discover) 1. ological problem of correlation between the dis-
The act of becoming aware of something pre- parate data of different senses. See Correlation.
viously existing but unknown. 2. The act of in- (b) In logic: Disparate terms have been vari-

sight (usually more or less sudden) by which ously defined by logicians:

a scientific hypothesis or explanatory conception (i) Boethius defined disparate terms as those
comes into consciousness. A.C.B. which are diverse yet not contradictory. See
Discrepancy: A from that which was
difference Prantl, Geschichte der Logik, I, 686.
expected or is required by some datum. C.A.B. (ii) Leibniz considered two concepts disparate
Discrete: A class is said to have discrete order "if neither of the terms contains the other"

(e.g. the whole numbers), if (1) it satisfies

that is to say if they are not in the relation of
Dedekind's postulate (q.v.) and (2) every ele- genus and species. (Couturat, Leibniz , Inedits,
ment (except the first if any) has a next prede- pp. 53, 62.)L.W.
cessor and also (except the last if any) a next Disparity: See Disparate.
successor. Contrasted with "dense" or "compact" Disputatio: (Scholastic) Out of the quaestiones
order, such as that of the rational numbers, in disputatae developed gradually a rigid form of
which no element is next to any other. C.J.D. scholastic disputation. The defensor theseos pro-

Discretion: (Lat. discretum, pp. of discernere, to posed his thesis and explained or proved it in
discern) The mental capacity for critical dis- syllogistic form. The opponenfes argued against
crimination especially in matters of ethics and the thesis and its demonstration by repeating
conduct. L.W. first the proposition and the syllogism proving

Discrimination: (Lat. discriminare, to separate)
(a) subjectively: the rational power to dis-
between objects, real or logical, and
tinguish
betwen moral right and wrong. In Aristotelian-
ism there is also a function of internal sense
it, then either by denying the validity of one
or the other premises (nego maiorem, minorem)
or by making distinctions restricting the proposi-
tion (distinguo maiorem, minorem}. In the
disputations of students under the direction of a

(Or. kritikon, sensory discrimination) Lat. vis magister the latter used to summarize the dis-
aestimativa or cogitativa) by which men and putation and to "determine the question".
the higher animals distinguish the good from R.A.
the bad in their sense experience. Disputation: (a) A dispute, or the act of dis-
(b) objectively: see Distinction. VJ.B. puting, (b) A formal exercise in which some
Discursive Cognition: (Lat. discurrere, to run is debated. C.A.B.
set^ topic
about) Discursive, as opposed to intuitive cogni- Dissimilarity: Difference, unlikeness, heteroge-
tion, is attained by a series of inferences rather neity. C.A.B.
than by direct insight. See Intuitive Cognition. Dissociation: (Lat. dis -f- socius, a companion)
L.W. The operation of mind by which the elementr
Contrasted Intuitive, and applied to
with of a complex are discriminated. Dissociative

knowledge) also to transitions of thought. Our discrimination is when elements which

facilitated

knowledge of, e.g., the nature of time, is dis- are commonly conjoined are found in new .com-
cursive or conceptual if we are able to state what binations. James calls this the law of "dissocia-
time is) only intuitive. Transi-
otherwise it is tion by varying concomitants." (Principles of
tions of thought mediated by verbal or concep- Psychology, I, 506.) L.W.
tual steps would be called discursive and said Dissociation of Personality: A disorder of per-
to be "reasoning". Immediate transitions, or sonality consisting in the loss of the normally
transitions mediated in subconscious ways, would stable and constant integration of the self. Two
be called intuitive, ~CJ.D. types of disintegration of personality are distin-
Disjunction: See Logic, formal, 1. guishable: (a) The ideas and states dissociated
Disjunctive: A sentence of either of the forms from the central core of the self may float about
A v B, A B
(or a proposition expressed by
-f at detached and depersonalized states. See De-
such a sentence) *e Logic, for***, 1 raty pefsonali*ation. (b) The disuneiatrd ideas and
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 83

states may cohere into a secondary or split-off tional calculus there are four distributive laws
consciousness. L.W. (two dually related pairs) :

Distinction: (in Scholasticism) Consists, in this, p[q v r] s

[pq v pr].
that one thing is not another. Absolute: There [p v qr} 35 [p v q][p v r].
is an absolute distinction between two things *[; + '][*?
= + pr}.
~
when neither one is a mode of the other, e.g. IP v [q S
r]] [[p v ?] [p v r]].
that between a stone and gold. A modal dis- Also four corresponding laws in the algebra of
classes. A. C.
tinction is a distinction between a thing and its
mode, e.g. that between a body and its shape.
Disvalue: Bad. Evil. Opposed to value or good-
ness. AJJS.
Adequate: A distinction between two whole
beings, e.g. between the sun and the moon. An Divisibility: The property in virtue of which a
whole (whether physical, psychical or mathe-
inadequate distinction is a distinction between a
whole being and its part, e.g. between the hand matical) may be divided into parts which do not
and one of its fingers. thereby necessarily sever their relation with the
whole. Divisibility usually implies not merely
Of the reasoning reason (rationis ratio cinantis) :

analysis or distinction of parts, but actual or

A which our mind conceives things
distinction in
as distinct when there is no foundation in reality
for making such a distinction) the whole dis-
tinction is dependent upon the one reasoning.
E.g. when in one and the same thing we con-
ceive the nature of subject and predicate as
diverse attributes, as when we say: man is man;
or when we conceive the same thing through
synonymous concepts, as if we say: man is a
rational animal , as though we are distinguishing
man from rational animal.
Of the reasoned reason (rationis ratiocinatae)
A distinction in which our mind conceives as
distinct things that are not really distinct, when
there is some foundation in reality for making
such a distinction, e.g. perfections of God.
Real: A
distinction belonging to a thing in-
dependently of the operation of the intellect, as
that between the soul and body of man. A the sub-specie's within the species, and so on) a
mental distinction (distinctio rationis) is one
belonging to things through the operation of the
intellect conceiving as distinct those things
which are not really distinct, e.g. that between
the attributes of God. H.G.
Distinctness: (Ger.' Deutlichkeit)
Explicit articulatedness with respect to syntacti-
cal components. (See Confused). Distinctness is
compatible with emptiness or obscurity of
material content. See Descartes, Leibniz. D.C.
Distribution (of terms) : In the
tional Aristotelian prepositional forms, the sub-
jects of universal propositions and the predicates
of negative propositions are distributed}
other terms are undistributed.- C.A.B.
Distributive Justice: Justice as exhibited in the
distribution of honor, money, right* and privi-
leges among the members of a community )
characterized by Aristotle as requiring equality
of proportion between persons and rewards. See
Justkt.--G.RM.
Corrective
Distributive law is a name given to a number
of laws of the same or similar form appearing
in various disciplines compare associative law.
A distributive law of multiplication over addi-
tion appears in arithmetic:
* (yX ) + (* = y) X(* ) +
This distributive law holds also in the theory
of real numbers, and in many other mathemati-
cal disciplines involving two operations called
multiplication and addition. In the proposi-
resolution into From the be-
potential parts.
ginning philosophers have raised the question
whether substances are infinitely or finitely di-
visible. Ancient materialism conceived of the
physical atom as an indivisible substance. Des-
cartes, however, and after him Leibnit, main-
tained the infinite divisibility of substance. The
issue became the basis of Kant's cosmological
antinomy (Crit. of pure Reason), from which
he' concluded that the issue was insoluble in
metaphysical terms. In recent decades the ques-
:
tion has had to take account of (1) researches
in the physical atom, before which the older
conception of physical substance has steadily re-
and the
treated; (2) attempt to formulate a
satisfactory definition of infinity (q.v.). O.F.K.
Division: (Lat dividtr*, to divide) The logical
process of indicating the species within a genus,
classificatory scheme constructed on the principle
of genus and species. A.C.B.
of obtaining the
Divisipnism: Principle effects
of light in painting by juxtaposing instead of
mixing tints. L.V.
In Husserl Docta ignorantia: Literally, learned ignorance,
refers to men's knowledge of God which un-
avoidably includes a negative element, since He
immeasurably surpasses the knowledge of Him
gleaned from this phenomenal world, yet for
man this is truly a real learning. Title
given
four tradi-
to one of his philosophical treatises by Nicholas
of Cusa (1401-1464) who understood it in the
sense of an insight into the incomprehensibility
the
of the infinite. JJ.R.
Doctrinaires: (a) In general: impractical, philo-
in views
sophical theorists, uninterested other
than their own) dogmatists.
(b) In particular: a group of French political
philosophers of the early nineteenth century.
VJ.B.
Dogma: The Greek term signified a public ordi-
nance of decree, also an opinion. A present
meaning: an established, or generally admitted,
philosophic opinion explicitly formulated, in a
depreciative sense) one accepted on authority
without the support of demonstration or experi-
X ence. Kant calls a directly synthetical proposi-
tion grounded on concepts a dogma which he
distinguishes from a mathema, which is a simi-
lar proposition effected by a construction of
concepts. In the history of Christianity dogmas
 84 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
have come to mean definition of revealed truths tary suspension of judgment in order to reach a
proposed by the supreme authority of the Church more dependable conclusion. Opposite of cer-
as articles of faith which must be accepted by tainty. J.K.F.
all its members. JJ.R. Doxa The:
positional character common to all modes
Dogmatism: (Gr. dogma, opinion) A term used of not only to believing in simple
believung:
by many and various philosophers to character- positive certainty (protodoxa, Ger. Urdoxa),
ize their opponents* view more or less dero- but to modifications of the latter, such as

gatorily since the word cannot rid itself of doubting, disbelieving, affirming, 'denying, and
certain linguistic and other associations. The assuming. Doxa in Husserl's sense includes
Skeptics among Greek philosophers, doubting episteme. It is present not only in syntactical-
called dogmatism every assertion of a posi-
all, categorial judging, but in simple pre-categorial
tive nature. More discriminately, dogmatism perceiving. Moreover, it is present in passive as
may be applied to presumptuous statements or well as in active synthesis. Non-doxic posi-
such that lack a sufficiently rational ground, tionality is present in valuing and willing.
while in the popular mind the word still has
the affiliation with the rigor of church dogma Drama: a. State of mind characterized by human
which, having a certain finality about it, appeals conflict, b. Literary genre in which conflicts
to faith rather than reason. Since Kant, dog- are portrayed on the stage. L.V.
matism has a specific connotation in that it Dravya: (Skr.) Substance, as a substratum of
refers to metaphysical statements made without qualities (see guna), accidents, or modes. Vari-
previous analysis of their justification on the ous classes are established by Indian philosophers.
basis'of the nature and aptitudes of reason, K.F.L.
exactly what Kant thought to remedy through Drawing: Essential element of painting, sculpture
his criticism. By this animadversion are scored and architecture. The Florentine Renaissance
especially all 17th and 18th century metaphysi- and all classical epochs in general considered
cal systems as well as later ones which cling drawing the basis of the aforesaid arts which
to a priori principles not rationally founded. were called the arts of drawing. L.V.
Now also applied to principles of a generalized
Driesch, Hans Adolf Eduard: (1867-1940) An
character maintained without regard to empirical
experimental biologist turned philosopher, he as
conditions. K.F.L. a rationalist became the most prominent de-
Donatists: Followers of Bishop Donatus, leader fender of a renovated vitalism. He excludes the
of a Christian sect which originated in North
, physical-chemical level of reality from his vital-
Africa in the beginning of the fourth century. ism. He asserts that every organism has its
They taught the invalidity of sacraments ad- own entelechy. For what he terms phylogenetic
ministered by an unworthy minister and that development, a more inclusive vitalism of the
known sinners should be denied membership in whole evolutionary process, he postulates a
the Church. Their most powerful opponent was super-personal phylogenetic entelechy. He offers
Saint Augustine. J.J.R. an a priori justification of his vitalietic theory,
Donum superadditum : theological term de-A and treats incisively the logic of the psycho-
noting a gratuitous gift of God superadded to logical. Main works: Philosophy of the Organ-
the natural gifts which accompany human na- ism; Ordnungslehre, 1912; Wirkhchkeitslchre,
ture; hence a supernatural gift, like divine 1917; Alltagsratsel des
Seelenlebens, 1938,
grace. JJ.R. "Kausalitat und Vitalismus" in Jahrbuch der
Double-Aspect Theory: Theory that the mind Schopenhauer Gesellschafi, XVI, 1939. H.H.
and the body of an individual are two distin- Dualism: two) (a) In metaphysics:
(Lat. duo,
guishable but inseparable aspects of a single Theory which admits in any given domain, two
underlying substance or process. Spinoza, as a independent and mutually irreducible substances
consequence of his metaphysical doctrine that e.g. the Platonic dualism of the sensible
and
"thinking substance and extended substance are intelligible worlds, the Cartesian dualism of
one and the same thing" (Ethics, Part II, prop.
thinking and extended substances, the Leibnizian
7) was committed to the Two-Aspect Theory of dualism of the actual and possible worlds, the
the body-mind relation. Cf. C. Lloyd Morgan Kantian dualism of the noumenal and the
(Life, Mind and Spirit, p. 46)} S. Alexander phenomenal. The term dualism first appeared
(Space, Time and Deity) and C. H. Strong are in Thomas Hyde, Historia religionis veterunt
recent advocates of a two-aspect Theory. L.W. Persarum (1700) IX, p. 164, where it ap-
ch.
Double negation, law of: The theorem of the plied to dualism of good and evil
religious
propositional calculus, *^"**p p. A. C. = and is similarly employed by Bayle in his Dic-
Doubt: (Fr. doute, from Lat. dubito, to be un- tionary article "Zoroaster" and by Leibniz in
certain) Partial disbelief. The denial of a Theodicee. C. Wolff is responsible for its use
proposition offered or formerly held as true. in the psycho-physical sense, (cf. A. Lalande,
The withdrawal of belief. In psychology: sus- Vocabulaire de la Philosophie, Vol. I, p. 180,
pended judgment the state of hesitation be-
5 note by R. Eucken.)
tween contradictory propositions. Philosophical (b) In epistemology: Epistemological dualism
doubt has been distinguished as definitive or is the theory that in perception, memory and
provisional. Definitive doubt is scepticism other of non-inferential cognition, there
types
(which see). Provisional doubt is the rule pro- is a numerical duality of the content or datum
>
posed by the Cartesian method (q.v.) of volun- immediately present to the knowing mind
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 85

(sense datum, memory image, etc.) and the division du travail sociale, 1893) Les regies d
real object known (the thing perceived or re- la methode sociologique; Les formes elemen-
membered) (cf. Lovejoy, The Revolt
A. O. tairesde la vie religieuse, 1912; Le Socialisms;
Against Dualism, pp. 15-6). Epistemological L'Education morale. H.H.
monism, on the contrary identifies the immediate Duty: (Ang-Fr. duete, what is due} Ger. Pflicht)
datum and the cognitive object either by as- Whatever is necessary or required} or whatever
similating the content to the object (epistemo- one is morally obliged to do. as opposed to what
logical realism) or the object to the content one may be pleased or inclined to do. Also, the
(epistemological idealism). L.W. moral obligation itself and the law or principle
Duality: See Logic, 1, 3, 7, 8.
formal^
in which it is expressed. In ethics, duty is com-
Ductio per contradictoriam propositionem monly associated with conscience, reason, right-
sive per impossible: (Lat.) A logical argu- ness, moral law, and virtue.
ment in which the truth of a
proposition is Though had
Plato and Aristotle
Socrates,
established by showing that its contradictory is were con-
propounded doctrines of virtues, they
untrue or
impossible; an application of the cerned essentially with Good rather than with
principle of excluded middle. VJ.B. Tightness of action as such. The Stoics were
Duhring, Eugen Karl: (1833-1901) Duhring, a the first to develop and popularize the notion
German economist and philosopher, started on a that man has a duty to live virtuously, reason-
legal career which lasted until 1859. He be- ably and fittingly, regardless of considerations
came docent at the University of Berlin and of human happiness. Certain elements in Rab-
taught there until he lost his license in 1874. binical legal ism and the Christian Gospel
He was editor of Der moderne Vblkergeist and strained in the same direction, notably the con-
of Personalist und Emancipator. Philosophically cept of the supreme and absolute law of God.
he belonged to the positivistic school. Duhring But it was Kant who pressed the logic of duty
advocated not the elimination of capitalism, but to its final conclusion. The supreme law of
of its through the medium of a strong
abuses duty, the categorical imperative (q.v.), is re-
labor movement. His literary work is strongly vealed intuitively by the pure rational will and
tinged with anti-semitism, and he is probably strives to determine the moral agent to obey only
betterknown for the attackwhich Marx and that law which can be willed universally without
Engels made upon him than for his own work. contradiction, regardless of consequences.
E. Duhring: Naturliche Dialektik, 1863} Der Naturalistic interpretations of duty tend to
Wert des Lebens, 1865j Kritische Geschtchte discredit such an intuitionistic basis and seek
der Philosophic, 1869, Logik und Wissen- instead to account for duty and conscience as
schaftstheorie, 1878. M.B.M. outgrowths of training, tradition and social
Duns Scotus, John: (1266/74-1308) Doctor custom. O.F.K.
Subtilis, was born somewhere in the British Dyad: (Gr. duas, two) A
pair of units considered
Isles, studied at the Franciscan monastery at as one. In Pythagoreanism the dyad is the
Dumfries and at Oxford before 1290. He studied number two, thought of as a substantial essence,
at Paris for four years, then taught theology at or physically, as a i.e. two points which
line,
Oxford from 1300-1302, at Paris from 1302- do not coincide. VJ.B.
1303, when he was Vanished for his opposition Dyadic: (Gr. duas, two) Term meaning duality.
to King Philip IV. He received his doctorate Human experience is said to be dyadic, i.e.
at Paris 1305 and went to Cologne in 1307,
in man's nature is dual in conflicts between
good
where he died. He is the most distinguished intentions and bad accomplishments, in opposi-
medieval defender of the view that universal tional strains and stresses. The personality of
which have "haeccity" (q.v.) as well as quiddity. God is held to be dyadic in the confronting of
His realism was adopted by Charles Peirce (q.v.) difficulties or frustrations to his good will.
works. De Primo Principle, Quaesttones in Reality is spoken of as dyadic when it is said
Metaphysicam, Opus Oxoniense, Reportata Pa- to be characteristically dual, e.g. both One and
risiensta (Opera Omnia, Paris, 1891-5). VJ.B. Many, and dynamic, free and determined,
static
Duration: A
limited extent of existence in time, abstract and concrete, universal and particular.
more or less long, from a fraction of second V.F.
to countless ages. H. Bergson
gives it a special Dyadic Relation: A two-termed relation (q.v.).
interpretation in regarding it as "time perceived Dynamic Vitalism: See Vitalism.
as indivisible", a living
present} as such, dura- Dynamis: (Gr. dynamis) In Aristotle's philoso-
tion becomes the very essence of creative
change, phy (1) a source of change or power to effect
of creative evolution and must be to opposed change} faculty} (2) more generally the capac-
time as measurable. R.B.W. ity a thing has of passing to a different state ;
Durkheim, Emile: (1858-1917) A French socio- potentiality. See Aristotelianism ; Energeia.
logical positivist. He stressed the group mind, which G.R.M.
for him is the point of reference for all human Dynamism: (Gr. dynamis, power) A term ap-
knowledge. The group 'mind has an impersonal, plied to a philosophical system which, in con-
non-subjective character that is superior to the trast to philosophy of mechanism (q.v.), adopts
individual mind, and acts as a directive force force than mass or motion as its basic
rather
for the individual agents that comprise society. explanatory concept. In this sense the Leibnizian
He studied both religion and ethics from his philosophy is dynamism in contrast to the mech-
positivistic- point of view. . Durkheim: De la anism of Descartes' physics. L.W.
86 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Dyophy sites: A term applied to the Catholics, ing aspects of life( such as unfavorable environ*
who held that there are two natures in Christ, mental factors, organic maladaptations, the
the Divine and the human, by the Monophytites, struggle for existence, disease, death, etc.) which
or the followers of Eutyches, who advanced the make difficult, if not impossible, the theory that
formula, "one nature after the union." 7.7.1?. there are good purposes predominantly at work
Dysteleology: (Gr. dus, bad; telos, end or pur- in the world. V.F.
pose) The term for the forbidding and frustrat-
E: (C.) Evil, interpreted by the Confucians as production, distribution and consumption of ma*
"too much or too little," that is, deviation from terial wealth and skills. J.K.F.
the Mean (chung yung).~W.T.C. Economy: An aspect of the scientific methodology
Eckhart, Meister: (1260-1327) Wai born in of Ernst Mach (Die Analyse der Empfindungen,
Hochheim (Gotha), may have studied with St. 5th ed., Jena, 1906)} science and philosophy
Albert in Cologne, received his doctorate at utilize ideas and laws which are not reproductive
Paris in 1302. He taught theology at various of sense data as such, but are simplified expres-
times, devoted much time to preaching in the sions of the functional relations discovered in
vernacular, and filled various administrative the manifold of sense perceptions. VJ.B.
posts in the Dominican Order. Mystical, diffi- Economy, principle of: Is the modern name for
cult in terminology, his thought appears to con- the logical rule known also as Occam's Razor.
tain elements of Aristotelianism, Augustinism, Its original formula was: Entia non tunt multi-
Neoplatonism and Accused of
Avicennism. licanda praeter necessitatem, i.e. of two or more
Pantheism and other theological errors, he was explanations, which are of equal value other-
the subject of a famous trial in 1326) he ab- wise, the one which uses the fewest principles,
jured publicly any possible religious errors which or suppositions, is true, or at least scientifically
he may have made. Chief works: Opus Tri- preferable. VJ.B.
partitum, Quaestiones Parisienses, Deutsche in
Ecpyrosit: (Gr. ekpyrosit) Conflagration)
Predigten. (Pfeiffer, F., Deutsche Mystiker des Stoic doctrine the periodic resolution of all
14 Jahrh.> Bd. II, Leipzig, 1857* tr. Evans, G.R.M.
things into fire.
London, 1924.) B. J. Muller-Thym, University (Gr. ekstasis, displacement, a trance)
Ecstasy:
of Being in M. Eckhart (N. Y., 1939). VJ.B.
The enraptured condition of the mystical spirit
Eclecticism: The principle, tendency, or practice
which has reached the climax of its intuitive
of combining, or drawing upon, various philo-
and affective experience. Of brief duration, it
sophical or .theological doctrines. In its passive is physiologically negative (resembling trance)
form, it is found in many thinkers of no great
but, according to some mystics, psychologically
originality. In its* more active form, as a
very rich. Usually said to be concomitant with
deliberate attempt to create unity among dis-
a spiritual union of the soul with higher reality.
cordant schools of philosophy, eclecticism was
See Mysticism, Plotinism. VJ.B.
practised by the Alexandrien School (q.v.),
Ecstasy: (aesthetics) The contemplation of abso-
where the Oriental and Occidental thought
lute beauty purified of any sensory experience.
mingled, and, more recently, by V. Cousin
(Plotinus.) L.V.
(q.v.). R.B.W.
Economic determinism: The Eduction: In
logic, a term proposed by E. E.
1.
theory that the
economic base of society determines other social Constance Jones as a synonym or substitute for
the more usual immediate inference (see Logic,
institutions. Dialectical materialists criticise
doctrines often as economic deter- formal, 4). 4.C.
designated
minism on the ground that they are' too narrow In cosmology, the production of the sub-
2.

and assert only a one-way causal influence (from stantial form out of the potentiality of matter,
economic base to other institutions), whereas according to the hylomorphic system. T.G.
causal influence, they hold, proceeds both ways. Edwards, Jonathan: (1703-1758) American
They refer to their own theory at historical theologian. He is looked upon by many as
materialism or the materialist conception of one of the first theologians that the New
history. See Marxism.J.M.S. World has produced. Despite the formalistic
Economics: (Lat. oeconomicus, domestic economy, nature of his system, there is a noteworthy aes-
from oikos, house, -f nomos, law) That branch thetic foundation in his emphasis on "divine
of social science which is concerned with the and supernatural light" as the basis for illumina-
exchange of goods. Employed by Xenophon, tion and the searchlight to an exposition of
Aristotle and Cicero on the
to describe treatises such topics as freedom and original sin. Despite

proper conduct of the household. In more re- the aura of tradition about his pastorates at
cent times, combined with politics as political Northampton and Stockbridge, his missionary
economy, the study of the laws and system of among the Indians and
services his short lived

society. Now, more specially, the study of the presidency of Princeton University, then the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
College of New Jersey, he remains significant an individual's own welfare is the only thing
in the fields of theology, metaphysics, epistemol- that is ultimately valuable (for him). C.A.B.
ogy, aesthetics and ethics. See Life and Works Egoism, Psychological: The doctrine that the
of Jonathan Edwards, 10 vol. (1830) ed. S. E. determining, though perhaps concealed, motive
Dwight. L.E.D. of every voluntary action is a desire for one's
Effect: (in Scholasticism) Formal: is the effect of own welfare. Often combined with Psychologi-
a formal cause: a primary and intrinsic formal cal Hedonism. C.A.B.
effect a concrete composite, or a designation
is Egological: (Ger. egologisch) In Husserl: Of
resulting from form united to an apt subject, or pertaining to the ego or to egology. Ego-
(i.e. to a subject capable of receiving that form)' logical reduction: phenomenological reduction as
e.g. the formal primary and intrinsic effect of involving epoche with respect to one's own
heat by which water is made warm is the warm explicit and implicit positing of concrete egos
water itself} so also a holy man is the formal other than one's own and therefore with respect
effect of grace united to man. But that which is to one's positing of one's own ego as one
called secondary and extrinsic is any effect among others. See Phenomenology. D.C.
whether positive or negative, which so results Ehrenfels, Maria Christian Julius Leopold
from the union of form with its subject that it Karl, Freiherr von: (1859-1932) As one of
may be adequately distinguished from or remain the leaders of the "Brentano School", he affirmed
extrinsicto the form, e.g. the driving out of that the fundamental factor in valuation was
cold from the water. H.G. desire. His principal interest was to trace the
Effectiveness: See Logistic system, and Logic, way in which desires and motives generate
formal, 1. values. He described for the most part the de-
Effluvium: See Effluxes, Theory of. velopment, the conflict, the hierarchy, and the
Effluxes, Theory of: (Lat. efflux, from effluere, obsolescence of values. Having a major influ-
to flow out) Theory of early Greek thinkers ence upon the analytic approach to value theory,
that perception is mediated by effluvia or simu- his outlook was relativistic and evolutionary.
lacra projected by physical objects and imping- Main works: Uber Gestaltqualitdten (1890);
ing upon the organs of sense. Thus Empedocles System der Werttheorie (1897)} Sexualethtk
developed the theory of effluxes in conjunction (1907). //.H.
with the principle that "like perceives only like" Eidetic: (Ger. eidetisch) In Husserl: Of or per-
(similia similibus percipiuntur) an element in, taining to an eidos or to eide. Eidetic existent
the external world can only be perceived by the anything falling as an example within the ideal
same element in the body. (See Aristotle, De extension of a valid eidos ; e.g., an ideally or
Gen. et Corr. I, 8, 324 b 26; Theophrastus, De purely possible individual.
(Purely) eidetic
Sens. 7.) Democritus' theory of images is a judgments: judgments that do not posit indivi-
form of the theory of effluxes. L.W. dual existence, even though they are about
Ego-centric Predicament: (Lat. ego, self* Gr. something individual. Eidetic necessity an ac-
kentrikon, center) The epistemological predica- tual state of affairs, so far as it is a singulariza-
ment of a knowing mind which, confined to the tion of an eidetic universality. E.g., This color
circle of its own ideas, finds it difficult, if not has (this) brightness, so far as that is a singu-
impossible, to escape to a knowledge of an ex- larization of All eidetically possible examples
ternal world (cf. R. B. Perry, Present Philo- of color have brightness. Eidetic possibility.
sophical Tendencies, pp. 129-30). Descartes is see eidos. Eidetic reduction: see Phenomenology.

largely responsible for having confronted mod- D.C.

ern philosophy with the ego-centric predicament. Eidetic Imagery: Expression used by the Ger-
See Cogito Argument, The. L.W. man psychologist E. R. Jaensch, (Ueber den
Ego, Empirical: (Lat. ego, self) The individual Aufbau der Wahrnehmungsivelt und ihre Struk-
self,conceived as a series of conscious acts and tur im Jugendalter, 1923) to designate images
contents which the mind is capable of cognizing usually visual which are almost photographic in
by direct introspection. See Bundle Theory of their fidelity. Eidetic imagery differs from hal-

Self.L.W. lucination in that the former are usually recog-

Ego, Pure: The self conceived as a non-empirical nized by the subject to be "subjective." L.W.
principle, ordinarily inaccessible to direct intro- Eidola: (Gr. eidola) Images; insubstantial forms;
spection, but inferred from introspective evi- phantoms. Democritus and Epicurus use the
dence. See Ego, empirical. The principal theo- term to denote the films, or groups of very
riesof the pure ego are: (a) the soul theory fine particles, ^lieved to be thrown off by
which regards the pure ego as a permanent, bodies and to convey impressions to the eye.
spiritual substance underlying the fleeting suc- G.R.M.
cession of experience, and (b) the
conscious Einfiihlung: (and Emsfuhlung, in Max Scheler)
transcendental theory of Kant which considers The emotional and dynamic understanding of
the self an inscrutable, subject presupposed by nature as the operational field of living forces.
the unity of empirical self-consciousness. L.W. See Empathy. P.A.S.
Ego, Transcendental: See Ego, Pure.- L.W. Eirenicon, epistemological: (Gr. eirenikos,
Egoism, Ethical: The view that each individual peaceful) The purging of the negative claims
should seek at an end only his own welfare. and the synthesis of subjectivism, objectivism,
This principle sometimes advanced as a sep-
is dualism and relativism in epistemology. (Mon-
arate intuition, sometimes on the ground that tague.)- H.H.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 89

Eject: (Lat. pp. of ejicere, to throw out) Term Emotion: (Lat. emovere, to stir up, agitate) In
introduced by W. K. Clifford to designate "an- the widest sense emotion applies to all affective
other conscious subject conceived as an outward phenomena including the familiar "passions" of
projection of the knowing subject. L.W. love, anger, fear, etc. as well as the feelings of
Elan vital: Term used by Bergson to denote the pleasure and pain. See Affect. L.W.
source of efficient causation and evolution in Emotive Meaning: Emotive, as distinguished
nature. See Bergson. R.T.F. from the cognitive, meaning cf a statement is its
Election: (Lat. eligo, to choose) A choice be- ability to communicate an attitude or emotion,
tween alternatives. In psychology: free choice to inspire an act of will without conveying
by the will between means proposed by the truth. Exclamations, commands and perhaps
understanding. An act of volition. J.K.F. ethical and aesthetic judgments are emotive but
Elements: Are simple constituents, in psychology, not cognitive. L.W.
of sense perceptions such as sweet and green. Empathic: Adjective of empathy. See Empathy.
Elementary complexes are things of experience. L.W.
(Avenarius.) In logic: individual members of Empathy: (Gr. en pathein, to suffer) The
-f
a class. Also refers to Euclid's 13 books. H.H. projection by the mind into an object of the
Elenchus: (Gr. elenchos) A syllogism establish- subjective feeling of bodily posture and attitude
ing the contradictory of a proposition attacked; which result from the tendency of the body to
a refutation. (Aristotle.) G.R.M. conform to the spatial organization of the ob-
Elijah, Aaron ben: Karaite exegete and phil- ject (e.g. the tendency to imitate the outstretched
osopher (1300-1369). The Ez Hayyim, i.e. hands of a statue). The phenomenon is of
Tree of Size, his philosophical work, deals with particular significance for aesthetics. See H. S.
all problems of philosophy and displays the in-
Langfeld, The Aesthetic Attitude. The term was
fluence of both Maimonides and of the teach- introduced to translate the German Einjiihlung.
ings of the Mutazilites. M.W. See Lipps, Raumaesthetik und geometrisch-opti-
Emanation: Literally, an outpouring or flowing sche Tduschungen. See Eject. L.W.
forth, specifically, applied to the process of Empedocles: Of Agrigentum, about 490-430
derivation or mode of origination, immediate B.C.} attempted to reconcile the teaching of the
or mediate, of the multiplicity of beings whether permanence of Being of the Eleatics with the
spiritual or material from the eternal source of experience of change and motion as emphasized
all being, God, of Whose being consequently by Heraclitus. He taught the doctrine of the
they are a part and in Whose nature they some- four "elements", earth, water, air and fire, out
how share. It is opposed to creation from no- of the mixture of which all individual things
thing. Some writers have not adequately dis- came to be; love and hate being the cause of
tinguished one from the other. J.J.R. motion and therefore of the mixings of these
Emergent Evolution: Generalization of emer- elements. He was thus led to introduce a
gent mentalism (q.v.) due to S. Alexander theory of value into the explanation of Nature
(q.v.), Space } Time and Detty. See Bergson's since love and hate accounted also for the good
variation in devolution creatrice. See Holism. and evil in the world. M.F.
Emergent Mentalism: (Lat. emergere, to rise Empirical: (Gr. empeirikos, experienced) Relat-
out) The theory oF en ergent evolutionism con- ing to experience. Having reference to actual
sidered as an explanation of the genesis of facts, (a) In epistemology: pertaining to knowl-
mind or consciousness in the world. Mind is a edge gained a posteriori, (b) In scientific
novel quality emerging from the non-mental method: that part of the method of science in
when the latter attains a certain complexity of which the reference to actuality allows an hypo-
organization. Cf. C. Lloyd Morgan, Emergent thesis to be erected into a law or general prin-
Evolution, Lect. I, II} Ltfe, Mind, Spirit, Ch. ciple. Opposite of: normative. J.K.F.
V.L.W. Empiricism: (1) A
proposition about the sources
Emerson, Ralph Waldo: (1803-1882) American of knowledge: that the sole source of knowledge
poet and essayist. His spirit of independence is experience) or that either no knowledge at
early led him to leave the pulpit far the lecture all or no knowledge with existential reference

platform where he earned high rank as the
leading transcendentalist and the foremost figure
in the famous Concord group. His profound
vision, his ringing spirit of individualism and
his love of democracy place him among the New
World's philosophic pantheon. His "The Ameri-
can Scholar," "The Over-Soul," "Self-Reliance,"
"Compensation" and the Divinity School Ad-
dress are perhaps the most famous of his lectures
and essays. He edited The Dial, the official
organ of the transcendental
is possible independently of experience. Experi-
ence (q.v.) may be understood as either all con-
scious content, data of the senses only, or other
designated content. Such empiricism may take
the form of denial that any knowledge or at
least knowledge about existents can be obtained
a priori (q.v.) 5 that is, denial that there are
universal and necessary truths 5 denial that there
is knowledge which holds regardless of past,
present, or future experience} denial that there
movement. His is instinctive, innate, or inborn knowledge} de-

several trips to Europe brought him into contact nial that the test of truth is clarity to natural
with Coleridge and Wordsworth, but particularly reason or self-evidence; denial that one can gain
with Carlyle. certain knowledge by finding something the op-
R. W. Emerson: Complete Works, 12 vols. posite of which is inconceivable} denial that
(Boston, 1903-4). L.E.D. there are any necessary presuppositions of all
90 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
knowledge or of anything known certainly ; separable) ; or an attitude favorable to applica-
denial that any truths can be established by the tion of scientific attitude or method to inquiry;
fact that to deny them implies their reaffirma- or a temperament close to common sense and
tionj or denial that conventional or arbitrary practicality; or a "tough-minded" temperament
definitions or assumptions yield knowledge. or attitude involving considerable disillusion-
(2) Aproposition about origins of ideas, con- ment and holding facts (q.v.) worthy of utmost

cepts, or universals: that they or at least those intellectual respect; or a tendency to rely on
of them having existential reference are derived things' being as they appear.
solely or primarily from experience or some The term "empiricism" has been used with
significant part of experience. extreme looseness and confused with numerous
(3) A proposition about the nature of mean- related propositions, practices, and attitudes.
ing, ideas, concepts, or universals: that they Many definitions here listed are themselves am-
(and thus, some contend, knowledge) "consist biguous, but to remove their ambiguity would
of" or "are reducible to" references to directly require misrepresentation of usage of the term.
presented data or content of experience; or that See also Scepticism, Sensationalism, Pluralism,
signs standing for meanings, ideas, concepts, or Phenomenalism, Pragmatism, Positivism, In~
universals refer to experienced content only or tuitionalism, Nativism, Rationalism, A
Priorism,
primarily^ or that the meaning of a term con- Intellectualism, Idealism, Transcendentalism,
sistssimply of the sum of its possible conse- Scientific M.T.K.
Empiricism.
quences in experience^ or that if all possible Empiricism, Radical: The theory of knowledge
experiential consequences of two propositions are which holds that ideas are reducible to sensa-
identical, their meanings are identical. tions, as in Hume (1711-1776). The doctrine
(4) A
proposition about the limitations of that experience is the final criterion of reality
knowledge: that every possible referent either in knowledge. Syn. with em- sensationalistic
is something with which one has "direct ac- piricism or sensationalism (q.v.). See Avenarius.
quaintance" or consists exclusively of entities William James, who first adopted this philo-
with which he is acquainted} or that one can sophical position",and so named it, described it
have knowledge of only immediate content of in The Meaning of Truth (Preface, xii-xiii) as
experience) or that although one can have consisting "first of a postulate, next of a state-
knowledge of existents outside one's own or ment of fact, and finally of a generalized con-
everyone's experience, that knowledge must al- clusion.
ways be uncertain, since it is reached through 1. "The postulate is that the only things
experience. which shall be debatable among
philosophers
(5) A proposition about the nature or tests shall be things definable in terms drawn from
of truth in which proposition some relation or experience. . . .

other between experience and truth is taken to 2. "The statement of fact is that relations
be definitive of either the nature of truth or the between things, conjunctive as well as disjunc-
means of its identification. tive, are as much matters of direct particular
(6) A proposition about the existent or the experience ... [as] ... the things themselves.
real or both: that experience(s) is (are) the sole 3. "The generalized conclusion is that there-
existent (s) or reality or both; or the negation fore the parts of experience hold together from
of the proposition that nature is a deductive next to next by relations that are themselves
process or is rational through and through; or a parts of experience. The directly apprehended
proposition that the variable, particular, chang- universe needs, in short, no extraneous trans-
ing, and contingent are "nearer to the heart of empirical connective support, but possesses in its
things" than the universal, immutable, and nec- own right a concatenated or continuous structure."
essary. James believed that radical empiricism dif-
(7) A combination of two or more of the fered from ordinary or traditional empiricism
above propositions, of approximations to them, primarily through the above "statement of
fact"
of their respective immediate implications, or of (No. 2). By this statement he wished explicitly
their mediate implications when taken together and thoroughly to reject a common assumption
or in conjunction with other premises. about experience which he found both in the
(8) Practice, method, or methodology: rely- British empiricism and in Kantian and Hegelian
ing upon direct observation or immediate experi- idealism, namely, that experience as given is
ence; or precluding or excluding analysis or either a collection of disparate impressions or,
reflection; or employing experimentation or sys- as Kant would have preferred to say, a mani-
tematized induction as opposed to purely dis- fold of completely unsynthesized representations,
cursive, deductive, speculative, transcendental, or and that hence, in order to constitute a world,
dialectical procedures; or relying upon all the the material of experience must first be worked
ways of mind involved in inquiry. over and connective relations established within
(9) An assertion, hypothesis, assump-
belief, it either through the principles of the associa-
tion, postulation, or attitude favoring any of the tion of ideas (British empiricism) or through a
above propositions, practices, methods, or meth- set of trans-empirical categoriesimposed by the
odologies j or an attitude of dependence upon unity of consciousness (Kantian and Hegelian
sense rather than intellect; or an insistence idealism).--F.L.W.
upon fact as against fiction, fancy, or interpreta- Empiricism, Scientific: See Scientific Empiric-
tion of fact (supposing fact and interpretation ism.R.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 91

Empiricists: (Early English) By the beginning bers, but is not a null-class. D.C,
of the 17th century, the wave of search for new End, (in Scholasticism): That object for the at-
foundations of knowledge reached England. The tainment of which the agent moves and acts.
country was fast growing in power and terri- End which (finis qui): That good the agent
tory. Old seemed inadequate, and vast
beliefs intends to attain, e.g. health, which a sick man
new information brought from elsewhere by intends. End for whom (finis cut): Refers to
merchants and scholars had to be assimilated. the person or subject for whom the end which
The feeling was in the air that a new, more (finis qui) is procured, e.g. the sick man himself
practicable and more tangible approach to reality for whom health is procured.
was needed. This new approach was attempted Formal: Or end by which (finis quo) is the
by many thinkers, among whom two, Bacon and actual attainment of the good itself, e.g. beati-
Hobbes, were the most outstanding. Francis tude itself in the blessed.
Bacon (1561-1626), despite his busy political Of the work or of knowledge {finis operis
career, found enough enthusiasm and time to seu scientiae): That to which an act or habit
outline requirements for the study of natural (habitus) is ordered through itself and in its
phenomena. Like Descartes, his younger con- proper nature as the end of logic is the correct-
temporary in France, he felt the importance of ness of the actions of the mind. The end of the
making a clean sweep of countless unverified one working or knowing (finis operantis seu
assumptions obstructing then the progress of scientis) is that which the one acting proposes
knowledge. As the first pre-requisite for the in- to his will, in the exercise of the action or in
vestigation of nature, he advocated, therefore, the acquisition of knowledge, e.g. one who
an overthrow of the idols of the mind, that is, learns a science on account of its usefulness.
of all preconceptions and prejudices pre-
the Simply ultimate: That to which all things are
valent in theories, ideas and even language. actually or virtually referred} and which itself
Only when one's mind is thus prepared for the is ordered to nothing further, as God. A rela-
study of phenomena, can one commence gather- tively ultimate end (finis secundum quid 'ulti-
ing and tabulating facts. Bacon's works, particu- mus): That which terminates some series of
larly Novum Organum, is full of sagacious acts, in which it is intended ultimately and in
thoughts and observations, but he seldom goes itself, but nevertheless can be referred to another
beyond general advice. As we realize it today, end) as health is the end of the art of medicine,
it was a gross exaggeration to call him "the but nevertheless it can be ordered to another end,
founder of inductive logic". Thomas Hobbes e.g. to working. H.G.
(1588-1679) was an empiricist of an entirely Ends: (in Kant's ethics) (1) Humanity and
different kind. He did not attempt to work out every rational creature is an end in itself (never
an inductive method of investigation, but decided merely a means). (2) "The natural end which
to apply deductive logic to new facts. Like all men have is their own happiness." (Kant.)
Bacon, he keenly understood the inadequacy of Kingdom of ends: Kant's notion of the sys-
medieval doctrines, particularly of those of tematic union of different rational beings by
"form" and "final cause". He felt the need for common laws. Cf. also the Practical Imperative.
taking the study of, nature anew, particularly of P.A.S.
its three most important aspects, Matter, Man
Energeia: (Gr. energeia, actuality) In Aristotle's
and the State. According to Hobbes, all nature philosophy: (1) the mode of existence of that
is corporeal and all events have but one cause, which possesses to the full its specific essence)
motion. Man, in his natural state, is dominated actuality) entelechy) opposed to dynamis, or
by passion which leads him to a "war of all potentiality) (2) the activity that transforms
against all". But, contrary to animals, he is potentiality into actuality. G.RM.
capable of using reason which, in the course of Energism: (Lat. energia, active) Ethical theory
time, made him, for self-protection, to choose a that right action consists in exercising one's
social form of existence. The resulting State is, normal Not happiness or
capacities efficiently.
therefore, built on an implicit social contract. pleasure, but self-realization is the aim of ethi-
. R.B.W. cal action. A.J.B.
Empiric-criticism : Avenarius' system of pure Energy: (Gr. energos, at work) The power by
experience in which all metaphysical additions which things act to change other things. Poten-
are eliminated. Opposed to every form of tiality in the physical. Employed by Aristotle
apriortsm, it admits of no basic difference be- as a synonym for actuality or reality, (a) In
tween the psychical and the physical, subject physics: the capacity for performing work. In
and object, consciousness and being. Knowledge modern physics, the equivalent of mass, (b) In
consists in statements about contents which are axiology: value at the physical level. J.K.F.
dependent upon System C in man in the form Engels, Frederick: Co-founder of the doctrines
of experience. Ideal of knowledge is the win- of Marxism (see Dialectical materialism) Engels
ning of a purely empirical world conception, was the life-long friend and collaborator of
removal of every dualism and metaphysical Karl Marx (q.v.). 'He was born at Barmen,
category. H.H* Germany, in 1820, the son of a manufacturer.
Empty: (Ger. leer) In Husserl: Without intui- Like Marx, he became interested in communism
tional fullness) materially indeterminate) ob- early in life, developing and applying its doc-
scure. Emptiness is compatible with distinctness. trines until his death, August 5, 1895. Btside
In logic: a class that happens to have no mem- his collaboration with Marx on Die Heilige
92 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Familie, Die Deutsche Ideologic, Manifesto oj Franklin, Th. Jefferson, J. Adams, A. Hamilton,
the Communist Party , Anti-Diihring and articles and Th. Paine their foremost literary propa-
for the "New York Tribune" (a selection from gandist.
which constitutes "Germany: revolution and In Germany, the movement was initiated by
counter-revolution"), and his editing of Vol- G. W. Leibniz whose writings reveal another
umes II and III of Capital, published after motive for the cult of pure reason, i.e. the deep
Marx's death, Engels wrote extensively on disappointment with the Reformation and the
various subjects, from "Condition of the Work- bloody religious wars among Christians who
ing Class in England (1844-)" to military prob- were accused of having forfeited the confidence
lems, in which field he had received technical of man in revealed religion. Hence the out-

training. On the philosophical side of Marxism, standing part played by the philosophers of
Engels speculated on fundamental questions of "natural law", Grotius, S. Pufendorf, and Chr.
scientificmethodology and dialectical logic in Thomasius, their theme being advanced by the
such books as Dialectics of Nature and Anti- contributions to a "natural religion" and toler-

Diihring. Works like Ludtoig Feuerbach and ance by Chr. Wolff, G. E. Lessing, G. Herder,
the Outcome of Classical German Philosophy and the Prussian king Frederik II. Fr. v. Schil-
and Origin of the Family, Private Property
ler's lyric and dramas served as a powerful
and the State are likewise regarded as basic commendation of ideal freedom, liberty, justice,
texts. The most extensive collection of Engels' and humanity. A group of educators (philan-
works will be found in Marx-Engels "Gesam- thropists) designed new methods and curricula
for the advancement of public education, many
tausgabe", to which there is still much unpub-
lished material be added. J.M.S. of them, e.g. Pestalozzi, Basedow, Cooper, A. H.
tj>

Enjoyment: See Contemplation. L.W.
Enlightenment: When
the cultural enthusiasm of his time, explained
"enlightenment" as man's coming of age from
the state of infancy which rendered him in-
capable of using his reason without the aid of
others, he gave only the subjective meaning of
the term. Objectively, enlightenment is a cul-
Francke, and Fr. A. Wolf, the father of classic
Kant, carried by humanism, having achieved international recog-
nition. Although in general agreement with the
philosophical axioms of foreign enlighteners, the
German philosophy decidedly opposed the Eng-
lish sensism (Hume) and French scepticism, and
reached its height in Kant's Critiques. The
radical rationalism, however, combined with its

tural period distinguished by the fervent efforts animosity against religion, brought about a
of leading personalities to make reason the abso- strong philosophical, theological, and literary
lute ruler of human life, and to shed the light opposition (Hamann, Jacobi, Lavater) which
of knowledge upon the mind and conscience of eventually led to its defeat. The ideals of the
any individual. Such attempts are not confined enlightenment period, the impassioned zeal for
to a or as
the materialization of the ideal man in an ideal
particular time, nation, history
teaches i but the term is to society show clearly that it was basically re-
generally applied
the European enlightenment stretching from the
lated to the Renaissance and its continuation.
See Aufklarung. Cf. J. G. Hibben, The Philos-
early 17th to the beginning of the 19th century,
especially fostered by English, Dutch, French, ophy of the Enlightenment, 1910. S.v.F.
and German philosophers. It took its start in Ens: Being in the most general sense of the

England from the empiricism of F. Bacon, Th. term, with the least possible determination,
without qualifications. J.J.R.
Hobbes, J. Locke', it found a religious version
in the naturalism of Edw. H. Cherbury, J. Ens Parmenideum : (Lat. ens, being) The
Toland, M. Tindal, H. Bolingbroke, and the changeless being (existence) ascribed by Par-
host of "freethinkers", while the Earl of Shaftes- men ides to all things and events. Change was
bury imparted to it a moral on the "light of regarded by him as an illogical illusion.
reason". Not so constructive but radical in R.B.W.
their sarcastic criticism of the past were the
Ens Rationis: (in Scholasticism) A
purely objec-
French enlighteners, showing tive ens rationis is a chimera, of an impossible
that their philos-
ophy got its momentum from/ the moral corrup- thing, although in a certain way it is an object
tion at the royal court and abuse of kingly of human knowledge, as a triangular circle. A
in France. Descartes' doctrine of the logical ens rationis is that which is fashioned
power
"clear and perspicuous ideas," Spinoza's critical by the intellect with some foundation in reality,
attitude towards religion, and Leibniz-Wolff's e.g. human nature conceived as one reality be-
"reasonable thinking" prepared the philosophy
cause of the likeness of singular natures. H.G.
of P. Bayle, Ch. Montesquieu, F. M. Voltaire, Entelechy: (Gr. entelecheia) In Aristotle's phi-
the mode of being of a thing
and J. J. Rousseau. The French positive con- losophy: (1)
tribution to the subject was the whose essence is completely realized} actuality j
"Encyclopedic
ou Dictionaire raisonne" des sciences, arts et energeiaj opposed to dynamis, or potentiality)
me'tiers", 1751-72, in 28 volumes, edited by (2) the form or essence. G.R.M.
Diderot, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Holbach, J. L. Enthymeme: (Gr. en thymem a) In Aristotle's

Lagrane, etc. What, in England and France,
remained on the stage of mere ideas and utopic
dreams became reality in the new commonwealth
of the U.S.A. The "fathers of the constitution"
were enlightened, outstanding among them B.
logic a rhetorical syllogism, usually consisting
of probable premisses, and used for persuasion
as distinct from instruction. In later logic a
syllogism of which one premiss or the condu-
. sion is not explicitly stated. G.R.M.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 93
Entities, neutral: Quality less elements) simples life. contrary to later misconceptions, he
But,
that are in themselves neither mental nor physi- did not advocate the pursuit of all or any
pleas-
cal. H.H. ures, but only of those which are consistent with
Entity: A real being j element
also the common intelligence and moderation. Joys of the mind
in all individuals genus or
belonging to a are superior to pleasures of the
body. In his
species, which may be considered apart from the interpretation of nature, he accepted Democritus'
individual characteristics. Sometimes used in atomism, but contended that the element of
the sense of a vague and ill-defined reality. chance enters into atoms' motions and makes
J.J.R. them deviate from their course. R.B.W.
Entropy: Thermodynamic state
approaching a Epiphenomenalism : Theory of the body-mind
maximum level of zero difference of energy relation advanced by
Clifford, Huxley, Hodg-
potentials. son, etc. which holds that consciousness is, in
Enumerable: A class is enumerable if its cardi- relation to the neural processes which underlie
nal number (q. v.) aleph 0. A. C.
is it, a mere epiphenomenon. See W. Prin- James,
Enumerative Induction: type of inference A ciples of Psychology, Vol. I, ch. V. See Epi-
from a number of given instances, when these phenomenon. L.W.
are treated by noting the number of observed Epiphenomenon: (Gr. epi -j- phainomenon,
coincident happenings of their conditions and from phainein, to appear) A by-product of a
their effects, and without basic processwhich exerts no appreciable influ-
attempting to analyze
their respective contents or to determine a causal ence on the subsequent development of the
connection between them by means of one or process. L.W.
more of the methods of research and verification. Epistemic: (Gr. episteme, knowledge) Relating
The generalization "Every A is B" thus ob- to See Epistemological object.
knowledge.
tained, should be understood with the qualifica- L.W.
tion "Every observed is B". A
This process is Epistemological Dualism: See Dualism, Epi-
used especially in statistical methods. T.G. stemological.
Epagoge: (Gr. epagoge) In Aristotle's logic the Epistemological Idealism: The form of epi-
process of establishing a general proposition by stemological monism which identifies the con-
induction (seeing the universal in the par- tent and the object of knowledge by assimilating
ticular). G.R.M. the object to the content. Berkeleyan idealism
Epicheirema (Gr. epicheirema) In
: Aristotle's by itsrejection of a physical object independent
logic a dialectical as distinct from an apodictic of ideas directly present to the mind is an
or an eristic syllogism. example of epistemological monism. See Epi-
In later logic an argument one of whose stemological Monism. L.W.
premisses is established- by a prosyllogism ex- Epistemological Monism: Theory that non-
pressed in the form of an enthymeme. G.R.M. inferential knowledge, (perception, memory,
Epictetus: (c. 60-110 A.D.) A
Stoic philosopher etc.) the object of knowledge, (the thing per-
and freed slave, who established his School in ceived or remembered) is numerically identical
Nicopolis, Epirusj his Discourses were published with the data of knowledge (sense data, memory
by Arrian, his Warned disciple } they contain images, etc.). Epistemological monism may be
sharp observations of human behavior and pithy either (a) epistemologically realistic, when it
sayings on ethical matters. R.B.W. asserts that the data exist independently of the
Epicurean Founded by Epicurus in
School: knowing mind, or (b) epistemologically ideal-
Athens in the year 306 B.C. Epicureanism gave istic when it asserts the data to be mind con-

expression to
desire for a the refined type of stituted and to exist only when apprehended by
happiness which is the reward of the cultured the mind. See Epistemological Dualism, Epi-
man who can take pleasure in the joys of the stemological Idealism and Epistemological Real-
mind over which he can have greater control ism. L.W.
than over those of a material or sensuous nature. Epistemological Object: The object envisaged
The friendship of gifted and noble men, the by an act of knowledge whether the knowledge
peace and contentment that comes from fair con- be veridical, illusory or even hallucinatory in
duct, good morals and aesthetic enjoyments are contrast to ontological object, which is a real
the ideals of the Epicurean who refuses to be thing corresponding to the epistemological ob-
perturbed by any metaphysical or religious doc- ject when knowledge is veridical. See C. D.
trines which impose duties and thus hinder the Broad, The Mind and Us Place in Nature, pp.
freedom of pure enjoyment. Epicurus adopted 141 ff. L.W.
the atomism of Democritus (q.v.) but modified
Epistemological Realism: Theory that the ob-
its determinism by permitting chance to cause ject of knowledge enjoys an existence inde-
a swerve (clinamen) in the fall of the atoms. pendent of and external to the knowing mind.
See C. W. Epicurus. However, physics
Bailey, The theory, though applied most commonly to
was not to main concern of the philos-
be the perception where it is designated perceptual
opher. See Apathia, Ataraxia, Hedonism. M.F. realism, may be extended to other types of
Epicurus: (341-270 B.C.) A native of Samos, knowledge (for example memory and knowl-
founded his School in Athens about 306 B.C., edge of other minds). Epistemological realism
where he instructed his disciples and admirers in may be combined either with Epistemological
the art of rational
taught that
living. He Monism or Epistemological Dualism. See Epi-
pleasure and happiness are the natural end of stemological Monism, Epistemological Dualism.
L.W.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Epistemology: (Gr. episteme, knowledge + reasoning, investigated by empirical psychology
which are the very processes which, in quite a different
logos, theory) The branch of philosophy
investigates die origin, structure, methods and context, are the special subject matter of epistem-
and
validity of knowledge. The term "epistemology" ology. Nevertheless the psychological
treatments of the
appears to have been used for the first time by epistemological cognitive
J. F. Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics
(1854), processes of mind are radically different: scien-
who distinguished two branches of philosophy tific psychology is concerned solely with the
epistemology and ontology. The German equiv- description and explanation of conscious proc-
alent of epiitemology, Erkenntnistheorie f was esses, e.g. particular acts of perception, in the
used by the Kantian, K. L. Reinhold, Versuch context of other conscious events j epistemology
is interested in the cognitive
einer Neuen Theorie dts menschlichen Vorstel- pretentious, of the
lungsvermogens (1789); Das Fundament des perceptions, i.e. their apparent reference to ex-
ternal objects. In short, whereas psychology is
philosophischen Wissens (1791), but the term
did not gain currency until after its adoption the investigation of all states of mind including
the cognitive in the context of the mental life,
by . Zeller, Uebtr Aufgabe und Bedeutung dtr
Erkenntnisstheorie (1862). The term theory of epistemology investigates only cognitive states
knowledge is a common
English equivalent of and these solely with respect to their cognitive
epistemology and translation of Erkenntnis- import. Psychology and epistemology are by
theorie; the term Gnosiology has also been sug- virtue of the partial identity of their subject
gested but has gained few adherents. matter interdependent sciences. The psychology
The scope of epistemology may be indicated of perception, memory, imagination, conception,
its relations to the allied dis- etc. affords indispensable data for epistemological
by considering
(b) and (c) interpretation and on the other hand epistemo-
ciplines: (a) metaphysics, logic,
psychology, (a) Speculative philosophy is com- logical analysis of the cognitive processes may
monly considered to embrace metaphysics (see sometimes prove psychologically suggestive. The
Metaphysics) and epistemology as its two co- epistemologist must, however, guard against a
ordinate branches or if the term metaphysics be particularly insidious form of the genetic fallacy:
extended to embrace the whole of speculative viz. the supposition that the psychological origin
of an item of knowledge prejudices either favor-
philosophy, then epistemology and ontology be-
come the two main subdivisions of metaphysics ably or unfavorably
its cognitive validity a
in the wide sense. Whichever usage is fallacy which psychologism at its worst.
is
adopted,
epistemology as the philosophical theory of An examination of the generally recognized
knowledge is one of the two main branches of problems of epistemology and of the representa-
philosophy. The question of the relative priority tive solutions of these problems will serve to
of epistemology and metaphysics (or ontology) further clarify the nature and scope of epistemo-
has occasioned considerable controversy: the logical inquiry. The emphasis in epistemology
dominant view fostered by Descartes, Locke and has varied from one historical era to another
Kant is that epistemology is the prior philosophi- and yet there is a residium of epistemological
cal science, the investigation of the possibility problems which has persisted to the present.
and limits of knowledge being a necessary and (a) The initial and inescapable problem with
indispensible preliminary to any metaphysical which the epistemologist is confronted is that of
peculations regarding the nature of ultimate the very possibility of knowledge: Is genuine
reality. On the other hand, strongly metaphysi- knowledge at all attainable? The natural dog-
cal thinkers like Spinoza and Hegel, and more matism of the human mind is confronted with
recently S. Alexander and A. N. Whitehead, the sceptic's challenge: a challenge grounded on
have first attacked the metaphysical problems the relativity of the senses (sensory scepticism)
and adopted the view of knowledge consonant and the contradictions into which the reason is
with their metaphysics. Between these two ex- often betrayed (rational scepticism). An alterna-
tremes is the view that epistemology and meta- tive to both dogmatism and extreme scepticism is

physics are logically interdependent and that a a tentative or methodological scepticism of

metaphysically presuppositionless epistemology is which Descartes' systematic doubt, Locke's cauti-

as unattainable as an epistemologically presup- ous empiricism and Kant's critical epistemology
positionless metaphysics, (b) Despite the fact are instances. See Dogmatism; Scepticism^ Crit-
that traditional logic embraced many topics icism. Scepticism in modern epistemology is

which would now

be considered epistemological, commonly associated with solipsism, since a
the demarcation between logic and epistemology scepticism regarding knowledge of the external
is now clear-cut: logic is the formal
fairly world leads to solipsism and the ego-centric
science of the principles governing valid rea- predicament. See Solipsism ; Ego-centric predica-
soning) epistemology is the philosophical science ment.
of the nature of knowledge and truth. For (b) An epistemologist who rejects an extreme
example, though the decision as to whether a or agnostic scepticism, may very properly seek
given process of reasoning is valid or not is a to determine the limits of knowledge and to

logical question, the inquiry into the nature of assert that genuine knowledge is, within certain

validity it epistemological. (c) The relation prescribed limits, possible yet beyond those limits
between psychology and epistemology is particu- impossible. There are, of course, innumerable
larly intimate since the cognitive processes of ways of delimiting the knowable from the un-
'perception, memory, Imagination, conception and knowable a typical instance of the scfcptical de-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 95

limitation of knowledge is the Kantian distinc- clarity and distinctness of ideas. The intrinsic
tion between the phenomenal and noumenal theory received its definitive modern expression
world. See Phenomenon} Noumenon. A simi- in the theory of "innate ideas" (q.v.) of
lar epistemological position is involved in the Herbert of Cherbury, Descartes, and 17th cen-
doctrine of certain recent positivists and radical tury rationalism, (ii) The presuppositional
empiricists that the knowable coincides with the theory of the a priori which validates a priori
meaningful and the verifiable, the unknowable truths by demonstrating that they are presup-
with the meaningless and unverifiable. See Posi- posed either by their attempted denial (Leibniz)
tivism, Logical} Empiricism, Radical. or by the very possibility of experience (Kant).
(c) The traditional problem of the origin of (Hi) The postulational theory of the A PRIORI,
knowledge, viz.: By what faculty or faculties of elaborated under the influence of recent postula-
mind is knowledge attainable? It gave rise to the tional techniques in mathematics, interprets a
principalcleavage in modern epistemology be- priori principles as rules or postulates arbitrarily
tween rationalism and empiricism (q.v.) though posited in the construction of formal deductive
both occur in any thinker. The rationalists systems. See Postulate} Posit.
(Descartes,Spinoza, Leibniz) rely primarily (f) The problem of differentiating the prin-
though not exclusively on reason as the source cipal hinds of knowledge is an essential task

of genuine knowledge, and the

empiricists
(Locke, Berkeley and Hume) rely mainly on
experience.A broadly conceived empiricism such
as Locke's which acknowledges the authenticity
of knowledge derived both from the inner sense
especially for an empirical epistemology. Per-
haps the most elementary epistemological distinc-
tion is between (i) non-inferential apprehension
of objects by perception, memory, etc. (see
Knowledge by Acquaintance) and (ii) infer- ,

(see Reflection} Introspection) and the outer

, knowledge of things with which the know-
ential

senses, contrasts with that type of sensationalism ing subject has no direct
apprehension. See
(q.v.) which is empiricism restricted to the Knowledge by Acquaintance in
Description.
outer senses. Various attempts, the most notable turn assumes two principal forms: perception or
of which is the critical philosophy of Kant, have acquaintance with external objects (see Percep-
been made to reconcile rationalism and empiric- tion), and introspection or the subject's acquaint-
ism by assigning to reason and experience their ance with the "self" and its cognitive, volitional
respective roles in the constitution of knowledge. and affective states. See Introspection} Reflec-
Few historical or contemporary epistemologists tion. Inferential knowledge includes knowledge
would subscribe either to a rationalism or an of other selves (this is not to deny that knowl-

empiricism of an exclusive and extreme sort.
(d) The methodological problem bulks large
in epistemology and the solutions of it follow
in general the lines of cleavage determined by
the previous problem. Rationalists of necessity
have emphasized deductive and demonstrative
procedures in the acquisition and elaboration of
knowledge while empiricists have relied largely
on induction and hypothesis but few philosophers
have espoused the one method to the complete
exclusion of the other. A few attempts have
been made to elaborate distinctively philosophi-
cal methods reducible neither to the inductive
procedure of the natural sciences nor the demon-
strative method of mathematics such are the
Transcendental Method of Kant and the Dia-
lectical Method of Hegel though the validity
and irreducibility of both of thesemethods are
highly questionable. Pragmatism, operationalism,
and phenomenology may perhaps in certain of
their aspects be construed as recent attempts to
evaluate new epistemological methods.
(e) The problem of the A PRIORI, though the
especial concern of the rationalist, confronts the
empiricist also since few epistemologists are pre-
pared to exclude the a priori entirely from their
accounts of knowledge. The problem is that of
isolating the a priori or non-empirical elements
in knowledge and accounting for them in terms
of the human reason. Three principal theories
of the a priori have been advanced: (i) the
theory of the intrinsic A PRIORI which asserts
that the basic principles of logic, mathematics,
natural sciences and philosophy are self-evident
truths recognizable by such intrinsic traits as
edge of other minds may at times be immediate
and non-inferential), historical knowledge, in-
cluding not only history in the narrower sense
but also astronomical, biological, anthropological
and archaeological and even cosmological recon-
structions of the past and finally scientific knowl-
edge in so far as it involves inference and con-
struction from observational data.
(g) The problem of the structure of the
knowledge-situation is to determine with respect
to each of the major kinds of knowledge just
enumerated but particularly with respect to
perception the constituents of the knowledge-
situation in their relation to one another. The
structural problem stated in general but rather
vague terms is: What is the relation between
the subjective and objective components of the
knowledge-situation? In contemporary epistem-
ology, the structural problem has assumed a
position of such preeminence as frequently to
eclipse other issues of epistemology. The prob-
lem has even been incorporated by some into
the definition of philosophy. (See A. Lalande,
Vocabulair* de la Philosophic, art. Thiori* dt U
Connaissanee. I. and G. D. Hicks, Encycl. Brit.
5th ed. art. Theory of Knowledge.) The prin-
cipal cleavage in epistemology, according to
this formulation of its problem, is between a
subjectivism which telescopes the object of
knowledge into the knowing subject (see Sub-
jectivism t Idealism, Epistemological) and pan-
objectivism which ascribes to the object all quali-
ties perceived or otherwise cognized. See Pan-
objectivism. A compromise between the ex-
tremes of subjectivism and objectivism is
96 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
achieved by the theory of representative percep- "As If", Eng. trans., 1924. A. N. Whitehead,
tion, which, distinguishing between primary and Principles of Natural Knowledge. A. N. White-
secondary qualities, considers the former objec- head, Concept of Nature. H. H. Price,Percep-
tive, the latter subjective. See Representative tion, 1933. W. T. Stace, The Theory of
Perce^tion^ Theory of; Primary Qualities} Sec- Knowledge and Existence, 1932. L. Wood, The
ondary Qualities. Analysis of Knowledge.
The structural problem stated in terms of the Episyllogism : Where the conclusion of one (cate-
antithesis between subjective and objective is gorical) syllogism is used as one of the premisses
rather too vague for the purposes of epistemology of another, the first syllogism is called a pro syl-
and a more precise analysis of the knowledge- logism and the second one an episyllogism.
situation and statement of the issues involved is A.C.
required. The perceptual situation and this Equality: See Logic, formal, 3, 6, 9.

analysis may presumablybe extended with ap- Equipollence: A relation of equivalence between
propriate modifications to memory, imagination two propositions or prepositional forms or sym-
and other modes of cognition consists of a bols for these.
subject (the self, or pure act of perceiving), the (a) Some writers, following the example of
content (sense data) and the object (the Galen, use it in the sense of material equival-
physi-
cal thing perceived). In terms of this
analysis, ence, i.e., having the same truth value.
two issues may be formulated: (a) Are content following Apuleius, use it in a
(b) Others,
and object identical
(epistemological monism), much more restricted sense such as that of strict
or are they numerically distinct (epistemological equivalence or even reciprocal entailment. In
dualism)? and (b) Does the object exist inde- the latter sense the relation holds when and
pendently of the knowing subject (epistemologi- only when the two sentences express the
cal idealism) or is it
dependent upon the sub- same fact. C.A.B.
ject (epistemological realism)? Carnap proposes a purely syntactical definition
(h) The problem of truth is perhaps the
of equipollence by defining two sentences (or
culmination of epistemological enquiry two classes of sentences) to be equipollent if they
in any
case it is the problem which brings the enquiry have the same class of non-valid consequences.
See the article Valid. A.C.
to the threshold of metaphysics. The traditional
theories of the nature of truth are: (i) the cor- Equivalence: (Lat. aequivaleo, have equal power)
respondence theory which conceives truth as a
Identical value. Having the same relation or
relation between an "idea" or a proposition and force. In logic, syn. of equipollence (q.v.)
J.K.F.
its object the relation has commonly been re-
garded as one of resemblance but it need not be Equivocation any fallacy arising from am-
is

so considered (see Correspondence theory of biguity of a word, or of a phrase playing the

role of a single word in the reasoning in ques-
truth) 5 (ii) the Coherence theory which adopts
as the criterion of truth, the logical consistency tion, the word or phrase being used at different

of a proposition with a wider system of proposi- places with different meanings and an inference
tions (see Coherence theory of truth), and (iii)
drawn which is formally correct if the word or
the intrinsic theory which views truth as an phrase is treated as being the same word or
phrase throughout. A. C.
intrinsic property of the true proposition. See
Intrinsic theory of truth. L.W. Erh: (a) The active or male principle (yang)
and the passive or female principle (yin), which
Bibliography: L. T. Hobhouse, The Theory of are the products of Tao and which produce the
Knowledge, 1896. H. Bergson, Introduction to
myriad of things. (Taoism.)
Metaphysics, Eng. trans., 1912. W. P. Mon- The or male principle
(b) active (yang or
tague, Ways of Knowing, 1925. J. Dewey,
ch'ien) and the passive or female principle.
The Quest for Certainty, 1929. W. James, The W.T.C.
Meaning of Truth, 1909. C. I. Lewis, Mind Eristic: (Gr. eristike) In Aristotle's logic the
and the World Order, 1929. D. Drake and art of specious reasoning, or of reasoning from
others, Essays in Critical Realism, 1920. E. B.
specious premises, for the purpose of victory in
Holt, The Concept of
Consciousness, 1914.
argument; opposed to apodictic and to dia-
W. James, Essays in Radical Empiricism, 1912. lectical reasoning. See Apodictic ; Dialectic.
J. Laird, A Study in Realism, 1920. A. O. A kind of polemic, characterized by the use
Lovejoy, The Revolt against Dualism, 1930. of logical subtleties and oratorical casuistry, for
G. E. Moore, Philosophical Studies, 1922. B. which the Megarian School was particularly
Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, 1912. famous. See Megarians. R.B.W.
B. Russell, Scientific Method in Philosophy,
Eriugena, Joannes Scottus: (800/815 c. 800)
1914. E. G. Spaulding, The New Rationalism, Was of Irish birth and early education. He
1918, Alexander, Space, Time, and Deity,
S. came td the Court of Charles the Bald, son of
2nd 1928.
ed., C. D. Broad, Perception,
.
Charlemagne, as a teacher c. 845. good A
Physics, and Reality, 1914. C. D. Broad, he translated works of Maximus, Greg-
linguist,
Scientific Thought, 1923. C. D. Broad, Mind ory of Nyssa and the Pseudo-Dionysius from
and its Place in Nature, 1925. B. Russell, Greek to Latin. His thought is partly Augus-
The Analysis of Mind, 1921. N. K. Smith, tinian, partly a personal development inspired
Prolegomena to an Idealist Theory of Knowl- by the Greek Fathers. He has been accused of
edg* t 1924. H. Vaihinger, The Philosophy of Pantheism. Chief works: De Praedestinatione,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 97

De divisions Naturae
(PL 122). Cappuyns, M. Opposite of existence. Syn. with being, possi-
Jean Erigene, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa pfnsee
5. bility. See Santayana's use of the term in
(Louvain-Paris, 1933). V.J.B. Realm of Essence, as a hybrid of intuited datum
Erlebnis: (Ger. erleben, to experience or live and scholastic essence (q.v.). See Eternal object.
through) The mind's identification with its own J.K.F.
emotions and feelings when it consciously "lives Essence, (Scholastic): The essence of a thing is

through"} contrasts with cognition, with its its nature considered independently of its exist-
characteristic duality between subject and object. ence. Also non-existent things and those which
See Enjoyment and Contemplation. L.W. cannot exist at have a proper essence. The
all

Eros: (Gr.) 1. Possessive desire or love, com- definition details

properties making up the
all

monly erotic. 2. In Platonic thought, the driv- essence. It is doubtful whether we can give of

ing force of life aspiring to the absolute Good; any thing a truly essential definition with the
hence the motive underlying education, fine art, one exception of man: man is a rational animal.
and philosophy. The connotation of aesthetic Most of the definitions have to be content with
fascination, impersonality, and intense desire is naming accidental features, because we do not
retained in Plato's use of the term. Hence Eros attain a direct
knowledge of substances. Synony-
is to be distinguished from the Indian Bhakti mously the term "quiddity" is used. The essence
(selfless devotion), the Buddhist Metta (dis- implies, in the case of corporeal beings, matter,
interested benevolence), the Confucian Jen but not as actually contained, since the essence
(humanity, charity), and At (personal love), is individualized
by prime matter. But it is of
and the Christian Agapdo (sacrificial, protective the essence of material things to be material.
brotherly love), and Phileo (personal affection Thus, Essence is not "form"
properly speaking.
or fondness). W.L. See Distinction, Form, Individual on, Matter.
Erotema: (Gr. erotema) A question} in Aris- R.A.
totle's logic a premise stated in interrogative Essential Coordination: Term employed by R.
form for acceptance or rejection by the re- Avenarius (Kritik der reinen Erfahrung, 1888)
spondent; hence, any premise used in dialectical to designate the essential solidarity existing
reasoning. G.R.M. between knowing subject and the object
the
Error: (Lat. error, from errare, to wander) Dis- of knowledge. The theory of "essential co-
torted or non-veridical apprehension, for ex- ordination" is contrasted by Avenarius with the
ample illusory perception and memory. See allegedly false theory of introjection (q.v.).
Veridical. The term, although sometimes used L.W.
as a synonym of properly applied to
falsity, is Esthesis: (Gr. aisthesis, sensation or feeling,
acts of apprehension like perception and memory from aisthanesthai, to perceive) A state of pure
and not to propositions and judgments. L.W. feeling sensuous, hedonic or affective char-
Bschatology: (Gr. ta eschata, death) That part acterized by the absence of conceptual and in-
of systematic or dogmatic theology dealing with terpretational elements. Aesthesis at the sensory
the last things, namely, death, judgment, heaven level consists of pure sense data. See Sense
and hell, and also with the end of the world. datum. Though the existence of pure esthesis
Also applied by philosophers to the complexus is challenged by most psychologists and epi-
of theories relating to the ultimate end of man- stemologists (see C. '

I. Lewis, Mind and the

kind and the final stages of the physical cosmos. World Order, pp. 54-5); a state of mind ap-
J.J.R. proximates pure esthesis when the conceptual,
Esoteric: Belonging to the inner circle of initi- interpretative and constructional elements are
ates, or experts} e.g. the esoteric doctrines at- reduced to a minimum. L.W.
tributed to the Stoics, or the esoteric members Esthetic: See Aesthetic.
of the Pythagorean brotherhoods; contrasted Eternal object: A. N. Whitehead's term essen-
with exoteric (q.v.). G.R.M. tially synonymous with Plato's "Idea" or Aris-
Essence: (Lat. essentia, fr. essens, participle of totle's "form"; a potential form determining

esse, be) The being or power of a thing}

to and limiting the qualitative characteristics of
necessary internal relation or function. The actuality; a universal attributed to reality
Greek philosophers identified essence and sub- R.B.W.
stance in the term, ousia. In classic Latin es- Eternal recurrence: The view that as the dy-
sence was the idea or law of a thing. But in namic energies of nature are finite, whereas time
scholastic philosophy the distinction between is infinite, only a limited number of combina-
essence and substance became important. Es- tions is possible, which results in the cyclical
sence began to be identified, as in its root recurrence of every situation in infinitely numer-
meaning, with being, or power. For Locke, the ous times. The view which assumes that the
being whereby a thing is what it is. For Kant, initial combination of the forces of existence
the primary internal principle of all that belongs will recur again and again. (Nietzsche.)
to the being of a thing. For Peirce, the in- H.H.
telligible element of the possibility of being. Eternity: An infinite extent of time, in which
(a) In logic: definition or the elements of a every event is future at one time, present at
thing} the genus and differentia. See Definition. another, past at another. As everlastingness, it
(b) In epistemology: that intelligible character was formerly divided into two eternities, eternity
which defines what an indefinite predicate as- a partf ante, an infinite extent of time before
serts. The universal possibility of a thing. the present, and eternity a parte post, an in-
98 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
finite extent of time after the present. Anything ethical conception or attitude to an untried and
can be called "eternal" which is not subject to as yet "indemonstrable" object. No other method
change, f.i. laws of nature, or which transcends can guarantee the individual and social condi-
all time. See Timeless. R.B.W. tions of progress without which the notion of
Ethical formalism: (Kantian) Despite the his- morality loses all assignable meaning. The
torical over-shadowing of Kant's ethical posi- newly constructed object of "pure practical rea-
tion by the influence of The Critique of Pure son" is assumed, in the event, to provide a type
Reason upon the philosophy of the past century of life and conduct which, just because it is of
and a half, Kant's own (declared) major in- my own construction, will be likely to be ac-
terest, almost from the very beginning, was in companied by the feeling of self-sufficiency which
moral philosophy. Even the Critique of Pure is the basic pre-requisite of any worthy human
Reason itself was written only in order to happiness. It is this theory which constitutes
clear ground for dealing adequately with
the Kant's ethical formalism. See also Autonomy,
the of ethics in the Grundlegung zur
field Categorical Imperative , Duty, End(s), Freedom,
Metaphysik der Sitten (1785), in the Kritik der Happiness, Law, Moral, Practical Imperative ,
Praktischen Vernunft (1788), and in the Meta-
physik der Sitten (1797). By the end of the Ethical Hedonism: See Hedonism, ethical.
seventeen-sixties Kant was ready to discard Ethical relativism: The view that ethical truths
every prior ethical theory, from the early are relative that the Tightness of an action
Greeks to Baumgarten, Rousseau, and the Brit- and the goodness of an object depend on or
ish moralists, finding all of them, despite the consist in the attitude taken towards it by some
wide divergencies among them, equally dogmatic individual or group, and hence may vary from
and unacceptable. Each of the older theories individual to individual or from group to group.
he found covertly to rely upon some dogmatic See Absolutism. W.K.F.
criterion or other, be it
"prin- a substantive Ethical rule: See Rule.
ciple," an intuition, or an equally substantive Ethics: (Gr. ta ethika, from ethos) Ethics (also
"sense." Every such ethical theory fails to deal referred to as moral philosophy) is that study
with ethical issues as genuinely problematic, or discipline which concerns itself with judg-
since it is amenable to some "demonstrative" ments of approVal and disapproval, judgments
preconceived criterion. as to the Tightness or wrongness, goodness or
In harmony with Kant's major concern in badness, virtue or vice, desirability or wisdom
his other Critiques, namely the establishment of actions, dispositions, ends, objects, or states
of lawfulness in each respective sphere (of of affairs. There are twe main directions which
scientificknowledge, of moral action, and of this study may take. It may concern itself with
artisticand religious hopefulness) Kant's pri- a psychological or sociological analysis and ex-
mary aim in ethics is the unification or syn- planation of our ethical judgments, showing
thesis of the field of action. Since, however, what our approvals and disapprovals consist in
action is ever changing and since eternally new and why we approve or disapprove what we do.
and creative possibilities of action are constantly Or it may concern itself with establishing or
coming into view, Kant saw that lawfulness in recommending certain courses of action, ends,
the ethical sphere could not be of either a or ways of life as to be taken or pursued, either
static or predetermined nature. as right or as good or as virtuous or as wise,
As of as over against others which are wrong, bad,
against the faulty ethical procedures
the past and of his own day, therefore, Kant vicious, or foolish. Here the interest is more in
action than in approval, and more in the guid-
very early conceived and developed the more
critical concept of "form," not in the sense ance of action than in its explanation, the
of a "mould" into which content is to be poured purpose being to find or set up some ideal or
(a notion which has falsely been taken over by standard of conduct or character, some good or
Kant-students from his theoretical philosophy end or summum bonum, some ethical criterion
into his but as a method of rational or first principle. In many philosophers these
ethics),
(not ratiocinative, but inductive) reflection; a
two approaches are combined. The first is
method undetermined by, although not irrespec- dominant or nearly so in the ethics of Hume,
tive of, empirical data or considerations. This Schopenhauer, the evolutionists, Westermarck,
methodologically formal conception constitutes
and of M. Schlick and other recent positivists,
Kant's major distinctive contribution to ethical while the latter is dominant in the ethics of
It is a process of rational reflection, most other moralists.
theory.
creative construction, and transition, and as Either sort of enquiry involves an investiga-
such is held by him to be the only method tion intomeaning of ethical statements,
the

capable of coping with the exigencies of the their truth and falsity, their objectivity and sub-
facts of human experience and with the needs jectivity, and the possibility of systematizing
of moral obligation. By this method of creative them under one or more first principles. In
construction the reflective (inductive) reason is neither case is ethics concerned with our con-
able to create, as each new need for a next re- duct or our ethical judgments simply as a mat-
step arises, a new object of ter of historical or anthropological record.
chosen It
flectively
"pure" that is to say, empirically undeter- is, however, often said that the first kind of
mined "practical reason." This makes possible enquiry is not ethics but psychology. In both
the transition from a present no longer adequate cases it may be said that the aim of ethics, as
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 99

a part of
philosophy, theory not practice,
is terms have only an emotive meaning, (b) In-
cognition not action, even though it be added tuitionists and non-naturalists often hold that
at once that its theory is for the sake of practice goodness is an indefinable intrinsic (and there-
and its cognition a cognition of how to live. fore objective or absolute) property, e.g., Plato,
But some moralists who take the second ap- G. E. Moore, W. D. Ross, J. Laird, Meinong,
proach do deny that,
ethics is a cognitive dis- N. Hartman. (c) Metaphysical and naturalis-
cipline or science, namely those who hold that tic moralists usually hold that goodness can be
ethical first principles are resolutions or prefer- defined in metaphysical or in psychological
ences, not propositions which may be true or terms, generally interpreting "x is good" to
false, e.g., Nietzsche, Santayana, Russell. mean that a certain attitude is taken toward
Ethicaljudgments fall, roughly, into two x by some mind or group of minds. For some
classes, (a) judgments of value, i.e. judgments of them value is objective or absolute in the
as to the goodness or badness, desirability or sense of having the same locus for everyone,
undesirability of certain objects, ends, experi- e.g., Aristotle in his definition of the good as
ences, dispositions, or states of affairs, e.g. that at which all things aim, (Ethics, bk. I).

"Knowledge good," (b) judgments of obliga-

is For others the locus of value varies from indi-
tion, i.e. judgments as to the obligatoriness, vidual to individual or from group to group,
Tightness or wrongness, wisdom or foolishness i.e.
things will be good for different
different
of various courses of action and kinds of con- individuals or groups, e.g., Hobbes, Wester-
duct, judgments enjoining, recommending or marck, William James, R. B. Perry.
condemning certain lines of conduct. Thus there The second question in value-theory is the
are two parts of ethics, (1) the theory of value question "What things are good? What is
or axiology, which is concerned with judgments good, what is the highest good, etc.?" On this
of value, extrinsic or intrinsic, moral or non- question perhaps the main issue historically is
moral, (2) the theory of obligation or de- between those who say that the good is pleasure,
ontology, which is concerned with judgments of satisfaction, or some state of feeling, and those
obligation. In either of these parts of ethics who say that the good is virtue, a state of will,
one may take either of the above approaches or knowledge, a state of the intellect. Holding
in the theory of value one may be interested the good to be pleasure or satisfaction are some
either in analyzing and explaining (psychologi- of the Sophists, the hedonists (the Cyrenaics,
cally or sociologically) our various judgments the Epicureans, Hobbes, Hume, Bentham, Mill,
of value or in ^establishing or recommending Sidgwick, Spencer, Schlick). Holding virtue or
certain things as good or as ends, and in the knowledge or both to be good or supremely
theory of obligation one may be interested either good are Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Neo-
in analyzing and explaining our various judg- Platonists, Augustine, Aquinas, Spinoza, Kant,
ments of obligation or in setting forth certain Hegel, G. E. Moore, H. Rashdall, J. Laird,
courses of action as right, wise, etc. W. D. Ross, N. Hartmann.
Historically, philosophers have, in the main, In the theory of obligation we find on the
taken the latter approach in both parts of ethics, question of the meaning and status of right and
and we may confint our remaining space to it. wrong the same variety of views as obtain in
On approach a theory of value is a theory
this the theory of value: "right," e.g., has only an
as to what
is to be pursued or sought, and a emotive meaning (Ayer)} or it denotes an in-
theory of obligation, a theory as to what is to tuited indefinable objective quality or relation
be done. Now, of these two parts of ethics, of an act (Price, Reid, Clarke, Sidgwick, Ross,
philosophers have generally been concerned pri- possibly Kant) ; or it stands for the attitude of
marily with the latter, busying themselves with some mind or group of minds towards an act
the former only secondarily, usually because it; (the Sophists, Hume, Westermarck). But it is

seemed to them that one must know what ends also often defined as meaning that the act is

are good before one can know what acts are to conducive to the welfare of some individual or
be performed. They all offer both a theory of group the agent himself, or his group, or so-
value and a theory of obligation, bbt it was not ciety as a whole. Many of the ideological and
until the 19th and 20th centuries that value- utilitarian views mentioned below include such
theory became a separate discipline studied for a definition.
its own sake a development in which impor- On
the question as to what acts are right or
tant roles were played by Kant, Lotze, Ritschl, to be ethical theories fall into two groups:
done
certain European economists, Brentano, Mei- (1) Axiological theories seek to determine what
nong, von Ehrenfels, W. M. Urban, R. B. is right entirely by reference to the goodness or

Perry, and others. value of something, thus making the theory of

In the theory of value the first question con- obligation dependent on the theory of value.
cerns themeaning of value-terms and the status For a philosopher like Martineau it is the com-
of goodness. As to meaning the main point is parative goodness of its motive that determines
whether goodness is definable or not, and if so, which act is right. For a Ideologist it is the
how. As to status the main point is whether comparative amount of good .which it brings or
goodness subjective or objective, relative or
is probably will bring into being that determines
absolute. Various positions are possible, (a) which act is right the egoistic teleologist hold-
Recent emotive meaning theories, e.g. that of ing that the right act is the act which is most
A. J. Ayer, hold that "good" and other value- conducive to the good of the agent (some
100 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Sophists, Epicurus, Hobbes), and the universal- portrays character as distinct from the portrayal
isticteleologist holding that the right act is of thought or suffering. G.R.M*
the act which is most conducive to the good of
Etiology: (1) The science or philosophical dis-
the world as a whole (see Utilitarianism). (2) cipline which studies causality) (2) The science
On deontological theories see Deontological of the causes of some particular phenomenon,
ethics and Intuitionism. e.g. in medicine the science of the causes of
Historically, one may say that, in general, disease. A.C.B.
Greek ethics was Ideological, though there are Eucken, Rudolf: (1846-1926) Being a writer
deontological strains in Plato, Aristotle, and of wide popularity, winner of the Nobel Prize
the Stoics. In Christian moralists one finds for literature in 1908, Eucken defends a spiritu-
both kinds of ethics, according as the emphasis metaphysics against materialistic
alistic-idealistic
is on the will of God as the source of duties naturalism, positivism and mechanism. Spiritual
(the ordinary view) or on the goodness of God life, not being an oppositionless experience, is
as somehow the end of human life (Augustine a struggle, a self-asserting action by resistance,
and Aquinas), theology and revelation taking a matter of great alternatives, either-ors between
a central role in either case. In modern phi- the natural and the spiritual, a matter of vital
losophical ethics, again, both kinds of ethics are choice. Thus all significant oppositions are,
present, with the opposition between them com- within spiritual life itself, at once created and
ing out into the open. Starting in the 17th and overcome. Immanence and transcendence, per-
18th centuries in Britain are both "intuitionism" sonalism and absolutism are the two native
(Cambridge Platonists, Clarke, Butler, Price, spiritual oppositions that agitate Eucken's sys-
Reid, Whewell, McCosh, etc.) and utilitarianism tem. Reconciliation between the vital dualities
(q.v.), with British ethics largely a matter therefore depends not on mere intellectual in-
of controversy between the two, a controversy sight, but on personal effort, courageous, heroic,
in which the Ideological side has lately been militant and devoted action. He handles the
taken by Cambridge and the deontological side basic oppositions of experience in harmony with

by Oxford. Again, in Germany, England, and the activist tenor of liberal Protestantism.
elsewhere there have" been, on the one hand, Eucken to replace the prevailing in-
sought
the formalistic deontologism of Kant and his idealism by an activistic idealism,
tellectualistic
followers, and, on the other, the aziological or founded on a comprehensive and historical con-
Ideological ethics of the Hegelian self-realiza- sideration of culture at large. He sought to
tionistsand the Wertethik of Scheler and N. interpret the spiritual content of historical
Hartmann. movements. He conceived of historical facts as
Ethical theories are also described as meta- being so many systematized wholes of life, for
physical, naturalistic, and non-naturalistic or which he coined the term syntagma. His dis-
intuitionistic. See Intuitionism , Non-naturalistic tinctive historical method consists of the re-

ethics. Metaphysical ethics, Naturalistic ethics, ductive and the noological aspects. The former
Autonomy of ethics. considers the parts directly in relation to an
Histories of Ethics: H. Sidgwick, Outlines of inward whole. The latter is an inner dialectic
the History of Ethics, Rev. Ed. 1931. Gives and immanent criticism of the inward principles
titles of the classical works in ethics in passing. of great minds, embracing the cosmological and
C. D. Broad, Five Types of Ethical Theory, psychological ways of philosophical construction
1930. and transcending by the concept of spiritual life
Elementary Texts: J. Dewey and J. H. Tufts, the opposition of the world and the individual
Ethics, Rev. Ed. 1932. W. M. Urban, Funda- soul. Preaching the need of a cultural renewal,
mentals of Ethics, 1930. not a few of his popularized ideas found their
Treatises: H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, more articulated form inflthe philosophical soci-
7th Ed. 1907. G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica, ology of his most eminenr pupil, Max Scheler;
1903. W. D. Ross, Foundations of Ethics, 1939. in the cultural psychology of both Spranger and
N. Hartmann, Ethics, 3 vol., trans. 1932. M. Spengler. His philosophy is essentially a call to
Schlick, Problems of Ethics, trans. 1939. R. B. arms against the deadening influences of mod-
Perry, General Theory of Value, 1926. W.K.F. ern life.~-H.H.
Ethics, Absolute: A phrase which is sometimes Euclid: (c. 400 B.C.) Of Megara, founder of
used to designate an ethics which is put forth as the Megarian School. He was chiefly interested
absolute, see Absolutism, and sometimes, as by in the theory of refutation. See Megarians.
H. Spencer, to designate the formulation of the Euclid of Megara identified the good and the
ideal code of conduct of an ideal man in the One. The many are unreal. Not to be confused
ideal society. See Relative Ethics. W.K.F. with the great geometer who lived at Alexandria
Ethics, Relative: A term due to H. Spencer and (c. 300 B.C.), author of the Elements in 13
used to designate any attempt to apply the ideal books. M.F.
code of conduct formulated, by Absolute Ethics Eudaemonia: (Gr. eudaimonia) Happiness, or
to actual men in actual societies. See Absolute well-being, acclaimed by Aristotle at the uni-
Ethics. W.K.F. versally recognized chief good, and described
Ethos: ethos) Character; moral purpose}
(Gr. by him as consisting in the active exercise
distinguished by Aristotle from thought or in- (energeia) of the soul's powers in accordance
telligence as a source of dramatic action; hence with reason. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
'that element in a dramatic composition which Eudaemonism : (Gr. eu, well -f- daimon, spirit)
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 101

Theory that the aim of

right action is personal with empty intending. Perfect evidence is a
well-being or happiness, often contrasted with regulative idea: In any particular evidence the
hedonism's aim at pleasure. 4 .7.2?. object is also emptily intended as the object of
Euhemeriem : The view that explains religious further, confirmative, evidence. Evidence is
myths as traditional and partially distorted ac- either original ("perceptual" in the broadest
counts of historical events and personages) from sense) or directly reproductive ("memorial" in
Euhemerus, Cyrenaic philosopher (c. 300 B.C.), the broadest sense) } again, it is either im-
who advanced the theory that the gods of myth- pressional or retentional evidence. Empirical
ology were deified heroes. G.R.M. evidence, in general, is the category of evidence
Euler diagram: The elementary operations upon of real individual objects; within this category,
and relations between classes complementation, sensuous perceiving is original evidence of
logical sum, logical product, class equality, class sensible real individuals and their sensible real
inclusion may sometimes advantageously be individual determinations. For every other
represented by means of the corresponding oper- category of objects there is a corresponding
ations upon and relations between regions in a category of general and original
evidence in
plane. (Indeed, if regions are considered as evidence in particular. 2. In a broader sense,
classes of points, the operations and relations "evidence" may be either immediate (evidence
for regions become particular cases of those for in the first sense) or mediate. E.g., an in-

classes.) By using regions of simple character, tended fact mediately evident if (and only if)
is

such as interiors of circles or ellipses, to stand there is immediate evidence of its entailment
for given classes, convenient diagrammatic rep- as the consequence of an immediately evident
resentations are obtained of the possible logical fact. 3. In a still broader sense, evidence of

relationships between two or more classes. These an intended object may be indirect, i.e., by way
are known as Euler diagrams, although their of direct evidence (evidence in the first or
'

employment by Euler in his Letters to a Ger- second sense) of evidence of the intended
man Princess (vol. 2, 1772) was not their first object in some other consciousness, perhaps the
appearance. Or the diagram may be so drawn as consciousness belonging to another ego. The
n
to show all possible intersections (2 intersec- concept of original evidence is accordingly rela-
tions in the case of n classes), and then inter- tivized and broadened to include all kinds of
sections known to be empty may be crossed out, consciousness in which the intended object is
and intersections known not to be empty marked given in the most original manner possible
with an asterisk or otherwise (Venn diagram). for an object of its kind and status. Thus,
A.C. e.g., clear direct remembering is original evi-

Eusebius of Caesarea: (265-340) Is one of the dence of one's own retained

qua past, past,
and perceptive empathy is original evidence of
firstgreat historians of the Christian Church.
He was born at Caesarea, in Palestine, studied another's consciousness. Evidence of every kind

at the school of Pamphilus, became Bishop of
Caesarea in 313. His works are in Greek and
include a Chroniclf, Ecclesiastical History, and
a treatise On Tleophanies (PG 19-24). His
philosophical views are those of a Christian
Platonist and he contributed to the development
(and in each of the above-defined senses) has
its in phantasy (fictive consciousness).
parallel
Fictive empirical evidence involves non-fictive
evidence of the essential possibility of an in-
dividual having the fictively presented determina-
tions. The evident incompatibility of fictively

of the allegorical method of Scriptural exegesis. experienced determinations is evidence of the

VJ.B. any individual having
essential impossibility of
Evaluation: Quantitative comparison of values. such determinations. Apodictic evidence is evi-
The appraisal of value) the estimation of worth. dence together with the further evidence that
See Value. J.K.F. no conflicting evidence is essentially possible.
E-values: Every Essential possibilities, impossibilities, and neces-
descriptive value in as far as it
is a statement of another individual. E-values sities, admit of apodictic evidence. The only
divide into elements and characters. They are actual individual object that can be an object
basic values independent of the System C whose of apodictic evidence is one's own subjectivity.
function they are. (Avenarius.) H.H. Evidence is not to be confounded with cer-
Event: (Lat. evenire, to happen, come out) Any- tainty of positing (see Modality) nor conceived
as restricted to apodictic evidence. Furthermore,
thing which happens, usually something which
exhibits change and does not endure over a long it is evident that no evidence is a talisman

time) hence opposed to object (q.v.) or thing. against error. What

evident in one process
is

A.C.B. may evidently conflict with what is evident in

Event-particle: A. N. Whitehead's term mean- another; or, again, the range of evidence may
ing a material event with all its dimensions be Evidence is exemplified in
overestimated.

ideally restricted. R.B.W. valuing and willing as well as in believing.

It is the source of all objective sense (see
Evidence: (Lat. e-\*vider, to see) Any supposed
fact which is considered as supporting the truth Apperception and Genesis) and the basis of all
of a given proposition. A.C.B. rationality (see Reason). D.C.
Evidence: (Ger. Evident) In Husserl: 1. Usual Evident: (Ger. evident) In Husserl: Both evi-
sense: consciousness of an intended dence and the object of evidence are called
(strict)
as itself (more or less fully) given? "evident". D.C.
object
in the broadest sense. Contrasted Evil: (AS. yfel) Negation of the extrinsic elec-
experience
102 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tions of things. In practice, the positive effects A is not B." This is usually identified with the
of such negation. The morally bad. Hostility theorem of the prepositional calculus, p v ^p,
to the welfare of anything. Absence of the good. to which the same name is given. The general
Opposite of goodness. See Ethics. J.K.F. validity of the law is denied by the school of
Evolution: The development of organization. mathematical intuitionism (q. v.). A. C.
The working out of a definite end} action by Exclusive particularity, fallacy of: The un-
final causation. For Comte, the successive stages warranted belief that a particular term belongs
of historical development are necessary. In only to one system of terms) that it can func-
biology, the series of phylogenetic changes in tion in only one relationship. H.H.
the structure or behavior of organisms, best ex- Exemplarism: (Lat. exemplum, a pattern or
emplified by Charles Darwin's Origin of Species. copy) The theological doctrine that finite
things
In cosmology, cosmogony is the theory of the are copies of originals existing in the divine
generation of the existing universe in space mind. L.W.
and time. Opposite of: epigenesis. See Emergent Exemplary cause: (Lat. exemplum, pattern or
evolution. Evolutionism. Cf. T. Osborn, From example) A
form of causality resembling that
the Greeks to Dartoin.-^-J.K.F. exercised by the Ideas in Platonism, the rationes
Evolution, creative: The conserved pluri-dimen- aeternae in Augustinianism and Thomism. The
sional life force causing all the numerous vari- role an archetypal, or "pattern" cause is
of
ties of living forms, dividing itself more and much discussed in Scholastic metaphysics because
more as it advances. (Bergson.) H.H. of the teaching that the universe was created in
Evolutionary ethics: Any ethical theory in accord with a Divine Plan consisting of the
which the doctrine of evolution plays a leading eternal ideas in the Mind of God. VJ.B.
role, as
explaining originthe moralof the Exemplification: (Ger. Exempli fizierung) In
sense, and, more especially, as contributing im- Husserl: The relation of an entity to any eidos
portantly to the determination of the moral or any universal type under which it falls as
standard, e.g. the ethics of Charles Darwin, H. an instance or as containing a part which is
Spencer, L. Stephen. Typical moral standards an instance of the eidos or the type. Exemplifica-
set up by evolutionists are adaptation, conducive- tion is distinguished from (a) the relation of
ness to Cf. H. Spencer, The
life, social health. species to genus, (o) the relation of a more
Data of Ethics. -W.K.F. detailed syntactical form to a less detailed, and
Evolutionism: This is the view that the uni- (c) the relation of real embodiment to em-
verse and life in all of its manifestations bodied ideal individual. D.C.
and nature in all of their aspects are the Exercite: (in Scholasticism) The exercise (exer-
product of development. Apart from the re- citium) of, for example, understanding, walking,
ligious ideas of initial creation by fiat, this or doing something, indicates the act itself of
doctrine finds variety of species to be the understanding, of walking, or of doing some-
result of change and modification and growth thing. Opposed to signat e (signately) (q.v.).
and adaptation rather than from some form of H.G.
special creation of each of the myriads of or- Existence: (Lat. existere: to emerge) The mode
ganic types and even of much in the inorganic of being which consists in interaction with other
realm. Contrary to the popular notion, evolu- things. For Aristotle, matter clothed with form.
tion not a product of modern thought. There
is Essences subjected to accidents; the state of
has been an evolution of evolutionary hypotheses things beyond their causes. The state of being
from earliest Indian and Greek speculation actual, the condition of objectivity. In epistem-
down to the latest pronouncement of scientific ology: that which is experienced. In psychology:
theory. Thales believed all life to have had a the presence of a given datum in the physical
marine origin and Anaximander, Anaximenes, universe at some date and place. Sometimes
Empedocles, the Atomtsts and Aristotle all spoke identified with truth or reality. Opposite of
in terms of development and served to lay a essence. See Actuality. J.K.F.
foundation for a true theory of evolution. It is Existence: (Ger. Dasein, Existenx) In Husserl's
in the work of Charles Darwin, however, that writings the terms Dasein and Eacistenz are not
clarity and proof
presented for the explana-
is given different senses nor restricted to the
tion of his notion of natural selection and for sphere of personal being, except with explicit
the crystallization of evolution as a prime factor reference to other writers who use them so.
in man's explanation of all phases of his mun- In Husserl's usage, "existence" means being
dane existence. The chief criticism leveled at (q.v.) of any kind or, more restrictedly, in-
the evolutionists, aside from the attacks of the dividual being. D.C.
religionists, is based upon their tendency to for- Existential import : See Logic, formal, 4.
get that not all evolution means progress. See Existential Philosophy: Determines the worth
Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Thomas Henry of knowledge not in relation to truth but ac-
Huxley, Natural Selection, .Evolutionary Ethics. cording to its biological value contained in the
Cf. A. Lalande, L'Idee de dissolution opposee pure data of consciousness when unaffected by
a cell* de Devolution (1899); revised ed. emotions, volitions, and social prejudices. Both
(1930): Let Illusions evolutionisms. L.E.D. the source and the elements of knowledge are
Exact: Opposite of vague (q. v.).A.C. sensations as they "exist" in our consciousness.
Excluded middle, law of, or tertium non datur, There is no difference between the external and
is given by traditional logicians as "A is B or internal world, as there is no natural phe-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 103

nomenon which could not psy-be examined vidual mind considered as existences. Also called
chologically) it all has its "existence" in states Existentialism. A characteristic doctrine of the
of the mind. See Kierkegaard, Heidegger, school the denial of imageless thought.
is L.W.
Jaspers. Existential quantifier: See Quantifier.
Existential Philosophy arose from disappoint- Exoteric: External; belonging to or suited for
ment with Kant's "thing-in-itself" and Hegel's those who are not initiates or experts. The
metaphysicism whose failure was
traced back exoterikoi referred to in Aristotle are
logoi
to a fundamental misrepresentation in psychol-
popular arguments or treatises, as contrasted
ogy. It is strictly non-metaphysical) anti-hypo- with strictly scientific expositions. G.R.M.
thetical, and contends to give only a simple
Expectation: 1. In general, the act or state of
description of existent psychological realities.
looking forward to an event about to happen.
"Existence" is therefore not identical with the
The grounds on which something is believed to
metaphysical correlative of "essence". Conscious-
happen. A supposition, an anticipation, a reason-
ness is influenced by our nervous system, nutri-
able hope, a probable occurrence.
tion, and environment; these account for our 2. A mathematical expectation is the value of
experiences. Such terms as being, equal, similar,
any chance which depends upon some contingent
perceived, represented, have no logical or truth- event. Thus, if a person is to receive an amount
value) they are merely biological "characters"} of money upon the occurrence of an event which
a distinction between physical and psychological
has an equal chance of happening or failing,
is unwarranted. Here lies the greatest weak-
the expectation is worth half that amount. The
ness of the Existential Philosophy, which, how-
mathematical expectation of life is the average
ever, did not hinder its spreading in both con-
duration of life (of an individual or a group)
tinents.
after a given age, as determined by computation
Resuming certain ideas of Locke and Berke- from the mortality tables.
ley, it was first propounded by the physicist '
3. The term actuarial expectation is used
Kirchhoff, and found its best representation by
analogically by Lloyd Morgan to denote the
Richard Avenarius (1843-96) in Menschlicher
qualitativeprobability of the emergence of a
Welthegriff, and, independently, by Ernst Mach or T.G.
genuine primary novelty.
(1838-1916) in Anal. d. Empfindungen. Many
Experience: (Lat. Experientia, from experiri: to
psychologists (Wm. Wundt, O. Kuelpe, Harold
test) The condition or state of subjectivity
or
Hoeffding, E. B. Titchener) approved of it,
awareness. (The term differs from Conscious-
while H. Rickert and W. Moog discredited
ness by emphasizing the temporal or passing
it forcefully. Charles Peirce (Popular Science
character of affective undergoing. Usage, how-
Monthly, Jan. 1878) and Wm. James (Prin-
ever, is not uniform, since its definition involves
ciples of Psych. 1898) applied Avenarius' ideas,
a theoretical standpoint. Thus Bradley identi-
somewhat roughly though, for the foundation
fied it with Consciousness, while W. James used
of "Pragmatism". John Dewey (Reconstruction
in used
it to mean neutral phenomenon, a That or
Philos.) it in his "Instrumentalism",
while F. C. Given, without implications of either subjectiv-
S. Schiller (Humanism) based his
W.L.
ity or objectivity.)
ethical theory on it. S.v.F.
Existential proposition: Traditionally, a propo- Experience, pure: The elimination of all pre-
of thought. See Avenarius, Ex-
sition which directly asserts the existence of its suppositions
Descartes's "ergo sum" or the perientialism. H.H.
subject, as, e.g.,
Christian's "Good exists." Expressed in symbolic Experientialism : The resort to concrete experi-

notation, such a proposition has a form like ence, whether perceptual, intuitive, activistic,
(*)M. axiological, or mystical, as the source of truth.

By an extension of this, a proposition ex- The opposite of Intellectualism. Experientialism

a broader term than Empiricism. W.L.
pressible in the functional calculus of first order is

may be called existential if the prenex normal Experiment: (Lat. experiri, to try) Any situa-

form has a prefix containing an existential quan- tion which is deliberately set up by an investiga-
tifier (see Logic, formal, 3). tor with a view to verifying a theory or hypo-
Brentano (Psychologic, 874) takes an existen-
1 thesis. A.C.B.
tial proposition (Existentialsatz) to be one that Experimental Psychology: (1) Experimental
is the application
directly affirms or denies existence, and shows psychology in the widest sense
that each of the four traditional kinds of cate- to psychology of the experimental method*

gorical propositions is reducible (i.e., equivalent) evolved by the natural sciences. In this sens*,
to an existential proposition in this sense) thus, virtually the whole of contemporary psychology
e.g., "all men are mortal" becomes "immortal is experimental. The experimental method con-
. men do not exist." This definition of an existen- sists in the prearrangement and con-
essentially
in such a way as to isolate
tial proposition and the reduction of categorical trol of conditions
propositions to existential appears also in Key- specific variables.
In psychology, the complexity
ncs's Formal Logic, 4th edn. (1906). A.C. of subject matter is such that direct isolation of
Existential Psychology: A
school of introspec- variables is impossible and various indirect meth-
tive psychology represented in America by E. B. ods are resorted to. Thus an experiment will be
Titchener (1867-1927) which conceived the repeated on the same subjects with all condi-
task of psychology to be the description, analysis tions remaining constant except the one variable
and classification of the experience! of an indi- whose influence is being tested and which is
104 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
varied systematically by the experimenter. This time of different observers having long been
procedure yields control data within a single recognized by astronomers as an important
group of subjects. If repetition of the experi- source of error in their observations.
ment with the same group introduces additional The first laboratory of experimental psy-
uncontrolled variables, an equated control group chology was founded at Leipzig in 1879 by
is employed. Systematic rotation of variables Wundt, who has been called "the first profes-
among several groups of subjects may also be sional psychologist." With such research as that
resorted to. In general, however, psychologists of Stumpf on sound} G. E. Muller on psycho-
have designed their experiments in accordance physics, color and learning} Ebbinghaus on
with what has frequently been called the "prin- memory} and Kulpe and the Wiirzburg school
ciple of the one variable." on the "higher thought processes," experimental
A distinction is frequently drawn between psychology made rapid strides within the next
two observational methods in psychology: (a) two decades. In America, the chief standard
introspection which appeals to private data, bearer of Wundtian psychology was Titchener.
accessible to a single observer (see Intro spec- Among the others who were instrumental in
tion), and (b) objective observation of public the introduction and development of experi-
data, accessible to a number of observers among mental psychology America, may be men-
in
whom there is substantial agreement (see Be- tioned James, Hall, Munsterberg, Cattell, and
haviorism). These two methods, though they Watson.
are often regarded as disparate, may perhaps be Johannes Muller, Elements of Physiology,
more properly regarded as the extremes of a 1834-40. E. H. Weber, De Tractu, 1851. G. T.
continuum of observational objectivity, many Fechner, Element* der Psychophysik, 1860. W.
varying degrees of which can be found in psy- Wundt, Principles of Physiological Psychology,
chological experimentation. 1873-4. G. T. Fechner, In Sachen der Psycho-
(2) The term experimental psychology is also physik, 1877. G. E. Muller, Zur Grundlegung
used in a more restricted sense to designate a der Psychophysik, 1878. G. E. Muller, Die
special branch of psychology consisting of lab- Gesichtspunkte und die Tatsachen der Psycho-
oratory studies conducted on normal, human physichen Methodik, 1904. E. B. Titchener,
adults as distinguished from such branches as Experimental Psychology, 1905. Frobes, Lehr-
child, abnormal, differential, animal or com- buch der Experimentellen Psychologic, 3rd ed.,
parative, social, educational and applied psy- 1923. E. G. Boring, History of Experimental
chology. This restricted sense is employed in Psychology, 1929. L.W.
the titles of text-books and manuals of "experi- Explanation: In general: (1) the process, art,
mental psychology." Included in this field are means or method of making a fact or a state-
such topics as sensory phenomena, perception, ment intelligible} (2) the result and the expres-
judgment, memory, learning, reaction-time, sion of what is made intelligible} (3) the mean-
motor phenomena, emotional responses, motiva- ing attributed to anything by one who makes it
tion, thinking and reasoning. This identifica-
intelligible} (4) a genetic description, causal
tion of experimental psychology with a specific rational
development, systematic clarification,
type of content is largely a result of historical
exposition, scientific interpretation, intelligible
accident; the first experimental psychologists connection, ordered manifestation of the ele-
were preoccupied with these particular topics. ments of a fact or a statement.
The historical antecedents of experimental A. More technically, the method of showing
psychology are various. From British empiricism discursively that a phenomenon or a group of
and the psychological philosophy of Locke, phenomena obeys a law, by means of causal rela-
Berkeley and Hume came associationism (see tions or descriptive connections; or briefly, the
Associationism), the psychological implications methodical analysis of a phenomenon for the
of which were more fully developed by Herbart purpose of stating its cause. The process of
and Bain. Associationism provided the con- explanation suggests the real preformation or
ceptual framework and largely colored the pro- potential presence of the consequent in the ante-
cedures of early experimental psychology. Physics cedent} so that the phenomenon considered may
and physiology gave impetus to experiments on be evolved, developed, unrolled out of its con-
sensory phenomena while physiology and neu- ditioning antecedents. The process and the value
rology fostered studies of the nervous system of a scientific explanation involve the question
and reflex action. The names of Helmholtz, of the relation between cause and law, as these
Johannes Miiller, E. H. Weber and Fechner two terms may be identified (Berkeley) or dis-
are closely with this phase of the de-
linked tinguished (Comte). Hence modern theories
velopment of
experimental psychology. The range between extreme idealism and logical posi-
English biologist Galton developed the statistical tivism. Both these extremes seem to be unsat-
methods of Quetelet for the analysis of data on isfactory: the former would include too much
human variation and opened the way for the into science, while the latter would embrace a
mental testing movement}' the Russian physi- part of it only, namely the knowledge of the
ologist Pavlov, with his researches on "condi- scientific laws. Taking into account Hume's
tioned reflexes," contributed an experimental criticism of causality and Mill's reasons for
:echnique which has proved of paramount im- accepting causality, Russell proposes what seems
portance for the psychologist. Even astronomy to be a middle course, namely (a) that regular
made its contribution) variations in reaction- sequences suggest causal relations, (b) that
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 105

causal relations are one special class of scientific Expression: (Ger. Ausdruck) In Husserl: A
generalization, that is one-way sequences in symbol that embodies and signifies the noematic-
time, and (c) that causal relations as such objective sense of an act of thinking. The sense
should not be used in the advanced stages of is expressed; the act, manifested. D.C.
scientific generalization, functional relations be- Expressionism: In aesthetics, the doctrine that
ing sufficient inall cases. However satisfactory artistic creation is primarily an expressive act, a
in methodology, this view may not cover all the process of clarifying and manifesting the im-
implications of the problem. pressions, emotions, intuitions, and attitudes of
B. There are three specific types of causal the artist. Such theories hold that art has its

explanation, and their results may be com-

foundation in the experiences and feelings of
bined: (1) genetic or in terms of the direct and its it is a comment on the artist's soul,
creator}
immediate conditions or causes producing a phe- not on any external object, and its value de-
nomenon (formal and efficient cause) j (2) de- pends on the freshness and individuality of this
scriptive) or in terms of the material elements
creative spirit. The artist is he who feels
of the phenomenon (material cause)} (3) strongly and clearly; his art is a record of what
he has felt. It is maintained that the artist has
teleological, or in terms of the ultimate end to
be attained (final cause), either in accordance no responsibility to respect reality nor to please
with the nature of the event or with the inten- an audience, and the primary synonyms of beauty
tion of the agent. The real causes of a phe- become sincerity, passion, and originality. I.J.
nomenon cannot be identified always, because Expressive Meaning: See Meaning, Kinds of, 4.
the natural process of change or becoming Extension: (Lat. ex -f tendere, to stretch) Phys-
escapes But the at-
complete rationalization. ical space, considered as a single concrete, con-
tempt to rationalize the real by causal explana- tinuum as contrasted with the abstract concep-
tion, need not be abandoned in favor of a tual space of mathematics. The distinction
limited genetic description (postulational or between extension and "space" in the abstract
functional) of the laws which may account for sense is clearly drawn by Descartes (1596-1650)
the particular phenomenon. in The Principles of Philosophy, part II, Princ.
C. More explanation is a step to-
formally, IV-XV. L.W.
wards generalization or the establishment of a One of the two attributes (q.v.) of God
theory. It is the process of linking a statement which, according to Spinoza, are accessible
of fact ta its logical implications and conse- to the human intellect (Ethica, II, passim).
quences; or the process of fitting a statement of While the attribution of thought (cogitatio,
into a coherent of statements ex-
q.v.) to God was a medieval
fact system commonplace, the
tending beyond the given fact} or the construc- attribution of extension to God was, in the
tion of a logically related body of statements
tradition, highly heretical. Spinoza, however,
including the statement of fact to be justified. was at great pains to show (Ibid, I, 14-18) that
In the most general terms, explanation is the unless such attribution was made, all theories
search generalizations whose variables are
for of God's causality were rendered either non-
functionally related in such a way that the value sensical or explicitly contradictory. W.S.W.
of any one variable is calculable from the value
Extension: See Intension and Extension.
of the others, whether or not causal relations
are noticeable or ultimately involved in the ele-
Extensionality, axiom of: See Logic, formal,
9.
ments of the generalization. T.G.
Extensity: A rudimentary spatiality alleged to
Explication: (Ger. Auslegung) In Husserl: Syn- characterize all sensation. See J. Ward, article
thesis of identification between a confused, non-
articulated
"Psychology" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th
(internally indistinct, unseparated) Ed. pp. 46, 53. L.W.
sense and a subsequently intended distinct,
Extensive quantity: Any quantity such that there
articulated, sense. The latter is the explicate
exists some physical process of addition by
(Explikat) of the former. See Explanation.
which a greater quantity of the kind in question
D.C.
may be produced from a lesser one) opposed to
Explicative judgment: (Lat. exp^icatio, unfold-
intensive quantity (?.v.). A.C.B.
ing) A mental action which explains a subject
Exteriority: (Lat. exterior comp. of exter, with-
by mentally dissecting it} (Kant) a judgment
in which die predicate is obtained by analysis out) The character of
externality ascribed to
of the subject. See Analytic judgment. V.J.B. physical objects by common sense and by real-

Exponible: Employed as a noun and ai an ad-

istic epistemology. L.W.
jective, applied to an obscure proposition which External: (Fr. externe, outer) Outside a thing.
needs an exposition or explanation owing to a Independent of opinion. Capable of pressure or
hidden composition. Kant applied it to proposi- resistance. Used by Peirce (1839-1914) in con-
tions including an affirmation and a concealed tradistinction to mental. J.K.F.
negation, which an exposition makes apparent. External Reference: The tendency of the mind
to objectify sensory data and construe them as

Exportation is the form of valid inference of referring to a real external world. See //*-
the prepositional calculusfrom AB 3 C to tionality. L.W.
A =
[B 3
C]. The late of exportation is the External relations, Doctrine of: Neo-realistic
theorem of the prepositional calculus: view that relations are not grounded in the
[ft
a ']
3 [
3 [*
a r]]- A. C. nature of their terms) that relations are inde-
106 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
pendent of the terms) that terms can pass in
and out of relations without being modified.
H.H.
External sense: In Kant, intuition of spatial
properties, as contrasted with the internal sense
which is that of the a priori form of time.
External World: The ideally envisaged totality
of objects of actual or possible perception con-
ceived as constituting a unified system. L.W.
Externalization : (Lat. externus, external from
exter, without) The mental act by which sensory
data originally considered to be internal are
projected into the external world. See Intro jec-
tion. The problem of externalization was for-
mulated by Condillac in these words: "If one
admits that sensations are only modifications of
the mind, how does it come about that the mind
apprehends them as objects independent of and
external to it?" Traite de sensations, Part III.
Exteroceptor: See Receptor.
Extramental : (Lat. extra -f mens, mind) Pos-
sessing a status external to and independent of
the knowing mind. Extramental status is at-
tributed to physical objects by physical realists
and to universals by Platonic realists. L.W.
Extraspective situations: "Situations in which
we seem to be in direct cognitive contact with
other minds and their states". (Broad.) H.H.
Extrinsic: (Lat. exter, out -f ecus, beside) Hav-
ing external value. Value in the relation of
wholes to other wholes. J.K.F.
Extrojection: (Lat. extra -f- jacere, to throw)
The tendency of the mind to externalize sensu-
ous qualities and even affective states. See Ex-
ternal Reference. L.W.
Ezra, Abraham Ibn: Jewish exegete and philoso-
pher (1093-1167). Born in Spain he wandered
in many lands,sojourned for a time in Italy
and Provence. His philosophy is expressed
largely in his commentaries but also in several
short treatises, such as the Yesod Mora, i.e.
Foundation of the Knowledge of God, and the
Shaar ha-Shamayyim, i.e., The Gate to Heaven.
Main problems he deals with are that of the
right conception of the universe and its becom-
ing and that of knowledge. He was influenced
by teachings of neo-Platonism and Gabirol.
M.W.
Fa chia: The
Legalists School, the Philosophers vis aestimativa (in animals) or cogitativa (in
of also called hsing ming chia, who "had
Law, man), (c) The sensory appetites, subdivided in
absolute faithfulness in reward and punishment the concupiscible appetite aiming at the attain-
as support for the system of correct conduct," able good or fleeing the avoidable evil, the
and made no distinction between kindred and irascible appetite related to good and evil whose
strangers and no discrimination between the attainment or avoidance encounters obstacles.
honorable and the humble, but treated them as 2. The vegetative faculties, comprising the
equals beforelaw. They emphasized the
the .achievements of nutrition, growth and procrea-
power natural to the position of a ruler (shih, tion. While the sensory appetites are common

especially Kuan Tzu, sixth century B.C. and to man and animals, the vegetative are ob-
Shen Tao, 350-275 B.C.?) statecraft (shu, espe- served also in plants. 3. The locomotive fac-
cially Sh6n Pu-hai, 400-337 B.C.?), and law ulty, characteristic of animals and, therefore,
(fa, especially Shang Chun, 390-338 B.C.?), also of man. 4. The rational faculties, found
with Han Fei Tzu (280-233 B.C.) synthesizing with man alone; (a) Intellect, whose proper
all the three tendencies. W.T.C. object is the universal nature of things and
Fact: In Husserl: 1. State of affairs (Sachver- whose achievements are abstraction, reasoning,
halt): an object having categorial-syntactical judging, syllogistic thought) (b) Rational Will,
structure. 2. matter of fact (Tatsache, Faktum): directed towards the good as such and relying
(a) that which simply is, as contrasted with in its operation on particulars on the co-opera-
that which is necessarily; () that which 'i tion of the appetites, just as intellect needs for
actual, as contrasted with that which is merelv the formation of its abstract notions the phan-
possible^ (c) that which is, regardless of its tasm, derived from sense impressions and pre-
value) (d) that wjiich is non-fictive. D.C. sented to the intellect by imagination. The vis
Fact: (Lat. factus, pp. of facio, do) Actual indi- cogitativa forms a link between rational uni-
vidual occurrence. An indubitable truth of actu- versal will and particular strivings; it is there-

ality. A brute event. Syn. with actual event. fore also called ratio particular!*.
7.AT.F. Ch. A. Hart, The Thomistic Theory of Men-
Factual: See Meaning, Kinds of, 2. tal Faculties, Washington, D. C., 1930. R.A.
Faculty: (Scholastic) Medieval psychology dis- Faculty Psychology: (Lat. facultas, faculty or
tinguishes several faculties of the soul which ability) The conception of mind as the unity in
are said to be really distinct from each other a number of special faculties, like sensibility,
and from the substance of the soul. According intelligence, volition, by reference to which indi-
to Aquinas the distinction is based on objects vidual processes thought or will
of sensation,
and operations. The faculties ace conceived as are explained. Faculty psychology, which origi-
accidents of the soul's substance, but as pertain- nated in Plato's division of the soul into the
ing essentially to its nature, therefore "proper appetitive, the spirited and the rational faculties,
accidents". The soul operates by means of the was the dominant psychology of the Middle
faculties. Much misunderstood and deteriorated, Ages and received its most influential modern
this theory remained alive until recent times statement by C. Wolff (1679-1754) in his
and is maintained, in its original and pure
still Rational Psychology, 1734. Faculty psychology
form, by Neo-Scholasticism. A certain rap- is usually associated with the Soul Substance
prochement to the older notion may be ob- Theory of Mind. See Soul Substance. The com-
served in the modern theory of "general fac- mon criticism of the theory is its circularity In
tors". Most of the criticisms directed against the attempting to explain individual mental proc-
faculty-psychology are based on modern ex- esses in terms of a faculty which is merely the

perimental and nominalistic approaches. The hypostatization of those processes. See J. Locke,
faculties listed by Aquinas are: 1. The sensory Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690.
faculties, which to operate need a bodily organ) Bk. II, Ch. xxi, 17.L.W.
(a) The external tenses, (b) The internal Faith: (Kant. Ger. Glaube) The acceptance of
senses, sensus communis, memory, imagination, ideals which are theoretically indemonstrable,
108 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
yet necessarily entailed by the indubitable reality substance, but the simplifying power in .contrast
of freedom. For Kant, the Summum Bonum, to the diversifying physical) as "appearance to
God, and immortality are the chief articles of oneself, and matter as appearance to others,
faith or "practical" belief. See Kantianism. Cf. both representing the same reality differentiated
G. Santayana, Skepticism and Animal Faith, only in point of view. He applied the law of
where faith is the non-rational belief in objects threshold to consciousness, explaining thus its
encountered in action. O.F.K. relative discontinuity on one level while postu-

Fallacy is any unsound step or process of reason- lating its continuity on another, either higher
ing, especially one which has a deceptive ap- or lower level. In God, as the highest rung of
pearance of soundness or isfalsely accepted as existence, there is infinite consciousness without
sound. The unsoundness may consist either in an objective world. Evil arises inexplicably
a mistake of formal logic, or in the suppression from darker levels of consciousness. With poetic
of a premiss whose unacceptability might have imagination Fechner defended the "day-view"
been recognized if it had been stated, or in a of the world in which phenomena are the real
lack of genuine adaptation of the reasoning to content of consciousness, against the "night-
its purpose. Of the traditional names which view" of science which professes knowledge of
purport to describe particular kinds of fallacies, the not-sensation-conditioned colorless, sound-
not all have a sufficiently definite or generally less world.
accepted meaning to justify notice. See, how- Main works: Nanna o.d. Seelenleben d.
ever, the following: affirmation of the conse- Pflanuen, 1848) Ueber die physikalische u.
quent } amphiboly} denial of the antecedent} philos. Atomenlehre, 1855; Elementf der Psy-
equivocation} ignoratio elenchi} illicit process chophysik, I860} Drei Motiven des Glaubens,
of the major} illicit process of the minor} 1863; Vorschule der Aesthetik, 1876. See K.
many questions} non causa pro causa} non Lasswitz, G. Th. Fechner, 1896. K.F.L.
sequitur; petitio principii} post hoc ergo propter Feeling: (Ger. Gef&hl) In Husserl: 1. Noetic
hoc i quaternio terminorum} secundum quid; un- processes of valuing (e.g., liking, disliking,
distributed middle} vicious circle. A. C. preferring). 2. Non-intentional, "hyletic", proc-
Fan or fu: The greatest of all the laws under- esses or states, immanent in the stream of
lying phenomenal change, that any one thing
if consciousness. See Hyle and Noesis. D.C.
moves to an extreme direction, a change must Feeling: (Kant. Ger. Gefuhl) A conscious, sub-
bring about an opposite result, called "reversion" jective impression which does not involve cogni-
or "return". Reminds one of Hegel's antithesis. tion or representation of an object. Feelings
(Lao Tzu.)H.H. are of two kinds: pleasures and pains. These
Pang hsin: The lost heart, i.e., the originally represent nothing actual in objects, but reveal the
good mind which has turned away 'from the state or condition of the subject. Kant saw in
principles of benevolence and righteousness. pleasure and pain, respectively, life-promoting
(Mencius.) W.T.C. and life-destroying forces j pleasure results from
Pang shih: "Scholars with formulae," or priests the harmony of an object with the subjective
and magicians who flourished in the Ch'in and conditions of life and consciousness, while pain
Han dynasties (249 B.C.-220 A.D.) and who is the awareness of disharmony. See Kantianism.
offered divination, magic, herbs, charms, al- O.F.K.
chemy, breath technique, and other crafts (fang Felicific: Making happy) conducive to happiness

shu) and superstitions in terms of Yin Yang or pleasure. G,R*M

and Taoist philosophies, as means to immortal- Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas: (1804-1872)
ity, inward power, restored youth, and super- Was one of the earliest thinkers manifesting the
human ability. W.T.C. trend toward the German materialism of the
Pang shu: Divination and magic. See Fang shih. 19th century. Like so many other thinkers of
W.T.C. that period, he started with the acceptance of
Fantastic: (Art) Product of an arbitrary imagi- Hegel's objective idealism, but soon he at-
nation without any claim to reality. L.V. tempted to resolve the opposition of spiritualism
Fatalism: (Lat. fatalis, fatal) Determinism, espe- and materialism. His main contributions lay in
cially in its theological form which asserts that the field of the philosophy of religion interpreted
all human activities are predetermined by God. by him as "the dream of the human spirit,"
See Determinism. L.W. essentially an earthly dream. He publicly ac-
Pechner, Gustav Theodor: (1801-1887) Phi- knowledged his utter disbelief in immortality,
losophizing during the ascendency of modern which act did not fail to provoke the ire of the
science and the wane of metaphysical specula- authorities and terminated his academic career.
tion, Fechner though as physicist believing in in- L. A. Feuerbach, Das Wesen des Christen-
duction, analogy, history and pragmatic procedure, turns, 1840} Philosophic u. Christentum, 1859.
expounded a pure, objective idealism of Berke- See Engels. R.B.W.
ley's type.With Oken and Schelling as spiritual Fichte, Johann Gottlieb: (1762-1814) Skillful
guides, he held that everything is in conscious- in framing the general conception of a few
ness; there are no substances, no things-in- great ideas, Fichte's thought centered in a
themselves, everything,including animals, passionate espousal of Kant's practical reason or
plants, earth, and heavens, shares the life of the of autonomous good will as the creative source
toul (alles ist bestelt). In a consequent psycho- of all that is distinctive in personality. He
ihysicalism he interpreted soul (which is no sought to discern the method of the psycho-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 109

genetic process of the acceptance of the moral But there is no individual denoted by "the
law as supreme. He assumed that consciousness, average man".
including the representations of physical objects If "S" occurs fictitiously it is customary to
that make up the outer world, is the product of say that S is a fictitious entity or a fiction. (The
one ultimate cause in the universe. The world language is unfortunate as falsely suggesting
in which each individual lives is his own world, that in such case there is a special kind of
brought into being through the creative agency entity denoted by S and having the property of
of the ultimate. being fictitious.)
It is be noted that a symbol "S" occurs
to
Thinking was to Fichte a wholly practical
affair, a form of action. Since experience is fictitiously only if the complex token "C(S)",
given in the form of consciousness, the origin containing "S", does not fully display the logi-
and nature of consciousness is the key to all cal form of the utterance. In such cases the
fictitious character of the occurrence of S is re-
problems. The ego is the point at which the
creative activity of the Absolute emerges in the vealed by translation of the utterance (e.g. by
individual consciousness. The world means translating remarks about the average man in
such a way as to remove any apparent reference
nothing of itself. It has no independent self-
to a specific person).
existence. It existsfor the sole purpose of af-
man the occasion for realizing the ends
The definition is suggested by that of Jeremy
fording
of his existence.
Bentham. Reference: C. K. Ogden, Bentham's
Itmerely the material for
is

his duty. Fichte sought to bring out the struc- Theory of Fictions, 12. See also. Incomplete
tural principles of the act. Symbol, Construction. M.B.
knowing
(Lat. fictio, from fingere, to devise, or
His popular works, influential in the German
form) A logical or imaginative construction
uprising against Napoleon, have been interpreted framed by the mind to which nothing corre-
as being a source of Pan-Germanism.
sponds in reality. See Construction, Imaginative.
J. G. Fichte, Versuch einer Kritik alter Offen-
L.W.
barung, 1792$ Grundlage der gesamten Wissen-
Fictionism : An
extreme form of pragmatism or
schajtslehre, 1794$ Grundlage des Naturrechts,
instrumentalism according to which the basic
1798$ System der Sittenlehre ; Die Bestimmung
concepts and principles of natural science,
des Menschen, 1800$ Der Geschlossene Han-
mathematics, philosophy, ethics, religion and
delsstaat, 1800$ Grundzilge d. Gegenwartigen
jurisprudence are pure fictions which, though
Zeitalters, 1804-5$ Die Anweisung *um seligen
lacking objective truth, are useful instruments
Leben, 1806. H.H. of action. The is advanced under the
theory
Ficino, Marsilio: Of Florence (1433-99). Was influence of Kant, by the German philosopher
the main representative of Platonism in Renais- H. Vaihinger in his Philosophic des Als
sance Italy. His doctrine combines NeoPlatonic
Ob, 1911$ Philosophy of the "As If." English
metaphysics and Augustinian theology with many K. Ogden.) See Fiction, Con-
translation by C.
new, original ideas. His major work, the The- struction. L.W.
ologia PI atonic a (1482) presents a hierarchical Fideism: A
doctrine of Abb6 Bautain which at-
system of the universe (God, Angelic Mind, tempted to justify the teachings of Christianity
Soul, Quality, Body) and a great number of
by the theory that all knowledge rested upon
arguments for the immortality of the soul. Man premises accepted by faith. The premises of
isconsidered as the center of the universe, and
religion are to be found in the tradition of the
human life is interpreted as an internal ascent
Synagogue and Church. This tradition needs no
of the soul towards God. Through the Floren- rational criticism because it is self-critical. The
tine Academy Ficino's Platonism exercised a
doctrine was condemned in 1840 by Gregory
large influence upon his
contemporaries. His XVI- <?.*.
theory of "Platonic love" had vast repercus- Fides: Faith, according to St. Augustine, means,
sions in Italian, French and English literature to believe that which one does not see: Fides
throughout the sixteenth century. His excellent ergo est, quod non vides credere. That is the
Latin translations of Plato (1484), Plotinus reason why faith is praiseworthy. Haec est
(1492), and other Greek philosophers provided enim laus fidei, si quod creditur non videtur.
the occidental world with new materials of the
greatest importance and were widely used up The moods of the categori-
Figure (syllogistic) :
to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
cal syllogism (see Logic, formal, S) are divided
P.O.K. into four figures, according as the middle term
Fiction: Whenever a symbol, as part of an utter- is subject in the major premiss and predicate
ance, occurs in such a context that the truth of in the minor premiss(first figure), or predicate
any utterance of the same form would normally in both premisses (second figure), or subject in
guarantee the existence of an individual denoted both premisses (third figure), or predicate in the
by that symbol, whereas in the case considered major premiss and subject in the minor premiss
no such implication holds, the symbol may be (fourth figure). Aristotle recognized only three
said to occur fictitiously in that context. Thus in figures, including the moods of the fourth figure
the utterance "The average man is six feet tall" among those of the first. The separation of the
the phrase "the average man" occurs fictitiously. fourth figure from the first (ascribed to Galen)
For "X is than six feet tall" normally im-
less is accompanied by a redefinition of "major" and

plies that there is an individual denoted by "X". "minor" so that the major premiss is that in-
no DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
volving the predicate of the Conclusion, and the Florentine Academy: It was a loose and infor-
minor premiss is that involving the subject of mal circle of scholars and educated persons
the conclusion. A.C. which gathered in Florence around the Platonic
Filioque: See Trinitarianism. philosopher Marsilio Ficino. Its activities con-
Final Causes, the doctrine of: The view that sisted in regular lectures on Platonic
philosophy
things and events in the world can be ex- as well as in informal discussions and
parties.
plained, and ultimately can best be explained, by "Platonic" love or friendship was considered as
reference to some end or purpose or good or the spiritual link between the members of the
final cause to which they are conducive. Held, group which was organized and named after the
e.g., by Aristotle and Leibniz. W.K.F. model of Plato's Academy. The main docu-
Finalism: The theory that purpose is present in ments describing it are Ficino's correspondence
all the events of the physical order. Teleology. and a number of dialogues like Ficino's com-
R.T.F. mentary on Plato's Symposion, Landino's Dis-
Fine Arts: Opposite of mechanical arts. Dis- putationes Carnal dulenses, and Benedetto Co-
tinction of the arts whose principle is based on lucci's Declamationes.
Outstanding members or
beauty (poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture, associates of the Academy were Cosimo,
Piero,
L.V. and Lorenzo de'Medici, Angelo
music). Poliziano, and
Finite: For the notion of finiteness as applied to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. The Academy
classes and cardinal numbers, see the article which was first founded in 1462, dissolved after
cardinal number. An ordered class (see order) the revolution in
Florence (1494) and after
which is finite is called a finite sequence or finite Ficino's death
(1499), but the tradition of
series. In mathematical analysis, any fixed real Platonic philosophy was continued in other
pri-
number (or complex number) is called finite, in vate circles as well as at the universities of
from "infinity" (the
distinction latter term usu- Florence and Pisa throughout the sixteenth cen-
ally occurs, however, only as an incomplete tury .P.O. AT.
symbol, in connection with limits , q. v.). Or Flux: The characteristic of time, by virtue of
finite may be used to mean bounded, i.e., having which all change inevitably. In Hera-
things
fixed real numbers as lower bound and upper cleitus' view, who brought the
problem into
bound. Various physical and geometrical quanti- prominence, "all things flow nothing abides".
5

ties, measured by real numbers, are called finite R.B.W.

if their measure is finite in one of these senses. Foerster, Friedrich Wilhelm: (1869-) Is a
-A.C. German and pedagogical authority. He
ethicist
First Heaven: The outermost sphere in the Aris- was born in Berlin and taught at the Universities
totelian cosmology, the sphere of the fixed stars. of Vienna and Munich. In 1927 he went to Paris
G.R.M. and has recently been living in Zurich. He is
First Mover: See Prime Mover. most noted for his forthright criticism of the
First Philosophy: (Or. prote philosophia) The moral tenets of German National Socialism.
name given by Aristotle (1) to the study of His principal work are: Jugendlehre (1904),
the principles, first causes and essential attrib- Schule und Charakter, 14th ed. (1930), Poli-
utes of being as such} and (2) more particu- tische Ethik und Padagogik, 4th ed. (1920).

larly to the study of transcendent immutable VJ.B.

being j theology. G.R.M. Folk- Art: A
fragmentary art in which the ar-
Fischer, Kuno: (1824-1907) Is one of the series tistic elements are not bound together by an
of eminent German historians of philosophy, artistic personality. L.V.
inspired by the impetus which Hegel gave to the Folkways: (AS folc) Customs. Conventions.
study of history. He personally joined in the Mores. Traditional group behavior patterns.
revival of Kantianism in opposition to ration- Cf. Sumner, Falktvays. AJ.B.
alistic, speculative metaphysics and the progress Foreknowledge: Knowledge of the future of
of materialism. which two types may be distinguished:
(a)
K. Fischer, Gesch. der neueren Philosophic, anticipation or prescience which professes to be
10 vols., 1 854-1 877. H.//. immediate and non-inferential and (b) expecta-
Fiske, John: (1842-1901) Harvard librarian tion, which is inferential prediction of the future
and philosopher. He is best known as an his- on the basis of the remembered or recorded
torian of the colonial period. He was a vol- past. See Anticipation, Prescience, Expectation.
uminous writer in many fields. His Outlines L.W.
of Cosmic Philosophy is his best known work Foreordination : The doctrine that events of
as a pioneer in America of the evolutionary one's even one's eternal destiny, are deter-
life,
theories. He claimed an original contribution mined beforehand by Deity. See Predestination.
to these speculations in his studies of the period V.F.
of infancy.His works on God and on im- Foreshortening: Application of
perspective to
mortality were widely read in his day although plastic bodies, occupying space in depth. L.V.
he later expressed doubts about them. Never- Form : (Gr. eidos) The
intelligible structure, char-
theless his constant emphasis on the theistic as acters constituting a substance or species of sub-
opposed to the positivistic implications of evolu- stances, as distinguished from the matter in
tion served to influence the current theories of which these characters are embodied; essence }

creative and emergent evolution. See Evolu- formal cause. See Aristotelianisnt. G.R.M.
'onism.L.E.D. In Art: a. Opposite of content. The conclu-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 111

sive aspect of art, the surpassing of emotions, pendent of, without reference to meaning (com-
taste, mattery the final imprint of the person- pare Semiotic, 3). R.C.
ality of the artist, b. Opposite of color. The Formal Cause: See Form} Aristotelianism.
plastic form achieved by drawing and chiaro- Formalism: (a) In ethics: the term is sometimes
scuro. L.V. used as equivalent to intuitionism in the tradi-
tional sense. See Intuitionism. Also used to
Form: Kant) That a priori element in ex-
(in
designate any ethical theory, such as Kant's, in
perience in virtue of which the manifold of
sense is synthesized and unified into meaningful
which the basic principles for determining our
duties are purely formal. See Ethics, formal.
perceptions and judgments. Kant attributed the
form of experience to mind and reason, the
W.K.F.
matter, ordered in itself in such a way tha (b) In art: A
form for form's sake, lacking
O.F.K. in content. L.V.
Formalism (mathematical) is a name which
In Scholasticism. Accidental: That which
has been given to any one of various accounts
comes to a subject already substantially com-
of the foundations of mathematics which em-
plete, e.g. roundness or whiteness.
phasize the formal aspects of mathematics as
Substantial Jorm: Substance distinct from
against content or meaning, or which, in whole
matter to sensuous intuition. See Kantianism.
or in part, deny content to mathematical for-
with prime matter it constitutes a natural body}
mulas. The name is often applied, in particular,
for since matter is indifferent to any composite,
to the doctrines of Hilbert (see Mathematics) ,
it is determined by the form united to itself,
although Hilbert himself calls his method axio-
so that it may be, e.g., a stone, or a dog, or
matic, and gives to his syntactical or metamathe-
wood. There are as many substantial forms a?
matical investigations the name Beweistheorie
there are different bodies.
(proof theory, q. v.). A. C.
Metaphysical: Is the substantial essence of the
whole thing as rational animal is said to be
Normalization: (Ger. Formalisierung) In Hus-
serl: 1. (objective) Ideational "abstraction"
the metaphysical form of man. H.G.
from the determination of an object as belong-
Form, logical See Logic, formal.
:

ing in some material region. The residuum is

Forma: Latin noun meaning shape, ap- figure, a pure eidetic form. 2. (noematic) Substitution,
pearance, imagej also plan,
stamp, pattern, in a noematic-objective sense, e.g., the sense
mould. As a philosophic term used by Cicero
signified by a sentence, of the moment "what
and Augustine in the sense of species, and simi-
you please" for every materially determinate
larly by Scotus Eriugena. Boethius and the
core of sense, while retaining all the moments
mediaeval writers employed it in the Aris-
of categorial form. Noematic formalization re-
totelian sense of a constituent of being, synony-
duces a determinate objective sense to a mate-
mous with causa formalis.
Generally speaking indeterminate categorial sense-form. See
rially
it an intrinsic, determining, perfective prin-
is
Algebraization, Generalization, and Ideation.
ciple of existence of any determinate essence. D.C.
More strictly it is a forma substantiate, or that
Formally: (in Scholasticism) Is sometimes taken
constitutive element of a substance which is the
for mentally, i.e. according to the formalities
principle or soulce of its activity, and which which we distinguish by the min4 alone. When
determines it to a definite species, or class, and is so understood, it has as its correla-
formally
differentiates from any other substance. It is
it tive really. Thus the omnipotence and the wis-
distinguished from a forma accidentalis which dom of God are not really but formally distinct.
confers a sort of secondary being on a substance It is also said of the thing considered in itself
already constituted in its proper species and or in its proper entity. It then has various cor-
determines it to one or other accidental mode, relatives as the of the thing compared
aspects
thus a man may become a musician. A forma
vary:
corporeitatis is one by which a being is a body, (1) If compared with an effect, its correla-
on which its corporeal nature and essence de- tive will be efficiently: e.g. food is the life of
pend and which is its principle qf life. A forma man not formally but efficiently.
non-subsistens or materialis is one whose exist-
(2) If compared with an object, its correlative
ence depends on matter without which- it cannot will be objectively: e.g. God is said to be the
exist and be active. It i distinguished from a man not formally but objectively,
hope of a just
forma subsistens or immaterialis which can exist i.e. God is not the hope of man, but the object
and act separately from matter. An immaterial of that hope.
form may be an incomplete substance, like the
(3) If compared with an exemplar, a like-
human soul, which is created to be united with ness in accordance with which a thing is made,
a body to complete its own species, or a com- the correlative will be exemplarily: e.g. the
plete substance, a pure spirit, which is not des- image of Caesar existing in the painter's imagi-
tined to be united with matter to which it can- nation concurs with the picture of Caesar's imagt
not communicate fts being, hence it is also not formally But exemplarily.
called a forma J.J.R.
separata. (4) If compared with an end, the correlative
Formal: 1. In the traditional use: valid inde- is finally: e.g. eternal happiness is said to move
pendently of the specific subject-matter having a 5 man to act rightly not formally but finally, as
merely logical meaning (see Meaning, Kinds of, an end to be attained.
3). 2. Narrower sense, in modern logic: inde- (5) If compared with another thing con-
112 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
nccted with it, whose is inferred fromexistence perfections which are found in the effect. E.g.
or simply accompanies it, its correlative will be God eminently contains the perfections of crea-
illatively connectively e.g. in smoke we recog-
: tures. H.G.
nize fire not formally but illatively. Founded: (Ger. fundiert) In Husserl: 1. The
(6) If compared with a thing whose existence character of one noetic-noematic stratum as
is imputed to it, its correlative will be imputa- presupposing the presence of another, the found-
tively. ing stratum. 2. The character of an act or an
(7) If compared with a thing of which it is act-correlate as containing founded and founding
the root, the correlative will be radically: e.g. strata. E.g., intending something as a tool is

we say that almost all evils consist in a dis- founded in intending "the same" as a material
ordered self-love not formally but radically. thing} correlatively, the tool-sense is founded in
which the mere-thing-sense. D.C.
(8) If compared with those qualities
constitute a disposition for having that thing, Four Elements: The four primary kinds of body
the correlative will be dispositively. Thus the recognized by the Greek philosophers, viz. fire,
dryness of wood will result in fire not formally air, water, and earth. G.R.M.
but dispositively. Frank, Philipp: (b. 1884) A member of the
(9) If compared with a thing from which it "Vienna Circle," who has made his home in the
receives some denomination (or designation) its U. S. He has been avowedly influenced by Mach.
correlative will be denominatively: e.g. when His major work lies on the borderline between
some part of the body is formally ill, man him- philosophy and physics and he makes an effort
self or the whole man is said to be denomina- "to employ only concepts which will not lose
tively ill. their usefulness outside of physics."

Meaning the same as truly and properly Ph. Frank, Between Physics and Philosophy
then it has as correlatives: apparently, meta- (Harvard, 1941). R.B.W.
phorically. Freedom: (Kant. Ger. Freiheit) The autonomy
Meaning the same as essentially, so that the or self-determination of rational beings. Kant

predicate which is said to belong the subject considers the reality of freedom an indubitable,
formally, enters into the essence and definition albeit an inexplicable, fact, and places it at
of the subject. Thus man is formally animal. the fulcrum of his entire system, theoretical as

Formally, so understood has various correlatives, well as practical. See Kantianism. O.F.K.
according to the various aspects under which the Freedom, Sense of: The subjective feeling of an
essence of a thing can be considered: agent either at the moment of decision or in
(1) An essence can be compared with acci- retrospect that hisdecision is free and that he
dental predicates and then its correlative is might, he had chosen, have decided differ-
if

accidentally: e.g. a man is said to be not for- ently. This feeling is adduced by Free-Willists
as empirical evidence for their position but is
mally, but accidentally white.
(2) An essence can be compared with the interpreted by their opponents as a subjective
attributesor parts of a thing which like the illusion. See Free-Will L.W.
matter of a ribject may indifferently constitute Free-will: The free-will doctrine, opposed to de-
that thing or another, and then the correlative terminism, ascribes to the human will freedom
is materially.: e.g. man is said to be materially in one or more of the following senses:
flrsh. (a) The freedom of indeterminacy is the
When effect: An effect is taken
said of an will's alleged independence of antecedent con-
formally when looked at according to it-
it is
ditions, psychological and physiological. A
self} but it is taken radically or fundamentally free-will in this sense is at least partially un-
when it is looked at according to its cause, root, caused or is not related in a uniform way with
or foundation. Thus visibility taken formally is the agent's character, motives and circumstances.
a property of man, and is distinguished by the (b) The freedom of alternative choice which
mind from rationality; but taken radically, it is consists in the supposed ability of the agent to
the same as rationality, inasmuch as rationality choose among alternative possibilities of action
is the root of visibility. and
When referring to causes containing the per- (c) The freedom of self-determination con-
fection of their effect. Formally, virtually, and sisting in decision independent of external con-
eminently are said of causes according as they straint but in accordance with the inner motives
contain the perfection of their effect. For an and ideals of the agent. See Determinism, In-
effect is said to contained formally in its
be determinism. L W.
.

cause, when the nature of the effect which is Frege, (Friedrich Ludwig) Gottlob, 1848-
produced, is found in the cause itself} thus heat 1925, German mathematician and logician.
is contained formally in fire, because fire also Professor of mathematics at the University of
contains in itself the heat which it produces. An Jena, 1879-1918. Largely unknown to, or mis-
effect is contained virtually in its cause when understood by, his contemporaries, he is now
the cause can indeed produce such an effect, but regarded by many as
"beyond question the
the nature of the effect is not found in the cause greatest logician Nineteenth Century"
of the
itself, e.g. contained virtually in
the statue is (quotation from Tarski). He must be regarded
the artist. Lastly,is an
contained emi- effect after Boole (q. v.) as the second founder
nently in its cause, when the cause is much more of symbolic logic, the essential steps in the
perfect than the effect and is without the im- passage from the algebra of logic to the logistic
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 113

method (see the article Logistic system) having J. F.

Fries, Rechtslehre, 1804} Wissen,
been taken in his Begriffsschrift of 1879. In glauben u. Ahnung, 1805} Neue Kritik der
this work there appear for the first time the reinen Vernunft, 1807} System der Logik, 1811}
prepositional calculus in substantially its modern Psychische Anthropologie, 1821. J.K.
form, the notion of propositional junction, the Fringe, Psychical: See Consciousness, Field of.
use of quantifiers, the explicit statement of Frui: St. Augustine distinguished frui, to enjoy,
primitive rules inference, the notion of an
of from uti, to use. We use the things of this
hereditary property and the logical analysis of world} we are to enjoy God, of whom St.
proof by mathematical induction or recursion Augustine writes: Ista temporalia dedit ad
(q. v.). This last is perhaps the most important utendum, se ad fruendum. J.J.R.
element in the definition of an inductive cardi- Fu: man
Correspondence, especially that between
nal number (q. v.) and provided the basis for and the Universe in the macrocosm-microcosm
Frege's derivation of arithmetic from logic in relationship. Tung Chung-ehu, 177-104 B.C.)
his Grundlagen der Arithmetik (1884) and W.T.C.
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. 1 (1893), Fulfilment: (Ger. Erfiillung) In Husserl: Syn-
and vol. 2 (1903). The first volume of Grund- thesis of based on conscious
identification,
gesetze der Arithmetik is the culmination of
processes, in the earlier of which the intended
Frege's work, and we find here many important object is intended emptily or is given less
further ideas. In particular, there is a careful The more
evidently than it is in the later.
distinction between using a formula to express evident conscious process is said to fulfil (or to
something else and naming a formula in order fill) and clarify the noematic-objective sense
to make a syntactical statement about it, quota- of the less evident.
tion marks being used in order to distinguish Positive fulfilment: Fulfilment in which the
the name of ^a formula from the formula itself. senses of the fulfilled and
objective fulfilling
In an appendix to the second volume of Grund- '
processes harmonize.
gesetze, Frege acknowledges the presence of an
Negative fulfilment: Fulfilment in which the
inconsistency in his system through what is senses of the fulfilled and
objective fulfilling
now known as the Russel paradox (see Para-
processes conflict. Fulfilment cannot be com-
doxes, logical), as had been called to his at-
pletely negative, since that would preclude
tention by Russell when
book was nearlythe
synthesis of identification. D.C.
through the press. A. C.
P. E. B. Jourdain, Gottlob Frege, The Quar- Fulguration: Is a lightning flash of the mind.
terly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, To Leibniz, themonads are God's perpetual
vol. 43 (1912), pp. 237-269. H. Scholz, Was ist
fulguration, Monadology, 47. J.M.
em Kalkiil und was hat Frege fur eine punktltche
Beantwortung dteser Frage geleistet?, Semester- Function: In mathematics and logic, an n-adic
Berichte (Munster i. W.), summer 1935, pp. 16-47. function is a law of correspondence between an
Scholz and Bachmann, Der wtssenschaftlicbe Nacb- ordered of n things (called arguments of
set
lass von Gottlob Frege, Actes du Congres Inter-
national de Philosophic Scientifique (Pans, 1936), the function, or values of the independent vari-
section VIII, pp. 24-30. ables) and another thing (the value of the func-
Freud, Sigmund: (1856-1940) Founder of the tion, or value of the dependent variable), of
Psycho-analytic School (see Psycho-Analysis), such a sort that, given any ordered set of n
studied medicine at the University of Vienna, arguments which belongs to a certain domain
and becoming interested in the treatment of (the range of the function), the value of the
neuroses, went to Paris in 1885 to study under function uniquely determined. The value of
is

Charcot and later examined the methods em- the function is spoken of as obtained
by apply-
ployed by the Nancy school. In his
own prac- ing the function to the arguments. The domain
tice, he employed hypnotic
methods of treatment of all possible values of the function is called
(see Hypnosis, Hypnotism) in combination
with the range of the dependent variable. If F de-
his own techniques of free association and dream notes a function and Xi, X, . . .
,
Xn denote the
interpretation. (The Interpretation of Dreams, first argument, second argument, etc., respec-
German ed., 1900$ Psychopathqlogy of Every- tively, the notation F(Xi, 2, . . . X , Xn) is used
day Life, German ed., 1901.) Freud not only to denote the corresponding value of the func-
developed a therapeutic technique for the treat- tion} or the notation may be [F](Xi, X* . . .
,

ment of hysteria and neuroses but advanced an Xn), to provide against ambiguities which might
elaborate psychological theory of which the otherwise arise if F were a long expression
main tenets are the predominance of sex and rather than a single letter.
the doctrine of the subconscious. In particular, a monadic junction is a law of
Freud's writings in addition to those already correspondence between an argument (or value
cited include: Wit and its Relation to the Un- of the independent variable) and a value of the
conscious, 1905} General Introduction to Psycho- function (or value of the dependent variable),
Analysis, Eng. trans., 1920-1. L.W. of such a sort that, given any argument belong-
Fries, Jakob Friedrich: (1773-1843) Emi- ing to a certain domain (the range of the func-
nent German philosopher. The contribution tion, or range of the independent variable), the
of Fries lies in the continuation of Kant's value of the function is uniquely determined.
work as offered in New or Anthropological If F denotes a monadic function and X denotes
Criticism of Reason and by his system of an argument, the notation F(X) is used for
philosophy as exact science. the corresponding value of the function.
114 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Instead of a monadic function, dyadic function, ables being said, for example, to denote a func-

etc., one may also speak of a function of one tion. Sometimes also the word function it used
variable, a function of two variables, etc. The in a syntactical sense e.g., to mean an expres-
terms singulary or unary (=
monadic), binary sion containing free variables.
(= dyadic), etc., are also in use. The phrase, See the article Propositional function.
"function from A to B," is used in the case of Alonzo Church
a monadic function to indicate that A and B Functional calculus See Logic, formal, :
3, 6.
(or some portion of B) are the ranges of the Functional Psychology: (Lat. functio from
independent and dependent variables respective- fungor, I execute) A tendency in American
ly in the case of a polyadic function to indi- psychology represented by W. James, G. T.
cate that B (or some portion of B) is the range Ladd, G. S. Hall, J. Dewey and J. R. Angell
of the dependent variable while the range of which considered the mental processes of sense
the function consists of ordered sets of n things perception, emotion, volition and thought as
out of A. functions of the biological organism in its
It sometimes necessary to distinguish be-
is adaptation to and control of its environment.

tween functions in intension and functions in Functionalism arose as a protest against struc-
extension, the distinction being that two -adic tural psychology for .which the task of psy-
functions in extension are considered identical if chology is the analysis and description of con-
they have the same range and the same value sciousness. The functional theory of mind is

for every possible ordered set of n arguments, characteristic of the pragmatism and instrument-
whereas some more severe criterion of identity alism of C. S. Pierce, W. James, G. H. Mead
is imposed in the case of functions in intension. and J. Dewey. See C. H. Morris, Six Theories
In most mathematical contexts the term junction ofMind, Ch. VI. L.W.
(also the roughly synonymous terms operation, Functional Theory of Mind: See functional
transformation) is used in the sense of function Psychology.
in extension. Functionalism: See Functional Psychology.
(In the case of propositional functions, the Functor: In the terminology of Carnap, a junctor
distinction between intension and extension is is a sign for a (non-propositional) junction
usually made somewhat differently, two proposi- (q. v.). The word is thus synonymous -with
tional functions in extension being identical if (non-propositional) junction symbol. ~A.C.
they have materially equivalent values for every Fundamentum divisionis: (Lat.) Principle ac-
set of arguments.) cording to which a genus is subdivided into
Sometimes convenient to drop the con-
it is species. A.C.B.
dition value of a function is unique
that the Fusion, Psychic: See Psychic Fusion.
and to require rather that an ordered set of Future: That part of time which includes all the
arguments shall determine a set of values of events which will happen these events may be \

the function. In this case one speaks of a
many-valued function.
Often the word function is found used loosely
for what would more correctly be called an
ambiguous or undetermined value of a function,
an expression containing one or more free vari-
conceived as determined in advance, though un-
known, or as an indefinite potentiality, not
fixed in advance, but subject to chance, free
choice, statistical determination, or Divine inter-
ference. In Aristotle, assertions about the future
are always contingent or non-apodeictic.
R.B.W.
Gabirol, Solomon Ibn: Known to scholastics as on stolen drives through the city he re- that
Avicebron (q.v.), but not identified as such nounced all when but 29 years of became age,
until the discovery by the French scholar, Munk. a mendicant, sought instruction in reaching an
See Jewish Philosophy. M.W. existence free from these evils and tortures,

Galen, Claudius: Famous physician) died about fruitlessly however, till at the end of seven
the year200 A.D.j an Eclectic philosopher who years of search while sitting under the Bodhi-
combined the Peripatetic and Stoic teachings. ,tree, he became the Buddha, the Awakened One,
Galen was the chief authority in medicine and attained the true insight. Much that is
practically until the time of Vesalius (c. 1543). legendary and reminds one of the Christian
He is responsible for the fourth figure in the mythos surrounds Buddha's life as retold in an
syllogism. His voluminous works remain un- extensive literature which also knows of his
M.F.
translated. former and future existences. Mira, the Eyil
Galenian Figure: See figure, syllogistic. One, tempted Buddha to enter nirvana (s.v.)
Garbha: (Skr. seed) The creative power that directly, thus knowledge of the
withholding
lies bottom of the world, hypostatized in
at the path of from the world) but the
salvation
or symbolized by the germ or seed. In cosmol- Buddha was firm and taught the rightful path
ogico-metaphysical conception it is allied to such without venturing too far into metaphysics, set-
termini technici as hiranyagarbha (golden germ), ting all the while an example of a pure and
blja (seed), retas
(semen), yoni (womb), antfa holy life devoted to the alleviation of suffering.
(egg, world-egg), jan (to give birth to), srj At the age of 80, having been offered and thus
(to pour out), etc., descriptive of psycho-cos- compelled to partake of pork, he fell ill and in
mogony from the earliest days of Indian phi- dying attained nirvana. K.F.L.
losophy (s.v.). K.F.L. Gay, John: (1669-1745) English scholar and
Gassendi, Pierre: (1592-1655) Was a leading clergyman, not to be confused with his con-
opponent of Cartesianism and of Scholastic Aris- temporary, the poet and dramatist of the same
totelianism in the field of the physical sciences. name. He is important in the field of ethics
Though he was a Catholic priest, with orthodox for his Dissertation Concerning the Funda-
views in theology, he revived the materialistic mental Principle of Virtue or Morality. This
atomism of Epicurus and Lucretius. Born in little work influenced David Hartley in his
Provence, and at one time Canon of Dijon, he formulation of Associationism in Psychology
became a distinguished professor of mathematics and likewise served to suggest the foundation
at the Royal College of Paris in 1645. He for the later English Utilitarian School.
seems to have been sincerely convinced that the L.E.D.
Logic, Physics and Ethics of Epicureanism were Gegenstandstheorie: (Ger. the theory of ob-
superior to any other type of classical or modern jects). It is the phenomenological investi-
philosophy. His objections to Descartes' Medita- of various of existential
gation types objects,
(tones, with the Cartesian responses, are printed
and an object being defined in the
subsistential
with the works of Descartes. His other philo-
Commentarius de vita, widest sense as the terminus ad quern of any
sophical works are:
moribus et placitis Epicuri (Amsterdam, 1659), act of perceiving* thinking, willing or feeling.

Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri (Amsterdam, The theory was developed by H. Meinong under
1684). VJ.B. the influence of F. Brentano and is allied with
Gautama Buddha: (Skr. Gautama, a patronymic, the phenomenology of E. Husserl. Sec Phtnom-
meaning of the trite of Gotamaj Buddha, the
enlightened one) The founder of Buddhism, Geist: (Ger. Kant) That quality in a beautiful
born about 563 B.C. into a royal house at object which animates the mind (Gemut) and
Kapilivastu. As Prince SiddhSrtha (Siddhattha) gives life to the work of art. It is best trans-
he had worldly goods and pleasures at his
til lated "soul" or "spirit". See Kantianism, Hegel
disposal, married, had a son, but was so stirred O.F.K.
by sights of disease, old age, and death glimpsed Gemara: (Heb. completion) Is the larger and latter
116 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
part of the Talmud (q.v.) discussing the Mish- (Critique of Judgment), genius creates its own
nah, and incorporating also vast materials not rule8.L.r.
closely related to the Mishnah topics. The 1812 Genres: Types of art to which special rules and
authorities of the gemara are known as Amoraim independent developments were attributed. For
(speakers). Its contents bears on Halaeha (law) example: in poetry epic, lyric, dramatic) in
and Aggadah (tale), i.e. non-legal material like painting historic, portrait, landscape) in music
legends, history, science, ethics, philosophy, biog- oratorial, symphonic, operatic. L.V.
raphy, etc. There are two gemaras better known Gentile, Giovanni: Born in Castelvetrano
as Talmuds: the Jerusalem (i.e. Palestinian) (Sicily) 1875. Professor of Philosophy and
Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud. H.L.G. History of Philosophy at universities in Paler-
Generalization: (Lat. genus, class, kind) 1. mo, Pisa, and Rome. Minister of Public Educa-
Process of arriving at a general notion or con- tion 1922-1924. Senator since 1922. Reformed
the school system of Italy.
cept from individual instances. 2. Any general
notion or concept. 3. A proposition stating an Apupil of late followers of Hegel, he em-
order or relation of events which holds without phasized the unity of spirit which he recognized
exception; universal proposition. A.C.S. in the pure act. His philosophy is therefore
Generalization, rule of: See Logic, formal, 3. called actualism. He Is responsible for the phil-
Generative Theory of Data: (Lat. genera tus, osophic theory of Fascism with the conception
of the Ethic State to which the individual must
pp. of generare, to beget) Theory of sense per-
be totally sacrificed.
ception asserting that sense data or sensa are
generated by the percipient organism or by the G. Gentile, La filosofia di Marx, 1899* II
mind and thus exist only under the conditions concetto della storia delta fiosofia, 1908} L'atto
of actual perception. The Theory which is del pensare como atto pure, 1912} Sistema di
common subjective idealism and representa-
to logica come teoria del conoscere, 1917$ Dis-
tional realism is opposed to the Selective Theory corsi di Religione, 1920} La fUosofia delVArte,
of Data. See Representationism, Selective 1931} Introd. alia filosofia, 1933. L.V.
theory of Data. L.W. Genus: (Gr. genos) In Aristotle's logic: (1) that
Generic Image: (Lat. genus, kind) A mental part of the essence of anything which belongs
also to other things differing from it in
image which Is sufficiently vague and indeter- species}
minate to represent a number of different mem- (2) a class of objects possessing an identical
bers of a class and thus to provide the imaginal character and consisting of two or more sub-
basis of a concept. A
generic image is thus in-
classes or species. See Species. G.R.M.
termediate between a concrete image and a Genus, summum:
(Lat.) In a classificatory
generic concept. The vagueness of the generic scheme the largest and most inclusive genus
image contrasts with the specificity of the con- which is not itself a species to any larger genus.
crete image, yet the generic image lacks the A.C.B.
fullness of meaning requisite to a genuine con- Geometry: Originally abstracted from the meas-
cept. The doctrine of the generic image was urement of, and the study of relations of posi-
introduced by Francis Galton who drew the tion among, material objects, geometry received
analogy with composite photography (Inquiries in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 B.C.) a treatment
into Human Faculty , 1883 appendix on Generic which (despite, of course, certain defects by
Images) and is adopted by Huxley (Hume, Ch. modern standards) became the historical model
IV). The existence of non-specific or generic for the abstract deductive development of a
images would be challenged by most contempo- mathematical discipline. The general nature of
rary psychologists. L.W. the subject of geometry may be illustrated by
Genesis: (Gr. into being, par-
Coming reference to the synthetic geometry of Euclid,
genesis)
ticularly the into being of a substance
coming and the analytic geometry which resulted from
through the taking on of form by matter (Aris- the introduction of coordinates into Euclidean
totle.). The biblical account of creation (Book geometry by Descartes (1637) (q.v.). In the
of Genesis). G.R.M. mathematical usage of today the name geometry
is given to any abstract mathematical discipline
Genetic: (Gr. genesis,origin) Having to do
with the origin and the development of any- of a certain general type, as thus illustrated,
thing. V.F. without any requirement of applicability to
Genetic Fallacy: The misapplication of the spatial relations among physical objects or the
like.
genetic method resulting in the depreciatory
See Mathematics, and Non-Euclidean geom-
appraisal of the product of an historical or
evolutionary process because of its lowly origin. etry. For a very brief outline of the founda-
L.W. tions of plane Euclidean geometry, both from
Genetic Method: of in the synthetic and the analytic viewpoint, see
Explanation thing*
terms of their origin or genesis. L.W. the Appendix to Eisenhart's book cited below.
Genius: Originally the word applied to a demon A more complete account given by Forder.
is

such as Socrates' inner voice. During the 17th A. C.

L. P. Eisenhart, Coordinate Geometry, 1939
century it was linked to the Platonic theory of H. G. Forder, The Foundations of Euclidean
. . ,

inspiration and was applied to the rejection of om Cambridge, England. 1927 T. L. Hetth.
$i *ftt>
The Thirteen BOPMS of Euclid's Elements, tram-
too rigid rules in art. It defined the real artist
fated from the text of Heiberg, with introduction
and distinguished his creative imagination from and commentary, 3 vols., Cambridge, England,
the logical reasoning of the scientist. In Kant 1908.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 111

Gcrbert of Aurillac: (Pope Sylvester H, died taught at the Universities of Freiburg, Munster

1003) Was one of the greatest scholars of the and Munich (1924--). His criticism of matetial-
IOth century. He studied at Aurillac with Odo istic tendencies in modern psychology, his Aris-
of Cluny, learned something of Arabian science totelian views on causality, and his espousal of

during three years spent in Spain. He taught a semi-Cartesian position in epistemology, aie
at the school of Rheims, became Abbot of Bob- noteworthy. He has written-: Lehrbuch der all-
bio (982), Archbishop of Rheims (991), Arch- gem. Psychologte ) 3rd ed. (1920), Erkenntnis-
bishop of Ravenna (998), Pope in 999. A mas- theorie d. Anstoteles (1917), Das Pnnsip votn
ter of the seven liberal arts, he excelled in his zurelchenden Grunde (1930). See Philosophia
knowledge of the quadrivium, i.e. logic, math., Perennis (Geyser Festg.), II vol. (Regensburg,
astron. and music. His works, the most impor- 1930). VJ.B.
tant of which are on mathematics, are printed
Gioberti, Vincenzo: Born in Turin (Italy)
in PL 139, 57-338. VJ.B. April 1801. Died in Paris, October 26, 1852.
5,
Gerson, Levi ben: (Gersonides) Bible com- Ordained priest 1825. Exiled to Paris, 1833,
mentator, astronomer, and philosopher (1288- because too liberal. Triumphantly returned to
1340). He invented an instrument for astro- Italy 1848. Served as Minister and Ambassador.
nomical observation which is described in his His fundamental problem was the relation
Sefer ha-Tekunah (Hebr.) Book on Astronomy. between sensibility and intelligibility, Being
His philosophy embodied in the Milhamot
createsexistence. The universal spirit becomes
Elohim i.e., The Wars of God, is distinguished individual by own
its creation. Thus, the source
by thoroughgoing Aristotelianism and by its
its
of individuality is not but divine.
subjective
general free spirit. His theory of the soul And individuality returns to universality when
teaches that the passive or material intellect is
it attains the state of intelligibility from the
only a potentiality for developing pure thought state of sensibility.
which accomplished through the influence of
is
'Main works: Teona della sovranaturale,
the Universal Active Intellect, and that it is
1838; Del hello, 1841} Del buono, 1842} Delia
that part of the soul which contains the sum
filosofia della rivelazione, 1856 (posth.)} Delia
total of the exalted thoughts which remains im-
protologia, 1857 (posth.). See B. Spaventa,
mortal, thus making intellectuality a condition La filosofia di <?., 1863. L.F.
of immortality. He also teaches that God knows
things from their general aspect but does not Given, The: Whatever is immediately present to
know the particulars in their infinite ramifica- the mind before it has been elaborated by in-
tions. See Jewish Philosophy. M.W. ference, interpretation or construction. See
Gestalt Psychology: (German, Gestalt, shape or
Datum. L.W.
form) A
school of German psychology, founded Gnosiology: (Gr. gnosis, knowledge -f- logos,
about 1912 by M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka and discourse) Theory of knowledge in so far as it
W. Kohler. Gestalt psychology reacted against relates to the origin, nature, limits and validity
the psychic elements of analytic or associationist of knowledge as distinguished from method-
psychology (see Associationism) and substituted ology, the study of the basic concepts, postulates
the concept of GesAflt or organized whole. The and of the sciences.
presuppositions special
parts do not exist prior to the whole but derive L.W.
their character from the structure of the whole.
Gnosis: (Gr. knowledge) Originally a generic
The Gestalt concept is applied at the physical
term for knowledge, in the first and second
and physiological as well as the psychological
centuries A.D. it came to mean an esoteric
levels and in psychology both to the original and philosophic
knowledge of higher religious
sensory organization and to the higher intel- truths to be acquired by an e"lite group of in-
lectual and associative processes of mind. Con-
tellectually developed believers. Philo Judaeus
figuration has been suggested as an English
(30 B.C. to 50 A.D.) is a fore-runner of Jew-
equivalent for Gestalt and the school is accord- ish Gnosticism} the allegorical interpretation of
ingly referred to as Configurationism. L.W .
the Old Testament, use of Greek philosophical
Geulincx, Arnold: (1625-1669) "Was born in concepts, particularly the Logos doctrine,
in

Antwerpen but later, when he became a Protes- Biblical exegesis, and a semi-mystical number
tant, he moved to Holland. His work lay along theory characterize his form of gnosis. Christian
Cartesian lines, but he felt dissatisfied with gnostics (Cerinthus, Menander, Saturninus,
Descartes' solution of the mind-body problem. Valentine, Basilides, Ptolemaeus, and possibly
As a result, he developed the doctrine of occa- Marcion) maintained that only those men who
sionalism according to which interaction between cultivated their spiritual powers were truly im-
mind and body is impossible, but God effects mortal, and they adopted the complicated teach-
bodily motions "on occasion" of each mental ing of a sphere of psychic intermediaries (aeons)
process. between God and earthly things. There was
A. Geulincx:
Ethica, 1655$ Metaphysica> also a pagan gnosis begun before Christ as a
1695. Complete works in 3 vols. ed. by J. P. reformation of Greek and Roman religion.

Land, 1891-3. R.B.W. Philosophically, the only thing common to all

Geyser, Joseph: (1863-) Is a leader of Catholic types of gnosis is the effort Co transcend ra-
psychological and metaphysical thought in pres- tional, logical thought processes by means of
ent-day Germany. Born in Erkelenz, he has intuition.
118 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
DC Faye, E., Gnostiques et Gnosticismet 2me. and later Scholasticism denied that any adequate
id., (Paris, 1925). V.J.B. statement can be made on God's essence j but
Gobineau, Arthur de: (1816-1882) A French earlier thinkers, especially Anselm of Canter-
nobleman and author of Essay on the Inequality bury indulged in a so-called "Christian Ra-
of Human Races, in which he propounds the tionalism" and believed that more can be as-
doctrine of "nordic supremacy". According to serted of God by "necessary reasons". Anselm's
him, white race originally possessed the
"the proof of God's existence has been rejected by
monopoly of beauty, intelligence and strength. Aquinas and Kant. See Ontologtcal argument.
By its union with other varieties hybrids were R.A.
created,which were beautiful without strength, Godhead: In general, the state of being a god,
strong without intelligence, or, if intelligent, godhood, godness, divinity, deity. More strict-
both weak and ugly." R.B.W. ly, the nature of God, especially the
essential
God: In metaphysical thinking a name for the triune God, one in three Persons. J.J.R.
highest, ultimate being, assumed by theology on Godel, Kurt, 1906-, Austrian mathematician and
the basis of authority, revelation, or the evi- logician educated at Vienna, and now located
dence of faith as absolutely necessary, but dem- (1941) at the Institute for Advanced Study in
onstrated as such by a number of philosophical Princeton, N. J. for his impor-
is best known
systems, notably idealistic, monistic and dualis- tant incompleteness theorem, the closely related
tic ones. Proofs of the existence of God fall theorem on the impossibility (under certain cir-
apart into those that are based on facts of cumstances) of formalizing a consistency proof
experience (desire or need for perfection, de- for a logistic system within that system, and the
pendence, love, salvation, etc.), facts of re- essentially simple but far-reaching device of
ligious history (consensus gentium, etc.), postu- arithmetization of syntax which is employed in
lates of morality (belief in ultimate justice, the proof of these theorems (see Logic, formal,
instinct for an absolute good, conscience, the 6). Also of importance are his proof of the
categorical imperative, sense of duty, need of completeness of the functional calculus of first
an objective foundation of morality, etc.), postu- order (see Logic, formal, 3), and his recent
lates of reason (cosmological, physico-theologi- work on the consistency of the axiom of choice
cal, Ideological, and ontological arguments), (q. v.) and of Cantor's continuum hypothesis.
and the inconceivableness of the opposite. As A.C.
to the nature of God, the great variety of opin- Good: (AS god) In ethics, morally praise-
(a)
ions are best characterized by their several con- worthy character, action, or motive.
ceptions of the attributes of God which are (b) In axiology, two types of good, good-
either of a non-personal (pantheistic, etc.) or ness, or value: intrinsic and extrinsic or instru-
personal (theistic, kind, representing con-
etc.) mental.
cepts known from experience raised to a super- Extrinsic or instrumental goodness depends
lative degree ("omniscient", "eternal", etc.). for its existence upon some object, end or pur-
The reality, God, may be conceived as absolute pose which it serves. It derives its being from
or as relative to human values, as being an its service as an instrument in promoting or
all-inclusive one, a duality, or a plurality. Con- sustaining some more ultimate good and finally
cepts of God calling for unquestioning faith, some ultimate or intrinsic good. It is good
belief in miracles, and worship or representing which is good for something.
biographical descriptive sketches of God
and Intrinsic goodness, or that which is good in
and his creation, are rather theological than itself without depending upon anything else for
metaphysical, philosophers, on the whole, utiliz- its goodness (though it may for its existence),
ing the idea of God or its linguistic equivalents is conceived in many ways: Realists, who agree
in other languages, despite popular and church that goodness is not dependent upon persons for
implications, in order not to lose the feeling- its existence, say good is (1) anything desirable
contact with the rather abstract world-ground. or capable of arousing desire or interest, (2) a
See Religion, Philosophy of. K.F.L. quality of any desirable thing which can cause
According to the common teaching of the interest to be aroused or a capacity for being
Schoolmen, philosophy is able to demonstrate an end of action, (3) that which ought to be
the existence of God, though any statement desired, which ought to be. Subjec-
(4) that
of his essence is at best only analogical. tivists, who that goodness is dependent
agree
See Analogy. Aquinas formulated the famous upon persons for existence, hold views of two
five ways by which to demonstrate God's sorts: (1) good is partially dependent upon
existence: as prime motor, first cause, pure persons as (a) anything desired or "any object
act to be assumed because there has to be act of any interest" (R. B. Perry), (b) "a quality
for anything to come into existence at all, neces- of any object of any interest" causing it to be
sary being in which existence and essence are desired (A. K. Rogers) ; (2) good is completely
one, as set over against contingent beings which dependent upon persons as (a) satisfaction of
may be or not be, as summit of the hierarchy any desire or any interest in any object (DeW.
of beings. A
basic factor in these demonstra- H. Parker), (b) pleasant feeling (Hedonism).
tions is the impossibility of infinite regress. God See Value. Opposed to bad, evil, disvalue.
. is conceived as the first cause and as the ulti- AJ.B.
mate final cause of all beings. He is pure act, Good, Highest: (sometimes the greatest, or su-
ens realissimum and summum bonum. Thomism preme, good. Lat. summum bonum) That
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 119

good which transcends yet includes all the published before 1934. Die
Chief works:
others. According to Augustine, Varro was Geschichte der nholasthchcn Methods (1909),
able to enumerate 288 definitions. For Plato, Mittelalterliches Gehtesleben (1926), Wei kg
the supreme Idea, the totality of being. For des hi. Thomas v. Aq. (1931). VJ.B.
Aiistotle, eudemonism (q.v.), which consists Grand style: A style based on antique statues
in the harmonious satisfaction of all rational and Italian art of the Renaissance, flourishing
powers. For the Epicureans, pleasure. For in France during the 17th century, and in
Aquinas, obedience to and oneness with God. England during the 18th century. L.V.
The all-inclusive object of desire. J.K.F, ''Greatest Happiness": In ethics, the basis of
Goodness: (AS. god) The extrinsic elections of ethics considered as the highest good of the
things. The positive object of desire. For individual or of the greatest number of indi-
Plato, coextensive with being. For the Romans, viduals. The feeling-tone of the individual,
duty. For Kant, that which has value. For varying from tranquillity and contentment to
Peirce, adaptation of a subject to its end.
the happiness, considered as the end of all moral
In psychology: the characteristic actions which action, as for example in Epicurus, Lucretius and
follow moral norms. Opposite of evil. See Rousseau. The welfare of the majority of in-
Ethtcs. J.K.F. dividuals, or of society as a whole, considered
Gorgias: 480-c. 375 B.C.) Celebrated orator, as the end of all moral action, as for example
(c.
rhetorician and philosopher from Leontini in in Plato, Bentham and Mill. The greatest
Sicily. He was numbered among the leading possible surplus of pleasure over pain in the
Sophists. He spent the major part of his long greatest number of individuals. Although men-
life in Greece, particularly in Athens. The tioned by Plato in the Republic (IV, 420), the
Platonic dialogue bearing his name indicates in phrase in its current form probably originated
some measure the high esteem in which he was in the English translation, in 1770, of Bec-
held. L.E.D. Dei delitti e delle pene t where it occurs
caxia's
as "la massima felicita dtvisa nel tnaggior
Gotama: The founder of the Nyaya (s.v.), also
known as Gautama and Ak?apada. K.F.L. numero", which was rendered as "the greatest
A and happiness of the greatest number", a phrase
Gothic: style in architecture, sculpture
enunciated by Hutcheson in 1725. One of a
painting between the 12th and the 16th century. number of ethical ideals or moral aims. The
During the neo-classical 18th century, a syn. doctrine with which the phrase is most closely
for the barbarousand lawless} the "romanticists"
associated is that of John Stuart Mill, who
who reacted against the 18th century classicism,
said in his Utilitarianism (ch. II) that "the
reverted to a love for the medieval Gothic
L.V. happiness which forms the ... standard of what
styles.
is right in conduct, is not the agent's own hap-
Government: This term is used in two senses.
piness, but that of all concerned". J.K.F.
Sometimes it is used to indicate the particular
administrative institutions or agencies of a Green, Thomas Hill: (1836-1882) Neo-Heg-
elian in revolt against the fashionable
society whose function it is to control individual idealist,

individual and national utilitarianethics and Spencerian positivism and

action, safeguard
rights, and, in general, promote the public wel- agnosticism of his time, argued the existence of
a rational self from our inability to derive from
fare; all in accordance with the methodological
principles and for the sake of the ends decreed sense-experience the categories in which we
to be legitimate by the sovereign. A think and the relations that pertain between our
government
is, consequently, purely instrumental, and cannot percepts. Again, since we recognize ourselves to
create sanctions for its own activities. be part of a larger whole with which we are in
rightly
It may, however, persist through change of per- relations, those relations and that whole cannot
sonnel. In another less common use the word be created by the finite self, but must be pro-
indicates the person or persons who hold office duced by an absolute all-inclusive mind of
in these institutions, rather than the institutions which our minds are parts and of which the
themselves. This second use is more common world-process in its totality is the experience.
in Europe than in America, and corresponds to Anexamination of desire and will leads to
the American term "the administration." Ihe same conclusion. These, too, betoken a self
M.EM. which fulfills itself in attaining an ideal. This
ideal can be found only in the Absolute, re-
Grabmann, Martin: (1875-) Is one of the most
vealed now not only as an absolute mind but
capable historians of medieval philosophy. Born
as an absolute moral person, enshrining good-
in Wintershofen (Oberpfalz), he was ordained
ness and beauty as well as truth that is as God.
in 1898. He has taught philosophy and theology
Mu- B.A.G.F.
at Eichsthtt (1906), Vienna (1913), and
T. H. Green: Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883.
nich (191 8-). An acknowledged authority on
the chronology and authenticity of the works of Grotesque: (It. grottesca, from grotta, grotto)
St. Thomas, he is equally capable in dealing The idealized ugly. In aesthetics, the beauty of
with the thought of St. Augustine, or of many fantastic exaggeration, traditionally achieved by
minor writers in philosophy and theology up to combining foliate and animal or human figures,
the Renaissance. Aus d. Geis/estvelt d. Mittel- as for example those found in the classic Roman
alters (Festg. Grabmann) Munster i. W. 1935, and Pompeiian palaces and reproduced by
lists more than 200 of his articles and books, Raphael in the Vatican. J.K.F.
120 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Grotius, Hugo: (1583-1645) Dutch jurist. In from obligation or responsibility. In the psy-
his celebrated De
jure belli et pacts (1625) he chology of ethics, the sense of guilt is the
presents a theory of natural rights, based largely awareness of having violated an ethical precept
upon Stoicism and Roman legal principles. A or law. Opposite of innocence, merit. 7.AT.F.
sharp distinction is made between inviolable Guna: (Skr. thread, cord) Quality that which
$

natural law and the ever changing positive or has substance (see dravya) as substratum. It is

civil law. His work has been basic in the his- variously conceived in Indian philosophy and
tory of international law. different enumerations are made. The Vaisesika,
Other works: De mart libero, 1609j De e.g., knows 24 kinds, along with subsidiary
veritate religionis chrtstianae, 1622. L.E.D. ones; the Sankhya, Trika, and others recognize
Guilt: In ethics, conduct involving a breach of three: sattva, rajas, tamas (q.v.). K.F.L.
moral law. The commission of a moral offense Guru: (Skr.) Teacher.
considered as the failure of duty. Defection
 H
Habit: (Lat. habitus from habere, to have) In
of Proofs and Arguments in Defense of the
Humiliated Religion, indicates, it aims to prove
psychology: An acquired mental function rein-
forced by repetition. the dignity and worth of Judaism. Secondly, he
In metaphysics, one of Aristotle's 10 cate- endeavors to show the insufficiency of philoso-

gories, Hume's ground for causality ("custom phy and the superiority of the truths of revealed
to those arrived at by logic. The ad-
of the mind") and Peirce's leading principle religion
or basis of natural law. L.W. mission of both Christianity and Islam that
Habit Memory: The retention and reproduction Judaism is their source proves the first. The
of something learned e.g. a poem, a geometrical exaltation of intuition as a means of certainty
demonstration without the recognition char- in matters of religion, and the claim that the
acteristic of memory pioper. See Memory. prophet is the highest type of man rather than
L.W. the philosopher purposes to substantiate the sec-

Hades: Greek mythology the

In ond. He endows the Jewish people with a spe-
(Gr. Haides)
god of the underworld, the son of Cronos and
cial religio-ethical sense which is their share
Rhea and the brother of Zeus; hence the king- only and constitutes a quasi-biological quality.
dom ruled over by Hades, or the abode of the He assigns also a special importance to Pales-
dead. G.R.M. tine as a contributory factor in the spiritual

Haeberlin, Paul: (1878-) A well known Swiss development of people, for only there can
his

thinker whose major contributions until recent this religio-ethical sense come to full expression.

years were in the field of education. In his M.W.

hands phenomenology has become existential phi- Hallucination: (Lat. hallucinatio, from hallu-
losophy. A transcendental-idealistic tone per- cinari, to wander in mind) A non-veridical or
vades hisphilosophy. He combines in theory delusive perception of a sense object occurring
the advantages ot existential phenomenology
when no object is in fact present to the organs
with those of psychologism. H.H. of sense. See Delusion, Illusion. L.W.
Haecceity: (Lat. haecceitas, literally thisness) Hallucination, Negative: The failure to perceive
A an object which is in fact present to the organs
employed by Duns Scotus to express
term
that by which a quiddity, or general essence, of sense. See Hallucination. L.W.
becomes an individual, particular nature, or Hamann, Johann Georg: (1730-1788) Kant's
a native
being. That incommunicable nature
wh'-h con- extreme pietist friend, and, like him,

stitutes difference, or indiviujal-

the individual of Konigsberg, he saw in the critical philosophy

izes singular beings belonging to a class 5 hence of Kant an unsuccessful attempt to make reason

his principle of individuation. J.J.R. independent of all tradition, belief and experi-

Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich: (1834-1919) Was a ence.//.//.

Han Fei Tzu: 233 B.C.) Was a pupil of
German biologist whose early espousal of Dar- (d.

winism led him to found upon the evolutionary Hsiin Tzu. The greatest Chinese philosopher of
thoroughgoing materialistic monism
a law (fa chia), he advocated government by law
hypothesis
which advanced in his numerous writings
he and statecraft. Delegated by his native state,
The Riddle of the he appealed to the king of Chin (Shih Huang-ti)
particularly in his popular
Universe. Believing in the essential unity of not to invade his country. At first he was
the organic and the inorganic, he was opposed cordially entertained but later was ordered to
to revealed religions and their ideals of God, commit suicide by the premier of Chin, his
freedom and immortality and offered a monistic former schoolmate, Li Ssu, who became jealous
of him. (Han-fei Tzu, Eng. tr. by W. K. Liao:
religion of nature based on the true, the good
and the beautiful. See Darwin, Evolutionism, Han Fei Tzu, Complete Works.) W.T.C.
Monism. L.E.D. Happiness: (in Kant's ethics) Kant is more con-
cerned with happiness in terms of its ideal pos-
Ha-Levi, Judah: (b. ca. 1080, d. ca. 1140) Poet
and philosopher. His Kuzari (Arabic Kitab Al- sibility than with its realization in actual human
has a experience. Its ideal rests on the a
Khazari), written in dialogue form, possibility

double purpose. First, as its subtitle, A Book priori laws of intelligible freedom (vide)> by
122 DICTIONARY 0? PHILOSOPHY
which the individual through self-determination a time when vitalists were hard put to he en-
achieves unity: the self-sufficiency and harmony deavored to synthesize the new natural sciences
of his own being-. "Real happiness rests with and teleology by assigning to mechanistic causal-

my free volition, and real contentment consists ity a special function in the natural process
in the consciousness of freedom." (Kant.) under a more generalized and deeper purposive-
P.A.S. ness. Dispensing with a pure rationalism, but
Harmony, Pre-Established : The perfect func- without taking refuge in a vital force, v.H. was
tioning of mind and by
body, as ordained then able to establish a neo- vital ism. In ethics
God in the beginning. The dualism of Descartes he transcended an original pessimism, flowing
(1596-1650) had precluded interaction between from the admittance of the alogical and dis-
mind or soul and body by its absolute difference teleological, in a qualified optimism founded
and opposition between res cogitans and res upon an evolutionary hypothesis which regards
extensa. How does it happen, then, that the nature with its laws subservient to the logical,
mind perceives the impressions of the body, and as a species of the Ideological, and to reason
the body
is ready to follow the mind's will? which, as product of development, redeems the
The in order to correct this diffi-
Cartesians, irrational will once it has been permitted to

culty, introduced the doctrine of "occasionalism", create a world in which existence means un-

whereby when anything happens to either mind happiness.

or body, God interferes to make the correspond- E. von Hartmann, Philos. des Unbewussten,
ing change in the other. Leibniz (1646-1716) 3 1869 (Eng. tr. Philosophy of the Un-
vol.
countered by suggesting that the relation be- conscious, 1931)} Die Religion des Geistet,
tween mind and body is one of harmony, estab- 1882} Aesthetik, 1886} Kategorienlehre, 1897}
lished by God before their creation. Earlier Geschichte der Metaphysik, 1900} Das Problem
than mind or body, God had perfect knowledge des Lebens, 1906*, System der Philosophie in
of all possible minds and bodies. In an infinite Grundriss, 1906-10. K.F.L.
number of creations all possible combinations Hartmann, Nicolai: (1882-) A realist in meta-
are possible, including those minds whose se- physics, he refutes nineteenth century idealism
quence of ideas perfectly fits the motions of and monism, and attacks medieval super-
some bodies. In the latter, there is a perfect naturalism and the various forms of theism. As
and pre-established harmony. A parallelism be- exponent of a philosophic humanism, he made
tween mind and body exists, such that each extensive contributions to ethics.
represents the proper expression of the other. N. Hartmann, Platos Lehre vom Sein, 1909}
Leibniz compares their relation to that of two Grundziige einer Metaphysik der Erkenntnis,
clocks which have been synchronized once for 1921} Ethtk, 1926 (Eng. tr. 1932)} Die
all and which therefore operate similarly with- Philosophie des Deutschen Idealismus I, 1923}
out the need of either interaction or interven- II, 1929} Zur Grundlegung der Ontologie,
tion. Expressed by Leibniz* follower, C. Wolff 1935} Moglichkeit u. Wirklichkeit, 1938. See
(1679-1754) as "that by which the intercourse his ownexposition of his views in Deutsch
of soul and body is explained by a series of Syst. Philos. nach ihr. Gestalten, 1931. H.H.
perceptions and desires in the soul, and a series Hauber's law: Given a set of conditional sen-
of motions in the body, which are harmonic or tences At =>
Bi, Aa
= Bs, . .
., An =>
B, we
accordant through the nature of soul and body." may infer each of the conditional sentences
J.K.F. Bi = Ai, Ba
=>
Aa, . .
., Bn =>
An, provided we
Hartley, David: (1705-1757) Was an English know that Ai, A2 ,
. . ., An are exhaustive and
physician most noted as the founder of the Bi, Ba, . .
., Bn are mutually exclusive i.e., pro-
associationistschool in psychology. His theory videdwe have also Ai v Aa v v An and . . .

of the association of ideas was prompted by the ~[BiB>], ~[BiB.] -, ~[Bn-iBn]. This (

work John Gay to which he gave a physio-

of form (or set of
forms) of valid inference of the
logical emphasis and which, in turn, influenced prepositional calculus is Hauber's law. A.C.
the Utilitarians, Bentham and the Mills. See Hedonic: Possessing pleasurable or painful affec-
Bentham, Gay, James Mill, John Stuart Mill tive quality. See Algedonic. L.W.
and Utilitarianism. Hedonic Calculus: View, ascribed to Jeremy
D. Hartley, Observations of man: his frame, Bentham, that the ends of mankind may be
his duty and his expectations, 1749. L.E.D. calculated by determining the preponderance of
Hartmann, Bduard von: (1842-1906) Hy- the pleasurable over the painful in order to

bridizing Schopenhauer's voluntarism with evaluate the useful. See Utilitarianism. L.E.D.
Hegel's intellectualism, and stimulated by Hedonism, Ethical: (Gr. hedone, pleasure) A
Schelling, the eclectic v.H. sought to overcome doctrine as to what entities possess intrinsic
irrationalism and rationalism by postulating the value. According to it pleasure or pleasant con-
Unconscious, raised into a neutral absolute sciousness, and this alone, has positive ultimate
which has in it both will and idea in co-ordina- value, that is, is intrinsically good and has no
tion. Backed by an encyclopaedic knowledge he parts or constituents which are not intrinsically
showed, allegedly inductively, how this gen- good. The
contrary hedonic feeling tone, dis-
erates all values in a conformism or correla- pleasure or unpleasant consciousness, and this
tionism which circumvents a subjective monistic alone has negative ultimate value, that is, is
idealism no less than a phenomenalism by intrinsically bad and has no parts or constitu-
means of a transcendental realism. Writing at ents which are not intrinsically bad. The in-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 123

trinsic value of all other entities is precisely klopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im
equivalent to the intrinsic value of their hedonic Grundrisse, 1817} Grundlinien der Philotophit
components. The total value of an action is des Rechts, 1820. Shortly after his death his
the net intrinsic value of all its hedonic con* lectures on the philosophy of religion, the his-
sequences. According to pure hedonism either tory of philosophy, the
philosophy of history,
there are no differences of quality among pleas- and aesthetics were published from the collated
ures or among displeasures or else such differ- lecture-notes of his students. His collected works
ences as exist do not affect the intrinsic values in nineteen volumes were published 1832-40 by
of the different hedonic states. These values a group of his students. G.W.C.
vary only with the intensity and duration of Hegelianism: As expounded in the writings of
the pleasure or displeasure. Hegel, Hegelianism is both a doctrine and a
Ethical Hedonism is usually combined with method. The two are held to be logically in-
view of the nature of right action.
a ideological separable: the method is precisely the formula-
It may be combined with Ethical Egoism as in tion of the doctrine, and the doctrine is pre-
the view of Epicurus, or with Ethical Uni- cisely the detailed expression of the method.
versalism, as in the views of J. Bentham, J. S. This integration of the two aspects of the phi-
Mill, andH. Sidgwick. C.A.B. losophy presents a formidable obstacle to in-
Hedonism, Psychological: (Gr. hedone, pleas- terpretation and to
presentation summary of
ure) Theory that psychological motivation is to Hegelianism as conceived by its founder.
be explained exclusively in terms of desire for The method is, of course, the dialectic. On
pleasure and aversion from pain. (See W. James* its formal side, it is constituted by the triadic
criticism of psychological hedonism, The Prin- dialectic of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. In
ciples of Psychology, II pp. 549 ff.) Psychologi- his logical writings Hegel is very fond of ma-
cal hedonism, as a theory of human motivation nipulating this formal apparatus, which he does
in contrast with ethical hedonism which accepts in great detail. From his practice here one
as the criterion of morality, the pleasure-pain might be led to suppose that in his opinion the
consequences of an act. L.W. dialectic itself constitutes the essence of the
Hedonistic Aesthetics: Theories reducing beauty method. In his other writings, however, little
to the pleasure of seeing, hearing and playing, if is made of the schematism, except for
any use
to the satisfaction of sensual enjoyment. L.F. the purpose of presenting the larger patterns of
Hedonistic Paradox: A paradox or apparent the subjcct-matterj and in his remarks on
inconsistency in hedonistic theory arising from method its formal aspect is hardly referred to.
(1) the doctrine that since pleasure is the only In these remarks Hegel is concerned with em-
good, one ought always to seek pleasure, and phasizing the logical structure underlying the
(2) the fact that whenever pleasure itself is machinery, namely, the relationship of con-
the object sought it cannot be found. Human trariety and its resolution. Everywhere, the
nature such that pleasure normally arises as
is method is grounded in system) and the transi-
an accompaniment of satisfaction of desire for tion from thesis and antithesis to synthesis is

any end except when that end is pleasure itself. held to be necessitated by the structure of the
The way to attain pleasure is not to seek for system within which it is grounded. Conse-
it,
for something else which when found
but quently the dialectical advance exhibits part
will have yielded pleasure through the finding. passu the structure of the system which is its
Likewise, one should not seek to avoid pain, matrix; the synthesis is positive throughout
but only actions which produce pain. AJ.B. This characteristic of the method, its "holding
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Priedrich: Born at fast the positive in the negative," is what Hegel

Stuttgart in 1770 and died at Berlin in 183L calls its negativity; and this characteristic is to
He studied theology, philosophy and the classics him the essence of the dialectic.
at Tubingen, 1788-93, occupied the conven- Thesort of system which grounds the method
tional position of tutor in Switzerland and is not the sort within which the principle of
Frankfort on the Main, 1794-1800, and went to contradiction obtains. Contradictories cannot be
Jena as Privatdocent in philosophy in 1801. He dialectically resolved between them there is no
j

was promoted to a professorship at Jena in ground of synthesis. But such systems are ab-
1805, but was driven from the city the next stract, that is, exemplified only in formal deduc-
year by the incursion of the French under Na- tions) they are lacking in factual content.
poleon. He then went to Bamberg, where he Dialectical analysis is possible only within sys-
remained two years as editor of a newspaper. tems which are factual, that is, constituted by
The next eight years he spent as director of the statements of fact and statements of possibility
Gymnasium at Niirnberg. In 1816 he accepted grounded in fact. Here the principle of con-
a professorship of philosophy at Heidelberg, trariety, not the principle of contradiction, ob-
from which position he was called two years tains) and dialectical analysis is identical with

later to succeed Fichte at the University of the resolution of contraries. Here, and here
Berlin. While at Jena, he co-operated with alone, is method applicable) and
the dialectical
Schelling in editing the Kritisches Journal der it aloneapplicable here.
is

Philosophic, to which he contributed many arti- Thus the method is the delineation of sys-
cles. Hi more important volumes were pub- tems which are real, and the doctrine of reality
lished as follows:
Phanomtnologit des Geistcs, nothing other than a detailed statement of the
1807) Wissenschaft der Logik, 1812-16) Ency- result.Such a statement it the final category
124 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of dialectical analysis, the Absolute Idea; this uine philosophizing which, notwithstanding ap-
is the "truth" of Being. What this category is pearances, has vanished from us in the Western
in can be specified only by the method
detail world because of autonomous science serious
whereby is warranted.
it In general it is the disputing of the position of philosophy. As
structure of fact, possibility and value as deter- human reality is so structured that it discloses
mined by dialectical negation. It is the all- itself immediately, he writes really an idealistic
comprehensive system, the "whole," which har- philosophy of homo jaber. But instead of being
moniously includes every statement of fact, pos- a rationalistic idealist reading reason into the

sibility and value by "sublating" (through dia- structure of the really real, he takes a more
lectical every such statement within
negation) avowedly emotional phenomenon as the center
its own It is also of the nature of
structure. of a new solution of the Seinsfrage.
"subject" in contradistinction to "substance" as Under Kierkegaard's
influence, he pursues an
defined by Spinoza; Hegel sometimes speaks of "existential" analysis of human existence in
it as Absolute Spirit. If this doctrine is to be order to discuss the original philosophical ques-
called absolute idealism, as is customary, its dis- tion of being in a new way. He explores many
tinguishing characteristic should not be sub- hitherto unexplored phenomena which ontology
merged in the name: the system which is here disregarded. Sorge (concern), being par ex-
identified with reality is structured precisely as cellence the structure of consciousness, is ele-
disclosed in the process of dialectical negation vated the ultimate. Concern has a wholly
to
which exhibits it.
special horizon of being. Dread (Angst), the
The later thinkers commonly referred to in feeling of being on the verge of nothing, repre-
the histories as Hegelians fall mainly into two sents an eminently transcendental instrument of

groups. One is the group more or less indiffer- knowledge. Heidegger gives dread a content
ent to the method of Hegel and interested pri- directed upon the objective world. He unfolds
marily in the ramifications of his doctrine; the the essence of dread to be Sorge (concern). As
other is the group committed in principle to concern tends to become obscured to itself by the
the method, to its "negativity" and not to its distracted losing of one's selfhood in the cares
categories, and concerned by its means to build of daily life, its remedy is in the consideration
independently. The early Hegelians in Ger- of such experiences as conscience, forboding of
many belong to the former group; outstanding death and the existential consciousness of time.
representatives of the latter are the recent Brit- By elevating Sorge to the basis of all being,
ish and American philosophers sometimes called he raised something universally human to the
neo-Hegelians. fundamental principle of the world. It is only
See Hegel-Archiv, ed. G. Lasson; K. Fischer, after an elementary analysis of the basic con-

Hegel's Leben, Vkrke und Lehre, 2 vols. (1901, stitution of human existence that Heidegger ap-
1911); W. Dilthey, Gesamm Schr. IV; B. proaches his ultimate problem of Being and
Croce, What ts Living and What is Dead of Time, which more complicated structures
in

Hegel, 1915; G. Lasson, Hegel als Geschichts- such as the existential significance of death, con-

philosoph, 1920; Th, Haering, Hegel sein science, and the power of resolute choice explain
Wollen u. s. Werk, I (1929); II (1939); H. the phenomena of man's position in daily life

Glockner, Hegel} S. Hook, From Hegel to and history.

Marx, 1938. G.W.C. Main works: Kategorien u. Bedentungslehre
d. Duns Scotus, 1916; Sein u. Zeit, 1927;
Heidegger, Martin: (1889-) Trained in Hus-
serl's radical structural analysis of pure con- Was ist Metaphysikt; Kant u. d. Probl. d.
sciousness, Heidegger phenome-shares with Metai 1929; Vom Wesen des Grundes, 1929.
nology methodically analyze and
the effort to See J. Kraft, Von Husserl KU H., 1932. H.H.
describe the conceptual meanings of single phe- Helvetius, Claude Adrien: (1715-1771) A
nomena. He aimed at a phenomenological French philosopher, he developed on the bacis of
analysis of human existence in respect to its Condillac's sensationalism his superficial material-
temporal and historical character. Concentrating istic philosophy. His theories of the original mental
on the Greek tradition, and endeavoring to equality of individuals, of the egoism or self-
open a totally different approach from that of interest as the sole motive of human action, and
the Greek thinkers problem of being, he
to the of the omnipotence of education, stress the basic
seeks to way back to an inner inde-
find his determining influence of circumstances.
pendence of philosophy from the special sciences. C. A. Helvetius, De 1'Esprit, 1758; De
Before a start can be made in the radical VHomme, de set facultes et de son education,
analysis of human existence, the road has to be 1772. H.H.
cleared of the objections of philosophical tradi- Heraclitus: ("The Obscure") Of Ephesus, about
tion, science, logic and common sense. As the 536-470 B.C. In opposition to the Milesians,
moderns have forgotten the truths the great from whom he is separated by a generation, he
thinkers discovered, have lost the ability to held that there is nothing abiding in the world.
penetrate to the real origins, the recovery of the All things and the universe as a whole are in
hard-won, original, uncorrupted insights of man constant, ceaseless fluxj nothing is, only change
into metaphysical reality, if only possible is real, all it a continuous passing away. For
through a "destructive" analysis of the tradi- this reason the world appeared to him to be an
tional philosophies. By this recovery of the hid- ever-living fire, a consuming movement in which
den sources, Heidegger aims to revive the gen- only the orderliness of the succession of things,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 125

or, as Heraclitus called

it, "reason" orthe soul is unitary, indivisible} science, including
"destiny" of the world remains always the same. philosophy, neither analytical nor experi-
is

Hcraclitus thus foreshadowed the modern con- mental. By denying analysis to psychology,
ception of the uniformity of natural law. Cf. Herbart combatted the division of mind into
Diels, Frag. d. Vor, I, ch. 12.M.F. separate faculties. Psychology is not the mere
Herbart, Johann Friedrich: (1776-1841) Best description of the mind, but the working out of
known the "father" of scientific pedagogy
as itsmathematical laws.
centrally based upon psychology, a general tenet Ideas, he argued, arise originally from the
that still has weight today, Herbart occupies as collision between "reals" or things. As centers
educational philosophical theorist a position of force, they were always in mind and deter-
strikinglysimilar to that of John Dewey, the mined by it by their energies. Once they come
nestor ofAmerican philosophy. to mind through the senses, they are never lost.
Objecting to Fichte, his master's method of Explaining ideas as forces acting very much as
deducing everything from a single, all-embrac- the electrons of modern physics, the ideas al-

ing principle, he obstinately adhered to the ready in consciousness play an important role
axiom that everything is what it is, the prin- with regard to new ideas just appearing. The
ciple of identity. He also departed from him ideas already present are the apperceiving ideas
in the principle of idealism and freedom. As and the new ideas are to be apperceived, i.e.
man not free in the sense of possessing a
is incorporated with the old ideas to form knowl-
principle independent of the environment, he edge. Herbert himself made less of appercep-
reverted to the Kantian doctrine that behind tion, even though most famous for the term
and underlying the world of appearance there "apperceiving mass". He became famous be-
is a plurality of real things in themselves that cause the term is a psychological factor in the
are independent of the operations of mind upon process of education.
them. Deserving credit for having developed , J. F. Herbart, Hauptpunkte d. Logik, 1808}
the realism that was latent in Kant's philosophy, Hauptpunkte d. Metaphysik, 1806-1 808 j All-
he conceived the "reals" so as to do away with gem, prakt. Philos., 1808} Lehrb. z. Psychologie,
the contradictions in the concepts of experience. 1816} Psychol. als Wissensch. neu gegriindet
The necessity for assuming a plurality of "reals" auf Erfahrung, Metaphysik tt. Mathematik,
arises as a result of removing the contradic- <
Allgemeine Metaphysik, 1828-9. See
tions in our experiences of change and of things Werke, 19 vols. (ed. Fluegel,
possessing several qualities. Herbart calls the ).//.//.
method he applies to the resolution of the con- Herbartianism : The philosophical, but particu-
tradictions existing between the empirically de- larly the psychological and pedagogical doctrines
rived concepts, the method of relations, that is of Johann Friedrich Herbart (q.v.) as expound-
the accidental relation between the different ed in modified and developed form by his dis-
"reals" is a question of thought only, and in- notably M. Lazarus and H. Steinthal in
ciples,
essential for the "reals" themselves. It is the psychology, T. Ziller and W. Rein in^pedagogy,
changes in these relations that form the process M. Drobisch in religious philosophy and ethics.
of change in
the^world of experience. Nothing In America, the movement was vigorous and
can be ultimately" real of which two contradic- influential, but shortlived (about 1890-1910)
tory predicates can be asserted. To predicate and confined mainly to education (Charles De-
unity and multiplicity of an object is to predi- Garmo and Charles A. McMurry). Like Her-
cate contradictions. Hence ultimate reality must bart, his disciples strove for a clarification of
be absolutely unitary and also without change. concepts with special emphasis on scientific
The metaphysically interpreted abstract law of method, the apperception, and the
doctrine of
contradiction was therefore central in his sys- efficacy of a mathematical approacr* even in
tem. Incapability of knowing the proper nature their psychology which was dominated by asso-
of these "reals" equals the inability of knowing ciational thinking} yet they discarded more or
whether they are spiritual or material. Although less the master's doctrine of reals. K.F.L.
he conceived in his system that the "reals" are Herder, Johann Gottfried: (1744-1803) A
analogous with our own inner states, yet his founder of modern religious humanism, he ex-
view of the "reals" accords better with mate- plained human history as a consequence of the
rialistic atomism. The "reals" are simple and nature of man and of man's physical environ-
unchangeable in nature. ment. Held implicitly to the view that society
Metaphysics and psychology are not distinct is basically an organic whole. Accounted for
in Herbart's view. In his day psychology was the differences in culture and institutions of dif-
also philosophy. It was still a metaphysical ferent peoples as being due to geographical con-
science in the sense that it is differentiated ditions. Although history is a process of the
from physical science. It was only later that education of the human species, it has no defi-
psychology repudiated philosophy. Accepting nite goal of perfection and development. The
Kant's challenge to make psychology a mathe- vehicle of living culture is a distinct Volk or
matical science, he developed an elaborate sys- Nation with its distinctlanguage and traditions.
tem of mathematical constructions that proved As a child of the Enlightenment, Herder had a
the least fruitful phase of his system. As a blind faith in nature, in man and in the ulti-
mathematical science psychology can use only mate development of reason and justice.
calculation, not experiment. As the mind or J. G. Herder, Ideen s. Philos. d. Gesch."d.
 126 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Mtnschheit, Gesfrache fiber
1784-91; Go//. and the Categorical Imperative, are thus one
Spinoza's System, 1787} .
Beforderung Brieje and the same thing. F.L.W.
d. Humanitat, 1793$ Metakritik, 1799) Kalli-
Hetero-psychological Ethics: Ethics based on
gont, 1800) last two work* directed against mental categories other than the conscience, as
Kant's Critiques (q.v.). H.H. contrasted with or
idio-psychological ethics,
Hereditary property: See Recursion, proof By. ethics based on the inner facts of conscience.
Hermeneutics : The art and science of interpret- Introduced as terms into ethics by J. Martineau
ing especially authoritative writings; mainly in (180M899) in 1885. J.K.F.
application to sacred scripture, and equivalent Heterotelio: (from Gr. heteros, another, and
to exegesis. K.F.L. telos, end) Said of any activity having a con-
Herrcnmoral (German)
:
concept popularly A scious or implied reference to the accomplish-
used as a blanket term for any ruthless, non- ment of some end. In aesthetics applied to
Christian type of morality justly and unjustly creative art and playin which a useful purpose
linked with the ethical theories of Friedrich may be discerned or may constitute the motive.
Nietzsche (q.v.) as laid down by him especially See also Autotelic. K.F.L.
in the works of his last productive period Heterozetesis : (Gr. heteros, other -f- zetein, in-
fraught as it was with iconoclast vehemence quiry) In logic, ignorath elenchi> an argument
against all plebeian ideals and a passionate de- which does not prove the conclusion wanted.
sire a new and more virile aristo-
to establish The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion; the gen-
cratic and debated by many writers,
morality, eral name for fallacies due to
irrelevancy.
such as Kaftan, Kronenberg, Staudinger, and
7.AT.F.
Hilbert. Such ideas as will to power, the con-
Heuristic: (Gr. heuriskein, to discover) Serving
ception of the superman, the apodictic primacy to find out, helping to show how the
qualities
of those who with strong mind and unhindered
and relations of objects are to be sought. In
by conventional interpretations of good and Kant's philosophy, applying to ideas of God,
evil, yet with lordly lassitude, are born to lead- freedom and immortality, as being undemon-
ership, have contributed to this picture of the strable but useful in the interpretation of things
morality of the masters (Herren) whom Nietz- and events in time and space. In methodology,
sche envisaged as bringing about the revaluation
aiding in the discovery of truth. The heuristic
of all values and realizing the higher
European method is the analytical method. Opposite of:
culture upon the ruins of the
fear-motivated, ostcnsive. J.K.F.
passion-shunning, narrowly moral world of his
Hexis: (Gr. hexis) In Aristotle's philosophy a
d*y,-~K.F.L.
state or condition of a thing; particularly an
Heterogeneity: (Lat. Heterogeneitas) The con-
acquired disposition or habit, not easily changed,
dition of having different parts; diversity of
and affecting the welfare of its possessor, such
composition; distinction of kind. Hamilton's
as the moral virtues and the intellectual skills.
law: "that every concept contains other con-
G.R.M.
cepts under it; and therefore, when divided
proximately, we descend always to other con-
Hierarchy of types: See Logic, formal, 6.

cepts, but never to individuals; in other words, Hilbert, David, 1862-, German mathematician.
..

Professor of mathematics at the University of

things the most homogeneous similar must in
certain respects be heterogeneous dissimilar." Gottingen, 1895-. A major contributor to many
branches of mathematics, he is regarded by many
Employed by H. Spencer (1820-1903) to denote
the as the greatest mathematician of his generation.
presence of differentiation in the cosmic
material. Opposite of: homogeneity (q. v.). His work on the foundations of Euclidean
geometry is contained in his Grundlagen der
J.K.F.
Geometric
Heteronomy: (Gr. hetero, other + nomos, law) (1st edn., 1899, 7th
Concerning his contributions to mathematical
edn., 1930).
See Autonomy.
of Ends: (Kant) logic and mathematical philosophy, see the ar-
Heteronomy Just as autonomy
ticles mathematics) and proof theory. A. C.
of the will is that state of affairs in the life
Gesammeltc Abhandlungen, three volumes, with
of a rational being in which the will is deter- an account of his work in mathematical logic by
mined in its choices by no ends other than it- P. Bernays, and a life by O. Blumenthal, Berlin,
1932-1935.
self, so heteronomy of the will is the state in
which determined Hillel of Verona: (1220-1295) Physician and
the will is by ends other
than happiness or
itself, e.g. gain either for philosopher. His principal philosophic work, the
self or In autonomy the will is its
others. Tagmule ha-Nefesh (Heb.) The Reward of the
own end, and is determined only by its own Soul, is devoted to two problems, that of the
laws. soul and that of reward and punishment. In his
Autonomy of the will is the supreme
principle of morality, Kant affirms, and hetero- theory of the soul he follows partly Averroes
nomy is the source of all spurious principles of (q.v.) and assumes with him that the universal

morality. For in heteronomy the will, being at-

Active Intellect acts upon the soul of the indi-
tracted by external ends, is obeying laws not of vidual and helps to realize its powers. He re-
own making. In jects, though, the former's view of immortality
its autonomy, however, the
will obeys only its own lawsj it makes only
which consists of a union of the human intellect
those choices of action which may also be re- with the universal Active Intellect. M.W.
garded as instances of laws of it* own choosing. Hindu Ethics: See Indian Ethics.
.The principle of the Autonomy of the Will, Hindu Aesthetics: See Indian Aesthetics.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Hindu Philosophy: See Indian Philosophy.
Historical materialism: The social
of dialectical materialism. The application of
the general principles of dialectical materialism
to the specific field of human history, the de-
velopment of human society. One of the chief
problems Marx dealt with was that of the basic
causal agent in the movement of human
He states his thesis as follows:
"In the social relations which men carry on
they enter into definite relations that are in-
dispensible and independent of their will. These
relations of production correspond to a definite
stage of development of their material powers
of production. ... At a certain stage of their
development the material forces of production in
society come in conflict with the existing rela-
tions of production, or what is but a legal ex-
pression for the same thing with the property
relations within which they had been at work
before. From forma of development of the
forces of production these relations turn into
their Then comes the period of social
fetters.
revolution. With the change of the economic
foundation the entire immense superstructure is
more or less rapidly transformed. In consider-
ing such transformations the distinction should
always be made between the material trans-
formation of the economic conditions of produc-
tion which can be determined with the precision
of natural science, and the legal, political, re-
ligious, aesthetic or philosophic in short, ideo-
logical forms in which men become conscious of
this conflict and fight it out." (Marx: Con-
tribution to the Critique of Political
p. 12.) J M.S.
Historicism: The view that the history of any-
the
thing is a sufficient explanation of it, that
values of anything can be accounted for through
the discovery of f its origins, that the nature of
anything is entirely comprehended in its de-
velopment, as for example, that the properties
of the oak tree are entirely accounted for by an
exhaustive description of its development from
the acorn. The doctrine which discounts the
fallaciousness of the historical fallacy. Applied
by some critics to the philosophy of Hegel and
Karl Marx. J.K.F.
histor
Historiography: (Gr. -f graphein,
The art of recording history (q.v.).
write)
Ambiguously used
History: (Gr. histor, learned)
to denote either (a) events or (b) records of
the The term historiography (q.v.) is
past.
used for (b). Also ambiguous in denoting
natural as well as human events, or records of
either.
History of Art: Vasari began
(16th century)
the history of the artists. Winckelmann (18th
century) began the history of art, that is of the
development of the elements comprised in works
of art. The of art today is directed to-
history
wards a synthesis *of the personalities of the
artists and of their reaction to tradition and
environment. L.V.
History, Philosophy of: History investigates the
theories concerning the development of man as a
social being within the limits of psychophysical
127
causality. Owing to this double purpose the phi-
philosophy losophy of history has to study the principles
of historiography, and, first of all, their back-
ground, their causes and underlying laws, their
meaning and motivation. This can be called
the metaphysics of history. Secondly, it concerns
itself with the cognitive part, i.e. with historic
history. understanding, and then it is called the logic
of history.While in earlier times the philosophy
of historywas predominantly metaphysics, it has
turned more and more to the methodology or
logic of
history. A complete philosophy of
history,however, ought to consider the meta-
physical as well as the logical problems in-
volved.
I. Logic of History: The historical objects
under observation (man, life, society, biological
and geological conditions) are so diverse that
even slight mistakes in evaluation of items and
of the historical whole may lead to false re-
sults. This can be seen from the modern logic
of history. In the 18th century, G. B. Vico
contended, under the deep impression of the
lawfulness prevailing in natural sciences, that
historical events alsofollow each other accord-
'
ing to unswerving natural laws. He assumed
three stages of development, that of fantasy, of
will, and of science. The encyclopedists and
Saint-Simon shared his view. The individual is
immersed, and driven on, by the current of
social tendencies, so that Comte used to speak
of an "histoire sans noms". His three stages of
development were the theological, metaphysical,
and scientific stage. H. Spencer and A. FouilUe
Economy, regard social life as an organism unfolding it-
selfaccording to immanent laws, either of racial
individuality (Gobineau, Vocher de Lapauge)
or of a combination of social, physical, and
personal forces (Taine). The spirit of a people
and of an age outweigh completely the power
of an individual personality which can work
only along socially conditioned tendencies. The
development of a nation always follows the
same laws, it may vary as to time and where-
abouts but never as to the form (Burkhardt,
Lantprecht). To this group of historians belong
also O. Spengler and K. Marx: "Fate" rules the
civilization of peoples and pushes them on to
to their final destination.
Idealists regard such an equalization of physical
laws and psychological, historical laws as un-
tenable. The "typical case" with which physics
or chemistry analyzes is a result of logical ab-
straction; the object of history, however, is not
a unit with universal traits but
something indi-
vidual, in a singular space and at a particular
time, never repeatable under the same circum-
stances. Therefore no physical laws can be formed
about it. What makes it a fact worthy of his-
torical interest, is just the fullness of live activ-
ity in it} it is a "value", not a "thing". Granted
that historical events are exposed to influences
from biological, geological, racial and traditional
sources, they always carried by a human
are
being whose singularity of character has assimi-
%
lated the forces of his environment and sur-
mounted them. There) is a reciprocal action
128 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
between man and society, but it is always per- "moral reign of freedom" which achieves its

sonal initiative and free productivity of the in- perfection in the "objective spirit of the State".
dividual which account for history. Denying, As in the earlier systems of historical logic man
therefore, the logical primacy of physical laws lost his individuality before the forces of natural

in history, does not mean lawlessness, and that laws, so, according to Hegel, he is nothing but an
is the standpoint of the logic of history in more instrument of the "idea" which develops itself
recent times. Windelband and H. Rickert estab- through the three dialectic stages of thesis, anti-
lished another kind of historical order of laws. thesis, and
synthesis. (Example: Absolutism,
On their view, to understand history one must Democracy, Constitutional Monarchy.) Even
see the facts in their relation to a universally ap- the great historian L. v. Ranke could not break
and transcendental
system of values. the captivating power of the Hegelian mechan-
plicable
Values they "hold"$ they are not
"are" not, ism. Ranke places every historical epochinto
facts but realities of our reason; they are not a relation to Cod and attributes to it a
purpose
developed but discovered. According to Max and end for itself. Lotze and Troeltsch fol-
Weber historical facts form an ideally typical, lowed in his footsteps. Lately, the evolutionistic
transcendental whole which, although seen, can interpretation of H. Bergson is much discussed
never be fully explained. G. Simmel went fur- and disputed. His "vital impetus" accounts for
ther into metaphysics: "life" is declared an his- the progressiveness of life, but fails to
interpret
torical category} it is the indefinable, last reality the obvious setbacks and decadent civilizations.

ascending to central values which shaped cul- According to Kierkegaard and Spranger, merely
medieval idea of God,
tural epochs, such as the human ideals prove to be too narrow a basis
or the Renaissance-idea of Nature, only to be for the tendencies,
accomplishments, norms, and
defeats of historic life. It all points to a
tragically disappointed, whereupon other values supra-
rise up, as humanity, liberty, technique, evolution mundane intelligence which unfolds itself in
and others. history. That does not make superfluous a
natural both views can be com-
This opposition of natural sciences (Natur- interpretation,
bined to understand an endless
wissenschaften) and cultural or socio-historioU history as

sciences (Geisteswissenschaften) is characteristic struggle between God's will and human will, or
of idealistic of especially non-willing, for that matter. S.v.F.
philosophies history,
modern German variety. See Max Weber,
of the Ho: (a) Harmony; being "neither too weak nor
Gesamm. Aufratze z. Sozio u. Sozialpolittk, too strong." "When the passions, such as joy,

1922} W. Windelband, Geschichte u. Natur- anger, grief, and pleasure, have not awakened,
tvissenschaft, 1894j H. Rickert, Die Grenzen that is our central self, or moral being (chung).
d. Naturtuiss. B e griff sbildung, eine logische Ein- When these passions awaken and each and all
i. d. his tor. Wissenschaften, 1899, attain due measure and degree, that is harmony,
leitung
E. Troeltsch, Der Historisntus or the moral order (ho). Our central self or
Dilthey (q.v.)}
moral being
u. s. Probleme, 1922} E. Spranger, Die Grund- is the great basis of existence, and
harmony or moral order is the universal law
lagen d. Geschichtestuissensch., 1905.
For the opposing, more empirical approach in the world." See Chung.
and criticisms of the idealistic, organismk philos- (b) Change and transformation in the proper
ophies of history, see M. Mandelbaum, The order.
Problem of Historical
Knowledge, 1939; (c) Peace; meekness; amiability. W.T.C.
F. J. E. The Method of History;
Teggart,
Ho: Co-existence, one of the proofs of agreement.
Ph. P. Wiener, "Methodology in the Philos. See Mo che. W.T.C.
of Hist.", Jour, of Philos. (June 5, 1941). Hobbes, Thomas: (1588-1679) Considering
II. Metaphysics of History-. The metaphysical knowledge empirical in origin and results, and

interpretations of the meaning of history

are philosophy inference of causes from effects and
vice versa, regarded matter and motion as the
either supra-mundane or intra-mu dane (secu-
The oldest extra-mundane, or theological, least common denominators of all our percepts,
lar).
interpretation has been given Augustine
by St. and bodies and their movements as the only
(Civitas Dei), Dante (Dtvina Commedia) and J. subject matter of philosophy. Consciousness in
Milton (Paradise Lost and Regained). All his- its sensitive and cognitive aspects is a jarring

toric events are seen as having a bearing upon of the nervous system} in its affectional and
the redemption of mankind through Christ which volitional,motor aspects, a kick-back to the jar.
will find its completion at the end of this world. Four subdivisions of philosophy cover all physi-
Owing to the secularistic tendencies of modern cal and psychological events: geometry describ-

times the Enlightenment Period considered the ing the spatial movements of bodies; physics,
final end of human history as the achievement the effects of moving bodies upon one another;
of public welfare through the power of reason. ethics, the movements of nervous systems;
Even the ideal of "humanity" of the classic nervous systems upon one
politics, the effects of

humanisti, advocated by Schiller, Goethe, Fichte, another. Thelaw of motion appears in

first

Rousseau, Lord Byron, is only a variety of the every organic body in its tendency, which in

philosophy of the Enlightenment, and in the man becomes a natural fight, to self-preserva-
same line of thought we find A. Comte, tion and self-assertion. Hence the primary
H. Spencer ("human moral"), Enggls and K. condition of all organic as of all inorganic
Marx. The German Idealism of Kant and bodies one of collision, conflict, and war.
is

Hegel saw in history the materialization of the The second law of motion, in its organic ap-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 129
%

plication, impels men to relinquish a portion of prominent materialist. He is the probable author
their natural right to self-assertion in return of Le systeme de la Nature, known as "the
for a similar on the part of
relinquishment R.B.W.
Bible of Atheism."
their fellows. Thus a component of the antag- Holism: See Emergent Evolutionism.
onistic forces of clashing individual rights and Holy: (AS. halig) The symbolically universal
wills is established, embodied in a social con- value of things. That aspect of value which
tract, or treaty of peace, which is the basis of reflects the totality, or God. The totality of
the state. To enforce this social covenant en- value. J.K.F.
tered into, pursuant to the second law of mo- Hominism: (Lat. homo, Man) German term
tion, by individuals naturally at war in obedi- (proposed by Windelband) for pragmatic human-
ence to the first, sovereignty must be set up and ism or psychologism. W.L.
exercised through government. Government is Homoeomeries: (Gr. homoiomere) In Aristotle's
most efficient when sovereignty, which has in philosophy those bodies that are divisible into
any case to be delegated in a community of any parts qualitatively identical with one another
size, is delegated to one man an absolute and with the whole, such as the metals and the
monarch rather than to a group of men, or a organisms} in distinction from
tissues of living

parliament. bodies whose parts are qualitatively unlike one

Mainworks: De corpore (On bodies); De another and the whole, such as the head of an
homing (On Man)', De cive (On the state}; animal or the leaf of a plant. G.R.M.
The Elements of Law, 1640} Leviathan, 1650. See Anaxagoras.
B.A.G.F. Homogeneity: (Lat. homogeneitas) The condi-
Hocking, William Ernest: (1873-) Professor tion of having similar parts} uniformity of
in the Department of Philosophy at Harvard. composition, identity of kind. Hamilton's Law
Has endeavored to blend idealism with prag- of, "that however different any two concepts
matism while making some concessions to real- , may be, they both are subordinate to some higher
ism, even as in current theory he strives for a concept things most unlike must in some re-
reconciliation between laissez faire liberalism spects be like". Employed by H. Spencer (1820-
and collectivism through a midground found in 1903) to denote the absence of differentiation in
the worth of the individual in a "commotive the cosmic material. Opposite of: heterogeneity
union in the coagent state," a notion comparable (q.v.). -J.K.F.
to the "conjunct self" of George Herbert Homotheism : (Lat. homo, man} Gr. theos, god)
Palmer only with a more individualistic em- another name for anthropomorphism (q.v.)
phasis and a current flavor. Among his works coined by Ernst Hackel.
are: The Meaning of God in Human Experi- Howison, George Holmes: (1834-1916) A teach-
ence, Man and the
Types of Philosophy,
State, er at the University of California. He regarded the
Las ing Elements of Individualism, and Living
f tendency of monistic thinking as the most vicious
Religions and a World Faith. L.E.D. in contemporary philosophy. Opposed absolute
idealism or cosmic theism for its thoroughgoing
Hodgson, Shadworth: (1852-1913) English
writer who had no profession and who held no monism because of its destruction of the impli-
Ht displayed throughout a long cations of experience, its reduction to solipsism
public office.
life a keen devotion to philosophy. He was and its resolution into pantheism. His "person-
among the founders of the Aristotelian Society alistic idealism", unlike absolute idealism, did
and served as its for fourteen not negate the uniqueness and the moral nature
president years.
His earlier work was reshaped in a monumental of finite selves. Moreover, a priori conscious-
four volume treatise called The Metaphysic of ness is a human, not a divine original conscious-

Experience. He viewed himself as correcting ness within the individual mind.

and completing the Kantian position in his com- H.H.
paratively materialistic approach to reality with Hsiang: (a) Phenomenon.
a recognition of the unseen world prompted by (b) Form or image.
a practical, moralcompulsion rather than specu- (c) Modes (or Forms), namely,
Secondary
lative conviction. L.E.D. Major Yang, Minor Yang, Major Yin, and
Hoffding, Harald: (1843-1931) Danish philoso- Minor Yin, which are engendered by the Two
pher at the University of Copenhagen and bril- Primary Modes, Yin and Yang, products of the
liant author of texts
psychology, history of
in Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi).
philosophy and the philosophy of religion. He (d) Hexagram, which, in the system of
held that the world of reality as a whole is un- changes (i), is a symbol representing a phe-
knowable although we may believe that conscious nomenon noted or perceived in nature, and
experience and its unity afford the best keys to suggestive of an idea or form accordirig to
unlock the metaphysical riddle. His system of which a thing or an activity may be realized.
thought is classified on the positive side as a W.T.C.
cautious idealistic ^monism (his own term is Hsiao: love of parents; serving and
Filial piety}
"critical monism")* supporting one's parents in the best way. It is
Main works: Philosophy of Religion, 1901} "the standard of Heaven, the principle of
Kierkegaard; Rousseau; History of Modern F.arth,and the basis for the conduct of Man,"
Philosophy. V.F. "the basis of morality and the root of culture."
f

Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d (1723- : "It begins with serving one's parents, extends
1789) One of the Encyclopedists (q.v.) and a to the duties towards one's sovereign, and ends
130 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in the establishment of one's personal char- (f) "The pure and refined portion of the
acter." "Itis the beginning of morality, as re- vital force, ch'i." Being such it "has the Great
spect for elders (ti) is the order of morality }" Ultimate as its Reason (li) and Yin and Yang
it "the actuality of benevolence (Jen)" as
is as its passivity and activity." It is the spiritual
respect for elders is "the actuality of righteous- faculty or consciousness of man. (Chu Hsi,
ness (i). w As such "it involves loving kind- 1130-1200.)
ness to relatives, respect to associates, bene- (g) The mind conceived as identical with
volence to friends, and good faith to acquaint- the Universe and Reason (li). (Lu Hsiang-
ances." "True manhood (Jen) means to make shan, 1139-1193.)
filial piety the basis of manhood; righteousness (h) The mind conceived as identical with
(i) means to give it proper application} being Reason (li) and intuition. (Wang Yang-ming,
true to the nature of the self (chung) means 1473-1529.) W.T.C,
to make it the central moral ideal} moral order Hsin: (a) Good faith, one of the Five Cardinal
(li) is to put it to actual practice, and truth- Confucian Virtues (wu ch'ang)} honesty} sin-
fulness (hsin) means to make it strong." cerity} truthfulness} truth. (Confucianism.)
W.T.C. "Actualization of honesty (chung)." (Ch'eng
Hsiao i: "The little unit" is the smallest that Ming-tao, 1032-1086.) See Chung.
has nothing within itself. See Pien chc. (b) Belief} trust.
(Sophists.) H.H. (c) Power, or the efficacy of the essence of
Hsiao jen: (a) The inferior man, the small man, Tao. (Lao Tz,) W.T.C.
the mean man, the vulgar man. The opposite Hsin chai: "Fasting of the mind" is a state of
of the superior man. See Chun tzu. pure experience in which one has no intellectual
(b) Common man} little man} uneducated knowledge, in which there is immediate presen-
man; particularly as distinguished from the tation} the attainment of the mystical state of
ruling class and the literati. W.T.C. unity. (Chuang Tzfi between 399 and 295 B.C.)
Hsiao ku : Minor cause. See Ku. H.H.
Hsiao t'i: The senses which man shares with Hsing: The nature of man and things, especially
animals are "the part of man which is small", human nature, understood as "what is inborn,"
making him not merely an inferior man, but a or "what is created." It is what is imparted by
mere animal. Not man's nature, but his animal Heaven, whereas what is received by man and
nature. (Mencius.) H.H. things is fate (ming). The original state of
Hsiao t'ung i: The little similarity-and-differ- the nature is
tranquil. In
aroused state, its

ence} great similarity differs from a little

a when it comes into contact with the external
similarity.See Pien che. (Sophists.) H.H. world, becomes feelings (ch'ing).
it

Hsiao yao yu: The happy excursion, that is, To Kao

Tzu, contemporary of Mencius,
roaming outside of the realm of matter, follow- human nature is capable of being good or evil}
ing nature, and drifting in the Infinite, result- to Mencius (371-289 B.C.), good} to HsQn Tzfl
ing in transcendental bliss. (Chuang Ttu, be- (c 355-c 238 B.C.), evil }to Tung Ccliung-shu
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) W.T.C. (177-104 B.C.), potentially good} to Yang
Hsi ch'ang: Practicing the Eternal} i.e., "seeing Hsiung (d. 18 B.C.), both good and evil} to
what is small," "preserving one's weakness," Han YQ (676-824 A.D.), good in some people,
"employing the light," and "reverting to en- mixed in some, and evil in others; to Li Ao
lightenment to avoid disaster to life." (Lao (d. c 844), capable of being "reverted" to its

TzQ.) W.T.C. original goodness. To the whole Neo-Con-

Hsien: The Confucians and Mohists demand that fucian movement, what inborn is is good, but
people of "superior moral character" should be due to external influence, there is both goodness
rewarded and put in power, irrespective of their and evil. Chang Heng-ch'Q (1020-1077) said
previous achievements} or "better", someone that human nature is good in all men. The
above the normal level of human capacity, al- difference between them lies in their skill or
most a sage. H.H. lack of skill in returning to accord with their
Hsin: (a) Heart} mind. original nature. To Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-
(b) The original or intuitive mind of man 1107) and Ch'eng Ming-tao (1032-1193),
which is good (Mencius). man's nature is the same as his vital force
(c) Human desires (the hsin of man as (ch'i). They are both the principle of life. In
different from the hsin of the Confucian Moral principle there are both good and evil in the
Law or tao). vital force with which man is involved. Man
(d) The Mind which is identical with the is not born with these opposing elements in his

Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi). (Shao K'ang-chieh, nature. Due to the vital force man may become
1011-1077.) good or evil. Chu Hsi (1130-1200) regarded
(e) One aspect of the Nature (hsing). "When the nature as identical with Reason (li). Sub-
the Nature is viewed from its goodness, it is jectively it is the nature} objectively it is
the Moral Law (tao)} when it is viewed from Reason. It is the framework of the moral order
its essence, it is the Destiny (ming)} when it is (tao), with benevolence, righteousness, propriety,
viewed from its natural state or spontaneity, it and wisdom (ssu tuan) inherent in it. Evil is
is Heaven (T'ien)} and when it is viewed from due to man's failure to preserve a harmonious
.its manifestations, it is the Mind (hsin)." relation between his nature-principles. Wang
(Ch'eng J-ch'uan, 1033-1107.) Yang-ming (1473-1529) identified the nature
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 131

with the mind, which is Reason and originally attains emptiness and vastnets, and enters into
good. W.T.C. mystic union with the Universe." (Chuang Tzu,
within the realm of between 399 and 295 B.C.) W.T.C.
Hsing (eA) hsia: What it
Hsuan tstmg: The
See Hsing (erh) thong. Religion of Mystery, another
corporeality.
and name for the Taoist religion. W.T.C.
Hsing li hsueh: Philosophy of the Nature H s uen men: The School of another
Reason of man and things*. See Li h*8*h. Mystery,
W.T.C. name W.T.C.
for the Taoist religion.
advocated Hsun Tzu: (Hsun Ch'ing, Hsun Kuan, c. 335-
Hsing ming (chia) : The school which
286 B.C.) For thirty years travelled, offered his
government by law (which includes punishment, service to the various feudal
of powerful states,
hsing) and insisted on the correspondence
and succeeded in becoming a high officer of Ch'i
names (ming) to reality, as represented by
T*u and Ch'u. A great critic of all contemporary
Sh8n Tzu (fourth century B.C.)i Han Fei
Another name for the schools, he greatly developed Confucianism, be-
(d. 233 B.C.), etc.
When hsing it in- came the greatest Confucian except Mencius.
Legalist School (fa chia).
to which names Both Han Fei, the outstanding Legalist, and
terpreted in the sense of shape
Li Ssu, the premier of Ch'Jn who effected the
must correspond, the term is also applied to the
first unification of China, were his pupils. {Hsun
Sophists (ming chia).W.T.C.
What above corporeality, Txu, Eng. tr. by H. H. Dubs: The Works of
rising (crh) shang: is
Hsun T**.) W.T.C.
such as The Moral Law (tao), Reason (li), etc.,
the general of which is the Great Hsu wu: (a) Emptiness and non-existence re-
principle
Ultimate (T'al Chi), as contrasted with what is ferring to Tao which is so full and real that
within the realm of corporeality, such as the
it
appears to be empty and non-existent. "It is
in die empty and the non-existent where Tao
vital force (ch'i), a niaterial thing (ch'i), etc.,
the general principles of which are the active
is found." (Huai-nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.)
(b) Absence of desire and egotism. (Taoism)
(yang) and passive (yih) cosmic forces. (Con-
fucianism and Neo-Confucianism.) W.T.C. W.T.C.
Hua: Change, whether natural or infra-natural}
Hsiu shen: Cultivating one's personal life, which
of extension of transformation) the culmination of the process
involves investigation things,
of change (pien); change from non-ens to ***;
knowledge, sincerity of the will, and rectifica-
sudden change. -W.T.C.
tion of the heart, and which results in the har-
of family life, order in the state, and Huai-nan Tzu: (Liu An, Prince of Huai-nan, d.
mony
world peace. W.T.C. 122 B.C.) Grandson of the founder of the Han
(Confucianism.)
was a man of Confucian traditions
Hsu: (a) Emptiness* non-existence, a major dynasty,
characteristic of Tao. with Taoist inclinations. Thousands of scholars,
experts and Taoist magician-priests gathered
(b) Emptiness of mind in the sense of
abso-
lute peace and purity (Taoism), and also in the
around him. When his rebellion failed, he com-
mitted suicide, leaving Huai-nan Hung-lieh (par-
sense of "not allowing what is already in the
tial Eng. tr. by E. Morgan: Tao the Great
mind to disturb what is coming into the mind."
(Hsun Tzu, c 335-c 288 B.C.) W.T.C. Luminant) and other works now extinct.
Hsuan: abstruse. W.T.C.
(a) Mysterious {profound $

(b) Another name for Tao, understood in Huang Lao: The teachings of the Yellow Em-
the sense of "Mystery of mysteries, the gate to peror and Lao Tzu which emphasized the nour-
all existence." (Lao Tzu.) ishing of one's original nature and which were
(c) The Supremely Profound Principle. See very influential in the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-
T'a hs&an. 220 A.D.). W.T.C.
(d) The heavens. W.T.C. Huang T'ien: August Heaven, identical with
Hsuan chiao: The Doctrine of Mystery, another Shang Ti.
name for the Taoist religion. W.T.C. Hugo of St. Victor: (1096-1141) He was among
the leading mystics and presented his summary
Hsuan chieh: Emancipation, to let nature take
of theological arguments in his contribution to
its course, to be at home with pleasant situations
the popular summa of the so-called summists in
and at ease with misfortune, and not to be
affected by sorrow and joy. (Chuang Tzfi, be-
his "Summa sententiarum." L.E.D.
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) W.T.C. Huizinga, Johan: (1872-) Professor of Philoso-
Hsuan bsueh: The system of profound and mys- phy at the University of Leyden, Holland. He
terious doctrines, with special reference to Tao- has been a pronounced exponent of the philoso-
ism from the third to the fifth centuries A.D. phy of culture which he describes as a condition
W.T.C. of society in which there is a harmonious bal-

Hsuan te: (Profound Virtue) "The Way ance of material and spiritual values and a
pro-
duces things but does not take possession of harmonious ideal spurring the community's ac-
them. It does its work but does not take pride tivities to a convergence of all efforts toward

in it. It rules over things but does not domi- the attainment of that ideal. His best known
nate them. This is called Profound Virtue." work is Homo Ludens. L.E.D.
(Lao Tzu.) Humanism: (Lat. humanus, human) (a) Any
Profound Virtue and Mysterious Power, view in which interest in human welfare is
1
through the cultivation of one * original nature central.
and the returning to the character of Tao. Thus (b) Renaissance revival of classical learning
one "becomes identified with the Beginning, as opposed to merely ecclesiastical studies.
 132 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
(c) An and religious movement cul-
ethical copies of complex impressions or may result
minating in Auguste Comte's "Worship of Hu- from the imaginative combination of simple
manity," better known as Humanitarianism. ideas. Knowledge results from the comparison
(d) Philosophical movement represented by of ideas, and consists solely of the intrinsic re-
F. C. S. Schiller in England, better known as semblance between ideas. As resemblance is
Pragmatism. See Pragmatism. nothing over and above the resembling ideas,
(e) Literary Humanism, movement led in there are no abstract general ideas: the gen-
America by Irving Babbit, Paul Elmer More, erality of ideas is determined by their habitual
Norman Foerster protesting against extreme . use as representatives of all ideas and impres-
sions similar to the As
emphasis on vocational education and recom- representative ideas.
return to a classical type of liberal knowledge consists of relations of ideas in vir-
mending
education or study of "the Humanities." tue of resemblance, and as the only relation
which involves the connection of different exist-
(f) Sociological term for tendency to extend
ences and the inference of one existent from
ideals, such as love, loyalty, kindness, service,
another is that of cause and effect, and as there
honesty, which normally prevail in primary or
is no resemblance
intimate groups to guide conduct in non-pri- necessary between cause and
or impersonal groups. effect, causal inference is in no case experien-
mary
tially or formally certifiable. As the succession
(g) Religious Humanism is any view which
and spatio-temporal contiguity of cause and ef-
does not consider belief in a deity vital to re-
fect suggests no necessary connection and as the
ligion, though not necessarily denying its exist-
ence and not necessarily denying practical value constancy of this relation, being mere repetition,
adds no new idea (which follows from Hume's
to such belief. Represented by a group of left-
nominalistic view), the necessity of causal con-
wing Unitarian ministers and university pro-
nection must be explained psychologically. Thus
fessors who, in May, 1933, published "The
the impression of reflection,
Humanist Manifesto," wherein religion is i.e., the felt force
of association, subsequent to
broadly viewed as a "shared quest for the good frequent repetitions
of conjoined impressions is the source of the
life" and social justice and social reform are
idea of necessity. Habit or custom
stressed as important in religious endeavor. suffiicently
AJ.B. accounts for 'the feeling that everything which
begins must have a cause and that similar causes
Humanitarianism: (Lat. humanus, human) (a) must have similar effects. The arguments which
Any view in which interest in human values is Hume adduced to show that no logically neces-
central.
sary connection between distinct existences can
(b) Any moral or social program seeking to be intuited or demonstrated are among his most
lessen suffering and increase welfare of human
signal contributions to philosophy, and were of
beings, often involving intense emotional devo- great importance in influencing the speculation
tion to reform, sometimes extending to
social of Kant. Hume explained belief in external
prevention of cruelty to animals. Philanthropy. existence (bodies) in terms of the propensity to
Altruism.
feign the independent and continued existence
(c) Worship of Humanity. Comtean doctrine, of perceptual complexes during the
interruptions
based on positivistic science, that Humanity, of perception. This propensity is determined by
rather than God or Nature is the Great Being the constancy and coherence which some per-
worthy of worship. .
ceptual complexes exhibit and by the transitive
(d) Theological doctrine denying the divinity power of the imagination to go beyond the
of Christ. AJ.B. limits afforded by knowledge and ordinary
Human nature: The limited range of human causal belief. The sceptical principles of his epi-
possibilities. The human tendency toward, or stemology were carried over into his views on
the human capacity for, only those actions which ethicsand religion. Because there are no logi-
are common in all societies despite their ac- cally compelling arguments for moral *nd re-
quired cultural differences. See Prtmifivism. ligious propositions, the principles of morality
J.K.F, and religion must be explained natural istically
in terms of human mental habits and social
Hume, David: Born 1711, Edinburgh* died at
customs. Morality thus depends on such funda-
Edinburgh, 1776. Author of A Treatise of
Human Nature } Enquiry Concerning the Human mental aspects of human nature as self-interest
Understanding^ Enquiry Concerning the Pas- and altruistic sympathy. Hume's views on re-

sions, Enquiry Concerning Morals, Natural His- ligion are difficult to determine from his Dia-
tory of Religion, Dialogues on Natural Religion, logues, but a reasonable opinion is that he is
History of England, and many essays on letters, totally sceptical concerning the possibility of
economics, etc. Hume's intellectual heritage is proving the existence or the nature of deity.
divided between the Cartesian Occasionalists and It is certain that he found no connection be-
Locke and Berkeley. From the former, he ob- tween the nature of deity and the rules of
tained some of his arguments against the al- morality. J.R.W,
leged discernment or demonstrability of causal Humour: (a) Jocose imagination} sympathetic
connections, and from the latter his psychologi- wit.
cal opinions. Hume finds" the source of cogni- (b) Romantic irony, equivalent of the tri-
tion in impressions of sensation and reflection. umph of the creative power of the artist's soul
All simple ideas are derived from and are copies over all content and all form (Hegel). L.V.
of simple impressions. Complex ideas may be Hun: (C.) The active, positive, or heavenly
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 133

(yang) part of the soul, as contrasted with the matter} and morph, contour, form) theory A
passive, negative, or earthly (yin) part of the that all physical things are constituted of two
soul called p'o. Hun is the soul of man's vital internal principles: the one of which remains
force (ch'i) which is expressed in man's intelli- the same throughout all change and is the pas-

gence and power of breathing, whereas p'o is
the spirit of man's physical nature which is
expressed in bodily movements. In heavenly
spirits, hun predominates, whereas in earthly
spirits,p'o predominates. When hun is sepa-
rated from p'o in man or things, change ensues.
W.T.C.
Hung fan: The Grand Norm. See
Hun mang The Taoisf conception
: of the Golden
sive basis continuity and identity in the
of
physical world, called prime matter; the other
of which is displaced, or removed from actuation
of its matter, in every substantial change, called
substantial form. See Aristotelianism, Thomism,
Suarezianism. V.J.B.
Hylons: This name (combining the Greek words
Chiu ch'ou. hyle matter and on being) was given by Mitterer
to the heterogeneous subatomic and subelemental

Age, in which there was in the beginning, in
the time of the primeval chaos, a state of abso-
lute harmony between man and his surroundings,
a life as effortless and spontaneous as the pas-
sage of the seasons, the two cosmic principles
of yin and yang worked together instead of in
particles of matter (electrons, neutrons, protons,
positrons) which enter into the composition of
the elements without being elements themselves.
The natural elements represent distinct types or
species of natural bodies, while the hylons do
not. These matter-particles have an important

opposition. H.H. role in the exposition of the cosmological doc-

Husserl, Edmund: 1859-1938. See Phenome- trine of hylosystemism. T.G.

nology. Hylosis: The material states concomitant with a
Main works of Husserl: Philosophic der
psychosis. (Montague.) H.H.
Anthmetik, 1891} Logische Untersuchungen, : A
rjlylosystemism cosmological theory developed
1900j Ideen z. e. retnen Phanomenologie u.
by Mitterer principally, which explains the con-
Phenomologische Philos., 1913; Vorlesungen stitutionof the natural inorganic body as an
z. Phdnom. d. inner en Betuusstseine, 1928$
atomary energy system. In opposition to hylo-
Formate u. trans*. Logtk, 1929} Meditations
Introd. a
morphism which is considered inadequate in the
Cartesienne$ la Phenomenologie, field of nuclear physics, this system maintains
1931} Die Krisis der europdischen Wissensch that the atom of an element and the molecule
u.d. transz. Phdnomenologie, /, 1936; Erjahr-
of a compound are really composed of sub-
ung u. Urteil. Untersuch. z. Genealogie der atomic particles united into a dynamic system
Logtk, 1939.
acting as a functional unit. The main difference
Hussism: The Reformatory views of John Hus
between the two doctrines is the hylomeric con-
(1370-1415). A popular agitator and finally
stitution of inorganic matter: the plurality of
martyr, stood between Wycliffe and Luther
Hus
parts of a particle form a whole which is more
in the line of continental Protestant Reformers.
than the sum of the parts, and which gives to a
He rested authority upon Scripture and defied
body its specific essence. While hylomorphism
ecclesiastical bans. The Hussite wars (1419-
contends that no real substantial change can
1432) following this death epitomized the grow-
occur in a hylomeric constitution besides the
ing nationalism and desire for religious reform. alteration of the
V.F. hylosystemism
specific form,
maintains that in substantial change more re-
Hutcheson, Francis: (1694-1746) A prominent mains than primary matter and more changes
Scottish philosopher. Born in Drumalig, Ulster,
than the substantial form. T.G.
educated at Glasgow, died in Dublin. The
influence of his doctrine of "moral sense," Hylotheism: (Gr. hyle matter, and theism q.v.).
stressing inborn conscience, or "moral feeling,"
A synonym for
either pantheism or mate-
was very wide} he was also the original author rialism in that this doctrine identifies matter

of the "the greatest happiness for the and god, or has the one merge into the other.
phrase
number," utilized by J. Bentham (q.v.)
K.F.L.
greatest
for the development of utilitarianism (q.v.) Hylozoism: (Gr. hyle, matter roe, life) The
His principal work is Inquiry into the Origin doctrine that life is a property of matter, that
of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue. R.B.W. matter and life are inseparable, that life is de-
Huxley, Thomas Henry: (1825-1895) Was a rived from matter, or that matter has spiritual
renowned English scientist who devoted his properties.The conception of nature as alive
mastery of expository and argumentative prose or animated, of reality as alive. The original
to the defense of evolutionism. An example of substance as bearing within itself the cause of
his scintillating style can be found in his famous all motion and change. The early Greek co-
essay on "A Piece of Chalk." His works touch.'*., mologists of the Milesian school made state-
frequently on ethical problems and bore much ments which implied a belief in life for their
of the brunt of the- raging controversy between primary substances. For Straton of Lampsacu*
religion and science. He is credited with having each of the ultimate particles of matter possesses
invented the word "agnosticism", adopted by life. For the Stoics the universe as a whole is
Herbert Spencer. See Evolutionism. L.E.D. alive. For Spinoza different kinds of things
Cf. H. Peterson, Thomas Huxley, for biog- possess life in different grades. J.K.F.
sensa-
raphy and bibliography. Hyperaesthesia : (Gr. hyper -f- aesthesis,
Hyle: See Matter. tion) Excessive sensitivity, either sensory or
Hylomorphism :
(also hylemorphism. Gr. hyle, affective. L.W.
134 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Hyperbole: (Or. hyperbole, overshooting, excess) the statements it has to explain. A hypothesis is

In rhetoric, that figure of speech according to descriptive (forecasting the external circum-
which expressions gain their effect through ex- stances of the event) or explanatory (offering

aggeration. The of things as
representation
greater or less than they really are, not in-
tended to be accepted literally. Aristotle relates,
for example, that when the winner of a mule-
race paid enough money to a poet who was not
anxious to praise half-asset, the poet wrote,
"Hail, daughters of storm-footed steeds"
(Rhetoric, III. ii. 14). JJC.F.
Hypnosis; <Gr. hypnos, sleep) A trance-like state
characterized an exaggerated suggestibility
by
and an alteration of the normal functions of
memory, of personality and perhaps also of per-
ception. The state is ordinarily induced
other person, but may also be self-induced and
then the phenomenon is called auto-hypnosis.
Hypnotism: A
general term used to designate
hypnotic phenomena including the techniques *for
inducing hypnosis (see Hypnosis)^ the therapeutic
uses of hypnotic suggestion, etc. L.W.
HypOStftSis: Literally the Greek word signifies
that which stands under and serves as a support.
In philosophy it means a singular substance, also
called a supposite, supposition, by the Scholastics,
causal accounts of the event). There are two
kinds of explanatory hypotheses: (1) the hypo-
thesis of law (or genetic hypothesis) which at-
tempts to determine the manner in which the
causes or conditions of a phenomenon operate
and (2) the hypothesis of cause (or causal hypo-
thesis) which attempt to determine the causes or
conditions for the production of the phenom-
enon. A working hypothesis is a preliminary
assumption based on few, uncertain or obscure
elements, which is used provisionally as a guid-
ing norm in the investigation of certain phe-
by an- nomena. Often, the difference between a work-
ing hypothesis and a scientific hypothesis is one
of degree) and in any case, a hypothesis is
L.W. seldom verified completely with all its detailed
implications.
4. The Socratic Method of Hypothesis, as de-
veloped by Plato in the Phaedo particularly, con-
sists in positing an assumption without ques-
tioning its value, for the purpose of determining
and analyzing its consequences: only when these
are clearly debated and judged, the assumption
itself is considered for justification or rejection.

especially if the substance is a completely sub- Usually, a real condition is taken as a ground
sisting one, whether non-living or living, irra- for inferences, as the aim of the method is to
tional or rational. However, a rational hypo- attain knowledge or to favor action. Plato
stasis has the same meaning as the term, person. used more specially the word "hypothesis" for
JJ.R. the assumptions of geometry (postulates and
Hypothesis: 1. In general , an assumption, a sup- nominal definitions)) Aristotle extended this use
position, a conjecture, ,a postulate, a condition, to cover the immediate principles of mathematics.
an antecedent, a contingency, a possibility, a It may be observed that the modern hypo-
probability, a principle, a premiss, a ground or thetico-deductive method in logical and mathe-
foundation, a tentative explanation, a probable matical theories, is a development of the Socratic
cause, a theoretical situation, an academic ques- method stripped of its ontological implications
tion, a specific consideration, a conceded state- and purposes. T.G.
ment, a theory or view for debate or action, a Hypothetical sentence or proposition is the same
likely relation, the conditioning of one thing by as a conditional (q. v.) sentence or
proposition.
another. A. C.
2. In logic, the conditional clause or ante- Hypothetical dualism: In epistemology, the
cedent in a hypothetical proposition. Also a theory that the external world is known only
thesis subordinate to a more general one. by inference. Absolute dualism of mind and
In methodology, a principle offered as a
3. external world. Opposite of: presentational
conditional explanation of a fact or a group of realism. J.K.F.
facts) or again, a provisional assumption about Hypothetical imperatives: Term due to Kant
the ground of certain phenomena, used as a which designates all statements of the form,
guiding norm in making observations and ex- "If you desire so and so, you
mutt, should, or
periments until verified or disproved by subse- ought to do such and such." In ftuch cases the
quent evidence. A
hypothesis is conditional or obligatoriness of the action enjoined depends on
provisional, because it is based on probable and the presence in the agent of the desire men-
insufficient arguments or elements} yet, it is not tioned. See Categorical imperative. W.K.F.
an arbitrary opinion, but a justifiable assumption Hypothetical morality: In ethics, any moral
with some foundation in fact} this accounts for imperative stated in hypothetical form. For in-
the expectation of some measure of agreement
stance, if thou dost not desire certain conse-
between the logical conclusion or implications quences, thou shalt not commit adultery. Kant's
drawn from a hypothesis, and the phenomena
categorical imperative, stated in hypothetical
which are known or which may be determined form. See Hypothesis, Morality. J.K.F.
by further tests. A scientific hypothesis must be: Hypothetical syllogism: See Logicjormal, 2.

(1) proposed after the observations it must ex- Hysteron proteron: (Gr. hysteron proteron)
plain (a posteriori), (2) compatible with estab- Literally, making the consequent an antecedent)
lished theories, (3) reasonable and relevant, (4) inverting the logical order by explaining a
fruitful in its applications and controllable, (5) thing in terms of something which presupposes
in term* and more fundamental than it G.R.M.
I: (C.) (a) The One, which It engendered by Tao The will} purpose; motive) idea; which
(b)
and which in turn engenders the Two (yin and is "operation of" and "emanation from" the
yang). (Lao Tzu.) "The Formless is the One. mind with an objective in view (Chu Hsi,
The One ha* no compare in the universe . . . 1130-1200). It is called will "when the in-
It is the Great Infinite and forms the Unity. It tuitive faculty, with its pure intelligence and
is the life of myriad generations, everlasting clear understanding, is moved and becomes ac-
without beginning, and most mysterious. It en- tive." (Wang Yang-ming, 1473-1529.) See
folds the universe and opens the portal of Tao. Ck'eng i. W.T.C.
. . . When the One is established and the myriad I: Righteousness, justice) one of the four Con-
things are engendered, there is Tao." (Huai- fucian Fundamentals of the Moral Life (ssu
nan Tzu, 112 B.C.)
d. tuan) and the Five
Constant Virtues (wu
(b) Unity of mind, "not allowing one im- ch'ang). "by which things are
It is the virtue

pression to harm another." (HsGn Tru c 335- made proper," "by which the world is regu-
c 288 B.C.) lated." It means the proper application of filial

(c) The number for Heaven, as two is the piety. It means, as in Han Yu (767-824), "the
number for Earth. See Ta iand Ta i. W.T.C. proper application of the principle of true man-
I: The method of difference in Neo-Mohist logic, hood (Jen)." It also means the removal of evil
which includes duality, absence of generic rela- in the world. Mencius (371-289 B.C.) said
that "righteousness is man's path, whereas true
tionship, separateness, and dissimilarity.
"Dual-
ity means that two things necessarily differ. manhood is man's mind." Tung Chung-shu
Absence of generic relationship means to have (177-104 B.C.) regarded it as the cardinal vir-
no connection. Separateness means that things
tue by which one's self is rectified, whereas
do not occupy the same space. Dissimilarity benevolence (Jen) the virtue by which others
is

means having notfting in common." See che. Mo are pacified. To the Neo-Confucians, "serious-
W.T.C. ness (ching) is to straighten one's internal life

I: Transference, a method of appellation or desig- and righteousness is to square one's external

life." It is to regulate things and affairs by
nation. "To name a puppy a dog is transfer-
ence." See CM and Chia. (Neo-Mohism.) Reason (li). W.T.C.
W.T.C. Ich: (Ger. Ij myself i me* the ego (q.v.)) In
I: Change (often spelled yi), a fundamental prin- the German idealistic movement from Kant

ciple of the universe, arising out of the inter- through Schopenhauer, the Ich, the final, ulti-

action of the two cosmic forces of yin and mate conscious subject, plays a central and dy-
yang, or passive and active principles, and mani- namic role. Kant discredited the traditional
fested in naturalphenomena, human affairs, and Cartesian conception of a simple, undecompos-
ideas. According to Confucian "and Neo-Con- able, substantial I, intuitively known. On his
fucian cosmology, "In the system of Change, view, the Ich is not a substance, but the func-
there is the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi) which tional, dynamic unity of consciousness a neces-
engenders 'the Two Modes (i). The Two Modes sary condition of all experience and the ultimate
engender the Four Secondary Modes (hsiang), subject for which all else is object. This "trans-
which in turn give rise to the Eight Trigrams cendental unity of apperception," bare conscious-
(pa kua). These Eight Trigrams (or Elements) ness as such, is by its very nature empty} it is
determine all good and evil and the great com- neither a thing nor a concept. For the pure
plexity of life." Thus itinvolves in the first transcendental I, myempirical self is but one
place, the meaning of i, or simplicity from experience among others in the realm of phe-
which complexity U evolved { in the second nomena, and one of which Kant does not seek
place, meaning of hsiang, that is, phe-
the an adequate definition. The stress on the pure I
nomenon, image, form} and in the third place, as opposed to the empirical self is carried over
the idea of "production and reproduction." into his practical philosophy, where the moral
W.T.C. agent becomes, not the concrete personality, but
I: ()Subjective opinion) preconceived notion, a pure rational will, i.e., a will seeking to act
(Cocfuciut, Neo-Confucianism.) in accordance with an absolute universal law of
136 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
duty, the categorical imperative (q.v.). being. Concepts derived from objects of in-
"Fichu conceive! the ultimate Ich as an abso- tuitive introspection, such as activity, passivity,
lute, unconditioned, simple ego which "posits" soul, are "notions."
itself and its not-self in a series of intellectual Hume: An Idea is a "faint image"
8. or
acts. He emphasizes the dynamic, creative pow- memory copy of sense "impressions."
ers of the ego, its capacity for self-determination, 9. Kant: Ideas are
concepts representa-or
the act in which the absolute subject creates the tions incapable of adequate subsumption under
I. Self and not-self are products of the original the categories, which escape the limits of
activity of the conscious subject. Sc helling con- cognition. The ideas of theoretical or Pure
ceives the I as a creation of the Absolute Idea. Reason are ideals, demands of the human in-

treats the Ich as thought con- tellectfor the absolute, i.e., the unconditioned
Hegel, however,
ceived as subject, as or the totality of conditions of representation.
thinking, abstracted from
They include the soul, Nature and God. The
all things perceived, willed or felt in short
abstracted from all experience. As such it is ideas ofmoral or Practical Reason include God,
universal abstract freedom, an ideal unity. Freedom, and Immortality. The ideas of Reason
From this point the notion of Ich in the cannot be sensuously represented (possess no
German idealistic tradition passes into "schema"). Aesthetic ideas are representations
(1) vol-
untaristic with emphasis on the dy- of the faculty of imagination to which no con-
channels,
namic will, as in Schopenhauer, Eduard von cept can be adequate. W.L.
Hartmann and Nietzsche j (2) the pragmatic- Ideal: 1. Pertaining to ideas (q.v.)

psychologic interpretation, typified by Lotze and 2. Mental.

other post-idealists j and (3) such reconstruc- Possessing the character of completely
3. sat-
tions of the transcendental I as are to be found
isfying a desire or volition.
state of perfec- A
in the school of Husserl and related
groups. tion with respect to a standard or goal of will
O.F.K. or desire.
Icon: (Gr. eikon, image) Any sign which is like 4. A
norm, perfect type, or goal, an object
the thing it represents. A.C.B. of desire or will, whether or not conceived as
Iconoclasm: Religious struggle against images
W.L.
attainable.

(8th and 9th centuries) and towards symbolic Idealism: Any system or doctrine whose funda-
art. L.V. mental interpretative principle is ideal. Broadly,
Iconology: Studies in history of art concerned any theoretical or practical view emphasizing
with the interpretation of the matter or subject mind (soul, spirit, life) or what is character-
treated by artists without consideration of their istically of pre-eminent value or significance to
personalities. L.V. it. Negatively, the alternative to Materialism.
Idanta: (Skr. "this-ness") Thingness, the state of (Popular confusion arises from the fact that
being a this, an object of knowledge. K.F.L. Idealism is related to either or both uses of the

Idea: (Gr. idea) This term has enjoyed histori- adjective "ideal," i.e., (a) pertaining to ideas,
cally a considerable diversity of usage.
and (b) pertaining to ideals. While a certain
1. In inner bond of sympathy can be established be-
pre-Platonic Greek: form, semblance,
tween these two standpoints, for theoretical pur-
nature, fashion or mode, class or species.
poses they must be clearly distinguished.)
Mate-
Plato (and Socrates?): The Idea is a time-
2.
rialism the cor-
less essence or universal, a dynamic and crea- emphasizes spatial, pictorial,
tive archetype of existents. The Ideas comprise poreal, sensuous, non-valuational, factual, and
a hierarchy and an organic unity in the mechanistic. Idealism stresses the supra- or non-
Good,
and are ideals as patterns of existence and as spatial, non-pictorial, incorporeal, suprasensuous,
objects of human desire. normative or valuational, and ideological. The
3. The Stoics: Ideas are class in term Idealism shares the unavoidable expansion
concepts
the human mind. of such words as Idea, Mind, Spirit, and even
4. Neo-Platonism Ideas are archetypes of
: Person; and in consequence it now possesses
things considered as in cosmic Mind (Nous or usefulness only in pointing out a general direc-
Logos). tion of thought, unless qualified, e.g., Platonic
5. Early Christianity and Scholasticism: Ideas Idealism, Personal Idealism, Objective Idealism,
are archetypes eternally subsistent in the mind Moral Idealism, etc.
of God. The term appeared in the later 17th century
6. 17th Century: Following earlier usage, to name (a) the theory of archetypal Ideas,
Descartes generally identified ideas with subjec- whether in the original Platonic teaching or as
tive, logical concepts of the human mind. Ideas incorporated into Christian Platonic and Scholas-
were similarly treated as subjective or mental tic theism} (b) the epistemological doctrine of
by Locke, who them with all objects
identified Descartes and Locke, according to which "ideas,"
i.e., direct objects of human apprehension,
of consciousness. Simple ideas, from which, by are

combination, all complex ideas are derived, have subjective and privately possessed. Since this
their source either in sense perception or "reflec- latter view put in doubt the very existence of a
tion" (intuition of our own being- and mental material world, the term began to be used in
processes). the early 18th century for acosmism (according
7. Berkeley: Ideas are sense objects or per- to which the external world is only the projec-

ceptions, considered either as modes of the tion of our minds), and immaterialism (doc-
human soul or as a type of mind-dependent trine of the non-existence of material being). Its
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 137

use was popularized by Kant, who named his interpreted, being with time-
identifies absolute

theory of knowledge Critical or Transcendental less Ideas or disembodied essences. These, or-
Idealism, and by his metaphysical followers, the ganically united in the Good, are the archetypes
Post-Kantian Idealists. and the dynamic causes of existent, material
Metaphysics. Pure Idealism or Immaterialism things. The Ideas are also archetypes of ra-
identifies ontological reality (substance, substan- tional thought, and the goal of fine art and
tives, concrete individuality) exclusively with morality. Axtological Ideahsm } a modern de-
the ideal, Mind, Spirit, Soul, Person, Arche-
*>.., velopment of Platonism and Kantianism, main-
typal Ideas, Thought. See Spiritualtsm, Mental- tains that the category of Value is logically
ism t Monadism Panpsychism Idealistic Phe-
t t
and metaphysically prior to that of Being.
nomenalism. With respect to the metaphysical The idealistic doctrine known
as Conceptual
status of self-consciousness and purposeful ac- Realism identifies the logical
(and at times the
tivity, Idealism is either impersonalistic or per- perceptual) content of experience with universal*
sonalistic. See Personalism. (essences, objectives, subsistents, etc.) considered
Impersonalistic Idealism identifies ontological as non-mental, i.e. as essentially independent of

reality essentially with non-conscious spiritual cognitive subjects.

principle, unconscious psychic agency, pure Epistemology. Theistic Platonism maintains
thought, impersonal or "pure" consciousness, that thearchetypes of existent things are eternal
pure Ego, subconscious Will, impersonal logical ideas in the mind of God. Epistemological
Mind, etc. Personaltstic Idealism characterizes Idealism teaches that all entities other than egos
'

concrete reality as personal selfhood, i.e. y as or subjects of experience are exclusively noetic
possessing self-consciousness. With respect to objects, i.e. have no existence or reality apart
the relation of the Absolute or World-Ground from the relation of being perceived or
(s.) to finite selves or centers of consciousness, thought. Transcendental Idealism (Critical
varying degrees unity or separateness are
of Idealism) is Kant's name for his doctrine that
posited. The extreme doctrines are radical knowledge synthetic, relational product of
is a
monism and radical pluralism. Monistic the logical self (transcendental unity of apper-
Idealism (pantheistic Idealism) teaches that ception). Phenomenology is Husserl's name for
the finite self Is a part, mode, aspect, mo- the science that investigates the essences or na-
ment, appearance or projection of the One. tures of objects considered apart from their
Pluralistic Idealism defends both the inner pri- existential or metaphysical status.
vacy of the finite self and its relative freedom Ethics. Any system of moral theory may be
from direct or causal dependence upon the One. called Ethical Idealism, whether Ideological or
With respect to Cosmology, pure idealism is formal in principle, which accepts several of
either subjective or objective. Subjective Ideal- the following: (a) a scale of values, moral
ism (acosmism) holds that Nature is merely principles, or rules of action} (b) the axiologi-
the projection of the finite mind, and has no cal priority of the universal over the particular;

external, real existence. (The term "Subjective (c) the axiological priority of the spiritual or
Idealism" is also used for the view that the mental over the sensuous or material; (d) moral
ontologically real consists of subjects, i.e., pos- freedom rather than psychological or natural
sessors of experience.) Objective Idealism necessity. In popular terminology a moral ideal-
identifies an externally real Nature with the ist is also identified with the doctrinaire, as
thought or activity of the World Mind. (In opposed to the opportunist or realist; with the
Germany the term "Objective Idealism" is Utopian or visionary as opposed to the practical-
commonly identified with the view that finite ist;with the altruist as opposed to the crass
minds are parts modes, moments, projections, egoist.
appearances, members of the Absolute Mind.) Aesthetics. Any system or program of fine art
Epistemological Idealism derives metaphysical emphasizing the ideal (s.) is Aesthetic Idealism.
idealism from the identification of objects with 1. The view that the goal of fine art is an
ideas. In its nominalistic form the claim is embodiment or reflection of the perfections of
made that "To be is to be perceived,," From the archetypal Ideas or timeless essences (Platon-
standpoint of rationalism it is argued that there ism). 2. The view of art which emphasizes
can be no Object without a Subject. Subjects, feeling, sentiment, and idealization (as opposed
relations, sensations, and feelings are mental, to "literal reproduction" of fact). 3. The view
and since no other type of analogy remains by of art which emphasizes cognitive content (as
which to characterize a non-mental thing-in- opposed to abstract feeling, primitive intuition,
itself, pure idealism follows as the only possible formal line or structure, mere color or tone).
view of Being, The doctrine that ideas or judg-
Psychology.
Realistic recognizes the reality of
Idealism ments are causes of thought and behavior, and
non-ideal types of being, but relegates them to a not mere effects or epiphenomena, is Psychologi-
subordinate status with respect either to quantity cal Idealism.
of being or power. This' view is either atheistic or History. Inasmuch as pure or basic Material-
theistic. Realistic theism admits the existence of ism has been an infrequent doctrine among
one or more kinds of non-mental being consid- major thinkers, the history of philosophy broad-
ered as independently co-eternal with God, ly understood, is largely the history of Idealism.
eternally dependent upon Deity, or as a di- India. Intimations of advanced theism, both
vine creation. Platonic Idealism, as traditionally in a deistic and immanentistic form, are to be
138 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
found in the Rig Veda. The early Upanishads Lu Chiu Yuan (Lu Hsiang Shan), their oppo-
in general teach variously realistic deism, im- nent, is interpreted both as a
subjective idealist
manent theism, and, more characteristically, mys- and as a realist with a strong idealistic
emphasis.
tical, impersonal idealism, according to which Similarly interpreted is Wang Yang Ming of
the World Ground (brahman} is identified with the Ming Dynasty, who stressed the spiritual
the universal soul (atman) which is the inner and moral behind nature and
principle (Li)
or essential sell within each individual man*
person.
The Bhagavad Gtta, while mixing pantheism, Persia. The theology of Zarathustra was a
immanent theism, and deism, inclines towards a realistic and dualistic personalism. Nature is as-
personalistic idealism and a corresponding ethics sumed to be a plastic order controlled
by Ahura
of bhakti (selfless devotion). Jainism is atheistic Mazda, of
personalized spirit Good, against
dualism, with a personalistic recognition of the whom struggles in vain Ahriman, the personal-
reality of souls. Many of the schools of Buddh- ized spirit of Evil.
ism (see Buddhism) teach idealistic doctrines. Israel. In the period of the written prophets
Thus a monistic immaterialism and subjectivism Jewish thought moved to a personalistic and
(the Absolute is pure consciousness) was ex- realistic theism, reaching maturity in Jeremiah
pounded by Maitreya, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. and Genesis I. The cosmic "I Am" is a per-
The Lankavatarasutra combined monistic, imma- sonal and righteous World Ground who fashions
terialistic idealism with non-absolutistic nihilism. and controls both Nature and human history.
Subject! vistic, phenomenalistic idealism (the Greece. Homeric thought centered in Moira
view that there is neither absolute Pure Con- (Fate), an impersonal, immaterial power that
sciousness nor substantial souls) was taught by distributes to gods and men their respective
the Buddhists Santarak?ita and Kamalasila. stations. While the main stream of pre-Socratic
Examples of modern Vedintic idealism are the thought was naturalistic, it was not materialistic.
Yogavasiffha (subjective monistic idealism) and The primordial Being of things, the Physit, is
the monistic spiritualism of Gaudapada (duality both extended and spiritual (hylozoism). Soul
and plurality are illusion). The most influen- and Mind are invariably identified with Physis.
tial Vedantic system is the monistic spiritualism Empedocles' distinction between inertia and
of Sarikara. The Absolute is pure indeterminate force (Love and Hate) was followed by Anaxa-
Being, which can only be described as pure con- goras' introduction of Mind (No&s) as the first
sciousness or bliss\ For the different Vedantic cause of order and the
principle of spontaneity
doctrines see Vedanta and the references there. or life in things. Socrates the
emphasized
Vedantic idealism, whether in its monistic and teleolbgical principle and introduced the cate-
impersonalistic form, or in that of a more per- gory of Value as primary both in Nature and
sonalistic theism, is the dominant type of meta- Man. He challenged the completeness of the
physics in modern India. Idealism is also pro- mechanical explanation of natural events. Plato's
nounced in the reviving doctrines of Shivaism theory of Ideas (as traditionally interpreted by
(which see). historians) is at once a
metaphysics, epistemol-
China. The traditional basic concepts of ogy, and axiology. Ideas, forming a hierarchy
Chinese metaphysics are ideal. Heaven (T'ien}, and systematically united in the
Good, are time-
the spiritual and moral power of cosmic and less essences
comprising the realm of true Being.
social order, that distributes to each thing and They are archetypes and causes of things in the
person its alloted sphere of action, is theistically realm of Non-Being (Space). Aristotle, while
and personalistically conceived in the Shu Ching moving in the direction of common-sense real-
(Book of History) and the Shih Ching (Book ism, was also idealistic. Forms or species are
of Poetry). It was probably also interpreted secondary substances, and collectively form the
thus by Confucius and Mencius, assuredly so by dynamic and rational structure of the World.
Moue. Later it became identified with Fate or Active reason (Not* Poittikos), possessed by all
impersonal, immaterial cosmic power. Shang Ti rational creatures, is immaterial and eternal.
(Lord on High) has remained through Chinese Mind is the final cause of all motion. God is
history a theistXc concept. Tao, as cosmic prin- pure Mind, self-contained, self-centered, and
ciple, is an impersonal, immaterial World metaphysically remote from the spatial World.
Ground. Mahayana Buddhism introduced into The Stoics united idealism and hylozoistic
China an idealistic influence. Pure metaphysi- naturalism in their doctrine of dynamic rational
cal idealism was taught by the Buddhist monk cosmic law (Logos), World Soul, and Pneuma,
Hsuan Ch'uang. Important Buddhist and Taoist Providence (Pronoia).
influences appear in Sung Confucianism (Ju Alexandrian-Roman Period. Fed by Eastern
Chia), a distinctly idealistic movement. Chou ideas, later Alexandrian-Roman thought was es-
Tun I taught that matter, life and mind emerge sentially idealistic. In neo-Pythagorean, Neo-
from Wu CM (Pure Being). Shao Yung Platonic and Alexandrian Christianity, matter
espoused an essential objective idealism: the was identified with non-being, and placed at the
world is the content of an Universal Conscious- metaphysical antipodes with respect to God or
ness. The Brothers Ch'eng Hsao and Ch'eng I, the Absolute. Early Christianity identified itself
together with Chu Hsi, distinguished two primor- with the personalistic theism of Israel, Pauline
dial principles, an active, moral, aesthetic, and spiritualism, and the neo-Platoniim of Alex-
rational Law (Li), and a passive ether stuff andria.
(Ch'i). Their emphasis upon Li is idealistic. Mtdievtl Period. Medieval Christian thought,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
axiomatically idealistic, united the pertonalitm
of Iirael and the speculative idealism of neo-
Platonism and Aristotle. Similarly, Islamic
thought, centering at Bagdad and Cordova, at-
tached Mohammedan religious idealism to neo-
Platoniam and Aristotelianism.
Modern Period. In the 1 7th century the
move towards scientific materialism was tem-
pered a general
by reliance on Christian or
liberal theism (Galileo* Bacon, Descartes,
Hobbes, Gassendi, Toland, Hartley, Priestley,
Boyle, Newton). Hie principle of gravitation
was regarded by Newton, Boyle, and others, as
an indication of the incompleteness of the
mechanistic and materialistic account of the
World, and as a direct proof of the existence
of God. For Newton Space was the "divine
ensorium". The road to pure modern idealism
was laid by the epistemological idealism (epi-
temological subjectivism) of Campanella and
Descartes. The theoretical basis of Descartes'
system was God, upon whose moral perfection
reliance must be placed ("God will not deceive
us") to insure the reality of the physical world.
Spinoza's impertonalistic pantheism is idealistic
to the extent that space or extension (with
modes of Body and Motion) is merely one of
the infinity of attributes of Being. Leibniz
founded pure modern idealism by his doctrine
of the immateriality and self-active character of
metaphysical individual substances (monads,
souls), whose source and ground is God. Locke,
a theist, gave chief impetus to the modern theory
of the purely subjective character of ideas. The
founder of pure objective idealism in Europe
was Berkeley, who shares with Leibniz the crea-
tion of European immaterialism. According to
him perception is due to the direct action of
God on finite persons or souls. Nature consists
of (a) the totality />f percepts and their order,
(b) activity and thought of God.
the Hume,
later an implicit Naturalist, earlier subscribed
ambiguously to pure idealistic phenomenalism
or scepticism. Kant's epistemological, logical
idealism (Transcendental or Critical Idealism)
inspired the systems of pure speculative idealism
of the 19th century. Knowledge, he held, is
essentially logical and relational, a product of
the synthetic activity of the logical self-con-
sciousness. He also taught the ideality of space
and time. Theism, logically undemonstrable, re-
mains the choice of pure speculative reason, al-
though beyond the province of science. It is
also a practical implication of the moral life.
In the Critique of Judgment Kant, marshalled
facts from natural beauty and the apparent
teleological character of the physical and biologi-
cal world, to leave a stronger hint in favor of
the theistic hypothesis. His suggestion that
reality, as well as Mind, is organic in character
is refected in the idealistic pantheisms of his
followers: Fichte (abstract personalism or "Sub-
jective Idealism")* Schelling (aesthetic idealism,
theism, "Objective Idealism"), Hegel (Absolute
or logical Idealism), Schopenhauer (voluntaristic
idealism), Schleiermacher (spiritual pantheism),
Lotce ("Teleological Idealism"). 19th century
139
French thought was grounded in the psychologi-
cal idealism of Condillac and the voluntaristic
pertonalism of Biran. Throughout the century
it was essentially "spiritualistic" or personalistic
(Cousin, Renouvier, Ravaisson, Boutrour, Lach-
elier, Bergson). British thought after Hume was
largely theistic (A. Smith, Paley, J. S. Mill,
Reid, Hamilton), In the latter 19th century,
inspired largely by Kant and his metaphysical
followers, it leaned heavily towards semi-
monistic personalism (E. Caird, Green, Webb,
Pringle-Pattison) or impersonalistic monism
(Bradley, Bosanquet). Recently a more plural-
istic personalism has developed (F. C. S. Schil-
ler, A. E. Taylor, McTaggart, Ward, Sorley).
Recent American idealism is represented by Mc-
Cosh, Howison, Bowne, Royce, Wm. James
(before 1904), Baldwin. German idealists of
the past century include Fechner, Krause, von
Hartmann, H. Cohen, Natorp, Windelband,
Rickert, Dilthey, Brentano, Eucken. In Italy
idealism is represented by Croce and Gentile; in
Spain, by Unamuno and Ortega e Gasset} in
Russia, by Losskyj in Sweden, by. Bostrdm; in
Argentina, by Aznar. (For other representatives
'
of recent or contemporary personalism, see
Personalism.) W.L.
Ideality: Condition of being mental. W.L.
Ideal of Reason: (Ger. Ideal der Vernunft)
Kant: The idea of an all-comprehending reality,
God, containing the determination of all finite
existence.In the Cr. of Pure Reason Kant
shows how and why the mind hypostatizes this
Ideal, the source of "transcendental illusion"
(q.v.). He concluded that while the traditional
proofs of God's existence were all fallacious,
the idea ofGod had a regulative use for reason,
and was a necessary postulate for practical rea-
son (q.v.). See Kantianism. O.F.K.
Ideal Utilitarianism: See Utilitarianism.
Idealization: In art, the process of generalizing
and abstracting from specifically similar indi-
viduals, in order to depict the perfect type of
which they are examples j the search for real
character or structural form, to the neglect of
external qualities and aspects. Also, any work
of art in which such form or character is ex-
hibited} i.e. any adequate expression of the per-
fected essence inadequately manifested by the
physical particular. In classical theory, the ob-
ject so discovered and described is a Form or
Idea* in modern theory, it is a product of
imagination. 7.7.
Ideas of Pure Reason: (Kant. Ger. Ideen der
reinen Vernunft) Ideas, expounded and criticixed
in the "Transcendental Dialectic" of the Cr. of
Pure Reason, in which an absolute whole deter-
mines the parts in an aggregate or as series.
For Kant there were three such Ideas: the soul,
the world, and God. He maintained that these
Ideas did not constitute "objects", but claimed
for them a regulative use in pure reason, and
asserted their reality as postulates of practical
reason. See Kantianism, O.F.K.
Ideatum: Noun denoting the object of an idea,
or that which is represented in the mind by the
idea. Also applied to really existing things out-
140 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
side the mind corresponding to the concepts in Ideology: A term invented by Destutt de Tracy
consciousness. JJ.R. for the analysis of general ideas into the sensa-
Identity: (Lat. identicus,
identidem, from re- from which he believed them to emanate.
tions
peatedly) In psychology: personal identity, or The study was advocated as a substitute for
the continuous existence of the personality de- metaphysics.
spite physiological and psychological changes. The term was used in a derogatory sense by
See: Identity, law ofJ.K.F. denominate
Napoleon to all philosophies whose
Identity, law of: Given by traditional logicians influence was republican. In recent times the
as "A is A."
Because of the various possible English equivalent has come to mean: (1) in
meanings of the copula (q.v.) and the uncertainty some economic determinists, ineffectual thoughts
as to the range of the variable A y this formula- as opposed to causally efficacious behavior, (2)
tion is ambiguous. The traditional law is per- any set of general ideas or philosophical pro-
haps best identified with the theorem x *, = gram. G.B.
either of the functional calculus of first order Ideo-motor Action : (Gr. eidos, idea -f motus,
with equality, or in the theory of types (with motion) Bodily action directly induced by the
equality defined), or in the algebra of classes, prevalence of an idea in the mind and consid-
etc. It has been, or may be, also identified with ered by W. Jame,8 as the basis of volition. (See
either of the theorems of the propositional cal- W. James, The Principles of Psychology, Vol.
culus, p =>
p, p
= p, or with the theorem of II, pp. 522 ff.) L.W.
the functional calculus of first order, F(x) 3 Idio-psychological Ethics: Ethics based on the
F(x). Many writers understand, however, by inner facts of conscience, as contrasted with
the law of identity a semantical principle that heteropsychological ethics, or ethics based on
a word or other symbol may (or must) have a mental categories other than the conscience. In-
fixed referent in its various occurrences in a troduced as terms into ethics by J. Martineau
given context (so, e.g., Ledger Wood in his The (1805-1899) in 1885. J.K.F.
Analysis of Knowledge). Some, it would seem, Idol: (Gr. eidolon, and Lat. idolum, image or
confuse such a semantical principle with a propo- likeness) Democritus (5th c. B.C.) tried to ex-
sition of formal logic. A.C. plain sense perception by means of the emission
Identity-philosophy: In general the term has of little particles (eidola) from the sense object.
been applied to any theory which failed to dis- This theory and the term, idolum, are known
tinguish between spirit and matter, subject and throughout the later middle ages, but in a
object, regarding them as an undifferentiated pejorative sense, as indicating a sort of "second-
unity; hence such a philosophy is a species of hand" knowledge. G. Bruno is usually credited
monism. In the history of philosophy it usually with the earliest Latin use of the term to name
signifies the system which has been called Iden- that which leads philosophers into error, but
titatsphilosophie by Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling, this is an unmerited honor. The most famous
who held that spirit and nature are fundament- usage occurs in F. Bacon's Novum Organum, I,
ally the same, namely, the Absolute. Neither the 39-68, where the four chief causes of human
ego nor the non-ego are the ultimate principles error in philosophy and science are called: the
of being; they are both relative concepts which Idols of the Tribe (weakness of understanding
are contained in something absolute. This is in the whole human race), of the Cave (indi-
the supreme principle of Absolute Identity of the vidual prejudices and mental defects), of the
ideal and the real. Reasoning does not lead us Forum (faults of language in the communica-
to the Absolute which can only be attained by tion of ideas), and of the Theatre (faults aris-
immediate intellectual intuition. In it we find ing from received systems of philosophy). A
the eternal concepts of things and from it we very similar teaching, without the term, idol,
can derive everything else. are obliged We to had been developed by Grosseteste and Roger
conceive the Absolute Identity as the indiffer- Bacon in the 13th century. V.J.B.
ence of the ideal and the real. Of course, this Ignorance: (Lat. in, not -f- noscere, to become
is God in Whom all opposites are united. He acquainted with) Partial or complete absence of
is the unity of thought and being, the subjective knowledge.- A.C.B.
and the objective, form and essence, the general Ignoratio elenchi: The fallacy of irrelevance,
and infinite, and the particular and finite. This i.e., of proving a conclusion which is other
than
teaching is similar to that of Spinoza. JJ.R. that required or which does not contradict the

Ideogenetic Theory: (Gr. eidos, idea -f- genesis, thesis which it was undertaken to refute. A. C.
origin) Theory of Brentano (see Brentano, I kuan: The "one thread" or central principle
Franz) and other phenomenologists (see Phe- that runs through the teachings of Confucius.
nomenology) which holds that judgment is an See Chung yung. This is interpreted as:
original act of consciousness directed towards (a) The Confucian doctrine of being true to
presentations. The term is a translation of the the principles of one's nature (chung) and the
German ideogenetische Urteile. L.W. benevolent exercise of them in relation to others
Ideological: 1. Pertaining to the school of Con- (hu), by Confucius' pupil, Tseng Tzfl.
dillac and hie French followers of the early (b) The central principle of centrality and
19th century. harmony (chung yung) by which all human
Pertaining to theories determined by cul-
2. affairs and natural phenomena may be under-
tural environment or non-rational interests. stood, (Early Confucianism.)
3. Idle, unrealistic, fanciful. W.L. (c) "Man and things forming one organic
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 141

unity," there being no discrimination between similitude in general. The idea that Scholasticism
the self and the non-self. (Ch'eng I-ch'uan, believed that the mind contains literally "copies"
1033-1107.) of the objective world is mistaken interpretation
(d) Sincerity (ch'Sng), which is the way of due to misunderstanding of the terms. R.A.
Heaven, indestructible, by which all things are Imageless Thought: Conceptual meanings not
in proper places. Sincerity is the thread
their embodied in sensuous imagery. The existence of
that runs through all affairs and things; and image less thought was a subject of controversy
being true to the principles of one's nature and among American and German psychologists
the benevolent exercise of them in relation to about 1910 imageless thought was affirmed by
j

others is the way to try to be sincere. (Chu Kulpe, and Buhler, but was rejected by Tit-
Hsi, 1130-1200.) chener. L.W.
(e) The "one" is the Great Ultimate in gen- Imagination: Imagination designates a mental
eral and the "thread" is the Great Ultimate in The revival of sense
process consisting of: (a)
each thing. (Chu Hsi.) W.T.C. images derived from earlier perceptions (the
Illative: Having to do with inference. A.C. reproductive imagination), and (b) the com-
Illicit importance, fallacy of: The mistake of bination of these elementary images into new
assuming that because a proposition is self- unities (the creative or productive imagination.)
evident, it is therefore important. H.H. The creative imagination is of two kinds: (a)
Illicit process of the major: In the categorical the fancy which is relatively spontaneous and
syllogism (Logic, formal, 5), the conclusion uncontrolled, and (b) the constructive imagina-
cannot be a proposition E or O unless the major tion, exemplified in science, invention and phi-
term appears in its premiss as distributed i.e., as losophy which is controlled by a dominant plan
subject of a proposition A or E, or the predicate or purpose. L.W.
of a proposition E or 0. Violation of this rule Imitation: In aesthetics, the general theory that
is the fallacy of illicit process of the major. artistic creation is primarily an imitative or
A.C. and the work of art an
revelatory process,
Illicit process of the minor: In the categorical imitation or representation. Such theories hold
syllogism (logic, formal, 5), the conclusion that the artist discovers, and in his work imi-
cannot be a proposition A or E unless the minor tates, real Forms, and not
physical objects -,

term appears in its premiss as distributed i.e., as art is conceived as a revelation of a spiritual
the subject of a proposition A or E, or the realm, and so as the exhibition of the essential
predicate of a proposition E or O. Violation character of the particular object represented.
of this rule is the fallacy of illicit -process of the The work of art reveals adequately the essence
minor. A.C. which the physical thing manifests inadequately.
Illumination: Source of contemplation; trans- In modern expressionistic theory, imitation is
figuration of emotional life for the attainment conceived as servile reproduction of obvious ex-
of measure and harmony (Schleiermacher). ternal qualities, a mere copying of a particular,
L.V. and so is denounced. I.J.
Illusion: (Lat. in -f ludere, to play) An illusion Immanence: (late Lat. Immanere, to remain in)
of sense is an erroneous perception arising from The state of being immanent, present, or in
a misinterpretation of data of sense because they 1. In Medieval Scholasticism a cause
dwelling.
are produced under unusual conditions of per- is immanent whose effects are exclusively within

ception, physical, physiological or psychological. the agent, as opposed to transient. 2. For Kant
Illusion contrasts with hallucination in which the immanent is experiential as opposed to non-
the sensuous ingredients are totally absent. See or transcendent. 3. In modern
experiential
Delusion; Hallucination. L.W. metaphysics and theology immanence signifies
Illusionism: The view that the spatial-temporal presence (of essence, being, power, etc.), as op-
external world is merely a veil of may a, a posed to absence. According to pantheism the
phantasmagoria. Not only is everything illusion, essence of God or th Absolute is completely
deception, appearance, but existence itself has immanent in the world, i.e. is identical with it.
no real value. (Schopenhauer.) H.H. According to Deism God is essentially absent or
Image: (Lat. imago, likeness) sensory quality A transcendent from the world. According to im-
reinstated by the mind in the absence of sensory manent theism He is both immanent (in pres-
stimulation. L. W. ence and activity) and transcendent (in essence)
Medieval: Image and Similitude are frequent- with respect to it. Mysticism in its broadest
ly used by the medieval scholars. Neither of sense posits the mutual immanence of the human
them needs mean copy. Sometimes the terms are and the divine. W.L.
nearly synonymous with sign in general. The Immanence philosophy: In Germany an ideal-
alteration of the sense organs when affected by istic type of philosophy represented by Wilhelm
some external objectis an image of the latter
Schuppe (1836-1913), which combines elements
(species sensibilis) so^ is the memory image
$ or of British empiricism, Kant, and Fichte. It re-
phantasm. The intelligible species resulting from jects any non-conscious thing-in-itself, and iden-
the operation of the active intellect on the tifies the Real with consciousness considered as

phantasm is not less an image of the universal an inseparable union of the "I" and its objects.
nature than the concept and the word expressing The categories are restricted to identity-differ-
the latter is. Images in the sense of copies
strict ence and causality. To the extent that the con-
or pictures are only a particular case of image or tent of finite consciousness is common to all or*
142 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"trans-subjective" it is posited at the object of to deduce immortality from properties of the
t World Coniciouiness or Betousstsein Utber- soul such as simplicity, independence of the
haupt. Consequently the World is "immanent" body, its knowledge of eternal truth, etc.
in each finite consciousness rather than essen- (b) Valuational and moral -arguments seek
tially transcendent. W.L. to derive the immortality of the soul from its
Immanent and Transient Activity: In logic, supreme worth or as a presupposition of its
the activity of the mind which produces no effect moral nature.
upon the object of knowledge is called imma- (c) Empirical arguments which adduce as
nent} that which does have such an effect is evidence of immortality, automatic writing,
called transient (or According
transitive). to mediumship and other spiritualistic phenomena.
Kant, the immanent use of the understanding L.W.
is valid, since it deals only with subject-matter Immutability: Changelessness, or the state or
furnished by the senses} while the transcendent quality of not being susceptible to any altera-
effort to conceive of things as they are in them- tion. An attribute of God denoting that His
selves is illegitimate. In Christian theology, nature is essentially incapable of any internal
Jesus was created by an immanent act, and the change whatsoever. JJ.R.
world by a transient act J.K.F. Impersonalism: The mechanistic conception of
Immanent Theism: Doctrine that God is both the unconditional regularity of nature in me-
immanent and transcendent with respect to the chanics, physics, and the sciences of the living
World. This view differs from Pantheism (q.v.) organism. Opposite of Personalism. R.T.F.
by denying that God's essence is identical with Implication: See Logic, formal, 1, 3; Strict
that of the World. W.L. implication,
Immaterialism : Doctrine of the non-existence of Importation: The form of valid inference of the
material or Corporeal reality. Pure Idealism. prepositional calculus from
9 [B a C] to A
W.L. AB =* C. The law of importation is the theo-
Immateriality: (Scholastic) Immaterial substances rem of the prepositional calculus:
are the human soul and the subsistent forms, IP
=>
C?
=
'31 3 [/*
=>
r]. A.C.
the angels. The rational faculties of the human Imposition: In Scholastic logic, grammatical
soul, intellect and will are called immaterial terms such as noun, pronoun, verb, tense, con-
and believed to need no bodily organ for their jugation were classed as terms of second im-
performances, although they depend on the position) other terms as of first imposition. The
senses for their activities. Their immateriality latter were subdivided into terms of first and
is proved by their capacity of becoming cog- second intention (q. v.).A.G.
nizant of the univrrsals and of reflection on Impredicative definition: Poincarl, in a pro-
own performances. R.A.
their posed resolution (1906) of the paradoxes of
Immediacy: (Lat. in -f medius, middle) Im- Burali-Forti and Richard (see Paradoxes, logi-
mediacy is used in two senses: cal), introduced the principle that, in making a
(a) Contrasted with representation, immediacy definition of a particular member of any class,
is the direct presence to the mind of the object no reference should be allowed to the totality
of knowledge. See Presentational immediacy. of members of that class. Definitions in viola-
(b) Contrasted with mediation, immediacy tion of this principlewere called impredicative
consists in the absence or minimal and sub- (non predicatives) and were held to involve a
merged presence of inference, interpretation and vicious circle.
'

construction in any process of knowledge. In The prohibition against impredicative defini-

and memory are relatively
this sense perception tion was incorporated by Russell into his rami-
immediate whereas scientific and philosophical fied theory of types (1908) and is now usually
theories are mediate. L.W. identified with die restriction to the ramified
Immediate inference See Logic, :
formal, 4. theory of types without the axiom of reducibil-
Immoralism: Moral indifference; in general the ity. (Poincare', however, never made his prin-
combating of traditional morality. (Nietzsche.) ciple exact and may have intended, vaguely, a
H.H. less severe restriction than this as indeed some
Immortality: (Lat. in -f mortalis, mortal) The passages in later writings would indicate.)
doctrine that the soul or personality of man A. C.
survives the death of the body. The two prin- H. Poiocare, Us matbematiques et la h*ique,
Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale, vol. 14
cipal conceptions of immortality are: (a) tem- (1906), pp. J94-317. R. Carnap, Tie Logical
poral immortality^ the indefinite continuation of Syntax of Language, New York and London, 1937.
the individual mind after death and (b) eter- Impression: Act or process of affecting) effect or
nity, ascension of the soul to a higher plane of influence of such, especially psychological) im-
timelessness. mediate or momentary effect) stimulation of
Immortality is properly speaking restricted to neural processes apart from its effect) immediate
post-existence (survival after death) but is ex- effect in consciousness of neural stimulation}
tended by the theory of transmigration of souls. immediate, uninterpreted datum of consciousness,
(See Metempsychosis) to include pre-existence especially of aesthetic objects) sensuous image;
(life before birth). relatively vivid perceptual datum as against a
The arguments for immortality fall into four fainter idea. See Hume. M.T.K.
groups: Impressionism: As a general artistic movement,
(a) Metaphysical arguments which attempt the theory that art should strive only to reveal
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 143

.the felt quality of an object} scene, or

event; i.e. to be inconsistent if their conjunction is impos-
the total effect that it create* in the artist. sible. 4.C.
Specifically in painting, the general idea under* Incontinence: (Gr. akrasia) Moral condition of
lying practice is to fender the immediate visual a person unable to control his bodily desires by
appearance of the object, independently of its rational principles. The incontinent man is
physical structure and its meaning for the mind. distinguished from the licentious in that in the
Emphasis is placed on capturing ephemeral sur- one case there is a conflict between bodily de-
face aspects of things as disclosed by changes in sires and rational choice and in the other case
light, neglecting any supposed real thing which not (Aristotle). G.R.M.
undergoes these changes and underlies these Indefinite potentiality, error of: Inadequate
aspects. /./. HJI.
analysis of causation.
In and for itself: (Ger. an und fur $ich) An tick Independence: In a set of postulates for a
is the given primary, latent, undeveloped im- mathematical discipline (see Mathematics), a
mediacy. The bare intrinsic and inherent essence particular postulate is said to be independent if
of an object. Fur sick is a greater, developed it cannot be proved as a consequence of the

intensity of immediacy) an object genuinely in- others. A non-independent postulate is thus

dependent either of consciousness or of other superfluous, and should be dropped.
things) something for itself. In and for itself In a logistic system (q. v.), a primitive for-
belongs to the Absolute alone. Its asserted in- mula or a primitive rule of inference may be
dependence is the developed result of its nature aid to be independent if there are theorems of
and as a system of internal relations it is inde- the system which would cease to be theorems
pendent of external relations. H.H. upon omission of the primitive formula or
Incomplete symbol: A symbol (or expression) primitive rule of inference. -A.C.
which has no meaning in isolation but which Incieterminism : (Lat in -f determinate, pp. of
may occur as a constituent part in, and con- determinate) Theory that volitional decisions
tribute to the meaning of, an expression which are in certain cases independent of antecedent
does have a meaning. Thus as ordinarily em- physiological and psychological causation. See
ployed a terminal parenthesis ) is an incom- Free-Will , Determinism. L.W.
plete symbol} likewise the letter
ap- X which Index: (Lat indicare, to indicate) directing A
signs that which indicates. Employed by C. S.
pears in the notation for functional abstraction
(q. v.)j etc.
Peirce (1839-1914) logic, or semiotic, as
in
that sign which refers to an object by virtue of
An expression A introduced by contextual defi-
being affected by it See: Sign.J.K.F.
nition by a definition which construes
i.e.,
Indian Aesthetics: Art in India is one of the
particular kinds of expressions containing A, as
abbreviations or substitutes for certain expres- most diversified subjects. Sanskrit silpa included

sions not containing A, but provides no such all crafts, fine art, architecture and ornament,

construction for A
is an incomplete sym-
itself dancing, acting, music and even coquetry. Be-
bol in this In Principia Mathematicat
sense. hind all these endeavors is a deeprooted sense

notations for classes, and descriptions (more of absolute values derived from Indian philoso-

correctly, notations which serve some of the phy (q.v.) which teaches the incarnation of the
purposes that would be served by notations for
divine (KrfQa, Shiva, Buddha), the transitori-
classes and by descriptions) are introduced in ness of life (cf. samsara), the symbolism and

this way by contextual definition. A. C. conditional nature of the phenomenal (cf.

Whitehead and Russell. Principia Matbemttica, may a). Love

of splendour and exaggerated
vol. 1. greatness,dating back to Vedic (q.v.) times
Inconceivability: The property of being some- mingled with a grand simplicity in die concep-
unthinkable. tion of ultimate being and a keen perception
thing that is Having self-contra-
dictory properties such that mental representa-
and nature observation. The latter is illustrated
tion is impossible. In metaphysics, Herbert in examples of verisimilous execution in sculp-
ture and painting, the detailed description in a
Spencer's criterion of truth, that whsn the denial
of a proposition is incapable of being conceived wealth of drama and story material, and the
the proposition to be accepted as necessary or
is universal love of simile. With an urge for ex-
true. Syn. with InconceptiMe. 7.AT.F. pression associated itself the metaphysical in its
practical and seemingly other-worldly aspects
Inconsistency: As applied to logistic systems, the
and, aided perhaps by the exigencies of climate,
opposite of consistency (q. v.).
yielded the grotesque as illustrated by the cave
Aset of prepositional functions it inconsistent
temples of Ellora and Elephanta, the apparent
if there it some prepositional function such that
barbarism of female ornament covering up all
their conjunction formally implies (see Logic ,
organic beauty, the exaggerated, symbol-laden
formal) 3) both it and its negation.
representations of divine and thereanthropic be-
A set of sentences M inconsistent if there is ings, a music with minute subdivisions of scale,
some sentence A
such that there is a valid in- and the like. As Indian philosophy is dominated
ference from them to A and also from them to
by a monistic, Vedintic (q.v.) outlook, so in
^'A. Indian esthetics we can notice the prevalence
If the notion of possibility is admitted, in the of an introvert unitary, soul-centric, self-in-
sense of a modality (see Modality^ and Strict tegrating tendency that treats the empirical sug-
implication), a set of propositions may be said gestively and by way of simile, trying to stylize
144 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the natural in form, behavior, and expression.
The popular belief in the immanence as well as
transcendence of the Absolute precludes thus
the possibility of a complete naturalism or imi-
tation. The whole range of Indian art therefore
demands a sharing and re-creation
values glimpsed by the artist and professedly
communicated imperfectly. Rules
sions of the various aspects of
found in the &ilpa-iastras, while theoretical
treatments are available in such works as the
Dasarupa in dramatics, the Nrtya-sstras
dancing, the Sukranltisara in the relation
art to state craft, etc. Periods and influences of
Indian art, such as the Buddhist, Kushan, Gupta,
etc., may be consulted in any history of Indian
art. K.F.L.
Indian Ethics: Ethical speculations are inherent
in Indian philosophy (q.v.) with
karma, moksa, ananda (q.v.).
salvation is universal, hence optimism rather
than pessimism is prevalent even though one's
own life is sometimes treated contemptuously,
fatalism is embraced or the doctrine of non-
attachment and desirelessness is subscribed to.
Social institutions, thoughts, and habits in India
are interdependent with the theory of karma
and the belief in universal law and order (cf.
dharma). For instance, caste exists because
dharma is inviolable j man is born
circumstances because he reaps
sown. Western influence, in changing
institutions, will eventually also modify Indian
ethical theories. All the same, great moral
sensitiveness is not lacking, rather much the
contrary, as is proven by the voluminous story
and didactic fable literature which has also
acted on the West. Hindu moral conscience is
evident from the ideals of womanhood (sym-
bolized in SIta),of loyalty (symbolized in Hanu-
man), of kindness to all living beings (cf.
ahimsa), of tolerance (the racial and religious
hotchpotch which is India being an eloquent
witness), the great respect for the samnyasin
(who, as a member of the Brahman caste has
precedence over the royal or military). Critics
confuse and the wretched conduct of some
Hindus confirm the indistinction practical mor-
ality with the fearless statements of metaphysics
pursued with relentless logic "beyond good and
evil."
Periods of despondency and inactivity or even
degeneracy and depravity in India have kept
pace with disastrous political developments. But
a joy in life's pursuits is evident from the
earliest Vedic period and is to be traced in the
multifariousness of Indian culture and the color-
ful Indian history itself which has left the
Hindus one of the ancient races still virile among
nations and capable of assimilation without it-
self becoming extinct. Happiness may be en-
joyed even in the severest penance and asceti-
cism for which India is noted, while a certain
concomitant heroism seems undeniable.
The ethical teachings of the Bhagavad Glta
(q.v.), of the various religio-philosophical
groups, of the Buddhists and Jainas of Greater
India, are high; but if such ideals have not
been attained generally in practice, or even if
repulsive and cruel rituals and ling a worship
are prevalent, such phenomena are understand-
able if we consider the 340 millions of teeming
of absolute humanity within the fold of Hinduism, from
aborigines to a Gandhi, Tagore, and Sir Raman.
and discus- Treatises dealing with practical morality are
art may be very numerous. They may be classed into those
of a puicly religious leaning among which we
might count all religio-philosophical literature
in of the Vedic and non-Vedic tradition, including
of drama and epic literature, and those that deal
specifically with practices of the nature of self-
culture (cf. Yoga), religious observances (sacri-
fice, priest-craft, rites, ceremonies, etc.), house-
hold affairs and duties (Gfhyasutras), and the
science of polity and government (ArthaSastras).
its concepts of AT.F.L.
Belief in Indian Philosophy: General name designating a
plethora of more or less systematic thinking
born and cultivated in the geographic region of
India among the Hindus who represent an
amalgamation of adventitious and indigenous
peoples, but confined at first exclusively to the
caste-conscious Indo-germanic conquerors of the
lands of the Indus and Ganges. Its beginnings
are lost in the dim past, while a distinct emer-
gence in tangible form is demonstrable from
into his about 1000 B.C. Hindu idiosyncrasies are re-
what he has sponsible for our inability to date with any
Indian degree of accuracy many of the systems, schools,
and philosophers, or in some cases even to refer
to the latter by name. Inasmuch as memory,
not writing, has been universally favored in
India, an aphoristic form (cf. sutra\ subtended
by copious commentaries, give Indian Philoso-
phy its distinctive appearance. The medium is
Sanskrit and the dialects derived from it. There
are translations in all major Asiatic and Euro-
pean languages. The West became familiar with
it when philologists discovered during last cen-
tury the importance of Sanskrit. As a type of
thinking employing unfamiliar conceptions and
a terminology fluctuating in meaning (cf., e.g.,
rasa), it is distinctfrom Western speculations.
Several peaks have been reached in the past,
yet Indian Philosophy does not cease to act
fructifyingly upon the present mind in India as
elsewhere. Various factions advance conflicting
claims as to the value of Indian speculation,
because interpretations have not as yet become
standardized. Textual criticism is now making
strides, but with
varying successes. Among
larger Indian Philosophy may be
histories of
mentioned those of Deussen, Das Gupta, Bel-
valkar and Ranade, and Radhakrishnan.
Philosophic speculations, heavily shrowded by
"pre-logical" and symbolic language, started
with the poetic, ritualistic Vedas (q.v.), luxuriat-
ing in polytheism and polyanthropoism, was then
fostered by the Brahman caste in treatises called
Aranyakas (q.v.) and Brahmanas (q.v.) and
strongly promoted by members of the ruling
caste who instituted philosophic congresses in
which peripatetic teachers and women participated,
and of which we know through the Upanishads
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 145
(q.v.). Later, the main bulk of Indian Philosophy of individuals may be taken as
synonymous with
articulated itself organically into systems forming the term universe
of discourse (in the sense of
the nucleus for such famous schools as the which
Boole) is
employed in connection with
Mrmimsi and and Yoga,
Vedanta, SSnkhya the algebra of classes. See Logic,, formal, 3,
Nyaya and Vaise?ika, and those of Buddhism 6, 7. 21. c.
and Jainism (all of which see). Numerous Individualism : The doctrine that emphasizes the
other philosophic and quasi philosophic systems reality of the individual and concrete. Differs
are found in the epic literature and elsewhere from Per son all sm (q.v.) R.T.F.
(cf., e.g., Shaktism, Shivaism, Trika, Vishnuism), In political
philosophy, the doctrine that the
or remain to be discovered. Much needs to be stateexists for the
individual, not vice versa.
translated by competent philosophers. In political economy, laissez
faire system of
All Indian doctrines orient themselves by the competition.
Vedas, accepting or rejecting their authority. In Individual Psychology: (a) In the widest sense,
ranging from materialism to acosmism and ni- individual psychology is one of the major de-
hilism, from physiologism to spiritualism, real- of psychology, comparable to such
partments^
ism to idealism, monism to pluralism, atheism other major subdivisions as
experimental psy-
and pantheism, Hindus believe they have ex- chology, abnormal psychology, comparative psy-
hausted allphilosophic attitudes (cf.
possible chology, etc, It is the branch of psychology
darsana), which they feel supplement rather devoted to the investigation of mental varia-
than exclude each other. A
universal feature is tions among individuals and includes such topics
the fusion of religion, metaphysics, ethics and as: character and temperament (see Character-
psychology, due to the universal acceptance of ology) mental types, genius, criminality, intelli-
a psycho-physical! sm, further exemplified in the gence, testing,etc. Attention was first directed
typical doctrines of karma and samsara (q.v.). to individual differences by Francis Gallon
Rigorous logic is nevertheless applied in theo- (Hereditary Genius, 1869). Gallon's method
logy where metaphysics passes into eschatology was applied to mental
deficiency by Dugdale
(cf., e.g., is) and the generally accepted belief (The Jukes, 1877) and Gallon himself extended
in the cyclic nature of the cosmos oscillating the same type of
inquiry to free association and
between srsti ("throwing out") and pralaya imagery in Inquiries into Human Faculty,
(dissolution) of the absolute reality (cf. dbhasa), 1883. A more recent contribution to individual
and in psychology, where epistemology seeks psychology is Cattell's American Men of Science
practical outlets in Yoga (q.v.). With a genius (1906).
for abstraction, thinkers were and are almost (b) In a somewhat more restricted
sense, in-
invariably hedonistically motivated by the de- dividual psychology, in contrast to folk
psy-
sire to overcome the evils of existence in the chology, group psychology or social
psychology
hope of attaining liberation (cf. moksa) and is the investigation of the individual
considered
everlasting bliss (cf. ananda, nirvana). K.F.L. so
far as possible
apart from the influence
Indifferents : (Gr. adiaphora) In Stoic ethics of the social of which he is a member.
group
those things which are in themselves neither (c) Finally ihe term "individual"
psychology
good nor bad, as producing neither virtue nor has been appropriated by a
special school of
vice; such as life, health, pleasure, beauty, analytic psychology (see
Psychoanalysis), namely
wealth, noble birth, and their contraries. The that of Alfred Adler. See A.
Adler, Problems of
Stoics further distinguished between indifferenta Neurosis} E. Wexberg, Individual
Psychology.
that are to be preferred (proegmena) and those
T j. -j
L.W.
that are not to be preferred (apoproegmena). Individuation: The constitution of a
reality as a
The former, though not goods, have a certain singular member of a species. In the context
value and are the objects of natural inclination. of the matter and form
theory it is difficult to
G.R.M explain how either prime matter (which is in
Indirect proof: See Reductio ad absurdum. itself the same in all physical
things), or sub-
Indiscernibles, Principle of: (Lat. indiscerni- stantial form (which is the same in all mem-
indistinguishable) In the philosophy of
bilis, bers of the same species), can be the cause or
Leibniz (Monadologie, IX $ Nouv. Essais, II, principle of individuality. See Thomism, Scotism,
22), no two monads can be exactly alike. Suareviantsm, for various explanations. VJ.B.
Indriya: (Skr.) One of five or more sensory
Individual: In formal logic, the individuals form functions or "senses", conceived
generally in
the first or lowest type of Russell's hierarchy of Indian philosophy kinetically as powers sub-
types. In the Principia Mathematica of White- servient to manas (q.v.). A common division is
head and Russell, individuals are "defined as into the quintads of karmendriyas and
(q.v.)
whatever is neither a proposition nor a func- fndnendriyas (s.v.). K.F.L.
tion." It is unnecessary, however, to give the Induction: (Lai. in and ducere, to lead in) i.e.,
word any such specral significance, and for to lead 'into the field of attention a number of
many purposes it is better (as is often done) to observed particular facts as ground for a
gen-
take the individuals to be an arbitrary or an eral assertion. "Perfect" induction is assertion
arbitrary infinite domain) or any particular concerning all the entilies of a collection on
well-defined domain may be taken as the domain the basis of examination of each a**d
every one
of individuals, according to the purpose in of them. The conclusion sums
up but does not
hand. When used in this way, the term domain go beyond the facts observed. Ordinarily, how-
 146 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ever, "induction" is used mean ampliative
to a picture is in fieri, when the painter is painting
inference as distinguished from explicative) i.e., the canvas, but it is said to be in facto when
it is the sort of inference which attempts to the picture has already been painted. H.G.
reach a conclusion concerning all the members Infima species: The lowest species of a classi-
of a from observation of only some of
class fication. In Aristotle, the individual. R.B.W.
them. Conclusions inductive in this sense are Infinite: Opposite of finite (q. v.), as applied to
only probable, in greater or less degree accord- classes, cardinal and ordinal numbers, sequences,
the etc. See further Cardinal number; Limit.
ing to the precautions taken in selecting A.C.
evidence for them. Induction is conceived by Infinitesimal : In a phraseology which is logically
S. Mill, and generally, as essentially an inexact but nevertheless common, an infinitesimal
J.
evidencing process; but Whewell conceives it as is a quantity, or a variable, whose limit is 0.

essentially discovery, viz., discovery of some

con- Thus in considering the limit of /(*) as x ap-
ception, not extracted from the
set of particular proaches c, if this limit is the "quantity" /(*)
facts but nevertheless capable of "col-
observed, may be said to be an infinitesimal; or in consid-

ligating" them, i.e., of expressing them ering the limit of /(*) as x approaches 0, the
all at

once, (or, better stated, of making it possible "quantity" x may be said to be an infinitesimal.
to deduce them). For example, Kepler's state- (See the article limit.) A.C.
ment that the orbit of Mars is an ellipse repre- Infinity: An endless extent of space, time, or any
sented the discovery by him that the concep- series. conceived negatively, as hav-
Is usually
tion of the ellipse "colligated" all the observed ing no termination; may be conceived positively,
positions of Mars. Mill's view of induction
di- in respect to reality as actually
extending with-
rectly fits the process of empirical generaliza- out end. R.B.W.
tion} that of Whewell, rather the theoretical, Infinity,, axiom of: See Logic, formal, 6, 9.
explanatory part of the task of science. Charles Ingression: According to A. N. Whitehead, par-
Peirce, viewing induction as generalization, con- ticipation of potentialities in the creation of
trasts it not only with inference from antecedent complex actualities; "a concretion that is, a
to consequent("deduction") but also with in- growing together of diverse elements."
ference from consequent to antecedent, called by R.B.W.
him "hypothesis" (also called by him "abducr Innate Ideas: (Lat, innatis, inborn) The power
tion" (q.v.), but better termed "diagnosis). of understanding given in the very nature of
CJ.D. mind. Such ideas are spoken of as a priori.
Induction, complete or mathematical: See Ideas which are inborn and come with the mind
Recursion. at birth, such as God or immortality. More
In ease, in intellect!!, in re: Medieval Latin generally, ideas which all men as human and
in being, necessarily and universally
expressions of which the first signifies, rational, possess.
in existence} the second, in the intellect, espe- Locke's arguments against Descartes' belief
cially as a general idea formed by the process
of in innate ideas (cf. Essay on the Human Under-

abstraction} the third,- in a really existing thing standing, bk. I) were the target of Leibniz's
outside the mind. One may add that in the Nouveaux Essats, 1701 1765). M.F.
(publ. in
matter of is the commonly known signification Innatism: (Lat. in -f- inborn) A theory
natus,
of the third. JJ.R. of philosophy in which ideas, or principles, are
Inference: (Lat. in +
ferre, to bear) The process considered to be present in the mind at birth,
of reasoning whereby starting from one or more either fully formed or requiring some additional

propositions accepted as true, the mind passes experience for their complete formulation.
to another proposition or propositions whose VJ.B.
truth believed to be involved in the truth of
is Inner sense: The capacity of feeling immediately,
the former. Inference is a psychological process (i.e. unconditioned by the knowledge of prin-
connecting propositions asserted to be true and ciples, causes, or advantages) the beauty and
is to be distinguished from implication, the harmony (or their opposites) of material objects.

logical relation which holds between the same ( Francis Hutcheson. ) K.E.G.
propositions when the inference is valid. An Innervation, Sensation of: (Lat. in -f- nervus,
inference is valid when a genuine implicative nerve) Sensation accompanying the efferent
relation holds between the propositions; invalid nerve currents which discharge from the central
when there is no such implicative relation. In- nervous system into the muscles. The existence
ference deductive or inductive according as
is of such a sensation has been much disputed by
the underlying logic is deduction (see Deduc- psychologists. (See W. James, The Principles
tion) or induction (see Induction). W. B. of Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 498 ft.) L.W.
Joseph, An Introduction to Logic. L. S. Steb- Insolubilia: See Paradoxes, logical.
bing, Modern Introduction to Logic. J. Cook Inspection: (Lat. inspection, from inspectus, pp.
Wilson, Statement and Inference. B. Bosanquet, of inspicere, to look into) Rudimentary knowl-
Implication and Linear Inference. L.W. edge of qualities and relations between qualities
See Logic, formal and Valid inference. as given in immediate experience, (see Presenta-
In fieri: (in Scholasticism) A thing is said to be tional Immediacy) in contradistinction to per-
in fieri when it is beginning to be, but is not yet ception, memory, introspection and other higher
complete. It is said to be in facto when it exists cognitive processes which are conversant not
completely in the nature of things with those with qualities but with objects. L.W.
constituent parts with which it remains. Thus Institutions: (Lat. instituere, to cause to stand)
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 147

(a) Establishments. Relatively permanent group intellect by imagination, memory aad the fo

behavior patterns or established social practices,
as distinguished from temporary
patterns.
(b) Socially established behavior patterns, au-
thoritatively or legally enforced, as distinguished
from Folkways which are merely taken-for-
granted common but uncompelled ways of be-
havior and as distinguished from "mores" which
are enforced by group opinion rather than by
legally authorized means. A.J.B.
Instrumentalist!! : See Pragmatism.
Instrumental theory: The mind
existentially independent body, either
of the
existing prior to the body, or after the destruc-
tion of the body. (Broad.) H.H.
Instrumental value: See Value y Instrumental.
Integral: A whole composed of parts. Belonging
to a whole as one of its parts. Anything com-
un-
posed of distinguishable parts. Complete,
touched. In mathematics, related to integers \
the result of integration. 7.AT.F.
Integration: (Lat. integrate, to make whole) The
act of making a whole out of parts. In mathe-
cogitativa co-operating. The internal senses are
practices or conceived as being bound to organic functions
of the brain. The intellect operates in a two-
fold manner, but is only one. As active intellect
(intelltc^ agent) it "illuminates" the phan-
tasm, disengaging there from the universal na-
ture) as passive intellect (int. pessttilit) it is
informed by the result of this abstractive opera-
tion and develops the concept. Concepts are
united into judgments by combination and divi-
sion (assertion and negation). Judgments are
is a substance related to each other in syllogistic reasoning or
by the abbreviated form of enthymeme. Aquinas
denies to the intellect the capacity of becoming
aware of particulars in any direct way. The in-
tellect knows of them (e.g. when asserting:
Socrates is a man) only indirectly by reflecting
on its own operations and finally on the phan-
tasm which served as starting point Proposi-
tions, however, have no directly corresponding
phantasm. Later Scholastics credit the intellect
with a direct knowledge of particulars (Suarez).
See Abstraction, Faculty. R.A.

matics, a limiting process which may

be de- Intellectualism : (aesthetics) a. The "Intellectual
scribed in vague terms as summing up an Principle" is supreme beauty (Plotinus).
infinite number of infinitesimals, part of the b. "Intellectual Intuition" turned objective is

calculus. In psychology, the combination of esthetic intuition (Schelling). L.V.

a complex unified Intellectual virtues : See Dianoetic virtues,
psycho-physical elements into
organization. In cosmology, the synthetic philos- Intelligence: (Lat. intelligentia, from intellegere,
the evolutionary to understand) The capacity of the mind to
ophy of Spencer holds that

process is marked by two movements! integra-

meet effectively through the employment of
tion and differentiation. Integration consists in memory, imagination and conceptual thinking
the development of more and more complex the practical and theoretical problems with which

organizations. Inverse of: differentiation (q.v.).

it is confronted. Intelligence is more inclusive
J.K.F. than intellect* which is primarily conceptual.
Intellect: intellects from intellegere, to See Intellect.
(Lat.
understand) cognitive faculty of the mind
The In Dewey (q.v.), intelligence is the basic
as it operates at higher abstract and conceptual instrument, to be contrasted with fixed habit,
levels. L.W. traditional customs, and the sheer force of
St. Augustine distinguished the intellect political or bureaucratic power as means of
from reason* aliud tit intellect ,
aliud settling social issues. L.W .

ratio. Intellection would be impossible without Intelligence, creative: A term denoting the
reason: Intelligere non valemus, nisi rationem presence of self-consciousness, self-direction and
habeamus. The intellect is the soul itself: Non purpose in the creative processes of the world.
enim aliquid aliud est quam anima t sed aliquid Syn. in Personalism for God, elan vital, but
animae est intellectus. It rules the soul: In- in naturalism of Dewey, divorced from such
tellects animam regit t ad ipsam animam perti- association. R.T.F.
nens. Sometimes the intellectus is called intelli- Intelligible: Understandable) comprehensi-
(1)
gentia. Both the intellect and reason are innate ble j knowable) meaningful) (2) Orderly) logi-
in the mind} mens cut ratio et 4ntelligentia cal) coherent) rational) (3) Communicable) ex-
naturalitcr inest. Reason seeks knowledge or pressible) (4) Having unity of principle) cap-
science, scitntta, while the intellect, which is able of complete rational explanation or under-

higher, aims at wisdom, sapientia, or the con- standing) capable of causal explanation) (5)
templation of eternal things, and especially God. Clear to natural or pure reason) apprehensible
-JJ.R. by the intellect (q.v.) only as against appre-
Whence, in typical Scholastic or me-
the hensible through the senses) conceptual as
dieval notion, intellect is an immaterial faculty against perceptual) conceptually describable or
of the soul, that is, its operations are performed explainable) (6) Capable of being known syn-
without a bodily organ, though they depend on optically or as it is in itself or in essence)
the body and its senses for the material from capable of being known through itself as against
which they receive their first impulse. Nothing by agency of something else) graspable by in-
is in the Intellect that has not been previously tuition) self-explanatory) (7) Capable of being
in the senses. The
impressions received by the appreciated or sympathised with) (8) Super-
external senses are synthesized by the internal sensible) of the nature of mind, reason, or their
sensus communis which forms an image or higher powers. M.T.K.
phantasm) the phantasm is presented to the Intension and extension: The btinubn of a
 148 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
concept consists of the
qualities or properties (Ger. Intentionalitdt) In Husserl: 1.
which go to make up
the concept. The exten- (broadest sense) The character of anything
sion of a concept consists of the things which as "intending" or pointing beyond itself}
fall under the concept) (most frequent sense) The
or, according to another self-transcendence. 2.

definition, the extension of a concept consists of character of consciousnessas pointing beyond

the concepts which are subsumed under it itself, as consciousness of something, and as
(determine subclasses). This is the old distinc- having its horizon of co-intendings: noetic in-
tion between intension and extension, and co- tentionality. 3. The character of an object other
incides approximately with the distinction be- thanconsciousness itself as pointing beyond itself,
tween a monadic propositional junction (q. v,) e.g., to its objective background or to something
in intension and a class (q. v.). The words that represents or indicates: objective inten-
it
intension and extension are also used in connec- 4. The character of a
tionality. modality as
tion with a number of distinctions related or pointing back to the original of which it is

analogous to this one, the adjective extensional intrinsically a modification. See phenomenology.
being applied to notions or points of view which
in some respect confine attention to truth-values Intentionally: (in Scholasticism) Same as men-
of propositions as opposed to meanings consti- tally.-//.*?.
tuting propositions. In the case of (interpreted) Intentional Theory of Mind: The definition of
calculi of propositions or propositional
functions,
mind in terms of intentionality (See Intention-
the adjective intentional may mean that account ality) which originated in the Scholastic doc-
is taken of trine of intentio, was revived
modality, extensional that all func- by F. Brentano
tions of propositions which appear are truth- (Psychologie vom empirischen standpunkte,
functions. The extreme of the extensional point 1874) though his influence has become a char-
of view does away with propositions altogether acteristic theory of German
phenomenology. See
and retains only truth-values in their place. Phenomenology. L. W,
A.C. Interactionism : See Interaction Theory.
The Port-Royal Logic, translated by T. S. Interaction Theory: (Lat. inter -}- actio, action)
Baynes (see Introduction by the translator). A dualistic theory of the body-mind relation,
Lewis and Langford, Symbolic Logic, New York
advanced by Descartes (1596-1650), which as-
and London, 1932. R. Carnap, The Logical Syntax
serts a two directional causal influence between
of Language, New York and London, 1937.
Intensive quantity: Any quantity which is such mind and body. See Mind-Body Relation.
that there exists no known physical process of L.W.
addition which a Interest: (Lat. interest, it concerns, 3rd pers.
by greater quantity of the
kind in question could be produced from a lesser sing, ofinteresse, to be between) The char-

quantity; opposed to extensive quantity (?.v.).

acteristic attitude of the mind toward any object
A.C.B. which attracts and absorbs its attention. See
Intent: (Lat. intensus, pp. of intendere, to stretch)
Attention. L.W.
Internal: Inside a thing (or person). Of the
The act of directing the mind towards an ob-
See Intentionality. L.W. thing itself. The relation of part to whole or
ject.
of whole to part, (a) In logic: compare inten-
Intention: In Scholastic logic, first intentions- sion, (b) In metaphysics: die doctrine of in-
were properties or classes of, and relations be-
ternal relations, that all relations are internal,
tween, concrete things. Second intentions were that is, monism, (c) In epistemology: subjective.
properties or classes of, and relations between,
Opposite of external. J.K.F.
first intentions.
Interoceptor: See Receptor.
This suggests the beginning of a simple hier-
Inter subjective: Used and understood by, or
archy of types (see Logic, formal, 6), but actu- valid for different subjects. Especially, i. lan-
ally is not so, because no "third intentions" were
out or
guage, i.
concepts, i.
knowledge, i. confirmabil-
separated distinguished from second. Thus
ity (see Verification). The i. character of science
the general concept of class is a second intention,
is
emphasized by Scientific Empiri-
especially
although some particular classes may also be cism (q. v., I
C). .R.C.
second intentions.
Inter subjective cognition: See Inter subjective
Thomas Aquinas (q. v.) defined logic as the Intercourse.
science of second intentions applied to first in-
Intersubjective intercourse: (Lat. inter -f sub-
tentions. A. C.
iectus) Knowledge by one subject of another
Intentionalism : Theory of mind and knowledge subject or the other's conscious states. (See J.
which considers intentionally a distinctive if
Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, pp. 164-70).
not the defining characteristic of mind and the
L.W.
basis for mind's cognitive and conative func- Intra-ordinal Laws: Connecting properties of ag-
tions. See Intentional Theory of Mind. L.W. gregates of the same order. Laws connecting
Intentionally: (Lat. intentio, from intendere, to the characteristics of living organisms. (Broad.)
stretch) The property of consciousness whereby H.H.
it refersor intends an object. The inten-
to Intrinsic: (Lat. inter, between -f secus, beside)
tional objectis not necessarily a real or existent internal value. Value in the relation of
Having
thing but is merely that which the mental act is parts to whole. J.K.F.
about. Intentionality is the modern equivalent Intrinsic goodness: The property of being good
of the Scholastic intentio. L.W. in itself or good as an end (and not as a
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
means merely) or desirable for its own sake.
Sometimes identified with the property of being
desired for its own sake. According to G.
Moore a thing intrinsically good if
is
be good even if it existed quite alone.
Introception : (in Personal ism) The coalescence
of the world of objective values with his own
substance by which a person attains reality.
Introjection: (Lat. intro. within -f jacere, to
throw) In Epistemology, theory of the knowl-
edge process, that objects of knowledge are rep-
resented in consciousness by images. A name
given by R. Avenarius (1843-1896) to the
doctrine of perception which he rejected. The
doctrine of representative perception. In psy-
chology, the ascription to material objects of
some of the properties of life. More specifically,
in psycho-analysis, the act of absorbing other
personalities into one's own, of assuming that
external events are internal. Opposite of: pro-
jection. J. K.F.
Epistemological theory of Descartes, Locke,
Berkeley that the individual mind is confined
to the circle of its ideas, and that it cognizes
an external world and other minds only by
an outward projection of its inner representa-
tions. The term was employed by
(Kritik der reinen Erjahrung, 1888)
cized the theory and proposed as
his owntheory of pure experience which em-
phasizes the essential solidarity between knowing
subject and object known and has been intro-
duced into English philosophy by Ward, Stout
and others. L.W.
Introspection: (Lat. intro, within -f spicere, to
look) Observation directed upon the self or its
mental states and operations. The term
modern equivalent ^f "reflection"
sense" as employed by Locke and Kant. Two
types of introspection may be distinguished: (a)
the direct scrutiny of conscious states and
processes at the time of their occurrence (See
Inspection), and (b) the recovery of past states
and processes by a retrospective act. L.W.
Introspectionism : The standpoint in psychology
which advocates the employment of the intro-
spective method. L.W.
[ntrospective Method: The method^in
ogy, which, in opposition to the objective method
of Behaviorism (See Behaviorism) relies largely
upon introspective observation. See Introsjec-
tion.L.W.
[ntuitio: A term generally employed by Spinoza
in a technical sense than that found in the
more
Cartesian philosophy (see Reg. ad Dir. Ing.,
III). It is primarily used by Spinoza in con-
nection with "scientia inluitiva" or knowledge
"of the third kind" (Ethica, II, 40, Schol. 2).
Intuition of this sort is absolutely certain and
infallible) in contrast to reason (ratio, q.v.), it
produces the highest peace and virtue of the
mind (Ibid, V, 25 and 27). Also, as over
against ratio, it yields an adequate knowledge
of the essence of things, and thus enables us to
know and love God, through which knowledge
149
(Ibid, V, 39) the greater part of our mind
;
rendered eternal. W.S.W.
. Intuition: (Lat. intuere, to look at) The direct
it would and immediate apprehension by a knowing sub-
W.K.F. ject of itself, of its conscious states, of other
minds, of an external world, of universals, of
values or of rational truths. L.W.
Intuitionism (mathematical) :The name given
R.T.F. to the school (of mathematics) founded by L. .
J. Broutoer (q. v.) and represented also by
Hermann Weyl, Hans Freudenthal, Arend Hey-
ting, and In some respects a historical
others.
forerunner of intuitionism is the mathematician
Leopold Kronecker (1823-1891). Views related
to intuitionism (but usually not including the
rejection of the law of excluded middle) have
been expressed by many recent or contemporary
mathematicians, among whom are J. Richard,
Th. Skolem, and the French semi-intuitionists
as Heyting calls them E. Borel, H. Lebesgue,
R. Baire, N. Lusin. (Lusin is Russian but has
been closely associated with the French school.)
For the account given by Brouwerian intui-
tionism of the nature of mathematics, and the
mathematics to logic and
asserted priority of
philosophy, see the articleMathematics. This
account, with its reliance on the intuition of
ordinary thinking and on the immediate evi-
Avenarius, dence of mathematical concepts and inferences,
who criti-
and with its insistence on intuitively under-
an alternative
standable construction as the only method for
mathematical existence proofs, leads to a rejec-
tion of certain methods and assumptions of
classical mathematics. In consequence, certain
parts of classical mathematics have to be aban-
doned and others have to be reconstructed in
differentand often more complicated fashion.
Rejected in particular by intuitionism are:
is the
(1) the use of impredicative definition (q. v.)}
and "inner
(2) the assumption that all things satisfying a
given condition can be united into a set and
this set then treated as an individual thing or
even the weakened form of this assumption
which is found in Zermelo's Aussonderungsaxiom
or axiom of subset formation (see logic, formal,
9)) (3) the law of excluded middle as ap-
plied to propositions whose expression requires
a quantifier for which the variable involved has
an infinite range.
psychol- As an example of the rejection of the law of
excluded middle, consider the proposition,
"Either every even number greater than 2 can
be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers
or else not every even number greater than 2
can be expressed as the sum of two prime
numbers." This proposition is intuitionistically
unacceptable, because there are infinitely many
even numbers greater than 2 and it is impos-
sible to try them all one by one and decide of
each whether or not it is the sum of two prime
numbers. An intuitionist would accept the dis-
junction only after a proof had been given of
one or other of the two disjoined propositions-
and in the present state of mathematical knowl-
edge it is not certain that this can be done
(it is not certain that the mathematical problem
involved is solvable). If, however, we replace
150
"greater than 2" by "greater than 2 and less
than 1,000,000,000," the resulting disjunction
becomes intuitionistically acceptable, since the
number of numbers involved is then 'finite.
The law of ex-
intuitionistic rejection of the
cluded middle is not to be understood as an
assertion of the negation of the law of excluded
middle) on the contrary, Brouwer asserts the
negation of the negation of the law of excluded
middle, i.e., ~~[p
v ~p]. Still less is the
intuitionistic rejection of the law of excluded
middle to be understood as the assertion of the
existence of a third truth-value intermediate be-
tween truth and falsehood.
The rejection of the law of excluded middle
carries with it the rejection
laws of the classical prepositional calculus and
functional cakulus of first order, including the
law of double negation (and hence the method
of indirect proof). In general the double nega-
tion of a proposition is weaker than the propo-
sition itself) but the triple negation of a propo-
sition is equivalent to its single negation.
Noteworthy also the rejection of ~(*)F(*)
is
3 (Ex)~F(x)i but the reverse implication is
valid. (The sign = here does not denote mate-
rial implication, but is a distinct primitive
symbol of implication.)- A.C.
L, E. J. Brouwer, ue onbttroitwbaarkeid der
lotiscbt prlncipes, Tijdschrift voor Wijsbegeerte,
vol. 2 (1908), pp. 152-158;
reprinted in Brouwer's
Wiskmndt, Waarktid, WtrktUjkbeid,
1919. L. E. J. Brouwer. Intnitionism and formal-
ism, English translation by A. Dresden, Bulletin of
the American Mathematical Society, vol. 20 (1913),
DO. 81-96. H. Weyl, Consistency in mathematics,
The Rice Institute Pamphlet, vol. 16 (1929), pp.
245-265. A. Heyting. Mathcmatnche Grundtaien-
1otsck*ng, Intuitiontsmus, Beweistbtorif, Berlin,
1934.
Intuitionism
(philosophical): (1) In gen-
eral: any philosophy in which intuition is ap-
pealed to as the basis of knowledge, or at
least of philosophical knowledge.
(2) In ethics: (a) in the narrower traditional
sense, intuitionism is the view that certain ac-
tions or kinds of action may
right or wrong by a of their
direct
Tightness or wrongness, without any considera-
tion of the value of their consequences. In this
sense intuitionism is opposed to utilitarian and
ideological ethics, and is most recently repre-
sented by the neo-intuitionists at Oxford, H. A.
Prichard, E. F. Carritt, W. D. Ross. It is
sometimes said to involve the view that the
organ of ethical is non-rational and
insight
even unique. It according to Sidgwick,
takes,
three forms. Perceptual intuitionism holds that
only judgments relating to the rightness or
wrongness of particular acts are intuitive. Dog-
matic intuitionism holds that some general
material propositions relating to the rightness
or wrongness of kinds of acts may also be
intuited, e.g. that promises ought to be kept.
Philosophical intuitionism holds that it is only
certafo general propositions about what is right
or wftfof that are intuitive, and that these are
few and purely formal.
(b) In the wider more recent sense, intuition-
ism includes all views in which ethics is made
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
to on intuitions, particular or general, as
rest
to the Tightness, obligatoriness, goodness, or
value of actions or objects. Taken in this sense,
intuitionism is the dominant point of view in
recent Britiih ethics, and is represented in
Europe by the phenomenological ethics of M.
Scheler and N. Hartmann, having also pro-
ponents in America. That is, it covers not only
the deontological intuitionism to be found at
Oxford, but also the axiological and even teleo-
logical or utilitarian intuitionism to be found
in J. Martineau, H. Sidgwick, H. Rashdall,
G. E. Moore, J. Laird. Among earlier British
moralists it is represented by the Cambridge
Platonists, the Moral Sense School, Clarke,
of various other Cumberland, Butler, Price, Reid, Whewell, etc.
that the basic propositions of ethics
By saying
(i.e. of the theory of obligation, of the theory
of value, or of both) are intuitive, the intuition-
ists mean at least that they are ultimate and
underivative, primitive and uninferable, as well
as synthetic, and sometimes also that they are
self-evident and a priori. This implies that one
or more of the basic notions of ethics (right-
ness, goodness, etc.) are indefinable, i.e. simple
or unanalyzable and unique j and that ethics is
autonomous. Intuitionists also hold that right-
nessand goodness are objective and non-natural.
Hence their view is sometimes called objectivism
or non-naturalism. The views of Moore and
Groningen, Laird are also sometimes referred to as realistic.
See Deontological ethics, Axiological ethics,
Ideological ethics, Utilitarianism, Objectivism,
4 '
Realism, Autonomy of ethics, Non-naturalistic
ethics. W.K.F.
Intuitive cognition: Intuitive cognition is the
apprehension of an object (e.g. the hearing of
a bell) in contrast to thinking about an object
(e.g. "thinking about a bell"). (See C. D.
Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature, p.
144.) See Acquaintance, Knowledge by.L.W.
Invariant: A constant quantity. In mathematics,
a quantity which remains the same under a
be known to be group of transformations. J.K.F.
intuition Invention: As a practical activity is distinguished
from creation as an artistic activity. L.V.
Irregularity (Theory of): In art as in nature
all beauty is irregular (Renoir). L.V.
Irrelevant: Not bearing upon, or logically re-
lated to, the point under discussion, or the case
in hand. G.R.M.
Irony, Socratic: See Socratic method.
Is*, Isa, Isana, Isvara: (Skr.) "Lord", an ex-
ample of the vacillating of Indian philosophy
between theology and metaphysics. They often
use such theistic nomenclature for the Absolute
without always wishing to endow it as such with
personal attributes except as may be helpful to
a lower intelligence or to one who feels the
need of worship and bhakti (q.v.). K.F.L.
Islam: Name peculiar to the religion founded by
Mohammed, embracing all sects found among
his Etymologically the term means
followers.
"to resign oneself". The word means not fatal-
istic submission to the deity, but striving after
righteousness, the practice of the law, obedience
to rules and formal performance of outward
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 151

duties. Meaning the acceptance of the divine structural similaritybetween fields in the brain
will, Islam stresses the legal and external per- and the content of consciousness.
formance of religion. H.H. In logic and mathematics, a relation between
Isolation by Varying Concomitants: In the two systems such that there exists a one-one
logic of scientific method, the fourth of the five correspondence between their elements, and an
experimental methods of J. S. Mill (1806- identity of some relation that holds between
1873), whereby cause can be determined in any any of the elements in one system and the
actual case. Known also as the Method of corresponding elements in the other system.
Concomitant Variation. Stated by Mill as fol- J.K.F.
lows: "Whatever phenomenon varies in any I Yuan: The One-Prime which is the supreme
manner whenever another phenomenon varies in It is One and is identical with the
beginning.
some particular manner, is either a cause or an Origin. "The Prime is the root of the myriad

phenomenon, or is connected with

effect of that things, in which there is also the origin of
it through some fact of causation". J.K.F. Man." (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.)
Isomorphism: (Or. isos, equal -f- morphe, form) W.T.C.
Similarity of structure. In Gestalt psychology,
 J

Jacobi, Fricdrich Hcinrich: (1743-1819) Ger- as a brilliant and original lecturer, and his al-
man philosopher of "feeling" who opposed the ready considerable reputation was greatly en-
Kantian tradition. He held that the system of hanced in 1890 when his Principles of Psychol-
absolute subjective idealism, to which he re- ogy made its appearance. Had James written
duced Kant, could not grasp ultimate reality. no other work, his position in American phi-
He was equally opposed to a dogmatic rational- losophy and psychology would be secure; the
ism such as the Spinozistic. He based his view vividness and clarity of his style no less than
upon feeling, belief or faith by which he pur- the keenness of his analysis roused the imagina-

ported to find truth as immediately revealed in tion of a public in this country which had long
consciousness. Main works: Ueber die Lehre been apathetic to the more abstract problems of
des Spinoza in Briefen an Moses Mendelsohn, technical philosophy. Nor did James allow this

1785$ David Hume uber den Glauben, 1787} rising interest to flag. Turning to religious
and
Sendschreiben an Fichte, 1799. L.E.D. moral problems, and later to metaphysics, he
Jainism: An Indian produced a large number of writings which
religion claiming great an-
tiquity, the last of the great teachers (tirthan- gave ample evidence of his amazing ability to
cut through the cumbersome terminology of
kara) being Mahavira (6th cent. B.C.), em-
bracing many philosophical elements of a traditional statement and to lay bare the essen-
tial character of the matter in hand. In this
pluralistic type of realism. It rejects Vedic (q.v.)
authority and an absolute being, gods as well sense, James was able to revivify philosophical
men issues long buried from any save the classical
as partaking of mortality, and holds the
mythologically conceived world to be eternal scholars. Such oversimplifications as exist, for
and subject only to the fixed sequence of six example, in his own "pragmatism" and "radical
ages,good and bad, but not periodic creation empiricism" must be weighed against his great
and destruction. There is -an infinitude of in- accomplishment in clearing such problems as
destructible individual souls or spiritual entities, that of the One and the Many from the dry rot
each possessing by nature many properties in-
of centuries, and in rendering such problems
clusive omniscience, unlimited energy and
of immediately relevant to practical and personal
bliss which come to the fore upon attaining difficulties. W.S.W.
full independence. The non-spiritual substances Other main works. The Will to Believe and
are space and time, rest and motion, and matter Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, 1897}
composed of atoms and capable of being appre- Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in
hended by the senses and combining to form the Human Nature, 1902} Pragmatism: A New
world of infinite variety. Matter also penetrates Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, 1907}
spiritual substance like a physician's pill, chang- A Pluralistic Universe, 1909} Some Problems
ing to karma and producing physical attach- of 1911} Essays in Radical Em-
Philosophy,
ments. The good li-fe consists in the acquisition piricism, Cf. R. B. Perry, Thought and
1912.
of the three gems (triratna) of right faith
Character of William James, 2 vols., 1935.
(samyag-darsana), right knowledge (samyag- Jansenism: The teaching of Cornelius Jansen,
jnana), right conduct (samyag-caritra). Salva- latinized Jansenius (1585-1638), Bishop of
tion,i.e., becoming a kevalin (cf. kevala), is Ypres, and his followers in France and Holland.
an arduous task achieved in 14 stages of per- Its most significant doctrineswere the total
fection, the last being bodiless existence in bliss corruption of human nature owing to original
and complete oblivion to the world and its ways. sin, man's inability to resist either concupiscence
K.F.L. or grace implying the denial of free will, pre-
Jamb lie us: 270-330 A.D.) A Syrian Neo-
(c. destination, and the denial that Christ died for
all men without exception. The Jansenists were
Platonist, who wrote extensive commentaries on
Hellenic and Oriental theology and transformed characterized by an unusual harshness, severity
Plotinus' teachings into a dogmatic theology of of manners, and moral rigorism. The doctrine

metaphysical pantheism. R.B.W. was condemned by the Church. JJ.R.

James, William: (1842-1910) Unquestionably Jaspers, Karl: (1883-) Inspired by Nietzsche's
one of the most influential of American think- and Kierkegaard's psychology, but aiming at
ers, William James began his career as a teacher a strictly scientific method, the "existentialist"

ihortly after graduation (MD, 1870) from Jaspers analyzes the possible attitudes of man
Harvard University. He became widely known towards the world} the decisions which the in-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 153
dividual must make in inescapable situations tion of one's true self and the restoration of
like death, struggle,
change, guilt} and the the moral order."
(Confucius and Mencius.)
various ways in which man meets these situa- "The active (yang) and passive
(yin) principles
tions. Motivated by the boundless desire for are the way of Heaven the principles of
;

clarity and precision, Jaspers earnestly presents

strength and weakness are the way of Earth j
as his main objective to awaken the desire for and true manhood and righteousness are the (i)
a fuller, more genuine
philosophy, these three way of Man." "True manhood is man's mind
methods of philosophizing which have existed and righteousness is man's
from te earliest times to the present: Philosophi- path." It is one of
the three Universally
cal world orientation
Recognized Moral Quali-
consisting in an analysis ties ol man (ta
t), the four Fundamentals of
of the limitations, incompleteness and the Moral Life (ssu
relativity
of the researches, tuan), and the five Con-
methods, world pictures of all stant Virtues (wu
ch'ang). True manhood and
the sciences ; elucidation of existence
consisting righteousness are the basic principles of Con-
of a cognitive penetration into on the
reality fucian ethics and politics.
basis of the deepest inner decisions (Confucianism.)
experienced (d) The golden rule; "Being true to the
by the individual, and striving to satisfy the of one's nature
principles (chung) and the
deepest demands of human nature; the way of benevolent exercise of them in relation to others
metaphysics, the never-satisfied and unending (shu). "The true man, having established his
search for in the world of
truth own
knowledge, character, seeks to establish the character of
conduct of and in the seeking for the one
life
others; and having succeeded, seeks to make
being, dimly seen through antithetic thoughts, others succeed."
(Confucius.)
deep existential conflicts and differently con-
Lovej benevolence; kindness; charity;
(e)
ceived metaphysical symbols of the
past. Real- compassion; "the character of the heart and
izing the decisive problematic relation between the principle of love;" "love towards all men
philosophy and religion in the Middle Ages,
an.d benefit towards things." (Confucianism.)
Jaspers elevates psychology and history to a "Universal love without the element of self."
more important place in the future of phi- (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.)
losophy. Main works:
Allgem. Psychopath., "Universal Love." (Han Yu, 767-824.)
1913} Psych, d. Weltan., 1919} Die geistige
(f) The moral principle with regard to
Situation d. Zeit, 1931}
Vernunft u. Existenz, others. "True manhood is the cardinal virtue
1935} Nietzsche, 1936} Descartes, 1937} Exis-
by which others are pacified, whereas righteous-
tenzphilosophie, 1938. H.H. ness is the cardinal principle by which the self
Jefferson, Thomas: (1743-1826) Third presi- is rectified." It means "to love others and not
dent of the United States. He was the author the self."
of the Declaration of Independence, which re-
(Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.)
(g) Love of all men and things and impar-
mains as one of the monuments to his firm faith and
tiality justice towards all men and things,
in democratic principles. His opposition to this virtue being the cardinal virtue not only
Hamiltonian centralization of power placed him of man but also of the universe. "Love means
at one extreme of the arc described by the to devote oneself to the benefit of other
people
pendulum of theory that has swayed
political and things." "Love implies justice, that is, as
through the history if this country. He had firm a man, treating others as men." "The true man
faith in and education and his life
free speech
regards the universe and all things as a unity.
long efforts stand uppermost among those who They are all essential to himself. As he real-
struggled for tolerance and religious freedom. izes the true
self, there is no limit to his love."
In addition to politics, he was keenly interested
in the science and mathematics of his
(Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1068.) "Love is the
day. source of all laws, the foundation of all phe-
Cf. Writings of T.
1., 10 vols. (N. Y. 1892-9) nomena." "What is received from Heaven at
ed. P. L. Ford. L.V.D. the beginning is simply love, and is therefore
Jehovah: (Hebrew Yahveh, of doubtful origin and the complete substance of the mind." "Love is
meaning) Personal name of God or the supreme the love of creating in the mind of Heaven
being in Hebrew theological and philosophical and Earth, and men and other creatures re-
writings, common only since the 14th century} ceive it as their mind." (Chu
Hsi, 1130-1200.)
the national god of Israel since Mosaic
times. W.T.C.
Neithername was originally pronounced as writ- Jesuitism: Noun applied rather loosely to the
ten on account of its holiness, but was
replaced teachings and practices of the Jesuits, a religious
by Elohim and Adonai. K.F.L. order of men of the Roman Catholic Church
Jen: (a) Man. engaged in missionary and educational work.
Goodness virtue in general; the moral
(b) j
Originally it was called the Company, but in
principle} the moral ideal of the superior man the Bull of Pope Paul III approving it in 1540,
(chOn tzu); the fundamental as well as the the Society of Jesus. Besides the three usual
sum total of virtues, just as the Prime (yUan) vows the members take a fourth of special
is the origin and the vital force of all
things obedience to the Pope, who may send them on
jSn consisting of "man" and "two" and yUan missions anywhere in the world. They depend
consisting of "two" and "man". (Confucianism.) on alms and gifts for support. The word is
(c) True manhood} man's character; human- frequently used in the depreciative and opprobri-
heartednessj moral character; being man-like; ous sense of craftiness, deceit,
duplicity, and
"that by which a man is to be a manj" "realiza-
equivocation. JJ.R.
154 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Jewish Philosophy: Jewish philosophy is pri- existence of God, proves it by positing the need
marily a religious philosophy. of a being necessarily existent, for it is absurd
Its first manifestation took place in Egypt to posit a world of possibles.
where Judaism came in contact with Hellenic The nextstep is to demonstrate God's unity
culture, and the was the development of
result for which various proofs are given. Saadia and
an extensive speculation among the Jews of the followers prove it from the conception of
Alexandria, the most important representative creator) the others, including Maimonides, de-
of which was Philo (q.v.). With the dis- duce it from the concept of an unmoved mover
appearance of the Egyptian Diaspora its philos- from which His incorporeality is also deduced.
ophy vanished and only slight vestiges of its The argument that harmony of the universe is

teachings can be traced in the early Agadic due to one creator or one first cause is also
literature. frequently employed.
Speculation in Jewry rose again in the ninth The problem of attributes gave rise to exten-
century in the lands of the East, particularly sive discussions. In general, the attempt is made
in Babylonia, when Judaism once more met to convey some knowledge about God and yet
Greek philosophy, this time dressed in Arabic maintain that His essence is inconceivable. The
garb. The
philosophic tradition of the ancients number of attributes varies with individual phi*
transmitted through the Syrians, to the young losophers, from three of Bahya to eight of Ibn
Arabic nation created a disturbance in the minds Daud. Saadia counts one, living, potent and
of the devotees of the Koran who, testing its wise as essential attributes) Bahya one, existent,
principles by the light of the newly acquired and eternal. Ha-Levi substitutes living for
wisdom, found them often wanting. As a re- existent. Ibn Daud adds to those of Saadia
sult, various currents thought were set in
of and Bahya three more: true, willing, and potent.
motion. Of these, the leading was the Kalamitic Maimonides considers living, potent, wise, and
or the Mutazilitc philosophy, (q.v.) of several willing as those agreed upon by philosophers.
shades, the general aim of which was both to The difficulty, however, does not consist in the
defend doctrines of religion against heresies and number but in their content, or in other words,
also to reconcile them with the principles of how to speak of essential attributes and not to
reason. impair the simplicity of God's essence. Bahya
On the whole, there can be distinguished was the first to assert that their content is nega-
two currents in the entire stream of Jewish tive, e.g., existent means not non-existent. He
philosophy which flowed for about five hun- was followed in this by all others. Maimonides
dred years, the Oriental and the Occidental. is especially insistent upon the negative mean-
The first was limited to the lands of the East, ing and asserts that they are to be applied
such as Babylonia and the neighboring countries, to God and man an absolute homonymic
in
and the leading representatives of which were manner, i.e., there is no possible relation be-
Saadia (q.v.) among the Rabbanites and Aaron tween God and other beings. Gersonides and
ben Elijah (q.v.) among the Karaites. The Crescas, on the other hand, believe that the es-
second developed primarily in Spain and the sential attributes are positive though we cannot
Provence, and among its leading thinkers were determine their content. There are, of course,
Bahya (q.v.), Gabirol (q.v.), Maimonides (q.v.), other attributes which are descriptive of His
Gersonides (q.v.) and Crescas (q.v.). Since action, but these are not essential.
Jewish philosophy, during a large part of its The relation of God to the world includes, as
existence, was developed within the Arabic we have seen, a number of problems. The gen-
world, consequently refects the influence of
it eral conception of the world with almost all
the various systems of thought dominant within Jewish philosophers is mainly Aristotelian. All,
that sphere. not excluding Saadia, who was to a considerable
Almost Jewish philosophers with the ex-
all degree under the influence of the Mutazilites, all
ception of Gabirol, ha-Levi, and Gersonides pro- except Aristotle's theory of matter and form, i.e.,
duce proofs for the existence of God. These that all bodies are composed of two elements, the
proofs are based primarily on principles of substratum or the hyle and the particular form
physics. In the case of the Western philosophers, with which it is endowed. They all speak of
they are Aristotelian, while in the case of the primal matter which was the first creation, and
Eastern, they are a combination of Aristotelian all accept his view of the four elements, i.e.,
and those of the Mutazilites. The Eastern philos- fire, air, water, and earth which are the com-
ophers, such as Saadia and others and also Bahya ponents of all things in the lower world. They
of the Western prove the existence of God in- also accept his cosmogony, namely, the division
directly, namely that the world was created and of the universe of the upper world of the
consequently there is a creator. The leading West- spheres and the lower or sublunar world, and
ern thinkers, such as Ibn, Daud (q.v.) and Mai- also posit the influence of the spheres upon the
monides employ the Aristotelian argument from course of events in this world. On the other

motion, even to positing hypothetically the hand, alloppose his view of the eternity of the
eternity of the world. Ha-Levi considers the world and champion creation de novo with
conception of the existence of God an intuition slight variations.
with which man is endowed by God Himself. The differences begin when the questions of
Crescas, who criticized Aristotle's conception of the mode and mediators between
of creation
space and the infinite, in his proof for the God and the world are dealt with. In these
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 155

matteri there are to be noted three variations. by Ibn

fications, Daud and Gersonidet. Divine
Saadia rejected entirely the theory of the ema- providence does by no means impair human
nation of separate intelligences, and teaches freedom, for it is rarely direct, but is exerted
God's creation from nothing of all beings in through a number of mediate causes, and human
the sublunar and upper worlds. He posits that choice is one of the causes.
God created first a substratum or the first air There is, however, greater difficulty in mak-
which was composed of the hyle and form and ing freedom of the will compatible with divine
out of this element all beings were created, not prescience of human action. The question arises,
only the four elements, the components of bodies does God know beforehand what man will do
in the lower world, but also the angels, stars, or not? If he does, it follows that the action
and the spheres. Bahya's conception is similar is determined, or if man can choose, His knowl-

to that of Saadia. The Aristotelians, Ibn Daud, edge is not true. Various answers were proposed
Maimonides, and Gersonides accepted the theory by Jewish philosophers to this difficult prob-
of the separate intelligences which was current lem. Saadia says that God's knowledge is like
in Arabic philosophy. This theory teaches that gazing in a mirror of the future which does not
out of the First Cause there emanated an in- influence human action. He knows the ultimate
telligence, and out of this intelligence another result. Maimonides says that God's knowledge
one up to nine, corresponding to the number of is so totally different from human that it re-
spheres. Each of these intelligences acts as the mains indefinable, and consequently He may
object of the mind of a sphere and is the cause know things beforehand, and yet not impair
of its movement. The tenth intelligence is the the possibility of man to choosy between two
universal intellect, an emanation of all intelli- actions. Ibn Daud and Gersonides limit God's

gences which has in its care the sublunar world. knowledge and say that He only knows that
This theory is a combination of Aristotelian certain actions will be present to man for choice
and neo-Platonic teachings; Ibn Daud posits, but not the way he will choose. Crescas is more
however, in addition to the intelligences also logical and comes to the conclusion that action
the existence of angels, created spiritual beings, is possible only per se, i.e., when looked upon
while Maimonides seems to identify the angels singly, but is necessary through the causes. Free
with the intelligences, and also says that natural will is in this case nominal and consist pri-
forces are also called angels in the Bible. marily in the fact that man is ignorant of the
As for creation, Ibn Daud asserts that God real situation and he is rewarded and punished
created the hyle or primal matter and endowed for his exertion to do good or for his neglect
it with general form from which the specific to exert himself.

forms later developed. Maimonides seems to The origin, nature, and the continued existence
believe that God first created a substance con- or immortality of the soul is widely discussed in
sisting of primal matter and primal form, and Jewish philosophy. As to origin, Saadia be-
that He determined by His will that parts of lieves that each individual soul is created by
it should form the matter of the spheres which God considering, of course, creation a con-
is imperishable, while other parts should form tinuous process and that it is of a fine spiritual
the matter of the four elements. These views, substance. As to its faculties, he accepts the
however, are subject to various interpretations Aristotelian-Platonic division of the soul into

by historians. Gabirol and Gersonides posit the three namely, the appetitive, emotional,
parts,
eternal existence of the hyle and limit creation and cognitive. Ibn Daud thinks that the soul
to endowing it with form and organization a existsprior to the body potentially, i.e., that
view close to the Platonic. the angels endow the body with form} he fur-
Divine providence is admitted by all Jewish ther considers it a substance but says that it

philosophefs, but its extent is a matter

of dis-
The conservative thinkers, though ad-
pute.
mitting the stability of the natural order and
even seeing in that order a medium of God's
providence, allow greater latitude to the inter-
ference of God in the regulation of human
undergoes a process of development. The more
it thinks the more perfect it becomes, and the
thoughts are called acquired reason, it is this
acquired reason, or being perfected which re-
mains immortal. Maimonides does not discuss
the origin of the soul, but deals more with its

events, or even in disturbing the natural order
on occasion. In other words, they admit a fre-
quency of miracles. The more liberal, though
they do not deny the occurrence of miracles,
attempt to limit it, and often rationalize the
numerous miraculous events related in the Bible
parts. To the three of Saadia he adds the
imaginative and the conative. Gersonides' view
resembles somewhat that of Ibn Daud, except
that he does not speak of its origin and limits
himself to the intellect. The intellect, says he,
is only a capacity residing in the lower soul,

and bring them within the sphere of the rational and that capacity is gradually developed by the
order. Typical and representative is Maimonides' help of the Active Intellect into an acquired
view of Providence. He limits its extent in and ultimately intp an active reason. All think-
the sublunar world to the human genus only ers insist on immortality, but with Saadia and

on account of its possession of mind. As a ha-Levi it seems that the entire soul survives,
result he posits a graded Providence, namely, while the Aristotelians assert that only the in-
that the one who it more intellectually perfect tellect is immortal. Maimonides is not explicit
receives more attention or special Providence. on the subject, yet we may surmise that even
This theory is also. espoused, with certain modi- the more liberal thinkers did not subscribe to
156 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Averroes* theory of unitat intellects, and they philosophic understanding, insight, believed by
believed that the immortal intellect is endowed some Indian philosophers to effect moksa (q.v.).
with consciousness of personality. To this trend K.F.L.
of connecting immortality with rational reflec- Jninendriya :
(Skr.) One of the five indriyas
tion Crescas took exception, and asserts that it (q.v.) of knowledge, the cognitive senses or
is not pure thought which leads to survival, powers of hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling,
but that the soul is immortal because it is a and tasting. K.F.L.
spiritual being, and it is perfected by its love Jodl, Priedrich: (1848-1914) His central in-
for God and the doing of good. terest was research in the field of ethics} en-
The view of freedom of the will and the soul gaged in developing a humanistic and natural*
influenced to a great extent the ethics of the is tic ethic. Made his most notable contribution
Jewish philosophers. A
large number of thinkers in the history of ethical theories. Following
accepted the Aristotelian norm of the golden the positivists Feuerbach, Comte and Mill, he
mean as the rule of conduct, but considered projected a new religion of national culture.
that the laws and precepts of the Torah help Main works: Gesch. der Ethik, 1906} Wis-
towards obtaining right conduct. Maimonides, sensch u. Religion, 1909} Der Monismus u.d.
however, stated that the norm of the mean is Kulturprotteme, 1911 .tf./f .

only for the average man, but that the higher
man should incline towards an extreme good
way in conduct. Crescas' view of the good way
follows from the theory of the soul, he stresses
the emotional element, namely the necessity of
the love of the Good and the desire to actualize
it in life.
Of the many theological doctrines included in
this philosophy, there are to be noted those of
the Torah and prophecy. The Torah
sidered by all philosophers divinely revealed.
The Sinaitic revelation was accomplished by
means of a specially created voice which uttered
the commandments. The Torah is therefore im-
mutable and is eternal. Its purpose is to train
men for a good life. According to Maimonides,
the Torah aims at both the improvement of the
soul and of the body. The first is accomplished
the second by numerous laws which regulate the
by inculcating right conceptions about God, and
life of the individual and society.
Another means of revelation is prophecy. The
John of Salisbury: (c. 1115-1180) From the
works of this Englishman, much can be learned
about the schoolmen of his day for he presents
cogent criticism of their views which he char-
In his Metalogicus he
acterizes as fruitless.
advocates reform in logic. He was among the
of absolute separation of
earliest adherents
church and state, a view which he advanced in
Policraticus. He adopted a practical attitude
is con- toward knowledge, seeking the rejection of what
was useless and contrary to a pious life, even
though proof positive could not be advanced
for what was found favorable to the true good.
L.JP.Z).
Joseph, Albo: (1380-1444) Jewish philosopher.
His Ikkarim, i.e., Dogmas is devoted primarily
to the problem of dogmatics. He differs with
Maimonides who fixed the Articles of Creed at
and posits only three fundamental
thirteen,
dogmas.
(1) Belief in the existence of God} (2) Di-
vine origin of the Torah (3) Reward and 5

authenticity of prophecy, says Saadia, is not

punishment. The others are of secondary impor-
based on the miracles by which it is demon- tance. See Jewish Philosophy. M.W.
strated but on its intrinsic worth. Maimonides Jou: Weakness} the principle of weakness, op-
says the prophet must possess great intellectual
posite of principle of strength} the out-
the
ability, rich phantasy, and perfect ethical con-
standing characteristic of the Earthly Principle
duct} only then he may be called by the divine
(k'un) and corresponding to the passive cosmic
spirit. See Kang. W.T.C.
principle (Yin).
Literature. I. Husik, A History of Jewish Ju: (a) Confucianists.
Philosophy, New York, 1918$ D. Neumark, (b) Scholars who were versed in the six arts,
Geschichte der Judischen Philosophic, Vols. I,
namely, the rules of propriety, music, archery,
II, Berlin, 1907, 1910j Julius Guttmann, Phi-
charioteering, writing, and mathematics.
losophic des Judentums, Berlin, 1935 * M. Wax- Chou period (1122-
(c) Priest-teachers in the
man, The Philosophy of Don Hasdai Crescas,
249 B.C.) who clung to the dying culture of
New York, 1920} A
History of Jewish Litera-
Shang (1765-1122 B.C.), observed Shang rules
ture, Vols. I, II, Chapters on Jewish Philosophy,
of conduct, became specialists on social decorum
New York, 1930, 1933} H. A. Wolfson, Crescas 1 and religious rites. W.T.C.
Critique of Aristotle, Cambridge, 1929. M.W.
Ju chia: The Confucian School, which "delighted
Jiva! (Skr.) Life} also the individual, conscious
in the study of the six Classics and paid atten-
soul as distinguished from the universal soul or
tion to matters concerning benevolence and
the Absolute. K.F.L.
righteousness. They regarded Yao and Shun
Jivanmukta: (Skr.) One who has attained salva- (mythological emperors) as founders whose ex-
tion while in this present life: all but a re- to be followed, King Wen (1184-1135
ample is
mainder of prarabdha karma (q.v.} has been B.C.?) and King Wu (1121-1116 B.C.?) as
neutralized and no new karma is accumulated illustrious examples, and honored Confucius
in virtue of the person's having gained insight, (551-479 B.C.) as the exalted teacher to give
jnana K.F.L.
(q.v.). authority to their teaching." "As to the forms
Jfiina: (Skr.) Cognition, knowledge, wisdom, of proper conduct which they set up for prince
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 157

and minister, for father and ton, or the distinc- Judgment: (a) The mental act of asserting (af-
tions they make between husband and wife and firming or denying) an asaertible content. Tradi-
between old and young, in these not even the tionally a judgment is said to affirm or to deny
opposition of all other philosophers can make a predicate of a subject. As generalized by
any change." modern logicians this becomes affirmation or
Confucius taught that "it is man that can denial of a relation (not necessarily that of
make truth great, and not truth that can make predication) among certain terms (not neces-
man great." Consequently he emphasized moral sarily two). One classification of judgments lists

perfection, truemanhood (jen), moral order them as problematic, assertoric,

(li) the Golden Mean (Chung Yung) and the
superior mail (chun tzu). To this end, knowl-
edge must be directed, names must be rectified
(cheng ming), and social relationships harmon-
ized (wu lun). The whole program involved
the investigation of things, the extension
knowledge, sincerity of the will, rectification of
the heart, cultivation of the personal life, regu-
lation of family life, national order, and finally,
world peace. Mencius (371-289 B.C.) carried
this further, holding that we
not only should
be good, but must be good, as Human nature is
originally good. True manhood (jSn) and
righteousness (i) are considered man's mind and
path, respectively. Government must be estab-
lished on the basis of benevolence (jen cheng)
as against profit and force. Hsun Tzu (c 335-
c 288 B.C.) believing human nature to be evil,
stressed moral accumulation and education, espe-
ciallythrough the rectification of names, music,
and the rule of propriety (li). In the book of
Chung Yung (Central Harmony, the Golden
Mean, third or fourth century B.C.), the doc-
trine of central harmony is set forth. Our cen-
tral self or moral being is conceived to be the
great basis of existence and harmony or moral
order is the universal law in the world. From
then on, the relationship between man and the
universe became one of direct correspondence.
The idea of macrocosmos-microcosmos relation-
ship largely characterized the Confucianism of
medieval China. Tne most glorious development
of Confucianism is found in Neo-Confucianism,
from the eleventh century to this day. For a
summary of medieval Confucianism and Neo-
Confucianism, see Chinese philosophy. W.T.C.
Ju chiao: The teachings of the Confucian school,
which are based on the Confucian classics with
the chief emphasis on ethics and polity. Since
the establishment of Confucianism as the state
cult in the second century A.D., the term has
also been used to designate the traditional sys-
tem of worship of Shang Ti, ancestors,
which the Confucians followed. W.T.C.
apodeictic, or
depending on whether they are asserted as prob-
able (or improbable or possible), true (or
false), or necessary (or impossible). Since a
judgment in this sense always involves a truth
claim it is either correct or erroneous.
of (b) That which is asserted in an act of judg-
ment, often called a belief or a proposition.
That which is judged may merely be contem-
plated or considered instead of being affirmed
or denied. Opinions differ as to the ontological
status of propositions. Some regard them as
mental, some as neutral, some as verbal. C.A.B.
Judgment of Taste: The assertion that an object
is beautiful, or aesthetically pleasing. Such prop-
ositions are traditionally classified as judgments
pf value, as distinguished from judgments of
fact, and are regarded as making assertions
about the subjective reaction and interest that
the object has aroused, and not about any in-
trinsic property of the object. Hence, generally
interpreted as having no claim to universality.
Kant, and others, have sought to establish their
universality on die ground that they assert a
necessary subjective reaction. /./.
Jung, C. G.: (1875-) Exponent of a type of
psychoanalysis Psycho-analysis) known as
(see
"analytic psychology", which has close affinities
with Freudianism (see Freud, Sigmund) and
with individual psychology (see Adlcr, Alfred).
Jung employed Freud's methods of free associa-
tion and dream analysis but emphasized his own
method of word-association. He differed from
Freud in (a) minimizing the role of sex, and
(b) emphasizing present conflict rather than
childhood complexes in the explanation of neu-
roses. Jung is also known for his classification
of psychological types as introverts and extro-
verts. Cf. Jung's Psychological Types. L.W.
Justin Martyr: (c. 100-160) A prominent Chris-
tian Apologist, who taught that Divine truth
appears in two forms, first, in man's power of
reasoning, and second, in special revelation ex-
etc., pressed by philosophers, prophets, and especially
Christ. Cf. Justin's Apologia. R.B.W.
 K
Kala: (Skr.) Art-creation, authorship, e.g., as one with clock-like regularity. But his very wide
of the aspects of Shiva's progressive world crea- reading compensated socially for his narrow
tion. See Kancuka.K.F.L. range of travel, and made him an interesting
Kila: (Skr.) Time, variously conceived in Indian coversationalist as well as a successful teacher.

philosophy. See e.g., Astikaya, Dravya, Kan- Kantianism: The philosophy of Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)$ also called variously, the critical
Kalanos: (Grecized from Skr. kalydna) Hindu A philosophy, criticism, transcendentalism, or trans-
cendental idealism. Its roots lay in the Enlight-
philosopher who lived at the court of Alexander
the Great while in India and finally mounted enment) but it sought to establish a comprehen-
his own funeral pile. AT.F.L. sive method and doctrine of experience which
would undercut the rationalistic metaphysics of
Kalology: The study of the beauties of sensible
the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries.
objects and of character combined. (Montague.)
H.H. In an early "pre-critical" period, Kant's in-
terest centered in scientific cos-
Kames, Henry Home: (1696-1782) He was evolutionary,

a well known Scotch lawyer of his day who mology. He

sought to describe the phenomena
of Nature, organic as well as inorganic, as a
later became one of the lords of justiciary
whole of interconnected natural laws. In effect
and sat as a judge in the court of session. He
he elaborated and extended the natural philoso-
became entangled in a free will controversy
after the publication of his "Principles of Mor- phy of Newton in a metaphysical context drawn
from Christian Wolff and indirectly from Leib-
ality and Natural Religion." His "Elements of
niz.
Criticism" is a widely known classic in the field
But Kant's versatile, analytical mind could
of aesthetics. L.E.D.
not rest here; and gradually his ideas under-
Kami: Originally denoting anything
(Japanese) went a radical transformation. He questioned
that inspires and overawes man with a sense
the assumption, common to /dogmatic meta-
of holiness, the word assumed a meaning in
physics, that reality can be apprehended in and
Japanese equivalent to spirit (also ancestral
through concepts. He was helped to this view
spirit), divinity, and God. It is a central con-
by the study of Leibniz's Noweaux Essais (first
cept in due pre-Confucian and pre-Buddhistic
published in 1765), and the skepticism and
native religion which holds the sun supreme
empiricism of Hume, through which, Kant
and enjoys national support, while it may
still
stated, he was awakened from his "dogmatic
also take on a more abstract philosophic
signifi- slumbers". He cast about for a method by
cance. Af.FX.
which the proper limits and use of reason could
Kant, Immanuel: (1724-1804), born and died be established. The problem took the
firmly
in Konigsberg. Studied the Leibniz-Wolffian form: By what right and within what limits
philosophy under Martin Knutzen. Also studied may reason make a priori judgments
synthetic,
and taught astronomy (see Kant-Laplace hypo- about the data of sense?
thesis), mechanics and theology. The influence By 1770, the of his "critical"
beginning
of Newton's physics and Lockean
psychology period, Kant had an answer which he confi-
vied with his Leibnizian training. Kant's per-
dently expected would revolutionize philosophy.
sonal life was that of a methodic First
pedant, dimly outlined in the Inaugural Disserta-
touched with Rousseauistic piety and Prussian tion (1770), and elaborated in great detail in
rigidity. He scarcely travelled 40 miles from the Critique of Pure Reason (1781 and 1787),
Kdnigsberg in hit life-time, disregarded music, the answer consisted in the critical or trans-
had little esteem for women, and cultivated few cendental method. The typical function of rea-
friends apart from the Prussian officials he knew on Kant's view,
son, relating or synthesizing
is
in Konigstfcerg. In 1755, he became tutor in the the data of sense. In effecting any synthesis, the
family of Count Kayserling. In 1766, he was mind relies on the validity of certain principles,
made under-librarian, and in 1770 obtained the such as causality, which, as Hume had
shown,
chair of logic and metaphysics at the University cannot be inductive generalizations from sense
of K5nigsberg. Heine has made classical the data, are indispensable in any account of
yet
figure of Kant appearing for his daily walk "experience" viewed as a connected, significant
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 159

whole. If the necessary, synthetic principles reason) we know things, in other words, as
cannot be derived from sense data proper, then, "phenomena."
Kant argued, they must be "a priori" logically But reason is not limited to its theoretical
prior to the materials which they relate. He use. Besides objects of cognition and thought,
also called these formal elements "transcen- there are also those of will and feeling. Kant's
dental", by which he meant that, while they "practical philosophy", the real foundation of
are indubitably in experience viewed as a con- his system of transcendental idealism, centers in
nected whole, they transcend or are distinct a striking doctrine of freedom. Even in its
from the sensuous materials in source and status. theoretical use, reason is a law-giver to Nature,
In the Critique of Pure Reason his "theoreti- in that the data of sense must conform to the
cal philosophy" Kant undertakes a complete forms of the sensibility and understanding if
inventory and "deduction" of all synthetic, a Nature is to be known at all. But in moral
priori, transcendental forms employed in the experience, as Kant shows in the Critique of
knowledge of Nature. The first part, the Practical Reason (1788), the will of a rational
"Transcendental Aesthetic", exhibits the two being is directly autonomous a law unto it-
forms or "intuitions" (Anschauungen) of the self. But the unconditional moral law, "duty"
sensibility:space and time. Knowledge of Na- or "categorical imperative", the validity of
ture, however varied its sense content, is neces- which Kant does not question, is possible only
sarily always of something in space and time; on the supposition that the will is really free.
and just because these are necessary conditions As phenomenal beings we are subject to the
of any experience of Nature, space and time laws of nature and reason j but as pure rational
cannot be objective properties of things-in- wills we move in the free, noumenal or in-

themselves, but must be formal demands of
reason. Space and time are "empirically real",
because they are present in actual experience;
but they are "transcendentally ideal", since they
are forms which the mind "imposes" on the data
of sense.
In the second part, the "Transcendental
telligible realm, bound only by the self-im-
posed rational law "to treat humanity in every
pase as an end, never as a means only."
The influence of Pietism and of Rousseau's
gospel of Nature are apparent in the essentially
Christian and democratic direction in which
Kant develops this rigorous ethics. The reality

Logic", Kant treats of the synthetic forms of the of God and the immortality of souls concern-
understanding (Verstand), which he calls "cate- ing which no theoretical demonstration was pos-
gories" or "pure principles of the understand- sible emerge now as postulates of practical
ing". Of these he recognizes twelve in all, reason; God, to assure the moral governance
arranged in groups of threes under the heads: of a world in which virtue is crowned with
quantity, quality, relationand modality. The happiness, the "summum bonum"} immortality,
sensuous materials embedded in the forms of so that the pursuit of moral perfection may
sensibilityconstitute percepts, while reason, continue beyond the empirical life 'of man.
through the understanding, supplies the concepts These postulates, together with moral freedom
and principles by means of which percepts are and popular rights, provide the basis for Kant's
synthesized into njeaningful judgments of Na- assertion of the primacy of practical reason.
ture. In the celebrated "deduction of the cate- Finally, intellect and will are brought into
gories", Kant shows that without these forms meaningful relation (Critique of Judgment^
there could be no knowledge or experience of 1789-1793) in the feeKngs of aesthetic (i.e.,
Nature. Just therein and only therein lies their "artistic") enjoyment and natural purposive-
validity. ness. The appreciation of beauty, "aesthetic

But by the same token, as Kant now shows judgment", arises from the harmony of an

in the third part on "Transcendental Dialectic", object of cognition with the forms of knowl-
the forms of sensibility and understanding can- edge; the perfect compatibility, in other words,
not be employed beyond experience in order to of Nature and freedom, best exemplified in

define nature of such metaphysical entities

the genius. Natural purposiveness, on the other
as God, the immortal soul, and the World con- hand, is not necessarily a real attribute of Na-
ceived as a totality. If the forms are valid in ture, but an a priori, heuristic principle, an ir-
resistible hypothesis, by which we
regard Nature
experience only because they are necessary con-
ditions of experience, there is no way of judging as a supreme end or divine form in order to
their applicability to objects transcending experi- give the particular contents of Nature meaning
ence. Thus Kant is driven to the denial of the and significance.
possibility of a of metaphysics.
science But The influence of Kant has penetrated more
though judgments of metaphysics are indemon- deeply than that of any other modernphiloso-
strable, they are not wholly useless. The "Ideas pher. His doctrine of freedom became the foun-
of Pure Reason" (Vernunft) have a "regulative in Fichte, Spell-
dation of idealistic metaphysics

which ing and Hegel, but not without sacrifice of the

use", in that they point to general objects
strict critical method. Schopenhauer based, his
they cannot, however, constitute. Theoretical
voluntarism on Kant's distinction between phe-
knowledge is limited to the realm of experi- nomena and things-in-themselves. Lotze's teleo-
ence} and within this realm we cannot know logical idealism was also greatly indebted to
"tkings-in-thtms*lves"f but only the way in Kant. Certain psychological and pragmatic im-
which things appear under a priori forma of plications of Kant's thought were developed by
160 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
J. F. Fries, Liebmann, Lange, Simmel and is so arranged that each God is supreme in
Vaihinger. More recently another group in Ger- turn, in which the titular god is always chang-
many, reviving the critical method, sought a ing without entailing a denial that the other
safe course between metaphysics and psychology; gods exist. H.H.
it includes Cohen, Natorp, Riehl, Windelband, Kempen, Thomas Hemerken van: (1380-1471)
Rickert, Husserl, Heidegger, and E. Cassirer. Also Thomas a Kempis, was born at
called
Until recent decades English and American Kempen in
Holland, received his early educa-
idealists such as Caird, Green, Bradley, Howi- tion and instruction
in music at the monastery

son, and Royce, saw Kant for the most part of the Brethren of the Common Life, at Deven-
through Hegel's eyes. More recently the study ter. Pie attended no university but attained a
of Kant's philosophy has come into its own in high degree of spiritual development. His Imi-
English-speaking countries through such com- tation of Christ is one of the most famous, and
mentaries as those of N. K. Smith and Paton. most used, books of Catholic spiritual medita-
In France the influence of Kant was most tion) it has been printed in nearly all languages
apparent in Renouvier's "Phenomenism". and is found in innumerable editions. There
O.F.K. seems to be no valid reason for questioning his
Kant-Laplace hypothesis: Theory of the origin authorship of the work. V.J,B.
of the solar system, formulated first by Kant Kenotism: The doctrine of Kenosisj literally
(Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, the Greek term Kenosis means an emptying.
1755) and later by Laplace (Exposition of the The doctrine arose from the discussion of Phil,
System of the World, 1796). According to this ii, 7, where we read that Christ "emptied him-
theory the solar system evolved from a rotating self, taking the form of a servant." Some have
mass of incandescent gas which by cooling and interpreted the text in the sense that the Son
shrinking, and thus inc; easing its rate of spin, of God in becoming man put aside some of His
gradually fattened at its poles and threw off divine attributes, while others, notably the
rings from its equator. These rings became the Catholics, maintain that the abasement referred
planets, which by the operation of the same to signifies only the occultation of the Divinity
laws developed their own satellites. While Lap- when the Word was made flesh. J.J.R.
lace supposed the rotating nebula to have been Kevala: (Skr. alone) A predicate or synonym of
the primordial stuff, Kant maintained that this the Absolute in its unitary, free, autonomous,
was itself formed
and put into rotation by all-inclusive and universal aspect. The condition
gravitational action on the original atoms which or state of being absolute and independent is
through their impact with one another generated kevalatva, one who meditates on or has attained
heat. A.C.B. personal experience of it, is a kevalin. K.F.L.
Kapila: Founder of the Sankhya (q.v.). K.F.L. Kierkegaard, Soren: (1813-1855) Danish re-
Karana: (Skr.) Cause} causa efficiens. K.F.L. ligious thinker whose influence was largely
lim-
Karma, Karman: (Skr.) Action, movement, deed, ited to Scandinavian and German circles until
a category e.g. in the Vaisesika (q.v.). In In-
recently. His works are now translated into
dian philosophy generally thought of as a meta- English and his thought revived by contempo-
physical entity carried by the individual along rary social pessimists. Eternity, he held, is more
in samsdra (q.v.). As law, karma would be important than time} sin is worse than suffer-
identical with physical causation or causality man is an egotist and must experience
ing}
while working with equal rigor in man's psychic
despair; God is beyond reason and man} Chris-
and thought life. As such it is the unmitigated tianity stands opposed to this world and time
law of retribution working with equal precision and to man's reason j paradoxes are the inevita-
in "good" and "evil" deeds and thoughts, thus ble result of man's reflections; Christian ethics
determining the nature and circumstances of realizable only in Kierkegaard was
eternity.
incarnation. Karma is classified into prdrabdha raised in a stern Christian environment} he re-
(effectsdetermining the unavoidable circum- acted against orthodox religion and official phi-
stances of man's life), samcita (effects able to be
losophies (especially Hegelianism). An indi-
expiated or neglected, through jndna), and
e.g., vidualist, a sensitive, melancholic personality
agarni (effects currently generated and deter- suffering intense frustrations. Cf. German ed.
mining the future). Jainas (q.v.) enumerate of K's writings: Sdmmtliche Werke (1909-),
148 kinds of karma. K.F.L. and Eng. translations of Swenson (Post-Scien-
Karmakan^a: (Skr., see Karma above) That tific Philosophy, etc.). V.F.
portion of the Veda (q.v.) with which the Kind: (a) A class or collection of entities having
priests are concerned. K.F.L. a common character that differentiates members
Karmendriya: (Skr.) One of the five indriyas of this class from non-members, (b) J. S. Mill
(q.v.) or powers of action, reactive or muscular (System of Logic) limits the term to natural
senses, corresponding to the physiological capaci- classes,such as biological species, where mem-
of expression or speech, seizing or handling,
ties bers have, in addition to the defining property,
locomotion, excretion, and sexual activity. an unlimited number of other properties in
K.F.L. common. C.A.B.
Kathenotheism : A
term invented byMaxMuller Kinesis: (Gr. kinesis) Motion} change. In Aris-
which literally denotes one at a time theism. totle's philosophy three kinds of kinesis are dis-
It symbolizes the Vedic monotheistic prac- tinguished: (1) quantitative change, i.e. increase
tice according to which the position of the gods and diminution} (2) change of quality} and (3)
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 161

change of
place, or Among
locomotion. the and one time Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy
forms of kinesis Aristotle also sometimes reckons and Letters of Buenos Aires. Director of his
the two forms of substantial change, viz. gen- own review, Valoraciones, and patriarch of the
eration, or coming-to-be, and destruction, or modern philosophical tradition of Argentine.
passing-away. See Aristotelianisnt. G.R.M. The following may be considered his most im-
Knower, The: The subject of knowledge, con- portant works: Influential Filosoficas en la
ceived either as a mental act, an empirical self Evolution National, 1919) La Libertad Crea-
or a pure ego. See Subject. The knower in dora, 1922; Esquema Gnoseologico, 1924; El
contrast to the object known. See Episte mo- Concept o de Cientia, 1926} Axiologia, 1930}
logical object. L.W. Apuntes Filosoficos, 1935.
Knowledge: cnawan, know) Relations
(AS. Korn's philosophy represents an attack against
known. Apprehended truth. Opposite of opin- naive and dogmatic positivism, but admits and
ion. Certain knowledge is more than opinion, even assimilates an element of Positivism which
less than truth. Theory of knowledge, or epi- Korn calls Native Argentinian Positivism. Ale-
stemology (which see), is the systematic investi- jandro Korn may be called The Philosopher of
gation and exposition of the principles of the Freedom. In fact, freedom the keynote of his
is

possibility of knowledge. In epistemology: the thought. He speaks of Human liberty as the

relation between object and subject. See Epi- indissoluble union of economic and ethical
stemology. liberties. The knowledge of the
free soul's
Cf. E. Cassirer, Das Erkenntntsprobletne, 1906. world of science operates mainly on the basis
J.K.F. of intuition. In fact, intuition is the basis of all
K'o chi: Conquering, controlling oneself or self- knowledge. "Necessity of the objective world
cultivation, Chinese scholars being divided in order", "Freedom of the spirit in the subjective

interpretation. By the first interpretation it

realm", "Identity", 'Purpose", "Unity of Con-
means "restoring the moral order" and being a sciousness", and other similar concepts, are "ex-
true man (jen), avoiding, in particular, partial- pressions of immediate evidence and not con-
ity and selfish desires. By the second interpreta- clusionsof logical dialectics". The experience
tion it means self realization. W.T.C. of according to Korn, leads to the
freedom,
Kohler, Wolfgang: (1887-) An associate of problem of evaluation, which he defines as "the
Wertheimer and Koffka at Frankfort, was one human response to a fact", whether the fact be
of the of Gestalt psychology.
co-founders He an object or an event. Valuation is an experi-
was Professor of Psychology at the Uni-
later ence which grows out of the struggle for liberty.
versity of Berlin and is now Professor of Psy- Values, therefore, are relative to the fields of
chology at Swarthmore College. His Gestalt experience in which valuation takes place. The
Psychology (1929), contains an excellent state- denial of an absolute value or values, does not
ment in English of the theoretical foundations signify the exclusion of personal faith. On the
of Gestalt. L.W. contrary, personal, faith is the common ground
Koffka, Kurt: (1896-) Along with Wertheimer and point of departure of knowledge and action.
and Kohler, one of the original triumvirate of See Latin-American Philosophy. J.A.F.
Gestalt See Gestalt Psychology. Kosa:
psychologists. (Skr.) "Sheath", one of the envelopes of
Koffka, relying on the results of Kohler's study the soul or self concealing its real
nature, which
of learning in apes, has, in opposition to the is pure consciousness.The Vedanta knows three:
current attempts to treat learning exclusively in the dnandamaya, vijndnamaya, and annamaya
terms of trial and error, emphasized the essen- kosas, i.e., the sheaths of pleasure, intellect, and
tial role of insight in learning. See The Growth food, composing respectively the karana, suksma,
of the Mind, 1925, pp. 153-230. L.W. and sthula s'artra, meaning the causal,
subtile,
Koran: (Qoran) The name for the sacred and gross frame or body. K.F.L.
book of the Moharrnnedans. Its contents
Ko wu: (a) Investigation of things. (Confucian-
consist largely of warnings, remonstrances, as- ism.)
sertions, arguments in favor of certain doctrines,
narratives for enforcing morals. It stresses the (b) Investigation of the Reason (li) of things
and affairs to the utmost. (Chu Hsi, 1130-
ideal of the day of judgment, and abounds in
realistic description of both the pains of hell 1200.)
and the delights of paradise. As a collection of (c) "Rectification" of things and affairs by
resembles the extension of one's intuitive knowledge so
commandments, it juristic rescripts
that what not correct in things, and there-
is
(answers to special questions), mentioning the
fore evil, may be corrected and made good.
contradictory rulings on the same subjects. It
also resembles a diary of the prophet, consisting (Wang Yang-ming. 1473-1 529. )-~W.T.C.
of personal addresses by the deity to Mohammed. Kratocracy: (Gr. krateros, strong) Government
//.//. by those who
are strong enough to seize power
Korn, Alejandro: Born San Vicente, Buenos
in through force or cunning. (Montague.) H.H.
Aires in 1860. Buenos Aires, 1936.
Died in Krause, Karl Christian Friedrich: (1781-1832)
Psychiatrist in charge of Melchor Romero Hos- Kant's younger contemporary, who attempted to
pital for the Insane and Professor of Anatomy formulate a speculative reconciliation of theism
at the National College of La Plata. Professor and pantheism, or "panentheism". Main works:
of Ethics and Metaphysics in the Universities Grundl. d. Naturrfckts, 1803} System d. S*//*-
of Buenos Aires and La Plata, from 1906-1930, lehre, 1810} Das Vibild d. Menschhtit, 181 Ij
162 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
VorUs. u.d. Grtindwuhrheiten d. Wisstnsehaften, leading psychologist, as a procedure which he
terms Rettli*itrung. He affirms the existence of
Ksanika-vada: The Buddhistic the real in sharp contrast to every con-
(Skr.) theory
scientialism and objective idealism. He defends
(vada) asserting that everything exists only
the possibility and justification of physical real-
momentarily (ksanika), hence changes continu-
ism. He recognizes neither purely rational nor
ally. K.F.L.
purely empirical arguments for the existence of
Ku: Cause, "that with the obtaining of which a the external world in itself. Main works:
thing becomes." "A minor cause is that the Grundriss d. PsychoL, 1893$ Einleitung i.d.
obtaining of which a thing may not necessarily
Philos., 1895 (Eng. tr. Introd. to Philosophy);
be so but without the obtaining of which a
Kant, 1907) Erkenntnistheorie
Wissensch.,
it.
thing will never be so." "A major cause is
1910* Dit Realisierung, 3 vols. 19124922)
that with obtaining of which a thing is
the
Vorltsungtn uber Logik, 1923. H.H.
necessarily so but without the obtaining of which K'un: (a) The trigram of the clement earth of
a thing is necessarily not so." (Neo-Mohism.)
the eight trigrams (pa kua).
W.T.C.
(b) The trigram of the female principle of
Kua: Trigram. See Pa kua.
the universe. See Ch'itn. H.H.
Kuei: Man's spirit after deaths earthly spirits co- Rung: Accomplishment "which ii of benefit to the
existing with heavenly spirits (shen)j the pas- people." (Mohism.) W.T.C.
sive or negative (yin) aspect of the soul as
Rung: Respect^ courtesy) politeness) expression
the active or positive (yang) aspect and seriousness (chin).
against of reverence Kung re-
which is called hunj the operation of the pas- fers to expression, whereas chin refers to action.
sive cosmic principle, yin, (in Nee-Confucian- (Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism.) W.T.C.
ism).-- W.T.C. Kuo Hsiang: (Kuo Tzu-hsuan, c, 312 A.D.) The
Kulpe, Oswald: (1862-1915) Opposing idealistic outstanding Taoist in medieval China, wrote
Neo-Kantianism, he is the most typical pioneer the standard commentary on Chuang T*u based
of philosophical realism in Germany. He char- on the notes of his senior contemporary Hsiang
acterized the method of the sciences, himself a Hsiu. W.T.C.
Lachclier, J.: (1831-1918) A French philosopher Lambert is known also for important con-
who, though he wrote little, exerted a consid- tributions to mathematics, and astronomy} also
erable direct personal influence on his students for his work in logic, in particular his (un-
at the Ecole Normale Supcricurcj he was the successful, but historically significant) attempts
teacher of, both .Boutroux and H. Bergson. at construction of- a mathematical or symbolic
Hit philosophical position was a Kantian ideal- logic. Cf. C. I. Lewis, Survey of Symbolic
ism modified by the French "spiritualism" of Logic. A.C.
Maine de Biran and Ravaisson. Lamennais, R.: (1782-1854) Leader of a
Main works: Le fondement de I'induction, PJatonic-Christian movement in the Catholic
1871} Psychologic et metaphysique, 1885) clergy -of France. He advanced the idea of "in-
Etudes sur le syltogisme, 1907} Note sur le spired mankind." He attacked the eighteenth
part de Pascal. L.W. century for its principles and its method. In
Lamaism: (from Tibetan, La-ma, honorable finding dissolution and destruction as its after-
title of a monk) The religious beliefs and in- math, he advocated a return to the Catholic
stitutions of Tibet, derived from Mahayana Church as the solution.
Buddhism (q.v.) which was first introduced in Main works: Paroles d'un croyant, 1834}
the 7th century by the chieftain Sron-tsan-gam- Esquisse d'une philosophic, 1841-46. L.E.D.
po, superimposed on the native Shamaistic Bon Lamettrie, Julien Offroy de: (1709-1751) A
religion, resuscitated and mixed with Tantric French materialist and author of L'homme ma-
(q.v.) elements by the mythic Hindu Padmasam- chine, in which he expresses his belief that the
bhava, and reformed by the Bengalese AtlijKJn soul is a product of bodily growth) he main-
the llth and Tsong-kha-pa at the turn of the tains that the brain has it* "thought muscles"
14th century. The strong admixture of ele- just as the leg has its "walk muscles."
ments of the exarcismal, highly magically Main works: Histoire naturelle de I'ame,
charged and priest-ridden original Bon, has 1745} L'homme-machine, 1747} L'homme-
given Buddhism a turn away from its philo- plante, 1748} Disc ours sur le bonhemr, 1748}
sophic orientation and produced in Lamaism a Le sysleme d* Epicure* 17SQ.R.B.W.
form that places great emphasis on mantras Lange, Fried rich Albert: (1828-1875) Cele-
(q.v.) the most famous one being cm mani brated for his History of Materialism, based
padme / um) elaborate ritual, and the worship upon a
qualified Kantian point of view, he
of subsidiary tutelary deities, high dignitaries, demonstrated the philosophical limitations of
and living incarnations of the Buddha. This metaphysical materialism, and his appreciation
worship is institutionalized, with a semblance of of the value of materialism as a stimulus to
the papacy, in the double incarnation of the critical thinking. He worked for a greater
Bodhisattva (q.v.) in the Dalai-Lama who re- understanding of Kant's work and anticipated
sides with political powers at the capital Lha- nationalism* H.H.
sa, and the more spiritual head Tashi-Lama Language, Fonotiona of: Some utterances (a)
who rulei at Tashi-lhum-po. Contacts with In- are produced by a speaker, (b) induce effects in
dian and Chinese traditions have been main- an interpreter, (c) are related to a certain sub-
tained for centuries and the two canons of ject-matter (which may, but in general will not,
include either the speaker or interpreter). Ac-
Lamaism, the Kan-jur of 108 books and the
Tan-jur of 225 fcooka represent many trans- cording as one or other of the relations in which
lations as well as original works, some of great the utterance stands to the several factors of
AT.F.L. such speech-situations is selected for attention,
philosophical value. .

Lambert, X H.: (172S;1777) Was one of Kant's the (token) utterance may be said to havr ex-

correspondents.
He was of the Leibnir-Wolffcan pressive, evocative and referential functions, The
school which attempted aa eclectic reconciliation utterance expresses thoughts, desires, attitudes of
between rationalism and empiricism and thus the speaker} evokes reactions (thoughts, evalua-
laid a foundation for the later Kantian critical tions, tendencies to action) in the hearer} detig-
he Viewed a* an im- nates or refer* to its reference.
philosophy* A* such, it

portant forerunner of Kant ../>. While all three functions are normally dii-
164 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tinguishable in any given utterance, type- "form", "convention", "metaphor", etc.
sentences (and, derivatively, words) may be (d) The study of fully formalized language
classified according as one or the other of the systems or "calculi". An increasingly important
functions normally predominates in the occur- and highly technical division which seeks to
rence of the corresponding tokens. (Thus ex- extend -and adapt to all languages the methods
clamations are predominantly expressive, com- first developed in "metamathematics" for the ,

mand* evocative, scientific generalizations refer- study of mathematical symbolism.

ential.) Such distinctions may, in, turn, be made problems in general phi-
(e) Applications to
the basis for distinguishing different types of losophy. Notably the attempt made to show
that necessary propositions are really verbal) or
linguistic systems.
While most on language agree
writers again, the study of the nature of the religious
as to the value of making some such distinctions, symbol. Advance here awaits more generally
there is little agreement as to the number and acceptable doctrine in the other divisions.
kinds of functions whichmay usefully be recog- References: K. Buhler, Sprachtheorie. R. Car-
nized. There less
is agreement about
even nap, Logical Syntax of Language. E. Cassirer,
nomenclature. The
account given follows that Philosophie der symoolischen Formen. A. H.
of Kretschmer (Sprache, 61 ff. in Gercke and Gardiner, The Theory of Speech and Language.
Norden, Einleitung in die Altertumstoissenschaft, C. W. Morris, Foundations of the Theory of
I) and Buhler (Sprachtheorie, passim). Ogden Signs. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The
and Richards distinguish five functions (Mean- Meaning of Meaning. C. S. Peirce, Collected
ing of Meaning, 357 ff.). The broad distinction Papers.
between "referential" and "emotive" uses of See also Communication, Meaning, Referent,
language, due to the same authors, has been Semiotic, Sign, Symbol, Functions of Language,
widely accepted. M.B. Scientific Empiricism. M.B.
Language, Philosophy of: Any philosophical in- Language of Science: See Scientific Empiricism
vestigation arising from study of concrete, ac- II S 1.

tualized, languages, whether "living" or "dead". Lao Tzu: Whether the founder of Taoism (tao
was the same as Li Erh and Li An,
By "language" is here to be understood a system chia)
of signs (whether worcfo or ideograms) used in whether he lived before or after Confucius, and
regular modes of combination, in accordance whether the Tao Te Ching (Eng. trans.: The
with conventionally established rules, for the Canon of Reason and Virtue by P. Carus, The
purpose of communication. Way and Its Power by A. Waley, etc.) contains
Philosophers* Jiave in the past been concerned his teachings are controversial. According to
with two questions covered by our definition, the Shih Chi Records), he was a
(Historical
though attempts to organize the subject as an native of Chu (in present Honan), land of
autonomous department of philosophy are of romanticism in the south, and a custodian of
recent date. documents whom Confucius went to consult on
(1) Enquiries into the origin of language rituals. Thus he might have been a priest-
(e.g. in Plato's Kratylos) once a favorite sub- teacher who, by advocating the doctrine of "in-
ject for speculation, are now out of fashion, action", attempted to preserve the declining cul- _
both with philosophers and linguists. ture of his people, the suppressed people of Yin,

(2) Enquiries as to the nature of language while Confucius worked hard to promote the
(as in Descartes, Leibniz, and many others) are, culture of the ruling people of Chou. W.T.C.
however, still central to all philosophical inter- Lassalle, Ferdinand: (1825-1864) Was influ-
est in language. Such questions as "What are enced in his thought by Fichte and Hegel but
the most general characters of symbolism?", soon assumed a distinctly materialist position.
"How is 'Language' to be defined?", "What is His main interest and activity lay in the field
the essence of language?", "How is communica- of political and economic philosophy) he ad-
tion possible?", "What would be the nature of vocated, and worked for, the formation of trade
a perfect language?", are indicative of the vary- unions in Germany and adhered to socialism.
ing modulations which this theme receives in Main works: Die Philosophie Herakleitos d.
the works of contemporaries. Dunklen, 1858} System d. Srworoenen Rechte,
Current studies in the philosophy of language 1861) and political speeches and pamphlet! ia
can be classified under five heads: Collected Works (Leipzig, 1899-1901).
(a) Questions of method, relation to other RJB.W.
disciplines, etc. Much^discussion turns here upon Latency: (Lat latere, to be hidden) (a) In meta-
the proposal to establish a science and art of physics,the term latency Is equivalent to po-
symbolism, variously styled semiotic, semantics tency or potentiality. See Potentiality.
or logical syntax. (b) In epistemology and psychology, the term
(b) The analysis of meaning. Problems aris- is to knowledge, e.g. memory, which
applied
ing here involve attention to those under the lies dormant in the mind but it capable of be-
next heading. coming actual and explicit (tee W. Hamilton,
(c) The formulation of general descriptive Lectures on Metaphysics* xviii, cited by J. M.
schemata. Topics of importance here include the Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
identification and analysis of different ways in chology, Vol. I, p. 628). Latency in this re-
which language is used, and the definition of stricted sense, designates phenomena now em*
such crucial notions as "symbol", "grammar", braced by the term subconscious. See
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 165

sdous.L.W. Leading principle: The general statement of the

Latin- American Philosophy: Philosophy in
Latin America may be divided into three periods,
(1) The scholastic period begins with the
Recognitio sutntnularutn of Alonso de la Vera-
cruz (1554) and continues to the dawn of the
validity of some particular form of valid infer-
ence -(see Logic, formal) may be called its lead-
ing principle.
Or the name may be applied to a proposition
or sentence of logic corresponding to a certain
'

nineteenth century. According to Ueberweg, the form of valid inference. E.g., the law of ex-
influence of Scotus during this period was
Duns portation (q. v.) may be called the leading
greater than that of Thomas Aquinas. principle of the form of valid inference known
(2) The predominantly naturalistic and posi- as exportation. A.C.
tivisticperiod coincides roughly with the nine- Legal Philosophy: Deals with the philosophic
teenth century. The wars of independence were principles of law and justice. The origin is to be
accompanied by revolt from scholasticism. In found in ancient philosophy. The Greek Sophists
the early part of the century, liberal eclectics criticized existing laws and customs by question-
like Cousin and P. Janet were popular in South ing their validity: All human rules are artificial,
America, but French eighteenth century mate- created by enactment or convention, as opposed
rialism exerted an increasing influence. Later, to natural law, based on nature. The theory of a
the thought of Auguste Comte and of Herbert law of nature was further developed by Aristotle
Spencer came to be dominant especially in Mex- and the Stoics. According to the Stoics the
ico, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. Even an natural law is based upon the eternal law of
idealistically inclined social and educational the universe this itself is an outgrowth of
\

philosopher like Eugenio Maria de Hostos universal reason, as man's mind is an offshoot
(1839-1903), although rejecting naturalistic of the latter. The idea of a law of nature as

ethics,maintains a positivistic attitude toward being innate in man was particularly stressed
metaphysics. and popularized by Cicero who identified it with
(3) The predominantly idealistic period of "right reason" and already contrasted it with
the twentieth century was initiated by the work written law that might be unjust or even tyran-
of the Argentine Alejandro Korn (1860-1936), nical. Through Saint Augustine these ideas were
who introduced modern German philosophy to transmitted to medieval philosophy and by
his fellow-countrymen. Francisco Romero, also Thomas Aquinas built into his philosophical
an Argentine, has brought about the translation system. Thomas considers the eternal law the
of many European philosophical classics into reason existing in the divine mind and con-
Spanish. Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, and the more trolling the universe. Natural law, innate i"
recent neo-Kantians and phenomenologists have man participates in that eternal law.A new
exerted wide influence in Latin America. North impetus was given to Legal Philosophy by the
American personalism has also attracted atten- Renaissance. Natural Jurisprudence, properly so-
tion. In Mexico, Jose Vasconcelos and Pedro called, originated in the XVII. century. Hugo
Gringoire reflect in their own syntheses the Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, Benedictus Spinoza,
main streams of idealistic metaphysics, ethics, John Locke, Samuel Pufendorf were the most
esthetics. with its recent publica- important representatives of that line of thought.
Puerto Rico,
tion of the writings of Hostes, is also a center Grotius, continuing the Scholastic tradition, par-
of philosophic activity. There are signs of ticularly stressed the absoluteness of natural law
growing philosophical independence throughout (it would exist even if God did not exist) and,
Latin America. J.F., E.S.B. following Jean Bodin, the sovereignty of the
Latitudinarianism : (1) A party in the Church people. The idea of the social contract traced
of England (middle of the 17th century) aim- all political bodies back to a voluntary compact
ing to reconcile contending parties by seeking by which every individual gave up his right to
a broad basis in common doctrines. (2) A term
self-government, or rather transferred it to the
applied to a liberal opinion which allows di- government, abandoning a state of nature which
versity in unity. (3) A term used derisively as according to Hobbes must have been a state of
meaning indifference to religious doctrines. perpetual war. The theory of the social compact
V.F. more more accepts the character of a
and
Law: (in Kant) "Every formula which expresses "fiction" or of a regulative idea (Kant). In
the necessity of an action is called a law" this sense the theory means that we ought to
(Kant). P.A.S. judge acts of government by their correspond-
Law, Chinese School of: See Fa chia and ence to the general will (Rousseau) and to the
Chinese philosophy. interests of the individuals who by transferring
Law of Population: In economics, the tendency their rights to the commonwealth intended to
of population to encroach upon the means of establish their real liberty. Natural law by
subsistence. First announced by Malthus (1766- putting the emphasis on natural rights, lakes on
1834), the Law asserts that the increase of un- a revolutionary character. It played a part in
checked population is in geometric ratio while shaping the bills of rights, the constitutions of
the increase of the means of subsistence is in the American colonies and of the Union, as
arithmetic ratio, so that population must always well as of the French declaration of the ifgiits
press upon the limits of the means of subsist- of men and of citizens. Natural jurisprudence
in the teachings of Christian Wolff and Tho-
Laws of thought: See Logic, traditional. masius undergoes a kind of purification in the
166 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
vain attempt to outline an elaborate tystem of
natural law not only in the field of international
or public law, but also in the detailed regula-
tions of the law of property, of contract, etc.
This sort of dogmatic approach towards the
problems of law evoked the opposition of
the
Historic School (Gustav Hugo and Savigny)
which stressed the natural growth of laws and
customs, originating from the mysterious "spirit
of the people". On the other hand Immanuel
Kant tried to overcome the old natural law f>y
the idea of a "law of reason", meaning an a
priori element in all existing or positive law.
In his definition of law ("the ensemble of con-
ditions according to which everyone's will may
coexist with the will of every other in accord-
ance with a general rule of liberty"), however,
as in his legal philosophy in general, he still
shares the attitude of the natural law doctrine,
confusing positive law with the idea of just law.
This is also true of Hegel whose panlogism
seemed to lead in this very direction. Under
the influence of epistemological positivism
(Comte, Mill) in the later half of the nine-
teenth century, legal philosophy, especially
Germany, confined itself to a
"general theory
of law". Similarity John Austin in England
considered philosophy of law concerned only
with positive law, "as it necessarily is", not as
it ought to be. Its main task was to analyze
certain notions which pervade the science of law
(Analytical Jurisprudence). In recent times the
same tendency to reduce legal philosophy to
logical or at least methodological tasks was
further developed in attempting a pure science
of law (Kelsen, Roguin). Owing to the influ-
ence of Darwinism and natural science in gen-
eral the evolutionist and biological viewpoint
was accepted in legal philosophy: comparative
jurisprudence, sociology of law, the Freirecht
movement Germany, the study of the living
in
law, "Realism" in American legal philosophy,
tendency against rationalism. On
all represent a
the other hand there is a revival of older tenden-
cies:Hegelianism, natural law especially in
Catholic philosophy and Kantianism (beginning
with Rudolf Stammler). From here other trends
arose: the critical attitude leads to relativism
(f.i. Gustav
Radbruch)} the antimetaphysical
tendency towards positivism though different
from epistemological positivism and to a pure
theory of law. Different schools of recent phi-
losophy have found their applications or reper-
cussions in legal philosophy: Phenomenology,
for example, tried to intuit the essences of legal
institutions, thus coming back to a formalist posi-
tion, not too far from the real meaning of
analytical jurisprudence. Neo-positivism, though
so far not yet explicitly applied to legal philoso-
phy, seems to lead in the same direction. W.E.
Legaliim, ethical: The- insistence on a
literalor overt observance of certain rules of
conduct, or the belief that there are rules which
must be so obeyed. Opposed on the one hand
by the view which emphasizes the spirit over
the letter of the law, and on the other by the
view which emphasizes a consideration of the
value of the consequences of actions and rules
of action. Deontological ethics is often said to
be legalistic. Cf. F. Cohen, Legal Ideals and
Ethical Systems. W.K.F.
Lei: (a) Generic name. "All similar substances
necessarily bear the same name." (Neo-Mohism)
(b) Generic relationship or partial relation-
ship. See Mo che.W.T.C.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: (1646-1716) Born
in Leipzig, where his father was a professor in
the university, he was educated at Leipzig, Jena,
and Altdorf University, where he obtained his
doctorate. Jurist, mathematician, diplomat, his-
torian, theologian of no mean proportions, he
was Germany's greatest 17th century philosopher
and one of the most universal minds of all times.
In Paris, then the centre of intellectual civiliza-
tion (Moliere was still alive, Racine at the
height of his glory), where he had been sent on
an official mission of state, he met Arnauld, a
disciple of Descartes who acquainted him with
(
his master's ideas, and Huygens who taught him
as to the higher forms of mathematics and their
application to physical phenomena. He visited
in London, where he met Newton, Boyle, and
others. At the Hague he came face to face with
the other great philosopher of the time, Spinoza.
One of Leibniz's cherished ideas was the crea-
tion of a society of scholars for the investiga-
tion of all branches of scientific truth to com-
bine them into one great system of truth. His
philosophy, the work "of odd moments", bears,
in content and form, the impress of its haphazard
origin and its author's cosmopolitan mode of
life. There is no systematic exposition, only a
large number of letters, essays, memoranda,
etc., published in various scientific journals.
Universality and individuality characterize him
both as a man and philosopher.
Leibniz's philosophy was the dawning con-
sciousness of the modern world (Dewey). So
gradual and continuous, like the development of
a monad, so all-inclusive was the growth of his
mind, that his philosophy, as he himself says,
"connects Plato with Democritus, Aristotle with
Descartes, the Scholastics with the moderns,
theology and morals with reason." The reform
of all science was to be effected by the use of
two instruments, a universal scientific language
and a calculus of reasoning. He advocated a
universal language of ideographic symbols in
which complex concepts would be expressed by
combinations of symbols representing simple con-
cepts or by new symbols defined as equivalent
to such a complex. He believed that analysis
would enable us to limit the number of un-
defined concepts to a few simple primitives in
terms of which all other concepts could be de-
fined. This is the essential notion back of mod-
ern logistic treatments.
strict In contributing some elements of a "universal
calculus" he may be said to have been the first
serious student of symbolic logic. He devised a
symbolism for such concepts and relations as
"and", "or", implication between concepts, class
inclusion, class and conceptual equivalence, etc.
One of his sets of symbolic representations for
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 167

the four standard

propositions of traditional after their death imperialism. In the same fash-
logic coincides with the usage of modern logic. ion Lenin built upon and further extended the
He anticipated in the principles of his calculus Marxist doctrine of the state in his "State and
many of the important rules of modern symbolic Revolution", written just before the revolution
His treatment, since it was primarily of 1917. In this work Lenin develops a concept
systems.
like the dictatorship of the proletariat which
intentional, neglected important extensional fea-
Marx treated only briefly and generally, elabo-
tures of recent developments, but, on the other
rates a distinction like that between socialism
hand, called attention to certain intensional dis-
and communism, only implicit in Marx's work,
tinctions now commonly neglected. and asserts a thesis like the possibility of so-
Leibniz is best known in the history of phi- cialism in one country, towards which Marx .was
losophy as the author of the Monadology and negative in the light of conditions as he knew
the theory of the Pre-established Harmony both them. After the Bolsheviks came to power,
of which see. Lenin headed the government until his death on
Main works: Df art* combinatoria, 1666} January 21, 1924. In Russian, Lenin's "Col-
Theoria motus concreti et abstracts, 1671} Dis- lected Works" comprise thirty volumes, with
cours de la metaphysique y 1686} Systems nou- about thirty additional volumes of miscellaneous
veau de la nature , 1695; Nouveaux Essais sur writings ("Leninskie Sborniki")- The principal
I'entendement humain, 1701 (publ. 1765, crit- English translations are the "Collected Works",
icism of Locke's Essay)} Theodicee, 1710} to comprise thirty volumes (of which five in
Monadologie, 1714 (letter to Prince Eugene of eight books have been published to date), the
Savoy). No
complete edition of L. exists, but "Selected Works" comprising twelve volumes
the Prussian Academy of Sciences began one and (for philosophical materials, see especially Vol-
issued 4 vols. to date. Cf. Gerhardt's edition ume XI, "Theoretical Principles of Marxism"),
of L's philosophical works (7 vols., 1875-90) and the Little Lenin Library, made up mostly
and mathematical works (1849-63), Fouchcr de of shorter works, comprising 27 volumes to date.
Careil's edition, 7 vols. (1859-75), O. Klopp's J.M.S.
edition of L.'s historico-political works, 10 vols. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: (1729-1781) Gen-
(1864-77), L. Couturat's Opuscules et frag- man dramatist and critic. He is best known in
ments inedits de L., 1903. K.F.L. the philosophic field for his treatise on the limi-
Lemma: (Gr. lemma) In Aristotle's logic a tations of poetry and the plastic arts in the

premiss of a syllogism. G.R.M. famous "Laokoon." In the drama, "Nathan the

In mathematics, a theorem proved for the sake Wise," he has added to the world's literature a
of its use in proving another theorem. The profound plea for religious toleration. L.E.D.
name is applied especially in cases where the Leucippus: (a. 450 B.C.) A contemporary of
lemma ceases to be of interest in itself after Empedocles and Anaxagoras and founder of the
proof of the theorem for the sake of which it School of Abdera, developed the fruitful princi-
was introduced. A.C. ple that all qualitative differences in nature may
be reduced to quantitative ones. Thus Leucippus
Lenin, V. L: (Ulianov, Vladimir Ilyich) Lenin
is generally regarded as the chief exponent of
breaks up the homogeneous "Being" of Parme-
dialectical materialism (q.v.) after Marx and
nides nto an iinfinity of equally homogeneous

Engels. He was born April 22, 1870, in Sim- parts or atoms and he distributes these, in an in-
finite of forms, through infinite space.
birsk, Russia, and received the professional variety
These small particles of "Being" are separated
training of a lawyer. A Marxist from his stu-
dent days onward, he lived many years outside from one another by that which is not-Being, i.e.
of Russia as a political refugee, and read widely by empty space. "Becoming", or the coming into
in the social sciences and philosophy. In the being of things, is essentially the result of the
latter field his "Philosophical Note Books" (as
motion of these atoms in space and their acci-
dental coming Af.F.
yet untranslated into English) containing de- together.
tailed critical comments on the works of many Level: A
grade or type of existence or being
leading philosophers, ancient and modern, and which entails a special type of relatedness or of
in particular on Hegel, indicate his close study organization, with distinctive laws. The term
of texts. In 1909, Lenin published his best has been used primarily in connection with
known philosophic work "Materialism and Em- theories of emergent evolution where certain so-
pirio-Criticism" which was directed against called higher levels, e.g.life, or mind, are sup-

"a number of writers, would-be Marxists" in-
cluding Bararov, Bogdanov, Lunacharsky, Ber-
man, Helfond, Yushkevich, Suvorov and Valen-
tinov, and especially against a symposium of
this group published under the title, "Studies in
the Philosophy of Marxism" which in general
adopted the "positivistic" position of Mach and
Avenarius.
posed to have emerged from the lower levels,
e.g. matter, and are considered to exhibit fea-
tures of novelty not predictable from the lower
levels. A.C.B.
Levy-Bruhl, Lucien: (1857-1939) Professor of
Philosophy at the Sorbonne 1899-1939, repre-
sents a sociological and anthropological approach
to philosophy; his chief contribution is an an-

In his economic and political writings, Lenin thropological study of primitive religion which
extended and developed the doctrines of Marx emphasizes the "prelogical" or mystical character
and Engels especially in their application to a of the thinking of primitive peoples. La Men-

phase of capitalism which emerged fully only

talite primitive (1922), Eng. trans., 1923$
168 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
L'Ame (1927), His other writings
Primitive are rooted Heaven, have their correspond-
in
include: History of Modern Philosophy in ences in and are applicable to spiritual
Earth,
France (Eng. trans., 1899) The Philosophy of 5 beings." "Music unites, while rituals differ-
Auguste Comte (1900, Eng. trans., 1903). entiate. Music comes from the inside, while
. . .

L.W. rituals come from the outside. Because mus'C

Lewis, Clarence Irving: (1883-) Professor comes from the inside, it is characterized by
of Philosophy at Harvard. In Logic, Lewis quiet and calm. And because rituals come from
has originated and defended strict itnplica- the outside, they are characterized by formalism.
cation (q.v.) in contrast to material implication , . . .
Truly great music shares the principles of
harmony with the universe, and truly great
urging that formal inference should be based on
a relation which can be known to hold without ritualism shares the principles of distinction with
the universe. Through the principles of har-
knowing what is true or false of this particular
universe. See his Survey of Symbolic Logic, mony, order is restored in the physical world,
and and C. H. Langford's Symbolic Logic,
his and through the principles of distinction, we
are enabled to offer sacrifices to Heaven and
csp. Ch. VIII. Lewis has argued also for "queer
is, abstract systems somewhat Earth. Music expresses the harmony of the
logics", that dif- . . .

ferent from the abstract system usually inter- universe, while rituals express the order of the
preted as logic. Lewis raises the question how universe. Through harmony all things are in-
"queer" a system can be and still be inter- fluenced, and through order all things have a
pretable properly as a system of logic. proper place. Music rises from Heaven, while
Epistemology (See his JWtnd and the
In rituals are patterned on Earth. ." (Early . .

World-Order) Lewis has presented a "concep- Confucianism.) "The code of propriety has
tualistic pragmatism" based on these theses: (1) three sources: Heaven and Earth gave birth to
"A priori truth *is definitive in nature and rises it this is a source; our ancestors made it fit

exclusively from the analysis of concepts." (2) the situation this is a source; the princes and
"The choice of conceptual systems for . . .
ap- teachers formed it this is a source." (Hsiin
plication [to particular given experiences] is Tzu, c 335-c 238 B.C.) W.T.C.
. .
pragmatic." (3) "That experience in gen-
. Li: (a) Profit, the principle of gain in contrast
eral such as to be capable of conceptual inter-
is with the principle of righteousness (i). (Men-
pretation . could not conceivably be other-
. . cius, etc.)
wise." C.A.B. (b) Benefit, "that which, when obtained,
Li: Reason; Law; the Rational Principle. This gives pleasure," or the largest amount of happi-
is the basic concept of modern Chinese philoso- ness for the greatest number of people, as a
phy. To the Neo-Confucians, especially Ch'eng result of Universal Love (chien ai). Righteous-
I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao (1032- ness, loyalty, filial piety, and accomplishment
1086) and Chu Hsi (1130-1200), Reason is the are forms of li. (Mohism and Neo-Mohism.)
rational principle of existence whereas the vital W.T.C.
force (ch'i) is the material principle. All things Libertarianism (Lat. libertas, freedom) Theory
:

have the same Reason in them, making them of the freedom of the will. See Free-Will.
one reality. By virtue of their Reason, Heaven L.W.
and Earth and all things are not isolated. The Liberty: (in Scholasticism) Of exercise: Is the
Reason of a thing is one with the Reason of all same as liberty of contradiction : a potentiality
things. A thing can function easily if it follows for either one of two contradictories, as to do
its own Reason. Everything can be understood good or not to do good, to act or not to act.
by its Reason. This Reason of a thing is the Of specification: Is the same as liberty of con-
same as its nature (hsing). Subjectively it is the trariety: a potentiality for either one of two
nature, objectively it is Reason. Lu Hsiang- contraries, as to do good or to do evil. H.G.
shan said that there is only one
(1139-1193) Liberum Arbitrium: The freedom of indiffer-
mind and only one Reason, which are
there is ence (liberum arbitrium indifferentiae) is the
identical. It fills the universe, manifesting it- ability of the will to choose independently of
self everywhere. To Wang Yang-ming (1473- anticedent determination. See Free-Will. L.W.
1529), the mind itself is the embodiment of Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph: (1742-1799)
Reason. To say that there is nothing existing Influential German satirist. Made discoveries in
independent of Reason is to say that there is physics. He leaned towards theoretical material-
nothing apart from the mind. See Li hsiieh, ism, and yet had a strong religious (Spinozistic)
Chinese philosophy, and ch'i. W.T.C. element. H.H.
Li: Propriety} code of proper conduct; rules of Main works: Briefe aus England, 1776-8;
social contact; good manners; etiquett; mores; editor of Gbttingisches Mag. d. Literatur u.
rituals; rites; ceremonials. In Confucius, it aims Wissensch., 1780-2; Ausjiihrhche Erkldrung d.
at true manhood (jen) through self-mastery, Hogarthschen Kupferstiche, 1794-9.
and central harmony (ho). "Propriety regu- Lieh Tzu: Nothing is known of Lieh Tzu (Lieh
lates and refines human feelings, giving them Yu-k'ou, 450-375 B.C.) except that he was a
c.

due allowance, so as to keep the people within Taoist. The book Lieh Tzu
(partial Eng. tr.
bounds." It is "to determine human relation- by L. Giles Taoist Teachings front the Book of
:

ships, to settle suspicions and dt>ubts, to dis- Lieh Tzu) which bears his name is a work of
the third century A.D. W.T.C.
tinguish similarity and difference, and to ascer-
tain right and wrong." "The rules of propriety Li hsueh: The Rational Philosophy or the Rea-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 169
son School of the
Sung dynasty (960-1279) the same as the limit of <*(*) as * approaches
which insisted on Reason or Law (li) as the infinity.
basis of reality, including- such philosophers as (Of course
it is not meant to be
implied in
Chou Lien-hsi (1017-1073), Shao K'ang-chieh the preceding that the limit of an infinite se-
(1011-1077), Chang Hcng-ch'u (1020-1077), quence or of a function always exists. In par-
Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao ticular cases it may happen that there is no
(1032-1086), Chu Hsi (1130-1200), and Lu limit of an infinite sequence, or no limit of
Hsiang-shan (1139-1193). It is also called /(*) x approaches
as c, etc.) A.C.
Hsing-li Hsueh (Philosophy of the Nature and Limitative: Tending to restrict} pertaining to
Reason) and Sung Hsueh (Philosophy of the the limit-value. In logic, an affirmative infini-
Sung Dynasty). Often the term includes the tated judgment, often employed as a third qual-
idealistic
philosophy of the Ming dynasty (1368- ity added to affirmative and negative. More
1644), including Wang Yang-ming (1473- specifically used by Kant to denote judgments
1529), sometimes called Hsin Hsiieh (Philoso- of the type, "Every A is a not-B", and since
phy of Mind). Often it also includes the phi- Kant, applied judgments known to the
to the
losophy of the
Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911), older logicians as indefinite. J.fC.F.
called Tao Hsueh, including such philosophers
Limiting Notion: The notion of the extreme ap-
as Yen Hsi-chai (1635-1704) and Tai Tung-
plicability of an universal principle considered
yuan (1723-1777). For a summary of the Ra- as a limit. Employed by Kant (1724-1804) in
tional Philosophy, see Chinese philosophy. For his Kritik der Retnen Vernunjt, A 255, to in-
itsphilosophy of Reason (li), vital force (ch'i), dicate the theory that experience cannot attain
the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi), the passive and to the noumenon. J.K.F,
active principles (yin yang), the nature of man Limits of Sensation: The two limiting sensa-
and things (hsing), the investigation of things tions in the sensory continuum of any given
to the utmost (ch'iung li), the extension of sense: (a) the lower limit is the just noticeable
knowledge (chih chih), and its ethics of true sensation which if the stimulus producing it
manhood or love (jen), seriousness (ching) were diminished, would vanish altogether or in
and sincerity (ch'eng), see articles on these the view of some psychologists would pass into
topics. W.T.C. the unconscious. See Threshold of Conscious-
Limit : We
give here only some of the most ele- ness, (b) The upper limit is the maximum sen-
mentary mathematical senses of this word, in sation such that the producing stimulus were
if

connection with real numbers. (Refer to the increased the resultant sensation would again
articles Number and Continuity.") vanish. L.W.
The limit of an infinite sequence of real num- Line of Beauty: Title given by Wm. Hogarth
bers i, as, as, . . . is said to be (the real num- to an undulating line supposedly containing the
for every positive real number e there essence of the graphically
ber) l> if
beautiful, and so re-
is a positive integer N
such that the difference garded as both the cause and the criterion of
between b and a n is less than e whenever is beauty; particular lines and paintings become
beautiful as and because
greater than N. -(By the difference between b they exhibit this line.
and an, is here meant the non-negative difference, According to Hogarth, such lines must express
i.e., ban if b ir greater than a n> an b if b is "symmetry, variety, uniformity, simplicity, in-
lessthan 4 n , and if b is equal to a n .) tricacy, and quantity". (Analysis of Beauty,
Let / be a monadic function for which the London, 1753, p. 47.) /./.
range of the independent variable and the range Lipps, Theodor: (1851-1914) Eminent German
of the dependent variable both consist of real philosopher and psychologist. The study of opti-
numbers, let b and c be real numbers; and let g cal illusions led him to his theory of empathy.
be the monadic function so determined that Starts with the presupposition that
every aesthe-
tic
g(c)-=.b, and g(x)=f(x) if x is different from object represents a living being, and calls
the psychic state which we when we
c. (The range of the independent variable for g experience
is thus the same as that for /, with the addition project ourselves into the life of such an object,
of the real number c if not already included.) an empathy (EinfuAlung) or
"fellow-feeling".
The limit of /(*) as x approaches c is said to be He applied this principle consistently to all the
b if g is continuous at c. More briefly but less
arts. The empathic act is not simply kinaesthetic
the limit of /(*) as x approaches c inference but has exclusively
accurately, objective reference.
is the value which rrust be assigned to / for the Being a peculiar source of about knowledge
in order to make it continuous at other egos, it is blend of inference and in-
a
argument c c.

The limit of /(*) as x approaches infinity is

tuition. Main works: Psychol. Studien t 1885j
said to be b, if the limit of h(x) as x approaches Grundziige d. Logik, 1893} Die ethische Grund-
is b, where h is the function so determined fragen, 1899 Aesthetik, 2 vols.,
5
1903-06}
Philos. u. Wirklichkeit, 1908}
that /*<*)=/(!/*). Psychol. Vnter-
In connection with the infinite sequence of such., 2 vols., 1907-12. H.H.
real numbers <?i, aa, is, . .
.,
a monadic function Localization, Cerebral: (Lat. locus, place) The
a be introduced for which the range of the
may supposed correlation of mental processes, sensory
independent variable consists of the positive in- and motor, with definite areas of the brain. The
tegers 1, 2, 3, ... and tf(l)=4,, a(2)z=a a ,
theory of definite and exact brain localization
*(3)=<i8, .... It can then be shown that the has been largely diaproven by recent physiologi-
limit of the infinite sequence as above denned is cal investigations of Franz, Lashley and others.
170 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Locke, John: (1632-1714) The first great Brit- standing, 16W.B.A.G.F.
ish empiricist, denied the existence of innate Logic, formal : Investigates the structure of propo-
ideas, categories, and moral principles. The sitions and of deductive reasoning by a method
mind at birth is a tabula rasa. Its whole con- which abstracts from the content of propositions
tent is derived from sense-experience, and con- which come under consideration and deals only
structed by refection upon sensible data. Re- with their logical form. The distinction between
flection is effected through memory and its at- form and content can be made definite with
tendant activities of contemplation, distinction, the aid of a particular language or symbolism

comparison in point of likeness and difference, in which propositions are expressed, and the
and imaginative recompositon. Even the most formal method can then be characterized by the
abstract notions and ideas, like infinity, power, fact that it deals with the objective form of
cause and effect, substance and identity, which sentences which express propositions and pro-
seemingly are not given by experience, are no vides in these concrete terms criteria of mean-
exceptions to the rule. Thus "infinity" confesses ingfulness and validity of inference. This for-
our inability to limit in fact or imagination the mulation of the matter presupposes the selection
spatial and temporal extension of sense-experi- of a particular language which is to be re-
ence j "substance," to perceive or understand garded as logically exact and free from the
why qualities congregate in separate clumps; ambiguities and irregularities of structure which
"power" and 'cause and effect," to perceive or appear in English (or other languages of every-
understand why and how these clumps follow, day use) i.e., it makes the distinction between

and seemingly produce one another as they do, form and content relative to the choice of a
or for that matter, how our volitions "produce" language. Many logicians prefer to postulate
the movements that put them into effect. Inci- an abstract form for propositions themselves,

dentally, Locke defines freedom as liberty, not and to characterize the logical exactness of a
of choice, which is always sufficiently motivated, language by the uniformity with which the con-
but of action in accordance with choice. "Iden- crete form of its sentences reproduces or parallels
tity" of things, Locke derives from spatial and the form of the propositions which they express.
temporal continuity of the content of clumps of At all events it is practically necessary to intro-
sensations j of structure, from continuity of ar- duce a special logical language, or symbolic
rangement in changing content; of person, from notation, more exact than ordinary English
continuity of consciousness through memory, usage, if topics beyond the most elementary are
which, incidentally, permits of alternating per- to be dealt with (see logistic system, and
sonalities in the same body or of the transfer- semiotic).
ence of the same personality from one body to Concerning the distinction between form and
another. content see further the articles formal, and syn-
In these circumstances real knowledge is very tax, logical.
limited. "Universals" register superficial re- 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS formalizes
semblances, not the real essences of things. Ex- the use sentential connectives and, or,
of the
perience directly "intuits" identity and diversity, not, if Various systems of notation are
. . .then.

relations, coexistences and necessary connections current, of which we here adopt a particular one
in itscontent, and, aided by memory, "knows" for purposes of exposition. We use juxtaposition
the agreements and disagreements of ideas in to denote conjunction ("Pq" to mean "p and
these respects. We also feel directly (sensitive ?"), the sign v to denote inclusive disjunction
knowledge) that our experience comes from (up v ? to mean up or q or both"), the sign +
without. Moreover, though taste, smell, colour, to denote exclusive disjunction ("p 4~ 0" to

sound, etc. are internal to ourselves (secondary mean "p or q but not both"), the sign to ~
qualities) extension, shape, rest, motion, unity denote negation ("/-^p" to mean "not p"), the
and plurality (primary qualities) seem to inhere sign
3 to denote the conditional ("p 3 ?" to
in the external world independently of our per- mean p then y," or "not both p and not-?"),
"if
ception of it. Finally, we have "demonstrative the sign 5
to denote the biconditional ("p s
knowledge" of the existence of God. But of q" to mean "p if and only if 0," or "either
anything other than God, we have no knowl- p and q or not-p and not-?"), and the sign to |

edge except such as is derived from and limited denote alternative denial ("p q" to mean "not \

by the senses. both p and ?"). The word or is ambiguous in

Locke also was a political, economic and re- ordinary English usage between inclusive dis-
ligious thinker of note. A
"latitudinarian" and junction and exclusive disjunction, and distinct
broad churchman in theology and a liberal in notations are accordingly provided for the two
politics, he argued against the divine right of meanings of the word. The notations "p 3 q"
kings and the authority of the Bible and the and "p =
q" are sometimes read as "p implies
n
Church, and maintained that political sover- q" and "p is equivalent to q respectively. These
eignty rests upon the consent of the governed, readings must, however, be used with caution,
and ecclesiastical authority upon the consent of since the terms implication and equivalence are
reason. He was also an ardent defender of often used in a sense which involves some re-
freedom of thought and speech. Main works: lationship between the logical forms of the
Two Treatises on Gov't, 1689} Reasonableness propositions (or the sentences) which they con-
in Christianity, 1695) Some Thoughts on Edu- nect, whereas the validity of p
a q and of p
cation, 1693) An Essay on Human Under- a q requires no such relationship. The connec-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 171

tive 3 is also said to stand for "material im- we

sible ways of doing this select the following.
plication," distinguished from formal implica- If A, B, C are any formulas, each of the
tion ( 3 below) and strict implication (q. v.). seven following formulas is a primitive formula:
Similarly the connective = is said to stand for [A v A] = A. A => [B = ABJ.
"material equivalence." A = [A v B]. AB = A.
It is possible in various ways to define some [A v B] = [B v A]. AB = B.
of the sentential connectives named above in [A => B] => [[C v A] = [C v B]].
terms of others. In particular, if the sign of (The complete list of primitive formulas is

alternative denial is taken as primitive, all the thus infinite, but there are just seven possible
other connectives can be defined in terms of forms of primitive formulas as above.) There
this one. Also, if the signs of negation and is one primitive rule of inference, as follows:

inclusive disjunction are taken as primitive, all Given A and A 3 B to tnjer B. This is the
the others can be defined in terms of these} inference known as modus ponens (see below.
likewise if the signs of negation and conjunc- 2).
tion are taken as primitive. Here, however, for The theorems of the propositional calculus are
reasons of naturalness and symmetry, we prefer the formulas which can be derived from the
to take as primitive the three connectives, de- primitive formulas by a succession of applica-
noting negation, conjunction, and inclusive dis- tions of the primitive rule of inference. In
junction. The remaining ones are then defined other words, (a) the primitive formulas are
as follows: theorems, and (b) if A and A =>
B are theo-
A |
B - ~A v ~B. rems then B is a theorem. An inference from
A => B -> ~A v B. premisses Ai, A* , to a conclusion B is . . . A
A == B - [B = A][A = B]. a valid inference of the propositional calculus
A -f B
-
[~B]A v [~A]B. if B becomes a theorem upon adding Ai, As,
The roman letters here denote arbitrary
capital . . . An to the list of primitive formulas. In
,

formulas of the propositional calculus (in the other words, (a) the inference from AI, A 2 , . .', .

technical sense defined below) and the arrow is to A to B is a valid inference if B is either a
be read "stands for" or "is an abbreviation for," primitive formula or one of the formulas Ai,
Suppose that we have given some specific list A*, . . .
, An, and (b) if the inference from Ai,
of propositional symbols, which may be infinite As, . . .
, AH to C and the inference from Ai
in number, and to which we shall refer as the As, ,
. . . A to C 3 B are both valid infer-
fundamental propositional symbols. These are ences then the . . . ,
inference from Ai, A, A
not necessarily single letters or characters, but to B is a valid inference. It can be
proved that
may be expressions taken from any language or the inference from Ai, As, . . . , to B is a A
valid inference of the propositional calculus if
system of notation} they may denote particular
propositions, or theymay contain variables and (obviously), and only if (the deduction theo-
denote ambiguously any proposition of a certain rem), [Ai = [As => . . . [A = B] . . . ]] is
form or class. Certain restrictions are also nec- a theorem of the propositional calculus.

essary upon the way in which the fundamental
propositional symbols can contain square brackets
[ ] } for the present purpose it will suffice to
suppose that they do not contain square brackets
at all, although they may contain parentheses or
The reader should distinguish between theo-
rems about the propositional calculus the de-
duction theorem, the principles of duality (be-
low), etc. and theorems of the propositional
calculus in the sense just defined. It is con-

other kinds of brackets. We call formulas of venient to use such words as theorem, premiss,
the propositional calculus (relative to the given conclusion both for propositions (in whatever
list of fundamental propositional symbols) all language expressed) and for formulas represent-
the expressions determined by the four following ing propositions in some fixed system or calculus.
rules: (1) all the fundamental propositional In the foregoing the list of fundamental
symbols are formulas} (2) if A is a formula, propositional symbols has been left unspecified.
^[A] is a formula} (3) if A and B are for- A case of special importance is the case that
mulas [A][B] is a formula} ,(4) if A and B the fundamental are an propositional symbols
are formulas [A] v [B] is a formula. The infinite list of variables, p, q, r, which may . .
.,

formulas of the propositional calculus as thus be taken as representing ambiguously any proposi-
defined will in general contain more brackets tion whatever or any proposition of a certain
than are necessary for clarity or freedom from class fixed in advance (the class should be
ambiguity; in practice we omit superfluous closed under the operations of negation, con-
brackets and regard the shortened expressions as junction, and inclusive disjunction). In this
abbreviations for the full formulas. It will be case we speak of the pure propositional calculus,
noted also that, if A and B are formulas, we and refer to the other cases as applied proposi-
regard [A] [B], [A]
=>
[B], [A]
| [B], s tional calculus (although the application may be
and [A] -f- [B], not as formulas, but as ab- to something as abstract in character as the pure
breviations for certain formulas in accordance propositional calculus itself, as, e.g., in the case
with the above given definitions. of the pure functional calculus of first order
In order to complete the setting up of the ( 3)> which contains an applied propositional
propositional calculus as a logistic system (q. v.) calculus).
it is necessary to state primitive formulas and In formulating the pure propositional calculus
primitive rules of inference. Of the many pos- the primitive formulas may (if desired) be re-
172 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
duced to a finite number, e.g., to the seven listed Thus, given a formula of the (pure) proposi-
above with A, B, C taken to be the particular tional calculus and an assignment of a truth-

variables p, q, r. A second primitive rule of value to each of the variables appearing, we

can reckon out by a mechanical process the
inference, the rule of substitution, is then re-
truth-value to be assigned to the entire formula.
quired, allowing the inference from a formula
A formula obtained from A by substitut-
to the If, for all possible assignments of truth-values

ing a formula B for a particular variable in A

to the variables appearing, the calculated truth-
value corresponding to the entire formula is
(the same formula B must be substituted for all
occurrences of that variable in A). The defini- truth, the formula is said to be a tautology.
tion of a theorem is then given in the same The test whether a formula is a tautology is

since in any particular case the

way as before, allowing for the additional primi- effective, totaj
tive rule) the definition of a valid inference number of different assignments of truth-values
to the variables is finite, and the calculation of
must, however, be modified.
In what follows (to the end of 1 ) we shall, the truth-value corresponding to the entire for-

for convenience of statement, confine attention mula can be carried out separately for each
to the case of the pure prepositional calculus. possible assignment of truth-values to the vari-
Similar statements hold, with minor modifica- ables.

tions, for the general case.

Now it is readily verified that all the primi-
The formulation which we have given pro-
tive formulas are tautologies, and that for the
vides a means theorems
of of the rule of modus ponens (and the rule of substitu-
proving
tion) the property holds that if the premisses
propositional proof consisting of
calculus, the
an explicit finite sequence of formulas, the last of the inference are tautologies the conclusion
of which is the theorem proved, and each of must be a tautology. It follows that every theo-
vhich is either a primitive formula or inferable rem of the propositional calculus is a tautology.
from preceding formulas by a single application By a more difficult argument it can be shown
of the rule of inference (or one of the rules also that every tautology is a theorem.' Hence
of inference, if the alternative formulation of the test whether a formula is a tautology pro-
the vides a solution of the decision problem of the
pure propositional calculus employing the
rule of substitution is adopted). The test whether propositional calculus.
a given finite sequence of formulas is a proof As corollaries of this we have proofs of the
of the last formula of the sequence is effective consistency of the propositional calculus (if A
we have the means of always determining of is any formula, A and cannot both be ^A
a given formula whether it is a primitive for- tautologies and hence cannot both be theorems)
mula, and the means of always determining of
and of the completeness of the propositional
a given formula whether it is inferable from calculus (it can be shown that if any formula

a given finite list of formulas by a single ap- not already a theorem, and hence not a tau-
plication of modus ponens (or substitution). In- tology, is added to the list of primitive formulas,
deed our formulation would not be satisfactory the calculus becomes inconsistent on the basis of
otherwise. For in the case a the two rules, substitution and modus ponens).
contrary proof
would not necessarily carry conviction, the pro- As another corollary of this, or otherwise, we
poser of a proof could fairly be asked to give obtain also the following theorem about the
a proof that it was a proof in short the formal propositional calculus: If B is a theorem, A S
analysis of what constitutes a proof (in the and D
is the result of replacing a particular

sense of a cogent demonstration) would be occurrence of by B in the A

formula C, then
incomplete. the inference from C to D is a valid inference.
the test whether a dual of a formula C of the propositional
The
However, given formula
is a theorem, by the criterion that it is a theo- calculus is obtained by interchanging conjunc-
rem if a proof of it exists, is not effective tion and disjunction throughout the formula,
since failure to find a proof upon search might i.e.,by replacing AB everywhere by A v B, and
mean lack of ingenuity rather than non-existence A B by AB. Thus, e.g., the dual of the for-
v
of a proof. The problem to give an effective mula ^[pq v '/] is the formula ~[[p v ?]
<

test by means of which it can always be deter- ^T]. In forming the dual of a formula which
mined whether a given formula is a theorem is is expressed with the aid of the defined con-

the decision problem of the propositional cal- tives, |, t p

s, -f"i it convenient to remem-
culus. This problem can be solved either by ber that the effect of interchanging conjunction
the process of reduction of a formula to dis- and (inclusive) disjunction is to replace AJB
junctive normal fortn t or by the truth-table by ~A ~B, to replace A a B by ~A B, and
decision procedure. We
state the latter in detail. to interchange 3 and -f-.

The three primitive connectives (and con- can be shown that the following principles
It

sequently all connectives definable from them) of duality hold in the propositional calculus
denote truth-functions i.e., the truth-valu* (where A* and B* denote the duals of the
formulas A and B respectively): (1) if A Is a
(truth or falsehood) of each of the propositions
/
'p, p<f t and p v q is uniquely determined by theorem, then ~A*- is a theorem} (2) if A 3
the truth-values of p and q. In fact, ~p
is true
B is a theorem, then B* => A* is a theorem j

ifp is false and false if p is true} pq is true if (3) if A s B is a theorem, then A* 5 B*

is a theorem.
p and q are both true, false otherwise) p v q it
false if p and q are both false, true otherwise. Special names have been given to certain
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 173

particular theorems and forms of

valid inference premisses A = B and C =* D, minor premiss
of the propotitional calculus. Besides 2 fol- /^B v "*D, conclusion '"A v '-"C. (Since the
lowing, see: absorption; affirmation of the con- conclusion of a complex dilemma must involve
inclusive disjunction, it seems that the tradi-
sequent] assertion} associative law; commutative
composition} contradiction , law oft De
late; tional account is best rendered by employing
inclusive disjunction throughout.)
Morgan** laws} denial of the antecedent} dis-
= B and C 3 Ato A
tributive law; double negation, law of} excluded The inferences from
middle> law of} exportation} Hauber*t law, C => B, and from = B and C = A to ~B
identity, law oft importation; Peirce's law; C ~Aare called pure hypothetical syllo-
proof by cases / reductio ad absurdums rtflfxivity; gisms, and the above simpler forms of the
tautology t transitivity; transposition. hypothetical syllogism are then distinguished as
Names given to particular theorems of the mixed hypothetical. Some recent writers apply
prepositional calculus are usually thought of as the names, modus ponens and modus tollens

applying to laws embodied in the theorems respectively, also to two forms of the
these
rather than to the theorems as formulas} hence, pure hypothetical syllogism. Other variations
in particular, the same name is applied to theo- of usage or additional forms are also found.
rems differing only by alphabetical changes of Some writers include under these heads forms
the variables appearing} and frequently the of inference which belong to the functional cal-
name used for a theorem is used also for one culus of first order rather than to the preposi-

or more forms of valid inference ajtociated with tional calculus.

the theorem. Similar remarks apply to names F. Ueberweg, System der Logik, 4th edn., Bonn,
1874. H. W. B. Joseph, An Introduction to
given to particular theorems of the functional Logic, 2nd edn., Oxford, 1916. R. M. Eaton,
calculus of first order, etc. General Logic, New York. 1931. S. K. Linger,
Whitehead and Russell. Princhia Matkematica, An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, 1937, Appen-
2nd edn., vol. 1, Cambridge, England. 1923. E. L. dix-A.
Introduction to a general tfeory of elementary
Post,
'
r it ions, American J
i

3. THE FUNCTIONAL CALCULUS OF FIRST

propositions, Journal of Mathematics, vol.
ORDER the next discipline beyond the preposi-
is
V 921).pp. 163-185.
Boston and New
... ..
York. 19..
,

Logic, tional calculus, according to the usual treatment.

'
Recherche* sur la Thiorie de la Demonstration,
It is the first step towards the hierarchy of
Warsaw. 1930. Htlbert and Ackermann. Grand-
zfige der theoretiscben Logik, 2nd edn., Berlin, types ( 6) and deals, in addition to unanalyxed
1938. Htlbert and Bernays, Grundlagen der propositions, with propositional junctions (q. v.)
Matbematik, vol. 1, Berlin. 1934; also Supple- of the lowest order. It employs the sentential
ment III to vol. 2. Berlin, 1939.
connectives of 1, and in addition the universal
2. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM, DISJUNCTIVE
quantifier (q. v.), written (X) where X is any
SYLLOGISM, DILEMMA are names traditionally individual and the existential
which may variable, quanti-
given to certain forms of inference, written (EX.) where X
fier, is any individual
be identified as follows with certain particular
variable. (The E denoting existential quantifi-
forms of valid inference of the prepositional
cation is more often written inverted, as by
calculus (see 1).
Peano and Whitehead-Russell, but we here adopt
hypothetical syllogism has two
The kinds or
the typographically more convenient usage, which
moods. Modus\ponens is the inference from a
also has sanction.)
major premiss A
= B and a minor premiss A
to the conclusion B. Modus tollens is the in- For the interpretation of the calculus we
ference from a major premiss A
3 B and a must presuppose a certain domain of individuals.
minor premiss ~B to the conclusion ~A. This may be any well-defined non-empty do-
The disjunctive syllogism has also two moods. main, within very wide limits. Different possible
Modus tollendo ponens It any one of the four choices of the domain of individuals lead to
different interpretations of the calculus.
following forms of inference:
from A v B and ^B to A* In order to set the calculus up formally as
from A v B and ~A to Bj . a system, we suppose that we have
logistic
from A -f- B and ~B to A } given four lists of symbols, as follows: (1)
n
from A 4- B and ~A to B, *
infinite list of individual variables xt y, , /,

Modus ponendo tollens is either of the follow- x't y* * **> *"> which denote ambiguously
ing forms of inference: any individual} (2) a list of propositional vari-
from A + B and A to ~Bj
~
ables p, q, r, t,p',... t representing ambiguously
from A
-f B and B to A any proposition of a certain appropriate class}
In each case the first premiss named is the major (3) a list of functional variables Fj, ft, Hi,
. , . .

#, F, #, a variable with
premiss and the second one the minor premiss. F, <?,
. . , . . . ,
G*> .

Of the dilemma four kinds are distinguished. subscript n representing ambiguously any n-
The simple constructive dilemma has two major adic propositional function of individuals} (4)

premisses A
3 C and B 3 C, minor premiss a list of functional constants, which denote par-
A v B, conclusion C. The simple destructive ticular propositional functions of individuals.

dilemma has two major premisses A 3 B and There shall be an effective notational criterion

A =9 C, mindr premiss ~B v ^C, conclusion associating with each functional

constant a

positive integer n t the functional

""A. The complex constructive dilemma has constant de-
two major premisses A 3 B and C 3 D, noting an -adic propositional function of in-

minor premiss A v C, conclusion <B v D. The dividuals. One or more of the lists (2), (3),
complex destructive dilemma has two major (4) may be empty, but not both (3) and (4)
174 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
hall be empty. The list (1) it required to be secutive constituent part of the given formula
infinite, and the remaining may, some or
lists which is itself a formula. An occurrence of an
all of them, be infinite. Finally, no symbol shall individual variable X in a formula is a bound
be duplicated either by appearing twice in the occurrence of X if it is an occurrence in a sub-
same list or by appearing in two different lists) formula of either of the forms (X)[A] or
and no functional constant shall contain braces (X)[A]. Any other occurrence of a variable
[ ] (or either a left brace or a right brace) as in a formula is a free occurrence. may thus We
a constituent part of the symbol. speak of the bound variables and the free vari-
When ables of a formula. (Whitehead and Russell,
(2) and (3) are complete i.e., con-
tain all the variables indicated above (an in- following Peano, use the terms apparent vari-
finite number of prepositional variables and ables and real variables^ respectively, instead of

for each positive integer an infinite number bound variables and free variables.)
of functional variables with subscript *) and If A, B, C are any formulas, each of the
seven following formulas is a primitive formula:
(4) is empty ,we shall speak of the pur* func-
tional calculus of first order. When (2) and [A v A] => A. A = [B =
AB].
(3) are empty and (4) is not empty, we shall
A = [A v B]. AB = A.
speak of a simple applied functional calculus of [A v B] = [B v A]. AB =* B.
first order. [A => B] = [[C v A] =
[C v B]].
Functional variables and functional constants If X any individual variable, and A is any
is

are together called functional symbols (the ad- formula not containing a free occurrence of X,
and B is any formula, each of the two following
jective functional being here understood to refer
to propositional functions). Functional symbols
formulas is a primitive formula:
are called n-adic if they are either functional [A *xB] =
[A = (X)B].
variables with subscript n or functional constants [B = X A] = [(X)B =>
A].
denoting n-adic propositional functions of indi-
If X and Y are any individual variables (the
viduals. The formulas of the functional calculus same or different), and A is any formula such
of first order (relative to the given lists of
that no free occurrence of X in A is in a sub-
formula of the form (Y)[C], and B the
symbols (1), (2), (3), (4)) are all the expres- is

sions determined by the eight following rules: formula resulting from the substitution of Y
(1) all the propositional variables are formulas;
for all the free occurrences of in A, each of X
(2) if F is a monadic functional symbol and X the two following formulas is a primitive for-

is an individual variable, (F](X) is a formula j mula:

=
(3) if F is an *-adic functional symbol and Xi, (X)A B. B=> (X)A.
Xs , ... , Xn are individual variables (which There are two primitive rules of inference:
(1) Given A and A B to infer B (the rule
=>
may or may not be all different), [F](Xi, Xz,
of modus ponens). (2) Given A to infer (X)A,
. . .
, Xn) (4) if A is a formula,
is a formula;
~[A] is a formula i (5) if A and B are for- where X is any individual variable (the rule of
mulas, [A][B] is a formula) (6) if A and B generalisation}. In applying the rule of gen-
are formulas, [A] v [B] is a formula} (7) if eralization, we say that the variable X is

A is a formula and is an individual variable, X generalized upon.

The theorems
(X)[A] is a formula; (8) If A is a formula
of the functional calculus of
first order are the formulas which can be derived
and X
an individual variable, (X)[A] is
is

a formula. In practice, we omit superfluous from the primitive formulas by a succession of

brackets and braces (but not parentheses) in applications of the primitive rules of inference.

writing formulas, and we omit subscripts on-

An inference from premisses Ai, As, * . . , An to
a conclusion B is a valid inference of the func-
functional variables in cases where the subscript
is sufficiently indicated by the form of the
tional calculus of first order if B becomes a
formula in which the functional variable ap- theorem upon adding As, At, . . . , A
to the
list of primitive formulas and at the same time
pears. The
sentential connectives |, =, S, -f,
are introduced as abbreviations in die same way restricting the rule of generalization by requir-
as 1infor the propositional calculus. We ing that the variable generalized upon shall not
be any one of the free individual variables of
make further the following definitions, which
are to be construed as abbreviations, the
also Ai, At, . . . , An. It can be proved that the in-
arrow being read "stands for": ference from Ai, At, . . . , to B is a validA
inference of the functional calculus of first order
[A] =x [B] -* (X)[[A]
=>
[B]].
[A] ssx [B] -+ (X)[[A] [B]]. s if (obviously), and only if (the deduction theo-

[A] A x [B]- (K)[[A][B]]. rem), [Ai [A = ... [A = B] ... ]] is

(Here A and B are any formulas, and X is a theorem of the functional calculus of first order.

any individual variable. Brackets may be omitted

It can be proved that if A s B is a theorem,

when superfluous.) If F and G denote monadic and D is the

of replacing a particular
result

prepositional functions, we say that F(X) =>x occurrence of A

by B in the formula C, then
G(X) expresses formal implication of the func-
the inference from C to D
is a valid inference.

G G(X) Sx The consistency of the functional calculus of

tion by the function F, and F(X)
first order can also be proved without great
expresses formal equivalence of the two func-
tions (the adjective formal is perhaps not well difficulty.

chosen here but has become established in use). The dual of a formula is obtained by inter-
A suWormula of a given formula is a con- changing conjunction and (inclusive) disjunction
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 175

throughout and same time interchanging

at the prepositional calculus
complete. is Godel has
universal quantification and existential quantifica- shown that the pure functional calculus of first
tion throughout. (In doing this the different order is complete in the weaker sense that if
symbols, e.g., functional constants, although they a formula A
contains no free individual vari-
may consist of several characters in succession ables and is ~A
not satisfiable then A is a
rather than a single character, shall be treated theorem.
as units, and no change shall be made inside a The decision problem of the pure functional
symbol. A similar remark applies at all places calculus of first order has two forms (1) the
where we speak of occurrences of a particular so-called problem, to
proof-theoretic decision
symbol or sequence of symbols in a formula, and find an effective test
procedure) by (decision
the like.) It can be shown that the following means of which it can always be determined
principles of duality hold (where A* and B* whether a given formula is a theorem} (2)
denote the duals of the formulas A and B re- the so-called problem, to
set-theoretic decision
spectively): (1) if theorem, then A is a ^A* find an effective test by means of which
it can
is a theorem j (2) if is a theorem, thenA =* B always be determined whether a given formula
B* => A* is a theorem} (3) if A =5 B is a containing no free individual variables is satis-
theorem, then A* B* is a theorem. = fiable. It follows from Godel's completeness
A formula is said to be in prenex normal theorem that these two forms of the decision
jorm if all the quantifiers which it contains problem are equivalent: a solution of either
stand together at the beginning, unseparated by would lead immediately to a solution of the
negations (or other sentential connectives), and other.
the scope of each quantifier (i.e., the extent of Church has proved that the decision problem
the bracket [ ] following the quantifier) is to of the pure functional calculus of first order is
the end of the entire formula. In the case of a unsolvable. Solutions exist, however, for sev-
formula in prenex normal form, the succession eral important special cases. In particular a de-
of quantifiers at the beginning is called the cision procedure is known for the case of for-
prefix; the remaining portion contains no quanti- mulas containing only monadic function vari-
fiers and is the matrix of the formula. It can be ables (this would seem to cover substantially
proved that for every formula A there is a for- everything considered in traditional formal logic
mula B in prenex normal form such that A = prior to the introduction of the modern logic of
B is a theorem} and B is then called a prenex relations).
normal form^ of A. Finally we mention a variant form of the
A formula of the pure functional calculus of functional calculus of first order, the functional
first order which contains no free individual calculus of first order with equality, in which
variables is said to be satisfiable if it is possible the list of functional constants includes the dya-
to determine the underlying non-empty domain dic functional constant :z:, denoting equality or
of and to give meanings to the
individuals identity of individuals. The notation [X] =
prepositional and functional variables contained [Y] is introduced as an abbreviation for
namely to each prepositional variable a mean- [ ](X, Y), and primitive formulas are added
ing as a particular proposition and to each n- as follows to the list already given: if X is any
adic functional variable a meaning as an n-adic individual variable, X ~
a primitive for- X is

prepositional function of individuals (of the mula} if and X Y

are any individual variables,
domain in question) in such a way that (under and B results from the substitution of for a Y
the accepted meanings of the sentential connec- particular free occurrence of in A, which is X
tives, the quantifiers, and application of func- not in a sub-formula of of the form (Y)[C], A
tion to argument) the formula becomes true. then [X = Y] =
[A =>
B] is a primitive
The meaning of the last word, even for abstract, formula. We speak of the pure functional cal-
not excluding infinite, domains, must be pre- culus of first order with equality when the
supposed a respect in which this definition lists prepositional variables and functional
of
differs sharply from most others made in this variables are complete and the only functional
article. constant is =} we speak of a simple applied
It is not difficult to find examples of formulas functional calculus of first order with equality

A, containing no free individual variables, such when theof prepositional variables and
lists

that both A and ~A are satisfiable. A simple functional variables are empty.
example is the formula (*)F(*). More instruc- The addition to the functional calculus of
tive is the following example, first order individual constants (denoting
of
*, y)F(y, s) particular individuals) is not often made unless
wmbols for functions from individuals to indi-
which is satiftfiable in an infinite domain of viduals (so-called "mathematical" or "descrip-
individuals any finite domain the
but not in tive" functions) are to be added at the same

negation is satisfiable in any non-empty domain. time. Such an addition is, however, employed
It can be shown 'that all theorems A of the in the two following sections as a means of
pure functional calculus of first order which representing certain forms of inference of tradi-
contain no free individual variables have the tional logic. The addition is really non-essen-

property that /'A is not satisfiable. Hence the tial, and requires only minor changes in the
pure functional calculus of first order is not definition of a formulaand the list of primitive
complete in the strong sense in which the pure formulas (allowing the alternative of individual
176 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
constants at certain places where the above Given
a fixed subject S and a fixed predicate

given formulation calls for free individual P, we

have, according to the square of opposi-
variables). tion, that A and O are contradictory, E and /
Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica, are contradictory, A and E are contrary, I and
2nd edn., vol. 1, Cambridge, England, 1925. J. O are subcontrary , A and / are subaltern, E
Hcrbrand, Recherchts sur la theone de la Demon-
stration, Warsaw, 1930. K. Godel, Die Voll- and O are subaltern. The two propositions in a
standigkeit tier Axiome des loghchen Funktionen- contradictory pair cannot be both true and can-
kalkuts, Monatshefte fur Mathematik und Physik, not be both false (one is the exact negation of
vol. 37 (1930), pp. 349-360. Hilbert and Acker-
mann, Grttndzuge der theorettschen Logik, 2nd the other). The two propositions in a subaltern
edn.. Berlin, 1938. Hilbert and Bernays, Grand- pair are so related that the first one, together
lagtn der Mathematik, vol. 1. Berlin, 1934, and with the premiss
vol. 2, Berlin. 1939. (x)S(*), implies the second
(subalternation). Under the premiss (Ex)S(x),
OPPOSITION, IMMEDIATE INFERENCE. The
4.
the contrary pair, A, E, cannot be both true,
four traditional kinds of categorical propositions
and the subcontrary pair, I, O, cannot be both
all S is P, no S is P, some S is P, some S
false.
is not P
customarily designated by the letters
A, E t
O
respectively
I, may conveniently be Simple conversion of a proposition, A, E, I,
or O, consists in interchanging S and P with-
represented in the functional calculus of first
out other change. Thus the converse of S(*)
order (3)
by the four forms S(x) =>. P(*)>
= P(*) is P(*) =.
S(*) =>. ~P(*)> S(*) A. P(*), S() A. S(*), and the converse of
S(*) =>. ~P(*) is P(*) =>. ~S(*). In
/^P(*), S and P being taken as functional con-
mathematics the term converse is used primarily
stants. (For brevity, we shall use the notations
=> for the simple converse of a proposition A,
S, P, S(*) P(*)> etc., alike for certain
formulas and for the propositional functions or loosely also for any one of a number of trans-
formations similar to this (e.g., F(*)G(*) =>,
propositions expressed by these formulas.)
This representation does not reproduce faith- H(*) may be said to have the converse
fully all particulars of the traditional account.
F(*)H(*) = GOO)- Simple conversion of a
The fact is that the traditional doctrine, having proposition is a valid inference, in general, only
in the case of E and /.
grown up from various sources and under an
Conversion per accidens of a proposition A,
inadequate formal analysis, is not altogether
coherent or even self-consistent. We here select i.e., of SU) =. POO, yields P(*) A, s().
what seems to be the best representation, and a proposition A, E, I, or O con-
Obversion of

simply note the four following points of di-

sists replacing P by a functional constant p
in
which denotes the negation of the propositional
vergence:
function (property) denoted by P, and at the
(1) We have defined the connectives
=>

and A , in terms of universal and existential same time inserting ~ if not already present
or deleting it if Thus the obverse of
quantification, whereas the traditional account present.
=>
might be thought to be more closely reproduced S(*) POO is SOO =. ~p(*) (the obverse
tAen of men are mortal" is "no men are im-
"all
if they were as primitive notations. (It
would, however, not be difficult to reformulate mortal"). The obverse of S(*) = ~P(*) is
the functional calculus of first order so that SOO =>* p(*)> the obverse of S(*) A. p(*)
those connectives would be primitive and the
is S(*) A. ~p(*); the obverse of S(*) A.
usual quantifiers defined in terms of them.) ~P(*) is SCr) A.pOO.
The name immediate inference is given to
(2) The traditional account associates the
negation in E and O
with the copula (q. v.), certain inferences involving propositions A, E,
whereas the negation symbol is here prefixed to I, O. These include obversion of A, E,
I, or O,

the sub-formula P(*). (Notice that this sub- simple conversion of E or /, conversion per
accidens of A, subalternation of A, E. The three
formula represents ambiguously a proposition and
last require the additional (Ex)S(x).
that, in fact, the notation of the functional cal- premiss
culus of first order provides for applying nega- Other immediate inferences (for which the
tion only to propositions.) terminology is not wholly uniform among
different writers) may be obtained by means of
(3) The traditional account under includes
A and E, respectively, also (propositions denoted sequences of these: e.g., given that all men are
A mortal we may take the obverse of the converse
by) P(A) and ~P(A), where is an indi-
vidual constant. These singular propositions are of the obverse and so infer that all immortals
are non-men some the contrapositive,
ignored in our account of opposition and im- (called by
mediate inference, but will appear in 5 as giv- by others the obvcrted contrapositive).

ing variant forms of certain syllogisms. The immediate inferences not involving ob-
(4) Some aspects of the traditional account version can be repiesented as valiu inferences

require that A and E be represented as we in the functional calculus of first

order, but
have here, others that they be represented by obversion can be so represented only in an ex-
=>. P(*)] and [(ff*)S(*)J tended calculus embracing functional abstraction
[(*)S(*)][S(*)
[S(#)
3 *'P(*)] respectively. The question con-
/ (q. v.). For the p used above in describing
cerning the choice between these two interpreta- obversion is, in terms of abstraction,
tions is known as the problem of existential X*[~P(*)].
import of propositions. We prefer to introduce Ueberweg, System der Logik, 4th edn., Bonn,
F.
18'4. H. W. B. Joseph, An Introduction to
(*)S(*) as a separate premiss at those places 2nd edn.. Oxford, 1916. R, M. Eaton,
Logic,
where it is required. General Logic, New York, 1931. Bennett and
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 177

Baylis,Formal Logic, New York, 1939. The five moods

of the fourth figure are some-
5. CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM is the name given times characterized instead as indirect moods of
to certain forms of valid inference (of the the first figure, the two premisses (major and
functional calculus of first order) which involve minor) being interchanged, and the names be-
as premisses two (formulas representing) cate- ing then given respectively as Baralipton, Ce-
gorical propositions, having a term in common lantes, Dabitis, Fapesmo, Frisesomorum. (Some
the middle term. Using S, M, P as minor add the five "weakened" moods, Barbari, Cela-
term, middle term, and major term, respectively, ront, Cesaro, Camestros, Calemos, to be obtained
-we give the traditional classification into figures
respectively from Barbara, Celarent, Cesare,
and moods. In each case we give the major Camestres, Calemes, by subalternation of the
premiss first, the minor premiss immediately conclusion.) Other variations in the names of
after it, and the conclusion last in some cases
5 the moods are also found. These names have
we give a third (existential) premiss which is a mnemonicsignificance, the first three vowels
suppressed in the traditional account. Because indicating whether the major premiss, minor
of the admission of singular propositions under and
premiss, conclusion, in order, are A, E, It
the heads A t f
E
two different forms of valid or O; and some of the consonants indicating
inference appear in some cases under the same the traditional reductions of the other moods to
figure and mood these singular forms are sepa- the four direct moods of the first
figure.
rately listed. The Port-Royal Logic, translated by T. S.
First Figure Baynes, 2nd edn., London, 1851. F. Ueberweg,
Barbara: System der Logik, 4th edn , Bonn, 1874. H. W.
M(*) S(*) =>. P(*), =>* M(*), B Joseph, An Introduction to Logic, 2nd edn.,
S(*)=.P(*). Oxford, 1916. R. M. Eaton, General Logic, New
Celarent: M(*) =>. ~P(*)> S(*) =>
M(*)> York, 1931. H. B. Curry, A mathematical treat-
ment of the rules of the syllogism, Mind, vol. 45
S() =.~P(*). (1936), pp. 209-216, 416. tlilbert and Acker-
Darii: M(*) =>. P(*), S(*) A. M(*) S(jc) '
mann, (jrundzuge der theoretischen Logik, 2nd
A. P(*). edn., Berlin, 1938. Bennett and Baylis, Formal
=> A . Logic, New
York, 1939.
Ferio: M(*) ~P(*), S(*) M(*), S()
A*~P(*). 6. THEORY OF TYPES. In the functional cal-
Second Figure culus of first which appear at
order, variables
Cesare. P() =>. ~M(*), S(*) =>. M(*) arguments of prepositional functions or which
=>. ~P<). are bound by quantifiers must be variables which
S(*)
Camestres: P(*) are restricted to a certain limited range, the
=>. M(*)> S(*) =>. ~M(*),
Sfcr) =. ~P(*). domain of individuals. Thus there are certain
kinds of propositions about prepositional func-
Festino: P(*) =. ~M(*)> S(*) A. M(*),
tions which cannot be expressed in the calculus.
S(*) A.~POr).
Baroco: P(*) =>. A. ~M(*), The uncritical attempt to remove this restric-
M(*)> S(*)
S(*) A.~P(). tion, by introducing variables of unlimited range

Third Figure (the range covering both non-functions and

functions of whatever kind) and modifying ac-
Darapti: M(*) =. P(*)> M(*) =>. S(),
cordingly the definition of a formula and the
(*)M(*), S() A.P(*).
lists of primitive formulas and primitive rules
Disamis: M(*)' A. p(*), M(*) =>. S(*),
of inference, leads to a system which is formally
S(*) A.pfcr).
Datisi: M(*) 3 . P(), M(*) A.
inconsistent through the possibility of deriving
s(*), S()
in it certain of the logical paradoxes (q. v.).
A. P().
The functional calculus of firstorder may, how-
Felapton:M(*) =>. ~P(*), M(*) =>. S(*),
be extended in another way, which in-
(*)M(*), S() A. ^P(). ever,
Bocardo: M(*) A. /^P(*), M(*) =. volves separating propositional functions into a
S(*),
certain array of categories (the hierarchy of
S() A.^p().
Feriso or Ferison: M(*) 3 ^P(*), M(x) types), excluding propositional functions which
A.S(x), S(*) A. ^P(x).
do not fall into one of these categories, and-
Fourth Figure besides propositional and individual variables

M(x), M()
Bamalip or Bramantip: P(*) =. admitting only variables having a particular one
of these categories as range.
=>.S(), (*)P(*)> S() A. p().
Calemes or Camenes: P(*) =. M(x), M(*) For convenience of statement, we confine at-

=.-SU), S(*) . ^P(*). tention to the pure functional calculus of first

Dimatis or Dimaris: P(*) A. M(*), M(*) order. The first step in the extension consists
=>.S(*),S(*) A.P(jr). ia introducing quantifiers such as (Fi), (Fi),
Fesapo: P() =>. ^M(), M(*) =. S(*)i (Fa), (EFs) t etc., binding -adic functional

(**)M(*), S(*) A. ^P(^). variables. Corresponding changes are made in

Fresison: P(*) =. ^M(*), M(*) AS(), the definition of a formula and in the lists of
S(*) A.^P(). primitive formulas and primitive rules of in-

Singular Forms in the First ference, allowing for these new kinds of bound
and Second Figures variables. The resulting system is the functional

Barbara: M() =. P(*), M(A), P(A). calculus of second order. Then the next step
Celarent: M(*) =>. ^P(), M(A), ^P(A). consists in introducing new kinds of functional

Cesare: P(*) = ^M(*), M(A), ^P(A). variables j namely for every finite ordered set
p of =r
Camestres: P(*) =>. M(*), -'M(A), ^P(A). k, I, m, . . .
,
i non-negative integers (i
178 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
1, 2, 3, . .
.) an infinite list of functional vari- With the aid of the axiom of infinity and a
"", G "*'" p
1 "1 fc
ables p* ,
... , each of method of dealing with classes and descriptions,
which denotes ambiguously any i-adic preposi- the non-negative integers may be introduced in
tional function for which the first argument any one of various ways (e.g., following Frege
may be any (k l)-adic prepositional function and Russell, as finite cardinal numbers), and
of individuals, the second argument any (/ 1)- arithmetic (elementary number theory) derived
adic propositional function of individuals, etc. formally within the system. With the further
(if one of the integers k, /,*,..., p is 1 the addition of the axiom of choice, analysis (real

corresponding argument is a proposition if 0, number theory) may be likewise derived.

an individual). Then quantifiers are introduced Noproof of consistency of the functional cal-
binding these new kinds of functional variables) culus of order omega (or even of lower order)
and so on. The process of alternately introducing
with the axiom of infinity added is known, ex-
new kinds of functional variables (denoting cept by methods involving assumptions so strong
propositional functions which take as arguments
as to destroy any major significance.

propositional functions of kinds for which vari- According to an important theorem of Godel,
ables have already been introduced) and quanti- the functional calculus of order omega with the
fiers binding the new kinds of functional vari- axiom of infinity added, if consistent, is incom-
ables, with appropriate extension at each stage plete in the sense that there are formulas A
of the definition of a formula and the lists of containing no free variables, such that neither
primitive formulas and primitive rules of in-
A nor ~A
is a theorem. The same thing holds

ference, may be continued to infinity. This leads of any logistic system obtained by adding new
to what we may call the functional calculus of primitive formulas and primitive rules of in-
order omega, embodying the (so-called simple) ference, provided only that the effective (recur*
theory of types. sive) character of the formal construction of
In the functional calculi of second and higher the system is retained. Thus the system is not

orders, we may introduce the definitions: only incomplete but, in the indicated sense, in-
X = Y -* (F)[F(X) =>
F(Y)], completable. The same thing holds also of a
where X and Y are any two variables of the large variety of logistic systems which could be
same type and F is a monadic functional vari- considered as acceptable substitutes for the func-
able of appropriate type. The notation ==: Y X tional calculus of order omega with axiom of

may then be interpreted as denoting equality or infinity) in particular the Zermelo set theory
( 9 below) is in the same sense incomplete
identity.
The functional calculus of order omega (as and incomputable.
just described) can be proved to be consistent The formalization as a logistic system of the
by a straightforward generalization of the meth- functional calculus of order omega with axiom
od employed by Hilbert and Ackermann to of infinity leads, by a method which cannot
prove the consistency of the functional calculus be given here, to a (definite but quite com-
of first order. plicated) proposition of arithmetic which is
For many purposes, however, it is necessary to equivalent to in a certain sense, expresses the
add to the functional calculus of order omega consistency of the system. This proposition of
the axiom of infinity, requiring the domain of arithmetic can be represented within the system
individuals to be infinite. This is most con- by a formula A containing no free variables,
veniently done by adding a single additional and the following second form of GSdel's in-
primitive formula, which may be described by completeness theorem can then be proved: If
referring to 3 above, taking the formula, the system is consistent, then the formula A,
which is there given as an example of a for- although its meaning is a true proposition of
mula satisfiable in an infinite domain of indi- arithmetic, is not a theorem of the system. We
viduals but not in any finite domain, and pre- might, of course, add A
to the system as a new
fixing the quantifier (EF) with scope extending primitive formula we would then have a new
to the end of the formula. This form of the system, whose consistency would correspond to
axiom of however,
considerably
infinity, is a new proposition of arithmetic, represented by
stronger (in the absence of the axiom of choice) a new formula B (containing no free variables),
than the "Infin ax" of Whitehead and Russell. and we would still have in the new system, if
Other primitive formulas (possibly involving consistent, that fi was not a theorem.
new primitive notations) which may be added Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica,
3 vols., Cambridge, England, 1st edn. 1910-13,
correspond to the axiom of choice (q. v.) or are 2nd edn. 1925-27. R Carnap, Abriss der Logistik,
designed to introduce classes (q. v.) or descrip- Vienna, 1929. W. V. Quine, A System of Logistic,
tions (q. v.) Functional abstraction (q. v.) may Cambridge, -Mass., 1934. Hilbert and Ackermann,
also be introduced by means of additional Grundzuge der theoretischen Logtk. 2nd edn.,
Berlin, 1938. A. Church, A formulation of the
primitive formulas or primitive rules of in- simple theory of types, The Journal of Symbolic
ference, or it may be defined with the aid of Logic, vol. 5 (1940), pp. 56-68. A. Tarski,
Einige Betrachtungen uber die Begriffe der to-
descriptions. Whitehead and Russell employ the Wider sprue hstrtihett und der to-Voilstandiikett,
axiom of infinity and the axiom of choice but Monatshefte fur Mathematik und Physik, vol. 40
avoid the necessity of special primitive formulas (1933), pp. 97-112. G. Gentzen, Die Wider,
in connection with classes and descriptions by spruchsfreiheit der Stufenlogik, Mathematische
Zeitschrifi. vol. 41 (1936), pp. 357-366, K.
introducing classes and descriptions as incom- Godel, Ubtr formal unentstheidbare Satze der
plete symbols Principia Mathematica und verwandter Svsteme
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY IT*
Monatshefte fur Mathematik und Physik, vol. 38 ference from premisses Di, D% . . ., to a D
(1931), pp. 173-198. J. B. Rosser, Extensions
conclusion C is a valid inference of the algebra
of some theorems of Godtl and Church, The
Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 1 (1936), pp. 87- of classes if and only if the inference from
B. Rosser. An informal exposition of
91. J.
proofs of Godel's theorems and Church' i theorem,
(*)V(*), (*)~AU), Dit, D4, . .
, D4 to
The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 4 (1939), Ct is a valid inference of the functional cal-
pp. 33-60. Hilbert and Bernays, Grundlagen der culus.
Mathemalik, vol. 2, Berlin, 1939. This between the of
isomorphism algebra
7. ALGEBRA OF CLASSES deals with classes classes and the indicated part of the functional
(q. v.) whose members are from a fixed non- calculus of first order can be taken as repre-
empty class called the universe of discourse, senting a parallelism of meaning. In fact, the
and with the operations of complementation, meanings become identical if we wish to con-
logical sum, and logical product upon such strue the functional calculus in extension (see
classes. (The classes are to be thought of as the article prepositional function) j or, inversely,
determined by prepositional functions having if we wish to construe the algebra of classes in
the universe of discourse as the range of the
intension, instead of the usual construction.
independent variable.) The universal class V If we deal only with formulas of the algebra
comprises the entire universe of discourse. The of classes which are equations (i.e., which have
null (or empty) class A
has no members. The the form A =
B), the above description by
complement a of a a has as members
class reference to the functional calculus may be re-
all those elements of the universe of discourse
placed by a simpler description using the applied
which are not members of a (and those only). prepositional calculus ( 1) whose fundamental
In particular the null class and the universal prepositional symbols are xeV, xeA, xeat xeb,
class are each the complement of the other. The .... Given an equation C of the algebra
xcc,
logical sum a ^ h of two classes a and h has of classes, the corresponding formula Cf of the
as members all those elements which are mem- propositional calculus is obtained by replacing
bers either of a or of b, not excluding elements '

equality ( ) =
by the biconditional (s), re-
which are members of both a and h (and those placing complementation, logical sum, and logi-
only). The logical product a b of two * cal product respectively by negation, inclusive
classesa and h has as members all those ele- disjunction, and conjunction, and at the same
ments which are members'of both a and b (and time replacing V, A, a, b, c, . . .
respectively
those only) in other words the logical product by *V, xeA, area, xcb, xtc % .... An equation
of two classes is their common part. The ex- C a theorem of the algbera of classes if and
is

pressions of the algebra of classes are built up only if the inference from *eV, "" *eA to C'f
out of class variables a, b, c, . . . and the sym- is a valid inference of the propositional calculus*
bols for the universal class and the null class
analogously for valid inferences of the algebra
by means of the notations for complementation, of classes in which the formulas involved are
logical sum, and logical product (with paren- equations.
theses). A formula of the algebra of classes As a corollary of this, every theorem of. the
consists of two expressions with one of the
pure propositional calculus (1)
of the form
symbols r=: or ^
between, (a b means that = A =r B corresponding theorem of the
has a
a and b are the same class, a b that a and b ^ algebra of obtained by replacing the
classes
are not the same class.)
principal occurrence of S
by =, elsewhere re-
While algebra of classes can be set up
the placing negation, inclusive disjunction, and con-
as an independent logistic system, we shall here junction respectively by complementation, logical
describe it instead by reference to the functional sum, and logical product, and at the same time
calculus of firs* order (3), using two monadic replacing propositional variables by class vari-
functional constants, V
and A, and an infinite ables. Likewise, every theorem A of the pure
list of monadic functional variables F&, <?i, Hi, propositional calculus has a corresponding theo-
. . .
corresponding in order to the class vari- rem B =
V of the algebra of classes, where B
ables a, b, c, . . .
respectively. Given any ex- is obtained from A
by replacing negation, in-
pression A of algebra of classes, the cor-
ti clusive disjunction, and conjunction respectively
*
responding formula At of the functional cal- by complementation, logical sum, and logical
culus is obtained hv replacing complementation, product, and replacing propositional variables
logical sum, and logical product respectively by by class variables.
negation, inclusive disjunction, and conjunction,
The dual of a formula or an expression of
and at the same time replacing V, A, a t b t c, the algebra of classes is obtained by interchang-
. . .
respectively by VU), A(x), Fi(*), <?i(*), ing logical sum and logical product, and at
J7i(x), .... Given any formula A B of = the same time interchanging V and A. The
the algebra of classes the corresponding formula principle ef duality holds, that the dual of every
of the functional calculus is At B$. Given s theorem i* also a theorem.
^ The relation of class inclusion, c
any formula A B of the algebra of classes, , may be
the corresponding formula of the functional cal- introduced by the definition:
culus is ~[A$ s
Bt]. A formula C is a A c B- A -
B = A.
theorem of the algebra of classes if and only Instead of algebra of chases, the term Boolean
if the inference from (*)V(*) and (*)~A(*) algebra it used primarily when it i* intended
that the formal system shall remain unin-
to Ct (where Cj corresponds to C) is a valid
inference of the functional calculus. The in- terpreted or that interpretations other than that
180 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
described above shall be admitted. For the re- the algebra of relations and an appropriately
lated idea of a Boolean ring see the paper of chosen part of the functional calculus of first
Stone cited below. order can also be exhibited in the same way as
E. Schroder. Algebra der Logik, vol. 1. vol. 2 was done in 7 above for the algebra of classes.
part 1, and vol. 2 part 2, Leipzig. 1890, 1891,
1905. E. V. Huntington, Stts of independent A principle of duality also holds, where duality
postulant for tht algebra of logic, Transactions consists in interchanging logical sum and logical
of the American
Mathematical Society, vol. 5 V
product, relative sum and relative product,
(1904). pp. 288-309. S. K. Langer, An Intro-
duction to Symbolic Logic, 1937. M. H. Stone, and A, 7 and 7.
The representation of Boolean algebras, Bulletin The portion of the algebra of relations which
of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 44
involves, besides relation variables, only the
(1938), pp. 807-816.
universal relation and the null relation, and
8. ALGEBRA OF RELATIONS or algebra of rela-
tives deals with relations (q. v.) in extension
the operations of contrary, sum, and
logical

whose domains and converse domains are each logical product, and =, y^ 1 isomarphic with
8

contained in a fixed universe discourse (formally indistinguishable from) the algebra

of
of classes.
(which must be a class having at least two c
Relative inclusion, may be introduced by
members), in a way similar to that in which
,

the definition:
the algebra of classes deals with classes. Funda-
mental ideas involved are those of the uni-
R e S -* R ^ S = A.

versal relation and the null relation) the rela-

When R <=
S, we say that R is contained in S,
or that 5 contains R.
tions of identity and diversity; the contrary and
the converse of a relation) the logical sum, the
A relation is transitive if it contains its

square, reflexive if it contains /, irreflexive if

logical product, the relative sum, and the rela-
it is contained in J, asymmetric if its square is
tive product of two relations.
contained in J.
The V can be described by
universal relation
E. Schrfider, Algebra der Logik, vol. 3, Leipzig,
saying that xVy holds for every x and y in the 1895. A. Tarslci, On the calculus of relations, The
universe of discourse. The null relation is A Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 6 (1941). pp. 73*.
such that *Ay holds for no * and y in the uni- 9. ZERMKLO SET THEORY. The attempt to
verse of discourse. The relation of identity 1 devise a system which deals with the logic of
is such that xlx holds for every x in the uni- classesin a more comprehensive way than is

verse of discourse and xly fails if * is not identi- done by the algebra of classes (7), and which,
tical with y. *The relation of diversity J is such
in particular, takes account of the relation e be-

that xJx fails for every x in the universe of dis- tween classes (see the article class), must be

course and xJy holds if x is not identical with y. carried out with caution in order to avoid the

The contrary R of a relation R is the re- Russell paradox and similar logical paradoxes
lation such that * JR y holds if and only if (q. v.).

xRy fails (x and y being in the universe of There are two methods of devising such a
discourse). In particular, the universal relation system which (so at least it is widely held or
and the null relation are each the contrary of conjectured) do not lead to any inconsistency.
the other) and the relations of identity and One of these involves the theory of types, which
diversity are each the contrary of the other. was set forth in 6 above, explicitly for prepo-
The converse of a relation is the relation R sitional functions, and by implication for classes
S such that xSy if and only if yRx. The usual (classes being divided into types according to
notation for the converse of a relation is ob- the types of the monadic prepositional functions

tained by placing a breve <- over the letter de- which determine them). The other method is
noting the relation. A
relation is said to be the Zermelo set theory^ which avoids this pre-

symmetric if it is the same as its converse. In liminary division of classes into types, but im-
particular, the universal relation, the null re- poses restrictions in another direction.
lation, and the relations of identity and di- Given the relation (dyadic propositional func-
versity are symmetric. tion) e, the relations of equality and class in-
The logical two relations R and
sum R^S of clusion may be introduced by the following

S is the relation such that x R^S y holds if definitions :

- ZeY
and only if at least one of xRy and xSy holds. (Z, Y).
- ZiX =>r YeX.
Z=Y
The logical product R*S of two relations R
and 5 is the relation such that * R*S y if -*Z*Y =>r XeY. XZ
and only if both xRy and xSy. The relative Here X, Y, and Z are to be taken as individual

product R\S of two relations R and S is a rela-

variables ("individual" in the technical sense
tion such that * R\S y if and only if there is of 3), and X is to be determined according
a a (in the universe of discourse) such that to an explicit rule so as to be different from
xRz and *Sy. The relative sum of two relations Y and Z.
R and S it the relation which holds between The Zermelo set theory may be formulated
x and y if and only if for every (in the uni- as a simple applied functional calculus of first
verse of discourse) at least one of xR* and *Sy order (in the sense of 3), for which the do-
holds. The
square of a relation is R\R. R main of individuals is composed of classes, and
The signs =
and j* are used to form equa- the only functional constant is e, primitive for-
tions and inequations in the tame way as in mulas (additional to those given in 3) being
the algebra of classes. An isomorphism between added as follows:
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 181

[* S, *y] a = y. (Axiom of exten- which amounts identifying the ordered pair

to

eionality) (x, y) with the set * which has two and only
(Et)[xet [*=y v *=]] (Axiom of pair- two tnembers, x' and y', x' being the set which
ing) has x as its only member, and y' being the set
(Et)[x9t =. (?)[*? ][?<]]. (Axiom of which has x and y as its only two members.
summation) (This is one of various similar possible meth-
(/)[*e/ E=. *=]. (Axiom of the set of sub- ods.)' Relations in extension may then be treated
sets) as sets of ordered pairs.

(Et)[xet
=, [*e]A], (Axiom of subset forma- The Zermelo set theory has an adequacy to
the logical development of mathematics com-
[?*
=
[/* =V [Oey][*ey'] =.?=/]]] parable to that of the functional calculus of
= <*/)[ . =>
[>"ey
= .- <**')[[**][**] order omega (6). Indeed, as here actually
?
#:=:#'l]]. (Axiom of choice) '
formulated, its adequacy for mathematics ap-
parently exceeds that of the functional calculus;
(Axiom of infinity) however, should not be taken as an essen-
this

[ye
=>
(*')[A s. *=*']] both systems are incomplete,
tial difference, since
in accordance with Coders theorem ( 6), but
(Axiom of replacement) are capable of extension.
In the axiom of subset formation, A is any Besides the Zermelo set theory and the func-
formula not containing / as a free varibale (in tional calculus (theory of types), there is a
general, A
will contain * as a free variable). third method of obtaining a system adequate
In the axiom of replacement, is any formula A for mathematics and at the same time it is
which contains neither / nor x as a free vari- hoped consistent, proposed by Quine in his
able (in general, A
will contain x and y as book cited below (1940). The last word on
free These two axioms are thus
variables). these matters has almost certainly not yet been
represented each by an infinite list of primitive 'said. Alonzo Church
formulas the remaining axioms each by one A. Fraenkel. Einleitung in die Mengenlehre,
3rd edn.. Berlin, 1928. W. V. Quine, Set-theoretic
primitive formula.
foundations for logic. The Journal of Symbolic
The axiom of extensionality as above stated Logic, vol. 1 (1936), pp. 45-57. Wilhclm Acker-
has (incidentally to its principal purpose) the mann, Mengentheorettscbe BegrSndung der Logik,
effect of excluding non-classes entirely and Mathematische Annalen, vol. 115 (193.7). I>p. 1
22. Paul Bernays, A system of axiomatic set
assuming that everything is a class. This as- theory, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 2
sumption can be avoided if desired, at the (1937), pp. 65-77. and vol. 6 (1941). pp. 1-17.
cost of complicating the axioms somewhat one W. V. Quine, Mathematical Logic, New York, 1940.
method would be to introduce an additional Logic, symbolic, or mathematical logic, or
functional constant, expressing the property to logistic;is the name given to the treatment of

be a class (or **/), and to modify the axioms
accordingly, the domain of individuals being
thought of as possibly containing other things
besides sets.
The treatment? of sets in the Zermelo set
formal logic by means of a formalized logical
language or calculus whose purpose is to avoid
the ambiguities and logical inadequacy of ordi-
nary language. It is best characterized, not as
a separate subject, but as a new and powerful

theory differs from that of the theory of types

in that all sets are "individuals" and the rela-
tion (of membership in a set) is significant
e
as between any two sets in particular, xtx is
not forbidden. (We are here using the words
set and class as
synonymous.)
The which is imposed in order to
restriction
avoid paradox can be seen in connection with
the axiom of subset formation. Instead of this
axiom, an uncritical formulation of axioms for
set theory might well have included ("/)[*/
=, A], asserting the existence of a set / whose
members are the sets x satisfying an arbitrary
A and New York, or London, 1937. W. V. Quine,
condition expressible in the notation of the
system. This, however, would lead at once to
the Russell paradox by taking to be xex
and then going through a process of inference
which can be described briefly
is put equal to /. As actually proposed, how-
ever, the axiom of subset formation allows the
use of the condition A
only to obtain a set /
whose members are the sets x which art mem-
bers of a previously given set and satisfy A.
method in formal logic. Foreshadowed by ideas
of Leibniz, J. H. Lambert, and others, it had
its substantial historical beginning in the Nine-
teenth Century algebra of logic (q. v.), and re-
ceived its contemporary form at the hands of
Frege, Peano, Russell, Hilbert, and others. Ad-
vantages of the symbolic method are greater
exactness of formulation, and power to deal
with formally more complex material. See also
A. C.
logistic system.
C. I. Lewis, A Survey of Symbolic Logic,
Berkeley, Cal., 1918. Lewis and Ltngford, Sym-
bolic Logic, New York and London, 1932. S. K.
Langer, An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Boston
Mathematical Lotic, New York, 1940. A. Tarski,
Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of
A ~ rdncthe Sciences, New York, 1941. W. V.
line,Elementary Logic, Boston and New York,
1941. A. Church, A bibliography of symbolic logic,
by saying that x The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 1 (1936), pp.
121-218, and vol. 3 (1938). pp. 178-212. I. M.
Bochenski, Nove Lezioni di Lottca Simbolica, Rome,
1938. R. Carnap, Abriss der Logistik, Vienna.
1929. H. Scholz, Geschichte der Logik, Berlin,
1931. Hilbert and Ackermann. Grundzige der
theoretischen Logik, 2nd edn., Berlin, 1938.

This is not known to lead to paradox. Logic, traditional: the name given to those
The notion of an ordered pair can- be intro- parts and that method of treatment of formal
duced into the theory by definition, in a way logic which have come down substantially un-
182 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
L. Couturat, lime Coupes de PbHosopblt,
changed from classical and medieval times.
Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale, vol. 12
of
Traditional logic emphasises the analysis (1904), see p. 1042.
propositions into subject and predicate
and the Logistic system: construction of t
The formal
associated classification into the four forms, A, logistic (1) a list of primitive
system requires:
E t /, O; and it is concerned chiefly with topics symbols (these are usually taken as marks but
immediately related to these, including opposi- may also be sounds or other things they mutt
tion, immediate inference, and the syllogism (see be capable of instances which are, recognizably,
logic, formal). Associated with traditional logic the same or different symbols, and capable of
are also the three so-called laws of thought utterance in which instances of them are put
the laws of identity (q. v.), contradiction (q. forth or arranged in an order one after an-
v.), and excluded middle (q. v.) and the doc- other)} (2) a determination of a class of for-
trine that these laws are in a special sense mula!, each formula being a finite sequence of
fundamental presuppositions of reasoning, or primitive symbols, or, more exactly, each for-
even (by some) that all other principles of logic mula being capable of instances which are finite
can be derived from them or are mere elabora- sequences of instances of primitive symbols (gen-
tions of them. Induction (q. v.) has been added eralizations allowing two-dimensional arrays of
in comparatively modern times (dating from primitive symbols and the like are non-essen-
Bacon's Novum Organum) to the subject matter tial) (3) a determination of the circumstances
}

of traditional logic. A. C, under which a finite sequence of formulas is a

A. Arnauld and others, La Logiqtte on I' Art dt
Penstf, better known as the Port-Royal Logic, 1st
edn., Paris, 1662; reprinted, Paris, 1878; English
translation by T. S, Baynes, 2nd edn., London.
1851. F. Ueberweg, System der Logik nnd
Ceschicbte der logiscben Lehren, 1st edn., Bonn,
1857 : 4th edn., Bonn, 1874. C. Prantl, Geschichte
d*r Logik im Abendlarde, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1855-
1870; reprinted, Leipzig;. 1927. H. W. B. Joseph,
An Introduction to Logic, 2nd edn., Oxford, 1916.
F. Enriques. Per la Storia delta Logica, Bologna,
1922; English translation by J. Rosen thai, New
York, 1929. H. Scholz, Gescbichte der Logik,
Berlin. 1931.
Logical Empiricism : See Scientific Empiricism /.
Logical machines: Mechanical devices or instru-
ments designed to effect combinations of propo-
sitions, or premisses, with which the mechanism
is supplied, and derive from them correct logical
proof of the last formula in the sequence, this
last formula being then called a theorem (again
we should more exactly speak of proofs as hav-
ing instances which are finite sequences of in-
stances of formulas)} (4) a determination of
the circumstances under which a finite sequence
of formulas is a proof of the last formula of
the sequence as a consequence of a certain set
of formulas (when there is a proof of a for-
mula B as a consequence of the set of formulas
Ai, As, . . . , An, we say that the inference from
the premisses Ai, As, . . . , A
to the conclusion
B is a valid inference of the logistic system).
It is not excluded that the class of proofs in
the sense of (3) should be empty. But every

conclusions. Both premisses and conclusions may proof of a formula B as a consequence of an

be expressed by means of conventional symbols. empty - set of formulas, in the sense of (4),
must also be a proof of B in the sense of (3),
A contrivance devised by William Stanley Jcvons and conversely. if to the proof of
in 1869 was a species of logical abacus. An- Moreover,
a formula B
as a consequence of Ai, Aj, . . .
,
other constructed by John Venn in 1881 con-
sisted of diagrams which could be manipulated
An are prefixed in any order proofs of Ai, As, . . .
,

An, the entire resulting sequence of formulas

in such a manner that appropriate consequences
must be a proof of B} more generally, if to the
appeared. A still more satisfactory machine was
Allan proof of a formula B as a consequence of Ai,
designed by Marquand in 1882. Such An are prefixed in any order proofs
At, .
.
,
.
devices would indicate that the inferential proc-
of a subsrt of Ai, As, ... } An as consequences
ess is mechanical to a notable extent. JJ.R.
of the remainder of Ai, As, . . . , An, the entire
Logical meaning : See meaning, kinds of, 3.
resulting sequence must be a proof of B as a
Logical Positivism: See Scientific Empiricism.
consequence of this remainder.
Logical truth: See Meaning, kinds of, 3j and The determination of the circumstances under
Truth, temantical. which a sequence of formulas is a proof, or a
Logistic: The old use of the word logistic to
proof as a consequence of a set of formulas, is
mean the art of calculation, or common arith- made by means
of: (5) a list of primi-
usually
metic, it now nearly obsolete. In Seventeenth tive formulas; and (6) a list of primitive rules
Century English the corresponding adjective was of inference each of which prescribes that under
also sometimes used to mean simply logical.
certain circumstances a formula B shall be an
Leibnit occasionally employed logistica (as also
immediate consequence of a set of formulas Ai,
logica mathematical) as one of various alternative The
of primitive formula!
An. list
As, . . .
,
names for his calculus ratiocinator. The modern
may be empty this it not excluded. Or the
use of logistic (French logistique) as a synonym
primitive formulas may be included under the
for symbolic logic (q. v.) dates from the Inter-
head of primitive rules of inference by allowing
national Congress of Philosophy of 1904, where
the case in (6). =0 A
proof is then defined
it was proposed independently by Itelson, La- as a finite sequence of formulas each of which
lande, and Couturat. The word logistic has been is either a primitive formula or an immediate
employed by some with special reference to the consequence of preceding formulas by one of the
Frege-Rusell doctrine that mathematics is re- A
primitive rules of inference. proof as * con-
ducible to logic, but it would seem that the
sequence of a set of formulas Ai, As, . . . , An
better usage makes it simply a synonym of sym-
is in some caset defined as a finite
sequence of
bolic logic. A. C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 183

formula* each of which it either

primitive a The requirement of effectiveness does not
formula, or one of Ai, Aj, . . . , A*, or an im- compel the lists of primitive symbols, primitive
mediate consequence of preceding formulas by formulas, and primitive rules of inference to be
one of the primitive rules of inference $ in finite. It is sufficient if there are effective criteria
other cases it may be desirable to impose cer- for recognizing formulas, for recognizing primi-
tain restrictions upon the application of the tive formulas, for recognizing applications of

primitive rules of inference (e.g., in the case of primitive rules of inference, and (if separately
the functional calculus of first order logic, for- needed) for recognizing such restricted applica-
*l> 3 that no free variable of Ai, As, . >
tions of the primitive rules of inference as are
An shall be generalized upon). admitted in proofs as a consequence of a given
A logistic system need not be given any set of formulas.

meaning or interpretation, but may be put for- With the aid of Gddel's device of represent-
ward merely as a formal discipline of interest ing sequences of primitive symbols and sequence!
for its own sake) and in this case the words of formulas by means of numbers, it is possible
be to give a more exact definition of the notion of
proof, theorem, valid inference, etc., are to
dissociated from their every-day meanings and effectiveness by making it correspond to that of
taken purely as technical terms. Even when an recursiveness v.) of numerical functions.
(q.

interpretation of the system is intended, it is E.g., a criterion for recognizing primitive for-
a requirement of rigor that no use shall be mulas is effective if it determines a general
made of the interpretation (as such) in the de- recursive monadic function of natural numbers
termination whether a sequence of symbols is a whose value is when the argument is the
formula, whether a sequence of formulas is a number of a primitive formula, 1 for any other
natural number as argument. The adequacy of
proof, etc.
The kind of an interpretation, or assignment this technical definition to represent the intuitive

of meaning, which is normally intended for a ,

notion of effectiveness as described above is not
logistic system is indicated by the technical immediately clear, but is placed beyond any real
ter-

minology employed. This is namely such an doubt by developments for details of which the
reader is referred to Hilbert-Bernays and Turing
interpretation that the formulas, some or
all of

them, mean or express propositions ; the theo- (see references below).

rems express true propositions j and the proofs The requirement of effectiveness plays an im-
and valid inferences represent proofs and valid portant role in connection with logistic systems,
inferences in the ordinary sense. (Formulas but the necessity of the requirement depends on
which do not mean propositions may be in- the purpose in hand and it may for some
pur-
terpreted as names of things other than proposi- poses be abandoned. Various writers have pro-
tions, or be interpreted as containing free
may posed non-effective, or non-constructive, logistic
variables and having only an ambiguous denota- systems; in some of these the requirement of
tion see variable.) A logistic system may thus finiteness of length of formulas is also aban-
be regarded as a device for obtaining or, doned and certain infinite sequences of primitive
rather an objective, external criterion
stating symbols are admitted as formulas.
for the validity x>f proofs and inferences (which For particular examples of logistic systems
are expressible ifa a given notation). which satisfy the requirement of effective-
(all of
A logistic system which has an interpretation ness) see the article logic, formal, especially
of the kind in question be expected, in gen-
may 3, 9. Alonzo Church
1,

eral, to have more than one such interpretation. R. The Logical Syntax of Language,
Carnap,
It is usually to be required that a logistic
New York and London, 1937. H. Scholz, Was
for ist tin Kalkul und was bat Fregt fur fine
system shall provide an effective criterion pun kt He be Beantwortung dieser Frage geleistet?,
as a
recognizing formulas, proofs, and proofs Semester-Berichte, Miinster i. W., summer 1935,
16-34. Hilbert and Bernays, Grundlagen dtr
consequence of a set of formulas; i.e., it shall pp.
Matbematik, vol. 2, Berlin. 1939. A. M. Turing,
be a matter of direct observation, and of follow- On computable numbers, with an application to
ing a fixed set of directions for concrete opera- the Proceedings of the
Enticbeidungsproblem,
tions with symbols, to determine whether a London Mathematical Society, ser. 2 vol. 42
is a
(1937), pp. 230-265, and Correction, ibid., ser. 2
given finite sequence of primitive symbols vol. 43 U937). pp. 544-546. A. M. Turing.
formula, or whether a given finite sequence of Computability and \-definatilityt The Journal ol
formulas is a proof, or is a proof as a con- Symbolic Logic, vol. 2 (1937). pp. 153-163.
seuqence of a given set of formulas. If this Logomachy: (Gr. logos, word -+- mache, battle)
requirement is not satisfied, it may be necessary
A contention in which words are involved with-
out their references. A contention which lacks
e.g. given a particular finite sequence of for-
the real grounds of difference, or one in which
mulas, to seek by some argument adapted to
the special case to prove or disprove that it allegedly opposed views are actually not on the
satisfies the conditions to be a proof (in the
same level of discourse. A battle of words alone,
technical sense)* 'i.e., the criterion for formal which ignores their symbolic character. J.K.F.
recognition of proofs then presupposes, in actual Logos: (Gr. logos) A term denoting either rea-
application, th?t we already know what a valid son or one of the expressions of reason or order
deduction is (in a sense which isstronger than in words or things; such as word, discourse,
that merely of the ability to follow concrete definition, formula, principle, mathematical ratio.
directions in a particular case). See further on In its most important sense in philosophy it
this point logic, formal, 1. refers to a cosmic reason which gives order and
184 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
intelligibility to the world. In this sense the being the highest value, and the most valuable
doctrine first appears in Heraclitus, who affirms is also the most real. Lotze disclaimed the abil-
the reality of a Logos analogous to the reason ity to know all answers: they rest with God.
in man that regulates all physical processes and Unity of law, matter, force, and all aspects of
is the source of all human law. The conception being produce beauty, while aesthetic experience
is developed more fully by the Stoics, who con- consists in Einfuhlung. Main works: Meta-
ceive of the world as a living unity, perfect in physik, 1841} Logik, 1842} Medezinische Psy-
the adaptation of its parts to one another and chologic , 1842} Gesch. der Acsthetik im
to the whole, and animated by an immanent and Deutschland, 1868* Mikrokosmos, 3 vols., 1856-
purposive reason. As the creative source of this 64 (Eng. tr, 1885)} Logik 1874} Metaphysik t
cosmic unity and perfection the world-reason is 1879 (Eng. tr. 1884). K.F.L.
called the seminal reason (logos spermatikos), Love: (in Max Scheler) Giving one's self to a
and is conceived as containing within itself a "total being" (Gesamtwesen) j it therefore dis-
multitude of logoi spermatikoi, or intelligible closes the essence of that being) for this reason
and purposive forms operating in the world. As love is, for Scheler, an aspect of phenomonelogi-
regulating all things, the Logos is identified cal knowledge. P.A.S.
with Fate (heimarmene); as directing all things Lovejoy, Arthur O.: (1873-) Emeritus Professor
toward the good, with Providence (pronoia)j of Philosophy of Johns Hopkins University. He
and as the ordered course of events, with Nature was one of the contributors to "Critical Real-
(physis). In Philo of Alexandria, in whom ism." He wrote the famous article on the
Hebrew modes thought mingle with Greek
of thirteen pragmatisms (Jour. Philoi., Jan. 16,
concepts, the Logos becomes the immaterial in- 1908). Also critical of the behavioristic ap-
strument, and even at times the personal agency, proach. His best known works are The Revolt
through which the creative activity of the trans- against Dualism and his recent, The Great
cendent God is exerted upon the world. In Chain of Being, 1936. The latter exemplified
Christian philosophy the Logos becomes the sec- L's method of tracing the history of a "unit-
ond person of the Trinity and its functions are idea." A. O. L. is the first editor of the
identified with the creative, illuminating and re- Journal of the History of Ideas (1940-). He
demptive work of Jesus Christ. Finally the is an authority on Primitivism (q.v.) and Ro-
Logos- plays an important role in the system of manticism (q.v.). L.E.D.
Plotinus, where it appears as the creative and Lowenheim's theorem The :
theorem, first proved
form-giving aspect of Intelligence (Nous), the by Ldwenheim, that if a formula of the pure
second of the three Hypostases. G.R.M. functional calculus of first order (see Logic, for-
Lombard, Peter: (c. 1100-c. 1160) Was the ma ^ 3 ), containing no free individual vari-
author of the Four Books of Sentences^ i.e. a ables, is satisfiable (see ibid.) at all, it is satia-
compilation of the opinions of the Fathers and fiable in a domain of individuals which is at
early teachers of the Catholic Church concerning most enumerable. Other, simpler, proofs of the
various points in theology. He was born at theorem were afterwards given by Skolem, who
Lumello in Lombardy, studied at Bologna, also obtained the generalization that, if an
Rheims and the School of St. Victor in Paris. enumerable set of such formulas are simultane-
He was made Bishop of Paris in 1159. The ously satisfiable, they are simultaneously satis-
Libri IV Sententiarum was used as a textbook fiable in a domain of individuals at most
in Catholic theology for more than two cen- enumerable.
turies, hence it has been commented by all the There follows the existence of an interpreta-
great theologians of the 13th and 14th cen- tion of the Zermelo set theory (sec Logic,
formal,
turies. The Franciscans of Quaracchi have pub-
9) consistency of the theory assumed accord-
lished a critical edition in 2 vols. (Quaracchi,
ing to which the domain of sets it only enumer-
1916). VJ.B. able although there are theorems of the Zermelo
}

Lotze, Rudolph Hermann: (1817-1881) Em- set theory which, under the usual
interpretation,
piricist in science, teleological idealist in phi- assert the existence of the non-enumerable in-
losophy, theist in religion, poet and artist at finite.
heart, Lotze conceded three spheres: Necessary A like result may be obtained for the func-
truths, facts, and values. Mechanism holds sway tional calculus of order omega (theory of types)
in the field of natural science j it does not
gen- by utilizing a representation of it within the
erate meaning but is subordinated to value and Zermelo set theory.
reason which evolved a specific plan for the It thus
in a certain sense impossible to
is
world. Lotze's psycho-physically oriented medi-
postulate the non-enumerable infinite: any set of
cal psychology is an applied metaphysics in postulates designed to do so will have an un-
which the concept soul stands for the unity of intended interpretation within the enumerable.
experience. Science attempts the demonstration Usual sets of mathematical postulates for the
of a coherence in nature $ being is that which it real number system (see number') have an
ap-
in relationship $ "thing" is not a
conglomeration pearance to the contrary only because they are
of qualities but a unity achieved
through lawj incompletely formalized (i.e., the mathematical
mutual effect -or influence is as little explicable are formalized, while the
concepts underlying
as being: It is the monistic Absolute working logic remains unformalized and indefinite).
upon itself. The ultimate, absolute substance, The situation described in the preceding para-
God, is the good and is
personal, personality graph is sometimes called Skolem's paradox, al-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 185

though it ii not a paradox in the tenie of formal cal contrivance, a sort of or thinking
logical
self-contradiction, but only in the sense of being machine. JJ.R.
unexpected or at variance with preconceived Lumen naturale: Natural light, equivalent to
ideas. A*C. lumen naturalis ration**, in medieval philosophy
Th. Skolem, Sur la portte du thtoreme dt and theology denoted the ordinary cognitive
Ldwenhtim-Skolem, Les Entretiens de Zurich sur les
Fonderaents et la Methode des Sciences Mathc- powers of human reason unaided by the super*
raatiques, Zurich, 1941, pp. 25-52. natural light of grace, lumen gratiae, or divine
Lucretius, Carus: (98-54 B.C.) Noted Roman revelation, lumen fidei. J.J.R.
poet, author of the famous didactic poem De The phrase "natural light of reason" occurf
Natura Rerum, in six books, which forms an also in the scientific
writings of Galileo (q.v.)
interesting exposition of the philosophy of Epi- and Descartes (q.v.) P.P.W.
cureanism. M.F. Lutheranism: An ecclesiastical school of
thought
Lu Hsiang-shan: (Lu Chiu-yiian, Lu Tzu-ching, claiming Martin Luther (1483-1546) as its
1139-1192) Questioned Ch'eng I-ch'iian's in- source and inspiration. See Reformation. The
terpretation of Confucianism when very young, Protestant doctrine of salvation by faith, the
later often argued with Chu Hsi, and claimed free grace of God, wholly without earned merit
that "the six (Confucian) classics are my foot- and institutional sanctions, is emphasized. The
notes." This official-scholar served as transition essence of the church-community is held to re-
from the Reason School (li hsueh) of Neo- volve about the pure, revealed Word of God
Confucianism to the Mind School (hsin hsueh) and the sacraments of baptism and communion.
of Nee-Confucianism. His complete works, Lu Varietiesof Lutheranism range from a liberal
Hsiang-shan Ch'uan-chi, number 36 cAuans in acknowledgment of the Augsburg Confession of
four volumes. W.T.C. 1530 to a more strict adherence to the several
Lullic art: The Art Magna or Ceneralis of Ray- Lutheran documents collectively known as the
mond Lully (1235-1315), a science of the high- , Book of Concord. V.F.
est and most general principles, even above Lyric: a.Literary genre pertaining to the abso-
metaphysics and logic, in which the basic postu- lute uniqueness of poets' sensations.
lates of allthe sciences are included, and from b. Identified with art in general because it
which he hoped to derive these fundamental as- symbolizes expression of sentiment (Croce).
sumptions with the aid of an ingenious mechani- L.V.
 M
Machia veil ism: A political principle according Mahatma, mahatman: (Skr. great soul) Term
to which every act of the state (or statesman) is of respect, applied to Gandhi, for instance.
as

permissible especially with reference to foreign In philosophy, the super-individual or transcen-

relations which might be advantageous for dental self, or the Absolute. K.F.L.
one's own country. The word refers to Niccolo Mahayana Buddhism: "Great Vehicle Bud-
di Bernardo Machiavelli, born May 3, 1469 in dhism", the Northern, Sanskrit, Tibetan, and
Florence, died June 22, 1527. Author of Dis- Chinese form of Buddhism (q.v.), extending as
corsi sopra la pritna deca di Ttto Livio (Dis- far as Korea and Japan, whose central theme is
courses about the first ten books of Titus Livius), that Buddhahood mean* devotion to the salva-
II Principe (The Prince). W.E. tion of others and thus manifests itself in the
Macrocosm: (vs. Microcosm)The universe as worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas (q.v.).
contrasted with some small part of it which Apart from absorbing beliefs of a more primi-
epitomizes it in some respect under considera- tive strain, it has also evolved metaphysical
tion or exhibits an analogous structure; any and epistemological systems, such as the Sunya-
large "world" or complex or existent as con- vada (q.v.) and Vijnana-vada (q.v.). K.F.L.
trasted with a miniature or small analogue of Maieutic: Adjective derived from the Greek
it, whether it be the physical expanse of the mata, midwife, hence pertaining to the art of
universe as against an atom, the whole of human assisting at childbirth, and to the positive aspect
society as against a community, district, or of the Socratic method. Socrates pretended to
other social unit, or any other large scale exist- be a midwife, like his mother, since he assisted
ent as contrasted with a small scale representa- at the birth of knowledge by eliciting correct

tion, analogue, or miniature of it, sometimes concepts by his process of interrogation and
God as against man, or the universe as against examination. JJ.R.
man; or God or the universe as against a Maimon, Moses ben: (better known as Mai-
monad, atom, or other small entity. M.T.K. monidea) (Abu Imram Musa Ibn Maimun Ibn
Madhva: An Indian dualistic philosopher of the Abdallah) (1135-1204) Talmud commentator
13th century A.D., a Vedantist and Vishnuite and leading Jewish philosopher during the
who held that world and soul, as well as the Middle Ages. Born in Cordova, left Spain in
highest reality are entities different in their migrated to Palestine in 1165 and ultimately
essence, and non-commutable. K.F.L. 1160, settled in Fes, N. Africa, whence he
Madhyamaka: Another name for the Buddhist settled in Fostat, Egypt. His Guide for the
school of Sunyavada (s.v.), so-called because it Perplexed (More Nebuktm in Heb.; Dalalat
assumes a middle path (madhyama) between al-hainn t in Arab.) contains the sumtna of
theories clinging to the knowableness of the Jewish philosophic thought up to his time. It

noumenal and the sufficiency of the phenomenal. is written in the spirit of Aristotelianism
K.F.L. and divided into three parts. The first is
is

Maecenatism Patronage of the arts (from Mae-

: devoted to the problems of Biblical anthropo-
cenas, the patron of Horace and Virgil). L.V. morphisms, Divine attributes, and exposition
Maha bharata : (Skr. "the great [war of the] and criticism of the teachings of the Kalam;
the second to the proof of the existence of
Bharatas"). An Indian epic of 100,000 verses, God,
ascribed to Vyasa, incorporating many philo- matter and form, creatio de novo, and an expo-
sophical portions, such as the Bhagavad Glt sition of prophecy; the third to God and the

(q.v.) K.F.L. world including problems of providence, evil,

Mahabhuta: (Skr.) A
physical element} in the prescience and freedom of the will, teleology,
Sinkhya (q.v.) one of ihe five gross elements and rationality of the precepts of the Torah.
contrasted with the tanmatras (q.v.). K.F.L. Maimonides exerted great influence not only on
Mahat: (Skr. great, mighty) The first great prin- the course of subsequent Jewish speculation but

ciple produced by prakrti (q.v.) according to also on the leaders of the thirteenth century
the Sankhya (q.v.), ideation, spirit, idea. scholastic philosophy. Albertus Magnus and
K.F.L. Thomas Aquinas. M,W.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 187

Maimon, Salomon: (1754-1800) A

Jewish philo- Manas: (Skr.) Mind, mentality, the unifying
sophical writer, versed in rabbinical literature, principle involved in sensation (cf. indriya),
in whom Kant found his acknowledged most perception, conation, conception) always thought
astute critical opponent. He wrote historical of in Indian philosophy as a kinetic entity, will
works on philosophy, attempted to expound a and desire being equally present with thinking.
system of symbolic logic, and originated a specu- K.F.L.
lative monism which influenced the leading Post- Manicheism, a religio-philosophical doctrine
Kantians. H.H. which spread from Persia to the West and was
Works: Versuch einer Transzendentalphilo- influential during the 3rd and 7th century, was
sophie, 1790-92} Versuch einer neuen Logik instituted by Man! (Grk. Manes, Latinized:
oder Theone des Denkens, 1794. Manichaeus), a Magian who, upon conversion
Maine de Biran, F. P. Gonthicr: (1766-1824) to Christianity, sought to synthesize the latter
French philosopher and psychologist, who with the dualism of Zoroastrianism (q.v.), not
revolted against the dominant sensationalistic without becoming a martyr to his faith. To
and materialistic psychology of Condillac and combat the powers of darkness, the mother of
Cabanis and developed, under the influence of light created the first man. As Buddha (q.v.)
Kant and Fichte, an idealistic and voluntaristic and Zoroaster he worked illumination among
psychology. The mind directly experiences the men} as Jesus, the Son of Man, he had to
activity of its will and at the same time the suffer, become transfigured and symbolize salva-
resistance offered to itby the "non-moi." Upon tion by his apparent death at the cross} as spirit
this basis, Maine de Biran erected his meta- of the sun he attracts all connatural light par-
physics which interprets the conceptions of force, ticles to himself. But final salvation from the
substance, cause, etc. in terms of the directly throes of evil demons is accomplished by ascetic
experienced activity of the will. This system of living, reminding of the Hindu code of ethics
psychology and metaphysics, which came to be (see Indian Ethics), and belief in Mani as -the
known as French spiritualism, exerted consider- prophesied paraclete (John 14.16-17). Revived
able influence on Cousin, Ravaisson and Renou- once more in the Occident during the crusades
vier. His writings include De la Decomposition by the Cathari. K.F.L.
de la Pensee (1805), Les Rapports du Physique Manifold of Sense: (A.S. manig, many -f- feold,
et du Moral de I'Hontme (1834), Essai sur les fold) The sensuous ingredients of experience
Fondements de la Psychologie (1812), Oeuvres (colors, sounds, etc.) considered as a multiplic-
Philosophies, ed. by V. Cousin (1841). L.W. ity of discrete items. See I. Kant, Critique of
Major premiss: See figure (syllogistic). Pure Reason, A. 77-9-B. 102-5. L.W.
Major term: (Gr. meizon horos) That one of Mantra: (Skr.) Pious thought couched in re-
the three terms in a syllogism which appears peated prayerful utterances, for meditation or
as predicate of the conclusion} so called by charm. Also the poetic portion of the Veda
Aristotle because in the first, or perfect, figure (q.v.). Shaktism (q.v.) and elsewhere the
In
of the syllogism it is commonly the term of holy syllables to which as manifestations of
greatest the middle term being in-
extension, the eternal word or sound (cf. sahda, vac t
cluded in and the minor term in turn com-
it, aksara) is ascribed great mystic significance and
ing under the middle term. See Aristofelianism; power. K.F.L.
Logic, formal, 5. G.R.M. Many questions: The name given to the fallacy

Mtlebranche, Nicolas (1638-1715) Was born

: or,
in Paris and, on his maturity, embraced the doc-
trines of the Cartesian school. Like Geulincx,
he was particularly interested in the problem of
mind-body relation which he interpreted in the
spirit of occasionalism. Believing that the mind
and body cannot possibly interact, he concluded
that God enacts bodily movements "on occasion"
of corresponding mental processes. In general,
he believed that God works in all things and is
the only real cause of events. R.B.W.
Main works: Recherche de la verite,
1674-5}
Conversations Chretiennes, \676-, Traite de la
Nature et de la Gruce, 1680} Traite de Morale,
1683$ Entre liens sur la metaphysique et la re-
ligion, 1688} Traite de I'Amour de Dieu, 1697)
Reflexions sur la promotion physique, 1714.
Malevolence: 111 or evil will or disposition the
will or disposition to do wrong or to harm
others. The vice opposed to the virtue of be-
nevolence or good will. W.K.F.
Mana: An impersonal power or force believed to
reside in natural objecti contact with which in-
fuses benefit! of power, success, good or evil.
belief held by the Melanesia. V.F.
rather, misleading device of disputation
which consists in requiring a single answer to a
question which either involves several questions
that ought to be answered separately or contains
an implicit assertion to which any unqualified
answer would give assent. A. C.
Many- valued logic: See proportional calculus,
many-valued.
Marburg School: Founded by Herman Cohen
(1842-1918) and Paul Natorp (1854-1924) and
supported by Ernst Cassirer (1874-), the note-
worthy historian of philosophy, and Rudolf
Stammler (1856-1938), the eminent legal phi-
losopher, the school revived a specialized tend-
ency of critical idealism. Stress is laid on the
a priori, non-empirical, non-psychological and
purely logical of every certain knowledge.
Cohen and Natorp register an emphatic opposi-
tion to psychologism, and sought to construct t
system upon pure thought on the basis of Kant
and the Kantian reconstruction of Platonism.
The logical and a priori in aesthetics, ethics,
psychology and law is, being also independent
A of experience, the essential basil of these fields.
Cf. Natorp, Kant v.J. Mark*g<r
1915.&*fe,
188 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Marcus Aurelius: (121-180 A.D.) The Roman
Emperor who as a Stoic endowed chair* in
Athens for the four great philosophical schools
of the Academy, the Lyceum, The Garden and
the Stoa. Aurelius' Stoicism, tempered by his
friend Fronto's humanism, held to a rational
world-order and providence as well as to a
notion of probable truth rather than of the Stoic
infallibilism. In the famous 12 books of Medita-
tions, the view is prominent that death was as
natural as birth and development was the end
of the individual and should elicit the fear of no
one. His harsh treatment of the Christians did
not coincide with his mild nature which may
have reflected the changed character of Stoicism
brought on by the decadence of Rome.
Cf. Meditations (Eng. tr. of Ta Eis Heauton)
of A. M.F.
Maritain, Jacques: (1882-) Was born in Paris,
educated at the Lycee Henri IV and the Sor-
bonne, where he studied with H. Bergson. He
was converted to Catholicism in 1906. Then he
studied biology with H. Drresch for two years,
and the philosophy of St. Thomas with Father
CleVissac. He became an ardent advocate of
Thomistic philosophy, stressing its applicability
to modern problems. He was a professor at the
Institut Catholique (1914) and the Institute of
Med. Studies, Toronto (1933), but is now lec-
turing in the U. S. Chief works: Philos. Berg-
sonienne (1914), Distinguer pour Unir (1932),
Sept Lecons sur VEtre (1934). G. B. Phelan,
Jacques Maritain (N. Y. 1937). VJ.B.
Marx, Karl: Was born May 5, 1818 in Trier
(Treves), Germany, and was educated at the
Universities of Bonn and Berlin. He received
the doctorate in philosophy at Berlin in 1841,
writing on The Difference between the Demo-
critean and Epicurean Natural Philosophy,
which theme he treated from the Hegelian point
of view. Marx early became a Left Hegelian,
then a Feuerbachian.' In 1842-43 he edited the
"Rheinische Zeitung," a Cologne daily of radical
tendencies. In 1844, in Paris, Marx, now call-
ing himself a communist, became a leading spirit
in radical groups and a close friend of Friedrich
Engels (q.v.). In 1844 he wrote articles for the
"Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbiicher," in 1845 the
Theses on Feuerbach and, together with En-
gels, Die Heilige Familie.
In 1846, another
joint work with Engels and Moses Hess, Die
Deutsche Ideologic was
completed (not pub-
lished until 1932). 1845-47, Marx wrote for
various papers including "Deutsche Brusseler
Zeitung," Westpha'isches Dampfbot," Gesell-
schaftsspiegel" (E)berfeld), "La Re"forme"
(Paris). In 1847 he wrote (in French) Misere
de la Philosophie f a reply to Proudhon's
Systeme des Contradictions economiques , ou,
Philosophic de la Misere. In 1848 he wrote,
jointly with Engels, the "Manifesto of the Com-
munist Party", delivered his "Discourse on Free
Trade" in Brussels and began work on the
"Neue Rheinische Zeitung" which, however, was
suppressed like its predecessor and also its suc-
cessor, the "Neuc Rheinische Revue" (1850).
For the latter Marz wrote the essays later pub-
lished in book form as Class Struggles in
France. In 1851 Marx did articles on foreign
affairs for the "New York
Tribune", published
The 18M Brumaire Louis Bonaparte and
of
the pamplet "Enthillungen fiber den Kommunis-
tenprozess in Koln." In 1859 Marx published
Zur Kritik der politischen Okonomie, the
foundation of "Das Kapital", in 1860, "Herr
Vogt" and in 1867 the first volume of Das
Kapital. In 1871 the "Manifesto of the Gen-
eral Council of the International Workingmen's
Association on the Paris Commune," later pub-
lished as The Civil War in France and as
The Paris Commune was written. In 1873
there appeared a pamphlet against Bakunin and
in 1875 the critical comment on the "Gotha
Program." The publication of the second vol-
lume of Capital dates from 1885, two years
after Marx's death, the third volume from
1894, both edited by Engels. The essay "Value
Price and Profit" is also posthumous, edited by
his daughter Eleanor Marx Aveling. The most
extensive collection of Marx's work is to be
found in the
Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe.
It is said by the Marx-Engels-Lenm Institute
(Moscow) that the as yet unpublished work of
Marx, including materials of exceptional theo-
retical significance, is equal in bulk to the pub-
lished work. Marx devoted a great deal of time
to practical political activity and the labor
movement, taking a leading role in the found-
ing and subsequent guiding of the International
Workingmen's Association, The First Interna-
tional. He lived the life of a political refugee
in Paris, Brussels and finally London, where he
remained for more than thirty years until he
died March 14, 1883. He
had seven children
and at times experienced the severest want. En-
gels was a partial supporter of the Marx house-
hold for the better part of twenty years. Marx,
together with Engels, was the founder of the
school of philosophy known as dialectical mate-
rialism (q.v,). In the writings of Marx and
Engels this position appears in a relatively gen-
eral form. While statements are made within
all fields of philosophy, there is no systematic
elaboration of doctrine in such fields as ethics,
aesthetics or epistemology, although a methodol-
ogy and a basis are laid down. The fields de-
veloped in most detail by Marx, besides economic
theory, are social and political philosophy (see
Historical materialism, and entry, Dialectical
materialism) and, together with Engels, logical
and ontological aspects of materialist dialectics.
J.M.S.
Marxism: The philosophical, social and economic
theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels. A
concise statement of the general
Marxist position is to be found in the Com-
munist Manifesto.
The philosophical aspect of Marxism is known
as dialectical materialism (q.v.)} in epistemology
it adopts empiricism} in axiology, an interest
theory of value strongly tinged, in places, with
humanitarianism. The social theory of Marxism
centers around the concepts of basic (but not
complete) economic determinism (q.v.), and the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
class character of society. In economics it main-
tains a labor theory of value (q.v.) which in-
volves the concept of surplus value (q.v.) in
the capitalistic mode of production. Upon the
basis of its analysis of capitalism, Marxism
erects the ethical conclusion that capitalism is
unjust and ought to be supplanted by socialism.
It predicts for the more or less immediate future
the decay of capitalism, an inevitable and vic-
torious revolution of the workers, and the estab-
lishing of socialism under the dictatorship of
the proletariat. It looks forward to the ultimate
goal of the "withering away of the state" lead-
ing to a classless society, communistic in econ-
omy and self-regulatory in politics. M.B.M.
Material a priori: (in Max
Scheler) Intuitively
given essences (relation of ideas). P.A.S.
Materialism: (I) A proposition about the exist-
matter
ent or the real: that only (q.v.) is exist-
ent or real; that matter is the primordial or
fundamental constituent of the universe} atom-
ism; that only sensible entities, processes, or
content are existent or real, that the universe is
not governed by intelligence, purpose, or final
causes; that everything is strictly caused by ma-
terial (inanimate, non-mental, or having certain
elementary physical powers) processes or entities
(mechanism); that mental entities, processes, or
events (though existent) caused solely by
are
material entities, processes, or events and them-
selves have no causal effect (epiphenomenalism) ;
that
nothing supernatural exists (naturalism),
that nothing mental exists; (2) a proposition
about explanation of the existent or the real:
that everything is explainable in terms of matter
in motion or matter and energy or simply mat-
ter (depending upon conception of matter enter-
tamed); that all qualitative differences are ic-
ducible to quantitative differences, that the only
objects science can investigate are the physical
or material (that is, public, mampulable, non-
mental, natural, or sensible); (3) a proposition
about values: that wealth, bodily satisfactions,
sensuous pleasures, or the like are either the
only or the greatest values man can seek or
attain; (4) a proposition about explanation of
human history: that human actions and cultural
change are determined solely or largely by eco-
nomic factors (economic determinism or its ap-
proximation); (5) an attitude, postulate, hypo-
thesis, assertion, assumption, or tendency favor-
ing any of the above propositions; a state of
being limited by the physical environment or the
material elements of culture and incapable of
overcoming, transcending, or adjusting properly
to them; preoccupation with or enslavement to
lower or bodily (non-mental or non-spiritual)
values. Confusion of epiphenomenalism or
mechanism with other conceptions of materialism
has caused considerable misunderstanding.
M.T.K.
Materialization: (in Scholasticism) The function
of matter when it receives form and with it
constitutes a body, as distinguished from infor-
mation, which is the function of form when it
perfects the matter united to it so as to constitute
a specific body. H.G.
189
Materially: (in Scholasticism) A predicate is said
to belong to a subject materially when it belongs
to it by reason of its matter or subject but
formally when it belongs to it by reason of its
form, e.g. fire is materially wasteful or destruc-
tive, but formally warm. H.G.
Material Mode of Speech: A description intro-
duced by Carnap and based upon his distinction
between "object-sentences" and "syntactical sen-
tences". A
sentence is syntactical if it can be
translated into (is materially equivalent to) an-
other sentence of the same language which refers
only to signs or formal properties of and rela-
tions between signs. All non-syntactical sen-
tences are said to he object sentences.
In a fully symbolized language (a "calculus")
any sentence can be assigned to one of these
classes by inspecting the formal properties of
the sentence-token. In a "natural" language such
as English, the formal properties of a sentence-
token may indicate that it is an object-sentence
when it is tn fact syntactical. Such a sentence
(also said to be quasi-syntactical) is expressed
in the material mode of speech. When trans-
lated into an overtly syntactical sentence it is
then said to be expressed in the formal mode of
speech.
R. Carnap, Logical Syntax of Language , 284
ff. (for a more exact account). M.B.
Mathematics: The traditional definition of
mathematics as "the science of quantity" or "the
science of discrete and continuous magnitude" is
today inadequate, in that modern mathematics,
while clearly in some sense a single connected
whole, includes many branches which do not
come under this head. Contemporary accounts
of the nature of mathematics tend to character-
ize it rather by its method than
by its subject
matter.
According to a view which is widely held by
mathematicians, it is characteristic of a mathe-
matical discipline that it begins with a set of
undefined elements, properties, functions, and
relations, and a set of unproved propositions
(called axioms or postulates) involving them;
and that from these all other propositions (called
theorems) of the discipline are to be derived
by the methods of formal logic. On its face, as
thus stated, this view would identify mathematics
with applied logic. It is usually added, how-
ever, that the undefined terms, which appear in
the role of names of undefined elements, etc.,
are not really names of particulars at all but
are variables, and that the theorems are to be
regarded as proved for any values of these
variables which render the postulates true. If
then each theorem is replaced by the proposition
embodying the implication from the conjunction
of the postulates to the theorem in question, we
have a reduction of mathematics to pure logic.
(For a particular example of a set of postulates
for a mathematical discipline see the article
Arithmetict foundations of.)
There is also another sense in which it has
been held that mathematics is reducible to logic,
namely that in the expressions for the postulates
of a mathematical discipline the undefined terms
190 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
are to be given definitions which involve logical
terms only, in such a way that postulates and
theorems of the discipline thereby become propo-
sitions of pure logic, demonstrable on the basis
of logical principles only. This view was first
taken, as regards arithmetic and analysis, by
objects no existence is to be ascribed independ-
ent of thought. Elsewhere Heyting speaks of a
relationship to Kant in the apriority ascribed to
the natural numbers, or rather to the underlying
ideas of one and the process of adding one and
the indefinite repetition of the latter. At least

Frege, and was afterwards adopted by Russell, in his earlier writings, Brouwer traces the doc-
who extended it to all mathematics. trine of intuitionism directly to Kant. In 1912
Both views require for their completion an he speaks of "abandoning Kant's apriority of
exact account of the nature of the underlying space but adhering the more resolutely to the
logic, which, it would seem, can only be made apriority of time" and in the same paper ex-
by formalizing this logic as a logistic system plicitly reaffirms Kant's opinion that mathemati-
(q. v.). Such a formalization of the underlying cal judgments are synthetic and a priori.
logicwas employed from the beginning by Frege The doctrine that the concepts of mathematics
and by Russell, but has come into use in connec- are empirical and the postulates elementary ex-
tion with the other postulational or axiomatic perimental truths has been held in various forms
view only comparatively recently (with, per- (either for all mathematics, or specially for
haps, a partial exception in the case of Peano). geometry) by J. S.Helmholtz, M.
Mill, H.
Hilbert has given a formalization of arith- Pasch, and others. However, the usual contem-
metic which takes the shape of a logistic system porary view, especially among mathematicians,
is that the propositions of mathematics say noth-
having primitive symbols some of a logical and
some of an arithmetical character, so that logic ing about empirical reality. Even in the case of
and arithmetic are formalized together without applied geometry, it is held, the geometry is used
to organize physical measurement, but does not
taking logic as prior, similarly also for analysis.
This would not of itself be opposed to the receive an interpretation under which its proposi-

Frege-Russell view, since it is to be expected tions become unqualifiedly experimental or em-

that the choice as to which symbols shall be pirical in character} a particular system of
taken as primitive in the formalization can be geometry, applied in a particular way, may be
made in more than one way. Hilbert, however, wrong (and demonstrably wrong hy experiment),
took the position that many of the theorems of but there is not, in significant cases, a unique
the system are tdeale Aussagen, mere formulas, geometry which, when applied in the particular
which are without meaning in themselves but way, is right.
are added to the reale Aussagen or genuinely M Bocher, The fundamental conceptions and
methods of mathematics, Bulletin of the American
meaningful formulas in order to avoid formal Mathematical Society, vol 11 (1904), pp. 115-
difficultiesotherwise arising. In this respect 135. J W. Young, Lectures on Fundamental
Hilbert differs sharply from Frege and Russell, Concepts of Algebra and Geometry, New York,
1911. Veblen and Young. Protective Geometry,
who would give a meaning (namely as proposi- vol 1, 1910 (see the Introduction) C. I. Keyser,
tions of logic) to all formulas (sentences) ap- Doctrinal fu -cttons, The Journal of Philosophy,
Hilbert's associated vol 15 (1918), pp 262-267 G. Frege, Die
pearing. Concerning pro-
Grundlagen der Anthmetik, Breslau, 1884; re-
gram for a consistency proof see the article
printed, Breslau, 1934 G
Frege, Grundgesetze
Proof theory. der Anthmetik, vol 1, Jena, 1893, and vol. 2,
A view of the nature of mathematics which Jena, 1903 B Russell, The Principles of Mathe-
matics, Cambridge, Fngland. 1903 2nd edn., ;

is widely different from any of the above is London, 1937, and New York, 1938 B. Russell,
held by the school of mathematical intutttonism Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London,
1919 R Carnap, Die logiznttsche Grund-
(q. v.). According to this school, mathematics
legung der Mathemattk, Erkenntnis, vol. 2 (1931 )
is "identical with the exact part of our thought." A Heyting, Die in-
pp 91-105, 141-144 145
"No science, not even philosophy or logic, can tuttionisttsche Grundlegung der Mathemattk, ibid ,
be a presupposition for mathematics. It would pp 106-115 I v. Neumann, Die formalistische
Grundlegung der Mathematik, ibid pp 116-121, ,
be circular to apply any philosophical or logical 144-145, 146, 148. R. Carnap, The Logical Syn-
theorem as a means of proof in mathematics, tax of Language, New York and London 1937.
L. E J Brouwer, Intuittontsme en Pormal-
ince such theorems already presuppose for their
isme, Groningen, 1912 reprinted in Wiskunde,
;
formulation the construction of mathematical Waarhetd. Werkelijkheid, Groningen, 1919; Eng-
concepts. If mathematics is to be in this sense lish translation by A. Dresden, Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society, vol 20 (1913),
presupposition-free, then there remains for it no H. Weyl, Die heutige Erkenntmslage
pp. 81-96.
other source than an intuition which presents in der Mathematik, Symposion, vol. 1 (1926),
mathematical concepts and inferences to us as pp. 1-32. D. Hilbert. Die Grundlagen der Mathe-
immediately clear. . is noth- matik, Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen
. .
[This intuition] Seminar der Hamburgischcn Universita't, vol. 6
ing else than the ability to treat separately (1928), pp. 65-85; reprinted in Hilbert's Grund-
certain concepts and inferences which regularly lagen der Geometrie, 7th edn. A. Heyting,
occur in ordinary thinking." This is quoted in Mathematische Grundlaeenforschung, Intuitionts-
mus, Beweistheorie, Berlin, 1934. H. Poin-
translation from Heyting, who, in the same con- car, The Foundations of Science, English trans-
nection, characterizes the intuitionistic doctrine lation by Cf B. Halsted, New York, 1913.
E. Nagel. The formation of modern conceptions of
as asserting the existence of mathematical ob-
format logic tn the development of geometry,
jects (Gegenstande), which are immediately Osiris, vol. 7 (1939), pp. 142-224. A. N.
grasped by thought, are independent of experi- Whitehcad, An Introduction to Mathematics, Lon-
don, 1911. and New York, 1911. 6. H.
ence, and give to mathematics more than a Hardy. A Mathematician's Apology, London, 1940.
mere formal content. But to these mathematical Histories: Montz Cantor, Vorltsungen ubtr
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 191

Geschichte der Mathemattk, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1880- principle of individuation; by being united to
1908; 4th edn.. Leipzig, 1921. Florian Cajori, A
matter, the form is "contracted", that is nar-
History of Mathematics, 2nd edn.. New York and
London, 1922. Florian Cajori, A History of Ele- rowed from its universal and specific being to
mtntary Mat binaries, revised edn., New York and existence in a
particular. Consequently, indi-
London. 1917. Florian Cajori, A History of Mathe-
matical Notations, 2 vols., Chicago, 1928-1929. viduality is denied to the Angels who are free
D. E. Smith, A Source Book in Mathematics, New of matter, subsistent forms; every angel is a
York and London. 1929. T. L. Heath. A History species of his own. The individuating principle
of Greek Mathematics, 2 vols.. Oxford, 1921. Felix
is, however, not prime matter as such but materia
Klein, Vorlesungen uber die Entwickluna. tier
Mathemattk im 19. jahrhundert. 2 vols., Berlin. signata quantitate; this means that a still in-
1926-1927. J. L. Coolidge, A History of Geometri- definite relation to quantity is added. What i

cal New York, 1940.

Methods, now commonly called matter is defined by
Mathesis universalis: Universal mathematics. 1

Aquinas as materia, secunda; the material thing

One major part of Leibniz's program for logic owes its existence to the information of prime
was the development of a universal mathematics matter by a substantial form. R.A.
or universal calculus for manipulating, i.e. per-
Maxim, ethical: In general any rule of conduct
forming deductions in, the universal language which an individual may adopt, or which he
(cbaractfristica universalis). This universal lan-
may be advised to follow as a good guide for
guage, he thought, could be constructed on the Descartes' maxim
try always to to
action, e.g.,
basis of a relatively few simple terms and, when
conquer himself rather than fortune. The for-
constructed, would be of immense value to scien- mulation of such rules is often recommended as
tists and philosophers in reasoning as well as in
a help in deciding what to do in particular
communication. Leibniz's studies on the subject
cases, especially if time is short, in resisting
of a universal mathematics are the starting point
temptation, etc. Kant held (1) that each vol-
in modern philosophy of the development of
untary act proceeds according to a maxim or
symbolic, 'mathematical logic. F.L.W.
"subjective principle of action," e.g., in breaking
Matrix: See Logtc, formal, 3.
a promise one has as one's maxim, "When it is
Matrix method: Synonymous with truth-table to my advantage, I will make a promise and not
method, v. A. C. whether an act
q.
keep it," (2) that one can tell
Matter: (1) That the defining characteristic of
is right or not by asking whether one can will
which is extension, occupancy of space, mass, its maxim to be a universal law. W.K.F.
weight, motion, movability, inertia, resistance, Maya: (Skr.) The power of obscuring or state
impenetrability, attraction and repulsion, or their producing error and illusion; the "veil" cover-
combinations, these characteristics or powers ing reality, the experience of manifoldness when
themselves, the extra-mental cause of sense ex-
only the One is real; natura naturans; appear-
perience, what composes the "sensible world", ance or phenomenon, as opposed to reality and
the manipulable, the permanent (or relatively noumenon. A condition generally acknowledged
so); the public (accessible to more than one in Indian philosophy and popular Hindu think-
knower, non-private); (2) the physical or non- ing due to the ascendency of the Vedanta (q-v.)
mental, (3) the physical, bodily, or non- which can be overcome principally by knowledge
spiritual, the relatively worthless or base; (4) or insight. See Jndna. K.F.L.
the inanimate; (5) the worldly or natural (non-
McDougall, William: (1871-1938) Formerly of
supernatural); (6) the wholly or relatively in- Oxford and later of Harvard and Duke Univer-
determinate, potentiality for receiving form or was the leading exponent of purposive or
sities,
what has that potentiality; that which in union
"horm-ic" (from Gr. horme, impulse) psychol-
with foim constitutes an individual; differentiat-
ogy. "Purposive psychology . asserts that. .

ing content as against form; the particular as active striving towards a goal is a fundamental
against the universal, (7) the manifold of
category of psychology, and is a process of a
sensation, the given element in experience as
type that cannot be mechanistically explained or
.

against that supplied by mind; (8) that of resolved into mechanistic sequences." Psychol-
which something consists, that from which a
ogies of 1930, p. 4. In his epoch-making book,
thing develops or is made, (9) the first existent Introduction to Social Psychology (1908), Mc-
or primordial what is under
stuff, (10) Dougall developed a purposive theory of the
consideration. Philosophers conceive matter as human instincts designed to serve as an adequate
appearance or privation of reality, as one or
psychological foundation for the social sciences.
the only reality; as the
principle of imperfection His social psychology listed among the primary
and limitation, as potentially or sometimes good, instincts of man flight, repulsion, curiosity, self-
as substance, process, or content, as points,
abasement, self-assertion and the parental in-
atoms, substrata, or other media endowed with stinct. McDougall's teleological theory
is psy-
powers mentioned nbove.M.T.K. chological rather than metaphysical, but he be-
Matter, prime: (Scholastic) Though the notion lieved that the psychological fact of purpos'e was
of prime matter or hyle is not unknown to the a genuine instance of teleological causation.
Schoolmen previous to the 13th century, a con-
(Modern Materialism and Emergent Evolution,
sistent philosophical view has been developed 1929.) He was also led by his psychological
only after the revival of Aristotelian philosophy. studies to adopt a metaphysical dualism and in-
In accordance with the con- which
Stagirite, Aquinas teractionism he designated "animism."
siders prime matter as pure potentiality, lacking See Body and Mind, 1911. L.W.
all positive characteristics. Matter becomes the Mead, George Herbert: (1863-1931) Professor
192 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of Philosophy Chicago University. One of
at
the leading figures in the Deweyan tradition.
He contributed an important article to the vol-
ume, Creattve Intelligence. He emphasized
the relationship between the individual and his
formulation and testing of hypotheses, on the
one hand, as against the organic relationship of
the individual with the society which is responsi-
ble for him. L.E.D.
Main works: Philosophy of the Present, 1932}
Mind) Self, and Society, 1934} Movements of
the arithmetic mean, each value of * is counted
as manytimes over as it occurs in the set of
observations constituting the population, (b) In
like manner, the mean value of a function /(*)
of x is the weighted mean of the values of /(*),
where the probability of each value of * is taken
as the weight of the corresponding value of
/(*). (c) The mode of the population is the
most probable (most frequent) value of x, pro-
vided there is one such, (d) The median of the
population is so chosen that the probability that

Thought in the Nineteenth Century, 1936} Phi- x be than the median (or the probability
less

losophy of the Act, 1938. that x be greater than the median) is '/2 (or as
Mean: (I) In general, that which in some way near '/} as possible). In the case of a finite
mediates or occupies a middle position among population, if the values of * are arranged in
various things or between two extremes. Hence order of magnitude reepating any one value of
(especially in the plural) that through which an * as many times over as it occurs in the set of
end is attained} in mathematics the word is used observations constituting the population then
for any one of various notions of average} in the middle term of this seiies, or the arithmetic
ethics it represents
moderation, temperance, pru- mean of the two middle terms, is the median.
dence, t)ie middle way. A.C.
(2) In mathematics: 3. In fundamental means
cosmology, the
(A) The arithmetic mean of two quantities is (arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic) were used
half their sum} the arithmetic mean of n quan- by the Greeks in describing or actualizing the
tities is the sum of the n quantities, divided by process of becoming in nature. The Pythagoreans
n. In the case of /(*) (say from real
a function and the Platonists in particular made consider-
numbers to real numbers) the mean value of able use of these means (see the Philebus and
the function for the values *i, *a, . .
, *n of
* . the Timaeus more especially). These ratios are
is the arithmetic mean of /(*i)> /(**), > among the basic elements
by Plato in used
/(*). This notion is extended to the case of his doctrine of the mixtures. With the appear-
infinite sets of values of x by means of integra- ance of the qualitative physics of Aristotle,
tion} thus the mean value of /(#) for values of the means lost their cosmological importance
x between a and b f(x)dx, with a and b as
is f and were thereafter used chiefly in mathematics.
the limits of integration, divided by the differ- The modern mathematical theories of the uni-
ence between a and b. verse make use of the whole range of means
(B) The geometric mean of or between, or analyzed by the calculus of probability, the
the mean proportional between, two quantities is theory of errors, the calculus of variations, and
the (positive) square root of their product. Thus the statistical methods.
if b is the geometric mean between a and c, c 4. In ethics, the 'Doctrine of the Mean* is
is as many times greater (or less) than b as b the moral theory of moderation, the develop-
is than
a. The geometric mean of n quantities ment of the virtues, the determination of the
is theth root of their product. wise course in action, the practice of temperance
(C) The harmonic mean of two quantities is and prudence, the choice of the middle way
defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean between extreme or conflicting decisions. It has
of their reciprocals. Hence the harmonic mean been developed principally by the Chinese, the
of a and b is 2ab/(a -{- b). Indians and the Greeks} it was used with
(D) The weighted mean or weighted average caution by the Christian on account
moralists
of a set of n quantities, each of which is asso- of their rigorous application of the moral law.
ciated with a certain number as weight, is ob- A) In Chinese philosophy, the Doctrine of
tained by multiplying each quantity by the asso- the Mean Middle Way (the Chung
or of the
ciated weight, adding these products together, Yung, and Harmony') in-
literally 'Equilibrium
and then dividing by the sum of the weights. As volves the absence of immoderate pleasure,
under A, this be extended to the case of an
may anger, sorrow or joy, and a conscious state
by means of integration.
infinite set of quantities in which those feelings have been stirred and
(The weights have the role of estimates of act in their proper degree. This doctrine has
relative importance of the various quantities, and been developed by Tzu Shu (V. C. B.C.), a
if all the weights are equal the weighted mean grandson of Confucius who had already de-
reduces to the simple arithmetic mean.) scribed the virtues of the 'superior man' ac-

(E) In statistics, given a population (i.e., an cording to his aphorism "Perfect is the virtue
aggregate of observed or observable quantities) which is according to the mean". In matters of
and a variable * having the population as its action, the superior man stands erect in the

range, we have: (a) The

mean value of x is middle and strives to follow a course which
the weighted mean of the values of *, with the does not incline on either eide.
probability(frequency ratio) of each value taken B) In Buddhist philosophy, the System of
as its weight. In the case of a population finite the Middle Way or Madhyamaka is ascribed
this is the same as the simple arithmetic mean more particularly to Nagarjuna (II c. A.D.).
of the population, provided that, in calculating The Buddha had given his revelation aa a mean
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 193
or middle way, because he repudiated the two ancient and at the expense
neo-pagan writers,
extremes of an exaggerated ascetism and of an of morality proper.
easy secular This principle is also applied
life.
D) The ethical idea of the mean, stripped of
to knowledge and action in general, with the added to its Christian
the qualifications it by
purpose of striking a happy medium between interpreters, has influenced many positivistic
contradictory judgments and motives. The final systems of ethics, and especially pragmatism
objective is the realization of the nirvana or and behaviourism (e.g., A. Huxley's rule of
the complete absence of desire by the gradual Balanced Excesses). It is maintained that it is
destruction of feelings and thoughts. But while
also involved in the dialectical systems, such as
orthodox Buddhism teaches the unreality of the it would have an applica-
Hegelianism, where
individual (who is merely a mass of causes and whole dialectical process as such:
the
tion in
effects following one another in unbroken suc- to the synthetic phase
thus, it would correspond
the Madhyamaka denies also the
cession), which blends together the thesis and the anti-
existence of these causes and effects in them- thesis by the meeting of the opposites. T.G.
selves. For this system, "Everything is void", of the: In Aristotle's ethics, the
Mean, Doctrine
with the legitimate conclusion that "Absolute doctrine that each of the moral virtues is an
truth is silence". Thus the perfect mean is intermediate state between extremes of excess
realized. G.R.M.
and defect.
C) In Greek Ethics, the doctrine of the Meaning: A highly ambiguous term, with at

Right (Mean has been developed by Plato involving (a) intention

least four pivotal senses,
(Phdebus) and Aristotle (Nic. Ethics II. or purpose, (b) designation or reference, (c)
6-8) principally, on the Pythagorean analogy definition or translation, (d) causal antecedents
between the sound mind, the healthy body and or consequences. Each of these provides over-
the tuned string, which has inspired most of some or
lapping families of cases generated by
the Greek Moralists. Though it is known as all of the following types of systematic am-
the "Aristotelian Principle of the Mean", it is
biguity:
essentially a Platonic doctrine which is pre- (i) Arising from a contrast between the
formed in the Republic and the Statesman and
standpoints of speaker and interpreter.
expounded in the Philebus, where we are told (ii) arising from contrast between
the mean-
belong to the class ing of specific utterances (tokens) and that
that all good things in life
of the mixed (26 D). This doctrine states that of the general (type) symbol.
in the application of intelligence to any kind (iii) arising from attention to one
rather than
of activity, the supreme wisdom is to know another use of language (e.g., to the expressive
just where to stop, and to stop just there and rather than the evocative or referential uses).
nowhere else. Hence, the "right-mean" does not Some of these ambiguities are normally eli-
concern the quantitative measurement of magni- minated by attention to the context in which
tudes, but simply the qualitative comparison o'f the term 'meaning' occurs. Adequate definition,
values with respect to a standard which is the would, accordingly, involve a detailed analysis
appropriate (prepon), the seasonable (kairos), of the types of context which are most common.
the morally necessary (deon), or generally the The following is a preliminary outline.
moderate (metrifcn). The difference between A. "What does X (some event, not necessartly
these two kinds of metretics (metretike) is that
linguistic) mean?"
the former is extrinsic and relative, while the
(1) "Of what is X an index?"
latter is intrinsic and absolute. This explains
(2) "Of what is X a sign?"
the Platonic division of the sciences into two B. "What does 5 (a speaker) mean by X
classes, those involving reference to relative (an utterance)?"
quantities (mathematical or natural), and those (1) "What are S's interests, intentions, pur-
requiring absolute values (ethics and aesthetics). poses in uttering X?"
The Aristotelian analysis of the "right mean" (2) "To whom (what) is he referring?"
considers moral goodness as a fixed and habitual (3) "What effect does he wish to produce in

proportion in our appetitions and tempers, which the hearer?"

can be reached by training tnem until they (4) "What other utterance could he have
exhibit just the balance required by the right used to express the same interest, make the same
rule. This process of becoming good develops ? "
reference, or produce the same effect
certain habits of virtues consisting in reasonable C. "What does X
(an utterance of a speaker)
moderation where both excess and defect are mean to an interpreter /-"
avoided: the virtue of temperance (sophrosyne) (1) "What does I take S to have meant by
is a typical example. In this sense, virtue X (in any of the senses listed under
B)?"
occupies a middle position between extremes, D."What does X (a type symbol) mean in
language L?
i}
and is said to be a mean; but it is not a static
notion, as it leads to the development of a (1) "What symbols (in L) can be substituted
stable being, when man learns not to over-reach for X (in specified contexts) without appreciable
himself. This qualitative conception of the mean loss of expressive, evocative or referential func-
involves an adaptation of the agent, his conduct tion?"
and his environment, similar to the harmony (2) In a translation from L into another
displayed in a work of art. Hence the aesthetic language M, either of X or of a more complex
aspect of virtue, which is often overstressed by symbol containing X as part, what portion of
194 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the end-product corresponds to X?" B.C.-370 B.C.) as the view that nature is ex-
plicable on the basis motion and
of atoms in
In addition above, relatively non-
to the
the void. Held by Galileo (1564-1641) and
technical senses, many writers use the word in
others in the seventeenth century as the me-
divergent special ways based upon and implying
chanical philosophy. For Descartes (1596-1650),
favored theories about meaning.
the essence of matter is extension, and all physi-
See also: Index, Sign, Types of Language.
Reference: Ogden and Richards, Meaning of
cal phenomena are explicable by mechanical
laws. For Kant (1724-1804), the necessity in
Meaning, Chs. 8 and 9. M.B. time of an occurrence in accordance with causal-
Meaning, Rinds of: In semiotic (q. v.) several ity as a law of nature. In biology, theory that
kinds of meaning, i.e. of the function of an organisms are totally explicable on mechanical
expression in language and the content it con- principles. Opposite of: vitalism (qv.). In psy-
veys, are distinguished. 1. An expression (sen- chology, applied to associational psychology, and
tence) has cognitive (or theoretical, assertive) in psychoanalysis to the unconscious direction of

meaning, if it asserts something and hence is a mental process. In general, the view that
either true or false. In this case, it is called a nature consists merely of material in motion,
cognitive sentence or (cognitive, genuine) and that it operates automatically. Opposite of:
statement} it has usually the form of a declara- all forms of
super-naturalism. See also Mate-
tive sentence. If an expression (a sentence) rialism > Atomism. J.fC.F.
has cognitive meaning, its truth-value (q. i>.) Mechanics: The science of motion, affording
depends in general upon both (a) the (cogni- theoretical description by means of specification
tive, semantical) meaning of the terms occur- of position of particles bound by relations to
ring, and (b) some facts referred to by the other particles, usually having no extension but
sentence. 2. If it does depend on both (a) and possessing mass. This involves space and time
and frames of reference (in a relative fashion).
(b), the sentence has factual (synthetic, mate-
rial) meaning and is called a factual (synthetic, Particles are assumed to traverse continuous
material) sentence. 3. If, however, the truth- paths. Auxiliary kinematical concepts are dis-
value depends upon (a) alone, the sentence has placement, velocity, acceleration. The dynamical
a (merely) logical meaning (or formal mean- concept of forces (F's) acting independently of
one another is coupled with mass (M) in a
ing, see Formal 1). In this case, if it is true,
it is called logically true or analytic (q. v.)\ defining law, as F =
Ma, where a accelera- =
if it is false, it is called logically false or con- tion. Explicit reference to causation is avoided
An and is held to be unnecessary. Classical mechanics
tradictory. 4. expression has an expressive
in so far as is restricted to the use of central forces
meaning (or function) it expresses (along
kind the lines joining particles and a function of
something of the state of the speaker; this
of the length of those lines). This with a knowl-
meaning may for instance contain pictorial,
emotive, and volitional components (e.g. lyrical edge of boundary conditions leads to complete
poetry, exclamations, commands). An expression
mechanistic determinism. The entire system of
may or may not have, in addition to its expres- mechanics may also be developed by starting with
sive meaning, a cognitive meaning) if not, it is other concepts such as energy and a
stationary
said to have a merely expressive meaning. 5. If principle (usually that of "least action") in
an expression has a merely expressive meaning either an integral or differential form. W.M.M.
but is mistaken as being a cognitive statement, Mediation: (Lat. mediatio) The act or condition
it is sometimes called a pseudo-statement. Ac- in which an intermediary is supplied between
cording to logical positivism (see Scientific heterogeneous terms, (a) In philosophy: Media-
tion is necessary in systems in, which two forms
Empiricism, 1C) many sentences in metaphysics
are pseudo-statements (compare Anti-metaphysics % of reality are held to be so different that immedi-
ate interaction is
2).R.C. impossible } this is the case in
later Neo-Platonism, and
particularly in (he
Measurement: (Lat. metiri, to measure) The Cartesianism of Malebranche, Geulincx and
process of ascribing a numerical value to an where mind and matter cannot directly
Spinoza,
or either on the basis of the
object quality interact} God supplies the principle of media-
number of some given unit quantity is
times tion in these latter systems, (b) In theology
contained in it, or on the basis of its position Mediation is an important aspect of the doctrine
in a series of greater and lesser quantities of and practice of many religions; particularly in
like kind. See Intensive, Extensive Quantity. Judaism and Christianity because of the Trans-
A.C.B.
cendency of Cod and the imperfection of men.
Mechanism: Mediation is an important function of Christ;
(Gr. mechane, machine) Theory
that all phenomena are totally explicable on
as the God-Man, He is
eminently fitted to form
the connecting link between Cod and
mechanical principles. The view that all phe- creatures;
His Incarnation is considered as supplying the
nomena is the result of matter in motion and
can be explained by its law. Theory of total means (i.e. media) of salvation to man.
explanation by efficient, as opposed to final, VJ.B.
cause (q.v.). Doctrine that nature, like a ma- Meinon*, Alexius: (1853-1921) Was originally
a disciple of Brentano, who however
chine, is a whole whose single function is served emphati-
automatically by its parts. In cosmology, first cally rejected many of Meinong's later conten-
advanced by Leucippus and Democritus (460 tions. He claimed to have discovered a new
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 195

a priori science, the "theory of objects" (to be and write. (Meng Ttu, Eng. tr. by James
distinguished from metaphysics which is an em- Legge: The Works of Mencius.) W.T.C.
pirical science concerning reality, but was never Mendelsohn, Moses: (1729-1786) A German
worked out by Meinong). Anything "intended" Jewish popular philosopher, holding an admired
by thought is an "object". Objects may either position in German literature. He was the first

"exist" (such as physical objects) or "subsist" to advocate the social emancipation of the Jews,
(such as facts which Meinong unfortunately to plead in Germany for the separation of the
termed "objectives", or mathematical entities)) Church and the State and for freedom of belief
they may either be possible or impossible and and conscience. He philosrohically best known
is

they may belong either to a lower or to a for his adduced proofs of the immortality of the
higher level (such as "relations" and "complex- soul and of the existence of a personal God.
ions", "founded" on their simple terms or ele- Schrijten z. Philos., Acsthetik u. Apologetik
ments). In the "theory of objects," the exist- (ed. Brasch, 1880). H.//.
ence of objects is abstracted from (or as Husserl Mental: (Lat. mens, mind) Pertaining to the
later said it may be "bracketed") and their es- mind either in its functional aspect (perceiving,
sence alone has to be considered. Objects are imagining, remembering, feeling, willing, etc.)
apprehended either by self-evident judgments or or in its contential aspects (sense data, images
by "assumptions", that is, by "imaginary judg- and other contents existing "in" the mind). See
ments". In the field of emotions there is an Mind. L.W.
^

analogous division since there are also "imagi- Mental Chemistry: Psychological procedure,
nary" emotions (such as those of the spectator analogous to chemical analysis and synthesis, con-
in a tragedy). Much of Meinong's work was sisting in the attempted explanation of mental
of a psychological rather than of a meta- states as the products of the combination and
physical or epistemological character. H.G. fusion of psychic elements. See Assoctattonism.
Main works: Psychol.-ethische Unlersuch. *. L.W.
Werttheorie, 1894} Ueber Annahmen,
1907} Mentalism: Metaphysical theory of the exclusive
Ueber d. Stellung d. Gegenstandstheorie im reality of individualminds and their subjective
Syst. d. Wissensch., 1907$ Veber Moglichketi states. The termapplied to the individualistic
is

u. Wahrscheinlichkeit, 1915. Cf. Gesammelte idealism of Berkeley and Leibniz rather than to
Abh. 3 vols., 1914. the absolutistic Idealism of Hegel and his fol-
Meliorism: (Lat. melior, better) View that the lowers. L.W.
world is neither completely evil nor completely Mental tests: Measurement of independent vari-
good, but that the relative amounts of good and ables in a person to specific situations controlled
evil are changeable, that good is capable of in- by the medium of the instrument, expressing
crease. Human effort to improve the world can measuraMe differences in individuals. Chief
be effective in making the world better and form: intelligence test. J.E.B.
probably the trend of biological and social evo- Mesmerism: A term formed from the name of
lution tends in that direction.
Opposed to F. Mesmer (1734-1815) to designate hypnotic
Optimism and Pessimism. The term was coined phenomena (see Hypnotism) but now little
by George Eliot. A.J.B. used. L.W.
Melissus: (c. 450JB.C.) Of Samos. He advanced Metalanguage: A language used to make asser-
proof of the Eleatic doctrine of being
a positive tions about another language} any language
as one and eternal, motionless and without whose symbols refer to the properties . of the
change. The senses deceive us. He wrote in the symbols of another language. (Formed by anal-
Ionic dialect. L.E.D. ogy with "metamathematics", the study of for-
Memory: (Lat. memoria) Non-inferential knowl- malized mathematical systems.) M.B.
edge of past perceptual objects (perceptual mem- Metalogical: That which belongs to the basis of

ory) or of past emotions, feelings and states of logic. Metalogical truths are the laws of
consciousness of the remembering subject (intro- thought, the formal conditions of thinking in-
spective memory). See Introspection. Memory herent in reason. (Schopenhauer.) H.H.
is psychologically analyzable into three func- The same word is now commonly used in
tions: (a) revival or reproduction* of the memory quite a different sense, as a synonym of syn-
image, (b) recognition of the image as belong- tactical. See syntax, logical. A.C.
ing to the past of the remembering subject, and Metamathematics : See Proof theory , and Syn-
(c) temporal localization of the remembered tax, logical.
object by reference to a psychological or physi- Metaphor: a. Rhetorical figure transposing a
cal time-scheme. L.W. term from its original concept to another and
Mencius: (Meng Tzu, Meng b. In its origin, all language was
K'o, 371-289 B.C.) similar one.
A native of Tsao (in present Shantung), studied metaphoric} so was poetry. Metaphor is a short
under pupils of Tzu Ssu, grandson of Confucius, fable (Vico). L.V.
became the greatest Confucian in Chinese his- Metaphysical deduction: An examination of the
tory. He vigorously attacked the "pervasive logical functions of thought that there are cer-
teachings" Yang Chu and Mo Tzu. Like
of tain a priori forms of synthesis which belong to

Confucius, he travelled for many years, to many the very constitution, the bare, purely formal

states, trying to persuade kings and princes to machinery of the understanding. H.H.
practice benevolent government instead of gov- Metaphysical essence: (in Scholasticism) The
ernment by force, but failed. He retired to teach complexus of notes which are in a thing, as
196 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
it conceived by us i.e. the principle and pri-
is ciples and processes which must guide a scientific
mary notes by which that thing is sufficiently inquiry, or which constitute the structure of the
understood and distinguished from other things. special sciences more particularly. Methodology,
H.G. which is also called scientific method) and more
Metaphysical ethics: Any view according to seldom methodeutic, refers not only to the whole
which ethics is a branch of metaphysics, ethical of a constituted science, but also to individual
principles being derived from metaphysical prin- problems or groups of problems within a science.
ciples and ethical notions being defined in terms As such it is usually considered as a branch of

of metahysical notions. W.K.F. logic; in fact, it is the application of the prin-

Metaphysics: (Gr. meta ta
Physika) Arbitrary ciples and processes of logic to the special ob-
title given by Andronicus of Rhodes, circa 70 jects of the various sciences; while science in
B.C. to a certain collection of Aristotelean general is accounted for by the combination of
writings. deduction and induction as such. Thus, meth-
Traditionally given by the oracular phrase: odology is a generic term exemplified in the
"The science of being as such." To be dis- specific method of each science. Hence its full

tinguished from the study of being under some
particular aspect; hence opposed to such sciences
as are concerned with ens mobile, ens
etc. The
term, "science", is here used in its
classic sense of "knowledge by causes", where
"knowledge" is contrasted with "opinion" and
the term cause has the full signification of the
Greek aitia. The
"causes" which are the ob-
jects of metaphysical cognition are said to be
"first" in the natural order (first principles),
as being founded in no higher or more complete
generalizations available to the human intellect
by means of its own natural powers.
Secondary and "derivative meanings: (a) Any-
thing concerned with the supra-physical. Thus
"metaphysical healing", "metaphysical poetry",
etc. (b) Any scheme of explanation which
transcends the inadequacies or inaccuracies of
ordinary thought. W.S.W.
Metempsychosis: (Gr. meta, over -\- empsy-
choun, to animate) The doctrine that the same
soul can successively reside in more than one
body, human or animal. See Immortality. The
significance can be understood only by analyzing
the structure of the special sciences. In deter-
quantum, mining that structure, one must consider (a)
the proper object of the special science, (b) the
manner in which it develops, (c) the type of
statements or generalizations it involves, (d) its
philosophical foundations or assumptions, and
(e) its relation with the other sciences, and
eventuallyits applications. The last two points
mentioned are particularly important: methods
of education, for example, will vary considerably
according to their inspiration and aim. Because
of the differences between the objects of the
various sciences, they reveal the following prin-
cipal methodological patterns, which are not
necessarily exclusive of one another, and which
are used sometimes in partial combination. It
may be added that their choice and combination
depend also in a large degree on psychological
motives. In the last resort, methodology results
from the adjustment of our mental powers to
the love and pursuit of truth.
I. There are various rational methods used by

doctrine was part of the Pythagorean teaching the speculative sciences, including theology
incorporated in mythical form in the Platonic which adds certain qualifications to their use.

philosophy (see Phaedrus, 249; Rep. X, 614). More philosophy has inspired the
especially,
The term metempsychosis was not used before following procedures ( 1 ) The Socratic method
:

the Christian era. L.W. of analysis by questioning and dividing until

Method: (Gr. methodos, method) 1. Any pro- the essences are reached} (2) the synthetic
cedure employed to attain a certain end. 2. Any method developed by Plato, Aristotle and the
knowing techniques employed in the process of Medieval thinkers, which involves a demonstra-
acquiring knowledge of a given subject-matter. tive exposition of the causal relation between
3. The science which formulates the rules of thought and being; (3) the ascetic method of
any procedure. A.C.B. intellectual and moral purification leading to an
Methodic Doubt: The suspension of judgment illumination of the mind, as proposed by
in regard to possible truths until they have Plotinus, Augustine and the mystics; (4) the
been demonstrated to be either true or false; in psychological method of inquiry into the origin
Cartesianism the criterion is the clearness and of ideas, which was used by Descartes and his
distinctness of ideas. V.J.B. followers, and also by the British empiricists;
Method of simple enumeration: Inductive (5) the critical or transcendental method, as
process by which the initial probability of a used by Kant, and involving an analysis of
generalization is increased by more instances the conditions and limits of knowledge; (6) the
exactly the same as those previously observed. dialectical method proceeding by thesis, anti-
A.C.B. thesis synthesis, which
and is promoted by
Method of trial and error: Method of solving Hegelianism and Dialectical Materialism; (7)
a problem, or of accomplishing an end, by the intuitive method) as used by Bergson, which
putting the hypotheses or means to direct test involves the immediate perception of reality, by
in actuality rather than by considering them a blending of consciousness with the process of
imaginatively in terms of foreseen consequences; change; (8) the reflexive method of metaphysi-
opposed to reflection. A.C.B. cal introspection aiming at the development of
Methodology: The systematic analysis and or- the immanent realities and values leading man
ganization of the rational and experimental prin- to God; (9) the eclectic method (historical-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 197

critical) of purposive and effective selection as and Jeremy Bentham. Principal philosophical
proposed by Cicero, Suarez and Cousin and } works: Logic, 1843} Liberty, 1859} Utilitarian-
(10) the positivistic method of Comte, Spencer ism, 1861. In logic and epistemology he was a
and the logical empiricists, which attempts to thorough empiricist, holding that all inference
apply to philosophy the strict procedures of the is basically induction on the basis of the prin-
positive sciences. ciple of the uniformity of nature from one
II. The
axiomatic or hypo the tico-deductive particular event to another or a group of others.
method as used by the theoretical and especially Syllogistic reasoning, he holds always involves a
the mathematical sciences. It involves such petitio, the conclusion being included in the
problems as the selection, independence and premises, with knowledge of those in turn rest-
simplification of primitive terms and axioms, ing on empirical inductions. Mill defines the
the formalization of definitions and proofs, the cause of an event as the sum total of its neces-
consistency and completeness of the constructed sary conditions positive and negative.
theory, and the final interpretation. In ethics his Utilitarianism has been very in-
III. The notnologtcal or inductive method as fluential in popularizing universalisttc
hedonism,
used by the experimental sciences, aims at the albeit with certain confusions (see Hedonism).
discovery of regularities between phenomena and His essay on Liberty is authoritative as concerns
their relevant laws. It involves the critical and liberty of thought and discussion, stimulating as
careful application of the various steps of induc- concerns liberty of action in general. C.A.B.
tion: observation and analytical classification, Mill's methods : Inductive methods formulated by
selection of similarities, hypothesis of cause or John Stuart Mill for the discovery of causal
lawj by the experimental canons,
verification relations between phenomena.
deduction, demonstration and explanation} sys- 1. Method of Agreement: If two or more
tematic organization of results, statement of instances of the phenomenon under investiga-
laws and construction of the relevant theory. tion have only one circumstance in common,
IV. The descriptive method as used by the the circumstance in which alone all the in-
natural and social sciences, involves observa- stances agree, is the cause (or effect) of the

tional, classificatory and statistical procedures given phenomenon.

(see art. on statistics) and their interpretation. 2. Method of Difference: If an instance in
V. The historical method as used by the which the phenomenon under investigation oc-
sciences dealing with the past, involves the colla- curs, and an instance in which it does not
tion, selection, and interpretation
classification occur, have every circumstance in common save
of archeological factsand exhibits, records, docu- one, that one occurring in the former} the cir-
ments, archives, reports and testimonies. cumstance in which alone the two instances dif-
VI. The psychological method, as used by all fer, is the effect, or the cause, or an indis-
the sciences dealing with human behaviour and pensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon.
development. It involves not only introspective 3. Joint Method of Agreement and Differ-

analysis, but also experimental procedures, such ence: If two or more instances in which the
as those referring to the relations between stimuli phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance
and sensations, to the accuracy of perceptions in common, while two or more instances in
(specific measurements of intensity) to gradation which does not occur have nothing in com-
it

(least noticeable differences), to error methods mon save the absence of that circumstance} the
(average error in right and wrong cases), and circumstance in which alone the two sets of
to physiologicaland educational processes. T.G. instances differ, is the effect, or the cause, or
Miao: (a) Mystery of existence, which is un- an indispensable part of the cause, of the
fathomable. (Lao Tzu.) (b) Subtlety, such as phenomenon.
the subtle presence of the Omnipotent Creative Method of Concomitant Variations: What-
4.
Power (shen) in the
myriad things. W.T.C. ever phenomenon varies in any manner when-
Middle Term: (Gr. mesos horos) That one of ever another phenomenon varies in some par-
the three terms in a syllogism which appears in ticularmanner, is either a cause or an effect
both premisses} so called by Aristotle because in of phenomenon, or is connected with it
that
the first, or perfect, figure of tfoe syllogism it is through some fact of causation.
commonly intermediate in extension between 5. Method of Residues: Subduct from any
the Major Term and the Minor Term. See phenomenon such part as is known by previous
Aristotelianismi Major Term; Minor Term. See inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents,
Logic, formal, 5. G.R.M. and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect
Mill, James: (1773-1836) Father of John Stuart of the remaining antecedents.
Mill and close associate of Jeremy Bentham as See Mill's System of Logic, bk. Ill, ch. VIII.
a member of the Utilitarian School of Philoso- A.C.B.
phy. His chief original contributions were in Mimamsa : Short for Purva-MlmJrhsa, ,
one of
the field of psychology where he advanced an the six major systems of Indian philosophy (q.
associational view and he is likewise remem- v.)> founded by Jaimini, rationalizing Vedic
bered for his History of India, See Utilitarian- ritual and upholding the authority of the Vedas
ism. by a philosophy of the word (see vac). In
Main work: Analysis of the Phenomena of the metaphysics professes belief in the reality of
it

Human Mind, 1 829.- L.E.D. the phenomenal, a plurality of eternal souls,

Mill, John Stuart: (1806-1873) The son of but is indifferent to a concept of God though

James Mill, was much influenced by his father assenting to the superhuman and eternal nature
196 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of the Vcdat. There it also an elaborate epi- actualities so as to make evident the honorable

ttemology supporting Vedic truths, an ethics and the humble and to distinguish similarities
which makes observance of Vedic ritual and and differences." For Rectification of Names,
practice a condition of a good and blissful life. see Ching mfog.W.T.C.
K.F.L. Min<: Fatej Destiny j the Decree of Heaven.
Mimpathy: (Ger. NachfOhlen) The suffering of The Confucians and Neo-Confucians are unani-
another must already be given in some form mous in saying that the fate and the nature
before it is possible for anyone to become a (hsing) of man and things are two aspects of
the same thing. Fate is what Heaven imparts j
fellow Pity and sympathy as experi-
sufferer.
enced are always subsequent to the already ap- and the nature is what man and things received
prehended and understood experience of another from Heaven. For example, "whether a piece
person who is pitied. One may share another's of wood is crooked or straight is due to its

feeling about a matter, and yet have no sym- nature. But that it should be crooked or straight
pathy for that one. The historian, novelist, is due to its fate." This being the case, under-
dramatic artist must possess in high degree the standing fate (as in Confucius), establishing
gift of "after-experiencing" or mimpathizing, but
fate (as in Mencius, 371-289 B.C.), and the
they do not in the least need to have sympathy fulfillment of fate (as in Neo-Confucianism)
with their objects and persons. See Sympathy. all mean the realization of the nature of man
H.H. and things in accordance with the principle or
Mind: (Lat. mens) Mind is used in two prin- Reason (li) of existence. "That which Heaven
cipal senses: (a) The individual mind is the decrees is true ,one, and homogeneous Fate . . .

self or subject which remembers, in its true meaning proceds from Reason its j
perceives,
imagines,feels, conceives, reasons, wills, etc. and variations (i.e., inequalities like intelligence and
which is functionally related to an individual stupidity) proceed from the material element,
bodily organism, (b) Mind, generically con- the vital force (ch'i) ... 'He who understands

sidered, is a metaphysical substance which per- what fate is, will not stand beneath a precipitous
vades all individual minds and which is con- wall.' If a man, saying 'It is decreed,' goes
trasted with matter or material substance. L.W. and stands beneath a precipitous wall and the
Mind-body relation: Relation obtaining between wall falls and crushes him, it cannot be attrib-
the individual mind and its body. Theories of , uted sole'ly to fate. In human affairs when a
the mind-body relation are monistic or dualistic man has done his utmost he may talk of fate."
according as they identify or separate the mind
The fate of Heaven is the same as the Moral
and the body. Monistic theories include: (a) Law (tao) of Heaven. The "fulfillment of
the theory of mind as bodily function, advanced fate" consists of "the investigation of the Rea-

by Aristotle and adhered to by thinkers as di- son of things to the utmost (ch'iung li)" and
vergent as Hobbes, Hegel ,and the Behaviorists, "exhausting gone's nature to the utmost (chin
(b) the theory of body as mental appearance hsing)" the three are one and the same." In
held by Berkeley, Leibniz, Schopenhauer and short, fate is "nothing other than being one's
certain other idealists, (c) the two-aspect theory true self (ch'eng)." W.T.C.
of Spinoza and of recent neutral monism Ming chia: Sophists or Dialecticians, also called
which considers mind and body as mani- hsing-ming chia, including Tertg Hsi Trfi (545-
festations of a third reality which is neither 501 B.C.?), Hui Shih (390-305 B.C.?), and
mental nor bodily. The principal dualistic Kung-sun Lung (between 400 and 250 B.C.), at
theories are:two sided interactionism of
(a) first insisted on the correspondence between

Descartes, Locke, James and others. See Inter- name and reality. The school later became a
actionism. (b) psycho-physical parallelism. See school of pure sophistry which Chuang Tzu and
Parallelism, Psycho-physical, (c) Epephenome-
the Neo-Mohists strongly attacked. See Chien
nalism. See Epephenomenalism. L.W. pai. W.T.C.
Mind-Dust Ming (dynasty) philosophy: See Li hsueh and
Theory: Theory that individual
minds from the combination of
result Chinese philosophy.
particles
virtue.
of mind which have always existed in associa- Ming te: (a) Illustrious virtue j perfect
tion with material atoms. The rival theory is (Early Confucianism.)
emergent evolution which assumes that mind (b) Man's clear character j the virtuous na-
is a novel emergent in the

evolution. L.W.
process of biological

Mind-Stuff Theory: Theory that individual Minor Arts:

-.
ture which man derives from Heaven.

Empirically
(Neo-

distinguished from
minds are constituted of psychic particles analo- sculpture and painting. They are: jewelry, min-
iature, textiles, pottery, etc. L.V.
gus to physical atoms. Differs from mind-dust
theory in its emphasis on the constitution rather Minor premiss: See figure (syllogistic).
than the genesis of mind. See Mind-Dust Minor Term: (Gr. elation horos) That one of
the three terms in a syllogism that appears as
Theory. L.W.
Ming: Name, or "that which designates a thing. 1* subject of the conclusion} so called by Aristotle
This includes "designations of things and their because it is commonly the term of least exten-

qualities," "those referring to fame and dis- sion. See Aristotelianism; Major Term} Middle
1
and "such descriptive appellations as Term; Logic, formal, 5. G.R.M.
repute/
of the
'intelligence' and 'stupidity' and 'love' and Mishnah: (Heb., repetition) Older part
'hate.
1 "
"Names are made in order to denote Talmud (q.v.)containing traditions from the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 199

close of the Old Testament till the end of the b. Johai to whom the authorship of the Zohar
second century A.D. when it was compiled (in is ascribed.
several revisions) by R. Judah Hanasi (the Juda Hanasi, compiler of the Mishnah
R.
prince), known also as Rabbi (my master) and and possibly friend of Marcus Aurelius (161-
Rabbenu Nakkadosh (our saintly master) who 180), belonged to the fourth generation, while
sedarim (orders), 63 massektot (tractates) and R. Hiyya, author of the Tosephta, belonged to
died between 193-215 A.D. It is divided in 6 the fifth and last generation. H.L.G.
524 perakim (chapters). Mishnah, extra canonical: R. Juda Hanasi in-
Here is a very brief summary of the Mishnah eluded in his Mishnah (now the Mishnah par
according to its sedarim. excellence) selected materials from the older
Seder I, zeraim (seeds), 11 tractates: liturgy, Mishnah-collections, particularly from that of
tithes, inhibited mixtures of plants, animals and R. Akiba (d. 135 A.D.) and his disciple, R.
textiles, sabbatical year, produce offerings, first Meir. In fact, is assumed that any anonymous
it

fruits. statement in the Mishnah is R. Meir's (setam

Seder II, Moed (feast), 12 tractates: ob- mathnithin R. Meir).
servance of sabbath, feasts and fasts. The vast traditions not included in the official
Seder III, Nashim (women) 7 tractates: Mishnah are known as Baraitha (extraneous).
laws of marriage, divorce, forced marriage, These Baraithas were ultimately collected in
adultery, asceticism. separate works.
Seder IV, Nezikin (damages), 10 tractates Misology: (Gr. miseo: to hate; logia: proposi-
laws of damages, injuries, property, buying, tion) A
contempt for logic. V.F.
selling, lending, hiring, renting, heredity, court Misoneism: A term derived from the Greek,
proceedings, fines and punishment, cities of miso, I hate, and neos, new, employed by
refuge, oaths. Special tractates on ethics (Abot) Lombroso (1836-1909) to express a morbid
and idolatry and testimonials of special deci- hatred of the new, or the dread of a new
sions. situation. J.J.R.
Seder V, Kodashim (holy things), 1 1 trac- Mneme: (Gr. Mneme, memory) Term proposed
tates: sacrifices, slaughter of animals, ritual
by Semon (Die Mneme , 1904, Die mnemeschen
dietetics, firstborn animals, vows, excommunica- Empfindungen, 1909) and adopted by B. Russell
tion, sacrilege, temple architecture and rituals. (Analysis of Mind) to designate the conserva-
Seder VI, Toharot (purifications) 12 trac- tion in a living organism of the effects of earlier
tates- lay and levitical purity and impurity. stimulation. Ordinary memory is interpreted as
Oldest complete manuscript of the Mishna, of an instance of mnemic conservation. L.W.
the Xlllth century, is preserved in the Library Mnemic Causation: (Gr. mneme, memory) Type
of Parma, Italy. of causation of which memory is an instance, in
First complete printed edition of the Mishnah which a present phenomenon (e.g. a present
appeared in Naples, 1492. memory) is explained not only by its immediate

An excellent one-volume English translation antecedents but by a remote event in time (e.g.
of the entire Mishnah, with introduction and an earlier experience). See Mneme.- -L.W.
copious notes was made by Herbert Danby, D.D. Mnemonics: (Gr. mnemonikos, pertaining to
(Oxford, \933).*-H.L.G. memory) An arbitrary framework or device for

Mishnah, authorities of: The authorities cited assisting the memory, e.g. the mnemonic, verses
in the Mishnah as rings in "golden chain" of summarizing the logically valid moods and fig-
the Jewish masorah (tradition) arc: ures of the syllogism. See J. M. Baldwin, Dic-
a. Sopherim (scribes) known also as Anshe tionary of Philosophy and Psychology, II, pp.
Keneseth Hagedolah (men of the great synod), 87-9. L.W.
beginning with Ezra of the Bible and terminat- Mo: Sometimes spelled Moh. (a)Mo Tzu. (b)
ing with Simeon the Just. Mohism. See Mo chta. (c) Followers of Mo
b. Five
Zugoth (duumviri) the last pair Tzu. See Mo che.W.T.C.
being the noted Hillel and Shamai. The former Mo che: Neo-Mohists, followers of Mo Tzu in
was according to E. Renan^ hypothesis, a
the third century B.C., probably organized as a
teacher of Jesus.
religious or fraternal order, who continued the
c. Tannaim (repeaters) They numbered utilitarian humanism of Mo
Tzu wrote the Mo
277 and are divided into 5 generations. In the
Ching (Mohist Canons) which now form part
first generation were men who still held office

in the temple of Jerusalem and witnessed its

of M o developed the
Tzu; seven .methods of
argumentation, namely, the methods of possi-
destruction (70 A.D.).
bility, hypothesis, imitation, comparison, paral-
The second generation counts the celebrated
lel, analogy, and induction; discovered the
Nasi Rabban Gamaliel II and R. Eliezer ben "method of agreement," which includes "iden-
Hyrcanus, excommunicated for opposing the rule tity,generic relationship, co-existence, and par-
of the majority, R. Ishmael who was held tialresemblance," the "method of difference,"
hostage in Rome, and R. Akiba, supporter of Bar which includes "duality, absence of generic re-
Koheba who suffered a martyr's death by the lationship, separateness, and dissimilarity, and 11

Romans, Elisha b. Abuiah, the heretic. the "joint method of differences and similari-
The third generation consisted of the disciples ties;" refuted the Sophists (pien che) theory of
of R. Ishmael and R. Akiba: R. Meir, Simeon diitinction of quality and substance; and be-
200 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
came the outstanding logical school in Chinese (c) In Spinoza: "that which exists in, and is
philosophy. W.T.C. conceived through, something other than itself."
Mo chia: The School of Mo Tzfi (Moh Tzu, Mo These modes are determinations of the infinite
Ti, between 500 and 396 B.C.) and his fol- Attributes of Divine Substance} of the attribute,
lowers. This utilitarian and scientific minded Thought, the two chief modes are intellect and
philosopher, whose doctrines are embodied in will) of the attribute, Extension, the chief modes
Mo T*u, advocated: (1) "benefit" (li), or the are motion and rest. These modes are nothing

promotion of general welfare and removal of apart from God's Substance; they are infinite
evil, through the increase of population and from one point of view (natura naturans) and
finite from another {natura naturata).
wealth, the elevation of conduct, the regulation
of benevolence and righteousness toward this (d) In Locke: the simple mode of an idea is
practical objective, the elimination of war, and
the manner of thinking in which one idea is
the suppression of wasteful musical events and taken several times over, e.g. a dozen; mixed
elaborate funerals; (2) "universal love" (chien modes of ideas are those types of ideation in
ai), or treating others, their families, and their
which various non-similar simple ideas are com-
countries as one's own, to the end that the bined by the mind so as to produce a complex
amount of benefit will be realized) idea which does not represent a substance: e.g.
greatest (3)
agreement with the superiors (shang t'ung), obligation, drunkenness.
(4) a method of reasoning which involves a (e) In statistics: see Mean. VJ.B.
foundation, a survey, and application (ean Moderate Realism: See Realism.
piao); (5) the belief in Heaven and the spirits Modus tollens: See Logic, formal, 2.
both as a religious sanction of governmental Moha: (Skr.) Distraction, perplexity, delusion,
measures and as an effective way of promotion beclouding of the mind rendering it unfit to
of peace and welfare. For the development of perceive the truth, generally explained as at-
his teachings by his followers, see Mo che. tachment to the phenomenal; in Buddhism,
W.T.C. ignorance, as a source of vice. K.F.L.
Modalism: (Lat. modus, mode) A
theological Mohammedanism: The commonly applied term
doctrine, of the second and third centuries A.D., in the Occident to the religion founded by Mo-
affirming the unity of substance and personality hammed. It sought to restore the indigenous
in God. The Son and the Holy Ghost are but monotheism of Arabia, Abraham's uncorrupted
"modes" of God the Father. Also known as religion. Its essential dogma is the belief in the
Monarchist^ adherents of this position were absolute unity of Allah. Its chief command-
Patripassians or Sabellians. VJ.B. ments are: profession of faith, ritual prayer, the
Modality: (Kant. Ger. Modalitat) Concerning payment of the alms tax, fasting and the pil-
the mode actuality, possibility or necessity in grimage. It has no real clerical caste, no church
which anything exists. Kant treated these as a organization, no liturgy, and rejects monastic-
priori categories or necessary conditions of ex- ism. Its ascetic attitude is expressed in warnings

perience, though in his formulation they are against woman, in prohibition of nudity and of
little more than definitions. See Kantianism. construction of splendid buildings except the
O.F.AT. house of worship; condemns economic specula-
Modality is the name given to certain classifica- tion; praises manual labor and poverty; pro-
tions of propositions which are either supple- hibits music, wine and pork, and the portrayal
mentary to the classification into true and false of living beings. H.H.
or intended to provided categories additional Mohism : See Mo
chia and Chinese philosophy.
to truth and falsehood namely to classifications Moksa: (Skr.) Liberation, salvation from the
of propositions as possible, problematical, and effects of karma (q.v.) and resulting samsdra
the like. See Strict implication, and Proposi- (q.v.). Theoretically, good karma as little as
tional calculus, Many-valued. evil karma can bring about liberation from the
Or, as in traditional logic, modality may refer state of existence looked upon pessimistically.
to a of propositions according to
classification Thus, Indian philosophy early found a solution
the kind of assertion which is contained rather in knowledge (vidyd, jndna) which, disclosing
than have the character of a truth-value. From the essential oneness of all in the metaphysical
this point of view propositions are classed as world-ground, declares the phenomenal world as
assertoric (in which something is asserted as mdyd (q.v.). Liberation is then equivalent to
true), problematic (in which something is as- identification of oneself with the ultimate real-
serted as fiossible), and apo deictic (in which ity, eternal, changeless, blissful, or in a state
something is asserted as necessary). A.C. of complete indifference either with or without

Mode: (Lat. modus, measure, standard, manner) loss of consciousness, but at any rate beyond

(a) In Augustinism: a measure imprinted upon good and evil, pleasure and pain. Divine grace
human minds by God, enabling man to know is also recognized by some religious systems as
what it good and true. effecting moksa. No generalization is possible
(b) In mediaeval Aristotelianism: a determi- regarding the many theories of moksa, its na-
nation of being-in-general to some limited con- ture, or the mode of attaining it. See Nirvana,

dition) also, in Non-Thomism, an en^itative Samddhi, Prasdda. K.F.L.

component of a composite being, as "union" is Molecule: A complex of atoms, which may be
called a mode combining matter and form in of the same kind or different. Thus there may
a thing (Olivi and Suarez). \ be molecules of elements and molecules which
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 201

are compounds. So far no single molecule has tributes nothing regeneration but
to its that
been synthesized larger than the wave length of this is the work of one factor, the Divine.

light so that it could be rendered visible. Mole- V.F.

cular aggregates, however, exist, which may be Monism: (Gr. mones, single) (a) Metaphysical:
looked upon in a sense as giant molecules visi- The view that there is but one fundamental
ble under the microscope. W.M.M. Reality j first used by Wolff. (A Universe.)
Monad: (Gr. Monds, a unit) 1. In Greek usage, Sometimes spoken of as Singularism. The classi-
originally number one. Later, any
the indi- cal ancient protagonist of an extreme monism
vidual or metaphysical unit. is Parmenides of Eleaj a modern exponent ii

2. Bruno named his metaphysical units mon- Spinoza. an example of a

Christian Science is

ads to distinguish them from the Democritean popular contemporary religion built on an ex-
atoms. The monads, centers of the world life, treme monistic theory of reality. Most meta-
are both psychic and spatial individuals. physical monists hold to a modified or soft
3. Leibniz (borrowing the term possibly from monistic theory (e.g. the metaphysics of Royce).
Augustine, Bruno or Protestant scholastics) iden- (b) Epistemological: The view that the real
tified the monads with the metaphysical indi- object and the idea of it (perception or con-
viduals or souls, conceived as unextended, active, ception) are one in the knowledge relation.
indivisible, naturally indestructible, Ideological (e.g. the school known as New Realism 5 ex-
substances ideally related in a system of pre- treme mystics.) V.F.
established harmony. Monism, neutral: The doctrine that regards
4. extension of Leibnizian usage, a soul,
By mind nor matter as ultimates. H.H.
neither
self, metaphysical unit, when conceived as pos- Mono-personalism: A term ascribed by Kohn-
sessing an autonomous life, and irrespective of stamm to Stern's doctrine of an impersonal-
the nature of its relations to beings beyond it. God. R.T.F.
W.L. Monosyllogism: See Poly syllogism.
Monadology: (also Monadism) The doctrine of Montague, William Pepperell: (1873-) Pro-
monads, the theory that the universe is a com- fessor of Philosophy at Columbia University.
posite of elementary units. monad may also A He was among the early leaders of the neo-
be a metaphysical unit. The notion of monad realist group. He developed views interpreting
can be found in Pythagoras, Ecphantus, Aris- consciousness, variation and heredity mechani- in

totle, Euclid, Augustine, et al. Plato refers to his cal terms. He has characterized his view as
ideas as monads. Nicolaus Cusanus regards in- animistic materialism. Among his best known
dividual things as units which mirror the world. works are: The Ways of Knowing or the Meth-
Giordano Bruno seems to have been the first to ods of Philosophy, Belief Unbound, A Prome-
have used the term in its modern connotation. thean Religion for the Modern World and his
God is called monas monadumj each monad, most recent, Knowledge, Nature and Value A
combining matter and form, is both corporeal Philosophy of Knowledge, Nature and Value.
and spiritual, a microcosm of the whole. But See Neo-Realism. L.E.D.
the real founder of monadology is Leibniz. To Montaigne, Michel De: (1533-1592) French
him, the monads are the real atoms of nature, novelist whose renowned Essays are famous for
the elements of things. The monad is a simple his tolerant study of himself and through him-
substance, completely different from a material self of mankind as a whole. He doubts the
atom. It has neither extension, nor shape, nor possibility of certain knowledge and recommends
divisibility. Nor perishable. Monads begin
is it a return to nature and revelation. He was a
to exist or cease to exist by a decree of God. keen observer of the frailties of human nature
They distinguished from one another in
are and has left among the essays crowned master-
character, they "have no windows" through pieces of insight and delight. L.E.D.
which anything can entere in or go out, that Montanism: A Christian movement dated about
is, the substance of the monad must be conceived the middle of the second century centering about
as force, as that which contains in itself the the teachings of the prophet Montanus and two
principle of its changes. The universe is the women, Prisca and Maximilla. They distin-
aggregate, the idealbond of the monads, con- guished between mortal and venial sins, prac-
stituting a harmonious unity, pre-established by ticed ascetic ideals and believed themselves to
God who the
highest in the hierarchy of
is possess the pure type of Christian living on the
monads. This bond of all things to each, en- authority of a special revelation from the Holy
ables every simple substance to have relations Spirit. The movement faded out about the 4th
which express all the others, every monad being century. Tertullian, famous Latin churchman,
a perpetual living mirror of the universe. The was for a time a member. V.F.
simple substance or monad, therefore, contains Montesquieu, Charles De Secondat: (1689-
a plurality of modifications and relations even
1755) French historian and writer in the field
though has no parts but is unity. The high-
it of politics. His Lettres persanes, thinly dis-
est monad, God, appears to be both the creator guise trenchant criticism of the decadence of
and the unified totality and harmony of self- French society through the letters of two Persian
active and self-subsistent monads. J.M. visitors. His masterpiece, L'Esprit des Lois,
Monadology, The New: Expression used by gives a political and social philosophy in point-
Renouvier for his type of personalism. R.T.F. ing the relation between the laws and the con-
.

Monergism : The view that the human will con- stitution of government. He finds a relation
202 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
between all laws in the laws of laws, the primarily to a few British moralists of the late
necessary relations derived from the nature of 17th and early 18th centuries, notably Shaftes-
things. In his analysis of the English constitu- bury and Hutcheson, who held the organ of
tion, he stressed the separation of powers in a ethical insight to be, not reason, but a special
manner that has had lasting influence though "moral sense," akin to feeling in nature.
based on historical inaccuracy. L.E.D. W.K.F.
Monumentally: Artistic character suggesting the Moral Virtues: (Gr. aretai ethikai) In Aris-
sense of grandeur, even though small in size. totle's philosophy those virtues, or excellences,
L.V. which consist in the habitual control of con-
Moods of the syllogism: See figure (syllogistic), duct by rational principle; as distinct from the
and logic, formal, 5. intellectual virtues, whose end is the knowledge
Moore, George Edward: (1873-) One of the of principles. See Aristotelianism; Dianoetic
leading English realists. Professor of Mental Virtues. G.R.M.
Philosophy and Logic at Cambridge. Editor of More, Paul Elmer: An American literary critic
"Mind." He has been a vigorous opponent of and philosopher (1364-1937), who after teach-
the idealistic tradition in metaphysics, epistemol- ing at Bryn Mawr and other colleges, edited
ogy and in ethics. His best known works are: The Nation for several years before retiring to

Principia Ethica, and

Philosophical
Belief in external things having the properties
they are normally experienced to have. Founder
of theory of epistemological mon-
neo-realistic
ism. See Neo-Reahsm. L.E.D.
Moral Argument for God: Basing the belief
upon the fact of man's moral nature which com-
pels him to make moral assertions about the
world and destiny. The argument assumes many
forms. Kant held, e.g., that the moral con-
sciousness of man is a priori and compels
willy nilly to assert three great affirmatives: his
freedom, immortality, and the existence and
high character of God. V.F.
Moral Judgment: (a) good or bad judgment in
moral matters, (b) any ethical judgment, espe-
cially judgments of good and bad, right, wrong,
and duty (see ethics). For Kant a moral judg-
ment or imperative is one which enjoins a
categorical imperative as contrasted with the
hypothetical imperatives of skill and prudence.
Moral Law: (in Kant's ethics) That formula
which expresses the necessity of an action done
from duty in terms of one's own reflection.
Moral Optimism: See Religious meliorism.
Moral Order: The phrase may refer to the order
or harmony which is often said to be an essen-
tial part of the good or virtuous life, but it is
generally used in such expressions as "the moral
order" or "belief in the existence of a moral
order," which refer either (a) to a conceived
transcendental order of what ought to be, an
intelligible moral universe or realm of values or
Studies. lecture Princeton University and write The
at
Greek Tradition, a series of books in which he
argues for orthodox Christianity on the basis of
the Platonic dualism of mind-body, matter-
spirit, God-man. In The Sceptical Approach to
Reltgion he gave his final position, as ethical
theism grounded on man's sense of the good
and consciousness of purpose, and validated by
the Incarnation of God in Christ. W.N.P.
More, Thomas: (1478-1535) Lord chancellor
him of England. One of the leading humanists
along with his friends Colet and Erasmus. He
was beheaded for his refusal to recognize the
king as the head of the church. In his classic,
Utopia, he has left a vision of an ideal state
in which war and all glories connected with it
were abhorrent. The prince and all magistrates
were elected. Nothing is private. All work and
all enjoyment are shared. There is no oppres-
sion, neither industrial nor religious. The work
gives no philosophical analysis of the nature of
W.K.F. the state, but merely an exposition of what the
author conceived to be and what we have since
come to call Utopian. L.E.D.
Mores: (Lat. mos, usage) Customs, Folkways,
-P.A.S. Conventions, Traditions. A.J.B.
Motion: (Lat. moveo, move) Difference in space.
Change of place. Erected into a universal prin-
ciple by Heraclitus. Denied as a possibility by
Parmenides and Zeno. Subdivided by Aristotle
into alteration or change in shape, and aug-
mentation or diminution or change in size. In
realism: exclusively a property of actuality.
J.K.F.
Motion: (in Scholasticism) The passing of a

ends, an a priori system of objective ethical subject from potency to act. H.G.
truth which somehow underlies this natural or Motivation: Designation of the totality of mo-
existential order as its basis or overarches it as tives operative in any given act of volition or
its pattern and law-giver, or (b) to a belief that of the mechanism of the operation of such mo-
there is a moral direction in the affairs of the tives. See Motive. L.W.
world.W.K.F. Motive: (Lat. motus, from movere, to move) An
Moral Philosophy: See Ethics. animal drive or desire which consciously or un-
Morals: The term is sometimes used as equivalent consciously operates as a determinant of an act
to "ethics." More used to desig-
frequently it is of volition. L.W.
nate the codes, conduct, and customs of indi- Mo Tzu: (Mo Ti, between 500 and 396 B.C.)
viduals or of groups, as when one speaks of the Founder of Mohism (Mo chia), studied Con-
morals of a person or of a people. Here it is fucianism, later repudiated it, especially its doc-
equivalent to the Greek word ethos and the trines of Fate and elaborate rituals. As a high
Latin mores. W.K.F. officer in the state of Sung (in present Honan,
Moral Sense School, The: 'The phrase refers most probably his native state) he "skillfully
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 203

carried out military defense and practiced econ- stood for free will and against divine predestina-
omy." He vigorously defended religious beliefs tion.
and practices, became the chief promoter, if not Mysticism: Mysticism in its simplest and most
the only founder, of religion in ancient China. essential meaning is a type of religion which
His pupils became an organized religious group, puts the emphasis on immediate awareness of
or possibly a society of people who had been relation with God, direct and intimate con-

punished with branding and had become slaves, sciousness of Divine Presence. It is religion in
which is what the word mo in one sense meant. its most intense and living stage. The
acute,
Mo Tzu (Eng. tr. by Y. P. Mei: The Ethical word owes origin to the Mystery Religions.
its

and Political Works Motse) contains his The initiate who had the "secret" was called a
of
teachings recorded by his followers. W.T.C. mystes. Early Christians used the word "Con-
Mou: The method of parallel in argumentation. templation" for mystical experience. The word
See Pien. W.T.C. "mystical" first came into use in the Western
Mukti: (Skr.) Liberation. Same as moksa (q.v.).
World in the writings ascribed to "Dionysius
K.F.L. the Areopagite", which appeared at the end of
the fifth century.
Multiple Inherence, Theory of: The view that
in can "Dionysius" used the word to express a type
qualities, secondary qualities particular
inhere in a triadic or
of "Theology" rather than an experience. For
multiple relationship.
him and for many interpreters since his day,
(Broad.) H.H.
Mysticism stands for a religious theory or sys-
Multiplicative axiom: See choice, axiom of.
tem, which conceives of God as absolutely trans-
Multiplicity: The doctrine of the plurality of
cendent, beyond reason, thought, intellect and
beings, or the manifoldness of the real, denied
all approaches of mind. The way up is a via
by the Eleatics, who contended that the multi-
negativa. It is
Agnostia, "unknowing knowing".
plicity of things was but an illusion of the
This type of Mysticism, which emerged from
senses, was defended by Aristotle who maintained
the Neo-Platonic stream of thought might be
that the term, being, is only a common predi- defined as Belief in the possibility of Union
cate of many things which become out of that
with the Divine by means of ecstatic contempla-
which is
relatively not-being by making the
tion.
transition from the potential to the actual.
The word, furthermore, has been loosely used
JJ.R.
for esoteric, gnostic, theosophical types of
Mundus intelligibilis: (Lat.) The world of in- not capable of verification. It
"knowledge",
telligiblerealities} Plato's realm of Ideas, or has been used, too, for the whole area of psychic
St.Augustine's rationes aeternae in the Divine
phenomena and occult happenings, borderland
Mind. Each species of things is represented here
phenomena. The result of this confusion has
by one, perfect exemplar, the pattern for the been that in scientific laboratories the word
many, imperfect copies in the world of sense. often connotes
mysticism spurious knowledge,
See Mundus sensibilis. V.J.B. occult lore or abnormal phenomena. The Ger-
Mundus sensibilis: (Lat.) The world of things mans use the word Mysticismus for this dubious
perceived by the human senses. In Platonism, type of knowledge and Mystik for the loftier

Neo-Platonism, Augustinism, and some Renais- types of experience.

sance thought (Ficino) this realm of sensible It is not historically sound to find the essentia
objects was regarded -as an imitation of the of Mysticism in ecstasy, or in a via negattva,
superior world intelligible realities. See or in some kind of esoteric knowledge, or in
of^
Mundus intelligibilis. V.J. B. mysterious "communications". The essentia of
Muni: (Skr.) A philosopher, sage, especially one Mysticism is the experience of direct communion
who has taken upon himself observance of sil- with God.
ence. K.F.L.
Henri Delacroix, Etude d'Histoire et de Psy-
Miinsterberg, Hugo: (1863-1916) German-born chologie du Mysticisme (Paris, 1908)) Baron
philosopher and psychologist, for many years pro- Friedrich von Hugel, The Mystical Element of
fessor of psychology at Harvard
University. One Religion (London, 1908)} Evelyn Underfill!,
of the advance guard of present Mysticism (London, 1911)} William James,
axiological de-
velopment, he is affiliated with the Ideological Varieties of Religious Experience (New York,
criticism stemming from Fichte, Agrees that pure 1902)} Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical
reason is endowed with a priori principles which Religion (London, 1909). R.M.J.
enable it to achieve objective super-individual Myth: (Gr. mythes, legend) The truth, symboli-
affirmations which transcend and which can cally, or affectively, presented. Originally, the
neither be confirmed nor denied by
psychological legends of the Gods concerning cosmogonical
investigation. Main works: Der Ursprung d. or cosmological questions. Later, a fiction pre-
Sittlichkeit, 1889} Beitrage z. Experim. Psychol., sented as historically true but lacking factual
1889-92} Psychol. u. Lehre, 1906} Philos. der basis a popular and traditional falsehood.
j
A
Werte, 1908 (Eng. tr. The External Values); presentation of cosmology, employing the
affec-

dundzuge d. Psycho technik, 1914. H.H. tive method of symbolic representation in order
Mutazilite: (Ar. seceders) Member of a Shiite to escape from the limitations of literal mean-
sect of Islam dating from the 8th century, which ing. J.K.F.

Na chia: The coordination and interlocking of
the Ten Celestial Stems with the Eight Ele-
ments (pa kua), to the end that the first Stem,
which is the embodiment of the active or male
cosmic force, and the second Stem, which is the
reservoir of the passive or female cosmic force,
gather in the center and the highest point in
the universe. Taoist religion.) W.T.C.
Naive Realism: The view of the
street. This view is an uncritical
external world and the ability to
Name: A word or symbol which denotes
nates) a particular thing is called a proper name
of that particular thing.
In English and other natural languages there
occur also common names (common nouns), such
a common name being thought of as if it could
serve as a name of anything belonging to a
specified class or having specified characteristics.
Underusual translations into symbolic notation,
common names are replaced by proper names
of classes or of class concepts 5 and this would
seem to provide the best logical analysis. In
actual Engliah usage, however, a common noun
is often more nearly like a variable
(q. v.) hav-
ing a specified range. A.C.
Name relation or meaning relation-. The relation
between a symbol (formula, word, phrase) and
that which it denotes or of which it is the
name.
Where a particular (interpreted) system does
not contain symbols for formulas, it may be
N
paradoxes would result (see paradoxes, logical).
The same can be said of the semantical name
relation in cases where symbols for formulas are
present.
Such systems may, however, contain partial
name relations which function as name relations
in the case of some but not all of the formulas
of the system (or of their associated Godel
man in the numbers).
belief in an In particular, it is normally possible at least
know it. it does not obviously lead to contradiction in
K.F. the case of such systems as the Zermelo set
(desig- theory or the simple theory of types (functional
calculus of order omega) with axiom of in-
finity to extend a system L\ into a system LI
(the semantics of L\ in the sense of Tarski),
so that L shall contain symbols for the formulas
of Li, and for the essential syntactical relations
between formulas of 1, and for a relation
which functions as a name relation as regards
all the formulas of Li (or, in the case of the
theory of types, one such relation for each type),
together with appropriate new primitive
for-
mulas. Then L 9 may be similarly extended into
and so on through a hierarchy of systems
Ls,
each including the preceding one ao a part.
Or, if Li contains symbols for positive in-
tegers, we may extend L\ into L by merely
adding a symbol for a relation which functions
as a numerical name relation as regards all
numbers of formulas of In (or one such relation
for each type) together with appropriate new
primitive formulas} and so on through
a hier-

archy of systems Li, L s> L 8,

desirable to employ Godel's device for associat-
ing (positive integral) numbers with formulas, See further Semantics j Semiotic 2\ Truth,
and to consider the relation between a number Semantical. A.C.
and that which the associated formula denotes. Nama-rupa: (Skr.) "Name and form", a stereo-
This we shall call the numerical name relation or its
typed formula for the phenomenal world,
and distinguish it from the relation between a conceptual and material aspects j also: "word
formula and that which it denotes by calling and beauty", as forms of manifestation. See
the latter the semantical name relation. Rupa.K.F.L.
In many (interpreted) logistic systems in- Nascency: (Lat. nascens, ppr. of nasci, to be born)
cluding such as contain, with their usual inter- A potency which is in process of actualization.
pretations, the Zermelo set theory, or the simple See Potency; Potentiality. The term may be
theory of types with axiom of infinity, or the applied generally to anything in process of com-
functional calculus of second order with addition ing into being but it is particularly appropriate
of Peano's postulates for arithmetic it is im- to psychological states and feelings. L.W.
possible without contradiction to introduce the Nascent: A term applied to a thing or a state of
numerical name relation with its natural prop- mind at an early stage of its development when
erties, because Grelling's paradox or similar it is as yet scarcely recognizable. See Nascency.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
The term, as applied by H. Spencer (Psychology,
195) to psychological states, foreshadowed the
later theory of the subconscious. See Subcon-
scious; L.W.
Latency.
Nastika: (Slcr.) "Not orthodox", not acknowl-
edging the authority of the Veda (s.v.). AT.F.L.
Nativism: Theory that mind has elements of
knowledge not derived from sensation.
to the common sense theory of T. Reid (1710-
1796) and the Scotch School. Introduced as a
term by Helmholtz (1821-1894) for the doc-
trine that there are inherited items in
knowledge which are, therefore,
every individual independently of his experi-
ence. The doctrine of innate ideas. Opposed to:
radical empiricism. See Transcendentalism.
J.K.F.
Natorp, Paul: (1854-1924) Collaborating with
Cohen, Natorp applied the transcendental method
to an interpretation of Plato, to psychology and
to the methodology of the exact sciences. Like
Cohen, Natorp really did not contribute to the
scientific development of critical philosophy but
prepared the way for philosophical mysticism.
Cf. Platos Ideenlehre f 1903} Kant
burger Sckult, 1915. J,K.
Natural: (in Scholasticism) As opposed to super-
natural, is that which belongs to (or is due to)
a thing according to its nature, as it is natural
to man to opposed to voluntary and
knowj as
free, it that which is done without the com-
is
mand and the advertence of the will, but of
nature's own accord, e.g. to sleep}
to chance, it is that which happens through
natural causes, as the falling of a stone. Some-
times it is used to refer to a physical body com-
posed of matter and form. H,G.
Natural election: The inherent desire of all
things for all other things in a certain order.
First employed bv Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
in a passage quoted by A. N. Whitehead (1861-)
from the Silva Silvarunt: "there is a kind
of election to embrace that which is agree-
able and to exclude or expel that which is in-
grate". First erected into a philosophical prin-
ciple by John Laird (1887-) in The Idea of
Value, following a suggestion in Montaigne's
Essays. Value, considered as a larger category
than human value, an ingredient of the natural
world but regarded without its affective
tent. Syn. with objective value, ,as independent
of the cognitive process. J.K.F.
Naturalism: Naturalism, challenging the cog-
ency of the cosmological, ideological, and moral
arguments, hoJds that the universe requires no
supernatural cause and government, but is self-
existent, self-explanatory, self-operating, and
self-directing; that the world-process is not
teleological and anthropocentric, but purposeless,
deterministic (except for possible tychistic
events), and only incidentally productive of
man; that human life, physical, mental, moral
and spiritual, is an ordinary natural event at-
tributable in all respects to the ordinary opera-
tions of nature; and that man's ethical values,
compulsions, activities, and restraints can be
justified on natural grounds, without
205
to supernatural sanctions, and his highest good
pursued and attained under natural conditions,
without expectation of a supernatural destiny.
B.A.G.F.
The which
general philosophical position
ha* as its fundamental tenet the proposi-
tion that the natural world is the whole* of
Similar reality. "Nature" and "natural world" are cer-
tainly ambiguous terms, but this much is clear:
in thus restricting reality, naturalism means to
assert that there is but one system or level of
human reality; that this system is the totally of objects
in each and and events in space and time; and that the
behavior of this system is determined only by its
own character and is reducible to a set of causal
laws. Nature is thus conceived as self-contained
and self-dependent, and from view springthis
certain negations that define to a great extent
the influence of naturalism. First, it is denied
that nature is derived from or dependent upon
any transcendent, supernatural entities. From
this follows the denial that the order of natural
events can be intruded upon. And this in turn
entails the denial of freedom, purpose, and
u. d. Mar- transcendent destiny.
Within the context of these views there is
evidently allowance for divergent doctrines, but
certain general tendencies can be noticed. The met-
aphysics of naturalism is always monistic and if
any teleological element is introduced it is emer-
gent. Man is viewed as coordinate with other parts
of nature, and naturalistic psychology emphasizes
as opposed the physical basis of human behavior; ideas and
ideals are
largely treated as artifacts, though
there disagreement as to the validity to be
is
assigned them. The axiology of naturalism can
leek its values only within the context of human
character and experience, and must ground these
values on individual self-realization or social
utility; though again there is disagreement as to
both the content and the final validity of the
values there discovered. Naturalistic epistemol-
ogies have varied between the extremes of ra-
tionalism and positivism, but they consistently
limit knowledge to natural events- and the rela-
tionships holding between them, and so direct
inquiry to a description and systematization of
what happens in nature. The beneficent task
that naturalism recurrently performs is that of
con- recalling attention from a blind absorption in
theory to a fresh consideration of the facts and
values exhibited in nature and life.
In aesthetics'. The general doctrine that the
proper study of art is nature. In this broad
sense, artistic naturalism is simply the thesis
that the artist's sole concern and function should
be to observe closely and
report clearly the
character and behavior of his physical environ-
ment. Similarly to philosophical naturalism,
aesthetic naturalism derives much of its impor-
tance from its denials and from the manner in
which it consequently restricts and directs art.
The artist should not seek any "hidden" reality
or essence; he should not attempt to correct or
complete nature by either idealizing or general-
izing; he should not impose value judgments
recourse upon nature; and he should not concern himself
206 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
with the selection "beautiful" subjects that
of there appeared in Europe a renewed interest in
will yield "aesthetic pleasure". He is simply to nature. Rationalism grown around the authori-
dissect and describe what he finds around him. ties of the Bible and Aristotle was challenged
Here, itimportant to notice explicitly a dis-
is and the right to investigate phenomena was
tinction between naturalism and romanticism claimed. Interest In nature was directed at first
(q.v.): romanticism emphames the felt quality toward the starry heaven and resulted in im-
of things, and the romanticist is primarily in- portant discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo and
terested in the experiences that nature will yield} Kepler. The scientific spirit of observation and
naturalism emphasizes the objective character of research had not yet matured, however, and the
things, and is interested in nature as an inde- philosophers of that time blended their interest
pendent entity. Thus, romanticism stresses the in facts with much loose speculation. Among
intervention of the artist upon nature, while the nature philosophers of that period three de-
naturalism seeks to reduce this to a minimum. serve to be mentioned specifically, Tele$io, Bruno
Specifically, naturalism usually refers to the and Campanella, all natives of Southern Italy.
doctrines and practices of the 1 9th century Despite his assertions that thought should be
school of which arose as the literary
realism guided by the observation of the external world,
analogue of positivism, and whose great mas- Bernardino Telesio (1508-1588) confined his
ters were Flaubert, Zola, and de Maupassant. works to reflections on the nature of things.
The fundamental dogma of the movement, as Particularly significant are twq of his doctrines,
expressed by Zola in "Le Roman experimental" first, that the universe must be described in
and "Les Romanciers naturalistes", states that terms of matter and force, the latter classified as
naturalism is "the scientific method applied to heat and cold, and second, that mind is akin to
literature". Zola maintains that the task of the matter. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), a Do-
artist is to report and explain \\hat happens in minican monk and a victim of the Inquisition,
nature, art must aim at a literal
transcript of was greatly influenced by the Copernican con-
reality, and the artist attains this by making an ception of the universe regarded by him as a
analytic study of character, motives, and be- harmonious unity of which the earth was but a
havior. Naturalism argues that all judgments small and not too important part. The concept
of good and bad are conventional, \vith no real of unity -was not a condition of human search
basis in nature, so art should seek to under- for truth but a real principle underlying all
stand, not to approve or condemn. Human be- things and expressing the harmonious order of
havior is regarded as largely a function of en- Divine wisdom. Deity, in his view, was the
vironment and circumstances, and the novelist soul of nature, operating both in the human
should exhibit these in detail, with no false minds and in the motion of bodies. Consequent-
idealizing of character, no glossing over of the ly, both living beings and material objects
ugly, and no appeal to supposed hidden forces. must be regarded as animated. Tomaso Cam-
/./. panella (1568-1639), another Dominican monk,
Naturalistic ethics: Any view according to was also persecuted for his teachings and spent
which ethics is an empirical science, natural or 27 years in prison. He contended that observa-
social, ethical notions being reduced to those of tions of nature were not dependent on the au-
of the natural sciences and ethical questions thority of reason and can be refuted only by
being answered wholly on basis of the findings other observations. His interests lay largely
of those sciences. W.K.F. along the lines previously suggested by Telesio,
Naturalistic fallacy, the: The procedure In- and much of his thought was devoted to prob-
volved in metaphysical and naturalistic systems lems of mind, consciousness and knowledge. He
of ethics, and said by G. E. Moore and his believed that all nature was permeated by latent
followers to be a fallacy, of deriving ethical awareness, and may therefore be regarded as an
conclusions from non-ethical premises or of de- animist or perhaps pantheist. Today, he is best
fining ethical notions in non-ethical terms. See known for his City of the Sun t an account of
Naturalistic f/Aus, Metaphysical ethics. W.K.F. an imaginary ideal state in which existed neither
Natural law: (in legjl philosophy) A "higher property nor nobility and in which all affairs
were administered scientifically. R.B.W.,
law" as opposed to the positive law of a state.
The rules of natural law were supposed to be Natural Realism: In epistemology, the doctrine
universally valid and therefore natural. They that sensation and
perception can be relied
are discoverable by reason alone (rationalism). upon to give indubitable evidence of the real
Natural law theories originated in ancient Greek existence of the external world. Theory that
philosophy. From the Renaissance on they were realism is part of the inherent common sense
used as an argument for liberal political doc- of mankind. First advanced by T. Reid (1710-
trines. There is a marked tendency in recent 1796) and held by his followers of the Scotch
legal philosophy to revive the natural law doc- school. Also known as the common-sense phi-
trine. W.E. losophy. See Realism. J.K.F.
Nature Philosophers: Name given to pre- Natural Selection: This is the corner stone of
Socratic "physiologers" and to Renaissance phi- the evolutionary hypothesis of Charles Darwin.
losophers who revived the study of physical He found great variation in and among types as
processes. Early in the 16th century, as a a result of his extensivebiological investiga-
result of the discovery of new lands, the tions and accounted for the modifications, not by
revival of maritime trade, and the Reformation, some act of special creation or supernatural in-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 207

teivention, but by the descent, generation after
generation, of modified species selected to sur-
vive and reproduce the more useful and the mote
successfully adapted to the
struggle for existence. He elaborated a corollary
to thisgeneral theory in his idea of sexual
selection. See Evolutionism, Charles Dartvtn,
Herbert Spencer. L.E.D.
Natural Theology: In general, natural theology
is a term used to
distinguish any theology based
upon the fundamental premise of the ability of
man to construct his theory of God and of the
world out of the framework of his own reason
and of reasonable probability from the so-called
"revealed theology" which presupposes that God
and divine purposes are not open to unaided
human understanding but rest
have such an internal source of change. Though
both matter and form are involved in the
changes of a natural being, its nature is ordi-
environmental narily identified with the form, as the active
and intelligible factor. (2) The sum total of
allnatural beings. See Artstotelianism. G.RM.
Nature "naturing": (Natura naturans; in
Scholasticism) God. Nature "natured" (Natura
natural a) is the complexus of all created things.
Sometimes nature is used for the essence of a
thing or for natural causes, and in this sense it
is said: nature does nothing in vain, for the
generation and birth of living beings, for sub-
stantial formj and for the effective or passive
principle of motion and rest. H.G.
Necessary: According to distinctions of modality
upon a super- (q. v.), a proposition is necessary if its truth is

natural and not wholly understandable basis. certifiable on a priorigrounds, or on purely

See Deism} Renaissance. During the 17th and logical grounds. Necessity is thus, as it were, a
18th centuries there were attempts to set up stronger kind of truth, to be distinguished from
a "natural religion" to which men might easily the contingent truth of a proposition which

give their assent and to offset the extravagant might have been otherwise. (As thus described,
claims of the supernaturalists and their harsh the notion is of course vague, but it may in
various ways be given an exact counterpart in
charges against doubters. The classical attempt
to make out a case for the sweet reasonableness one logistic system or another.)
of a divine purpose at work in the world of A
proposition may also be said to be neces-
nature was given by Paley in his Natural The- sary if it is a consequence of some accepted set
Traditional of propositions (indicated by the context), even
ology (1802). Catholicism, espe-
that of middle Ages developed
the late if this accepted set of propositions is not held to
cially
a kind of natural theology based upon the meta- be a priori. See Necessity.

physics of Aristotle. Descartes, Spinoza and

That a prepositional function F is necessary
Leibniz developed a more definite type of natu- may mean simply (x)F(x), or it may mean that
ral theology in their several constructions of (*)F(#) is necessary in one of the preceding
what now may well be called senses.A.C.
philosophical
theology wherein reason is made the guide. Necessary condition: F is a necessary condition
Natural theology has raised its head in recent of G if G(x) =>
F(x). F is a necessary and

times in attempts to combat the extravagant sufficient condition of G if G(x) = F(*).

declarations of theologians of human
pessimism. A.C.
The term, however, is unfortunate because it is Necessitarianism: (Lat. necessitas, necessity)
being widely acknowledged that so-called "re- Theory that every event in the universe is deter-
vealed theology" it* natural (recent psychological mined by logical or causal necessity. The theory
and studies) and that natural theology
social excludes both physical indeterminacy (chance)
need not deny to reason its possible character and psychical indeterminacy (freedom). Neces-
as the bearer of an immanent divine revelation. sitarianism, as a theory of cosmic necessity, be-
V.F. comes in its special application to the human
Nature: A highly ambiguous term, of which the will, determinism. See Determinism. L.W.
following meanings are distinguished by A. O. Necessity: A state of affairs is said to be neces-

Lovejoy: sary cannot be otherwise than it is. In-

if it

1. The objective as opposed to the subjective. asmuch as the grounds of an assertion of this
2. An objective standard for values as op- kind may in general be one of three very dis-
posed to custom, law, convention. tinct kinds, it is customary and valuable to dis-

3. The general cosmic order/ usually con- tinguish the three types of necessity affirmed at
reived as divinely ordained, in contrast to (1) logical or mathematical necessity, (2) physi-
human deviations from this. cal necessity, and (3) moral necessity. The
4. That which exists apart from and unin- distinction between these three was first worked
fluenced by man, in contrast with art. out with precision by Leibniz in his Theodicee.
5. The
instinctive or spontaneous behavior of Logical, physical, and moral necessity are
man at opposed to the intellective. founded in logical, physical, and moral lawt
Various normative meanings are read into respectively. Anything is logically necessary the
these, with the result that the "natural" is held denial of which would violate a law of logic.
to be better than the "artificial", the "unnatu- Thus in ordinary commutative algebra the im-
ral", the "conventional" or customary, the in- plication from the postulates to ab-ba is logi-
tellectual or deliberate, the subjective. G.B. cally necessary, since its denial would violate a
In Aristotle's philosophy. (1) the internal logical law (viz. the commutative rule) of this
tource of change or rest in an object as such, system.
in distinction from art, which is an external Similarly, physically necessary things are
tource of change. Natural beings are those that those whose denial would violate a physical or
208 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
natural law. The orbits of the planets are said Neo-Conf ucianism : See Li hsiieh and Chinese
to be
physically necessary. Circular orbits for philosophy.
the planets are logically possible, but not physi- Neo-Criticism : The designation of his philoso-
cally possible, so long as certain physical laws phy used by Cournot, and in the early stage. of
of motion remain true. Physical necessity is his thought by Renouvier, who later changed
also referred to as "causal" necessity. to Personalism as the more fitting title. See
As moral laws differ widely from logical and also Monadology, The New. R.T.F.
physical laws, the type of necessity which they Neo-Hegelianism: The name given to the re-

generate is considerably different from the two vival Hegelian philosophy which began
of the
in Scotland and England about the middle of
types previous defined. Moral necessity is illus-
trated in the necessity of an obligation. Fulfill- the nineteenth century and a little later extended
ment of the obligation is morally necessary in to America. Outstanding representatives of the
the sense that the failure to fulfill it would movement in England and Scotland are J. H.
violate a moral law, where this law is regarded Stirling, John and Edward Caird, T. H. Green
asembodying some recognized value. If it is (perhaps more under the influence of Kant),
admitted that values are relative to individuals F. H. Bradley, B. Bosanquet, R. B. Haldane,
and societies, then the laws embodying these J. E. McTaggart and, in America, W. T. Har-
values will be similarly relative, and likewise ris and Josiah Royce. Throughout, the repre-
the type of thing which these laws will render sentatives remained indifferent to the formal

morally necessary. aspects of Hegel's dialectic and subscribed only

While these three types of necessity are gen- to its spirit what Hegel himself described as
erally recognized by philosophers, the weighting "the power of negation" and what Bosanquet
of the distinctions is a matter of considerable named the argumentum a contingentia mundi.

divergence of view. Those who hold that the G.W.C.

distinctions are all radical, sharply distinguish Neo-Idealism : given un-
Primarily a name
between logical statements, statements of fact, officially to the Italian school of neo-Hegelianism
and so-called ethical or value statements. On headed by Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gen-
the other hand, the attempt to establish an a tile, founded on a basic distinction that it pro-

priori ethicsmay be regarded as an attempt to poses between two kinds of "concrete universals"
reduce moral necessity to logical necessity; while (s.v.). In addition to the Hegelian concrete uni-
the attempt to derive ethical evaluations from versal, conceived as a dialectical synthesis of
the statements of science, e.g. from biology, is two abstract opposites, is posited a second type
an attempt to reduce moral necessity to physical in which the component elements are "concretes"
or causal necessity. F.L.W. rather than dialectical abstracts, i.e. possess rela-
Negation: The act of denying a proposition tive mutual independence and lack the character-
as contrasted with the act of affirming it. The istic of logical opposition. The living forms of
affirmation of a proposition p, justifies the nega- Mind, both theoretical and practical, are uni-
tion of its contradictory, p' } and the nega- versal in this latter sense. This implies that fine
tion of p justifies the affirmation of p'. Con- art, utility, and ethics do not comprise a dia-
trariwise the affirmation of p' justifies the lectical series with philosophy at their head,
negation of p and the negation of p' justifies i.e.they are not inferior forms of metaphysics.
the affirmation of p. C.A.B. Thus neo-Idealism rejects Hegel's panlogism. It
Thenegation of a proposition p is the also repudiates his doctrine of the relative inde-
proposition ~p
(see Logic, formal, 1 ). The ne-
pendence of Nature, the timeless transcendence
gation of a monadic prepositional function F is of the Absolute with respect to the historical
the monadic prepositional function \*[''F(;r)] , process, and the view that at any point of his-
similarly for dyadic prepositional functions, etc. tory a logically final embodiment of the Absolute
Or the word negation may be used in a syn- Idea is achieved. W.L.
tactical sense, so that the negation of a sentence Neo-intuitionism : See Intuitionism.
(formula) A is the sentence ~A. A. C. Neo-Kantianism : A group of Kantian followers
Negative proposition See affirmative proposition.
:
who regard the thing-in-itself or noumenal
Negative Sensation: Term used by Wundt to world as a limiting concept rather than, as did
designate sensations produced by stimuli below Kant, an existent, though unknowable realm.
the threshold of positive sensation. See Limits
Reality is for the Neo-Kantians a construct of
of Sensation. The term has
largely been dis- mind, not another realm. Even Kant's noumenal
carded because the existence of such sensations is world is mind. The phenomenal
a construct of
now generally denied. L.W. world is and it is the realm of ideas.
the real
Nei sheng: Often used as referring to the man Hence Neo-Kantianism is a form of idealism.
who attained to complete self-cultivation, sage- Hermann Cohen, a Neo-Kantian, spoke of the
hood. (Confucius.) H.H. world as the creative act of thought. This
Nei tan: Internal alchemy, as a means of nour- idealism is sometimes termed "positivistic."
ishing life, attaining Tao and immortality, in- V.F.
cluding an elaborate system of breathing tech- Neology: Literally, the introduction of new words
nique, diet, and the art of preserving unity of or new meanings. In theology the neologist is
thought (tsun i, tsiin hsiang, tsiin ssu). Also the heretic who introduces a new doctrine. In
called t'ai hsi. For external alchemy, see Wai the latter sense, the rationalist was called a
tan. (Taoist religion.) W.T.C. neologist by the traditional theologian. V.F.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 209

Neo-Mohism: See Mo che and Chine te -philoso- from the beginning of the twentieth century,
phy. It began as a movement of reaction against the
Neo-Platonism : New Platonism, i.e. a school of wide influence of idealistic metaphysics. Where-
philosophy established perhaps by Ammoniui as the idealists reduce everything to mind, this
Saccus in the second century A.D., in Alexandria, school reduced mind to everything. For the
ending- as a formal school with Proclus in the New Realists Nature is basic and mind is part
fifth century. See Plotinism. VJ.B. and parcel of it. How nature was conceived
Neo-Pythagoreanism ; A school of thought initi- (whether materialistic, neutralists, etc.) was not
ated in Alexandria, according to Cicero, by the important factor. New Realists differed here
Nigidius Figulus, a Roman philosopher who died among themselves. Their theory of knowledge
in 45 B.C. It was compounded of traditional was strictly monistic, the subject and object are
Pythagorean teachings, various Platonic, Aris- one since there is no fundamental dualism.
totelian and Stoic doctrines, including some mys- Two schools of New Realists are recognized:
tical and theosophical elements. JJ.R. (a) English New Realists: Less radical in
Neo-Scholasticism : See Scholasticism. that mind was given a status of its own char-
Nescience: (Lat. nesciens, ignorant) A state of acter although a part of its objective environ-
ignorance such as is professed by the agnostic. ment. Among distinguished representatives
See Agnosticism. L.W. were; G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, S. Alex-
Nestorians : A Christian sect dating from the 5th ander, T. P. Nunn, A. Wolf, G. F. Stout.
century. Nestorius, a patriarch of Constantinople (b) American New Realists: More radical in
428-431) opposed the designation "Mother of that mind tended to lose its special status in
God" (a declaration of Origen's) applied to the order of things. In psychology this school
Mary, the mother of Jesus. He said that Christ moved toward behaviorism. In philosophy they
had two distinct natures and that Mary, a were extreme pan-objectivists. Distinguished
human being, could not have delivered anyone representatives: F. J. E. Woodbridge, G. S.
but a human. The emphasis is upon the genuine Fullerton, E. B. McGilvary and six platformists
human nature and the exemplary value of (so-called because of their collaboration in a
Christ. Nestorianism was not only a Christo- volume The New
Reahsm, published 1912):
logical viewpoint and the only cause for much E. B. Holt, W. T. Marvin, W. P. Montague,
theological dispute} it was also a part of a R. B. Perry, W. B. Pitkin, E. G. Spaulding.
political and ecclesiastical feud between bishops The American New Realists agreed on a gen-
east and west. The council of Ephesus in 431 eral platform but differed greatly among them-
declared the view heretical. Nevertheless the selves as to theories of reality and particular
Nestorian churches spread widely and continues questions. V.F.
until our present time in Asiatic
Turkey and Newton's Method : The method
of procedure in
Persia. V.F. natural philosophyformulated by Sir Isaac
as
Neti, neti: (Skr.) "Not this, not that", famous Newton, Rules of Reasoning in
especially in his
passage in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6 Philosophy (Mathematical Principles of Natural
et al. loc., giving answer to
questions as to the Philosophy, Book III). These rules are as fol-
nature of brahman (q. v.), thus hinting its in- lows: "I. We are to admit no more causes of
definability. KlF.L. natural things than such as are both true and
Neutralism: A type of monism which holds that sufficient to explain their
appearances. II. There-
reality is neither mind nor matter but a single fore to the same natural effects we
must, as. far
kind of stuff of which mind and matter are but as possible, assign the same causes. III. The
appearances or aspects. Spinoza is the classical qualities of bodies, which admit neither inten-
representative. H.H. sion nor remission of degrees, and which are
Neutral Monism: Theory of American New found to belong to all bodies within the reach
Realism, derived from W. James essay "Does of our experiments, are to be esteemed the uni-
Consciousness Exist?", Journal of Philosophy, versal qualities of all bodies whatsoever. IV. In
1904, which reduces the mental as well as physi- experimental philosophy we are to look upon
cal to relations among neutral entities (i.e. propositions collected by general induction from
entitieswhich are in themselves neither mental phaenomena as accurately or
very nearly true,
nor physical). The theory is qualitatively monis-
notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses that
tic in its admission of
only one kind of ulti- may be imagined, till such time as other phae-
mate reality viz. neutral or subsistent entities nomena occur, by which they may either be made
but is numerically pluralistic in acknowledging a more accurate, or liable to exceptions". To this
multiplicity of independent reals. L.W. passage should be
appended another statement
New Academy: Name commonly given to what from the closing pages of the same work: "I do
is also called the Third Academy, started by not make hypotheses } for whatever is not de-
Carneades (214-129 B.C.) who substituted a duced from the phaenomena is to be called an
theory of probability for the principle of doubt hypothesis) and hypotheses, whether metaphysical
which had been introduced into Plato's School or physical, whether of occult qualities or me-
by Arcesilaus, the originator of the Second or chanical, have no place in experimental philoso-
Middle Academy. The Academy later veered A.C.B.
phy."
toward eclecticism and eventually was merged Ntcht-Ich: (Ger. non-ego) Anything which it
with Neo-Platonitm. JJ.R. not the subjective self. Fichte accounted for
New Realism: A school of thought which dates the not-self in terms of the ontologically posited
210 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
objective lelf. Theis not-self the external, nothing} a negative statement of the principle
outer world opposed to the ego. H.H. of sufficient reason. VJ.B.
Nicolai, Friedrich: one of
(1733-1811) Was Nihilism: The doctrine that nothing, or nothing
the followers of Leibniz-Wolffian school which of a specified and very general class, exists, or
developed an eclectic reconciliation of rational- is knowable, or is valuable. Thus Gorgias held
ism and empiricism in a popular form that that (1) Nothing exists (2) Even if something
j

served to lay a foundation for the Kantian criti- did exist it could not be known, (3) Even if it
cal philosophy. L.E.D. were known this knowledge could not be com-
Nicomachus: Of Gcrasa in Arabia, a Neo-Py- municated. Schopenhauer's pessimism and denial
thagorean (q.v.) philosopher of the second cen- of the Will expresses a nihilistic attitude toward
tury. M.F. the so-called values of the world. As a social
Nidra: (Skr.) Sleep, In Indian philosophy, par- doctrine Nihilism is the belief that progress is

ticularly the Yoga (s.v.), not considered void possible only through the destruction of all social
of mental activity. K.F.L. and political organizations. See Anarchism.
Nietzsche, Friedrich: (1844-1900) Nietzsche's C.A.B.
discovery and description of "resentment", to Nihilism, ethical: The denial of the validity of
mention only one of his major achievements, all distinctions of moral value. As this position
stamps him as one of the philosophical psy- involves in effect the denial of possibility of all
chologists of the last century. His critique of the ethical philosophy, it has seldom been taken by
antiquated and false values of the educated mid- philosophers. In the history of thought, how-
dle class led pre-war generations to the pursuit
ever, a less pure ethical nihilism sometimes
of anethics of more realistic ideals. See Super-
appears as an intermediate stage in a philosophy
man. which wishes to deny the validity of all previ-
He was the first to recognize a fundamental
ous systems of value as a preliminary to sub-
critical between the philosopher and
difference new one in their places. F.L.W.
stituting a
the scientist. He
found those genuine ideals in Nimbarka: An Indian thinker and theologian of
the pre-Socratic period of Greek culture which the 12th century A.D., of Vedantic (q.v.),
he regarded as essential standards for the deep- Vishnuite persuasion, who assumed the world
ening of individuality and real culture in the and the human soul to be essentially and eter-
deepest sense, towards which the special and nally different from Vishnu, yet constituting a
natural sciences, and professional or academic certain unity with him because of complete de-
philosophers failed to contribute. Nietzsche K.F.L.
pendence.
wanted the philosopher to be prophetic, originally
Nirguna: (Skr.) "Devoid of qualities" (cf. guna) y
forward-looking in the clarification of the prob-
predicated as early as the Upanishads (q.v.) of
lem of existence. on a comprehensive
Based the Absolute as its in-it-self aspect (cf. saguna).
critique of the history of Western civilization, The highest reality is conceived to be of such
that the highest values in religion, morals and such transcendence that it has no part
fulness,
philosophy have begun to lose their power, his in the manifold of the phenomenal which is
philosophy gradually assumed the will to power, mere tnaya (q.v.) in Ankara's (q.v.) philosophy
self-aggrandizement, as the all-embracing prin- in so far as it is esoteric. K.F.L.
ciple in inorganic and organic nature, in the Nirvana: (Skr. blown out) The complete extinc-
development of the mind, in the individual and tion of individuality, without loss of conscious-
in society. More interested in developing a ness, in the beatific rejoining of the liberated
philosophy of life than a system of academic with the metaphysical world-ground. A term
philosophy, his view is that only that life is used principally by Buddhists though denoting a
worth living which develops the strength and state the attainment of which has been coun-
integrity to withstand the unavoidable sufferings selled from the Upanishads (q.v.) on as the
and misfortunes of existence without flying into summum bo num. It is invariably defined as a
an imaginary world. condition in which all pain, suffering, mental
His major works are: Thus Spake Zarathustra, anguish and, above all, samsdra (q.v.) have
Beyond Good and Evil, and Genealogy of ceased. It is doubtful that complete extinction
Morals. H.H. of life and consciousness or absolute annihila-
Nihil est in intellect!! quod non prius fuerit tion is meant. K.F.L.
in sensu: (Lat.) Nothing is in the intellect Nisus: The creative principle of emergent evolu-
which was not first in sense. All the materials, tion.See Emergent Evolution. R.B.W.
or content, of higher, intellectual cognition are Nitya-vada: (Skr.) The Vedantic (q.v.) theory
derived from the activity of lower, sense cogni- (vdda) which asserts that reality is eternal
tion. A principle subscribed to by Aristotle, St. (nitya),change being unreal. K.F.L.
Thomas and Locke; opposed by Plato, St. Au- Niyama: (Skr.) The imposing on oneself of good
gustine and Leibniz (who qualified the proposi- and kind habits, including bathing, eating clean
tion by adding: nisi intellectus ipse, i.e. except food, steeling the body, contentedness, cheer-
for what is already present as part of the in- fulness, study, and piety. K.F.L.
nate nature of the intellect, thus making it pos- Noema: (Ger. Noema) In Husserl:
objective The
sible for Kant to suggest that certain forms of sense of a noesis, together with the character
sensibility and reason are prior to sense experi- of the sense as posited in a certain manner, as
ence). VJ.B. given or emptily intended in a certain manner,
Nihil ex nihilo: (Lat.) Nothing comes from etc. For every dimension of the noesis there is
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 211
a
corresponding- dimension of the noema. See within the limits allowed by Church
dogma. In
note under noesis. D.C. the first frankly nominalistic
system Occam dis-
Noematic: (Ger. noematisch) In Husserl: Of or tinguished between the real and the grammatical
pertaining to noema. Noematic sense: see Sense. meanings of terms or universal. He assigned
D.C. a real status to universals in the
mind, and thus
Noesis: (Gr. Noesia) In Husserl: 1. That was the first to see that nominalism can have a
current in the stream of consciousness which is as well as an objective aspect. He
subjective
intrinsically intentional in that it points to an maintained to our intellects, however,
that
object as beyond itself. The noesis animates everything real must be some particular indi-
the intrinsically non-intentional hyletic current vidual thing. After Occam, nominalism as an
in the stream. (See Hyle). 2.
particular in- A explicitly held doctrine
disappeared until re-
stance of the ego cogito. Note. In HusserPs cently, when has been restated in certain
it

usage, noesis and noema are very rarely re- branches of Logical Positivism. J.K.F,
stricted to the sphere of or "in-
"thinking" Non-Being: (1) Non-existence or the non-exist-
tellect" (however defined) but are rather ex- ent; absence or privation of existence or the
tended to all kinds of consciousness. D.C. existent; (2) absence of determinateness or what
In Greek philosophers. The exercise of is thus indeterminate j
nous, (3) unreality or the un-
or reason, the activity of intellectual apprehen- real either lack of any reality or what is so
sion and intuitive thought. See Nous} Arts- lacking (absence, negation, or privation of real-
toteltantsm. G.R.M. ity)* or lack of a particular kind of reality or
Noetic: The character some entities have due to what is so lacking j otherness or existents of
their resulting from the activity of nous or another order of reality than a specified type*
reason. Thus those concepts which are non- failure to the defining criteria of some
fulfill
sensuous and non-empirical but are conceived what
by category, or so fails 5 (4) a category en-
reason alone arc noetic, the noetic
aspects of compassing any of the above. Confusion of non-
reality are those which are knowable reason. by existence and unreality renders paradoxical the
In a more general sense, "noetic" is equivalent question whether non-being is. Af.T.K.
to "cognitive". C.A.B. Non causa pro causa, or false cause, is the
(Ger. noetisch) In "Husserl. Of or per- fallacy, incident to the method of proof by
taining to noesis. See note under noesis. D.C. reductio ad absurdum (q. v.), when a contradic-
Nolition: (Lat. noio, I am The state tion has been deduced from a number of assump-
unwilling)
or act of negative volition. VJ.B. of inferring the negation of one of the
tions,
Nominal :
Having to
with names, nouns, do assumptions,, say M, where actually it is one or
words, or symbols rather than with that which more of the other assumptions which arc false
would ordinarily be regarded as and the contradiction could have been deduced
symbolized by
these verbal forms. See Nominalism. without use of M. This fallacy was
C.A.B.
committed,
Nominalism: (Lat. nominalis, belonging to a e.g., by Burali-Forti in his paper of 1897 (see
name) In scholastic philosophy, the
theory that Paradoxes , logical} when he inferred the exist-
abstract or general terms, or universal, ence of ordinal numbers a, b such that a is
repre-
sent no objective real neither less than, equal to, nor
existents, but are mere greater than b,
words or names', mere vocal
utterances, "flatus upon having deduced what is now known as
vocts". Reality is admitted only to actual physi- Burali-Forti's paradox from the
cal
contrary assump-
particulars. Universal exist only post res. tion: he had used without
question the assump-
Opposite
of Reahsm (q.v.) which main- tion that there is a class of all ordinal
numbers,
tains that universal exist ante res. First sug-
gested by Boethius in his 6th Latin Non-centre theory: Ascribes the unity of mind
century
translation of the Introduction to the to the fact a number of
Categories contemporary mental
(of Aristotle) by Porphyry (A.D. events are directly interrelated in certain char-
233-304).
Porphyry had raised the question of how Aris- acteristic ways. (Broad). H.H.
totle was to be interpreted on this score, and
Non-contradiction, law of: Same as Contradic-
had decided the question in favor of what was
tion, law of (q. v.). A.C.
later called nominalism. The doctrine did not
Non-ego: The outer world that has no inde-
receive any prominence until
applied to the pendent self-existence. (Fichte). H.H.
Sacrament of the Eucharist by Berengar in the Non-Euclidean geometry: Euclid's postulates
11th century. Berengar was the first scholastic for geometry included one, the parallel postulate,
to insist upon the evidence of his senses when which was regarded from earliest times (perhaps
examining the nature of the Eucharist. Shortly even by Euclid himself) as less satisfactory than
after, Roscellinus, who had broadened the doc- the others. This may be stated as follows (not
trine to the denial of the of all uni- Euclid's original form but an equivalent one):
reality
versals and the assertion of the sole reality of P
Through a given point not on a given lint I
physical particulars, was forced by the Council there passes at most one line, in the
plant of
of Soisaons to recant. P and l t which does not intersect I. Here "line"
Thereafter, despite Abe-
lard's unsuccessful means a straight line extended infinitely in both
attempt to reconcile the doc-
trine with realism by
finding a half-way position directions (not a line segment).
between the two, nominalism was not
again Attempts to prove the parallel postulate from
explicitly held until William of Occam (1280- the other postulates of Euclidean geometry
1349) revived it and attempted to defend it were unsuccessful. The undertaking of Saccheri
212 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
(1733) to make a proof by reductio ad absurdum identified with Aristotle's fallacy of the con-
of theparallel postulate by deducing conse- sequent, which includes the two fallacies of
quences of its negation did, however, lead to his denial of the antecedent (q. v.) and affirmation
developing many of the theorems of what is of the consequent (q. v.). A. C.
now known as hyperbolic geometry. The pro- Noology: (Gr. nous, Mind) logos, Science) A
posal that this hyperbolic geometry, in which term variously used, but without common accept-
Euclid's parallel postulate is replaced by its the science of mind or of noetic
ance,' for its

negation, is a system equally valid with the function. According to several

century 17th
Euclidean originated with Bolyai and Lobachev- German writers (Colovius, Mejerus, Wagnerus,
sky (independently, c. 1825). Proof of the self- Zeidlerus) it is the science of the first principles
consistency of hyperbolic geometry, and thus of of knowledge. Crusius identified it with psy-
the impossibility of Saccheri's undertaking, is
chology. According to Kant it is the rational-
contained in results of Cayley (1859) and was For Bentham
istic theory of innate ideas.
made explicit by Klein in 1871} for the two- a synonym of
"noological" is logical. Noology
dimensional case another proof was given by is the field of mental science in which the will
Beltrami in 1868. does not function in the production of mental
The name non-Euclidean geometry is applied events} that branch of psychology concerned with
to hyperbolic geometry and generally to any the field of purely mental change. For Hamil-
system in which one or more postulates of ton it is the science of the noetic, i.e. the func-
Euclidean geometry are replaced by contfary as- tion and content of intellectual intuition or pure
sumptions. (But geometries of more than three reason. Eucken distinguished noological method
dimensions, if they otherwise follow the postu- from the psychological and cosmological. Its
lates of Euclid, are not ordinarily called non- object is the Spiritual Life, i.e. the source of
Euclidean.) Reality, and the self-contained goal in which
Closely related to the hyperbolic geometry is man participates. For H. Gomperz it is the
the elliptic geometry, which was introduced by science that mediates between logic and psy-
Klein on the basis of ideas of Riemann. In this chology. W.L.
geometry lines are of finite total length and Norm: (Lat. norma, rule) (a) General: Stand-
closed, and every two coplanar lines intersect in ard for measure. Pattern. Type, (b) In ethics:
a unique point. Standard for proper conduct. Rule for right
Still other non-Euclidean geometries are given action, (c) In axiology: Standard for judging
an actual application to physical space or value or evaluation, (d) In aesthetics: Stand-
rather, space-time in the General Theory of ard for judging beauty or art. Basis for criti-
Relativity. cism, (e) In logic: Rule for valid inference,
Contemporary ideas concerning the abstract (f) In psychology: Class average test icore.
nature of mathematics (q. v.) and the status of AJ.B.
applied geometry have important historical roots Normative: normatus, pp. of normo,
(Lat.
in the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries. square) Constituting a standard) regulative.
A. C. Having to do with an established ideal. In
G. Saccheri, Euclides Vindtcatus, translated into method: concerning those sciences
scientific
English by G. B. Halsted Chicago and London,
1920. H. P. Manning, Non-Euclt4ean Geometry, which have subject-matters containing values,
1901. J. L. Coolidge, The Elements of Non- and which set up norms or rules of conduct,
Euclidean Geometry, Oxford. 1909. such as The ideal
ethics, aesthetics, politics.
Non-Naturalistic ethics: Any ethical theory formulation of any science. Opposite of: empiri-
which holds that ethical properties or relations cal. 7.AT.F.
are non-natural. See Non-natural properties, Nota notae est nota rei ipsius: (Lat.) That
Inluitionism.W.K.F. which within the comprehension of a
falls
Non-Natural Properties: A notion which plays "note", i.e. a known component of a thing,
an important part in recent intuitionistic ethics. also falls within the comprehension of the
thing)
A non-natural property is one which is neither an attempted formulation of the supreme prin-
natural, as yellow and pleasantness are, nor ciple of syllogistic reasoning on the basis of
metaphysical, as absoluteness and being com- comprehension rather than extension) Kant is
manded by God are. It is,then, a property said to have offered this principle in place of
which is apprehended, not by sensation or by the famous extensivist rule, the dictum de omni
introspection, but in some other way, and which et nullo (q.v.). -F./.J.
is somehow non-descriptive, non-expository, or Notations, logical : There follows a list of some
non-existential. It is also said sometimes, e.g. of the logical symbols and notations found in
by G. E. Moore and W. D. Ross, to be a contemporary usage. In each case the notation
consequential property, i.e. a property which a employed in articles in this dictionary is given
thing has in virtue of its having another prop- first, afterwards alternative notations, if any.
erty, as when an experience is good in virtue of PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS (see Logic, formal,
being pleasant. See Intuitionism. W.K.F. 1, and strict implication)'.
Non sequitur is any fallacy which has not even pq, the conjunction of p and q, "p and 4J?
the deceptive appearance of valid reasoning, or Instead of simple juxtaposition of the preposi-
in which there is a complete lack of connection tional symbols, a dot is sometime! written be-
between the premisses advanced and the conclu- tween, as p*q. Or the common abbreviation for
sion drawn. By some, however, non sequitur is and may be employed as a logical symbol, p ft q.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 213

Or an inverted letter v, usually from a gothic times, however, the usage is that a
c b {"a is

font, may be used. In the Lukasiewicz notation a proper subclass of b") does exclude that a
for the prepositional calculus, which avoids ne- b; andthat case another notation is used
in
cessity for parentheses, the conjunction of p and when not meant that a
it is b is excluded, the =
9 i Kpq. sign being either surcharged upon the sign
p v q, the inclusive disjunction of p and q, c or written below it (or a single horizontal
"p or q." Frequently the letter v is from a line below the c may take the place of =).

gothic font. In the Lukasiewicz notation, Apq 3 \a, "the class a is not empty [has at least
is employed. one member]," or, "a's exist."
~p t the negation of p, "not ." Instead of
ix, or 'x, or [x] the unit class of x, i.e.,

~, a dash may be used, written either before the class whose single member is x.
the prepositional symbol or above it. Heyting
V, the universal class. Where the algebra of
adds a short downward stroke at the right end classes is treated in isolation, the digit 1 is
of the dash (a notation which has come to be often used for the universal class.
associated particularly with the intuitionistic Where
A, the null or empty class. the algebra
prepositional calculus and the intuitionistic con-' of classes is treated in isolation, the digit is
cept of negation). Also employed is an accent often used.
after the
prepositional symbol (but this more
a, the complement of a, or class of non-
usual a notation for the complement of a
as
members of the class a. An alternative notation
class). In the Lukasiewicz notation, the nega-
is a'.
tion of p is Np.
=> a ^ b, the
sum, or union, of the
logical
p q, the material implication of q by p t
"if p then q." Also employed is a horizontal
classes a and
Alternative notation, a
b. b. +
- The Lukasiewicz notation is a A, the logical product, or intersection, or
arrow, p q.
common part, of the classes a and b. Alternative
Cpq.
p = equivalence of p and q,
q, the material notation, ab.
Another notation which
and only RELATIONS (see Relation, and Logic, formal,
"p if if q."
has sometimes been employed is p 3 c q. Other 8) (where a notation used in connection with
notations are a double horizontal arrow, with relations is here given as identical with a cor-

point at both ends) and two horizontal arrows, responding notation for classes, the relational
one above the other, one pointing forward and notation will also often befound with a dot
the other back. The Lukasiewicz notation is added to distinguish it from the one for classes) :

Epq. xRy, "x has [or stands in, or bears] the rela-

P -\- q, the exclusive disjunction of p and q t

tion R to y."
"p or q but not both." Also sometimes used is
R c 5, "the relation R is contained in [im-
the sign of material equivalence with a = plies] the relation 5."
vertical or slanting line across it (non-equiva-
3 !/?, "the relation R is not null [holds in
In connection with the Lukasiewicz one instance]."
at least
lence).
notation, Rpq has been employed.
A downward arrow placed between (e.g.) x
and y denotes the relation which holds between
p\q, the alternative denial of p and q, "not
both p and ." For the dual connective, joint x and y (in that order) and in no other case.
denial ("neither p nor 3"), a downward arrow V, the universal relation. Schroder uses 1.
has been used. A, the null relation. Schroder uses 0.
p H q, the strict implication of q by p, "p R, the contrary, or negation, of the relation
R. The dash may also be placed over the letter

p
~
strictly implies q."
q t the strict equivalence of p and q, "p
R (or other symbol denoting a relation) instead
n of before it.
strictly impliesq and q strictly implies p. Some
recent writers employ, for strict equivalence, in- R ^ S, the logical sum of the relations R
stead of Lewis's ==, a sign similar to the sign and S, "R or 5." Schroder uses R+S.
of material equivalence, =, but with four lines R * S, the logical product of the relations
instead of three. R and S, "/? and 5." Schroder uses R'S.
Mp, "p is possible." This is Lukasiewicz's /, the relation of identity so that xly is the
notation and has been used especially in con- same as x y. Schroder uses 1'.
nection with his three-valued prepositional cal- 7, the relation of diversity so that xJy is
culus. For the different notion of possibility the same as x ^
y, Schroder uses 0'.
which is appropriate to the calculus of strict A
breve <- is placed over the symbol for a
implication, Lewis employs a diamond. relation to denote the converse relation. An
CLASSES (see class, and logic, formal, 7, alternative notation for the converse of R is

9): Cnv'fl.
ma, "x is a member of the class tf," or, "x is R
-f 5, the relative sum of R and S. Schroder
an a." For the negation of this, sometimes a adds a leftward hook at the bottom of the verti-
vertical line across the letter is em- cal line in the sign -J-.
epsilon
ployed, or a ' '
above it. R\S, the relative product of R and 5. SchrSder
* c b, the inclusion of the class a in the uses a semicolon to symbolize the relative prod-
class b, "a is a subclass of ." This notation is uct, but the vertical bar, or sometimes a slanted

usually employed in such a way that a <= b does bar, is now the usual notation.
not exclude the possibility that a b. Some- = R*, the square of the relation R, i.e., R\R.
214 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Similarly for higher powers of a relation, as R*> the existential quantifier is sometimes expressed
etc. by means of a dash over it.
3 , formal implication with respect to x.
R'y, the (unique) * such that xRy, "the R of See
y." Frequently the inverted comma is of a bold definition in the article logic, formal, 3.

square (bold gothic) style.

= ,
formal equivalence with respect to x.
R"b, the class of *'s which bear the relation See definition in logic, formal, 3.

R to at least one member of the class b, "the A See definition in logic, formal,
,. 3.

Then R"ty, or R"t ( y, is the 3 * y or =) *,y formal

R't of the 's." , implication with re-
class of *>s such that xRy, "the fl's of y." spect to x and y. Similarly for formal implica-
Aforward pointing arrow is placed over (e. tion with respect to three or more variables.

g.) R to denote the relation of R"ty to y. Simi-

= *y, or =.y formal equivalence with re-
larly a backward pointing arrow placed over R spect to x and y. Similarly for formal equiva-
y
denotes the relation of the class of y s such that lence with respect to three or more variables.

xRy to x. ABSTRACTION, DESCRIPTIONS (see articles of

An upwardarrow placed between (e.g.) a those titles):
and b denotes the relation which holds between \x, functional abstraction with respect to x
x and y if and only if xea and yeb. so that XxM may be read "the (monadic) func-
The left half of an upward arrow placed be- tion whose value for the argument * is M."
tween (e.g.) a and R denotes the relation which i ,
class abstraction with respect to x so that
holds between x and y if and only if x*a and J M may be read "the class of *'s such that M."
xRy, in other words, the relation R with its An alternative notation, instead of i , is x3.
domain limited to the class a. iy, relation abstraction with respect to x and
The right half of an upward arrow placed y so that iyM may be read "the relation which
between (e.g.) R and b denotes the relation holds between x and y if and only if M."
which holds between x and y if and only if xRy (1 x), description with respect to x so that
and ycb; in other words the relation R with its (1 *)M may be read "the x such that M."
converse domain limited to b. E is employed in connection with descrip-
!

tions to denote existence, so that E\(i>x)M may

The right half double upward and
of a
be read "there exists a unique * such that M."
downward arrow placed between (e.g.) R and
a denotes the relation which holds between x OTHER NOTATIONS.
and y if and only if xRy and both x and y are F(x), the result of application of the (mona-
members of the class a; in other words, the rela- dic, prepositional or other) function F to the
tion R with its field limited to a. argument x the value of the function F for the
* "F Sometimes the paren-
D'R, the domain of R. argument x of x."
the converse domain of R. theses are omitted, so that the notation is Fx.
<!'/?,
See the articles function, and propositional junc-
C'R, the field of R.
R f o, the proper ancestral of R i.e., the rela- tion.

tion and only if

which holds between x and y if F(x y y), the result of application of the
* bears the first or some higher power of the (dyadic) function F
argdments x and to the y.
relation R to y (where the first power of R is Similarly for larger numbers of arguments.
x y, the identity or equality of x and y,
R).
the ancestral of R the relation "x equals y."See logic, formal, 3, 6, 9.
/?, i.e.,
which holds between x and y if and only if x # y, negation of x
=7^= y.
bears the zero or some higher power of the h- is the assertion sign. See assertion, logical.

relation R
to y (where the zero power of is R Dots (frequently printed as bold, or bold
taken to be, either I, or 7 with its field limited square, dots) are used in the punctuation of logi-
to the field of R). cal formulas, to avoid or replace parentheses.

QUANTIFIERS (see Quantifiers, and Logic, for- There are varying conventions for this purpose.
> is used to express definitions, the definien-
mal, 3, 6):
(x), universal quantification with respect to x
dum being placed to the left and the definiens
so that (*)M may be read "for every xt M." to the right. An alternative notation is the sign

An alternative notation occasionally met with, (or, in connection with the propositional
instead of (*), is (V*), usually with the in- calculus,
= ) with the letters Df, or df, written
verted A
from a gothic or other special font. above it, or as a subscript, or separately after the
Another notation is composed of a Greek capital definiens.

pi with the x placed either after it, or before it, Quotation marks, usually single quotes, are
or as a subscript. Negation of the universal employed as a means of distinguishing the name
quantifier is sometimes expressed by means of a of a symbol or formula from the symbol or
dash,_or horizontal line, over it. formula itself (see syntax, logical). A symbol
(Ex), existential quantification with respect to or formula between quotation marks is employed
x so that (Ex)M may be read "there exists an as a name of that particular symbol or formula.
x such that M." The E which forms part of E.g., y is a name of the sixteenth letter of the
the notation may also be inverted; and, whether English alphabet in small italic type.
inverted or not, the E is frequently taken from The reader will observe that this use of quota-
a gothic or other special font. An alternative tion marks has not been followed in the present
notation employs a Greek capital sigma with x article, and in fact that there are frequent in-
either after it or as a subscript. Negation of accuracies from the point of view of strict preser-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 215
vation of the distinction between a symbol and the nous pathetikos, or passive reason, and a
its name. These inaccuracies are of too involved
higher active reason, called by the commentatort
a character to be removed by merely supplying nous poietikos, which alone is truly divine and
quotation marks at appropriate places. But it is eternal, and which is related to the nous pathe-
thought that there is no point at which real tikos as form to matter. See Aristotelianism.
doubt will a r ise as to the meaning intended. G.R.M.
Alonzo Church Null class : See Logic, formal, 7.

Nothing: Literally, not a thing. According to Number: The number system of mathematical
Kant, emptiness of concept, object or intuition. analysismay be described as follows with refer-
According to Hegel, the immediate, indeter- ence, not to historical, but to one possible logi-
minate notion of being. According to Peirce, cal order.
that which possesses contrary attributes. First are the non-negative integers 0, 1, 2, 3,
J.K.F. . ..
, for which the operations of addition and
In translation into logical notation, the word multiplication are determined. They are ordered
nothing is usually to be represented by the nega- by a relation not greater than which we shall
tion of an existential quantifier. Thus "nothing denote by R so that, e.g., OKO, 0/J3, 2K3, 3R3,
has the property F" becomes "~(*)F(x)." 57*218, etc.

A.C. These are extended by introducing, for every

Notion: (Ger. Begrifi) This is a technical term in pair of non-negative integers a, b, with b dif-
the writings of Hegel, and as there used it has a ferent from 0, the fraction a/b, subject to the

dual reference. On one side, it refers to the following conditions (which can be shown to be
essence or nature of the object of thought} on consistent): (1) a/\ = a; (2) a/b = c/d if

the other side, it refers to the true thought of and only if ad = be-, (3) a/b R c/d and
if

that essence or nature. These two aspects of the only if ad R bc\ (4) a/b + c/d = (ad +
Notion are emphasized at length in the third bc)/bd>, (5) (a/b) (c/d) ac/bd. The result-
part of the Logic (The Doctrine of the Notion), ing system is that of the non-negative rational
where it is dialectically defined as the synthesis numbers, which are compactly ordered but not
of Being and Essence under the form of the continuously ordered (see continuity) by the re-
Idea (Die Idee).G.W.C. lation R
(as extended).

Notiones communes: Cicero's translation of the

Then
the next step is to introduce, for every

phrase koinai ennoiai, by which the Stoics desig- non-negative rational number r, a corresponding
nated such notions as good, evil, and the exist- negative rational number r, subject to the con-
ence of God, which they regarded as common
ditions: (1) r = and only if r
s if s>,
=
to all men, and as, in some sense, natural
(2) r == s if and only if r == and s 0} =
(3) r R s if and only if s R r
(4) r R
(physikai) or implanted (emphytai), though not, y

in the sense of being literally innate.

s, (5) s R r if and only if r =. and s ==
perhaps,
W.K.F. 0, (6) r -f s =
3 -\ r either t, where=
Noumenal World: The
r+ = t s, or / where s -f- / r; (7) r =
the appearance world.
real world
opposed to
Kant said of the nou-
as
+ -' = -(r + *)> (8) (-r)s = ,(-r) =
menal realm, that it cannot be known. V.F. ()i (9) (-r)( s) rs. Here r, s, t are
variables whose range is the non-negative ra-
Noumenon: (Gr. noumenon) In Kant. An object tional numbers. The extended system, compris-
or power transcending experience whose exist- ing both non-negative rational numbers and
ence is theoretically problematic but must be
negative rational numbers is the
system of
by practical
postulated reason. In theoretical rational numbers which are compactly ordered
terms Kant defined the noumenon positively as
"the object of a non-sensuous intuition," nega-
but not continuously ordered
by the relation R
(as extended).
tively as "not an object of the sensuous intui-
If we make the minimum extension of the
tion," but since he denied the existence of any
system of rational numbers which will render
but sensuous intuitions, the noumenon remained
* the order continuous, the system of real numbers
an unknowable "x". In his practical philosophy,
results. Addition and multiplication of real
however, the postulation of a noumenal realm numbers are uniquely determined by the mean-
is necessary in order to explain the possibility
ings already given to addition and multiplication
of freedom. See Kantianism. O.F.K. of rational numbers and the requirement that
Noun : In English and other natural languages, a addition of, or multiplication by, a fixed real
word serving as a proper or common name number (on right or left) shall be a continuous
(q.v.). AC. function (see continuity). Subtraction and divi-
Nous: (Gr. nous) Mind, especially the highest sion may be introduced as inverses of addition
part of mind, viz. reason; the faculty of intel- and multiplication respectively.
lectual (as distinct from
sensible) apprehension Finally, the complex numbers are introduced
and of intuitive thought. In its restricted sense as numbers a-\-bi, where a and b are real num-
nous denotes the faculty of apprehending the bers. There is no
ordering relation, but addition
first principles of science, the forms, and the and multiplication are determined as follows*
eternal intelligible substances, and is thus dis-
(*+ bi) + (c + di) = (a + + (b + d)i.
tinguished from discursive thought. In this sense (a+bi)(c+di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.
nous is regarded as the essence of the divine In particular i (i.e., 0-f-l#) multiplied by itself
being. In man Aristotle distinguishes between is 1. A number of the form a-fOi may be
216 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
identified with the real number
other complex } March 21, 1883. Professor of Philosophy at the
numbers are called numbers, and
imaginary National University of the Litoral in Argentine.
those of the form Q-\-bi are called pure imagi- Author of about twenty-five books, among which
naries. the following are the most important from a

of course, not possible to define I as philosophical point of view: Fundamentos de la

(It is,
"the square root of 1." The foregoing state- Anterosofia, 1925; Anterosofia Racional, 1926)
ment corresponds to taking i as a new, unde-
De Nuevo Hablo Jesus, 1928} Filosofia Integral,
But there is an alternative 1932) Del Conocimiento y Progreso de Si
fined, symbol.
method, of logical construction, in which the Atismo, 1934j Tratado de Metalogica, o Funda-
mentos de Una Nueva JMetodologia, 1936)
complex numbers are defined as ordered pairs
Suma Contra Una Nueva Edad Media, 1938)
(a, t) of real numbers, and i is then defined as
Metafisica y Ciencia, 1941} La Honda In-
(0, 1).)
In a mathematical development of the real quietud, 1915} Conocimiento y Creencia, 1916.
number system or the complex number system, Three fundamental questions and a tenacious
effort to answer them run throughout the entire
an appropriate set of postulates may be the start-
Or thought of Nunez Regueiro, namely the three
ing point. non-negative integers may
the
first be introduced (by .postulates or otherwise questions of Kant: What can I know? What
see arithmetic, foundations of) and from these
must I do? What can I expect? Science as
the above outlined extensions may be provided
such does not write finis to anything. We
for by successive logical constructions, in any experience in science the same realm of con-
one of several alternative ways. tradictions and inconsistencies which we ex-
perience elsewhere. Fundamentally, this chaos
The important matter is not the definition of
is of the nature of dysteleology. At the root of
number (or of particular numbers), which may the conflict lies a crisis of values. The problem
be made in various ways more or less indiffer-
of above all a problem of valuing.
doing is
ently, but the internal structure of the number From a point of view of values, life ennobles
system. man lifts himself above the trammels of
itself,
For the notions of cardinal number, relation-
matter, and the world becomes meaning-///. Is
number, and ordinal number, see the articles of there a possibility for the realization of this
these titles. Alon*o Church
R. Dedekind, Essays on the Theory of Numbers,
ideal? Has this plan ever been tried out? His-
translated by W. W. Beman. Chicago. 1901. E. tory offers us a living example. The Fact of
V. Huntington, A set of postulates for real algebra, Jesus. He is the only possible expectation. In
Transactions of the American Mathematical So-
E. V. Hunting-
him and through him we come to fruition and
ciety, vol. 6 (1905). pp. 17-41.
ton. Aset of postulates for ordinary complex al- fulfilment. Nunez Regiieiro's philosophy is
gebra, ibid., pp. 209-229. E. Landau. Grundlagen fundamentally religious. J.A .F.
aer Analysis, Leipzig. 1930.
Nyaya: (Skr.) One of the great systems of In-
Numinous: A word coined from the Latin "nu- dian philosophy (q.v.) going back to the Nyaya-
men" by Rudolf Otto to signify the absolutely sutras of Gotama (q.v.) and dealing with the
unique state of mind of the genuinely religious
logical approach to reality in a science of rea-
person who feels or is aware of something soning and epistemology designed to accomplish
mysterious, terrible, awe-inspiring, holy and the practical aims of all Indian speculation.
sacred. This feeling or awareness is a mysterium established
Having perception (pratyak^a), in-
tremendum, beyond reason, beyond the good or ference (anumdna), comparison (upamana),
the beautiful. This numinous is an a priori and testimony sources of valid knowl-
(s'abdaQ as
category and is the basis of man's cognition of edge or truth, a doctrine of logical realism is
the Divine. See his book The Idea of the Holy arrived at in which the objective world is con-
(rev. ed., 1925). V.F. ceived independent of thought and mind.
Nunez Regueiro, Manuel: Bom in Uruguay, K.F.L.
 o
Object: (Lat. objectus, pp. of objicere, to throw Objective Tightness: An action is objectively
over against) In the widest sense, object is that right if it is what the agent really should do,
towards which consciousness is directed, whether and not merely what he thinks he should do.
cognitively or conatively The cognitive or epi- See Subjective Tightness. W.K.F.
temological object of mind is anything per- Objective test: Any test, whether standardized
ceived, imagined, conceived or thought about. or not, which meets the requirements of a meas-
See Epistemological Object. The conative object uring instrument, permitting no reasonable doubt
is anything desired, avoided or willed. L.W. as to the correctness or incorrectness of the
Objectivationt See Objectivin*. answers given. J.E.B.
Objective: (a) Possessing the character of a real Objectivism: 1. Realism (q.v.).
object existing independently of the knowing
2. Objective Idealism (q.v.).
mind in contrast to subjective. See Subjective. 3. Logic, Aesthetics, Ethics: The view that

(b) In Scholastic terminology beginning with the mind possesses objects, norms, or meanings
Duns Scotus and continuing into the 17th and of universal validity. The opposite of subjec-
18th centuries, objective designated anything tivism, psychologism, solipsism, individualism
existing as idea or representation in the mind (q.v.). W.L.
without independent existence, (cf. Descartes, Objectivism, epistemological : Doctrine main-
Meditations, III; Spinoza, Ethics^ I, prop. 30) taining that everything apprehended is inde-
Berkeley's Sjris, 292.) The change from pendent of the apprehender. (Montague.)
sense (b) to (a) was made by Baumgarten. See H.H.
R. Eucken, Geschichte der Philosophischen Ter- Objectivistic ethics: The view that ethical truths
minologie, p. 68. L.W. are not relative, that there are certain action!
Objective idealism: A name for that philosophy which are right or certain objects which are
which is based on the theory that both the sub- good for all individuals alike. See Relativism.

ject and the object of knowledge are equally W.K.F.

real and equally manifestations of the absolute Objectivize: The mental process whereby a
or ideal. Earlier employed to describe Schell- sensation which is in the first instance, a subjec-
ing's philosophy. Used independently by Charles tive state, is transformed into the perception of
S. Peirce (1839-1914) and A. N. Whitehead an object. See Intro jection. L.W.
(1861-) to describe their varieties of realism. Object language: A
language or logistic system
Subjective idealism supposes the world to con- L is called object language relatively to another
f
sist of exemplifications of universals which have language (met a system) L containing notation!
their being in the mind. Objective idealism for formulas of L and for syntactical properties
supposes the world to consist of exemplification! of and relations between formulas of L (pos-
of universals which have their being independent sibly also semantical properties and relations).
of the mind. J.K.F. The language L' is called a syntax language

Objective Reference: The self-transcendence of of L.

an immediately given content whereby it is See Name relation; Syntax, Logical} Truth t
directed toward an object. See Object. L.W. semantical. A. C.

Objective Relativism: Epistemological theory
which ascribes real objectivity to all perspec-
tives and appearances of an object of perception.
(See A. E. Murphy, "Objective Relativism in
Dewey and Whitehead," Philosophical Review,
Vol. XXXVI, 1927.) L.W.
Obligation : This may be said to be present when-
ever a necessity of any kind is laid upon any
one to do a certain thing. Here the term "obli-
gation" may refer either to the necessity of his
doing the act or to the act which it is necessary
for him to do. Always, in any case of obliga-
218
tion, there a kind of necessity for someone to
is
do something. This is true in all cases in which
one says, "I was obliged to do that", "I have
an obligation to him", "You ought to do so and
so", "It is our duty to do such and such". It
follows that obligation involves
structure. One never
has an obligation simply,
one always has an obligation to do a certain
thing. An act is never simply obligatory, it is
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
through the sense organs and of interpreting
them by means of concepts. See Sensation.
A.C.B.
Observational Judgment: Any judgment, par-
ticular or general, which is based on observation
a relational or experience, but especially, and more strictly,
any particular judgment based on sense-percep-
tion, e.g. "That is a round tower." W.K.F.
Obversion See Logic, formal, 4.
:

always obligatory for someone to do. Occasion: (Lat. occasio, a happening) The agency
The necessity involved in an obligation may of action. The proximate or historical cause.
be of various kinds sheer physical compulsion, Any actual thing or event considered as the his-
social pressure, prudential necessity, etc. Thus torical cause of another. The occasion of any-
not all obligation is moral, e.g. when one says, thing is its antecedent reference; the cause, its
"The force of the wind obliged me to take logical reference. Syn. with actual. See Cause,
cover". The question is: what sort of necessity Chance. J.JC.F.
is involved in moral obligation? Is moral obli- Occasional causes, the doctrine of: The doc-
gation hypothetical or is it categorical? Hypo- trine 'that in some or in all cases of apparent
thetical obligation is expressed in such sentences causal connection, the apparent cause does not
as "If you want so and so, e.g. happiness, then itselfactually bring about the apparent effect,
you must or should do such and such." Here the but only serves as the occasion on which some
necessity or obligatoriness is conditional, depend- other agent or force brings about that effect.
ing on whether or not one desires the end to Thus Malebranche and the other Occaseionalists
which the action enjoined is conducive. Cate- held that in all cases where mind and body
gorical obligation is expressed by simple sen- seem be causally connected, the truth is not
to
tences of the form, "You ought to do such and that the one is acting on the other (which is
such". Here the necessity of doing such and impossible because they differ essentially in
such is unconditional. kind), but that an event in the one is taken by
Many moralists deny that there are any cate- God as an occasion for his producing an event
gorical obligations, and maintain that moral in the other. Again, Schopenhauer maintained
obligations are all hypothetical. E.g., John Gay that every natural cause is only an occasional
defines obligation as "the necessity of doing or cause for the manifestation of the Will.
omitting any action in order to be happy." On W.K.F.
such views one's obligation to do a certain deed Occasionalism: A
theory of knowledge and of
reduces to one's desire to do it or to have that voluntary control of action, in which mind and
to which it conduces. Obligation and motiva- matter are non-interactive but events in one
tion coincide. Hence J. S. Mill identifies sanc- realm occur in correspondence with events in
tions, motives, and sources of obligation. the other realm. Thus, God sees to it that an
Other moralists hold that hypothetical obliga- idea df noise occurs in a mind on the occasion
tions are merely pragmatic or prudential, and of the occurrence of a physical noises or, He
that moral obligations are categorical (Kant, makes a physical event happen when a mind
Sidgwick). On this view obligation and motiva- wishes it. See Psycho-Physical Parallelism.
tion need not coincide, for obligation is inde- VJ.B.
pendent of motivation. There is, it is said, a Ockhamism: A term in common use since the
real objective necessity or obligation to do cer- early 15th century, indicating doctrines and
tain sorts of action, independently of our desires methods associated with those of the English
or motives. Indeed, it is sometimes said (Kant, Franciscan theologian William of Ockham (died
Sidgwick) that there is no obligation for one 1349). It is currently applied by neoscholastic
to do an action unless one is at least susceptible writers as a blanket designation for a great
to an inclination to do otherwise. variety of late mediaeval and early modern at-
This categorical necessity or obligation is re- titudes such as are destructive of the metaphysi-
garded by the moralists in question as something cal principles of Thomism, even though they
peculiar. It is not to be identified with physical, may not be directly traceable to Ockham's own
causal, or
metaphysical necessity. com- It is writings.
patible with and even requires freedom to do Three senses of "Ockhamism" may be dis-
otherwise. It is a "moral" necessity. "Duty",
tinguished: (1) Logical, indicating usage of the
says Kant, "is the necessity of acting from re- terminology and technique of logical analysis
spect for the (moral) law." It is a unique and developed by Ockham in his Sumnta totius
indefinable kind of necessity, and the relational in use of the of
logicae; particular, cpncept
structure which is involved cannot be
explained supposition (suppositio) in the significative anal-
in any other terms) it must be intuited to be
ysis of terms. (2) Epistemological, indicating
understood (T. Reid, Sidgwick, W. D. Ross). the thesis that universality is attributable only
See Ethics, Value, Sanctions. W.K.F. to terms and propositions, and not to things as
Obli vescence : (Lat. oblivesci, to forget) The existing apart from discourse. (3) Theological,
gradual obliteration of a memory. L.W. indicating the thesis that no theological doc-
Observation: (Lat. ob +
servare, to save, keep, trines, such as those of God's existence or of the
observe) The act of becoming aware of objects immortality of the soul, are evident or demon-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 219
strable philosophically, so that religious doctrine than which nothing can be thought. Since any-
rests solely on faith, without metaphysical or thing being the greatest and lacking existence
scientific support. It is in this sense that Luther is less then the greatest having also
existence,
isoften called an Ockhamist. the former is not really the greater. The great-
Bibliography: B. Geyer, Ueberwegs Grundriss est, therefore, has to exist. Anselm hat been
d. Gesch. d. Phil., Bd. II (llth ed., Berlin reproached, already by his contemporary Gau-
1928), pp. 571-612 and 781-786$ N. Abbag- nilo, for unduly passing from the field of logical
nano, Guglielmo di Ockham (Lanciano, Italy, to the field of ontological or existential reason-
1931)5 E. A. Moody, The Logic of William of ing. This criticism has been repeated by many
Ockham (N. Y. & London, 1935)} F. Ehrle, authors, among them Aquinas. The argument
Peter von Candia (Muenster, 1925)} G. Ritter, has, however, been used, if in a somewhat modi-
Studien zur Spaetscholastik, I-II (Heidelberg, fied form, by Duns Scotus, Descartes, and Leib-
1921-1922). E.A.M. niz. R.A.
Om, aum: (Skr.) Mystic, holy syllable as a sym- Ontological Object: (Gr. onta, existing things
bol for the indefinable Absolute. See Aksara,
4- logos, science) The real or existing object
Vac, Sabda.K.F.L. of an act of knowledge as distinguished from
Omniscience: In philosophy and theology it the epistemological object. See Epistemological
means the complete and perfect knowledge of Object. L.W.
God, of Himself and of all other beings, past, Ontologism: (Gr. on, being) In contrast to
present, and future, or merely possible, as well called any speculative system
is
psychologism,
a& all their activities, real or possible, including
which starts philosophizing by positing absolute
the future free actions of human beings. J.J.R.
being, or deriving the existence of entities inde-
One: Philosophically, not a number but
pendently of experience merely on the basis of
equivalent to
unit, unity, individuality, in
their being thought, or assuming that we have
contradistinction from multiplicity and the mani- immediate and certain knowledge of the ground
foldness of sensory experience. In metaphysics,
of being or God. Generally speaking any ra-
the Supreme Idea (Plato), the absolute first
tionalistic, a priori metaphysical doctrine} specifi-
principle (Neo-platonism), the universe (Par-
cally the philosophies of Rosmini-Serbati and
menides), Being as such and divine in nature Vincenzo Gioberti. As a philosophic method
(Plotinus), God (Nicolaus Cusanus), the soul censored by skeptics and criticists alike, as a
(Lotze). Religious philosophy and mysticism, scholastic doctrine formerly strongly supported,
beginning with Indian philosophy (j.v.), na8 revived in Italy and Belgium in the 19th cen-
favored the designation of the One for the meta-
tury, but no longer countenanced. K.F.L.
physical world-ground, the ultimate reality, the
Ontology: (Gr. on, being -j- logos, logic) The
world-soul, the principle of the world conceived
theory of being qua being. For Aristotle, the
asreason, nous, or more personally. The One
First Philosophy, the science of the essence of
may be conceived as an independent whole or as Introduced as a term into philosophy
things.
a sum, as analytic or synthetic, as principle or
by Wolff. The science of fundamental princi-
ontologically. Except by mysticism, it is rarely
ples} the doctrine of the
categories. Ultimate
declared a fact of sensory experience, while its
transcendent or transcendental, abstract nature is
philosophy; rational cosmology. Syn. with meta-
physics. See Cosmology, First Principles, Meta-
stressed, e.g., in epigtemology where the "I" or
physics, Theology. J.K.F.
self is considered the unitary background of

personal experience, the identity of self-con-

Operation: (Lat. operari, to work) Any act,
mental or physical, constituting a phase of the
sciousness, or the unity of consciousness in the
reflective process, and performed with a view to
synthesis of the manifoldness of ideas (Kant).
K.F.L. acquiring knowledge or information about a
A certain subject-matter. A.C.B.
One-one: relation R
one-manyis if for every
the converse domain there is
In logic, see Operationism.
y in a unique x
such that xRy. A relation R In philosophy of science, see Pragmati$mt
is many-one if for
every x in the domain there a unique y such
is
Scientific Empiricism.
that xRy. (See the article relation.) relation A Operationism: The doctrine that the meaning
is one-one, or if it is at the same
of a concept is given by a set of operations.
one-to-one,
time one-many and many-one. A one-one rela- 1. The operational meaning of a term (word

tion is said to be, or to determine, a one-to-one or symbol) is given by a semantical rule relat-
correspondence between its domain and its con- ing the term to some concrete process, object
verse domain. A. C. or event, or to a class of such processes, object!
On-handedness : (Ger. Vorhandenheit) Things or events.
exist in the mode of thereness, lying passively 2. Sentences formed by combining operation-
in a neutral space. A "deficient" form of a ally defined terms into propositions are opera-
more basic relationship, termed at-handedness tionally meaningful when the assertions are test-
(Zuhandenheit). (Heidegger.) H.H. able by means of performable operations. Thus,
Ontological argument: Name by which later under operational rules, terms have semantical
authors, especially Kant, designate the alleged significance} propositions have empirical signifi-
proof for God's existence devised by Anselm of cance.
Canterbury. Under the name of God, so the Operationism makes explicit' the distinction
argument runs, everyone understands that greater between formal (q.v.) and empirical sentences.
220 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Formal propositions are signs arranged accord- Science of Science, Psychol. Bull., 36, 1939, 221.
ing to syntactical rules but lacking operational 263. 5.5.5.
reference. Such propositions, common in mathe- Ophelimity: Noun derived from the Greek,
matics, and syntax, derive their sanction
logic ophelimos useful, employed by Vilfredo Pareto
from convention, whereas an empirical proposi- (1848-1923) in economics as the equivalent of
tion is acceptable (1) when its structure obeys
utility, or the capacity to provide satisfaction.
syntactical rules and (2) when there exists a
concrete procedure (a set of operations) for de-
Opinion: (Lat. opinio, from opinor, to think)
termining its truth or falsity (cf. Verification). An hypothesis or proposition entertained on ra-
Propositions purporting to be empirical are tional grounds but concerning which doubt can
sometimes amenable no operational test be-
to
reasonably exist. A belief. See Hypothesis, Cer-
cause they obeying no definite
contain terms
Knowledge. J.K.F.
tainty,
semantical rules. These sentences are some-
Opposition: (Lat. oppositus, pp. of oppono, to
times called pseudo-propositions and are said to
oppose) Positive actual contradiction. One of
be operationally meaningless. They may, how-
Aristotle's Post-predicaments. In logic any con-
ever, be "meaningful" in other ways, e.g. emo- or
trariety contradiction, illustrated by the
tionally or aesthetically (cf. Meaning).
"Square of Opposition". Syn. with: conflict. See
Unlike a formal statement, the "truth" of an 4. J.K.F.
Logic, formal,
empirical sentence is never absolute and its oper-
Optimism: (Lat. optimus, the best) The view
ational confirmation serves only to increase the
inspired by wishful thinking, success, faith, or
degree of its validity. Similarly, the semantical
rule comprising the operational definition of a
philosophic reflection, that the world as it exists
is not so bad or even the best possible, life is
term has never absolute precision. Ordinarily a
term denotes a and the pre-
class of operations
good, and man's destiny is bright. Philosophi-
cally most persuasively propounded by Leibniz
cision of its definition depends upon how defi-
in his Theodicee, according to which God in
nite are the rules governing inclusion in the
his wisdom would have created a better world
class.
had he known or willed such a one to exist.
The difference between Operationism and
Not even he could remove moral wrong and
Logical Positivism (q.v.) is one of emphasis.
evil unless he destroyed the power of self-
Operationism's stress of empirical matters de-
determination and hence the basis of morality.
rives from the fact that it was first employed All systems of ethics that recognize a supreme
to purge physics of such concepts as absolute
good (Plato and many idealists), subscribe to
space and absolute time, when the theory of
the doctrines of progressivism (Turgot, Herder,
relativityhad forced upon physicists the view
that space and time are most profitably defined Comte, and others), regard evil as a frag-
in terms of the operations by which they are mentary view (Josiah Royce et al.) or illusory,
or believe in indemnification (Henry David
measured. Although different methods of meas-
Thoreau) or melioration (Emerson), are in-
uring length at give rise to different con-
first
clined Practically all theologies
optimistically.
cepts of length, wherever the equivalence of
certain of these measures can be established by advocating plan of creation and salvation, are
a

optimistic though they make the good or the

other operations, the concepts may legitimately
be combined.
betterdependent on moral effort, right thinking,
or promising it in a future existence.
belief,
psychology the operational criterion of
In
Metaphysical speculation is optimistic if it pro-
meaningfulness is commonly associated with a vides for evolution to
perfection, something
behavioristic point of view. See Behaviorism.
higher, more valuable, or makes room for har-
Since only those propositions which are testable
monies or a teleology. See Pessimism. K.F.L.
by pubhc and repeatable operations are admissi-
ble in science, the definition of such concepts as
Order: A said to be partially ordered by
class is

mind and sensation must rest upon observable

a dyadic relation R
if it coincides with the field

of R, and R is transitive and reflexive, and xRy

aspects of the organism or its behavior. Opera-
tional psychology deals with experience only as
and yRx never both hold when * and y are
it is indicated by the operation of differential
different. If in addition R
is connected, the class

issaid to be ordered (or simply ordered)

behavior, including verbal report. Discrimina- by R,
tions, or the concrete differential reactions of
and R
is called an
ordering relation.
organisms to internal or external environmental
Whitehead and Russell apply the term serial
relation to relations which are transitive, ir re-
states, are by some authors regarded as the most
basic of all operations. flexive, and connected (and, in consequence, also
For a discussion of the role of operational asymmetric). However, the use of serial rela-
definition in physics, see P. Bridgman, The W. tions in this sense, instead ordering relations as

Logic of Modern York, 1928)

Physics, (New just defined, is awkward in connection with the
and The Nature of Physical Theory (Princeton, notion of order for unit classes.
1936). "The extension of operationism to psy- Examples: The relation not greater than
chology is discussed by C. C. Pratt in The Logic among real numbers is an ordering relation.
of Modern Psychology (New York, 1939"). The relation less than among real numbers is a
For a discussion and annotated bibliography serial relation. The real numbers are simply
relating to Operationism and Logical Posi- ordered by the former relation. In the algebra
tivism, see S. S. Stevens, Psychology and the of classes (logic formal, 7), the classes are
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 221

partially ordered by the relation of class inclu- clusive of that grown on Greek soil and includ-
sion. ing the beginnings of philosophical speculation
For explanation of the terminology used in in Egypt, Arabia, Iran, India, and China, the
making the above definitions, see the articles elaborate systems of India, Greater India, China,
connexity, reflexivity, relation, symmetry, transi- and Japan, and sometimes also the religion-
tivity. A. C. bound thought of all these countries with that
Order type: See relation-number. of the complex cultures of Asia Minor, extend-

Ordinal number: A class b is well-ordered by a ing far into antiquity. Oriental philosophy,

dyadic relation R if it is ordered by R (see though by no means presenting a homogeneous

order) and, for every class a such that a = O) picture, nevertheless shares one characteristic,
there is a member x of a, such that xRy holds i.e., the practical outlook on life (ethics linked

for every member y of a\ and R is then called a

with metaphysics) and the absence of clear-cut
distinctions between pure speculation and religi-
well-ordering relation. The ordinal number of a
class b well-ordered by a relation R, or of a
ous motivation, and on lower levels between

well-ordering relation R, is defined to be the folklore, folk-etymology,practical wisdom, pre-

relation-number (q. v.) of R. even magic, and flashes of
scientific speculation,

The ordinal numbers of finite classes (well- philosophic insight. Bonds with Western, par-
ordered by appropriate relations) are called finite ticularly Greek philosophy have no doubt existed

ordinal numbers. These are 0, 1, 2, ... (to be

even in ancient times. Mutual influences have
from the cardinal often been conjectured on the basis of striking
distinguished, of course, finite
similarities, but their scientific establishment is
numbers 0, 1, 2, . .
.).
or 4 n nite) often or even impossible. Comparative
difficult
The first non-finite (transfinite
ordinal number is the ordinal number of the philosophy (see especially the work of Masson-
Oursel) provides a useful method. Yet a thor-
class of finite ordinal numbers, well-ordered in
their natural order, 0, 1, 2, . . .j it is usually
ough treatment of Oriental Philosophy is pos-
denoted by the small Greek letter omega.
sible only when the many languages in which
A. C. it is deposited have been more thoroughly
G Cantor, Contributions to' the Pounding of studied, the psychological and historical elements
the Theory of Transfinite Numbers, translated and involved in the various cultures better investi-
with an introduction by P. E. B. Jourdain, Chi- and translations of the relevant docu-
gated,
cago and London, 1915. (new ed. 1941) Whitehead ments prepared not merely from a philological
and Russell, Principia Mathematica, vol. 3.
Orexis: (Gr. orexis) Striving} desirej the cona- point of view or out of missionary zeal, but by
from the competent philosophers who also have some
tive aspect of mind, as distinguished
and emotional (Aristotle). G.R.M. linguistic training. Much has been accomplished
cognitive
in this direction in Indian and Chinese Philoso-
Organicism: A
theory of biology that life con-
sists in the organization or dynamic system of phy (q.v.). A great deal remains to be done
however before a definitive history of Oriental
the organism. Opposed to mechanism and
vitalism. J.K.F. Philosophy may be written. See also Arabian,
and Perstan Philosophy. K.F.L.
Organism : An individual animal or plant, bio-
Origen: (1 85-254) The principal founder of
logically interpreted. A. N. Whitehead uses
Christian theology who tried to enrich the
the term to include also physical bodies and to
material
ecclesiastic thought of his day by reconciling it
signify anything spreading through with the treasures of Greek -philosophy. Cf.
space and enduring in time. R.B.W.
Migne PL. R.B.W.
Organismic Psychology: (Lat. or^anum, from Ormazd: (New Persian) Same as Ahura Mazdah
Gr. organon, an instrument) A system of theo-
(0.V.), the good principle in Zoroastrianism,
retical psychology which construes the structure
and opposed to Ahriman (q.v.). K.F.L.
of the mind in organic rather than atomistic
terms. See Gestalt Psychology; Psychological
Orphic Literature: The mystic writings, extant
Atomism. L.W. only in fragments, of a Greek religious-philo-
sophical movement of the 6th century B.C.,
Organization: (Lat. organum, from Gr. organon, allegedly started by the mythical Orpheus. In
work) A structured whole. The systematic unity their mysteries, in which mythology and ra-
of parts in a purposive whole. A dynamic sys- tional thinking mingled, the Orphics concerned
tem. Order in something actual. J.K.F. themselves with cosmogony, theogony, man's
Organon: (Gr. organon) The title traditionally original creation and his destiny after death
given to the body of Aristotle's logical treatises. which they sought to influence to the better by
The designation appears to have originated pure living and austerity. They {aught a sym-
among the Peripatetics after Aristotle's time, bolism in which, e.g., the relationship of the
and expresses their view that logic is not a One to the many was enunciated, and
clearly
part of philosophy (as the Stoics maintained) believed in the soul as involved in reincarna-
but rather the instrument (organon) of philo- tion. Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Plato were
sophical See Aristotelianism.
inquiry. G.R.M. influenced by them. K.F.L.
In Kant. A
system of principles by which Ortega y Gasset, Jose: Born in Madrid, May
pure knowledge may be acquired and established. 9, 1883. At present Buenos Aires, Argen-
in
Cf. Fr. Bacon's Novum Organum. O.F.AT. Son of
tine. Ortega y Munillo, the famous
Oriental Philosophy: A
general designation Spanish journalist. Studied at the College of
used loosely to cover philosophic tradition ex- Jesuits in Miraflores and at the Central Uni-
222 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
versity of Madrid. In the latter he presented dimension acquires new dignity, and even the
his Doctor's dissertation,El Milenario, in 1904, present and the past become articulate and
thereby obtaining his Ph.D. degree. After meaning-/**// only in relation to the future.
studies in Leipzig, Berlin, Marburg, under the Even History demands a new point of departure
special influence of Hermann Cohen, the great and becomes militant with new visions. J.A.F.
exponent of Kant, who taught him the love for Orthodoxy: Beliefs which are declared by a
the scientific method and awoke in him the in- group to be true and normative. Heresy is a
terest in educational philosophy, Ortega came to departure from and relative to a given ortho-
Spain where, after the death of Nicolas Sal- doxy. V.F.
meron, he occupied the professorship of meta- Orthos Logos: See Right Reason.
physics at the Central University of Madrid. Ostensible Object: (Lat. ostendere, to show)
The following may be considered the most im- The object envisaged by cognitive act irrespec-
portant works of Ortega y Gasset: M
edit adorns tive of its actual existence. See Epistemological
del Quijote, 1914* El Espectador, I-VIII, 1916- Object. L.W.
1935$ El Tema de Nuestro Tiempo, 1921} Ostensive: (Lat. ostendere, to show) Property
Espana Invertebrada, 1922} Kant, 1924} La of a concept or predicate by virtue of which it
Deshumanixacion del 4 rfe > 1925} Espiritu de la refers to and is clarified by reference to its

Letra, 1927} La Rebelion de las Masas,, 1929} instances. A.C.B.

Goethe desde Adentro, 1934} Estudios sobre el Ostwald, Wilhelm: (1853-1932) German chem-
Amor, 1939} Ensimismamiento y Alteration, ist. Winner of the Nobel prize for chemistry in
1939} El Libra de las Misiones, 1940, Ideas y 1909. In Die Uberwindung des taissenschajt-
Creencias, 1940} and others. lichen Materialismus and in Naturphilosophic,
Although brought up in the Marburg ^school his two best known works in the field of
of thought, Ortega is not exactly a neo-Kantian. philosophy, he advocates
dynamic theory in
a
At the basis of his Weltanschauung one finds a opposition to materialism and mechanism. All
denial of the fundamental presuppositions which properties of matter, and the psychic as well, are
characterizedEuropean Rationalism. It is life special forms of energy. L.E.D.
and not thought which is primary. Things have Oupnekhat: Anquetil Duperron's Latin transla-
a sense and a value which must be affirmed tion of the Persian translation of 50 Upanishads
independently. Things, however, are to be con- (q.v.), a work praised by Schopenhauer as giv-
ceived as the totality of situations which con- ing him complete consolation. K.F.L.
stitute the circumstances of a man's life. Hence, Outness: A term employed by Berkeley to express
I am my-
((
Ortega's first
philosophical principle: the experience of externality, that is the ideas
self plus circumstances". Life as a problem,
my of space and things placed at a distance. Hume
however, is but one of the poles of his formula. used it in the sense of distance. Hamilton under-
Reason is the other. The two together function, stood it as the state of being outside of con-
not by dialectical opposition, but by necessary sciousness in a really existing world of material
coexistence. Life, according to Ortega, does not things. J.J.R.
consist in being, but rather, in coming to be, Overindividual : Term used by H. Munsterberg
and as such of the nature of direction, pro-
it is to translate the German Uberindividuell. The
gram building, purpose to be achieved, value to term is applied to any cognitive or value object
be realized. In this sense the future as a time which transcends the individual subject. L.W.
Paganism: (Lat. pagus, village) The term prob- pendent existence of the world of entities}
ably reverts to the designation of villagers who moreover, while God is immanent, this imma-
had not yet been reached by the missionary nence is not absolute (as in pantheism) 5 God
propaganda emanating from populous centers. is more than the world, transcendent, in the
Fourth-century Christians employed the term to sense that though the created is dependent
upon
refer to those faiths and practices outside the the Creator the Creator is not dependent
upon
circumference of the Christian faith. V.F. the created. God thus is held to be the highest
Pai chia: The "Hundred Schools," referring to type of Unity, viz., a Unity in Multiplicity.
the various tendencies of thought in philosophy, The term employed to cover a mediating
is

logic, ethics, law, politics, diplomacy, economics, position between pantheism with its extreme
agriculture, military science, etc., in the third immanence and a theism of the type which
and fourth centuries B.C. with Chi Hsia as a tends to extreme transcendence. V.F.
center. W.T.C. Panlogism: (Gr. pan, -f logos, word) The
all
Pain: See Pleasure. doctrine that the world
is the actualization of

Painting: A plane surface covered with colors as- Mind or Logos. Term applied to Hegel's
theory
sembled in a given order (M. Denis, 1890). of Reality. See Hegel. L.W.
L.V.
Pan-objectivism: (Gr. pan, all -f Lat. objectus,
Paley, William: (1743-1805) Was an English
against) An ex-
pp. of objicere, to throw over
churchman well known for a number of works
treme form of epistemological realism which
in theology. He is also widely remembered in attributes real objectivity to all
objects of knowl-
the field of ethics. His Principles of Moral
edge, veridical and non-veridical alike. See
and Political Philosophy passed through many Epistemological Realism. L.W.
editionsand strved as a text book at Cambridge
for many years. As an advocate of the doctrine
Panpneumatism According to Ed. v. Hartmann
:

(q.v.) a synthesis of panlogism and pantheism

of expediency, he gave impetus to the later
(q.v.). K.F.L.
Utilitarian School. He maintained that the
beneficial tendency is what makes an action Panpsychism: (Gr. pan, all, psyche, soul) A
See Utilitarianism. Cf. W. Paley, Horae form of metaphysical idealism, of which Leib-
right.
Paulinae, 1790} View of the Evidences of niz's theory ofmonads is the classical example,
Christianity, 1794} Natural Theology, 1802. according to which the whole of nature consists
L.E.D. of psychic centers similar to the human mind.
Palingenesis: (Gr. palin, again-, genesis, birth)
L.W.
A Pan-Satanism: The vague belief that the world
Literally, a new birth or regeneration. re-
birth of ideas and events (in a philosophy of
is somehow identified with the devil. Name
history)} a new birth of individuals (in the- given to pantheism by Herbart. Otto Liebmann
ology). V.F. (1840-1912) regarded Schopenhauer's philosophy
(180-110 B.C.) A prominent Stoic
as a sort of Pan-Satanism. J.J.R.
Panaetiqs:
philosopher whose thought was influenced by the Pantheism: (Gr. Pan, all} Theos, God) 1. The
Skeptics} in his attempt to adapt Stoicism to doctrine that reality comprises a single being of

practical needs of life, he abandoned some of which all things are modes, moments, members,
the more speculative notions current among his appearances, or projections.
2. As a religious
predecessors. Influenced Cicero and Augustine. concept Pantheism is to be
R.S.W. distinguished from Immanent Theism and Deism
Parcaratra: (Skr.) A quasi philosophical system by asserting the essential immanence of God in
of Vishnuism (q.v.) based upon the Agamas the creatures. See Monism, Idealism. W.L.
Pantheism, medieval: True pantheistic ideas are
Pan-entheism: (Gr. pan, all} en, in; theos, god) rare in medieval literature. The accusation
The term for the view that God interpenetrates raised against Scotus Eriugena seems unfounded

;verything without cancelling the relative inde- and was caused more by his writings being
224 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
quoted as authorities by the followers of Amalric ment on the front of the card is false. But if
of Bene (1206-7) whose views were condemned the statement on the front is false, then the
in 1210. His writings are lost; he apparently statement on the back must be false, and hence
taught the identity of Creator and creature and the statement on the front must be true. Thus
called God the essence of all beings. A con- the paradox.
temporary was David of Dinant of whom still Arelated but different paradox is Grelling's
less is known} he identified, as it seems, God (1908). Let us distinguish adjectives i.e.,
with prime matter. Master Eckhardt too has words denoting properties as autological or
been accused of pantheism and some modern heterological according as they do or do not
authors have believed to find confirmation in have the property which they denote (in particu-
his writings. A more thorough study of them, lar, adjectives denoting properties which cannot
especially of the Latin texts, shows this to be belong to words at all will be heterological).
a misinterpretation./?.^. Then, e.g., the words polysyllabic, common,
Pantheistic Personalism: The doctrine that significant, prosaic are autological, while new,
reality consists of a Supreme Personality of alive, useless, ambtguous, long are heterological.
which the world of persons are parts. The On their face, these definitions of autological

Divine Personality having no separate existence and heterological are unobjectionable (compare
from its creation. See also Critical Personalism, the definition of onomatopoetic as similar in
Mono-Personalism. R.T.F. sound to that which denotes). But paradox
it

Paracelsus, Theophrastus Bombast: (1493- arises when we ask whether the word heterologi-
1541) Of Hohenheim, was a physician who cal is autological or heterological.
endeavored to use philosophy as one of the That paradoxes of this kind could be relevant
to mathematics first became clear in connection
"pillars" of medical science. His philosophy is
a weird combination of Neo-Platonism, experi- with the paradox of the greatest ordinal number,
mentalism, and superstitious magic. He rejected published by Burali-Forti in 1897, and the para-
much of the traditional theory of Galen and the dox of the greatest cardinal number, published by
Arab physicians. His works (Labyrinthus, Opus Russell in 1903. The first of these had been

paramir um, Die grosse Wundarznei, De natura discovered by Cantor in 1895, and communicated
rerum) were written in Swiss-German, trans- to Hilbert in 1896, and both are mentioned in
lated into Latin by his followers) recent investi- Cantor's correspondence with Dedekind of 1899,
gators make no attempt to distinguish his per- but were never published by Cantor.
sonal thought from that of his school. Thorn- From the paradox of the greatest cardinal
dyke, L., Hist, of Magic and Experimental number Russell extracted the simpler paradox
Science (N. Y., 1941), V, 615-651. V.J.B. concerning the class / of all classes * such that
Paraclete: (Gr. parakaleo, to call to one's aid) ~ xex. (Is it true or not that //?) At first
One who is called to assistance. More specifi- sight this paradox may not seem to be very
cally: the designation of the function of the relevant to mathematics, but must be remem- it

Holy Spirit, the third embodiment of the bered that it was obtained by comparing two
Christian Trinity. V.F. mathematical proofs, both seemingly valid, one
Paradigma: The Latin form of the Greek noun, leading to the conclusion that there is no great-
which denotes model. Plato called his ideas in est cardinal number, the other to the conclusion
the world of ideas, models on which were pat- that there is number. Russell
a greatest cardinal
terned the things of the phenomenal world. communicated this simplified foim of the para-
JJ.R. dox of the greatest cardinal number to Frege in
Paradoxes, logical: The ancient paradox of 1902 and published it in 1903. The same para-
Epimenides the Cretan, who said that all Cre- dox was discovered independently by Zermelo
tans were liars (i.e., absolutely incapable of before 1903 but not published.
telling the truth), was known under nlumerous Also to be mentioned are Konig's paradox
variant forms in ancient and medieval times. (1905) concerning the least undefinable ordinal
The medieval name for these was tnsolubtlia. number and Richard's paradox (1905) concern-
A
form of this paradox due to Jourdain (1913) ing definable and undefinable real numbers.
supposes a card upon the front of which are Numerous solutions of these paradoxes have
written the words, "On the other side of this been proposed. Many, however, have the fault
card is written a true statement" and nothing that, while they purport to find a flaw in the
else. It seems to be clear that these words con* arguments leading to the paradoxes, no effective
stitute a significant statement, since, upon turn- criterion is given by which to discover in the

ing the card over one must either find some case of other (e.g., mathematical) proofs whether
statements written or not, and, in the former they have the same flaw.
case, either there will be one of them which is Russell's solution of the paradoxes is em-
true or there will not. However, on turning bodied in what is now known
as the ramified
the card over there appear the words, "On the theory of types, published by him in 1908, and
other side of this card is written a false state- afterwards made the basis of Principia Mathe-
ment" and nothing else. Suppose the statement matica. Because of its complication, and because
on the front of the card is true) then the state- of the necessity for the much-disputed axiom of
ment on the back must be true) and hence the reducibility, this has now been largely abandoned
statement on the front mutt be false. This is a in favor of other solutions.

proof by reductio ad absurdum that the state- Another solution which has recently been
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 225

widely adopted is the simple theory of types between the system of physical events in nature
(see Logic, formal t 6). This was proposed as and the system of psychical events in mind. In
a modification of the ramified theory of types by its more moderate and restricted form, paral-
Chwistek in 1921 and Ramsey in 1926, and lelism asserts only a correlation between all
adopted by Carna'p in 1929. psychoses (mental events in an individual mind)
Another solution is the Zermelo set theory and all or some neuroses (neural events in the
(see Logic, formal, 9), proposed by Zermelo in individual's Thus there may exist
body).
1908, but since considerably modified and im- physico-chemicaland even neural processes in
proved. the body having no psychical con elates. The
Unlike the ramified theory of types, the simple term parallelism was introduced by Fechner
theory of types and the Zermelo set theory both (Zend-Avesta, Bk. Ill, ch. XIX, D) but the
require the distinction (first made by Ramsey) doctrine appeared in Spinoza (Ethics, Bk. II}
between the paradoxes which involve use of the prop. 7 schol. and props. 11 and 12). L.W.
name relation (q. v.) or the semantical concept Paralogism: (Gr. paralogismos) A fallacious
of truth (q. v.), and those which do not. The syllogism} an error in reasoning. See Sophism.
paradoxes of the firstkind (Epimenides, Grell- G.R.M.
ing's, Konig's, Richard's) are solved by the Kant's system the paralogisms are argu-
In
supposition that notations for the name relation ments alleging to prove the substantivity, sim-
and for truth (having the requisite formal prop- plicity and eternality of the soul or pure ego.
erties)do not occur in the logistic system set See Kantianism. O.FAT.
upr and in principle, it is held, ought not to Paramanu: (Skr.) An exceedingly (paramo) or
occur. The paradoxes of the second kind infinitely small or magnitudeless thing (cf.
(Burali-Forti's, Russell's) are solved in each anu), a discrete physical entity playing a similar
case in another way. Alonzo Church role in Indian philosophy as ions, electrons, or
iG. Frege, Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol 2, protons in modern physics. K.F.L.
Jena, 1903 (see Appendix). B. Russell The Prin-
ciples of Mathematics, Cambridge, England, 1903 ;
Paramarthika (Skr.) Relating to
: spiritual, es-
2nd edn., London, 1937, and New York, 1938. sential, or absolute matters. K.F.L.
Grelhng and Nelson, Bemerkungen zu den Para- Parapsychology: (Gr. para, at the side of -}-
doxieen von Russell und Burali-Forti, Abhandlungen
der Fries'schen Schule, n.s. vol. 2 (1908), pp. psyche, soul +
logia from logein, to speak)
301-334. A Rustow, Der Lugner (Dissertation The investigation of prescience, telepathy and
Erlangen 1908), Leipzig. 1910. P. E. B. Jourdain, other phenomena which seem
alleged psychical
Tales with philosophical morals, The Open Court,
vol. 27 (1913), pp. 310-315. and physiological ex-
to elude ordinary physical

Parallelism: (philosophical) A doctrine advanced planation. The term was proposed by Boirac
to explain the relation between mind and body (1893) and was adopted by Florunay and
Oesterreich. See A. Lalande, Vocabulaire de la
according to which mental processes vary con-
philosophic, Vol. II, p. 646. See Prescience,
comitantly with simultaneous physiological proc-
esses. This general description is applicable to Telepathy. L.W.
all forms of the theory. More strictly it as- Parinama-vada: (Skr.) Theory of evolution ex-
sumes that for every mental change there exists pounded by the Sankhya (q.v.), according to
a correlated neural change, and it denies any which the disturbed equilibrium between two
causal relation between the series of conscious primary substances (prakrti and purusa) is re-
processes and the series of processes of the sponsible for change. K.F.L.
nervous system, acknowledging, however, causa- Parmenides: 6th-5th century B.C., head of the
tion within each series. It was designed to Eleatic School of Greek Philosophy} developed
obviate the difficulties encountered by the diverse the conception of "Being" in opposition to the
interaction theories. Moreover, no form of "Becoming" of Heraclitus. To think at all we
parallelism admits the existence of a spiritual must postulate something which is; that which
substance or a substantial soul. Some regard isnot cannot be thought, and cannot be. Thought
consciousness as the only reality, the soul which is without being or being without thought are im-
but an actuality, as the sum of psychic acts whose possible, and the two are therefore identical. At
unity consists in their coherence. Others accept the same time the "Being" of Parmenides is that
the teaching of the fundamental identity of mind which fills space} non-being is empty space.
and body, regarding the two corresponding series Empty space therefore cannot be, and if empty
of psychical and physical processes as aspects of space or the "Void" cannot be then the plurality
an unknown series of real processes. Thus mind of individual things is equally not real since
and body are but appearances of a hidden under- this results from the motion of the "full" in the
lying unity. Finally there are those who hold "void". There is thus for Parmenides only one
that the series of conscious states which con- "Being" without inner differentiation; this alone
stitute the mind
but an epiphenomenon, or a
is really while the particularity of individual
is,
sort of by-product of the bodily organism. See things is appearance, illusion. Homogeneous and
Mind-Body Relation. JJ.R. unchangeable "Being" is the only reality. M.F.
Parallelism, psychophysical : (Gr. parallelos, Parmenides' main extant work is a poem
from para, beside allelon, of one another)
"On Truth."
A dualistic solution of the mind-body problem Parousia: (Gr. presence) In Plato's philosophy,
(see Mind-body relation) which asserts, in its the presence of the Idea in the thing which, in
extreme form, a perfect one-to-one correlation turn, partakes of the Idea; in theology, the pres-
226 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ence of Christ after his return to future before it became present. The ontological
prophesied
earth. K.F.L. status of the past is uncertain, insofar as it has

Parsimony, Law of: Name given to various no existence at the moment when it is called
statements of a general regulative principle of past yet cannot be designated as unconditionally
non-existent in the sense applicable to fiction or
economy of thought, or effort, in the use of
means to attain a purpose, like that of William untruth. R.B.W.
of Ockham (died about 1349), called Ockham's Patanjali: The author of the Yogasutras (q.v.),
razor. Entia non sunt multtplicanda praeter not identical with the famous Hindu grammarian
necessitatem. It is interpreted in the sense that by the same name. K.F.L.
the least possible number of assumptions are to Patripassianism : (Lat. pater, father; patior, suf-
be made in the attempt to explain ascertained fer) The
teaching that God suffers. In Christian
facts. It has been supposed that the same prin- thought this view was held by Sabellius (fl. first
of simplicity prevails in the physical cos- half of third century) in connection with the
ciple
mos, since apparently nature employs the fewest sufferings of Jesus conceived to be God mani-
possible means effectively to attain the ends
fested. F.F.
which are intended. J.J.R. Patristic Philosophy: The advent of Christian
Particular: (Lat. pars, a part) A member of revelation introduced a profound change in the
a class as opposed to the property which de- history of philosophy. New
God, facts about
fines the class; an individual as opposed to a the world and man were juxtaposed to the con-
univeisal. A.C B. clusions of pagan philosophy, while reason was
Particular In traditional logic, at once presented with the problem of reconcil-
proposition:
propositions A, E
(excepting singular forms, ac- ing these facts with the pagan position and the
task of constructing them into a new science
cording to some) were called universal and /, O,
A.C. called theology.
particular. See Logic, formal, 4.

Particulate: An adjective which means, having In general, patristic philosophy is differenti-

the form of minute particles, or assuming such ated from medieval and modern philosophies in

a form. Also a verb now almost obsolete which

that it failed to
distinguish adequately between
into or the conclusions of reason and the facts of revela-
signified, to divide parts mentally, to
tion. Philosophy, theology and the truths of
separate into really existing particles. Formerly
it also meant, to particulaiize. J.J.R. religion made one amorphous body of truth.
Parva Naturalia: The name traditionally given However, three stages mark the development of
to a series of short treatises by Aristotle on psy- patristic thought. (1) From dawn of Christian
Era 200: The Fathers of this period, most
to
chological and biological topics viz. De Sensu
et De Memoua et Reminiscentia, De of them converts from paganism,
Sensibilt, proclaimed
De Somntts, De Divinatione per Som- the Christian religion as "the true philosophy."
Somno t

nium, De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae, De Vita Their works were mostly apologetic in nature,
et Morte, De Resptrattone. G.R.M. directed either against pagan prejudices and

Pascal, Blaise: (1623-1662) French philosophei, misconceptions or the religious speculations of

mathematician and scientist. He conducted scien-
tific researches including experiments on at-
mospheric pressure and invented an ingenious
calculating machine. He turned from preoccupa-
tion with the scientific to the study of man and
his spiritual problems and found faith as a
sounder guide than reason. At this stage of his
Gnosticism. (2) From 200 to circa 450: With
the catechetic school of Alexandria and in par-
ticular with Clement and Origen, the work of
reconciliation between Hellenistic philosophy
and the Christian religion formally begins. This
period is characterized by the formulation of
Christian truths in the terminology and frame-

thought, theology becomes central. These work of Greek thought. It ends with the gigan-
thoughts developed in his Provincial Lei-
arc tic synthesis of Augustine (354-430), whose
ten and fusion of Neo-Platonic thought and Christian
posthumously published master-
in his

pieces of style, the Pensees. L.E.D. truthmolded society and furnished the tradition,
Passive Empiricism: The doctrine that knowl- cultureand mental background for Christian

edge comes by way of experience with the em- Europe up to the end of the 14th century. (3)
From 450 to the %th century During thh
phasis upon the negative character of the mind.
The mind can act only upon the stimulus of period there is a general decline until the Car-
contact with the world outside itself. lovingian renaissance. Great names are not
John
Locke furnishes an example of this view. See lacking, such as those of Pseudo-Denis th
Tabula rasa. V.F. Areopagite, John Damascene, Boethius and Isi-
dore of Seville, however, the originality and
Past: That part of time, continuously growing,
spiritual elevation of an Augustine are not to
vhich includes all the events which have already
be found. The period is generally characterized
happened. Their relationship with other past
events R.ff.W. by the elaboration and systematization of truths
generally regarded as fixed.
is

Past-Time: All the extent of time preceding a already formularized. Platonic and Neo-Platonic
influences predominate, though Aristotle's logic
given event or experience; the term is occasion-
holds an honored place throughout this pre-
ally confined to that extent of preceding time
Scholastic era. Cf. Migne's Patrologiae Latinae.
\\hich is relevant to a given event or experience.
Obviously enough, past-time is not a permanent H.Gu.
condition unrelated to the succession of events Patterns of learning: Reaction modes, physio-
anything that is past has been piesent and also logical habit systems. J.E.B.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 227
Peano, Giuseppe, 1858-1932, Italian mathemati- vant philosophical problems but from whom he
cian. Professor of mathematics at the University differed on almost every solution. He was ex-
of Turin, 1890-1932. His work in mathematical cited by Darwin, whose doctrine of evolution
logic marks a transition stage between the old coincided 'with his own thought, and disciplined
algebra of logic and the newer methods. It is by laboratory experience in the physical sciences
inferior to Frege's by present standards of which inspired his search for rigor and demon-
rigor,
but nevertheless
contains important advances, stration throughout his work. Felt himself deep-
among which may be mentioned the distinction ly opposed to Descartes, whom he accused of
between class inclusion ( = ) and class member-
being responsible for the modern form of the
ship (e) which had previously been confused nominalistic error. Favorably inclined toward
and the introduction of a notation for formation Duns Scotus, from whom he derived his realism.
of a class by abstraction
(q. v.). His logical a sub-class of the science of dis-
Philosophy is
notations are more convenient than and
Frege's, covery, in turn a branch of theoretical science.
many of them are still in common use. The function of philosophy is to explain and
Peano's first publication on mathematical logic hence show unity in the variety of the universe.
was the introduction to his Calcolo All in or the
Geometrico, philosophy takes its start logic,
1888. His postulates for arithmetic (see arith- relations of signs to their "objects, and phenom-
metic, foundations of} appeared in his Anth- enology, or the brute experience of the objective
metices Princtpia (1889) and in revised form in actual world. The conclusions from these two
Sul concetto di numero (Rivista di meet
Matematica, studies in the three basic metaphysical cate-
vo'v 1 (1891)), and were and representation.
repeated in successive gories: quality, reaction,
volumes (more properly, editions) of his Fortnu- Quality is firstness or spontaneity, reaction is
latre de Mathematiques and representation
(1894-1908). The last- secondness or actuality, is

named work, written with the aid of collabora- thirdness or possibility. Realism (q-v.) is

tors, was intended to provide a reduction of all explicit in the distinction of the modes of being:
mathematics to symbolic notation, and often the actuality as the field of reactions; possibility as
encyclopedic aspect was stressed as much as, or the field of quality (or values) and representa-
more than, that of logical .analysis. tion (or relations). He was much concerned to
Peano is known also for other contributions establish the icalism of scientific method that
to mathematics, including the discovery of the the postulates, implications and conclusions of
area-filling curve which bears his name, and for science are the results of inquiry yet presup-
his advocacy of Latino sine flextone as an inter- posed by it. He was responsible foi piagmatism
national language. A, C. as a method of philosophy that the sum of
P. E B Tourdam, Giuseppe Peano, The Quar- the practical consequences which lesult by neces-
terly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, sity from the truth of an intellectual conception
vol 43 (1912), pp. 270-314 Giuseppe Peano,
constitutes the entite meaning of that concep-
supplement to Schola et Vita, Milan, 1928. U.
Cassina, Vita et opera de Giuseppe Peano, Schola tion. Author of the ethical piinciple that the
et Vita, vol. 7 (1932), pp 117-148 E Stamm, limited duration of all finite
things logically
J6zei Peano, Wiadomosci Matematyczne, vol. 36
demands
(1933), pp 1-56. U Cassina, L opera scieniifica
the identification of one's interests with
di Giuseppe Peano, Rendiconti del Seminario those of an unlimited community of persons and
Matematico e fisico di Milano, vol 7 (1933), In
U. Cassina, L oeurre philosophique
things. his cosmology the flux of actua'ity
pp 323-389
de G. Peano, Revue de Mtaphysique et de Morale, left to itself develops those systematic charactei-
vol 40 (1933), pp 481-491. isticswhich are usually associated with the realm
Peirce, Charles Sanders: American Philosopher. of possibility. There is a logical continuity to
Born in Cambridge, Mass, on September 10th, chance events which through indefinite repetition
1839. Harvard M.A. in 1862 and Sc. B. in beget order, as illustrated in the tendency of all
1863. Except for a brief career as lecturer in things to acquire habits. The desire of all things
philosophy at Harvard, 1864-65 and 1869-70, to come together in this certain older renders
and in logic at Johns Hopkins, 1879-84, he love a kind of evolutionaiy force. Exerted a
did no formal teaching. Longest tenure was strong influence both on the American prag-
with the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- matist, William James (1842-1910), the instru-
vey for thirty years beginning in 1861. Died at mentalist, John Dewey (1859-), as well as on
Milford, Pa. in 1914. He had completed the idealist, Josinh Royce (18^-1916), and
only one work, The Grand Logic, published many others. J.K.F.
posthumously (Coll. Papers). Edited Studies in Peirce's law: The theorem of the prepositional
Logic (1883). No volumes published during his calculus,
lifetime but author of many lectures, essays and IIP
= *]=*]=* A C ' -

reviews in periodicals, particularly in the Popular Pelagianism The teaching of Pelagius of Britain
:

Science Monthly, 1877-78, and in The Monist, who was active during the first quarter of the
1891-93, some of which have been reprinted in fifth century in Rome, North Africa, and Pales-

Chance, Love and Logic (1923), edited by tine. He denied original sin and the necessity
Morris R. Cohen, and, together with the best of baptism in order to be freed fiom it. Death
of his other work both published and unpub- vas not a punishment for sin, and men can be
lished, in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders saved without the aid of divine grace. By jus-
Peirce (1931-35), edited by Charles Hartshorne tification men are puigcd of their sins through
and Paul Weiss. He was most influenced by faith alone. Pelagius was notably influenced bv
Kant, who had, he thought, raised all the rele- Stoic doctrines. He and his followers refused to
228 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
submit to the decisions of the Church, which Pulitzer Prize for 1936. During the first World
repeatedly condemned their tenets, largely owing War he served as a major with the War De-
to the efforts of Augustine. JJ.R. partment Committee on Education and Special
Perception: (Lat. pcrcepti o, from percipere, Training and this service has evidenced itself in
to perceive) (a) In contemporary psychology his fervent advocacy of a militant democracy.
and epistemology: Perception is the apprehen- Among his works are:
Philosophical Present
sion of ordinary sense-objects, such as trees, Tendencies; Philosophy of the Recent Pastt
houses, chairs, etc., on the occasion of sensory General Theory of Value, 1926$ Thought and
stimulation. Perception is distinguished, on the Charter of Wm. James, 2 vols., 193Sj Shall
one hand, from sensation (the apprehension of .
Not Perish From the Earth, 1941. See Neo-
isolated sense qualities) and on the other hand, Realism. L.E.D.
from higher ideational processes of imagination, Perseity: (Lat. per se) The- condition of being
remembrance, conception and reasoning. The per se, by itself, that is being such as it is from
percept or vehicle of perception consists of ac- its very nature. Perseity must not be confused
tually given sense qualities supplemented by with aseity. The former implies independence
imaginatively supplied qualities which on the of a subject in which to inhere, whereas the
basis of earlier experience are ascribed to the latter demands a still higher degree of inde-
perceived object. pendence of any efficient or producing agency
(b) In early modern philosophy, perception whatsoever^ it is predicated of God alone.
was used in a much wider sense than (a). Thus, Thomas Aquinas held: Quod est per se, semper
for Bacon, perception designated the mind's sub- est prius eo quod est per aliud. That which
jection to external influence and its adaptive re- exists per se is always a substance. This mode
action to such influence. (De Augmentis, IV, 3.) of existence is distinguished from that which is
Descartes and Spinoza designated by perception per accidens, that is something which is not
intellectualrather than sensuous apprehension essential, but only belongs to a subject more or
(see 32 and Spinoza's
Descartes, Principles, I,
less fortuitously. A thing is per se owing to its

Ethics, II, prop. 40

and Leibniz under-
schol. 2) internal constitution, or essence, but that which
stood by perceptions the internal state of one is per accidens is due rather to external or non-

monad whereby it takes cognizance of other essential Thomas Aquinas taught that
reasons.
monads. onadology,M 21 L.W. .
that which per accidens, non potest esse semper
is

et in
omnibus, whereas that which belongs to
Perception, non-sensory: As the opposite of
imagining, it lacks the sensory content. Space something per se, de necessitate et semper et
and time have-this characteristic as inseparabiliter ei inest. Duns Scotus held that
experienced
by man. (Montague.) H.H. per se esse may be understood in the sense of
Perception, pure: Is a form of action rather being incommunicable, incommunicabiliter esse,
or per se subsistere, subsisting by
than a form of cognition. Involves an actual itself, not by
another. In human acts that which is
presence of external objects to the sense or- directly
the reflection of the intended is per se, while that which is per ac-
gansi} is
body's virtual or
cident is praeter intentionem. Rational
possible action upon these beings
objects, or of the tend toward the good, or that which is regarded
object's possible action upon the The
body. as good. If the good is intended for itself it is
consciousness of perception is a measure of its
indetermination.
bonum per se, otherwise it is a bonum per ac-
(Bergson.) H.H. cidens or secundum quid, that Is
Percepts: The abbreviation for perceptual data. relatively good.
JJ.R.
Perfectibility: The optimistic belief in the abil- Persian Philosophy: Persia was a vast empire
ity of man to attain an eventual
complete before the time of Alexander the Great, embrac-
realization of his moral possibilities. Opposed not most of
ing only the oriental tribes of
to the various
philosophies and theologies of Western Asia but also the Greeks of Asia
moral pessimism (e.g., the sinfulness
and moral
impotence of man, original
Minor, the Jews and the Egyptians. If we con-
in sin, Augustinian- centrate on the central section of Persia, three
ism, Lutheramsm, Barthianism, et F.F.
al.).
See Condorcet, Enlightenment. philosophic may be distinguished: (1)
periods

Perfectionism: The
Zoroastrianism (including Mithraism and Ma-
ethical
theory that perfec-
own gianism), (2) Manichaeanism, and (3) medieval
tion, our or that of others or
both, is the Persian thought. Zarathustra (Gr. Zoroaster)
end at which we ought to
aim, where perfec- lived before 600 B.C. and wrote the Avesta,
tion involves virtue
chiefly and sometimes also
the cultivation of one's apparently in the Zend language. It is primarily
talents or endowments. but the teaching that there are two
religious,
D . . W.K.F. ultimate principles of reality, Ortnazd, the God
Peripatetics: See Aristotelianism. of Light and Goodness, and Ahriman, God of
Peripety: (Gr. peripeteia) A sudden reversal of Evil and Darkness, is of philosophic importance.
condition or fortunes considered by Aristotle
j
They are eternally fighting. Mitra is the inter-
as an essential element in the
plot of a tragedy. mediary between Ormazd and man. In the third
century A.D., Man! of Ecbatana (in Media)
Perry Ralph Barton: (1876-) ProfessoT^mt combined this dualism of eternal principles with
losophy at Harvard University. He was one of some of the doctrines of Christianity. His seven
the founders of the new realist movement. books are now known only through second-hand
His
classic biography of William
James won the reports of Mohammedan (Abu Faradj Ibn Ishaq,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 229
10th c., and Sharastani, 12th c.) and Christian the World Ground and mediated through per-
(St. Ephrcm, 4th c., and Bar-Khoni, 7th c.) sonality)
writers. St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) Logically, the pragmatic assumption that life
has left several works criticizing Manichaeism, is superior to logical form)
*
which he knew at first-hand. From the ninth Ethically, that values are real and based in
century onward, many of the great Arabic phi- the Cosmic Nature.
losophers are of Persian origin. Mention might While the term Personalism is modern It

be made of the epicureanism of the Rubaiyat of stands for an old way of thinking which grows
the Persian poet, Omar Kayyam, and the re- out of the attempt to interpret the self as a
markable metaphysical system of Avicenna, i.e. part phenomenological experience. Person-
of
Ibn Sina (llth c.), who was born in Persia. alistic elements found expression in Heraclitus'
VJ.B. (536-470 B.C.) statement: "Man's own char-
Persistence* The condition of enduring in time, acter is his daemon" (Fr. 119), and in his as-

with or without change. R.B.W. sertion of the Logos as an enduring principle of

Person: (in Max The concrete unity of

Scheler) permanence in a world of change. These ele-
acts. Individual person, and total person, with ments are traceable likewise in the cosmogony
the former not occupying a preferential position. of Anaxagoras (500-430 B.C.), who gave phi-

P.A.S. losophy an anthropocentric trend by affirming

In scholasticism: The classic definition
that mind "regulated all things, what they were
is
is an individual sub-
to be, what they were and what they are") the
given by Boethius: person
stance of rational nature. As individual it is force which arranges and guides (Fr. 12).

material, since matter supplies the principle of
individuation. The soul is not person, only the
Man alone the material
composite is. is among
beings person, he alone having a rational nature.
He is the highest of the material beings, en-
dowed with particular dignity and rights. R.A.
Personal Equation: (a) Discrepancy between the
chronological measurements of different scientific
observers due to their differing reaction times.
The error was first discovered in astronomical
measurements but is a recognized source of error
in all scientific measurements.
(b) The term has been extended to include
all observational error due to the intrusion of
idiosyncrasies of individual observers.
Personal Idealism: The affirmation of reality in
the person and the personal nature of the
World-Ground. Synonymous with Absolutistic
Personal! sm.-*-JR . T.F.
Personal Identity: (Lat. persona)
identity is individual identity as possessed by
a person or self. Any individual, whether an
inanimate thing, a living organism or a con-
scious self, is identical in so far as
preserves
from moment to moment a similarity of struc-
ture. Personality identity involves in addition
the conscious recognition of sameness. L.W.
Personalism: (Lat. persona, actor's mask) A
modern term applied to any philosophy which
considers personality the supreme value and tht
key to the meaning of reality.
Typical or original Personalism was theistic,
the term being first used in America (1863) by
Bronson Alcott for "the doctrine that the ulti-
mate reality of the world is a Divine Person
who sustains the universe by a continuous act of
creative will."(Odell Shepard: Pedlar's Prog-
ress,, p.494.)
Protagoras (cir. 480-410 B.C.) emphasized the
personalistic character of knowledge in the
famous dictum: "Man is the measure of all
.
things."
The doctrine of the person reached its high
point in Greek philosophy in Socrates (469-399
B.C.) who recognized the soul or self as the
center from which sprang all man's actions.
Plato (427-347 B.C.) recognized the person
in his doctrine of the soul, but turned the direc-
tion of thought toward dominance by the ab-
stract Idea.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) made his contribu-
tion by insisting that only the concrete and
individual could be real.
L.W.
St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.) asserted that
thought, and therefore the thinker, was the most
certain of all things.
To Bogthius (475-525) it was given to fur-
nish the philosophy and definition of the person
Personal that held for the Middle Ages: "A person is
the individual substance of a rational nature."
The importance of the person in Scholastic
thought insured the personalistic concepts until
it they found expression in the work of Thomas
Aquinas (1225-1274).
The renewal of philosophy signalized by Des-
cartes introduced a long line of personalistic
thinkers in France who under various classifica-
main opposition to naturalism,
tions offered the
materialism and positivism. Among these were
Geulincx (1625-1669), Occasionalism) Male-
branche (1638-1715), Activism) de Lignac
(1710-1769), Theistic Personalism; de Biran
(1766-1824), Philosophy of Effort) Cournot
(1801-1877), Probabilism, Vitalism) Ravaisson
(1813-1900), Spiritual Realism) Renouvier
(1815-1903), Neo-criticism, Personalism) Lache-
lier (1832-1918), Spiritual Realism) Boutroux

Theistic Personalism was given systematic (1845-1921), Philosophy of Discontinuity) Berg-

form in America by Borden Parker Bowne son (1859-1941), Philosophy of Change, In-
(1847-1910) for whom it implied: tuitionism.

Metaphysically, the personal nature of the In Germany the first use of the word person-
World Ground) alism seemshave been by Schleiermacher
to

Epistemologically, a knowledge validated by (1768-1834) and later by Hans Dreyer, Tro-

the common source of thought and thing in eltsch, and Rudolf Otto. Among German Per-
230
gonalistswould be included G. H. Leibniz
(1646-1716), Monadismj R. H. Lotze (1817-
1881),Teleological Personalism} Rudolf Eucken
(1846-1926), Theistic Personalism, Vitalism;
Max Scheler (1874-1928), Phenomenological
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tion. The point of view of an individual on
the rest of existence, (a) In epistemology: the
limited though real
perspective predicament, the
of the individual} the plight of being
viewpoint
confined to the experience of only part of

Personalism} William Stern (1871-1939), Criti- actuality, (b) In psychology: the perception of
cal Personalism, Pantheistic Personalism. relative distance by means of the apparent
In England many Theistic Personalists have differences in the size of objects.

appeared since Berkeley (1710-1796),

Bishop In aesthetics: The sense of depth and dis-
Subjectivism, Subjective Idealism} including A. tance in painting as in poetry. Term used also
C. Frazer (1819-1914)} T. H. Green (1836- for time elapsed. J.K.F.
1882)} Edward Caird (1835-1908)} James Pessimism: (Lat. pessimus, the worst) The atti-

Ward (1843-1925), Singularism} A. J. Balfour tude gained by reflection on life, man, and the
(1848-1930)} J. Cook Wilson (1849-1915)} world (psychiatrically explained as due to neu-
W. R. Sorley (1855-1935). Also English were rotic or other physiological conditions, economi-

H. W.
Carr (1857-1931), Monadistic Person- cally to over-population, mechanization, rampant
alism, F. C. S. Schiller (1864-1937), Human- utilitarianism} religiously to lack of faith; etc.)
ism, Personalism; J. M. E. McTaggart (1866- which makes a person gloomy, despondent, mag-
1925, Atheistic Personalism. nifying evil and sorrow, or holding the world
In America we have among Theistic Person- in contempt. Rationalizations of this attitude
alists in Ladd (1842-
addition to Bowne, G. T. have been attempted before Schopenhauer (as in
1921)} J. W. Buckham
(1864-); Mary Whiton Hesiod, Job, among the Hindus, in Byron,
Calkins (1863-1930), Personal Idealism, Abso- Giacomo Leopard!, Heine, Musset, and others),
lutistic Personalism; G. A. Wilson but never with such vigor, consistency, and
(1864-1941);
H. A. Youtz (1867-), R. T. Flewelling acumen, so that since his Welt als Wille und
(1871-), Personal Realism; A. C. Knudson Vorstellung we speak of a 19th century philo-
E. sophic literature of pessimism which considers
(1873-)} S. Brightman (1884-), "The
Given". Though probably rejecting the term thisworld the worst possible, holds man to be
born to sorrow, and thinks it best if neither
personalism, a view of American Personalism
would be incomplete without mention of W. T. existed. Buddhism (q-v.) blames the universal
Harris (1835-1909), G. W. Howison (1834- existence of pain, sorrow, and death; Schopen-

1916), Josiah Royce (1815-1916), G. T. W. hauer the blind, impetuous will as the very stuff
life and the world are made of; E. v. Hart-
Patrick (1857-); J. E. Boodin (1869-); J. A.
Leighton (1870-); W. E. Hocking (1873-),
mann the alogical or irrational side of the all-

J. B. Pratt (1875-), Personal Realism. Among powerful subconscious, Oswald Spengler the Oc-
cidental tendency toward civilization and hence
contemporary Personalists abroad mention should
be made of Ph. the impossibility of extricating ourselves from
Kohnstamm, Holland, Critical the
decay as natural terminus of all organic
Personalism; N. Losski (1870-), Prague, Or-
existence. All pessimists, however, suggest com-
ganismic Personalism, N. Berdyaev (1874-),
Paris; Maurice Blondel (1861-1939), pensations or remedies; thus. Buddhism looks
Pans, Ac-
tivism ; Ch, Baudouin ( 1 hopefully to nirvana (?.v.), Schopenhauer to the
893-) Geneva Radelescu-
; ,

Motru, Bucharest. In France also should be Idea, v. Hartmann to the rational, Spengler to
noted the leader of the Personalistic movement a rebirth through culture. See Optimism.
which might be denominated Political Person- K.F.L.
Petites Perceptions: (Fr. little perceptions)
alism, E. Mounier. R.T.F.
Term by which Leibniz designates confused and
Personalism, Critical: The term used by Wil-
liam Stern to define his unconscious perceptions. (Cf. The Monadology,
concept of as
person
Sects. 21, 23.) The Leibnizian theory of petites
applied to the organic whole of existence. See
Pantheistic Personalism, Mono-Personalistn. perceptions anticipates the modern theory of
unconscious mind. See Unconscious Mind.
R.T.F.
L.W.
Personalities : Term used by William Stern in
Petitio principu, or begging the question, is a
psychology to indicate a study of the facts that
fallacy involving the assumption as premisses of
are true of man as a meaningful living whole one or more propositions which are identical
a fundamental science of the human person. with (or in a simple fashion equivalent to) the
The Personality XVIII, R.T.F.
p. 50.
conclusion to be proved, or which would require
Personality: The totality of mental traits char-
the conclusion for their proof, or which are
acterizing an individual personality or self. See
L.W. stronger than the conclusion and contain it as a
Self.
particular case or otherwise as an immediate
Personal Realism: That type of Personalism
consequence. There is a fallacy, however, only
emphasizes the metaphysical nature
which of
if the premisses assumed (without proof) are
in natural
personality, its continuous activity illegitimate for some other reason than merely
phenomena, and its unanalyzable or realistic
their relation to the conclusion e.g., if they
character as experienced fact, the ultimate real, are not among the avowed presuppositions of
the object of immediate knowledge. R.T.F.
the argument, or if they are not admitted by an
Perspective: (Lat. perspectus, pp. of perspicio, opponent in a dispute. A. C.
to look through) The determination of inclur-
Phala: (Skr.) "Fruit", result, effect. AT.F.L.
siveness of what can be actual for any organiza-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 231
Phantasm: (Gr. appearance) Term
phantasma, (Renouvier, Shadworth, Hodgson), or (b) ex-
used by Hobbea to designate an image or repre-
pressly affirms the reality of things-in-themselves
sentation directly given to the percipient. See but denies their knowability. (Kant, Comte,
Elements of Philosophy Concerning Body, Part Spencer.) See Hume. L.W.
IV, ch. XXV. L.W. Phenomenal World The world of appearance as
:

Phantasy: (in Scholasticism) The internal sense

opposed to the world as-it-is-in-itself. The only
perceptive of objects, even of absent objects, world we know, said Kant, is the world-we-
previously perceived by the external sense. The
know, (appearance). The real world is beyond
phantasm is the species of the object perceived our knowledge. V.F.
by an internal sense and retained in the phan- Phenomenological Personalism: Applied to
//.<?.
tasy. the system of Max Scheler.-*- R.T.F.
Pharisaism: The
most characteristic type of Phenomenology: Since the middle of the
Palestinian Judaism at the time of Christ. This Eighteenth Century, "Phanomenologie>" like its
group is to be thought of as the remnant of English equivalent, has been a name for several
the traditional culture of the ancient Hebrews.
disciplines, an expression for various concepts.
Scorched by the memory of the Lambert, in his Neue Organon (1764), attached
long struggle
between their fathers' and other cultures which the name "Phdnomenologie" to the theory of
resulted in the
unhappy Captivity, de- these the appearances fundamental to all empirical
scendants took on a more militant nationalism knowledge. Kant adopted the word to express
and a more rigid loyalty to traditional a though more restricted sense in his
similar
customs,
teaching their children in schools of their own Metaphysische Anjangsgrunde der Na/uitvtssen-
(the Synagogue) the religion of the ancient schaft (1786). On the other hand, in Hegel's
sacred covenant. Since their ways separated Phanomenologte des Geistes (1807) the same
sharplyfrom their brethren in the dispersion
word expresses a radically different concept. A
and from the less nationalistic minded at home precise counterpart of Hegel's title was employed
they acquired the party name (from the second by Hamilton to express yet another meaning. In
century B.C.) "Pharisees." Their leaders were "The Divisions of Philosophy" (Lectures on
devout students of the written and oral tradi- Metaphysics, 1858), after stating that "Philoso-
tions which they regarded as the Divine Will phy properly so called" is "conversant about
(Torah). To this tradition they added detailed Mind," he went on to say. "If we consider the
codes of rigorous religious living.
mind merely with the view of observing and
Popular
among the masses they were generalizing the various phaenomena it reveals,
comparatively few
in number
although powerful in influence.
... we have one department of mental
. . .

Pharisaism was a book-centered science, and this we may call the Phaenomenol-
religion, strong-
ly monotheistic, intensely legalistic, teaching a ogy of Mind." Similarly Moritz Lazarus, in his
national and social Lehen der Seele (1856-57), distinguished Pha-
gospel of redemption by an
expectant supernatural visitation. The term nomenologte from Psychologic The former de-
"Pharisaic" unfortunately has scribes the phenomena of mental life; the latter
acquired a sinister
seeks their causal explanation.
meaning, probably due to certain N.T. state-
ments linking Pharisees with
hypocrites. R. T.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) was the first to

Herford in his Pharisaism

(1912) and The apply the name "Phanomenologte" to a whole
Pharisees (1924) has shown that this philosophy. His usage, moreover, has largely
religious
party was preeminently spiritually minded even determined the senses commonly attached to
though legalistic and not sufficiently understood it and cognate words in the Twentieth Century.
by Christian traditionalists. V.F. In his Logische Unteisuchttngen (1900-01),
Phase: (chemical, physical) A term Husserl gave the name to such investigations
referring to
a homogeneous and theories as make up most of that work and
composition of matter, either
solid, or gaseous. All three of the only published volume of his Philosophic
liquid, phases of a
der Arithmetik (1891). This established what
single substance may co-exist. W.MM.
Phase Rule: was to remain the primary denotation of the
(chemical, physical) relationship A
between the number of
components (C), phases
term in all his later writings. On the other
and hand owing to changes in his concept of his
(P), degrees of freedom (F) (variability)
of a heterogeneous
system with respect to pres- unchanging theme the explicit connotation of
sure and temperature and similar intensive vari- the term, as used by him, underwent develop-
ables when in equilibrium: P F C 2. + =
-f
ment and differentiation.
In the first edition of the Logiiche Unter-
Discovered by J. W. Gibbs (1839-1903).
sucAungen, phenomenology was defined (much
W.M.M. as it had been by Hamilton and Lazarus) as
Phenomena: See Appearances.
descriptive analysis of subjective processes Er-
Phenomenalism: (Gr. phainomenon, from lebnisse. Thus its theme was unqualifiedly identi-
phainesthai, to appear) Theory that knowledge fied with what was commonly taken to be the
is limited to phenomena including (a) physical central theme of psychology; the two disciplines
phenomena or the totality of objects of actual were said to differ only in that psychology sets
and possible perception and (b) mental phenom- up causal or genetic laws to explain what phe-
ena, the totality of objects of introspection. nomenology merely describes. Phenomenology
Phenomenalism assumes two forms according as was called "pure" so far as the phenomenologist
it: (a) denies a reality behind the phenomena distinguishes the subjective from the objective
232 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and from looking into either the genesis
refrains emendations in the second edition of the
of subjective phenomena or their relations to Logische Untersuchungen serve to clarify this
somatic and environmental circumstances. Hus- freedom of phenomenology from all presupposi-
serl's "Prolegomena ur reinen Logikf pub- tions of actual individual existence particularly,
'

lished as the first part of the Logische Unter- psychic existence.

suchungen, had elaborated the concept of pure 2. Under the influence of Franz Brentano
logic, a theoretical science independent of em-
(1838-1917), Husserl coined the name "Inten-
pirical knowledge and having a distinctive tionalitat" for what he saw as the fundamental
theme: the universal categorial forms exempli- character of subjective processes. The reflectively
fied in possible truths, possible facts, and their experiencable part of one's stream of conscious-
respective components. The fundamental con- ness is, on the one hand, consciousness of sub*
cepts and laws of this science, Husserl main- jective processes as immanent in the stream
tained, are genuine only if they can be estab- itselfand, on the other hand, consciousness of
lished by observing the matters to which they other objects as transcending the stream. This
apply. Accordingly, to test the genuineness of character of subjective processes as consciousness
logical theory, "wir wollen auf die 'Sac hen of, as processes in which something is intended,
selbst* zuruckgehen" we will go, from our
: is a property they have intrinsically, regardless
habitual empty understanding of this alleged of whether what is intended in them exists.
science, back to a seeing of the logical forms Seeing intentionality as the fundamental attrib-
themselves. But it is then the task of pure ute of subjective processes, Husserl held that
phenomenology to test the genuineness and range phenomenology must describe them not only
of this "seeing," to distinguish it from other with respect to their immanent components hut
ways of being conscious of the same or other also with respect to their intended objects, as
matters. although pure phenomenology
Thus, intended, in the language of his Ideen, phe-
and pure are mutually independent dis-
logic nomenological description must be "noematic,"
ciplines with separate themes, phenomenological as well as "noetic" and "hyletic."

analysis is indispensible to the critical justifica- Every conscious process intends its objects as
tion of logic. In like manner, Husserl main- in a context with others, some intended as pre-
tained, it is necessary to the criticism of other sented, others intended as to become presented
alleged knowledge} while, in another way, its if intended future consciousness takes a particu-

descriptions are prerequisite to explanatory psy- lar course. In other words, consciousness is
chology. However, when Husserl wrote the always an intentional predelineating of processes
Logische Untersuchungen, he did not yet con- in which objects will be intended, as the same
ceive phenomenological different within an all-inclusive objective
analysis as a method for or
dealing with metaphysical problems. context: the world. A pure phenomenology
The mostradical changes in this concept of should therefore describe not only particular in-
phenomenology and its relations to other dis- tended objects but also the intended world, as
ciplines had taken place before Husserl wrote intended as part of the "noematic-objective"
his Ideen u einer reinen Phiinomenologie und sense belonging to consciousness by virtue of
phanomenologischen Philosophic, of which the the latter's intrinsic intentionality. To be sure,
only published volume, "General Introduction in such noematic-objective description the phe-
to Pure Phenomenology," appeared in 1913. nomenologist must still disregard the actual re-
They resulted from a development having two lations of the described
subjective processes to
main aspects. other entities in the world. But, Husserl con-
1. Phenomenological analyses, partly sum- tended, when one disregards everything except
marized in the Logische Untersuchungen, had the intrinsic nature of subjective processes, one
led Husserl to the view that material (generic still can see their intentionality} therefore all

and specific) as well as logically formal uni- the and relations from which one has
entities

versals or essences are themselves
though non-individual, objects. Further analyses
showed that awareness of an essence as itself
presented might be based on either a clear ex-
periencing or a clear phantasying (fictive experi-
encing) of an example. In either case, the evi-
dence of the essence or eidos involves evidence
of some example as ideally possible but not as
actual. Consequently, a science like pure logic,
observable, abstracted can and should reappear as noe-
matic-intentional objects, within one's isolated
field. In particular, the disregarded status of
the observed stream of consciousness itself, its
status as related to other entities in the world,
as a noematic-objective tense which
reappears
the observed consciousness intends. Moreover, as
purely eidetic, phenomenology finds that the in-
trinsic character of any actual consciousness, as

whose theme includes nothing but essences and intending a world and itself as in that world,
essential possibilities, in Husserl's later termi- is an essentially necessary determination of any
nology, an eidetic science involves no asser- possible consciousness.
tion of actual existence. Husserl used these Husserl noted, however, that even when one's
views to redefine The analyses are thus pure, both abstractively and
phenomenology itself.
latter was now conceived explicitly as the eidetic eidetically, one naturally takes it for granted
science of the material essences exemplified in that possible consciousness is possible in some
subjective processes, qua pure possibilities, and (otherwise indefinite) world. That is
possible
was accordingly said to be pure also in the way to say, besides finding "the world" as part of

pure logic is pure. A large proportion of the

the intentional objective sense posited in the
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
consciousness under investigation, the investiga-
tor continues to apprehend this consciousness as
essentially worldly, even though he successfully
disregards even its possible relations to other
worldly objects. At this point, what Husserl
considered as the philosophically decisive change
in his concept of phenomenology ensues.
Before writing the Ideen, he had come to be-
lieve that, as the reflective observer of one's
subjective processes, one can establish and main-
tain the attitude of a mere onlooker, who does
not participate even in his own natural attitude
of believing in a possible world and apprehend-
ing his consciousness as essentially possible in
that world. If this attitude of self-restraint
(epoch6) is consistently maintained, one can
discriminate a status of one's consciousness more
fundamental than its actuality or its possibility
in a world and one can see that this essential
worldliness of consciousness is a reflexive con-
sequence of its more fundamental character as
consciousness of a world. One can then see,
furthermore, that every intendable object is es-
sentially, and most fundamentally, a noematic-
intentional object (a phenomenon) and has its
being and nature because consciousness regard-
less of the latter's secondary status as in the
world intrinsically an (actual or potential)
is
intending of that object, in a certain manner, as
having certain determinations. Such was Hus-
serl's contention.
In the Ideen and in later works, Husserl ap-
plied the epithet "transcendental" to conscious-
ness as it is aside from its (valid and necessary)
self-apperception as in a world. At the same
time, he restricted the term "psychic" to sub-
jectivity (personal subjects, their streams of con-
sciousness, etc.) in its status as worldly, animal,
human subjectivity. The contrast between trans-
cendental subjectivity and worldly being is
fundamental to'Husserl's mature concept of pure
phenomenology and to his concept of a universal
phenomenological philosophy. In the Ideen , this
pure phenomenology, defined at the eidetic
science of transcendental subjectivity, was con-
trasted with psychology, defined as the empirical
science of actual subjectivity in the world. Two
antitheses are involved, however: eidetic versus
factual, and transcendental versus psychic.
Rightly, they yield a four-fold classification,
which Husserl subsequently made explicit, in his
formate und transzendentale Logik (1929),
Nachtvort u meinen Ideen (1930), and Medita-
tions Cartesiennes (1931). In these works, he
spoke of psychology as including all knowledge
of worldly subjectivity while, within this science,
he distinguished an empirical or matter-of-fact
pure psychology and an eidetic pure psychology.
The former is "pure" only in the way phenom-
enology, as explicitly conceived in the first edi-
transcendehtal subjects. As one can describe
one's actual psychic subjectivity, so one can de-
scribe one's actual transcendental subjectivity
and thus produce an empirical transcendental
phenomenology. Again, as in the case of the
purely psychic, so in the case of the purely trans-
cendental, an eidetic reduction enables one to
233
tion of the Logische Untersuchungen, pure: is
actual psychic subjectivity is abstracted as its
exclusive theme; objects intended in the investi-
gated psychic processes are taken only as the
latter's noematic-intentional objects. Such an ab-
stractive and self-restraining attitude, Husserl
believed, is necessary, if one is to isolate the
psychic in its purity and yet preserve it in its
full intentionality. The instituting and main-
taining of such an attitude is called "psychologi-
cal epoch"; effect on the objects of psychic
its
consciousness called "psychological reduction."
is
As empiricism, this pure psychology describes the
experienced typical structures of psychic processes
and of the typical noematic objects belonging
inseparably to the latter by virtue of their in-
trinsic intentionality. Description of typical per-
sonalities and of their habitually intended worlds
also lies within its province. Having acquired
empirical knowledge of the purely psychic, one
may relax one's psychological epoche and inquire
into the extrapsychic circumstances under which,
e.g.,psychic processes of a particular type actu-
ally occur in the world. Thus an empirical pure
intentional psychology would become part of a
concrete empirical science of actual psychophysi-
cal organisms.
If the psychologist, having isolated some in-
stance of considers it only as a
subjectivity,
purely possible example of subjectivity in some
possible world, he is effecting a further, so-
called eidetic, reduction of the psychic and is in
the position to develop an eidetically pure phe-
nomenological psychology or (as Husserl also
called it) an eidetic psychological phenomenol-
ogy. He can discover, not merely empirical types
but essential psychic possibilities, impossibilities,
and necessities, in any possible world. Moreover,
eidetic reduction can be performed, not only on
the psychic but also on any other
abstractive
region of the world, e.g., the physical, the con-
cretely psychophysical, the cultural.
can de- We
velop purely eidetic sciences of every material
region (material ontologies), an eidetic science
of the formally universal region, "something or
other" (formal ontology, the formal logic of
possible being), and finally an all-embracing
science of the essential (formal and material)
compossibilities and non-compossibilities in any
possible concrete world. An eidetic psychological
phenomenology would thus become coordinated
in a universal eidetic science ofworldly being.
is yet a third kind of epohe that al-
There
legedly enables one to discriminate subjectivity
another kind
qua transcendental by effecting yet
of reduction, which Husserl eventually called
(In hii
"transcendental-phenomenological."
Ideen he called it simply "phenomenological.")
in-
By refraining from participation in one's
veterate (and justifiable) natural attitude of pre-
one's sub-
supposing the world and the status of
jectivityin the world, one can see the world
(and whatever else one may intend) as funda-
mentally a noematic-intentional object for trans-
cendental subjectivity for one's individual self,
the subject whose life is one's own transcen-
dental stream of consciousness, and for other
234 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
produce a purely eidetic science here an eidetic ing Husserl's cardinal principle that evidence
theme is the
transcendental phenomenology , the of seeing something that is itself presented
which is the absolutely universal domain of only ultimate source of knowledge, conceive
transcendental subjectivity in general, including their phenomenology more broadly and etymo-
the latter's noematic-objective sense: the entire logically, as explication of that which shows
world and all its possible variants. This eidetic itself, whatever may be the latter's nature and
transcendental phenomenology is what Husserl ontological status. D.C.
ordinarily meant when, in the Ideen or subse- Phenomenon: (Gr. phainomenon, Ger. Phae-
quent works, he spoke simply of "phenom- nomenon) In Kant: Broadly, appearance or that

enology." which appears. More any presenta-

specifically,
Because the difference between phenomenologi- tion, cognition or experience whose form and
cal pure psychology and transcendental phenom- order depends upon the synthetic forms of the
enology depends on a difference in attitude to- sensibility and categories of the understanding.
wards "the same" subject-matter, their contents In contrast to noumenon and thing-in-itself
are widely analogous. Husserl maintained, how- which lie outside the conditions of possible ex-
ever, that genuine philosophy is possible only as perience, and remain, therefore, theoretically un-
transcendental phenomenology, because it alone knowable. See Kantianism and Noumenon.
is knowledge of that non-worldly nucleus of O.F.K.
subjectivity in which everything intendable as Philo of Alexandria: (30 B.C.-SO A.D.) Jewish
immanent or as transcendent is constituted (pro- theologian and Neo-Platonic philosopher. He
duced, generated) as an essentially intentional held that Greek thought borrowed largely from
object. As envisaged in the Ideen and later Mosaic teachings and therefore justified his use
works, phenomenological analysis is chiefly
of Greek philosophy for the purpose of interpret-
"transcendental-constitutional" analysis of the ing Scripture in a spiritual sense. For Philo,
the renunciation of self and, through the divine
subjective structures in which the concrete indi-
vidual world is built up as an intersubjectively Logos in all men, the achievement of immediate
valid transcendent sense for transcendental sub- contact with the Supreme Being, is the highest
In the course of such analysis, every blessedness for man. M.F.
jectivity.
legitimate philosophical problem must find its Philosopheme :
(Gr. philosophema) An apodictic
definitive solution. From the transcendental- syllogism (Aristotle). G.R.M.
phenomenological standpoint, however, one tra- Philosopher, The: Generally used name for
ditionalproblem, namely the relation between Aristotle by medieval authors after the "recep-
what are essentially objects of consciousness and tion of Aristotle" from the early 13th century

"things-in-themselves" that are not essentially onwards. In earlier writers the name may refer
objects of consciousness, is seen to be spurious. to any head of a school 5 e.g. to Abelard in the
On the one hand, it is evidently false that all writings of his pupils. R.A.
directly presented objects of consciousness are Philosophes: French 18th century philosophers,
immanent in the mind, on the other hand, the e.g. Condorcet, Condillac, Rousseau, Voltaire
concept of an entity that is not an intentionally (q.v.).
constituted object of transcendental conscious- Philosopher King: In Plato's theory of the ideal
ness is evidently self-contradictory. This is the state rulership would be entrusted to philosopher
central thesis of what Husserl called his "trans- kings. These rulers would reach the top by
cendental-phenomenological idealism." sheer talent and merit after a long period of
The diversity of concepts that Husserl himself training the school of everyday work and
in

expressed by the word "phenomenology" has leadership and by a prescribed pattern of formal
been a source of diverse usages among thinkers discipline and study. The final test of leader-
who came under his influence and are often re- ship lay in the ability to see the truth of the
ferred to as "the phenomenological school." Platonic vision of a reality governed by uni-
Husserl himself always meant by "phenomenol- versal ideas and ideals. V.F.
ogy" a science of the subjective and its intended Philosophical Psychology: Philosophical psy-
objects qua intentional) this core of sense per- chology, in contrast to scientific or empirical
vades the development of his own concept of psychology, is concerned with the more specula-
phenomenology as eidetic, transcendental, con- tive and controversial issues relating to mind
stitutive. Some thinkers, appropriating only the and consciousness which, though arising in the
psychological version of this central concept, context of scientific psychology, have metaphysi-
have developed a descriptive intentional psychol- cal and epistemological ramifications. The prin-
ogy sometimes empirical, sometimes eidetic cipal topics of philosophical psychology are (a)
under the title "phenomenology." On the other the criteria of mentality (see Mental), (b) the
hand, Husserl 's broader concept of eidetic science relation between mind and consciousness (see
based on seeing essences and essentially necessary Consciousness) , (c) the existence of unconscious
relations especially concept of material
his or subconscious mind (see Unconscious mind),
ontology has been not only adopted but made (d) the structure of the mind (see Mind-stuff
central by others, who define phenomenology Theory, Ge stall Psychology), (e) the genesis of
accordingly. Not uncommonly, these groups re- mind (see Mind-Dust, Emergent Mentalistn),
ject HusserPs method of transcendental-phenom- (f) the nature of the self (see Ego, Self, Per-
enological reduction and profess a realistic meta- sonal Identity, Soul), (g) the mind-body rela-
physics. Finally, there are those who, emphasiz- tion (see Mind-Body Relation), (i) the Freedom
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 235
of the Will (sec Determinism, Freedom), (j) meaning of human existence) the character of
psychological methodology (sec Behaviorism, In- value, its status in the world of reality} the
trospection}, (k) mind and cognition. See Cog- existence and character of deity; the nature of
nition, Perception, Memory. L.W. belief and faith; etc.
Philosophy: (Gr. philein, to love sophia, wisdom) The
subject of the philosophy of religion is
The most general science. Pythagoras is said to regarded in conservative circles not as a dis-
have called himself a lover of wisdom. But cipline given to free philosophical inquiry but
philosophy has been both the seeking of wisdom as a particular religion's philosophy. In this
and the wisdom sought. Originally, the rational form it is a more or less disguised apologetic!
explanation of anything; the general principles or defense of an already accepted religious faith.
under which all facts could be explained; in this While the data for this subject include the so-
sense, indistinguishable from science. Later, the called classical religions, philosophy of religion,
science of the first principles of being} the pre- in the genuinely philosophical sense, takes for
suppositions of ultimate reality. Now, popu- its material religious expressions of all types,
larly, private wisdom or consolation,
techni- whether classical or not, together with all the
cally, the science of sciences, the criticism and psychological material available on the nature
systematization or organization of all knowl- of the human spirit and man's whole cultural
edge, drawn from empirical science, rational development. V.F.
learning, common experience, or wherever. Phi- Phoronomy Noun : derived from the Greek, phorein
losophy includes metaphysics, or ontology and used by Plato and Aristotle in the sense of
epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, etc. (all of motion, and nomos, law; signifies, kinematics,
which see). 7.AT.F. or absolute mechanics, which deals with motion
Concerning the task of philosophy. See also from the purely theoretical point of view. Ac-
Science of Science, Epistemology. cording to Kant it is that part of natural phi-
Philosophy of Change: The theory that change losophy which regards motion as a pure quantum,
itself is the only enduring principle and there- without considering any of the qualities of the
fore the fundamental reality. Applied to the moving body. J.J.R.
views Heraclitus, and in modern times to
of Phronesis: (Gr. phronesis) Practical wisdom, or
Henri Bergson. R.T.F.
those of knowledge of the proper ends of conduct and of
Philosophy of Discontinuity: The theory that the means of attaining them; distinguished by
the principle of change is the fundamental basis Aristotle both from theoretical knowledge or
of reality, that natural law is but the outward science, and from technical skill. See Aris-

aspect of what is internally habit. Being as an totehantsm. G.R.M.

irreducible synthesis of possibility and action. Physical essence: (or physical composition; in
God the Creator and Essence of things. Applied Scholasticism) Consists in the composition of the
to the thought of Renouvier, Boutroux, and parts by which that composite truly is. Of these
Lachelier. R.T.F. parts, that which indifferently constitutes this or

Philosophy of Effort: The theory that in the that, is called matter, as,' the body in man, but
self-consciousness effort the person becomes
of that which determines and perfects matter it

one withreality. Consciousness of effort is called form, as soul. H.G.

self-consciousntss. Used by Maine de Biran.
R.T.F.
Philosophy of Mind: Philosophical theory of the
nature of mind and its place in the world. See
Philosophical Psychology. L.W.
Philosophy of Religion: An inquiry into the
Physicalism: The thesis, developed within Scien-
tific Empiricism (q. v., II B), that every de-
scriptive term in the language of science (in the
widest sense, including social science) is con-
nected with terms designating observable prop-
ertiesof things. This connection is of such a

general subject of religion from the philosophi- kind that a sentence applying the term in ques-
cal point of view, i.e., an inquiry employing tion is intersubjectively (q. v.) confirmable by
the accepted tools of critical analysis and evalu- observations (see Verification). The application
ation without a predisposition to defend or re- of physicalism to psychology is the logical basis

ject the claims of any particular religion. Among for the method of behaviorism (q. v.). See pa*
the specific questions considered are: the nature, pers by O. Neurath, R. Carnap, C. G. Hempel,
function and value of religion; the validity of in Erkenntnis, 2, 1931; 3, 1932; 4, 1934j
the claims of religious knowledge; the relation Scientia 50, 1931; Rev. de Synthese 10, 193$;
of religion and ethics; the character of ideal Phil. 3, 1936; S. S. Stevens in Psych.
Science
religion, the nature qf evil; the problem of Bull. 36, 1939. R.C.
theodicy; revealed versus natural religion; the Physico-Theological Argument: Kant's (q.v.)
problem of the human(soul) and its
spirit term for the teleological proof of the existence
destiny; the relation of the human to the divine of God. O.F.AT.
as to the freedom and responsibility of the indi- Physico-Theology: A
theology which finds cor-
vidual and the character (if any) of a divine roboration in natural philosophy. A term now
purpose; evaluation of the claims of prophecy, in general disuse. V.F.
mystic intuitions, special revelations, inspired Physics: (Gr. physis, nature) In Greek philoso-
utterances; the value of prayers of petition; the phy, one of the three branches of philosophy,
human hope of immortality; evaluation of in- Logic and Ethics being the other two among
stitutionalforms of expressions, rituals, creeds, the Stoics (q.v.). In Descartes, metaphysics it
ceremonies, rites, missionary propaganda; the the root and physics the trunk of the "tree of
236 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
knowledge." Today, the science (overlapping
it is was a preacher of power and founder of charit-

chemistry, biology and human physiology) of able organizations. Spener's Pia Desideriat "The
the calculation and prediction of the phenomena Things Religiously Desired" (1675) is regarded
of motion of microscopic or macroscopic bodies, as the Manifesto of the movement. Pietism also

e.g. gravitation, pressure, heat, light, sound, carries derogatory connotation :a person is
a

magnetism, electricity, radio-activity, etc. Phi-
losophical problems arise concerning the relation
of physics to biological and social phenomena,
to pure mathematics, and to metaphysics. See
Mechanism, Physicalism.
Physis: See Nature, Physics.
Picturesque: A modification of the beautiful in
English aesthetics, 18th century. L.V.
Pith Mo: Neo-Mohists) heretical Mohists. See
Mo che and Chinese philosophy.
Pien: Argumentation or dialectics, which "is to
make clear the distinction between right and
said tobe "pietistic" if the seriousness of his
religious practices lead him to extremes, even
to the point of asceticism and fanaticism. See
Puritanism. V.F.
Ping t'ien hsia: World peace, the ultimate goal
of Confucian moral training and education.
W.T.C.
Pistology: A noun derived from the Greek, pittis,
faith j hence in general the science of faith or
religious belief. A branch of theology specially
concerned with faith and its restricted scope, as
distinguished from reason. /./.fl.

wrong, to ascertain the principles of order and Pity: A more or less condescending feeling for
disorder, to make clear the points of similarity other living beings in their suffering or lowly
and difference, to examine the laws of names condition, condoned by those who hold to the
and actualities, to determine what is beneficial inevitability of class differences, but condemned
and what is harmful, and to decide what is un- by those who believe in melioration or the estab-
certain and doubtful. It describes the ten thou- lishment of more equitable relations and there-
sand things as they are, and discusses the vari- fore substitute sympathy (q.v.). Synonymous
ous opinions in their comparative merits. It with "having mercy" or "to spare" in the Old
uses names
to specify actualities, propositions to Testament (the Lord is "of many bowels"),
express ideas, and explanations to set forth rea- Christians also are exhorted to be pitiful (e.g.,
sons, including or excluding according to 1. Pet. 3.8). Spinoza yet equates it with com-
classes." It involves seven methods: "The miseration, but since this involves pain in addi-
method of possibility to argue from what is
is tion to some good if alleviating action follows,
not exhausted. The method of hypothesis is to it is to be overcome in a life dictated by reason.

argue from what is not actual at present. The Except for moral theories which do not recog-
method of imitation is to provide a model. What nize feeling for other creatures as a fundamental
is imitated is taken as the model. If the reason urge pushing into action, such as utilitarianism
agrees with the model, it is correct. If it does in some of its aspects and Hinduism which
not agree with the model, it is incorrect. This adheres to the doctrine of karma (q.v.), however
is the method of imitation. The method of far apart the two are, pity may be regarded a
comparison to make clear about one thing by
is prime ethical impulse but, due to its coldness
means The method of parallel is to
of another. and the possibility of calculation entering, is no
compare two propositions consistently through- longer countenanced as an essentially ethical
out. The method of analogy says, <You are so. principle in modern moral thinking. K.F.L.
Why should I not be so?* The method of in- Planck, Max: (b. 1858) A German physicist
duction is to grant what has not been accepted who taught at the University of Kiel and later
on the basis of 'its similarity to what has al- at the University of Berlin. He is world-famous
ready been accepted. For example, when it is for his theory of quanta^, according to which all
said that all the others are the same, how can energy travels in units comparable to atoms of
I say that the others are different ?" (Neo- matter. See Planck's constant. R.B.W.
Mohism.) W.T.C. Planck's constant: In quantum mechanics (q.v.),
Pien: Transformation or change in process) a fundamental physical constant, usually denoted
change from ens to non-ens; gradual change. by the letter h, which appears in many physical
See Hua.W.T.C. formulas. It may be defined by the law that the
Pien che; Sophists or Dialecticians. See Ming quantum (q.v.) of radiant energy of any fre-
chia. quency equal to the frequency multiplied by h.
is

Pien hua che: The evolutionary transformation,
which of effortless power is the greatest.
$
(Sophism. )H.H.
Pietism: In general, an emphasis upon the
vidual appropriation of religious truth as over
against its formal acceptance. As a movement,
the term refers specifically to the reaction against
the cold orthodoxies withinGerman Protestant-
ism of the 17th and 18th centuries. Philip
late
Spener (1635-1705) is regarded as the father
of German Pietism. Under Spener's influence
August Franke (1663-1727) became one of the
most vigorous champions of the movement to-
ward a more genuine Christian
see further Uncertainty principle. A.C.
Plastic: The effect of relief obtained by the
nuance of light and' shade. L.V.
indi- Plato: (428-7348-7 B.C.) Was one of the
greatest of the Greek philosophers. He was born
either in Athens or on the island of Aegina,
and was originally known as Aristocles. Ariston,
his father, traced his ancestry to the last kings
of Athens. His mother, Perictione, was a de-
scendant of the family of Solon. Plato was
given the best elementary education possible and
he spent eight years, from his own twentieth'
year to the death of Socrates, as a member of
living. Franke the Socratic circle. Various stories are told about
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 237
his supposed masters in philosophy, and his it is not the crude existence of physical
ously
travels in and Egypt, but
Greece, Italy, Sicily things > nor can it be merely the mental exist-
all that we know for certain is that he some- ence of logical constructs. Interpretations have
how acquired a knowledge of Pythagoreanism, varied from the theory of the Christian Fathers
Heracleitanism, Eleaticism and other Pre- (which was certainly not that of Plato himself)
Socratic philosophies. He founded his school of viz., that the Ideas are exemplary Causes in
mathematics and philosophy in Athens in 387 God's Mind, to the suggestion of Aristotle
B.C. It became known as the Academy. Here they are realized, in a
that
(Metaphysics, I)
he taught with great success until his death at sense, in the world of individual things, but are
the age of eighty. His career as a teacher was the intellect. The Ideas
apprehended only by
interrupted on two occasions by trips to Sicily, appear, however, particularly in the dialogues
of
where Plato tried without much success to edu- the middle period, to be objective essences, inde-
cate and advise Dionysius the Younger. His pendent of human minds, providing not only the
works have been very well preserved we have \ foundation for the truth of human knowledge
more than twenty-five authentic dialogues, cer- but also the ontological bases for the shadowy
tain letters, and some definitions which are prob-
things of the sense world. Within the world of
ably spurious. For a list of works, bibliography Forms, there is a certain hierarchy. At the
and an outline of his thought, see Platonism. top, the most noble of all, is the Idea of the
VJ.B. Good (Repub. VII), it dominates the other
Platonic Realism: See Realism. Ideas and they participate in it. Beauty, sym-
Platonism: ^hc philosophy of Plato marks one metry and truth are high-ranking Ideas; at
of the high ^oints in the development of Greek times they are placed almost on a par with the
philosophical genius. Platonism is characterized Good (Phtlebus 65, also Sympos. and Phaedrus
by a partial contempt for sense knowledge and passim). There are, below, these, other Ideas,
empirical studies, by a high regard for mathe- such as those of the major virtues (wisdom,
matics and its method, by a longing for another temperance, courage, justice and piety) and
and better world, by a frankly spiritualistic mathematical terms and relations, such as equal-
view of life, by its use of a method of discussion ity, likeness, unlikeness and proportion. Each
involving an accumulation of ever more pro- type or class of being is represented by its per-
found insights rather than the formal logic of fect Form in the sphere of Ideas ; there is an .

Aristotle, and, above all, by an unswerving faith ideal Form of man, dog, willow tree, of every
in the
capacity of the human mind to attain kind of natural object and even of artificial
absolute truth and to use this truth in the ra- things like beds (Repub. 596). The relationship
tional direction of human life and affairs. of the "many" objects, belonging to a certain
The works of Plato are chiefly in the form class of things in the sense world, to the "One",
of dialogues, remarkable for their literary as i.e. the single Idea which is their archetype, is

well as for their philosophic qualities. The fol- another great source of difikulty to Plato. Three
lowing list includes all the dialogued recognized solutions, which are not mutually exclusive, are
as authentic by modern authorities. Early period: suggested in the dialogues: (1) that the many
Ion, Charmides. Hippias I and II (doubtful), participate imperfectly in the perfect nature of
Laches, Lysis, outhyphro, Euthydemus, Gorgias, their Idea; (2) that the many are made in
Protagoras, Meno, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, imitation of the One; and (3) that the many
Menexenus. Middle period: Symposium, Phae- are composed of a mixture of the Limit (Idea)
drus, Republic, Theaetetus, Cratylus. Late period: with the Unlimited (matter).
Timaeus, Critias, Sophistes, Politicus, Phtlebus, The human soul is considered by Plato to be
Parmenides, Laws, Epinomis (doubtful). Thir- an immaterial agent, superior in nature to the
teen Letters have also been preserved, of which
body and somewhat hindered by the body in the
two (VII-VIII), at least, are probably authentic.
performance of the higher, psychic functions of
Plato's knowledge can hardly be
theory of human life. The tripartite division of the soul
discussed apart from his theory of reality. becomes an essential teaching of Platonic psy-
Through sense perception man cpmes to know chology from the Republic onward. The ra-
the changeable world of bodies. This is the tional part is highest and is pictured as the
realm of opinion (doxa} ; such cognition may be ruler of the psychological organism in the well-
more or less clear but it never rises to the level
regulated man. Next in importance is the
of true knowledge, for objects are imperma-
its
"spirited" element of the soul, which is the
nent and do not provide a stable foundation for source of action and the seat of the virtue of
science. It is through intellectual, or rational, courage. The lowest part is the concupiscent or
cognition that man discovers another world, that acquisitive element, which may be brought under
of immutable essences, intelligible realities, control by the virtue of temperance. The latter
Forms or Ideas. This is the level of scientific two are often combined and called irrational in
knowledge (episteme)\ it is reached in mathe- contrast to the highest part. Sensation is an
matics and especially in philosophy (Repub. VI, active function of the soul, by which the soul
510). The world of intelligible Ideas contains "feels" the objects of sense through the instru-
the ultimate realities from which the world of mentality of the body. Particularly in the young,
sensible things has been patterned. Plato- experi- sensation is a necessary prelude to the knowledge
enced much difficulty in regard to the sort of of Ideas, but the mature and developed soul
existence to be attributed to his Ideas. Obvi- must learn to rise above sense perception and
238 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
mutt strive for a more direct intuition of in- tion of and
monogamous marriage, family life,
telligible essences. That the soul exists before of private property. It is to be noted that this
the body (related to the
Pythagorean and, pos- form of semi-communism was suggested for a
sibly, Orphic doctrine of transmigration) and minority of the citizens only (Repub. Ill and V)
knows the world of Ideas immediately in this
and it is held to be a practical impossibility in
anterior condition, is the foundation of the the Laws (V, 739-40), though Plato continued
Platonic theory of reminiscence to think that some form of community life is
(Meno, Phaedo,
Republic) Phaedrus). Thus the soul is born with theoretically best for man. In Book VIII of
true knowledge in it, but the soul, due to the the we find the famous classification
Republic,
encrustation of bodily cares and interests, can- of five types of political organization, ranging
not easily recall the truths innately, and we from aristocracy which is the rule of the best
might say now, subconsciously present in it. men, timocracy, in which the rulers are moti-
Sometimes sense perceptions aid the soul in the vated by a love of honor, oligarchy, in which
process of reminiscence, and again, as in the the rulers seek wealth, democracy, the rule of
famous demonstration of the Pythagorean theo- the masses who are unfit for the task, to tyranny,
rem by the slave boy of the Meno, the ques- which is the rule of one man who may have
tions and suggestions of a teacher provide the started as the champion of the people but who
necessary stimuli for recollection. The personal governs solely for the advancement of his own,
immortality of the soul is very clearly taught by selfish interests.
Plato in the tale of Er (Repub.
X) and, with ThePlatonic philosophy of art and aesthetics
various attempts at logical demonstration, in as might be expected, the value of the
stresses,
the Phaedo. Empirical and physiological psy- reasonable imitation of Ideal realities rather
chology is not stressed in Platonism, but there than the photographic imitation of sense things
is an approach to it in the
descriptions of sense and individual experiences. All beautiful things
organs and their media in the Timaeus 42 ff.
participate in the Idea of beauty (Symposium
The
Platonic theory of education is based on and Phaedrus). The artist is frequently described
a drawing out (educatio) of what is already as a man carried away by his
inspiration, akin
dimly known to the learner. (Meno, Repub. II- to the fool} yet art requires reason and the
VII, Theaetetus, Laws.) The training of the artist must learn to contemplate the world of

philosopher-ruler, outlined in the Republic, re- Ideas. Fine art

is not radically distinguished
quires the selection of the most promising chil- from useful In both the Republic and the
art.
dren in their infancy and a rigorous disciplining Laws, art subordinated
is to the good of the
of them in gymnastic, music (in the Greek sense state, and those forms of art which are effemi-
of literary studies), mathematics and dialectic nate, asocial, inimical to the morale of the
(the study of the Ideas). This training was to citizens, are sternly excluded from the ideal
continue until the students were about thirty-five state.
years of age} then fifteen years of practical The ethics of Platonism is intellectualistic.
in the subordinate offices of the While he
apprenticeship questions (Protagoras, 323 ff.) the
state were required} finally, at the age of fifty,
sophistic teaching that "virtue is knowledge",
the rulers were advised to return to the study and stresses the view that the wise man must
of philosophy. It should be noted that this do what as well as know the
pro- is right, right,
gram is intended only for an intellectual elite, still cumulative impetus of his many dia-
the
the military class was to undergo a shorter logues on the various virtues and the good life,
period of training suited to its functions, and tends toward the conclusion that the learned,
the masses of people, engaged in
production, rationally developed soul is the good soul. From
trading, and like pursuits, were not offered any this point of view, wisdom is the greatest
virtue,
special educational schedule. (Reput. IV). Fortitude and temperance are
Platonism as a political philosophy finds its necessary virtues of the lower parts of the soul
best knownexposition in the theory of the ideal and justice in the individual, as in the state, is
state in the Republic. There, Plato described a the harmonious co-operation of all parts, under
city in which social justice would be fully real- the control o( reason. Of pleasures, the best are
ized. Three classes of men are distinguished, those of the intellect (Phtlebus)\ man's greatest
the philosopher-kings, apparently a very small happiness is to be found in the contemplation of
group whose education has been alluded to above, the highest Ideas (Repub., 583 ff.).
who would be the rulers because by nature and In the field of the philosophy of religion,
by training they were the best men for the job. Platonism becomes obscure. There is little doubt
They must excel
particularly in their rational that Plato paid only lip-servjce to the anthropo-
abilities: their special virtue is
philosophic wis- morphic polytheism of Athenian religion. Many
dom } the soldier*, or guardians of the state, of the attributes of the Idea of the Good are
constitute the second class) their souls must be those of an eternal God. The Republic (Book
remarkable for the development of the spirited, II) pictures the Supreme Being as perfect, un-
warlike element, under the control of the virtue
changeable and the author of truth. Similar ra-
of courage^ the lowest class is made up of the tionalizations are found throughout the Lnvss.
acquisitive group, the workers of every sort Another current of religious thought is to be
whose characteristic virtue is temperance. For found 'in the Timaeus, Politicus and Sophist.
the two upp*efr classes, Plato suggested a form The story of the making of the universe and
bf community life which would entail the aboli- man by the Detniurgus is mythic and yet it is
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 239

in many points a logical development of his School of Chartres (Bernard, Thierry, Wm. of
theory of Ideas. The World-Maker does not Conches, Gilbert of Poitiers) in the 12th century
create things from nothing} he fashions the was a center of Christian Platonism, interested
world out of a pre-existing chaos of matter by chiefly in the cosmological theory of the Timaeus.
introducing patterns taken from the sphere of The Renaissance witnessed a revival of Platon-
Forms. This process of formation is also ex- ism in the Florentine Academy (Marsilio Ficino
plained, in the Timaeus (54 ff.), in terms of and the two Pico del la Mirandolas). In Eng-
various mathematical figures. In an early period land, the Cambridge Platonists (H. More, Th.
of the universe, God (Chronos) exercised a sort Gale, J. Norris) in the 17th century started an
of Providential care over interest in Plato, which has not yet died out in
things in this world
(Poltticus, 269-275), but eventually man was the English Universities. Today, the ethical
left to his own devices. The tale of Er, at the writings of A. E. Taylor, the theory of essences
end of the Republic, describes a judgment of developed by G. Santayana, and the metaphysics
souls after death, their separation into the
good of A. N. Whitehead, most nearly approach a
and the bad, and the assignment of various re- contemporary Platonism. V.J.B.
wards and punishments. Platonism, medieval: Plato's works were not
H. Stephanus et J. Serranus (ed.), Platonis accessible to the medieval writers previous to

Opera (Paris, 1578), has provided the standard the 13th century. Theypossessed only part of
the Timaeus in the translation and commentary
pagination, now used in referring to the text of
Plato 5 it is not a critical edition. J. Burnet by Chalcidius. Nor were they acquainted with
(ed.), Platonis Opera, 5 vol. (Oxford, 1899- the writings of the Neo-Platonists. They had

1907). Platon, Oeuvres completes, texte et

the logical texts by Porphyriusj little besides.
trad., Collect. G. Bude (Paris, 1920 The St. Augustine, the greatest authority in these
ff.).
Dialogues of Plato, transl. B. Jowett, 3rd ed. ages, was well acquainted with the teachings of
the "Academy" of his time and became a source
(Oxford, 1920). W. Pater, Plato and Platon-
ism (London, 1909). A. E. Taylor, Plato, the for Neo-Platonic influences. Furthermore, there

Man and his Work (N. were the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius of which
1927). P. Shorey,
Y.,
first Alcuin had made a rather insufficient, later
What Plato Said (Chicago, 1933). A. Dies,
Scotus Eriugena a readable translation. Scotus
Autour de Platon, 2 vol. (Paris, 1927). U. von
himself was thoroughly. Neo-Platonic in his phi-
Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Platon, 2 vol. (Ber-
losophy, however "Christianized" his Platonism
lin, 1919). John Burnet, Platonism (Berkeley,
1928). Paul Elmer More, Platonism (Oxford,
may have been. The medieval "Platonists" held,
Walter Pater, Plato and Platonism. among some propositions of minor importance,
1931).
that universal were existent substances (Real-
Constantin Ritter, Essence of Plato's Philosophy
ism, q.v.), that body and soul were two
(London, 1933). Leon Robin, Platon (Paris,
independent substances, united more or less ac-
1935). Paul Shorey, Platonism, Ancient and
Modern cidentally; they assumed accordingly a "plural-
(Berkeley, 1938). A. E. Taylor, Some believed
ity of forms" in one substance.
Platonism and Its Influence (London, 1924). that Plato had been given a peculiar insight
F. J. E.
Woodbridge, The Son of Apollo (Bos- even in the mysteries of Christian faith. Thus
ton, 1929). Q
Bigg, The Chnsttan Platontsts
they went so far as to identify the antma mundt,
of Alexandria (Oxford, 1913). T. Whittaker,
The Neo-Platonists which they believed to be a Platonic notion,
(Cambridge, 1918, 2nd ed.). with the Holy Ghost (e.g. Abelard). Even
John H. Muirhead, The Platonic Tiadttton tn
after the revival of Aristotelian philosophy,
.

Angle-Saxon Philosophy (New York, 1931).

F. J. Powicke, The against which the "Platonists" reacted violently,
Cambitdge Platontsts (Bos-
Platonism, or as they afterwards preferred to
ton, \927).VJ.B. call it, Augustinianism persisted in many
TheAcademy continued as a school of schools, especially in those depending on the
philosophy until closed by Justinian in 529 A.D. Franc'scans. R.A.
The early scholars
(Speusippus, Xenocrates, Pleasure and pain: In philosophy these terms
Polemo, Crates) were not great philosophers 5 appear mostly in ethical discussions, where they
they adopted a Pythagorean interpretation have each two meanings not always clearly dis-
of the Ideas and concentrated on
practical, tinguished. "Pleasure" is used sometimes to
moral problems. Following the Older Academy refer to a certain hedonic quality of experiences,
(347-247 B.C.), the Middle and New Academies viz. pleasantness, and sometimes as a name for
(Arcesilaus and Carneades were the principal
experiences which have that quality (here "pleas-
teachers) became sceptical and eclectic. Aristotle ures" are "pleasant experiences" and "pleasure"
(384-322 B.C.) studied with Plato for twenty is the entire class of such experiences). Mutatit
years and embodied many Platonic views in his
mutandis, the same is true of "pain". Philoso-
own philosophy. Platonism was very highly re-
phers have given various accounts of the nature
garded by the Christian Fathers (Ambrose, Au- of pleasure and pain. E.g., Aristotle says that
gustine, John Damascene and Anselm of Canter- pleasure is a perfection supervening en certain
bury, for instance) and it continued as the ap- activities, pain the opposite. Spinoza defines
proved philosophy of the Christian Church until pleasure as feeling with which one passes
the
the 12th century. From the 3rd
century on, Neo- from a lesser of perfection to a greater,
state
Platonism (see Plotinism) developed the other- as the feeling with which one makes the
pain
world'y, mystical side of Plato's thought. The reverse transition. Again, philosophers have
240 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
raised various questions about pleasure and pain. Rational knowledge is a cognition of intelligible
Can they be identified with good and evil? Are or Ideas in the realm of Mind which
realities,
our actions always determined by our own pleas- is often referred to as Divine. The climax of
ure and pain actual or prospective ? Can pleas- knowledge consists in an intuitive and mystical
ures and pains be distinguished quantitatively, union with the One; this is experienced by few.
qualitatively? See Bentham, Epicureanism. The Idea of Beauty is one and perfect accord-
W.K.F. ing to Plotinus. AH lesser beauties, spiritual
Pleasures of the imagination: The moderate, and physical, are participations in the one, su-
healthful, and agreeable stimulus to the mind, preme Beauty. The attribute of the beautiful
resulting (in the primary class) from the prop- which is most stressed is splendor; it consists
erties of greatness, novelty, and beauty (kin- of a shining-forth of the spiritual essence of
ship, proportionality, etc.) in objects ac-
color, the beautiful thing.
tually seen; (in the secondary class) from the Characteristically Plotinian is the teaching
processes of comparison, association, and re- that man must first turn his mind away from
modelling up set in the mind by
the products the inferior things of sense toward the inner
of art or by the recollection of the beauties of reality of his own soul. He must learn to regard
nature. (Addison.) K.E.G. his soul as part of the World-Soul. He must
Plekhanov, George Valentino vich : (1856- transcend the multiple things of the realm of
1918) Was a Russian Marxist who became the Mind and endeavor to achieve that communion
philosophical leader of the Menshevik faction with the One, which is his ultimate good. There
of the pre-Revolutionary Russian Social Demo- is no question of personal immortality and so
cratic Workers' Party, opposing Lenin, the leader the goal of human life is a merging with uni-
of the Bolshevik wing. In spite of what are versal Spirit. In his politics, Plotinus favored
regarded as his political errors, such as his sup- a sort of community life incorporating many of
port of the war of 1914-1918 and his negative the idealistic suggestions to be found in Plato's
attitude to the Revolution of October, 1917, con- Republic.
temporary Soviet thinkers regard Plekhanov's Plotinism is a theocentric form of thought.
works as containing valuable expositions of As reality becomes more intelligible, it becomes
Marxist philosophy. Among his writings in this more spiritual and Divine. The Ideas in the
field are, Our Dispute* (1885), On the Problem sphere of Nous are Divine and in later Neo-
of the Developmentof the Monistic View of Platonism become gods$ hence the system is

History (1895), Essays on the History of Ma- polytheistic.

terialism (1896), On the Materialist As a school of Greek and Latin philosophers,
Conception
of History (1897), On the Problem of the Role Plotinism lasted the fifth century. Por-
until
of the Individual in History (1898). /.Af.S. phyry, Apuleius, Jamblichus, Julian the Apostate,
Pleroma: the Greek term means a
Literally Themistius, Simplicius, Macrobius and Proclus
filling ups was used by the Gnostics to denote
it are the most important representatives. Through
the world of light, or the spiritual world of St. Augustine, Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite,
aeons ful 1 of divine life. J.J.R. John Scotus Eriugena, and the Greek Fathers,
Plotinism: The philosophic and religious thought Plotinian thought has been partly incorporated
of Plotinus (205-270). His writings were pub- into Christian intellectualism. Nearly all promi-
lished by Porphyry in six books of nine sections, nent Arabian philosophers before AverroSs are
Enneads, each. All reality consists of a series of influenced by Plotinus; this in particularly true
emanations, from the One, the eternal source of of Avicenna and Algazel. In the Jewish tradi-
all being. The necessary emanation is that
first,
tion Avicebron's Fans Vitae is built on the
of Nous (mind or intelligence), the second that frame of the emanation theory. Meister Eckhart
of Psyche fsoul). At the periphery of the uni- and Nicholas of Cusa continue the movement.
verse is found matter. Man belongs partly in It is spiritually related to some modern anti-

the realm of spirit and partly in the sphere of intellectualistic and mystical currents of thought.
matter. Plotin, Enneades, (Greek text and French
Plotinism offers a well-developed theory of transl.) by E. Brehier, (Bude"), 6 vol., Paris,
sensation. The objects of sensation are of a 1930-40. Mackenna, S., The Enneads of Ploti-
lower order of being than the perceiving or- nus, London, 1917-1919. Heinemann, F., Plotin,
ganism. The inferior cannot act upon the su- Leipzig, 1921. Br6hier, E., La philosophie de
perior. Hence sensation is an activity of the Plotin, Paris, 1928. Inge, W. R., The Philoso-
sensory agent upon its objects. Sensation pro- phy of Plotinus, 2 vol., 2rd ed., London and
vides a direct, realistic perception of material N. Y., 1929. F.7.5.
things, but, since they are ever-changing, such Pluralism: This is the doctrine that there is not
knowledge is not valuable. In internal sense one (Monism), not two (Dualism) but many
perception, the imagination also functions ac- ultimate substances. From the earliest Ionian
tively, memory is attributed to the imaginative fundamentals of fire and water, to
air, earth,
power and it serves not only in the recall of the hierarchy of monads
of Leibniz, the many
sensory images but also in the retention of the things-in-thcmselves of Herbart and the theory
verbal formulae in which intellectual concepts of the many that "works" in the latter day
are expressed. The human soul can look either Pragmatism of James and others, we get a
upward or downward; up to the sphere of purer variety of theories that find philosophic solace in
spirit, or down to the evil regions of matter. variety rather than in any knowable or un-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 241

knowable one. See Dualism, Idealism, Mate- making; artistic production (Aristotle).
rialism, Monism, Political Philosophy (Laski). G.R.M.
L.E.D. Poietic: Relating to production or the arts of
Plurality ot causes: The doctrine according to production} e.g. poietic knowledge, as distin-
which identical events can have two or more guished from practical and from theoretical
different causes. "It is not true that the same knowledge. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
phenomenon is always produced by the same Poincare, Henri: (1854-1912) French mathema-
tician and mathematical physicist to whom many
causes," declared J. S. Mill, author of the doc-
trine. Quite the contrary, "many causes may important technical contributions are due. His
produce some kind of sensation) many causes thought was occupied by problems on the border-
line of physics and philosophy. His views reflect
may produce death." position was not
Mill's
taken in support of the doctrine of free will or the influence of positivism and seem to be closely
of that of chance, but rather in opposition to an related to pragmatism. Poincare is known also
old contention of the physicists, among whom for his opposition to the logistic method in the

Newton stated that "to the same natural effect foundations of mathematics, especially as it was
we must, as far as pssible, ascribe the same advocated by Bertrand Russell (q.v.) and Louis
cause." The subsequent controversy has shown Couturat, and for his proposed resolution of the
that Mill's position was based on the confusion logical paradoxes (q.v.) by the prohibition of
between "the same phenomenon" and "the same impredicative definition (q.v.). Among his
kind of phenomena". It is doubtless true that books, the more influential are Science and Hy-
the same kind of phenomena, say death, can be pothesis, Science and Method, and Dtrnieres
but only because we Pensees.R.B.W.
produced by many causes,
take the phenomenon broadly j nevertheless, it Point-event: A. N. Whitehead's term signifying
an event with all its dimensions ideally re-
may remain true that each particular phenom-
enon can be caused only by a very definite cause stricted. R.B.W.
or by a very definite combination of causes. In Poissons Law: This rule, which is also called
other words, the broader we conceive the phe- Poisson's Law
of Small Numbers, is an elabora-
nomenon, the more causes are likely to apply tion of Bernouilli's Theorem dealing with the
to it. R.B.W. difference between the actual and the most
Plutarch of Athens: (5th century A.D.) Founder probable number of occurrences of an event. 1.
of Athenian Neo-Platonism, author of com- In cases of Random Sampling, the Poisson Ex-
mentaries on Platonic and Pythagorean writings. ponential Limit is used in place of the Normal
Plutarch of Chaeronea: (about 100 A.D.) Probability Function or the strict application of
the Bernoulli! Theorem, when considering events
Famous biographer and author of several philo-
M.F, which happen rarely. 2. In cases of Dispersion
sophical treatises.
of Statistical Ratios, a Bernoulli! Distribution is
Parallel Lives; Opera moralia (tr. Bolin's
Classical Libr.).
used when the probability of an event is con-
stant } and a Poisson Distribution is used when
Pneuma: (Gr. pneuma, breath) A Stoic, also that probability is variable. In both cases, there
Epicurean, concept signifying spirit, vital force, is a maximum involved which will not be sur-
or creative fire $n its penetration into matter.
passed } and the values obtained by Poisson's
Sometimes understood as psychic energy, or dis-
Law are smaller than those obtained in the other
tinguished as the formative fire-mind and the cases. T.G.
divinely inspired rational part of man from
the more emotional, physical aspect of soul. In Polarity, philosophy of: Philosophies that make
the concept of polarity one of the systematic
early Christian, particularly Gnostic philosophy,
as spirit, is differentiated from psyche, principles according to which opposite! involve
pneuma,
each other when applied to any significant realm
or soul. See Pneuma Hagion, the Holy Ghost.
of investigation. Polarity was one of the basic
AT.F.L.
concepts in the philosophy of Cusanus and
Pneumatology: (Gr. -f logos,
pneuma, spirit
Schelling. Morris R. Cohen made use of the
theory) In the most general sense pneumatology
is the philosophical or speculative treatment of principle of polarity in scientific philosophy, in

or souls, including human, divine and biology, in social and historical analysis, in law
spirits
and in ethics. (Cf. Reason and Nature). H.H.
those intermediate between God and man.
D'Alembert restricted pneumatology to human Political Personalism: The doctrine that the
souls. Discours preliminaire de I'Encyclopedie, state is under obligation to provide opportunity
73j he considered pneumatology, logic and to each citizen for the highest possible physical,

ethics the three branches of the philosophical mental, and spiritual development, because per-
science of man. The term has also been con- sonality is the supreme achievement of the social
sidered to exclude man and to apply only to order. A movement in France represented by

God and the angelic hierarchy. (See article by the journal Esprit. R.T.F.
Bersot in Franck'a .Diet, des Sci. Philos.) The Political Philosophy: That branch of philosophy
wide sense in which pneumatology embraces first, which deals with political life, especially with
God, second, the angels and third, man is per- the essence, origin and value of the state. In
haps the most convenient and justifiable usage. ancient philosophy politics also embraced what
L.W. we call ethics. The first and most important
Poiesis: (Gr. poiesis) Activity of creating or ancient works on Political Philosophy were
242 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Plato's Politeia (Republic) and Aristotle's Poli- sovereignty of the people took on a more demo-
tics. The Politfia outlines the structure and cratic aspect than in 17th century English politi-
functions of the ideal state. It became the pat- cal philosophy which had been almost exclusively
tern for all the Utopias (see Utopia) of later aristocratic in its spirit. This tendency found
times. Aristotle, who considers man fundament- expression in his concept of the "general will"
ally a social creature i.e. a political animal, in the moulding of which each individual has
created the basis for modern
theories of govern- his share. Immanuel Kant who made these
ment, especially by his distinction of the differ- concepts the basis of his political philosophy,
ent forms of government. Early Christianity recognized more clearly than Rousseau the fictiti-
had a rather negative attitude towards the state ous character of the social contract and treated
which found expression in St. Augustine's De it as a "regulative idea", meant to serve as a
Civitate Dei. The influence of this work, in criterion in the evaluation of any act of the
which the earthly state was declared to be civitas state. For Hegel the state is an end in itself,
diaboli, a state of the devil, was predominant the supreme realization of reason and morality.

throughout the Middle Ages. In the discussion In marked opposition to this point of view,
of the relation between church and empire, the Marx and Engels, though strongly influenced by
main topic of medieval political philosophy, Hegel, visualized a society in which the state
certain authors foreshadowed modern political
would gradually fade away. Most of the 19th
theories. Thomas Aquinas stressed the popular century publicists, however, upheld the juristic
origin of royal and the right of the
power theory of the state. To them the state was the
people to restrict or abolish that power in case only source of law and at the same time invested
of abuse; William of Ockham and Marsiglio of with absolute sovereignty: there are no limits to
Padua held similar views. Dante Alighieri was the legal omnipotence of the state
except those
one of the first to recognize the intrinsic value which are self imposed. In opposition to this
of the state; he considered the world monarchy doctrine of unified state authority, a pluralistic
to be the only means whereby peace, justice theory of sovereignty has been advanced recently
and liberty could be secured. But it was not by certain authors, laying emphasis upon cor-
until the Renaissance that, due to the rediscovery porate personalities and professional groups
of the individual and his rights and to the for- (Duguit, Krabbe, Laski). Outspoken anti-state-
mation of territorial states, political philosophy ism was advocated by anarchists such as
Kropot-
oegan to play a major role. Niccolo Machiavelli and Guild socialists.
kin, etc., by syndicalist*
and Jean Bodin laid the foundation for the new W.E.
theories of the state by stressing its independ- Politics: (Gr. polis, city) The normative science
ence from any external power and its indivisible which treats of the organization of social goods.
sovereignty. The theory of popular rights and The branch of civics concerned with govern-
of the right of resistance against tyranny was ment and state affairs. See Political Philosophy.
especially advocated by the "Monarchomachi" J.K.F.
(Huguenots, such as Beza, Hotman, Languet, Polysyllogism : A
chain of syllogisms arranged
to lead to a single final conclusion, the conclu-
Danaeus, Catholics such as Boucher, Rossaeus,
sion of each syllogism except the last serving as
Mariana). Most of them used the theory of an
original contract (see Social Contract) to justify premiss of a later syllogism.
limitations of monarchical power. Later, the
In contrast, an argument consisting of a
idea of a Natural Law, independent from divine single syllogism is called a mono syllogism.
revelation (Hugo Grotius and his followers), A.C.
served as an argument for liberal sometimes Polytheism: (Gr. polus, many; and theos, god)
revolutionary tendencies. With the exception A theory that Divine reality is numerically
of Hobbes, who used the contract theory in his multiple, that there are many gods; opposed to
plea for absolutism, almost all the publicists of monotheism. See Plotinism. VJ.B.
the 16th and 17th century built their liberal Pompanazzi, Pietro or Pereto: (1462-1524)
upon the idea of an original covenant
theories Was born in Mantua, in Italy, and studied
by which individuals joined together and by medicine and philosophy at Padua. He taught
mutual consent formed a state and placed a philosophy at Padua, Ferrara and Bologna. He
is best known for his Tractatus de immortalitatt
fiduciary trust in the supreme power (Roger
Williams and John Locke). It was this con- animag (ed. C. G. Bardili, Tubingen, 1791) in
tract which the Pilgrim Fathers translated into which he denied that Aristotle taught the per-
actual facts, after their arrival in America, in sonal immortality of the human soul. His inter-

November, 1620; long before John Locke -had pretation of Aristotle follows that of the Greek
developed his theory. In the course of the 17th commentator, Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd c.
century in England the contract theory was A.D.) and is also closely related to the Aver-

generally substituted for the theory of the divine

roistic tradition. VJ.B.
rights of kings. It was supported by the assumption Pens asinonim : The literal meaning of the Latin
of an original "State of Nature" in which all expression, asses' bridge, has been figuratively
men enjoyed equal reciprocal rights. The most applied to
diagram a by Petrus constructed
ardent defender of the social contract theory in Tartaretus about 1480, whose purpose was to
the 18th century was J. J. Rousseau who deeply aid the student of logic in finding the middle
influenced the philosophy of the French revolu- term of a syllogism and disclose its relations.
tion. In Rousseau's conception the idea of the It was assumed that it was as difficult to per-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 243
suade students to do this as to get asses to pass lation and not upon the alleged "negative" con-
over a bridge. Hence the expression has also clusions of liberal and rationalistic
speculations.
been applied to any relatively easy test. Euclids The term was used to characterize Scriptural
proposition) that if two sides of a triangle are theologies from the freer deistic and rationalistic
equal the angles opposite to those sides must also expositions of doctrines) also, it was used to
be equal, has been called a pans asinorum for oppose the conclusions of the so-called "higher
students of geometry. J J.R. critics" of theNew and Old Testaments. The
Porphyry: (c. 232-304 B.C.) A disciple of Plotinus, term has still another meaning: a theology is
who adapted Aristotelian logic to Neo-Platonic said to be positive if it is
"constructive", by
philosophy. His method of classification by which is meant that it is apologetic of the spirit,
means of dichotomy is known as the "Tree of if not the letter, of Protestant faith. In the
Porphyry" (q.v.). Cf. Isagoge (tr. by Boethius, lattersense positive theology is said to be dis-
q.v.). R.B.W. tinguished from a philosophical theology. V.F.
Port Royal Logic: See Logic, traditional Positivism: First associated with the doctrine of
Port Royalists: Name applied to a group of Auguste Comte that the highest form of knowl-
thinkers, writers, and educators, more or less edge is simple description presumably of sensory
closely connected with the celebrated Cistercian phenomena. The doctrine was based on an
Abbey of Port Royal near Paris, which during evolutionary "law of three stages", believed by
the seventeenth century became the most active Comte to have been discovered by him in 1822
center of Jansenism and, to a certain extent, of but anticipated by Turgot in 1750. The three
Cartesianism in France. The Port Royalists were stages were the theological, in which anthropo-
by the severity and austerity of
distinguished morphic wills were resorted to to explain natural
theirmoral code and by their new educational events} the metaphysical, in which these wills

methods which greatly promoted the advance of were depersonalized and became forces and es-
sences j and finally the positive. It should be
pedagogy. The most noted among them were
'noted that positivistic description was supposed
Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, abbot of Saint
to result in mathematical formulas, not in intro-
Cyran (1581-1643), Antoine-J* grand Arnauld
spective psychology. See Scientific Empiricism I.
(1612-1694), and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695).
Cf. Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal J J.R. G.B.
Posidonius of Rhodes: (c. 135-50 B.C.) An In legal philosophy (q.v): That trend in
Legal Philosophy which confines itself to posi-
eclectic philosopher of the Stoic
School, who in-
tive law i.e. the law that actually is valid in
corporated into his thought many doctrines of
a certain country at a certain time. It excludes
Plato and Aristotle. R.B.W.
any higher law such as natural law, sometimes
Posit: (Lat. ponere, to put or place) (a) In logic
even any evaluation of positive law. The Al-
and epistemology, positing is the act of enter-
Igemeine Rechtslehre (general theory of law)
taining or asserting a proposition immediately in Germany, analytical jurisprudence in Eng-
i.e. without recourse to inference. proposition A land, the "pure theory of law" and American
may be posited either because it is regarded as
legal realism are types of legal positivism. See
(1) a self-evident truth or (2) a postulate ar- W.E.
Legal Philosophy.
bitrarily
assumed^
The postulational sense of
Possibility: According to distinctions of modality
positing is the more common at present. See
(q. v.), a proposition is possible if its negation
Postulate.
is not necessary. The word possible is also used
(b) In idealistic metaphysics', positing, in the
in reference to a state of knowledge rather than
philosophy of G. Fichte is the initial act by
to modality; as a speaker might say, "It is pos-
which the Ego creates itself: "The positing of
sible that 486763 is a prime number," meaning
the Ego through itself is the
therefore, pure that he had no information to the contrary (al-
activity of the Ego." (Fichte, The Science of
though this proposition is impossible in the sense
Knowledge, Trans, by A. F. Kroeger, p. 68.) of modality).
L.W. A F
prepositional function may also be said
Positional: The characters of perception are posi-
to be possible. In this case the meaning may be
tional. The positional character of the
thought either simply (Ex)F(x)-, or that (Ex)F(x) is
is the idea. (Avenarius.) H.H.
possible in one of the senses just described; or
Positionality: (Ger. Positionalitat) In Husserl: that F(x) is permitted under some particular
The character common to conscious processes of system of conventions or code of laws. As an
positing or setting an object, whether believing- example of the last we may take: "It is possible
ly, or in valuing or willing. Doxic positionality for a woman to be President of the United
is common to processes involving belief, dis- States." Here F is \x[x is a woman and * is a
belief, doubt, (see Doxa}\ analogical posi-
etc. President of the United States], and the code of
tionality, to processes of loving, hating, or other- laws in question is the Constitution of the
wise valuingj volitional, to those involving in- United States. A.C.
clination, disinclination, voluntary doing, etc. Possible: (Gr. endechomenon) According to
Positionality in all its forms is contrasted with Aristotle that which happens usually but not
guasi-positionality (see Phantasy) and neutrality. necessarily j hence distinguished both from the
n .. DC
' '
necessary and from the impossible. G.R.M.
Positive Theology: A term referring to doctrines Post hoc, ergo propter hoc: (Lat. after this,
alleged to be groanded upon a "positive" reve- therefore on account of this) A logical fallacy
244 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in which it is argued that a consequent it caused immediate or remote. Even impotence and in-

by an antecedent, simply because of the temporal
relationship, VJ.B.
Postpredicament : Noun generally applied since
the time of Abelard to any particular one of the
five conceptions, or relations, examined in de-
tail in the tenth and following chapters of the
treatise on the Categories, or
ascribed to Aristotle, which, however, was very
probably written by others after his death.
Postulate: (Lat. postulating Ger. Postulat) In
Kant: (1) An indemonstrable practical or moral
hypothesis, such as the reality of God, freedom,
or immortality, belief in which is necessary for
the performance of our moral duty. (2) Any of
three principles of the general category of mo-
dality, called by Kant "postulates
of empirical
See Modality and Kantianism.
thought."
Postulate: See Mathematics.
Potency: (Scholastic) Potency Is
as asserted of being. It means
being or of being thus. Prime matter (q.v.)
is pure potency, indetermined in regard to actual
capacity are not different in kind from power,
but simply in degree. These Aristotelian views
on power, including its ontological interpreta-
tion, have held the ground for centuries) and
we* find them partly also in Hobbes and Locke
who defined power as the ability to make or to
Predicaments, receive change. Hume's analysis of power showed
it to be an illusion) and with the advent of
positivism and experimental psychology, this con-
cept lost much of its value. The notion of power
has been used by Fechner in his doctrine and
law concerning the relation between* stimuli and
sensations.
B. In ontology, power is often synonymous
with potency (q.v.) Aristotle, who is mainly
responsible for the development of this notion
(Metaph. IV (5) 12.), distinguishes three aspects
of it: as a source of change, as a capacity of
_ O.F.AT. performing, and as a state in virtue of which
things are unchangeable by themselves. Hobbes
opposed to act accepts only the first of these meanings, namely
the capacity of that power is the source of motion. Various
questions are involved in the analysis of the
notion of power) as, for example, whether power

corporeal being. Any change or development or,

generally, becoming presupposes a corresponding
nature of
potency. Some potencies belong to the
a thing, others are merely passive and consist
is an accident or a perfection of substance, and
whether it is distinct from it.
C. In natural philosophy, power corresponds
to effort, to the force applied to overcome re-

in non-repugnance. Thus to be thrown is not sistance. More technically, it is the time rate of
due to a potency strictly speaking in the stone the performance of work, or the transfer of
which has, in regard to this a "merely obedien- energy. In optics, power is the degree to which
tial" potency. The first kind is also called an optical instrument magnifies.
R.A* D. In mathematics, (1) it is a numerical or
operative potency.
Potentiality: See Dynamis. algebraical index showing the number of times
the element it affects must be multiplied by it-
Power: In general: (1) the physical, mental and
moral ability to act or to receive an action j (2) self) concurrently, it denotes the product arising
the general faculty of doing, making, perform- from the continued mutiplication of a quantity
ing, realizing, achieving, producing or succeed- by itself. (2) In the theory of aggregates, the
ing} (3) ability, capacity, virtue, virtuality, po- power of a class is the number of its elements,
tency, potentiality, faculty, efficacy, efficacity, its cardinal number (q.v.). T.G.
efficiency, operative causality, process of change
Practical: (Ger. praktisch) In Husserl: Of or
or becoming) (4) natural operative force, pertaining to such conscious processes as .reach
energy, vigor, strength, or effective condition
fulfilment in behavior. D.C.
Practical Relating to praxis, or conduct.
applied or applicable to work;
:
(5) person,
agent, body, institution, government or state, G.R.M.
having or exercising an ability to act in ac- Practical Imperative: (in Kant's ethics) Kant's
cordance with its nature and functions) (6) famous dictum: "So act as to treat humanity,
spirit, divinity, deity, superhuman agent, super-
whether in thine own person or in that of any
natural principle of activity} (7) an attribute or other, in every case as an end withal, never as
name of God} (8) in theology, an order of means only." P.A.S.
angels j (9) in law the authority, capacity or Practical Reason: (Kant. Ger. praktische Ver-
right to exercise certain natural and legal pre- nunft) Reason or reflective thought concerned
rogatives) also, the authority vested in a person with the issues of voluntary decision and action.
by law) (10) influence, prerogative, force. Practical reason includes "everything which is
A. In psychology, power is sometimes synony- possible by or through freedom." In general,
mous with faculty (?.t/.)> It also meant a qual- practical reason deals with the problems of
ity which renders the nature of an individual ethics. Kant asserted the primacy of practical
agent apt to elicit certain physical and moral reason over theoretical reason} and also asserted
actions. Hence, power is a natural endowment as practical postulates (q.v.) certain conceptions
enabling the intellect to condition the will and which were not theoretically demonstrable. See
x thus create habits and virtues) in a higher de-
gree, power is a moral disposition enabling the Practical Theology: A
special department of
individual to cultivate his perfectibility* The conventional theological study, called "practical"
distinction between powers is given by the dis- to distinguish it from general theology, Biblical,
tinction of their actions. Powers are active or historical and systematic studies. As the term
operative, and passive or receptive) they are denotes, subjects which deal with the application
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 245
of the theoretical phases of the subject come cept, and there
absolutely nothing more in it".
is

under this division: church policy (ecclesiology), Peirce hoped that the suffix, -icism, might mark
Ac work of the minister in worship (liturgies his -more strictly defined acception of the doc-
and hymnology), in preaching (homiletics), in trine of pragmatism, and thus help to distin-
teaching (catechetics), in pastoral service (poi- guish it from the extremes to which it had been
menics), and in missionary effort (evangelistics). pushed by the efforts of James, Schiller, Papini,
For further discussion see Theological Propae- '
and others. J.K.F.
deutic (9th ed., 1912), Philip Schaff. V.F. Pragmatics: The study of the relations between
Practice: (Lat. practica, business) The deliberate signs and their interpreters in abstraction from
application of a theory. Formerly, an estab- relations to their designate or to other signs.
lished custom^ the pursuance of some traditional A department of Semiotic (q.v.). M.B.
action. Now, the organization of actuality ac-
Pragmatism (Gr. pragma, things done) Owes
: its

cording to some general principle. Sometimes, inception as a movement of philosophy to C. S.

opposed to, sometimes correlative with, theory Peirce and William James, but approximations
(q.v.). J.K.F. to it can be found in many earlier thinkers,
Praedicabilia: (Lat. that which is able to be including (according to Peirce and James)
predicated) Since Greek philosophic thinking, Socrates and Aristotle, Berkeley and Hume.
the modes of predicating or the concepts to be Concerning a closer precursor, Shadworth Hodg-
affirmed of any subject whatsoever, usually son, James says that he "keeps insisting that
enumerated as five: genus, species, difference, realities are only what they are 'known as* ".
property (or, characteristic), and accident. They Kant actually uses the word "pragmatic" to char-
assumed an important role in the scholastic dis- acterize "counsels of prudence" as distinct from
cussions of universals. According to Kant, they "rules of skill" and "commands of morality"
are pure, yet derived concepts of the under- {Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of
standing. K.F.L. Morals, p. 40). His principle of the primacy
Praedicamenta :
(Scholastic) The ten praedica-
'
of practical reason is also an anticipation of
ments are, according to Aristotle (Met. V.) and pragmatism. It was reflection on Kant's Critique
the Schoolmen: substance, quantity, quality, rela- of Pure Reason which originally led Peirce to
tion, habitus, when, where, location, action, formulate the view that the muddles of meta-
passion. R.A. physics can be cleared up if one attends to the
Pragmatic theory of truth: Theory of knowl- practical consequences of ideas. The pragmatic
edge which maintains that the truth of a proposi- maxim was first stated by Peirce in 1878 (Popu-
tion is determined by its practical consequences. lar Science Monthly): "Consider what effects,
See Pragmatism. A.C.B. that might conceivably have practical bearings,
Pragmatic Realism: The doctrine that knowl- we conceive the object of our conception to
edge comes by way of action; that to know is have. Then, our conception of these effects is
to act by hypotheses which result in successful the whole of our conception of the object". A
adaption or resolve practical difficulties. Accord- clearer formulation by the same author reads:
ing to pragmatic realism, the mind is not out- "In order to meaning of an in-
ascertain the
side the realm of nature; in experience the tellectual conception one should consider what
organism and tlfc world are at one; the theories practical consequences might conceivably result
of knowledge which follow the alleged dualism by necessity from the truth of that 'conception ;
between the objective and subjective worlds are and the sum of these consequences will constitute
false. Ideas and knowledge are instruments for the entire meaning of the conception". This is
activity and not spectators of an outside realm. often expressed briefly, viz.: The meaning of a
V.F. proposition is its logical (or physical) conse-
Pragmaticism Pragmatism in Peirce's
: sense. quences. The principle is not merely logical. It
The name adopted in 1905 by Charles S. Peirce is also admonitory in Baconian style: "Pragma-

(1893-1914) for the doctrine of pragmatism tism is the principle that every theoretical judg-

(q.v.) which had been enunciated by him ment expressible in a sentence in the indicative
in 1878. Peirce's definition was as follows: mood is a confused form of thought whose only

"In order to ascertain the meaning of an in- meaning, if it has any, lies in its tendency to
tellectual conception one should consider what enforce a corresponding practical maxim expressi-
ble as a conditional sentence having its apodosis
practical consequences might conceivably result
by necessity from the truth of that conception; in the imperative mood". (Collected Papers of
and the sum of these consequences will constitute Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by Charles Harts-
the entire meaning of the conception". Accord- home and Paul Weiss, 5.18.) Although Peirce's
ing to Peirce, W. James
had interpreted prag- maxim has been an inspiration not only to later
matism to"that the end of man is action",
mean pragmatists, but to operationalists as well, Peirce
whereas Peirce intended his doctrine ai "a the- felt that it might easily be misapplied, so as to
ory of logical analysis, or true definition)" and eliminate important doctrines of science doc-
held that "its merits are greatest in its applica- trines, presumably, which have no ascertainable
tion to the highest metaphysical conceptions". practical consequences.
"If one can define accurately all the conceivable James' definition of pragmatism) written for
experimental phenomena which the affirmation Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, is simply a
or denial of a concept could imply, one will restatement, or "exegesis", of Peirce's definition
have therein a complete definition of the con- (see first definition listed above) appearing in
246 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the tame place. The resemblance between their another. In general, pragmatism as a method,
positions is illustrated by their common insist- does not seem to imply any final philosophical
ence upon the feasibility and desirability of re- conclusions. It may imply a general direction
solving metaphysical problems by practical dis- of thought, such as empiricism. Although prag-
tinctions, unprejudiced by dogmatic presupposi- matists (Peirce, James, Dewey) frequently attack
tions, their willingless to put every question to older forms of empiricism, or crude empiricism,
the test. "The pragmatic method", says James, and necessarily reject truth as a simple or static
"tries to interpret each notion by tracing its correspondence of propositions with sense data,
respective practical consequences. ... If no they nevertheless continue to describe themselves
practical difference whatever can be traced", be- as empiricists, so that
today pragmatism (especial-
tween two alternatives, they "mean practically ly in Dewey's case) often regarded as synony-
is
the same thing, and all dispute is idle". (Prag- mous with empiricism. See Empiricism.
matism, p. 45. See also Chapters III and IV.) F. C. S. Schiller, the Oxford pragmatist or
But while Peirce thought of pragmatism as humanist, is, if anything, more hostile to ra-
akin to the mathematical method, James* moti- tionalism, intellectualism, absolute metaphysics
vation and interest was largely moral and re- and even systematic and rigorous thinking than
ligious. Thus in his Wtll to Believe (New James himself. In his Humanism (1903) and
World, 1896) he argues, in line with Pascal's his most important book Studies in Humanist*
wager, that "we have the right to believe at our (1907), he attempts to resolve or deflate meta-
own risk any hypothesis that is live enough to physical issues and controversies by practical dis-
tempt our will," i.e. if it is not resolvable in- tinctions of terms and appeal to personal, human
tellectually. Speaking of religious scepticism, he factors, supposedly forgotten by other philoso-
says: "We cannot escape the issue by remaining phers. Schiller wrote about many of the topics
sceptical .
because, although we do avoid error
. , which James treated: absolute metaphysics, re-
in that way if religion be untrue, we lose the ligion, truth, freedom,
psychic research, etc.,
good, */ it be true, just as certainly as if we and the outcome is similar. His spirited defense
positively choose to disbelieve". The position of of Protagoras, "the humanist", against Socrates
the religious skeptic is: "Better risk loss of truth and his tireless bantering critique of all phases
than chance of error, . ." Later, in 1907 in . of logic are elements of novelty.
formal So
the Lowell Lectures he stated that "on prag- also is extreme activism. He goes so far as
his
matistic principles, if the hypothesis of God to say that "In validating our claims to 'truth*
works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the ... we really transform them [realities] by our
word, it is true", and took a position between cognitive efforts, thereby proving our desires
absolutism and
materialism which he called and ideas to be real forces in the shaping of the
"pragmatistic or melioristic" theism. In the same world". (Studies in
Humanism, 1906, p. 425.)
lectures he announces that " 'the true*, to put it Schiller'sapparent view that desires and ideas
briefly, is only the expedient in the way of can transform both truth and reality, even with-
thinking, . . ." James also identifies truth with out manipulation or experiment, could also be
verifiability, thus
anticipating both the experi- found in James, but is absent in Dewey and
mentalism of Dewey and the operationalism of later pragmatists.
Bridgman and the logical positivists. John Dewey prefers to call his philosophy ex-
Pragmatism first is and always a doctrine of perimentalism, or even instrumentalism,
but the
meaning, and often a definition of truth as well, public continues to regard
him as the leading
but as to the latter, not all pragmatists are in
exponent of pragmatism. Dewey's pragmatism
complete agreement. Neither Peirce nor Dewey, (like that of Peirce and James), is (1)
a theory
for example, would accept James* view that if the of meaning, and of truth or "warranted asserti-
hypothesis of God works satisfactorily for the bility", and (2) a body of fairly flexible philo-
individual, it is true. Pragmatism is also a sophical doctrines. The connection between (1)
method of interpreting ideas in terms of their and (2) requires analysis. Joseph Ratner (edi-
consequences. James, however, apparently doet tor ofvolumes of Dewey's philosophy), claims
not believe that this method entails his specific that if Dewey's analysis of experimentalism is
philosophical doctrines his pluralism, individ- accepted almost everything that is fundamental
ualism, neutralism, indeterminism, meliorism, in his philosophy follows (Intelligence in the
pragmatic theism, "crass" supernaturalism, etc. Modern World, John Dewty's Philosophy, ed.
In fact, he states that pragmatism is independent
Joseph Ratner, N. Y., 1939), but on the other
of his new
philosophy of "radical empiricism" hand it might also be claimed that Dewey's
and agrees with the anti-intellectualist bent of method, whatever name is given to it, can be
the Italian pragmatist, Papini, who sees the practiced by philosophers who have important
pragmatic method available to the atheist, the doctrinal differences.
praying penitent, the investigating chemist, the In Reconstruction in Philosophy (New York,
metaphysician and the anti-metaphysician. 1920, p. 156), Dewey states: "When the claim
("What Pragmatism Means".) On the other or pretension or plan is acted upon it guides us
hand, insofar as pragmatism is practically identi- to our end or
truly or falsely; it leads us
fied with the scientific method (as is
allegedly away from it. Its active, dynamic function is
the case with Dewey) it appears that the prag- the all-important thing about it, and in the
matic method might be expected to yield much quality of activity induced by it lies all its truth
the same conclusions for one philosopher as for and The hypothesis that works is the
falsity.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 247

true onej and an abstract noun applied

truth is cussions) has
occasioned considerable criticism,
to the collection of cases, actual, foreseen and for there appeared to be a danger that important

desired, that receive confirmation in their work might be excluded as mean-

scientific propositions
and consequences". The needs and desires which ingless. To this and other problems of opera-
truth must satisfy, however, are not conceived as tionalism the logical positivists (or empiricists)
personal and emotional (as with James) but have contributed formulary modifications and
rather as "public" in some not altogether explicit refinements. See Logical Empiricism. In spite
sense. Although Dewey emphasizes the func- of their frequent difference with regard to the
tional role of propositions and laws (and even empirical foundation of logic and mathematics,
of sensations, facts and objects), and describes pragmatism has received some support from the
these materials of knowledge as means, tools,
strict logicians and mathematical philosophers.
instruments or operations for the transformation One of the most important instances
historically
of an indeterminate situation into a determinate
was C. Lewis' paper "The Pragmatic Element
I.
in Knowledge" (University of California Pub-
one in the process of inquiry (Logic, The Theory
lications in Philosophy, 1926). Here he stated:
of Inquiry, N. V., 1938), he does not clearly
"that the truth of experience must
deny that they have a strictly cognitive r61e as always be
relative to our chosen
well, and he once states that "the essence of conceptual systems", and
that our choice between
pragmatic instrumentalism is to conceive of both conceptual systems "will
be determined
knowledge and practice as means of making consciously or not, on pragmatic
excellencies of all kinds secure in ex- grounds".
goods
Instrumentalism: In the philosophy of Dewey,
perienced existence". (The Quest for Certainty,
N. instrumentalism is scarcely distinguishable from
1929, p. 37.) Indeed, in his Logic (p.
Y.,
he with experimentalism or operationalism although it is
345), quotes approval Peirce's defini-
used to characterize his earlier and
tion: "truth is that concordance of an abstract philosophy,
in its more related
statement with the ideal limit towards which is, associations, closely to
endless inquiry would tend to bring scientific .evolutionary philosophy, and more influenced by
biological, than by physical or social science.
belief, . . ." Here truth seems to be represented
as to but On
the continent of Europe philosophers as
progressive approximation reality,
far removed from Dewey as Hans Vaihinger
usually it is interpreted as efficacy, verification or
are sometimes called pragmatists
practical expediency. (Ueberweg).
The similarities are of doubtful importance.
Experimentalism: Since Dewey holds that "ex-
perimentation enters into the determination of
VJM.
every warranted proposition" (Logic, p. 461), Prajapati: (Skr.) "Lord of creatures", originally
he tends to view the process of inquiry as ex- applied to various Vedic (q.v.) gods, it assumed
as early as the Rig Veda the importance of a
perimentation. Causal propositions, for example,
become prospective, heuristic, ideological} not first philosophical principle of creation, and
Laws later of time as suggestive of gestation and
retrospective, revelatory or ontological. pro-
ductive periodicity. K.F.L.
are predictions of future occurrences provided
certain operations are carried out. Experimental- Prajna: (Skr.) Realization, insight into the true
and abiding nature of the
ism, however, is sometimes interpreted in the self, dtman, purusa,
wider Baconian tense as an admonition to sub- etc. K.F.L.
mit ideas to tests, whatever these may be. If this Prajnana: (Skr.) Intelligence. K.FX.
is done, pseudo-problems (such as common epi-
Prakrti: (Skr.) Primary matter
or substance,
stemological questions) either evaporate or are nature, with purusa (q.v.) one of the two eternal
bases of the world according to the S2nkbya and
quickly resolved.
the Yogasutras. It is the unconscious yet subtle
Operationalism: Scientific propositions are,
cause of all material phenomena having three
roughly speaking, predictions and a prediction is
an if-then proposition: "If certain operations are gunas (q.v.), sativa, rajas, tamos. Modifica-
tions of this view may be met throughout Indian
performed, then certain phenomena having deter-
minate properties will be observed. Its hypo- philosophy. K.F.L.
thetical character shows that it is not final or Prama: (Skr.) In its philosophical sense equiva-
complete but intermediate and instrumental" lent to pramdna (q.v.). K.F.L.
(Logic, p. 456). P. W. Bridgman's very influ- Pramana: (Skr. measure) A standard of action
ential formulation of operationalism is compara- or reasoning) knowledge as such or as a logical
ble: "In general, we mean by any concept noth- criterionhaving validity) a mode of proof, a
ing more than a set of operations) the concept criterion of truth, such as authority, perception,
is synonymous with the corresponding set of inference, customarily acknowledged at the out-
operations". (The Logic of Modern Physics, p. set by all Indian philosophic systems, according
5.) If the operation (or can be), carried out,
is to predelection. K.F.L.
the proposition has meaning) if the consequences Prameya: (Skr. to be measured, measurable)
The
has "war- the object of
which it forecasts occur, it is true, proposition or thing to be proved)
ranted assertibility" or probability. knowledge. K.F.L.
question of whether the operations must
The Prana: the
(Skr.) Originally meaning "breath",
be specified or merely conceivable for the propo- word as "vital
figures in early Indian philosophy
sition to have meaning (which is analogous to air" and "life" itself. Subspecies of it are also
the constructibility problem in mathematical dis- recognized, such as apdna, udana, etc. K.F.L.
248 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Priniyama: (Skr.) Breath (prana) exercise con- the Fall, the Fall itself only being permitted.
sidered, like asana (q.v.), a necessary accessory V.F.
to proper functioning of mind, manas (q.v.). Predetermination: Purpose setup beforehand.
K.F.L. V.F.
Prasada: (Skr. inclining towards) Favor, grace, Predicables: (Lat. praedicabilia) In Aristotle's
recognized by some Indian religio-metaphysical logic the five types of predicates that may be
systems as divine recompense for bhakti (q.v.). affirmed or denied of a subject in a logical
K.F.L. proposition, vie. definition, genus, differentia,
Pratyabhijni : (Skr.) "Recognition", particularly property, and accident. The list of predicables

the rediscovery or realization that the divine as formulated by Porphyry and later logicians
and ultimate reality is within the human soul or omits definition and includes species. See Defini-
self. One phase of the philosophy of the Trika tion: Genus i Species; Differentia} Property}
(q.v.). K.F.L. Accident. G.R.M.
Pratyahara: (Skr.) Withdrawal of the senses Predicament: (Ger. from Lat. praedicamentum,
from external objects, one of the psycho-physi- a category) The Kantian name for the innate
cal means for attaining the object of Yoga (q. a priori forms of the understanding; since each
v.). For the theory of the senses conceived as category is a way of predicating something of
powers, see Indriya. K.F.L. a subject, and since there are twelve types of
Pratyaksa: (Skr.) Perception} evidence of the judgment, Kant enumerated twelve praedica-
senses. K.F.L. ments: totality, plurality, unity, reality, negation,
Praxis: praxis) Activity that has its goal
(Gr. limitation, substantiality-inherence, causality-
within itself 5 conduct} distinguished from dependence, reciprocity, possibility-impossibility,
poiesis,or production, which aims at bringing being and non-being, necessity-contingency.
into existence something distinct from the ac- V.J.B.
tivity itself. G.R.M. Predicate: The four traditional kinds of categori-
Preemption: (Lat. prae -f perceptio, a taking) cal propositions (see Logic, formal, 4) are: all
The anticipatory representation of an object S is P, no S is P, some S is P, some S is not P.
which guides and facilitates the perception of it. In each of these the concept denoted by S is the
L.W. subject and that denoted by P is the predicate.
P re-critical This adjective is commonly applied
:
Hilbert and Ackermann use the word predicate
to all Kant's works prior to the
Critique of Pure for a propositional function of one or more
Reason since they all dogmatically assume variables Carnap uses it for the corresponding
i

knowledge of thinga-in-themselves pos- to be syntactical entity, the name or designation of

sible. It is also applied to the sections of the
Critique which are thought to have been written
earliest,whether or not they imply this
assump-
tion. See Kantianism. A.C.E.
Predestination: The doctrine that all events of
man's life, even one's eternal
destiny, are deter-
mined beforehand by Deity. Sometimes this
destiny thought of in terms of an encompass-
is
ing Fate or Luck (Roman and Greek), some-
times as the cyclic routine of the wheel of For-
tune (Indian), sometimes as due to
special gods
or goddesses (Clotho, Lachesis and
Atropos in
Hesiod), sometimes as the Kismet or mysterious
Fate (Mohammedanism), as due to rational
Necessity (Stoicism) and more often
the sheer will of a sovereign Deity
(Hebrew,
Jewish and Christian). In historic Christianity
utterances of Paul are given as the
authority for
the doctrine (Eph. l:llj Rom.
8:30$ Rom. 9:
18). St. Augustine believed that man's
own
sinfulness made his salvation
utterly
upon the sheer grace and election of
treme expressions of Calvinism and Lutheranism
held that man does absolutely nothing toward
his salvation apart from the grace and
good
will of the Divine. Classical
examples of theo-
logical determinism are the views of Bucer
(1491-1551), Calvin (see Calvinism), and the
American theologian, Jonathan Edwards (1703-
1758). The two classic theories concerning the
place of the alleged Fall of man are: supralap-
sarianism, the view that the Fall itself was pre-
determined) infralapsarianism, the view that
man's predestination was set up
such a propositional function (i.e., of a property
or relation). A.C.
Preformationism : (Lat. pre -f forma re, to form
before) The doctrine, according to which, the
organs and hereditary characters of living crea-
tures are already contained In the
germ either
structurally or by subsequent differentiation. Cf.
Leibniz (q.v.) (MonaJology, sect. 74) who was
influenced by Leeuwenhoek's microscopic discov-
eries and theory of the homunculus (little hu-
man contained in the sperm).
Prediction: 1. The process and the expression of
an inference made with respect to a future event.
2. According to Plato, a prophetic prediction
in terms of is a form of inspired "frenzy" which
produces a
good result which could not be obtained in a
normal state of mind (Phaedrw). The other
two forms of this abnormal activity are poetic
inspiration and religious exaltation. This con-
cept has been exalted by Christian theology
dependent which gave to it a divine origin: the gift of
God. Ex- prediction is an attribute of a saint, and also of
the biblical prophets.
3. In mathematical theory, prediction is an
inference regarding an unknown or future event,
from calculations involving probabilities and in
particular the computation of correlations. Sta-
tistical made by means of
predictions are usually
and regression lines, which
regression coefficients
indicate the amount of change of one variable
which accompanies a given amount of change in
the other variable. The process of predicting
. values within the range of known data is called
subsequent to interpolation} and the process of predicting
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 249

value* beyond the range of known data is called Presentational Immediacy: (Lat. praesent ppr.
extrapolation. The reliability of these predic- of praeesse; and in 4" medius, middle) Presen-
tions varies on the basis of the known variables, tational immediacy characterizes any items which
and of their limits. T.G. are in the direct cognitive presence of the mind
Reestablished Harmony: A theory expounded such as sense data, images, emotional and affec-
by Leibniz and adopted in modified form by tive data. Immediacy is ascribed by some epi-
other thinkers after him, to refute the theories stemologists to higher levels of knowledge, e.g.
of interactionism, occasionalism, and the parallel- perception and memory and by the mystic to
ism of the Spinotistic type, in psycho-physics. the knowledge of God. L.W.
According to its dynamism, matter and spirit, Presentationism : The epistemological theory that
body and soul, the physical and the moral, each the mind is in perception and perhaps also
a "windowless", perfect monad (q.v.) in itself,
are once and for all not only corresponding
memory and other types of cognition directly
aware of its object (see Epistemological Mon-
realities, but they are also synchronized by God
in their changes like two clocks, thus rendering
ism). Although the term is ordinarily applied
to realistic theories of perception
(see Epistem-
the assumption of any mutual or other influences
ological Realism} Naive Realism), it is equally
nugatory. K.F.L.
applicable to idealistic and phenomenalistic
Prehension: (Lat. prehensus, from prehendere, to theories (see Epistemological Idealism). Pres-
seize) In the terminology of A. N. Whitehead,
entationism, whether realistic or idealistic, is
prehension is the process of feeling whereby
opposed to representationalism. See Representa-
data are grasped or prehended by a subject. See
tionalism. L.W.
Process and Reality, Part III. L.W.
Prehension, Span of: The maximum number of Presupposition: (a) That which must antecedent-
items or groups of items which an individual ly be assumed if a desired result is to be de-
mind is capable of embracing within the unity rived; thus, a postulate.
of attention. See J. Ward, Psychological Prin- (b) That which is logically necessary; thus,

ciple*, pp. 222 ff. See Attention, Span of.

that which is implied, an implicate.
L.W. (c) That which is causally necessary; thus a
Prehistory: That part of history of which we condition or result. C.A.B.
have no written records, documents or oral ac-
Prevarication: A deviation from truth or fact;
counts, but which is reconstructed from material an evasion or equivocation; a quibble, a lie.
remains by archeologists and anthropologists. C.A.B.
Premiss: A proposition, or one of several propo-
sitions, from which an inference is drawn} or
Prima facie duties: A
phrase used by W. D.
the sentence expressing such a proposition. Fol-
Ross to indicate the nature of the general mate-
rial rules of duty which he regarded as self-
lowing C. S. Peirce, we here prefer the spelling
evident, promise-keeping is a prima facie duty,
premiss, to distinguish from the word premise
in other senses (in particular to distinguish the
one among I.e., if I have made a prom-
others.
ise, I have a prima facie duty to keep it, which
plural from the legal term premises). A.C.
Prenex normal form: See means that I will have an actual duty to keep
Logic, formal, 3.
it, if no higher prima facie duty
is incumbent
Prescience: Supposedly direct acquaintance with
the future in contrast to fore-knowledge which
upon me. What Ross calls "prima facie duties"
H. A. Prichard calls "claims" and E. F. Carritt
is usually considered to be descriptive and in-
"responsibilities." The notion is central to the
ferential (see Fore-Knowledge) Prescience is
recent neo-intuitionism of Oxford, constituting
usually attributed only to God. L.W.
its reply to the usual objection to intuited gen-
Present: That momentary and transient part of
eral material propositions about duty on the
time in which all events and experiences take
score that these may conflict and must admit of
place. Is usually conceived as having no dura-
exceptions. W.K.F.
tion ("knife-edge") or small duration ("saddle-
back" ) .--R.B. W. Primary Qualities: The inherent qualities of

Presentation: (Lat. praesentatio, a showing, rep- bodies: solidity,extension, figure, motion, rest,
resentation) (a) In the narrow sense: anything number. These qualities are conceived to be
inseparable from objects; they are
con-
directly present to a knowing mind such as sense utterly
data, images of memory and imagination, emo- stant. John Locke made classic the distinction
tional and hedonic states, etc. See Datum, (b) of and secondary qualities made by
primary
In the wider sense: any object known by ac- Galileo and Descartes. V.F.

quaintance rather than by description for ex- Primary truth: (Lat. primus, first) conception A
ample, an object of perception or memory. See or proposition which is dependent for its truth

Acquaintance, Knowledge by. L.W. on no other principle in the same order of

Presentational continuum: (Lat. praesentare, to thought; it may be considered self-evident from
common experience, special intuitr e insight, or
present) The conception of an individual mind
* even by postulation; but it is not demonstrated.
at an originally undifferentiated continuum
V.J.B.
which becomes progressively differentiated in the
course of experience. See article Psychology by Prime Matter: See Matter.
J. Ward in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed.j Prime Mover: In Aristotle's philosophy that
also J. Ward Psychological Principles, Ch. IV. which is the cause of all change and, being
first

L.W. first, is not subject to change by any prior agent.

250 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
See Arittotelianism. G.RM. of God or of the free creatures, are those deter-
Primitive Communism That stage of primitive
: mined by the perception of the good and exhibit

some form of socialized themselves as final causes involving the good)

society in which there is
and possible sufficient reasons are involved, for
ownership of the basic means of production (the
land, fisheries, natural resources and the like), example, in the perception of evil as a possible
an absence of economic classes (q.v.) and of the aim to achieve. Leibniz defines the Principle of
state as a special apparatus of internal force. Sufficient Reason as follows: It is the principle
"in virtue of which we judge that no fact can
Primitivism: A modern term for a complex of be found true or existent, no judgment veritable,
ideas back in classical thought to unless there is a sufficient reason why it should
running
Two be so and not otherwise, although these reasons
Hesiod. species of primitivitfrn are found,
cannot more than often be known to us. ...
(1) chronological primitivism, a belief that the
best period of history was the earliest; (2) //- There must be a sufficient reason for contingent
tural primitivism, a belief that the acquisitions truths or truths of fact, that is, for the sequence

of civilization arc evil. Each of these species is of things which are dispersed throughout the
found in two forms, hard and soft. The hard universe of created beings, in which the resolu-
mankind to tion into particular reasons might go into end-
primitivist believes the best state of
man's power of en- less detail" (Monadology, 31, 32, 33, 36). And
approach the ascetic life)
durance is eulogized. The soft primitivist, while again, "Nothing happens without a sufficient

frequently emphasizing the simplicity of what he

reason) that is nothing happens without its

imagines to be primitive life, nevertheless ac-
centuates its gentleness. The Noble Savage is
a fairexample of a hard primitive j the Golden
Race of Hesiod of a soft. G.B.
Cf. Studies in Primitivism t ed. Lovejoy and
Boas.
Primum cognitum: (Lat. primus, first; cognitus
pp. of cognoscere, to know) In Scholastic phi-
losophy the most primitive intellectual cognition
of the mind, in contrast to mere sensible cogni-
being possible for one who should know things
sufficiently to give a reason showing why things
are so and not otherwise" (Principles of Nature
and of Grace)* It seems that the account given
by Leibniz of this principle is not satisfactory
in itself, in spite of the wide use he made of it
in his philosophy. Many of his disciples vainly
attempted to reduce it to the Principle of Con-
tradiction. See Wolf.
Kant also developed the Leibnizian princi-
2.

tion. L.W. ples with some modifications in his early writing

Principium individuationis : (Lat.) Principle of Principiorum Primorum Cognitionis Metaphysicae
individuation (q.v.)) the intrinsic, real factor in Nova (1755), where the Principle
Dilucidatio
an existing singular thing which causes the indi- of Reason becomes the Principle of
Sufficient

viduality of the thing. VJ.B. Determining Reason (Ratio Determinant). Two

forms of this principle are distinguished by
Principle: (Lat. principe, from principium, a be-
ginning) A fundamental cause or universal
Kant: the ratio cur or antecedenter determinant
identified with the ratio essendi vel fiendi, and
truth) that which is inherent in anything. That
which ultimately accounts for being. According the ratio quod or consequenter determinant iden-
the tified with the ratio cognoscendi. It has been
to Aristotle, primary source of all being,
defended under these forms against Crusius and
actuality and knowledge, (a) In ontology: first
or the argument that it destroys human freedom.
principles are the categories postulates of
ontology, (b) In epistemology: as the essence T.G.
of being, the ground of all knowledge. Syn. Principal coordination: (Ger. prinzipialkoordi-
with essence, universal, cause. J.K.F. nation) The ego and the environment are the
reason: two central links in the originally given. The
Principle of non-sufficient According
restoration of the natural world
to this law, the probabilities of two propositions conception in
there no adequate which the perceived environmental
may be said to be equal, if is fragments
When are no more viewed as ideas in us. It forms
ground for declaring them unequal. ap-
the correlative functioning of
plied without qualification, this principle may object and subject.
lead to unwarranted results. Such a difficulty (Avenarius.) H.H.
may be avoided by an adequate formulation of Priority: The condition of being earlier in a
the Principle of Indifference. T.G. succession of events. This condition is meaning-
Principle of Organic Unities: A principle
ful only in the past-present-future series relative
enunciated by G. . Moore to the effect that to a given event or experience. In its logical

the intrinsic value of a whole need not be equal
to the sum of the intrinsic values of its parts.
See Intrinsic value. W.K.F.
Principle of sufficient reason: According to
Leibniz, one of the two principles on which
reasoning is founded, the other being the prin-
ciple of Contradiction. While the latter is the
ground of all necessary truths, the Principle of
Sufficient Reason is the ground of all contingent
and factual truths. It applies especially to exist-
sense, the term signifies a condition without
which something else cannot be understood, ex-
plained, or thought of. R.B.W.
Privacy, Bpistemic: (Lat. privatus, from privus,
private) Status of data of knowledge, e.g. somatic
sensations, hedonic and emotional states, and
perhaps even sense data, in so far as they are
directly accessible to a single knowing subject.
See Publicity, Epistemic.L.W.
Privation: (Lat. privatis) In Aristotle's philosophy

ents, possible or factual) hence its two forms: the condition of a substance that lacks a certain
actual sufficient reasons, like the actual volitions quality which it is capable of possessing and
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
normally does possess. G.R.M.
Proaeresis: (Gr. proairesis) Reflective choice,
especially of means to an end} deliberate desire
(Aristotle).- G.R.M.
Probabilism : The doctrine of the ancient Skeptics
that certainty is unattainable, and that probabil-
ity is the only guide to belief and action) espe-
cially characteristic of the New Academy. See
Peirce. G.R.M.
Probability: In general (1) Chance, possibility,
contingency, likelihood, liveliness, presumption,
conjecture, prediction, forecast, credibility, rele-
vance; (2) the quality or state of being likely
true or likely to happen) (3) a fact or a state-
ment which is likely true, real, operative
provable by future events} (4) the conditioning
of partial or approximate belief or assent) (5)
the motive of a presumption or prediction} (6)
the conjunction of reasonable grounds for pre-
suming the truth of a statement or the occur-
rence of an event} (7) the field of knowledge
between complete ignorance and full certitude}
(8) an approximation to fact or truth} (9) a
qualitative or numerical value attached to a
probable inference} and (10) by extension, the
systematic study of chances or relative possibili-
ties as forming the subject of the theory of
probability.
A. The Foundation of Probability. We can-
not knoweverything completely and with cer-
tainty. Yet we desire to think and to act as
correctly as possible: hence the necessity of
con-
sidering methods leading to reasonable approxi-
mations, and of estimating their results in terms
of the relative evidence available in each case.
In D
VI-VII (infra) only, is probability inter-
as
preted as a property of events or occurrences
uch: whether necessary or contingent, facts are
simply conditioned by other facts, and have neither
an intelligence nor a will to realize their cer-
tainty or their pliability. In other views, prob-
ability requires ultimately a mind to perceive
as such: it arises from the combination of our
partial ignorance of the extremely complex nature
and conditions of the phenomena, with the in-
adequacy of our means of observation, experi-
mentation and analysis, however searching and
provisionally satisfactory. Thus it may be said
that probability exists formally in the mind and
materially in the phenomena as related between
themselves. In stressing the one or the other of
these two aspects, we obtain: "(1) subjective
probability, when the psychological conditions of
the mind cause it to evaluate a fact or state-
ment with fear of possible error} and (2) objec-
tive probability, when reference it made to that
quality of facts and statements, which causes the
mind to estimate them with a conscious possibil-
ity of error. Usually, methods can be devised
to objectify technically the subjective aspect of
probability, such as the rules for the elimination
of the personal equation of the inquirer. Hence
the methods established for the study and the
interpretation of chances can be considered in-
dependently of the state of mind as such of the
inquirer. These methods make use of rational or
empirical elements. In the first case, we are
251
dealing with a priori or theoretical probability,
which considers the conditions or occurrences of
an event hypothetically and independently of
any direct experience. In the second case, we
are dealing with inductive or empirical proba-
bility. And when these probabilities are repre-
sented with numerals or functions to denote
measures of likelihood, we are concerned with
quantitative or mathematical probability. Meth-
ods involving the former cannot be assimilated
with methods involving the latter} but both can
be logically correlated on the strength of the
general principle of explanation, that similar
conjunctions of moral or physical facts demand
or a general law governing and justifying them.
B. The Probability-Relation. Considering the
general grounds of probability, it is pertinent to
analyze the proper characteristics of this concept
and the valid conditions of its use in inferential
processes. Probability presents itself as a special
relation between the premisses and the conclu-
sion of an argument, namely when the premisses
are true but not completely sufficient to condi-
tion the truth of the conclusion. probableA
inference must however be logical, even though
'
its result is not certain; for its premisses must'
be a true sign of its conclusion. The probability-
relation may take three aspects: it is inductive,
probable or presumptive. In strict induction,
there is an essential connection between the facts
expressed in the premisses and in the conclusion,
which almost forces a factual result from the
circumstances of the predication. This type of
probability-relation is prominent in induction
proper and in statistics. In strict probability,
there is a logical connection between the prem-
isses and the conclusion which does not entail
a definite factual value for the latter. This type
of probability-relation is prominent in mathe-
matical probability and circumstantial evidence.
In strict presumption, there is a similarity of
it characteristics between the fact expressed in the
conclusion and the real event if it does or did
exist.This type of probability-relation is promi-
nent in analogy and testimony. A presumptive
conclusion should be accepted provisionally, and
it should have definite consequences capable of
being tested. The results of an inductive infer-
ence and of a probable inference may often be
brought closer together when covering the same
field, as the relations involved are fundamental
enough for the purpose. This may be done by a
qualitative analysis of their implications, or by
a quantitative comparison of their elements, as
it done for example in the methods of cor-
is
relation. But a presumptive inference cannot be
reduced to either of the other two forms with-
out losing identity} because the connection
its
between itselements is of an indefinite char-
acter. It may be said that inductive and prob-
able inferences have an intrinsic reasonableness}
while presumptive inferences have an extrinsic
reasonableness. The former involve determinism
within certain limits $ while the latter display
indeterminacy more prominently. That is why
very poor, misleading or wrong conclusions are
obtained when mathematical methods are applied
252 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
to moral acts, judiciary deciiioni or indirect tes- To determine how often an event happens or
timony. The activity of the human will hat an fails. The comparison of the number of oc-
intricate complexity and variability not easily currences with that of the failures of an event,
subjected to calculation. Hence the degree of considered in simple or complex circumstances,
probability of a presumptive inference can be affords a basis for several cases of probable
estimated only by the character and circum- inference. Thus, theorems may be established to
stances of its suggested explanation. In moral deal the probability of success and the
with
cases, the discussion and application of the probability of failure of an event, with the
probability-relation leads to the consideration of probability of the joint occurrence of several
the doctrines of Probabilism and Probabiliorism events, with the probability of the alternative
which are qualitative. The probability-relation as occurrence of several events, with the different
such has the following general implications
conditions of frequency of occurrence of an
which are compatible with its three different event, with mathematical expectation, and with
aspects, and which may serve as general in-
similar questions. The determination of an
ferential principles: (1) Any generalization must a posteriori or inverse probability involves an in-
be probable upon propositions entailing its ex- ference from given situations or events, to past
emplification in particular cases) (2) Any gen- conditions or causes which may have contributed
eralization or system of generalizations forming to their By definition, an inverse
occurrence.
a must be probable upon propositions
theory, probability numerical value assigned to
is the
each one of a number of possible causes of an
following from it by implication) (3) The prob-
actual event that has already occurred) or more
ability of a given proposition on the basis of
other propositions constituting its evidence, is generally, it is the numerical value assigned to
the degree of logical collusiveness of this evi- hypotheses which attempt to explain actual events
dence with respect to the given proposition) (4) or circumstances. If an event has occurred as a
The empirical probability (p S/E) of a = result of any one of n several
causes, die prob-
statement S increases at verifications accrue ability that C was the actual cause is Pp/E
to the evidence E, provided the evidence is (P*P*)> when P is the probability that the event
taken as a whole) and (5) Numerical probabili- could be produced by C if present, and p the
ties may be assigned to factsor statements only probability that C was present before the occur-
when the evidence includes statistical data or rence of that event. Inverse probability is based
other numerical information which can be treated on general and special assumptions which can-
by the methods of mathematical probability. not always be properly stated) and as there are
C. Mathematical Probability. The mathemati- many different sets of such assumptions, there

cal theory of probability, which is also called cannot be a coercive reason for making a defi-
the theory of chances or the theory of relative nite choice. In particular, the condition of the

possibilities, is concerned with

the application of equiprobability of causes is seldom if ever ful-
mathematical methods to the determination of filled. The distinction between the two kinds of

the likelihood of any event, when there are not probability, which has led to some confusion in
sufficient data to determine with certainty its interpreting their grounds and their relations,
occurrence or failure. As Laplace remarked, it can be technically ignored now as a result of
is nothing more than common sense reduced to the adoption of a statistical basis for measuring
calculation. But. its range goes far beyond that probabilities. In particular, it is the statistical
of common sense: for it has not only condi- treatment of correlation which led to the study
tioned the growth of various branches of mathe- of probabilities of concurrent phenomena irre-
matics, such as the theory of errors, the calculus spective of their direction in time. This distinc-
of variations and mathematical statistics) but it tion may be retained, however, for the purpose
has also made possible the establishment of a of a general exposition of the subject. Thus, a
number of theories in the natural and social number of probability theorems are obtained by
sciences, by its actual applications to concrete using various cases of direct and inverse proba-
problems. A distinction is usually made between bility involving permutations and combinations,
direct and inverse probability. The determina- the binomial theorem, the theory of series, and
tion of a direct or a priori probability involves the methods of integration. In turn, these theo-
an inference from given situations or sets of rems can be applied to concrete cases of the
possibilitiesnumerically characterized, to future various sciences.
events relatedwith them. By definition, the
direct probability of the occurrence of any par- D. Interpretations of Probability. The meth-
ticular form of an event, is the ratio of the ods and results of mathematical probability (and
number of ways in which that form might occur, of probability in general) are the subject of
to the whole number of ways in which the event much controversy at regards their interpretation

may occur, all these forms being equiprobable or and value. Among the various theoriet proposed,
equally likely. The basic principles referring to we shall consider the following: (1) Probability
a priori probabilities are derived from the anal- at a measure of belief, (2) probability at the
ysis of the various logical alternatives involved relative frequency of events, (3) probability at
in any hypothetical questions such as the follow- the truth-frequency of types of argument, (4)
ing: (a) To determine whether a cause, whose probability at t primitive notion, (5) probability
exact nature is or is not known, will prove at an operational concept, (6) probability at a
operative or not in certain circumstances j (b) limit of frequencies, and (7) probability at a
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 253

physical magnitude determined by axioms. (5) that it is operational in form only, but not
I. Probability as a Measure of Belief: Ac- in fact, because it involves the infinite without

cording to this theory, probability is the measure proper limitations.

or relative degree of rational credence to be III. Probability as Truth-Frequency of Types
attached to facts or statements on the strength of Arguments: In this interpretation, which is
of valid motives. This type of probability is due mainly to Peirce and Venn, probability is
sometimes difficult to estimate, as it may be shifted from the events to the propositions about

qualitative well as quantitative. When con-

as them) instead of considering types and classes
sidered in its mathematical aspects, the measure of events, it considers types and classes of propo-
of probable inference depends on the preponder- sitions. is thus the ability to give
Probability
ance or failure of operative causes or observed an reading to the relative truth of
objective
occurrences of the case under investigation. This propositions dealing with singular events. This
conception involves axioms leading to the classic ability can be used successfully in interpreting
rule of Laplace, namely: The measure of prob- definite and indefinite numerical probabilities, by
ability of any one of mutually exclusive and taking statistical evaluations and making ap-
apriori equiprobable possibilities, is the ratio of propriate verbal changes in their formulation.
the number of favorable possibilities to the total Once assessed, the relative truth of the proposi-
number of possibilities. In probability operations, tions considered can be communicated to facts
this rule is taken as the definition of direct prob- expressed by these propositions. But neither the
ability for those cases where it is applicable. propositions nor the facts as such have a prob-
The main objections against this interpretation ability in themselves. With these assumptions, a
are: (1) that probability is largely subjective, or proposition has a degree of probability, only if
1
it is considered as a member of a class of propo-
at least independent of direct experience; (2)
that equiprobability is taken as an apriori no- sitions) and that degree is expressed by the
tion, although the ways of asserting it are em- proportion of true propositions to the total num-
pirical) (3) that the conditions of valid equi- ber of propositions in the class. Hence, proba-
probability are not stated definitely; (4) that bility is the ratio of true propositions to all the

equiprobability is difficult to determine actually propositions of the class examined, if the class
in all cases) (5) that it is difficult to attach an is finite) or to all the
propositions of the same
adequate probability to a complex event from type in the long run, if the class is infinite. In
the mere knowledge of the probabilities of its the first case, fair sampling may cover the re-
component parti) and (6) that the notion of strictions of a finite class; in the second case,
probability is not general, as it does not cover the use of infinite series offers a practical limita-
such cases as the inductive derivation of proba- tion for the evidence considered. But in both
bilities from statistical data. cases,probability varies with the class or type
II. Probability as a Relative Frequency: This chosen; and probability-inferences are limited by
interpretation is based on the nature of events, convention to those cases where numerical values
and not on any subjective considerations. It can be assigned to the ratios considered. It will
deals with the rate with which an event will be observed that this interpretation of proba-
occur in a class of events. Hence, it considers bility is similar to the relative frequency the-
probability as thp ratio of frequency of true re- ory. The difference between these two theories
sults to true conditions) and it gives as its is more formal than material: in both cases the
measure the relative frequency leading from true probability refers ultimately to kinds of evidence
conditions to true results. What is meant when based on objective matter of fact. Hence the
a set of calculations predict that an experiment Truth-Frequency theory is open to the same
will yield a result A with probability P, is that objections as the Relative-Frequency theory, with
the relative frequency of A is expected to ap- proper adjustments. An additional difficulty of
proximate the number P
in a long series of such this theory is that the pragmatic interpretation

experiments. This conception seems to be more of truth involves, has yet to be proved, and
it

concerned with empirical probabilities, because the situation is anything but improved by as-
the calculations assumed are mostly based on similating truth with probability.
statistical data or material assumptions suggested IV. Probability as a Primitive Notion: Ac-
by past experiments. It is valuable in so far as cording to this interpretation, whicn is due par-
it satisfies the
practical necessity of considering ticularly to Keynes, probability is taken as ulti-
probability aggregates in such problems. The mate or undefined, and it is made known
main objections against this interpretation are: through its essential characteristics.Thus, prob-
(1) that it does not teem capable of expressing ability is neither an intrinsic property of proposi-
satisfactorily what is meant by the probability of tions like truth, nor an empty concept) but a
an event being true) (2) that itsconclusions are relative property linking a proposition with its
more or less probable, owing to the difficulty of partial evidence. It follows that the probability
defining a proper standard for comparing ratios) of the same proposition varies with the evidence
(3) that neither its rational nor its statistical presented) and that even though a proposition
evidence is made clear) (4)- that the degree of may turn out to be false, our judgment that it is
relevance of that evidence is not properly deter- probable upon a given evidence can be correct.
mined, on account of the theoretical indefinite- Further, since probability belongs to a proposi-
ness of both the true numerical value of the tion only in its relation to other propositions,
probability and of the evidence assumed) and probability-inferences cannot be the lame as
254 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
truth-inferences: as they cannot break the chain in an attempt to evolve conditions for a true
of relations between their premisses, they lack random sequence. A
collective is a random
one of the essential features usually ascritied to sequence of supposed results of trials when
inference. That is why, in oarticular, the con- (1) the total frequency of the event in the
clusions of the natural sciences cannot be sepa- sequence exists, and (2) the same property
rated from their evidence, as it may be the case holds with the same limiting value when the
with the deductive sciences. With such assump- sequence is replaced by any sequence derived
tions, probability is the group name given to the from it. Various methods were devised by
processes which strengthen or increase the likeli- Copeland, Reichenbach and others to avoid
hood of an analogy. The main objection to this objections to the second condition: they
interpretation is the arbitrary character of it* were generalized by Wald who restricted

primitive idea. There is no reason why there the choice of the "laws of selection"
defining
are relations between propositions such that p is the ranks of the trials forming one of the
probable upon q, even on the assumption of the derived sequences, by his postulate that these
There must be
relative character of probability. laws must form a denumerable set. This
conditions determining which propositions are modification gives logical consistency to this
probable upon others. Hence we must look be- theory at the expense of its original simplicity,
yond the primitive idea itself and place the but without disposing of some fundamental
ground of probability elsewhere. shortcomings. Thus, the probability of an
V. Probability as an Operational Concept: In event in a collective remains a relative notion,
this interpretation, which is due particularly to since it must be known to which denumerable
Kemble, probability is discussed in terms of the set of laws of
selection it has been defined
mental operations involved in determining it relatively, order to determine its meaning,
in

numerically. pointed out that probability

It it even though value is not relative to the
its

enters the postulates of physical theories as a set. Controversial points about the axiomatiza-
useful word employed to indicate the manner in tion of this theory show the possibility of other
which results of theoretical calculations are to alternatives.
be compared with experimental 'data. But beyond VII. Probability as a Physical Magnitude
the usefulness of this word, there must be a determined by Axioms. This theory, which is
more fundamental concept justifying it; this is favoured mainly by the Intuitionist school of
called primary probability which should be mathematics, considers probability as 'a physical
reached by an instrumentalist procedure. The constant of which frequencies are measures.
analogy of the thermometer, which connects a Thus, any frequency is an approximate measure
qualitative sensation with a number, gives an of one physical constant attached to an event
indication such a procedure. The expecta-
for and to a set of trials: this constant is the
tion of the repetition of an event is an ele- probability of that event over the set of trials.
mentary form of belief which can be strength- As the observed frequencies differ little for
ened by additional evidence. In collecting such large numbers of trials from their corresponding
evidence, a selection is naturally made, by ac- probabilities, some
obvious properties of fre-
cepting the relevant data and rejecting the quencies be extended to probabilities. This
may
others. When the selected data form a pattern is done without proceeding to the limit, but
which does not involve the event as such or its through general approximation as in the case
negative, the event is considered as probable. of physical magnitudes. These properties are
The rules of collecting the data and of com- not constructed (as in the axiomatization of
paring them with the theoretical event and its Mises), but simply described: as such, they
negative, involve the idea pi correspondence form a set of axioms defining probability. The
which leads to the use of numbers for its ex- classical postulates involved in the treatises of
pression. Thus, probability is a number com- Laplace, Bertrand or Poincare* have been
puted from empirical data according to given modified in this case, under the joint influ-
rules, and used as a metric and a corrective to ence of the discovery of measure by Borei,
the sense of expectation; and the ultimate value and of the use of abstract sets. Their new form
of the theory of probability is its service as a has been stated
fully by Kolmogorof?
guide to action. The main interest of this theory and interpreted by Frechet who proposes
lies in psychological analysis and its attempt
its to call this latest theory the 'modernized
to unify the various conceptions of axiomatic definition
1
of probability. Its inter-
probability.
But it is not yet complete; and until its epi- pretation that it should be preceded
requires
stemological implications are made clear, its by an inductive synthesis, and followed by
apparent eclecticism
may cover many of the numerical verifications.
difficulties itwishes to avoid. T.G. The various theories outlined
Bibliography.
VI. Probability as a Limit of Frequencies. in this do not exhaust the possible
article
According to this view, developed especially by definitions and problems concerning probability)
Mises and by Wald, the probability of an but they give an idea of the trend of the
event is equal to its total frequency, that is to discussions. The following works are selected
the limit, if it exists, of the
frequency of that from a considerable literature of the subject.
event in n trials, when n tends to infinity.
Laplact, Essai sur les Probability's. Keynes,
The difficulty of working out this conception A Treatise on Probability. Jeffreys, Theory of
led Mises to propose the notion of a collective
Probability. Usptnsky, Introduction to Mathe-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 255

matical Probability. Borel, Traitl de Calcul Project method: An education method which
dcs Probability (especially the last volume makes use of practical activities, organizing the
dealing with its philosophical aspects). Mixes t scholastic work of the child about complex en-

Probability, Statistics and Truth. Reichenbach, terprises, such as making a garden, planning a
Les Fondements Logiques du Calcul des Proba- circus. J.E.B.
bilite"s. Frechet, Recherches sur le Calcul des Prolegomena: (Gr. pro, before j lego, say) Intro-
Probabilites. Ville, Essai sur la TheVie des ductory material. (Singular form: prolego-
Collectifs. Kolmogoroff, Grundbegriffe der menon.) Prolegomena to Every Future
Cf.
Wahracheinlichkeitsrechnung. Wald, Die Wider- Scientific Metaphysic, by Kant (q.v.). V.F.
spruchsfreiheit des Kollektivbegriffes. Nagel, Prolepsis: (Gr. prolepsis) Notion; preconception.
The Theory of Probability. T.G. The term is used by the Stoics and Epicureans
Problem: (Gr. problema, anything thrown for- to denote any primary general notion that arises

ward) 1. Any situation, practical or theoretical, spontaneously and unconsciously in the mind, as
for which there is no adequate automatic or distinguished from concepts that result from
habitual response, and which therefore calls up conscious reflection. These prolepses are re-
the reflective processes. 2. Any question pro- garded by the Stoics as common to all men as
A.C.B. rational beings, and are sometimes called innate
posed for solution.
Problematic knowledge: Knowledge of what (symphytoi), though in general they were looked
upon as the natural outgrowth of sense-percep-
might occur or is capable of occurring as op-
tion. G.R.M.
posed to knowledge of what is actual or of what
Proof by cases: Represented in its simplest form
must occur; opposed to assert oric knowledge and
A.C.B. by the valid inference of the prepositional cal-
apodictic knowledge.
In Kant, the domain of things beyond culus, from A = C and B => C and A v B to
pos-
be-
C. More complex forms involve multiple dis-
sible experience is completely problematic
cause of the a limitations of human junctions, e.g., the inference from A 3 D and
priori '
B => D and C = D and [A v B] v C to D.
knowledge (cf. J. Loewenberg, Calif. Studies tn
The simplest form of proof by cases is thus the
Philosophy). See Modality.
same as the simple constructive dilemma (see
Process: (Lat. processus, pp. of procedo, to go
Logic, formal, 2), the former term deriving
before) A series of purposive actions, generally
from mathematical usage and the latter from
tending toward the production of something. A traditional logic. For the more complex forms
systematic forward movement, resulting in
of proof by cases, and like generalizations of the
growth or decay. As employed by Whitehead
other kinds of dilemma to the case of more than
(1861-), the course of actuality in its cosmologi- two major premisses, logicians have devised the
cal aspects. Syn. with action, becoming, exist- names trilemma, tetralemma, polylcmma but
ence. ./.AT.F.
these are not much found in actual use. A. C.
Process Theory of Mind: The conception of Proof theory: The formalization of mathematical
mind in terms of process in contrast to sub-
proof by means of a logistic system (q. v.)
stance. A
mind, according to the process theory makes possible an objective theory of proofs and
is a relatively permanent pattern preserved provability, in which proofs are treated as con-
a Leib-
through continuously changing process. crete manipulations of formulas (and no use is
niz doctrine of the self-developing monad sig- made of meanings of formulas). This is Hil-
nalizes the transition from the substance to the bert's proof theory, or metamathematics.
process theory of mind and such philosophers A central problem of proof theory, according
as Bradley, Bosanquet, Bergson, James, White-
to Hilbert, is the proof of consistency of logistic
head, Alexander and Dewey are recent exponents systems adequate to mathematics or substantial
of the process theory. See C. W. Morris, Six
parts of mathematics. A
logistic system is said
Theories of Mind, Ch. II. L.W. to be consistent, relatively to a particular nota-
Proclus: (411-485) A prominent Neo-Platonist tion in the system called negation, if there is
and theological commentator, who taught that no formula A
such that both A
and the negation
man becomes united with God through the prac- of A are provable (i.e., are theorems). The sys-
tice of love, truth and faith. Main works: tems with which Hilbert deals, and the notations
Commentaries on Timeus, on Republic, on in them which he wishes to call negation, are
Parmenides; Instit. Theol.} In Platonis Theol. { such that, if a formula A and its negation were
Comment on First Book of Euclid. R.S.W. once proved, every prepositional formula could
Projection: (Lat. projectio, from projicere, to be proved hence he is able to formulate the
j

throw forward) The mental act of attributing consistency by saying that a particular formula
to sensations or sense qualia, an external ami (*> ~[0=0]) is not provable.
independent existence. The projection theory of A consistency proof evidently loses much of
Condillac and other sensationalists (se Sensa- its significance unless the methods employed in
tionalism) asserts that sensations are first experi- the proof are in some sense less than, or less
enced as subjective. states and are subsequently dubitable than, the methods of proof which the
externalized by a special act of mind. Helm- logistic system is intended to formalize. Hilbert
hoi tz restricted projection to spatial projection required that the methods employed in a con-
(the localization of sensations in space at a sistency proof should be finitary a condition
certain distance from the body) but the more more stringent than that of intuitionistic accept-
general usage is preferable. L.W. ability. See Intuitionism (mathematical).
256 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Godel's theorems (see Logic, formal, 6) are between two of these meanings, or among all

a difficulty for the Hilbert program because they three.

how that the methods employed in a consistency The Port-Royal Logic defines a proposition
proof must also be in some sense more than
to be the same as a judgment but elsewhere
those which the logistic system formalizes. Godel speaks of propositions as denoting judgments.
himself remarks that the difficulty may not be Traditional logicians generally have defined a

insuperable. proposition as a judgment expressed in words,

Other problems of proof theory are the de- or as a sentence expressing a judgment, but some
cision problem, and the problem of proving say or seem to hold in actual usage that synony-
completeness (in one of various senses) for a
mous or intertranslatable sentences represent the

logistic system. Cf. Logic, formal, 1, 3. same proposition. Recent writers in many cases
A.C. adopt or tend towards (b).
Hilbert and Bcrnays, Grandlagen dtr Mat be- In articles in this dictionary by the present
matik, vol. 1, Berlin. 1934. and vol. 2. Berlin, writer the word proposition is to be understood
1939. P. Bernays. Sur It platonisme dans Its
in sense (b) above. This still leaves an element
matbimatiques, ana Quelques points essentiels dt
la mitamatbimttiqne, T'Enseignement Mathe'matique, of ambiguity, since common usage does not al-
vol. 34 (1935), pp. 52-95. W. Ackermann, Zur ways determine of two sentences whether they
Wfdersprttcbsfretbtst dtr Zablentbeorie, Mathe-
matische Annalen, vol. 117 (1940), pp. 162-194. are strictly synonymous or merely logically
Propensity: (Lat. propenjsio, from propendere, to equivalent. For a particular language or logistic
hang forth) A term used to designate a mental system, this ambiguity may be resolved in various
appetite or desire. See Appetition. Hume ap- ways. A. C.
plied the term to the tendency of the mind to Prepositional calculus: See Logic, formal, 1.

pass from one to the other of two associated Prepositional calculus, many-valued: The
ideas. L.W. truth-table method for the classical (two-valued)

Proper sensible: (in Scholasticism) That which prepositional calculus is explained in the article
through or through its proper species is
itself,
logic, formal, 1. It depends on assigning
truth-tables to the fundamental connectives, with
perceived only one external sense without
by
the result that every formula of the pure prepo-
error, as light is perceived by the eys, sound by
the ear. Common sensible is that which is per-
sitional calculus, to which we here restrict our-
selves for the sake of
ceived by several external senses through modi- simplicity has one of
fied species of the
the two truth-values for each possible assignment
proper sensibles, e.g. quantity,
distance. Accidental sensible (sensibile per ac- of truth-values to the variables appearing. A
formula is called a tautology if it has the truth-
cident) is that which falls under the external
senses neither through its proper species nor value truth for every possible assignment of truth-
values to the variables} and the calculus is so
through the modified species of another, but only
constructed that a formula is a theorem if and
through another with which it is joined, e.g.
material substance. H.G. only if it is a tautology.

Property: (Gr. idionj Lat. proprium) In Aris- This may be generalized by arbitrarily taking
totle'slogic (1) an attribute common to all
n different truth-values, /i, /,..., /m, /i, /t,
members of a species and peculiar to them} (2) . . .
, /fi-m, of which the first m are called desig-
an attribute of the above sort not belonging to nated values and then setting up truth-tables
the essence of the species, but necessarily fol- (in terms of these n truth-values) for a set of

lowing ^from it. G.R.M . connectives, which usually includes connectives

Propitiation: The attempt by act or intent of notationally the same as the fundamental con-
nectives of the classical calculus, and may also
gaining the favor of a god, removing one's
guilt and the divine displeasure. Such acts include others. A
formula constructed out of
have taken on innumerable forms: sacrifice of these connectives and variables is then called a

precious possessions, even of human life, of tautology if it has a designated value for each
animals, by
pilgrimages, tithing, self-imposed possible assignment of truth-values to the vari-
asceticism of one kind or another, fastings, rit- ables, and the theorems of the fi-valued preposi-

uals, tortures, contrition, etc. The substitution tional calculus are to coincide with the tau-
of some one else as an act of voluntary propitia- tologies.
tion has found classic expression in Christian In 1920, Lukasiewicz introduced a three-
tradition in the estimation of Jesus' life and valued prepositional calculus, with one desig-
death as the supreme Ransom, Substitute and nated value (interpreted as true) and two non-
Mediator. V.F. designated values (interpreted as problematical
Proposition: This word has been used to mean: and false respectively). Later he generalized
(a) a declarative sentence (in some particular this to M-valued prepositional calculi with one

language)} (b) the content of meaning of a designated value (first published in 1929). Post
- valued
declarative postulated abstract
sentence, i.e., a introduced prepositional calculi with
object common not only to different occurrences an arbitrary number of designated values in
of the same declarative sentence but also to 1921. Also due to Post (1921) is the notion of
different sentences (whether of the same lan- symbolic completeness an ^-valued prepositional
guage or not) which are synonymous or, as we calculus is symbolically complete if every pos-

say, mean the same thing\ (c) a declarative sible truth-function is expressible by meant of
sentence associated with its content of meaning. the fundamental connectives.
Often the word proposition it used ambiguously The case of Infinitely many truth-values was
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 257
first considered by Lukasiewicz. A. C. numerous occasions and was finally forced to
). Lukasiewicz, O
logic* tr6)wartoiciowej, Ruch flee after having been convicted of
Filo2oficzny. vol. 5 (1920). pp. 169-171. E. L. impiety. His
famous formula that man is the measure of all
Post, Introduction to a general theory of ele-
mentary propositions, American Journal of Mathe- things is indicative of his relativism which ulti-
matics, vol. 43 (1921), pp. 163-183. Lukasiewicz mately rests upon his theory of perception ac-
and Tar ski, Untersuchungen fiber den Aussagen-
kalkul. Rendus des Stances de la cording to which we know only what we per-
Coraptcs
Societe des Sciences et des Lettres de Varsovie. ceive but not the thing perceived. M.F.
Classe III, vol. 23 (1930), pp. 30-50. J. Protasis: (Gr. protasis, placed first) In Aristotle's
Lukasiewicz, Philosophische Bemerkungen zu
mehrwertigen Systemen des Aussagenkalkuls, ibid., logic a proposition} more particularly a proposi-
pp. 51-77. Lewis and Langford, Symbolic Logic, tion used as a premiss in a
New York and London, 1932. syllogism. G.R.M.
Protensity: (Lat. protensum from protendere, to
Prepositional function is a junction (q. v.) for stretchforth) Duration-spread considered as a
which the range of the dependent variable is
primary characteristic of all conscious experi-
composed of propositions (q. v.) A monadic ence. This usage was introduced by Kant
prepositional function is thus in substance a
(Critique of Pure Reason, A
805 -B 833) where
property (of things belonging to the range of the protensive is distinguished from the exten-
the independent variable), and a dyadic preposi-
sive and the intensive and this
tional function a relation. If F denotes a prepo- usage has been
adopted by recent psychologists. L.W.
sitional function and Xi, Xa, . . . , n denote X
Protocol Sentences: See Basic Sentences.
arguments, the notation F(Xi, Xa, . . . , Xn)
or [F](Xi, X, . . . , Xn)~ is used for the re-
Proximum genus: (Lat. nearest kind) In Aris-
totelian theory of definition
sulting proposition, which is said to be the value (q.v.), must be
used with differentia. R.B.W.
of the prepositional function for the given argu-
ments, and to be obtained from the prepositional
Pseudo-Statement: See Meaning, Kinds of, 5.
function by applying it to, or predicating it of Psyche: (Gr. soul, World-Soul, spirit) In Plotin-
the given arguments. t ism, it is the name of the second emanation
from the One. See Soul. V.J.B.
Often, however, the assumption is made that
two propositional functions are identical if cor- Psychic or psychical: (Gr. psychikos, from
responding values are materially equivalent, and psyche, the soul) (a) In the general sense,
in this case we speak of propositional functions psychic is applied to any mental phenomenon.

in extension (the definition in the preceding See Psychosis, Mental, (b) In the special sense,
paragraph applying rather to propositional func- psychic is restricted to unusual mental phenom-
tions in intension). The values of a proposi- ena such as mediumship, telepathy, prescience,
tional function in extension are truth-values (q. etc.which are the subjects of "Psychic Research."
v.) rather than propositions. A monadic proposi- See Telepathy, Prescience, Parapsychology.
tional function in extension is not essentially L.W.
different from a class (q. v.) Psychic Fusion: The supposed merging of a
Whitehead and Russell use the term preposi- number of separate psychic states to form a new
tional junction in approximately the sense above state. The possibility of psychic fusion is highly
described, but qualify it by holding, as a corol- questionable and alleged instances of it may be
lary of Russell'Sjdoctrine of descriptions (q. v.), interpreted as the associative revival of images
that propositional functions are the fundamental based on the memory of physical mixture. L.W.
kind from which other kinds of functions are Psychic Summation: See Psychic Fusion.
derived in fact that non-propositional ("de- Psycho-analysis: The psychological method and
scriptive") functions do not exist except as in- therapeutic technique developed by Freud (see
complete symbols. For details of their view, Freud, Sigmund). This method consists in the
which underwent some changes between publica- use of such procedures as free association, auto-
tion of the first and the second edition of matic writing and especially dream-analysis 10
Principia Mathematica, the reader is referred to recover forgotten memories, suppressed desires
that work. and other subconscious items which exert a dis-
Historically, the notion of a function was of turbing influence on the conscious life of an
gradual growth in mathematics. The. word junc- individual. The cure of the psychic disturbances
tion used in approximately its modern sense
is is effected by bringing the suppressed items into
by John Bernoulli (1698, 1718). The divorce the full of consciousness of the individual. Psy-
of the notion of a function from that of a
cho-analytic theory has posited a subconscious
particular kind of mathematical expression (ana- mind as a repository for the suppressed ele-
lytic or quasi-algebraic) is due to Dirichlet ments. Freud exaggerated the sexual origin of
(1837). The general logical notion of a func- the suppressed desires but other psycho-analysts,
and in particular the notion of a propoei-
tion,
notably Jung and Adler, corrected this exaggera-
tional function, were introduced by Frege tion. The psycho-analytical school has developed
(1879). Alonzo Church its terminology in which the following are char-
Proprioceptor See Receptor.
: , acteristic
Prosyllogism : See Episyllogism. (a) Free association is the method of en-
Protagoras of Abdera: (about 480-410 B.C.) A couraging the patient to recall in random fash-
leading Sophist, renowned for his philosophical ion experiences, particularly of childhood.
wisdom author of many treatises on grammar,
{ (b) A
"complex" is a more or less: perma-
logic, ethics and politics) visited Athens on nent emotional system or mechanism responsible
258 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
for the mental disturbances of the patient.
(c) Libido designates the underlying sexual
drive or impulse, the suppression of which is
responsible for the psychic disturbance.
(d) Suppression or repression is the rejection
from consciousness of desires and urges which it
finds intolerable.
(e) Sublimation is the transference of a sup-
pressed desire to a new object.
These terms are only a few samples of the
elaborate and at times highly mythological ter-
minology of psycho-analysis. L.W.
Psychoid: Term applied by the German neo-
vitalist, H. Driesch to the psychic factor which
guides the growth of organisms. L.W.
Psychological Atomism: Theory of the struc-
ture of mind: any mental state is analyzable into
simple, discrete components and that which the
total mental state was produced by fusion and
composition of the atomic states. See Associa-
tionismf Mind-Stuff Theory. L.W.
Psychological Egoism: See Egoism, Psychologi-
cal. C. A. B.
Psychologism : (Ger. Psychologismus) The tend-
ency of such philosophers as Hume, J. S. Mill
and William James to approach philosophical
problems, whether ethical, logical, aesthetic or
metaphysical, from the stand-point of psychology.
Psychologismus is used by Husserl and other
German writers as a term of reproach which
suggests the exaggeration of the psychological
to the neglect of the logical and epistemological
considerations. L.W.
Psychologists' Fallacy: The confusion of the
standpoint of the psychologist with that of the
subject upon whose introspective report the
See Wm. James, The Principles
chologist relies.
of Psychology, Vol. I, p. 196. L.W.
Psychology: (Gr. psyche, mind or soul -}- logos,
The science of the its
law) mind,
structure and behavioral effects. In
the science of mind, (De Anima), emphasizes
mental functions} the Scholastics employed a
faculty psychology. In Hume and the Mills,
study of the data of conscious experience, termed
association psychology. In Freud, the study of
the unconscious (depth psychology). In be-
haviorism, the physiological study of physical
and chemical responses. In Gestalt psychology,
the study of organized psychic activity, reveal-
ing the mind's tendency toward the completion
of patterns. Since Kant, psychology has been
able to establish itself as an empirical, natural
science without a priori metaphysical or theo-
logical commitments. The German romanticists
(q.v.) and Hegel, who had developed a meta-
physical psychology, had turned to cultural his-
tory to illustrate their theories of how
conceived at an absolute, muat manifest itself.
Empirically they have suggested a possible field
of exploration for the psychologist, namely, the
study of mind in its cultural effects, viz. works
of art, science, religion, social organization, etc.
which are customarily studied by anthropologists
1*
in the case of "primitive peoples. But it would
be as difficult to separate anthropology from
social psychology as to sharply distinguish so-
called "primitive" peoples from "civilized" ones.
Thevarious branches of psychology depend
on the class of problems studied: (a) physio-
logical psychology is the most experimentally
exact in so far as specific physiological processes
and effects (vision, hearing, reaction-time, learn-
ing curves, fatigue, effects of drugs, etc.) ire
measurable and controllable. Wundt established
the laboratories of experimental psychology
first
in Germany, Pavlov in Russia, James and Cat-
tell in the U. S.j (b) pathological or abnormal
psychology deals with cases of extreme devia-
tions of behavior from what ii regarded as
"normal" (a statistical term often treated as a
value)) (c) social psychology deals with the
behavior of groups as reflected in the behavior
of individuals. Cf. Le Bon's law that the men-
tality of a crowd or mob tends to descend to
the level of a least common denominator, the
lowest intelligence present.
Bibliography: H. Siebeck, Gesch. der Psychol.
(goes from Aristotle to Aquinas)) . G. Bor-
ing, History of Experimental Psychology; Wm.
James, Principles of Psychology , 1890) W. Mc-
Dougall, Intro, to Social Psychology} J. B.
Watson, Psychology as Science of Behavior i R.
Woodworth, Psychology; Koffka, Gestalt Psy-
chology} Kohler, Mentality of Apes; Pavlov,
The Conditioned Reflext . L. Thorndike,
Human Nature and the Social Order. See Freud,
Gestalt, Introspection, Mind, Subconscious.
Psychology of Religion: A scientific, descriptive
study of mental life and behavior with special
reference to religious activities. The aim of this
study is not to criticize or evaluate religion (see
psy- Philosophy of Religion) but to describe its forms
as they reflect the mental processes of men. As
an extended chapter in the field of general
psychology, psychology of religion reflects the
various types of psychology now current. As a
functions,
scientificstudy this subject began its fruitful
Aristotle,
career at the beginning of this century, making
illuminating disclosures on the nature of con-
version, varieties of religious experience, the
origin and character of beliefs in God and im-
mortality, the techniues of mystics, types of
worship, etc. Due to the confused state of psy-
chology-in-general and especially to the recent
vogue of behaviorism this subject has fallen
somewhat into an eclipse at least for the pres-
ent. Cf. Wm. James: Varieties of Religious
Experience, 1902. V.F.
Psycho-Physical Parallelism: See Parallelism,
Psycho-Physical.
Psycho- Physical Problem: (Gr. psyche", soul
physikos, physical) See Mind-Body Problem.
Psychosis: (Gr. psychosis, a giving of life or
the mind, soul) (a) In the general tense, psychosis desig-
nates any mental or psychical process, just as a
neurosis, in the wide sense is any- neural process,
(b) In the restricted sense, psychosis designates
a*pathological condition of mind, just as "neu-
rosis" is an abnormal condition of the nervous
system. L.W.
P'u: "Un wrought simplicity "i the Taoist symbol
of man's natural state, when his inborn powers
have not been tampered with by knowledge or
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 259
circumscribed by morality. H.H. commendable virtues as self-reliance, thrift, in-
Publicity, Epittemic: (a) In the strict tense, dustry and initiative but it led also to unnatural
publicity pertains to such data of knowledge as self-denials and overly austere discipline. In this
are directly and identically accessible to more last respect Puritanism has come to mean an
than one knowing subject. Thus epistemological ascetic mode of living, an over-sensitive con-
monism may assert the publicity of sense data, science and an undue repression of normal
of universal*, of moral and aesthetic values and human enjoyments. Milton was Puritanism at
even of God. See Epistemological Monism, (b) its best. New England Puritanism in its most
In a less exact sense, publicity is ascribed to extreme expressions of Spartan discipline and its
any object of knowledge which may be known censorious interference with the behavior of
either directly or indirectly by more than one others was Puritanism at its worst. V.F.
mind, such as physical objects, public space, etc. Purna: (Skr.) The plenum, a synonym for the
in contrast to feelings, emotions, etc. which can Absolute, brahman, used by Ajataiatru in Kaus.1-
be directly known only by a single subject. taki Upanishad 4.8. See also Brhadaranyaka Up.
L.W. 5.1. K.F.L.
Pudgala: (Skr. beautiful, lovely) soul, The or Purnatva: (Skr.) Fullness, as descriptive of
personal entity, admitted by some thinkers even reality. K.F.L.
though belonging to the schools of Buddhism Purpose: (Lat. propositus from pro, before +
(s.v.)j they hold that at least a temporary indi- ponere, to place) An ideally or imaginatively
viduality must be assumed as vehicle for karma envisaged plan or end of action. L.W.
Purposivenetf : (in Kant's philosophy: dieZwcck-
Ptt Jen: Early kings, being of "unbearing", com- massigkeit) Adaptation whether in the body of
miserating mind, unable to bear and see others an animal or plant to its own needs or in a
suffer, exemplified a virtuous government. beautiful object to the human intelligence. We
(Mencius.) H.H. must not say dogmatically, Kant contends, that
Purina: (Skr. ancient) One of IS or more trea- 'there a purpose behind the phenomena, but
/is

tises, mainly
cosmological, mythological, or we can say that they occur as if there were,
legendary in character and composed in pCh.n. though we cannot bring the purpose under defi-
times. Interspersed are ethical, philosophical nite concepts. A.C.E.
and K.F.L.
scientific observations. Purusa: (Skr.) "Man", a symbol for the world
Pure: (Ger. rein) In Kant: Strictly, that which is in the Veda (q.v.). One of the two cardinal
unmixed with anything sensuous or empirical. principles of the Sankhya (q.v.) and Yoga (q.v.),
Loosely, whatever pertains to the form instead representing pure spirituality, consciousness, and
of the matter of our cognition. See Kantianism. self. Various, theories prevail in Indian philoso-
O.F.K. phy, some semi-physical, others psycho-physical,
Pure Ego: See Ego, Pure. or logical, taking the term to denote a real self
Pure Experience: (Lat. purus, clean) (a) The or an entity produced by may a (q.v.). K.F.L.
qualitative ingredients of experience, e.g. sense Purutaitha: (Skr.) Object (artka) of man's
data, feelings, images, etc., which remain after (puruja) pursuits, enumerated as four: kama
the ideal elimination of conceptual, interpreta- (desire), artha (wealth), dharma (duty), moks*
tional and constructional factors, (b) The world (liberation). Also, a statement of aims with
of ordinary immediate experience which consti- which Indian philosophers traditionally preface
tutes the point of departure for science and phi- their works. K.F.L.
losophy. See Avenarius, Kritik der rtinen Er- Purvapaksa: (Skr.) "The prior view", the first
fahrumg.L.W. step in a logical argument, stating the view to
Pure Theory of Law: An attempt to introduce which exception is taken. K.F.L.
the "critical" method of Kant to the under- Pu tung hsint The state of unperturbed mind, as
standing of positive law. Kelsen, who coined a result of "maintaining firm one's will and
the expression, intended to create "a geometry doing no violence to the vital force" which
of the totality of legal phenomena." All legal pervades the body. (Mencius.) H.H.
phenomena are to be reduced to norms which Pyrrho of Elis: (c. 365-275 B.C.) A systematic
have the form: "If A is, then B ought to be"; skeptic who believed that it is impossible to
all norms are to be derived from one basic know the true nature of things and that the
norm [Grundnorm]. It is the task of a theory wise man
suspends his judgment on all matters
of law to establish the unity of all legal phe- and seeks
to attain imperturbable happiness
nomena. W.E. (ataraxy) by abstaining from all passion and
Puritm: Taste tending towards archaistic and curiosity. See Timon of Phlius, pupil of Pyrrho.

simplified form, prevailing chiefly at the begin- R.B.W.

ning of the 19th century. L.V. Pythagoreanitm : The doctrines (philosophical,
Puritanism: A
term referring, in general, to a mathematical, moral, and religious) of Pytha-
purification of existing religious forms
and prac- goras (c. 572-497) and of his school which
tices. More specifically, Puritanism refers to flourished until about the end of the 4th cen-
that group of earnest English Protestants who tury B.C. The Pythagorean philosophy was a
broke with the Roman system more completely dualism which sharply distinguished thought and
the senses, the soul and the body, the mathe-
in objection to traditional ceremonies, formali-
ties and organizations. This moral earnestness matical forms of things and their perceptible
at reformation led to the emphasis upon such appearances. The Pythagoreans supposed that
260 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the substances of all things were numbers and mysteries which sought by various rites and ab-
that all phenomena were sensuous expressions stinences to purify and redeem the soul. The at-
of mathematical ratios. For them the whole tempt to combine this mysticism with their mathe-
universe was harmony. They made important matical philosophy, led the Pythagoreans to the
contributions to mathematics, astronomy) and development of an intricate and somewhat fan-
physics (acoustics) and were the first to formu- tastic symbolism which collected correspondences
late the elementary principles and methods of between numbers and things and for example
arithmetic and geometry as taught in the first identified the antithesis of odd and even with
books of Euclid. But the Pythagorean sect was that of form and matter, the number 1 with
not only a philosophical and mathematical school reason, 2 with the soul, etc. Through their ideas
(cf. K. von Frit*, Pythagorean Politics in South- the Pythagoreans had considerable effect on the
ern Italy , 1941), but also a religious brotherhood development of Plato's thought and on the
and a fellowship for moral reformation. They theories of the later Neo-platonists.
believed in the immortality and transmigration Bibliography: John Burnet, Early Greek Phi-
(see Metempsychosis) of the soul which they de- losophy, 3rd ed. (1920). E. Zeller-R. Mon-
fined as the harmony of the body. To restore har- dolfo, La dei Greet, vol. I (1932-
Filosofia
mony which was confused by the senses was the 1938). Frank, Plato und die sogenannten
E.
goal of their Ethics and Politics. Their religious Pythagoreer (1923). T. L. Heath, A History
ideas were closely related to those of the Greek of Greek Mathematics, vol. I (1921).--.F.
Quadrivium : (Lat. quatuor, and viae, four ways) Qualities, non-positional: Qualities like color,
The second, and more advanced group of liberal temperature, etc. to which no spatial or temporal
arts studies middle ages; arithmetic,
in the position can be assigned. (Broad.) H.H.
geometry, astronomy and music. VJ.B. Qualities, positional: Temporal and spatial posi-
See Trivium for the other three of the seven tions. (Broad.) H.H.
liberal arts, first proposed for education by Qualities, structural: Positional and extensional
Plato, Republic, III. qualities classed together. (Broad.) H.H.
Quaestio: (Scholastic) A
subdivision or chapter Quality: The four traditional kinds of categorical
of some treatise. Later, the special form, imitat- propositions (see logic, formal, 4) were dis-
ing or actually reproducing a discussion, in
'
tinguished according to quality as affirmative or
which a thesis is proposed, then the arguments negative, and according to quantity as particular,
against it ate listed, next the objections or argu- singular, or universal. See the articles Affirma-
menta contra are exposed, and the question is tive Proposition and Particular Proposition.
solved in the so-called corpus articuli, usually A.C.
introduced by the standing phrase respondeo Quantifier: Universal quantifier is the name given
dicendum; finally the objections against the to the notation (x) prefixed to a logical formula
thesis and the response or solution are taken up A (containing the free variable x) to express
one by one and answered. This is the quaestio that A holds for all values of x usually, for all
disputata. The quaestio quodlibftalis stems from values of x within a certain range or domain
disputations in which all kind of problems were of values, which either is implicit in the context,
brought up and the leader had to arrange them or is indicated by the notation, through some
somehow and to answer all of them. R.A. convention. The same name is also given to

Quakerism: The name given to that Christian variant or alternative notations employed for
group officially known as the Society of Friends the same purpose. And of course the same name
founded by Geotge Fox (1624.1691). Central is given when the particular variable appearing

principles include: guidance by an inner light} is some other letter than jr.

freedom from institutional or outward sanctions) Similarly, existential quantifier is the name
the sanctity of silence; the simplicity of living j given to the notation (Ex) prefixed to a logical
and, commitment to peaceful social relations. formula A (containing the free variable x) to
Three American groups are: orthodox, Hicksites express that A
holds for some (i.e., at least one)
(liberal) and Wilburites (formalists). V.F. value of x usually, for some value of x within
Quale: (PI. qualia) (Lat. from quails, of what a certain range or domain. The which forms E
kind) A quality considered as an independent part of the notation is often inverted, and vari-

entity rather than as a quality of a thing. A ous alternative notations also occur.

quale is usually conceived as a universal essence It may also be allowed to prefix the quantifiers
(like redness, sweetness, etc.) but the term may (x) and (Ex) to a formula (sentence) not A
also be applied to individual qualities (this red, containing x as a free variable, (x)A and (x)A
this sweet taste). L.W. then having each the same meaning as A.
Qualities t exteasional: Qualities which char- See logic, formal, 3. A. C.
acterize certain complex wholes composed of W. V. Quine, EUmttttary7 Logic. * Boston tad
New York, 1941.*
point-instants related to each other in virtue of
their different positional qualities. (Broad.) Quantity: In Aristotle and Kant (q.v.), one of
H.H. the categories (q.v.) of judgment See Quality.

Qualities, immaterial: Instances of non-posi- Quaternio terminorum: In the categorical syl-

tional qualities that are not characterized by any logism (logic, formal, S), the major and
determinate form of quality of spatial position. minor premisses must have a
term in common,
(Broad.) HJJ. the middle term. Violation of this rule is the
Qualities, material: Instances of non-positional fallacy of quaternio terminorum, or of four
qualities characterized by the determinate quali- terms. It is most spt to arise through equivoca-
ties of spatial position. (Broad.) -H.H. tion (q. v.), .an ambiguous word or phrise play-
262 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Ing the role the middle term, with one
of cording to which an electron, or a photon (quan-
meaning in major premisi and another
the tum of light), is to be considered in some of its
meaning in the minor premiss) and in this case aspect* as a wave, in others as a particle. See
the fallacy it called the fallacy of ambiguous further quantum and uncertainty principle. A.C.
middle.
'
A. C. F. A. Lindcmtnn. The Physical Significance of
the Quantum Theory, Oxford, 1932. J. Frenkel,
Quantum: An indivisible unit, or atom, of any Wave Mechanics. Elementary Theory, Oxford, 1932.
phytical quantity. Quantum mechanics (q>v.) is Louis <le Broghe, Matter and tight, The New
baled on the existence of quanta of energy, the Physics, translated by W. H. Johnston. New York.
1939.
B
magnitude of the quantum of radiant energy
Quiddity: (Lat. quidditas, whatness) Essence)
(light) of a given frequency or of the energy
that which is described in a definition. VJ.B.
of a particle oscillating with given frequency-
being equal to Planck* constant (q.v.) multi-
t Quieting: The pacification of mind is the initial

A.C. point of departure as well as the endpoint of a

plied by the frequency.
vital series. (Avenarius.) H.H.
Quantum mechanics: An important physical
theory, a modification of classical
mechanics, Quintessence: (Lat. quinta essentia, the fifth

which has arisen from the study of atomic struc- essence) the purest, most highly concentrated
ture and phenomena of emission and absorption form of a nature or essence) originally, in
of light by matter) embracing the matrix me- Aristoteliamsm, the fifth element, found in
chanics of Heisenberg, the wave mechanics of celestial bodies, distinguished from the four

SchrSdinger, and the transformation theory of v

earthly elements. VJ.B.
Jordan and Dirac. The wave mechanics intro- Quotation marks, syntactical use of: See Nota-
duces a duality between waves and particles, ac- tions, logical
 R
Ramanuja: A renowned Indian thinker and For Spinoza: Knowledge "of the second
theologian of the llth cent. A.D. who restated kind" (Ethica, II, 40, Schol. 2 } cf. also De
within the tradition of Vishnuism (q.v.) the Em. Int., passim), distinguished from
to be
doctrines of the Ved2nta (q.v.) in that he as- opinio or imaginatio and from scientia intuitiva
sumed world and soul to be a transformation of (q.v.). This second type of knowledge is
God variously articulated. K.F.L. knowledge in the strict sense of the word since,
Ramayana: (Skr.) An epic poem, ascribed to as opposed opinio, it is certain and true
to

VSlmlki, celebrating in about 24,000 verses the (Ethica, II, 41), and since by means of it, we
doings of Rima and his wife SIt and contain- perceive "under a certain form of eternity'*
ing ethical and philosophic speculations. (sub quadam aeternitatis specie; Ibid, II, 42,
K.F.L. Cor. 2). Likewise, by means of reason (ratio),
Ramified theory of types: See impredicative we are enabled to distinguish truth from falsity
definition, and paradoxes, logical. (Ibid, 42), and to master the emotions (Ibid,
B. Russell. Mathematical logic as based on tbt IV, passim). The objects cognized by reason are
theory of types, American Journal of Mathematics, (primarily) "common notions" and their deriva-
vol. 30 (1908). pp. 222-262. L. Chwistek, The
tives) reason cannot, however, accomplish or
theory of constructive types, Annales de la Societe
Polonaise de Mathematique. vol. 2 (1924), pp. bring about the highest virtue of the mind, as
9-48. and vol. 3. (1925). pp 92-141.. W. V. can scientia intuitiva by which blessedness and
Ouine. On the axtom of reductbtltty, Mind, n. s.
true liberty are conferred (Ibid, V, 36, Schol.).
vol. 45 (1936). pp. 498-500. F. B. Fitch, The
consistency of the ramified Principia, The Journal WS.W.
of Symbolic Logic, vol. 3 (1938). pp. 140-149.
Ratiocination: (Lat. ratiocinatio, reasoning) Dis-
Ramsey, Frank Plumpton: (1903-1930) In the
cursive reasoning, the third act of the intellect
light of Wittgenstein's work, he proposed several of a
in the Aristotelian theory knowledge j
modifications in the Principia Mathematics treat-
process of intellectual demonstration involving
ment of functions. These, he urged, made possible VJ.B.
the use of three terms.
the omission of the Axiom of Reducibility, a
simplification of the Theory of Types and an
Rationalism: A method, or very broadly, a
improved definition of identity. In stimulating theory of philosophy, in which the criterion of
truth is not sensory but intellectual and deduc-
philosophical papers he denied any ultimate dis-
tinction between particulars and universal, de- tive. Usually associated with an attempt to
fended a Wittgensteinian interpretation of gen- introduce mathematical methods into philosophy,
as in Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoca. VJ.B.
eral propositions, proposed a subjective theory
of probability and a pragmatic view of induc- The history of rationalism begins with the
tion, and offered a theory of theories -and a
Eleatics (q.v.), Pythagoreans and Plato (q.v.)
whose theory of the self-sufficiency of reason
theory of the nature of causal propositions. Most
became the leitmotif of neo-Platonism and
of his work is included in The Foundations of
idealism (q.v.).
Mathematics, London, Kegan Paul, 1931.
C.A.B. Rationalization: (Lat. rationales, from ratio,
Rasa: (Skr. sap, nectar, essence, flavor,
juice, reason) A psychological term to describe the
etc.) In Indian aesthetics (q.v.), pleasure, enjoy- mind's fabrication of rational ar/rument to jus-
ment, love, charm, grace, elegance, taste, emo- tify conduct of which one is really ashamed.
tion, sentiment, spirit, passion, beauty etc.
L.W.
K.F.L. Rational Psychology: A speculative and meta-
Ratio: According to St. Augustine, reason is the physical treatment of the soul, its faculties and

mind's capacity of distinguishing and connecting its immortality in contrast to a descriptive, em-
the things that are learned. Ratio est mentis oiri<"al psycholorv. L.W.
motto ea quae discuntur distinguendi ft con- Ravaisson-Mollien, Jean Gaspard Felix
nectendi potens. He also calls it an aspectus (1813-1900) French idealistic philosopher who
animi, quo per seipsum, non per corpus vtrum studied under Schelling at Munich, became Pro-
intuetur. It precedes the exercise of the intel- fessor of Philosophy at Rennes in 1838 and
lectual capacity. He says of man: Nam
ideo later inspector ofHigher Education. Although
valt intelligtre, quia ratio prate edit, Reason is, he wrote be profoundly influncd French
little,

however, inferior to the intellect. Man possesses thought in the direction of the "dynamic ptrt->
reason before he begins the activity of intellec- tualism" of Maine de Biran. He explored the
tion, which it a contemplation. Action is rather spiritual implications of individual personality
the province of reason./././?. especially in the domains of art and morals.
264 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
See Moral* et Metaphysique in Revue de Met.
et de Mor. 1893. L.W.
Real: (Lat. realis, of the thing itself) Absolute-
ness of being. The immediate object of that
which is true. Invented in the 13th century to
signify having characters sufficient to identify
their subject, whether attributed by men or not.
Sometimes, the existential as opposed to mere
possibility, or the physical as opposed to con-
sciousness. Syn. with: external (q.v.), actual.
Opposite of: figment. J.K.F.
Realism: Theory of the reality
general terms, or universals, which are 'held to
< have an equal and sometimes a superior reality
to actual physical particulars. Universals exist
before things, ante res. Opposed to nominalism
(q.v.) according to which universals have
a being only after things, post res. Realism
means a) in ontology: that no derogation of
the reality of universals is valid, the realm of
essences, or possible universals, being as real as,
if not more real than, the realm of existence, or
actuality; b) in epistemology : that
perience reports a true and uninterrupted,
limited, account of objects* that
to have and direct knowledge
faithful
actual While realism was implicit in
world.
Egyptian religion, where truth was through deifi-
cation distinguished from particular truths, and
further suggested in certain aspects of Ionian
philosophy, it was first explicitly set forth by
Plato in his doctrine of the ideas and developed
by Aristotle in his doctrine of the forms. Ac-
cording to Plato, the ideas have a status of
possibility which makes them independent both
of the mind by which they may be known and
of the actual world of particulars in which
they may take place. Aristotle amended this, so
that forms have
his a being only in things,
in rebus. Realism in its Platonic
the leading philosophy of the Christian
Ages until Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
ficially adopted the Aristotelian version. It has
been given a new impetus in recent times by
Charles S. Peirce (1839 r 1914) in America and
by G. . Moore (1873-) in England. Moore's
realism has been responsible for many of his
contemporaries in both English-speaking coun-
tries.Roughly speaking, the American realists,
Montague, Perry, and others, in The New
Realism (1912) have directed their attention
to the epistemological side, while the English
have constructed ontological systems. The most
comprehensive realistic systems of the modern
period are Process and Reality by A. N. White-
head (1861-) and Space, Time and Deity by
S. Alexander (1859-1939). The German,
Nicolai Hartmann, should also be mentioned,
and there are others. J.K.F.
Realism in Legal Philosophy: No connection
with epistemological realism. Theory that law is
not a system of rules but in flux, and part of
actual social process. W.E.
Realm of ends: The cosmic order viewed as the
means for the achievement by a Supreme Person
of higher or spiritual purposes.
Personalism. R.T.F.
Reals: Are atomic or monadic beings which
underlie the phenomenal world. Alike in qual-
ity, not being points of self-directive force, they
are conceived to be in a state of mechanical
interaction, not in the realm of phenomenal
space but in the realm of intelligible space.
(Herbart.) #./f.
Reason: (Lat. ratio, Ger. Vernunft) In Kant: (1)
The special mental faculty (distinct from sensi-
bility and understanding) which in thinking Ideas
of absolute completeness and unconditionedness
of abstract or transcends the conditions of possible experience.
See Ideas of Pure Reason. (2) All those mental
functions and relations characterized by spon-
taneity rather than receptivity. In this sense,
reason includes both reason (1) and the under-
standing, but excludes the sensibility. (3) The
source of all a priori synthetic forms in experi-
ence. In this sense, reason includes elements of
understanding and reason (1). When
sensibility,
Kant "reason is a law-giver to Nature,"
says,
he employs the term in the third sense. See
sense ex- Kantianism, Understanding, Ratio. O.F.K.
if
Reasoning: 1. Discursive thought. Faculty of
it is possible connecting ideas consciously, coherently and
of the purposively. Thinking in logical form. Draw-
ing of inferences. Process of passing from given
data or premisses to legitimate conclusions. Form-
ing or discovering rightly relations between
ideas. Deriving properly statements from given
assumptions or facts. Power, manifestation and
result of valid argumentation. Ordering con-
cepts according to the canons of logic. Legiti-
mate course of a debate.
2. In psychology, the act or process of ex-
ercising the mind, the faculty of connecting
judgments the power and fact of using reason}
j
the thought-processes of discussion, debate, argu-
mentation or inference} the manifestation of the
version was discursive property of the mind} the actual use
Middle of arguments with a view to convince or
of-
persuade} the art and method or proving or
demonstrating; the orderly development of
thought with a view to, or the attainment of a
conclusion believed to be valid. The origin,
nature and value of reasoning are debated ques-
with their answers ranging from spiritual-
tions,
ism(reasoning as the exercise of a faculty of
the soul) to materialism (reasoning as an
epiphenomenon depending on the brain), with
all the modern schools of psychology ordering
themselves between them. A few points of agree-
ment might be mentioned here: (1) reasoning
follows judgment and apprehension, whichever
of the last two thought-processes comes first
in our psychological development} (2) reason-
ing proceeds according to four main types,
namely deductive, inductive, presumptive and
deceptive} (3) reasoning assumes a belief in
its own validity undisturbed by doubt, and im-
plies various logical habits and methods which
may be organized into a logical doctrine} (4)
reasoning requires a reference to some ultimate
principles to justify its progress.
3. In logic, the process of
Reasoning
is
Teleological inference} it is the process of passing
from certain propositions already known or
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 265
atiumed to be true, to another truth distinct where A
denotes some particular non-negative
from them but following from them* it it a integer, and 5 denotes the successor function (so
discourse or argument which infers one proposi- that S(x) is the same as *+!), and * is a
tion from another, or from a group of others variable (the second equation being intended to
having some common elements between them. hold for all non-negative integers x). Similarly
The is necessary in the case of deduc-
inference the dyadic function / is said to be defined
by
tive reasoning) and contingent, probable or primifive recursion in terms of a triadic function
wrong, in the case of inductive, presumptive or g and a monadic function h by the pair of
deceptive reasoning respectively. There are var- equations,
ious types of reasoning, and proper methods /(, 0) = h(a\
for each type. The definition, discussion, de- f(a, S(*)) =
g(at *, f(a, *)),
velopment and evaluation of these types and the equations being intended to hold for all non-
methods form an important branch of logic negative integers a and x. Likewise for functions
and its subdivisions. The details of the applica- / of more than two variables. As an example
tion of reasoning to the various sciences, form of definition by primitive recursion we may take
the subject of methodology. All these types are the "definition" of addition (i.e., of the dyadic
reducible to one or the other of the two funda- function plus) employed by Peano in the de-
mental processes ot reasoning, namely deduction velopment of arithmetic from his postulates (see
and induction. It must be added that the logical the article Arithmetic, foundations of):
study of reasoning is normative: logic does not a+0 = a,
analyze simply in its natural development, but
it
4+S(*) = S(a+x).
with a view to guide it towards coherence, This comes under the general form of definition
validity or truth. T.G. by primitive recursion, just given, with h and g
Receptivity: (Lat. recipere, to take back) The taken to be such functions that h(a) a and
collective name for receptive or sensory func- g(a t x, y) =
5(y). Another example is Peano's
tions of the mind in contrast to its active or introduction of multiplication by the pair of
motor functions. In the Kantian terminology, equations:
receptivity defined as the faculty of receiving
is tfXO = 0,

representations in contrast to spontaneity, the XS(*) = (X*)+*.

faculty of knowing an object by means of con-
Here addition taken as previously defined, and
is

cepts. See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A 50 A(a) = 0, g(a, x, y) = ,+.

B 74. L.W. More general kinds of definition by recursion
allow sets of recursion equations of various
Receptor: The organ of sense considered as part
of the total response mechanism of a human or forms, the essential requirement being that the
animal organism. Receptors are classified as: equations specify the value of the function being
introduced (or the values of the functions being
a) exterocfptors or receptors at the surface of
and introduced), for any given set of arguments,
the body, b) proprioceptors or receptors
embedded in the muscles and bodily tissues either absolutely, or in terms of the value
(values) for preceding sets of\ arguments. The
themselves. The term interoceptors is sometimes
to embedded in the vital word preceding here may refer to the natural
applied recep^ars order or order of magnitude of the non-
organs especially those of the digestive tract.
L.W. negative integers, or it may refer to some other
method of ordering arguments or sets of argu-
Recognition: (Lat. re ~j- cognitio, knowledge) ments; but the method of ordering shall be
The knowledge of an object along with the real- such that infinite descending sequences ot sets
ization that the same object has been previously
of arguments (in which each set of arguments
known. Recognition may, but need not be, is preceded by the next set) are impossible.
effected by a comparison of a memory image
Thenotion of definition by recursion may be
with recurring objects. See Familiarity , Feeling
extended to functions whose ranges consist of
of; Memory, L.W.
only a portion of the non-negative integers (in
Recursion, definition by: A method of intro- the case of monadic functions) or of only a
ducing, or "defining," functions from non-nega- portion of the ordered sets of n non-negative
tive integers to non-negative integers, which, in integers (in the case of n-adic functions)} also
its simplest form, consists in giving a pair of to functions for which the range of the de-
equations which specify the value of the function pendent variable may consist wholly or partly
when the argument (or a particular one of the of other things than non-negative integers (in
arguments) is 0, and supply a method of calcu- particular, prepositional functions properties,
lating the value of the function when the argu- relations of integers may receive definition by
ment (that particular one of the arguments) is recursion).
*-f-l,from the value of the function when the The employment of definition by recursion in
argument (that particular one of the arguments) the development of arithmetic from Peano's
isx. Thus a monadic function / is said to be postulates, or in the Frege-Russell derivation of
defined by primitive recursion in terms of a arithmetic from logic, requires justification,
dyadic function g the function g being previ- which most naturally takes the form of finding
ously known or given by the pair of equations, a method of replacing a definition by recursion
/(O) =
A, by a nominal definition, or a contextual defini-
/($(,)) = g( Xt /(*)), tion, serving the same purpose. In particular it
266 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
method due to Dedekind or by tions are introduced simultaneously by a single
is possible, by a
any one of a number of modifications of it, to set of recursion equations. The most general
such notion is that of general recursiveness see
prove the existence of a function / satisfying the
conditions expressed by an admissible set of re- the first paper of Kleene cited below. Notions
cursion equations) and / may then be given a of recursiveness may also be introduced for a
definition employing descriptions, as the junction function whose range consists of only a portion
of the non-negative integers (in the case of a
f such that the recursion equations, with suitable
quantifiers prefixed, hold. See the paper of monadic function) or of only a portion of the
Kalmar cited below. ordered sets of n non-negative integers (in the
See also the article Recursiveness. A.C. case of an n-adic function) see the second pa-
Kalm*r. On the possibility of definition by
I. per of Kleene cited.
recursion, Acta Scientiarum Mathenuticarum
Concerning the relationship between general
(Szeged), vol. 9 (1940). pp. 227-232.
recursiveness and the notion of effectiveness, see
Recursion, proof by, or, as it is more often
the article logistic system. A.C.
called, proof by mathematical induction or com- R. Peter, a series of papers (in German) in
plete induction, is in its simplest form a proof the Mathematische Annalen, vol. 110 (1934), pp.
that every non-negative integer possesses a cer- 612-632; vol. Ill (1935), pp. 42-60; vol. 113
tain
(1936), pp. 489-527. S. C. Kleene. General re-
property by showing (1) that possesses furtive functions of natural numbers, Mathe-
this property, and (2) that, on the hypothesis matische Annalen, vol. 112 (1936). pp. 727-742.
that the non-negative integer x possesses this S. C. Kleene, On notation for ordinal numbers,
The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 3 (1938),
property, then *-|-l possesses this property. (The pp. 150-135.
condition (2) is often expressed, following
Frege and Russell, by saying that the property
Redintegration: (Lat. re +
integratio, from in-
teger, whole) The integral reproduction of a
is hereditary in the series of
non-negative in- total state of consciousness when an element of
tegers.) The name proof by recursion, or proof
it is reproduced. -L.W.
by mathematical or complete induction, is also
given to various similar but more complex forms. Reducibility, of: An axiom which (or
axiom
In Peano's postulates for arithmetic (see some necessary in connection with
substitute) is

the ramified theory of types (q.v.) if that theory

Arithmetic, foundations of) the possibility of
is to be adequate for classical mathematics, but
proof by recursion is secured by the last postu-
late, which, indeed, merely states the leading
the admissibility of which has been much dis-

principle of the simplest form of proof by re- puted (see Paradoxes, logical). An exact state-
cursion. In the Frege-Russell derivation of ment of the axiom can be made only in the
arithmetic from logic, the non-negative integers context of a detailed formulation of the ramified
are identified with the inductive cardinal num- theory of types which will not here be under-
bers (q. v.), the possibility of proof by recursion taken. As an indication or rough description of
the axiom of reducibility, it may be said that it
being implicit in the definition of inductive.
A.C. cancels a large part of the restrictive conse-
Recursiveness: The notion of definition by re- quences of the prohibition against impredicative
cursion, and in particular of definition by primi- definition (q.v.) and, in approximate effect, re-
tive recursion, duces the ramified theory of types to the simple
is explained in the article recur-
sion, definition by. An *-adic function / (from theory of types (for the latter see Logic , formal,
6). A.C.
non-negative integers to non-negative integers)
is said to be defined by composition in terms of Reductio ad abturdum : The method of proving
the w-adic function g and the n-adic functions a proposition by deducing a contradiction from
Ai, A> . . .
, hm by the equation: the negation of the proposition taken together
/(*!, XS> ...,*)= g(Al(*l, Xft, . . .
, **), with other propositions which were previously
As(*i, as, ...,**),..., (*!, *,..., **)). proved or are granted. It may thus be described
(The case is not excluded that m 1, or n = as the valid inference of the prepositional cal-
1,or both.) culus from three premisses, B and B[-*"A] 3 C
A
function from non-negative integers to non- and B[~A] = ~C, to the conclusion A (this
negative integers is said to be primitive recursive presupposes the deduction theorem, q. v.). Such
if it can be obtained by a succession of defini- an argument may be rearranged so that the ele-
tions by primitive recursion and composition, ment of ad absurdum appears in the
reductio
from the following list of initial functions: the inference from ~A
D A to A.
successor function S, the function C such that The name reductio ad absurdum is also given
C(x) = for every non-negative integer *, and to the method of proving the negation of a
the functions (/< (i 2g n, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) proposition by deducing a contradiction from
such that t/<n(*i, *,..., *) = *4. Each the proposition itself, together with other propo-
successive definition
by primitive recursion or sitions which were previously proved or are
composition may employ not only the initial granted.
functions but also any of the functions which The first of the two kinds of reductio ad
were introduced by previous definitions. absurdum, but not the second, is called indirect
Moregeneral notions of recursiveness result proof.
from admitting, in addition to primitive recur- Whitehead and Russell give the name prin-
sion, also more general kinds of definition by ciple of reductio ad absurdum to the theorem of
recursion, including those in which several func- the prepositional calculus:
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 267

[p
=> ~P ]
* ~p. A.C. standing 13) and Leibniz (cf. Monadology, and
Reductio ad impottibile: The method of es- New Essays, Preface, 4) but has now largely
tablishing a
proposition by showing: that its been supplanted by the term introspection. See
contradictory involves impossible consequences} Intelligence, Introspection. L.W .

also of disproving a proposition by showing In Reflexion is a property

Scholasticism:
that its consequences are absurd) reductio ad of spiritual or immaterial substances only. It is,
absurdum (q.v.). See Apagoge. G.R.M. therefore, a capacity of the human intellect which
Reduction: Reduktion) In Husserl: See not only operates, but knows of its operating
(Ger.
Egological and Phenomenology. D.C.
and may turn back on itself to know itself and
its performances (reditio completa). A particu-
Reduplicatively : (in Schol.) a term is taken
lar kind of reflexion is, in Thomism, the re-
reduplicatively or there is reduplication when
flestio super phantasma, by which the intellect
to a term there is added at, just as, at though,
retraces its steps until it reaches the phantasm
inasmuch at, or some similar expression, either
from which originally derived the universal)
it
in order to double the same term, or in order
to add another so as to indicate the meaning
this is, according to Aquinas, the way the in-
in which the first term to be taken, or so as
tellect comes to know the particular which, be-
is
cause material, is otherwise inaccessible to an
to indicate a reason why the predicate belongs immaterial faculty. R.A.
to the subject. E.g. animal as animal cannot
reason; Christ as man has suffered} Paul as a
Reflexivity: A
dyadic relation R is called re-
H.G. flexive if xRx holds for all * within a certain
priest is worthy of honor.
previously fixed domain which must include the
Referend: The vehicle or instrument of an act field of R (cf. logic, formal, 8). In the propo-
of reference. Thus a percept functions as a sitional calculus, the lotos of refleaeivity of mate-
referend in relation to the perceptual object (the
rial implication and material equivalence (the
referent). There still exists some confusion in conditional and biconditional) are the theorems,.
the terminology of reference, and the term ref- '
P 3 fc P t,
erend is used by some authors to denote the the
expressing reflexivity of these relations.
"object" instead "instrument" of the
of the Other examples of reflexive relations are equal-
referential act. This usage, though it has some
ity) class inclusion,
c (see logic, formal, 7))
etymological justification does not seem likely to formal implication and formal equivalence (see
prevail. See Reference, Referent. L.W.
logic, formal, 3)j the relation not greater than
Referent: The object towards which an act of
among whole numbers, or among rational num-
reference is directed. See Referent. L.W. bers, or among real numbers) the relation not
later than among instants of time) the relation
(1) That which is denoted by a word, sen-
less than one hour apart among instants of time.
tence, utterance or judgment.
(2) A term used by adherents of a certain A dyadic relation R is irreflexive if xRx
causal theory of meaning. That event to which never holds than among
(e.g., the relation less
a symbol is actually used to refer. whole numbers). A. C.
More explicitly: Let "context" be used to Reformation: The Protestant Reformation may
mean a of events such that events of the
set be dated from 1517, the year Martin Luther
same kind the same relations recur
and $n (1483-1546), Augustinian monk and University
"nearly uniformly." Let a be an event such professor in Wittenberg, publicly attacked the
that the complex event a b would be a con- + sale of indulgences by the itinerant Teteel, Do-
text of character C. Let it be granted that a minican ambassador of the Roman Church. The
certain utterance (or expectation) is -caused break came first in the personality of the monk
jointly by the occurrence of a and residual who could not find in his qwn religious and
traces in the speaker of previous adaptations moral endeavors to win divine favor the peace
to of character C. Then that event
contexts demanded by a sensitive conscience) and when
which, in conjunction with a constitutes a context it came he found to his surprise that he had

of character C is called the referent of the utter- already parted company with a whole tradition.
ance in question. (This covers only true utter- The ideology which found a response in his in-
ances. The 'referents' of false expectations and ner experience was set forth by Augustine, a
general beliefs require a separate account). See: troubled soul who had surrendered himself com-
Ogden and Richards, Meaning of Meaning, pletely to divine grace and mercy. The phi-
passim. losophers who legitimated man's endeavor to get
c
(3) In any proposition of form aRb', where on in the world, the church which demanded
R is a propositional function of two variables, unquestioned loyalty to its codes and commands,
a is termed the referent by contrast with the he eschewed as thoroughly inconsonant with his
relatum b. (Due to Whitehead and Russell, own inner life. Man is wholly dependent upon
Principia Mathematica).M.B. the merits of Christ) the miracle of faith alone
Referential: Relating to an act of reference. See before God. Man's conscience, his rea-
justifies

Referent. L.W. . and the Scriptures together became hit only

Reflection: (Lat. refiectio, from re -f flectere, to
bend) The knowledge which the mind has of
itself and its operation!. The term is used in
this sense by Locke (cf. Essay, II, 1, 4),
Spinoza (cf. On the Improvement of the Under-
son,
norm and authority. He could have added a
fourth: patriotism, since Luther became the
spokesman of a rising tide of German national-
ism already suspect of the powers of distant
Rome. The humanist Erasmus (see Renaissance)
 268 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
supported Luther by his silence, then broke with a statistical definition of the probability concept.
him upon the reformer's extreme utterances con- In terms of this probabilistic approach, Reichen-
cerning man's predestination. This break with bach has carried out comprehensive analyses of
the humanists shows clearly the direction which methodological and epistemological problems
the Protestant Reformation was taking: it was such as those of causality and induction. He has
an enfranchised religion only to a degree. For also extended his formal probability theory into
while Erasmus pleaded for tolerance and en- a probability logic in which probabilities play
lightenment the new religious movement called the part of truth values. C.G.H.
for decision and faith binding men's consciences Other works: Atom and Cosmos t Wahrschein-
to a new loyalty. At
the Scriptures were
first lichkeitslehre} Experience and Prediction.
taken as conscience permitted) then conscience Thomas:
Reid, (1710-1796) Scotch philosopher.
became bound by the Scriptures. Luther lacked An
In his Inquiry into the Human Mind on
a systematic theology for the simple reason that the Principles of Common Sens*, he opposed
he himself was full of inconsistencies. re- A the tradition of Berkeley and Hume and em-
former isoften not a systematic thinker. Lutheran common mankind
phasized the consciousness of
princes promoted the reconstruction of institu- as These ideas on the importance of
basic.
tions and forms suggested by the reformer and self-evidence were further elaborated in "Essays
his learned ally, Melanchthon, and by one on the Intellectual Powers of Man" and "Essays
stroke whole provinces became Protestant. The on the Active Powers of Man.'' He was
original reformers were reformed by new re- founder of the so-called Common Sense School,
formers. Two of such early reformers were employing that term as here indicated and not
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) in Switzerland and in its present acceptation. L.E.D.
John Calvin (1509-1564) who set up a rigid
Relation: The same as dyadic proportional junc-
system and rule of God in Geneva, Calvinism
tion (q. v.). The distinction between relations
crossed the channel under the leadership of John
in intension and relations in extension it the
ICnox in Scotland. The English (Anglican)
same as that for prepositional functions. Some-
Reformation rested on political rather than
times the word relation used to mean a prepo-
is
strictlyreligious considerations. The Reforma-
tion brought about a Counter-Reformation with-
sitional function of two or more variables, and
in this case one distinguishes binary
in the Roman Church in which abuses were set (dyadic)
relations, ternary (triadic) relations, etc.
right and lines against the Protestants more
tightly drawn (Council of Trent, 1545-1563).
If R
denotes a (binary) relation, and X and
V.F.
Y denote arguments, the notation may be XRY
used, instead of R(X, Y), to mean that the two
Regressive: See Sorites.
arguments stand in the relation denoted by R.
Regulative Principles: (regulative Prinzipien) The domain of a relation R is the class of
Though term, in Kant's philosophy, is in
this
things x tor which there exists at least one y
one passage applied to the analogies in general, such that xRy holds. The converse domain of a
it is reserved for ideas of reason as opposed relation R is the class of things y for which
to the categories. They cannot be proved like
there exists at least one * such that xRy. The
the latter, but though not known, theoretically
field of a relation is the logical sum of the
at least, to be true of anything, serve to
regulate domain and the converse domain.
our thought and zctlon*A.C.E. See also Logic, formal, 8. A.C.
Rcichenbach, Hans: Born Sept. 26, 1891, Ham- Whitehead and Russell, Principia Matbematica,
2nd edn., vol. 1, Cambridge, England, 1925.
burg, Germany. Successively Privatdozent at the
College of Engineering at Stuttgart, Professor of Relation-number: Dyadic relations and R' R
philosophy in the universities of Berlin, Istanbul are said to be similar (or ordinally similar) if

(1933-1938), University of California at Los there exists a one-one relation S whose domain
Angeles (since 1938); the leading figure of the is the field of R and whose converse domain is
Berlin group in the development of recent the field of R', such that, if aSa and AS*', then
logi-
cal empiriscism. See Scientific Empiricism. aRo if and only if aR'b'. The relation-number
Reichenbach's work has been devoted mainly of a dyadic relation may then be defined as the
to the class of relations similar to it cardinal
philosophy of empirical science) for a cf.

brief general survey of the problems which have number.

particularly attracted hit attention, and of his The relation-number of an ordering relation
conception of adequate method for their
an' (see order) is called also an ordinal type or
solution, cf. his Raum. Zeit Lehre, His contribu- order type.
tions center around (I) the problems of and The notion of a relation-number may be ex-
space
time, and (II) those of causality, induction tended in a straightforward way to polyadic re-
and
His studies of the first group of prob- lations. 4. c*.
probability.
lems include thorough analyses of the nature of Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mttkematica,
vol. 2.
geometry and of the logical structure of rela- Relational Theory of Mind: The conception of
tivisticphysics $ these researches led Reichen- mind as a relation between neutral entities (i.e.
bach to a rejection of the aprioristic
theory of entities which are
intrinsically neither mental
space and time. Reichenbach's contributions to nor physical) which was foreshadowed by Hume
the second group of problems
pivot around his and developed by British and American New
general theory of probability which is based on Realism. See C. W. Morris, Six Theories of
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 269

Mind, Ch. III. See Neutral Monism. L.W. cial theory of relativity (Einstein, 1905) and the
Relative: A
concept is relative if it is a word, general theory of relativity (Einstein, 1914-16).
if denotes
it a polyadic prepositional function, The name arises from the fact that certain things
or relation, rather than a monadic prepositional which the classical theory regarded as absolute
function.The term relative is applied especially e.g.,the simultaneity of spatially distant events,
to words which have been or might be thought the time elapsed between two events (unless co-
to denote monadic prepositional functions, but
*
incident in space-time), the length of an extend-
for some reason must be taken as denoting rela- ed solid body, the separation of four-dimensional
tions. Thus the word short or the notion of space-time into a three-dimensional space and a
shortness may be called relative because as a one-dimensional time are regarded by the rela-
monadic prepositional function it is vague, while tivity theory as relative (q.v.) to the choice of a
as a relation (shorter than) it is not vague. coordinate system in space-time, and thus rela-
tive to the observer. But on the other hand the
Analogously, the term relative may be applied
to words erroneously thought of or used as if relativity theory represents as absolute certain
denoting binary relations, but which actually things which are relative in the classical theory
must be taken as denoting ternary or quaternary e.g., the velocity of light in empty space. See

relations? etc. E.g., the Special Theory of Rela-

Non-Euclidean geometry. A.C.
Albert Einstein, Relativity, The Special & The
is said to make simultaneity relative be-
tivity General Theory, A Popular Exposition, translated by
cause, according to it, simultaneity is a function R. W. Lawson. London, 1920. A. S. Eddineton,
of two events and a coordinate system or frame Space, Time, and Gravitation, Cambridge, England,
instead of a function merely of 1920. A. V. Vasiliev, Space, Time, 'Motion, trans-
of reference lated by H. M. Lucas and C. "P. Sanger, with an
two events, as in the Newtonian or classical introduction by Bertrand Russell, London, 1924,
theory. and New York. 1924.
Theadjective relative is also used in a less Religion, Philosophy of: The methodic or sys-
special way, to mean simply relational or per- tematic investigation of the elements of religious
taining to relations. consciousness, the theories it has evolved and
In connection with the algebra of relations their development and historic relationships in
(see logic, formal, 8), Peirce and Schroder the cultural complex. It takes account of re-
use relative as a noun, in place of relation. For ligious practices only as illustrations of the
Schroder, a relative (Rclativ) is a relation in vitality of beliefs and the inseparableness of
extension. Peirce makes a distinction between the psychological from thought reality in faith.
relative and relation, not altogether clear} many It is distinct from theology in that it recognizes

passages suggest that relative is a syntactical the priority of reason over faith and the ac-
term, but others approximate the usage adopted ceptance of creed, subjecting the latter to a
by Schroder. C. A logical analysis. As such, the history of the
Relativism: The view that truth is relative and Philosophy of Religion is coextensive with the
may vary from individual to individual, from free enquiry into religious reality, particularly

group to group, or from time to time, having no the conceptions of God, soul, immortality, sin,
objective standard. See Ethical relativism. salvation, the sacred (Rudolf Otto), etc., and
W.K.F. may be said to have its roots in any society
Relativism, Epistemological t The theory that above the pre-logical, mythological, or custom-
all human knowledge ia relative to the knowing controlled level, first observed in Egypt, China,
mind and to the conditions of the body and India, and Greece. Its scientific treatment as
sense organs. Relativism is usually combined a subsidiary philosophic discipline dates from
with a subject! vistic theory of knowledge (see about Kant's Religion innerhalb der Grenzen
Subjectivism) but, in recent epistemology, a der reinen Vernunft and HegePs Philosophie
realistic or object! vistic relativism has been der Religion, while in the history of thought
advanced. See Objective Relativism. Ethical based on Indian and Greek speculation, sporadic
relativism. L.W. sallies were made by all great philosophers,
Relativism, Psychological: The psychological especially those professing an idealism, and by
principle that the character of any present con- most theologians.
scious content is relative to and influenced by With reference to the approach to the central
past and contemporaneous experiences of the reality of religion, God, and man's relation to

organism. The law of psychological relativity it, types of the Philosophy of Religion may be
was prominent in the psychology of Wundt, distinguished, leaving out of account negative
and has recently been emphasized by Ge stall (atheism), skeptical and cynical (Xenophanes,
Psychology. L.W. Socrates, Voltaire), and agnostic views, although
Relativity of Knowledge: See Relativism, assertions by them are not to be separated from
Epistemological. the history of religious consciousness. Funda-
Relevance or Relevancy: (Fr. relevant)" Rela- mentalism, mainly theological and often a
a
tion between concepts which are capable of com- Church phenomenon of a revivalist nature,
bining to form meaningful propositions or be- philosophizes on the basis of unquestioning
tween propositions belonging to the same "uni- faith, leekftig to buttress it by logical argument,
verse of discourse." L.W. usually taking the form of proofs of the exis-
Relativity, theory oft A
mathematical theory of tence of God (see God). Here belong all his-
space-time (q.v.), of profound epistemological as toric religions, Christianity in its two principal

well as physical importance, comprising the spe- forms, Catholicism with its Scholastic philosophy
270 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and Protestantism with its greatly diversified
philosophies, the numerous religions of Hindu-
ism, such as Brahmanism, Shivaism and Vishnu-
ism, the religion of Judaism, and Mohammedan*
ism. Mysticism, tolerated by Church and philos-
ophy, is less concerned with proof than with
description and personal experience, revealing
much of the psychological factors involved in
belief and speculation. Indian philosophy
saturated with mysticism since its
Sufism is the outstanding form of Arab mysti-
cism, while the greatest mystics in the West
are Plotinus, Meister Eckhart, Tauler, Ruys-
-
broek, Thomas a Kempis, and Jacob Bohme.
Metaphysics incorporates religious concepts as
thought necessities. Few philosophers have been
able to avoid the concept of God in their
ontology, or any reference to the relation of
God to man in their ethics. So, e.g., Plato,
Spinoza, Leibniz, Schelling, and especially Hegel
who made .the investigation of the process of
the Absolute the essence of the Philosophy of
Religion.
With respect to the concept of God, a specific
philosophy of religion may be a theism with
its many forms of henotheism, monotheism,
etc., a deism, pantheism, anthropomorphism,
animism, panpsychism (all of which see), or
the like* or it may fall into the general philo-
sophic classification of a transcendentalism, im-
manentalism, absolutism, etc. By the term
modernism is meant the tendency, subtended
by the recent interest of science in religion (Sirs
J. H. Jeans and A. S. Eddington, A. Carrell
tt al.) to interpret religious experience in close
contact with physical and social reality, thus
transforming the age-old personalism into a
thoroughgoing humanism, thereby accomplishing
an even greater attachment to social thinking
and practical ethics and a trend away from
metaphysical speculation toward a psychologizing
in the Philosophy of Religion.
Practically all philosophers of religion (to
name in addition to those above only Schleier-
macher, Lotze, Pfleiderer, Hoffding, Siebeck,
Galloway, Ladd, Wundt, Josiah Royce, W. E.
Hocking, Barth, and Hauer) are carried by an
ethical idealism, being interested in the good
life as the right relation between God and
man, conforming by and large to the ethical
categories of determinism, indeterminism,
mechanism, rationalism, etc. Buddhists, though
not believing in God, profess an ethics reli-
giously motivated and supported philosophically.
The scientific study of primitive
with such well-known names as E. B. Tylor,
F. B. Jevons, W. H. R. Rivers, J. G. Fraier,
R. H. Codrington,' Spencer and Gillen, E.
Westermarck, E. Durkheim, L. LeVy-Bruhl$ the
numerous outlines of the development of reli-
gion since Hume's Natural History of Religion
and E. Caird's Evolution of Religion i the pro-
life literature dealing with individual religions
of a higher typej the science of comparative
religion with such names as that of L. H.
Jordan) the many excellent treatises on the
psychology of religion including Win. James
1
Varieties of Religious Experience ; the sacred
literature of all peoples in various editions
together with a voluminous theological exegesis i
Church history and, finally, the history of
dogma, especially the monumental work of von
-
Harnack, all are contributing illustrative
material to the Philosophy of Religion which
became stimulated to scientific efforts through
is the positivism of Spencer, Huxley, Lewes, Tyn-
inception, dall, and others, and is still largely oriented
by the progress in science, as may be seen, e.g.,
by the work of Emile Boutroux, S. Alexander
(Space, Time and Deity), and A. N. Whitehead.
See, apart from the works of the authors
named, George Trumbull Ladd, The Philosophy
of Religion; Edwin A. Burtt, Types of Reli-
gious Philosophy, Edgar S. Brightman, A
Philosophy of Religion. K.F.L.
Religion, Promethean: An 'anarchistic piety
which refrains from making past or present
revolutionary doctrine the basis of new tyranny.
(Montague). H.H.
Religious A
Priori: A separate, innate category
of the human consciousness, religious in that it
issue* certain insights and indisputable certain-
ties concerning God or a Superhuman Presence.
Man's religious nature rests upon the peculiar
character of his mind. He possesses a native
apprehension of the Divine. God's existence is
guaranteed as an axiomatic truth. For Ernst
Troeltsch (1865-1923) this a priori quality of
the mind is both a rational intuition and an
immediate experience. God is present as a real
fact both rationally and empirically. For Rudolf
Otto this a priori quality of the mind is a non-
rational awareness of the holy, mysterious and
awe-inspiring divine Reality. Man possesses a
kind of eerie sense of a Presence wnich is the
basis of the genuinely religious feeling. See
Numinous. V.F.
Religious Phenomenology: (in Max Scheler)
The doctrine of the essential origin and forms
of the religious, and of the essence of the di-
vine, as well as of its revelation. P.A.S.
Renaissance: (Lat. re -f nasci, to be born) Is
a term used by historians to characterize various
periods of intellectual revival, and especially
that which took place in Italy and Europe during
the 15th and 16th centuries. The term was
coined by Michelet and developed into a histori-
cal concept by J. Burckhardt (I860) who con-
sidered individualism, the revival of classical
antiquity, the "discovery" of the world and of
man as the main characters of that period as
religions, opposed to* the Middle Ages. The meaning, the
temporal limits, and even the usefulness of the
concept have been disputed ever since. For the
emphasis placed by various historians on the dif-
ferent fields of culture and on the contribution
of different countries must lead to different in-
terpretations of the whole period, and attempts
to express t complicated historical phenomenon
in a simple, abstract definition are apt to fail.
Historians are now inclined to admit a very
considerable continuity between the "Renais-
sance 11 and the Middle Ages. Yet a sweeping
rejection of the whole concept is excluded, for
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 271
it expresses the view of the writers of the period substance (res constitute his
extensa) dualism.
itself) who considered their century a revival of The term presumably designates not only the
ancient civilisation after a period of decay. individual mind which thinks but also the sub-
While Burckhardt had paid no attention to phi- stance which pervades all individual minds.
losophy, others began to speak of a "philosophy L.W.
of the renaissance)" regarding thought of those Retentiveness: (Lat. re
-f tendere, to hold)
centuries not as an accidental accompaniment of The mind's capacity to retain and subsequently
renaissance culture, but as its characteristic phi- revive earlier experiences. See Memory. L.W.
losophical manifestation. As yet this view has Revelation: The communication to man of the
served as a fruitful guiding principle rather than
Divine Will. This communication has taken, in
as a verified hypothesis. Renaissance thought the history of religions, almost every conceivable
can be defined in a negative way as the period
form, e.g., the results of lot casting, oracular
of transition from the medieval, theological to
declarations) dreams, visions, ecstatic experiences
the modern) scientific interpretation of reality. It
(induced by whatever means, such as intoxi-
also displays a few common features, such as
cants), books, prophets, unusual characters,
an emphasis our man and on his place in the revered traditional practices, storms, pestilence,
universe, the rejection of certain medieval stand- etc. The general conception of revelation has
ards and methods of science, the increased influ- been that the divine communication comes in
ence of some newly discovered ancient sources,
ways unusual, by means not open to the ordi-
and a new style and literary form in the pres-
nary channels of investigation. This, however,
entation of philosophical ideas. More obvious is not a necessary
corollary; revelation of the
are the differences between the various schools Divine Will may well come through ordinary
and traditions which cannot easily be brought to
channels, the give-and-take of everyday experi-
a common denominator: Humanism^ Platonism, and and
ence, through reason reflection intuitive
Aristotelianism, scepticism and natural philoso- insight. V.F.
phy, to which may be added the group of the Rhetoric: (Gr. Rhetor, public speaker) Art turned
founders of modern science (Copernicus, Kepler,
to the practical purpose of persuading and im-
Galileo). P.O.AT.
pressing. L.V.
Cf. "Study of the Renaissance
Philosophies," Rhythm: (a) Harmonious correlation of parts in
P. O. Kristcller and J. H.
Randall, Jr. in a work
of art. (b) (Music) Systematic grouping
Jour. History of Ideas, II, 4 (Oct. 1941). of notes according to duration. L.V.
Renouvier, Charles: (1818-1903) a thinker
Rickert, Heinrich: (1863-1936) Believing that
strongly influenced by Leibniz and Kant. His
only in system philosophy achieves its ends,
philosophy has been called 'phenomenological Rickert established under the influence of Fichte
neo-criticism', and its peculiar feature is that
a transcendental idealism upon an epistemology
it denies the existence of all transcendental
which has nothing to do with searching for
entities, such as thing-in-itself, the absolute, and
connections between thought and existence, but
the noumenon, R.B.W.
admits being only as a being in consciousness,
Main works: Uchronie, 1857& Philos. analy- and knowledge as an affirming or negating,
tiqut de l>histoire t 4 vols., 1896-98) La nou-
approving or disapproving of judgments. Hence,
velle monad ologi*) 1899; Le Personnalisme,
philosophy is one of norms in which the con-i
1903} Essais d* critiqu* general*, 1851-64.
cept of reality dissolves into a concept of value,
Representative Ideas, Theory of: Theory that while consciousness ceases to be an individual
the mind in perception, memory and other types
phenomenon and becomes impersonal and gen-
of knowledge, does not know its objects directly
eral. Value exists not as a physical thing but
but only through the mediation of ideas which
in assent and our acknowledging its validity.
represent them. The theory was advanced by In thiswe are guided by meaning and obligated
Descartes and the expression, representative by the ought. Method distinguishes history as
ideas, may have been suggested by his statement the discipline of the from science
particular
that our ideas more or less adequately "repre- which must advance beyond fact-gathering to
sent" their originals. See Meditations, III. the discovery of general laws, and from philoso-
Locke, Hobbes, Malebranche, Berkeley subscribed
phy which seeks absolute cultural values through
to the theory in one form or another and the
explanation, understanding, and interpretation.
theory has supporters among contemporary epi- Main works: Die Grenxen d. naturtoiss.
stemologists (e.g. Lovejoy and certain other
Begrifsbildungt 1896j Kultur u. Naturwissen-
Critical Realists). The theory has been
severely sckajten, 1899} Pkilos. d. Ltbens, 1920.
criticized ever since the time of Arnauld.
(See K.F.L.
Des vrais de fausses ideet) and has become
et
Right: In an ethical sense inaction conforming
one of reproach. See Epistttnc logical Dualism.
to the moral law. Also the correlative of duty.
L.W. In a legal sense, any claim against others,
Representative Realism: The view that in the recognized by law. Political rights, the capacity
knowing process our ideas are representations of exercizing certain functions in the formation
or ambassadors of the real external world.
(E.g. and administration of government the right
the view of John Locke.)- KF. to to be
vote, elected to public office, etc.
Res Cogitans: (Lat. res, thing -f cogitans from Natural rights, as against positive rights, those
cogitare, to
think) Descartes' designation for claims or liberties which are not derived from
thinking substance which along with extended positive law but from a "higher law", the law
272 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of nature. The right to live, the right to work, initial phase of German Idealism, serving as a
the "pursuit of happiness", the right to self- transition from Kant to Hegel, and flourishing
development are sometime* considered natural chiefly between 1775 and 1815. It is associated
rights. W.E. primarily with the Schlegel brothers,
Novalis,
Right action: (a) Teleologically defined as action Fried, Schelling, and
Schleiermacher, with
such that no alternative possible under the cir- Schelling as its culmination and most
typical
cumstances is better. Cf. G. E. Moore, Princ. figure. The philosophical point of departure
Ethica. C.A.B. for romanticism is the Kantian philosophy, and

(b) Formalisticallydeontologically) re-

(or romanticism shares with all German Idealism
as per- both the fundamental purpose of extending
garded as not equivalent to the above,
haps, indefinable. For example, C. D. Broad knowledge to the realm of noumena, and the
holds that the Tightness or wrongness of an fundamental* doctrine that all reality is ulti-
action in a given situation is a function of its mately spiritual, derivative from a living spirit

"fittingness" in that situation and of its utility and so knowable by the human spirit. The
in that situation. W. D. Ross holds that in essence of philosophical romanticism as expressed

given circumstances that action is right whose by Schelling, that which differentiates it from
prima facie Tightness in the respects in which other types of Idealism, resides in its conception
it is prima facie right outweigh ts its prima facie of Spirit} upon this depend its metaphysical ac-

wrongness in the respects in which it is prima count of nature and man, and its epistemological
faciewrong to a greater degree than is the case doctrine of the proper method for investigating
with any possible alternative action. C.A.B. and understanding reality. Romanticism holds
that Spirit, or the Absolute, is essentially
Right Reason: (Gr. orthos logos j L. recta ratio)
the ultimate ground of all things is
creative}
The law or order exhibited in the constitution
primarily c an urge to self-expression, and all
of the world, to which, according to the Stoics,
that it has brought into being is but a means
human law and human action should conform}
to its fuller self-realization. If the Absolute of
the Law of Nature. G.R.M.
Fichte is a moralist, and that of Hegel a
to which the
Rigorism: Any view according logician, then that of the romanticists is pri-
ethical life involves a rigorous treatment
of the
marily an artist. From this basic view there
more natural or physical desires, feelings, and springs a metaphysic that interprets the universe
passions. W.K.F. in terms of the concepts of evolution, process,
Ritschlianism : A
celebrated school of 19th cen-
life, and consciousness. The world of nature is
Albrecht
tury Christian thought inaugurated by one manifestation of Spirit \ man is another and
for God
Ritschl (1822-89). This school argued a higher such manifestation, for in man Spirit
upon the basis of what is called the religious seeks to become conscious of its own work. The
Two kinds of judgments are
value-judgment. metaphysical process is the process by which
said to characterize man's reaction to his world the Absolute seeks to realize itself, and all
of experience: (1) dependent or concomitant, particular things are but phases within it. Hence,
those dependent upon perceived facts, such
as
the epistemology of romanticism is exclusively
the natural sciences j (2) independent or
re-
emotional and intuitive, stressing the necessity
ligious, those which -affirm
man's superior worth for fullness of experience and depth of feeling
the finite world
independent of the limitations of if reality is to be understood.
Reason, being
and man's upon a superhuman order
dependence artificial and inadequate to the
analytical, is
of reality, God. God
not reached by specula-
is task of comprehending the Absolute} knowing
in nature, nor by
tion, nor by the "evidences" is living, and the philosopher must approach
intuitions or mystic experience, nor by a ra-
'

nature through inspiration, longing, and sym-

tional a priori or intimate feeling. God is im- 'pathy.
plied in the religious value judgment: "though Romanticism was a healthy and necessary
he slay me will I trust him." That man needs influence in reasserting the dignity of nature, in
God as a deliverer from his bonds is the as- stressing the emotional factor in knowledge,
sertion of the independent religious value-judg- and in emphasizing the concepts of process and
ment} the consequences following this judgment evolution. It was an inadequate doctrine, in
of need and worth sustain him with courage and that it did not clarify the detailed movement
victory over every obstacle. Ritschlianism is and could offer no
of the processit posited,
notable in the emphasis it placed upon the cate-
positive advice for discovering this, other than
gory of value, an emphasis which has grown to be inspired and intuit it. Romanticism is
stronger in contemporary theistic belief. V.F.
metaphysical expressionism, and like any ex-
Romanism: (Lat. Roma, Rome, the seat of Papal doctrine it is unable to give any
pressionistic
authority) The doctrines and practices of the concrete meaning to the concept of causality}
Roman Catholic Church 5 tendencies in members it can therefore provide no categories under
of other churches to favor Catholicism. V.J.B. which to comprehend things, but can only say
Romantic art: (a) Artistic era between the end that things art because they have been expressed,
of the 18th and middle of the 19th centuries, and can be understood only by being re-
(b) A form closer to and lessindependent of expressed} i.e., only by re-living the experience
emotions than classic form. L.V. of their creator.
Romanticism: As a general philosophical move-
(In Aesthetics): A
movement in both art and
ment, romanticism is best understood as the
general aesthetic theory which was particularly
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 273

widespread and influential in the last years of campaigning for

philosophy the nations of in
the 18th and the first half of the 19th cen- Latin America through a program of cultural
turies. So interpreted, it is especially associated diffusion. Among his most important writings,
with Novalis, the Schlegels, and Jean Paul the following may be mentioned: Vieja y Nueva
Richter in Germany) Rousseau, Chateaubriand, Concepcidn de la Realidad, 1932) Los Prob-
Hugo, Lamartine in France) Blake, Scott, the lemas de la Filosofia de la Cultura, 1936)
Lake Poets, Shelley, and Byron in England. Filosofia de la Persona, 1938) Logica (In
As a general attitude toward art and its func- collaboration with Pucciarelli), 1936) Pro-
tion, asan interpretation of the goodness, beauty, grama de una Filosofia, 1940) Vn Filosofo de
and purpose of life, romanticism has always la Problematicidadt 1934) Descartes y Husserl,
existed and can be confined to no one period. 1938) Contribution al Estudio de las Relaciones
The essence of romanticism, either as an attitude de Comparacion, 1938) Teoria y Practica de
or as a conscious program, is an intense interest la Verdad> 1939. Three characteristic notes may

in nature, and an attempt to seize natural be observed in the philosophy of Romero: (a)

phenomena in a direct, immediate, and naive Aporetics or Problematics, (b) Philosophy of

manner. Romanticism thus regards all forms, Weltanschauungen, (c) Philosophy of the Per-
rules, conventions, and manners as artificial
son. The first has to do with his criterion of
constructs and as hindrances to the grasp, enjoy- knowledge. Justice to all the facts of ex-
ment, and expression of nature) hence its con- perience, over against mere system building,
kind of classicism seems to be the watchword. The desirability
tinual opposition to any
whose formalities it treats as fetters. and gradual imposition of Structuralism as the
(q.v.),
Romanticism stresses the values of sincerity,
modern Weltanschauung, over against outworn
world conceptions such as Evolution, Mechan-
spontaneity, and passion, as against the restraint
and cultivation demanded by artistic forms and ism, Rationalism, etc., is the emphasis of the
modes. It reasserts the primacy of feeling, second principle of his philosophy. Personality
'
as a mere function of
imagination, and sentiment, as opposed to transcendence, with all
reason. It maintains that art should concern that transcendence implies in the realm of value

itself with the and the concrete,

and history, carries the main theme of his
particular
See Latin American Philosophy.
observing and reporting accurately the feelings thought.
aroused by nature, with no idealization or J.A.F
It commands the artist to feel Roscelin: (c. 1050-c. 1120) born at Compiegne,
generalization.
freely and deeply, and to express what he has France, probably studied in Soissons and Rheims.
felt with no restraints, either artistic or social. He taught as Canon of Compiene, and at Tours,
It seeks in works of art a stimulus to imagina- Loches (where Abelard was his pupil) and
tion and feeling, a point of departure for free Besancon. Noted in philosophy for his ex-
activity, rather than an object that it can tremely nominal istic solution to the problem
of universal. Theologically, he was accused of
accept and contemplate.
Such a general attitude and purpose of course
tritheism. No major works are extant and his
allow for vast specific differences, and under
views are known only through possibly biased
accounts in John of
the term romantics must be included artists and Salisbury, (Metalogicus,
theorists who stress varying aspects of nature II, 17, PL 199, 874), St. Anselm, Abailard
and man. common and Otto of Freising.
All have in a rejection of
formal an obsession with their ex- J. Reiners, Der Nominalismus in der Fruh-
restraints,
perience of nature, and the conviction that this
scholastik, BGPM VIII, 5, 25-41 (Munster,
felt of things is of ultimate -value in 1910). F.7.5.
quality
its immediacy. Rosmini, Serbati (Antonio) : Born, in Rovereto
On the ambiguities of the term, as well as (Trento), March 24, 1797) died in Stresa
an analysis of one of its meanings as the char- (Milan), July 1, 18SS. Ordained priest 1821.
acteristics thought shared by some German
of Founded the Institute for Charity. Influenced
thinkers from about 1790 to 1830, cf. A. O. Italian Risorgimento, impelling Pope Pius
Lovejoy, "Meaning of Romanticism for the IX towards liberalism.
Historian of Ideas," Jour. Hist. Ideas (Jan. His philosophy is a fusion of idealism and
1941), which refers also to Love joy's now scholasticism, adhering to human experience. He
famous articles on the subject. 7.7. maintained there is a distinction between the
natural and the supernatural order, but emphas-
Romero, Francisco: Born in 1891. Professor
of at the Universities of Buenos ized that the supreme principle uniting all
Philosophy
Aires, La Plata, and the National Institute for knowledge is universal being. L.V.
Teachers. Director of the Philosophical Library Cf. T. Davidson, Rosmini's Philosophical
of the Losada Publishing House, and distin- System, 1882.
guished staff member
of various cultural maga- Ross, (William) David: (1877-1940) Is princi-
zines and reviews in Latin America. Francisco pally known as an Aristotelian scholar. He served
Romero is one of the most important figures firstas joint editor, later as editor of the Oxford
in the philosophical movement of South Amer- translation of Aristotle. In this series he himself
ica. He is the immediate successor of Korn, translated the Metaphysics and the Nicomachean
and he follows on the footsteps of his
as such Ethics In addition he published critical texts
j
master, doing pioneer work, not only striving with commentaries of the Metaphysics and the
towards an, Argentinian philosophy, but also Physics,and also an edition of Theophrastus's
274 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics. enjoying a reputation as
Besides especially in "dogmatic" types of deontological
Aristotelian Sir David has gained or intuitionistic ethics, and ideological ethics is
interpreter,
as a writer on morality and ethics. often described as emphasizing ends rather than
repute
C.K.D. rules. Even a teleologist may, however, recom-
mend certain rules, such as the above, as describ-
Rousseau, Jean Jacques: (1712-1778), a native
ing kinds of action which are generally
of Geneva, Switzerland, whose influence in
and throughout Europe was enormous
conducive to good ends. W.K.F.
France
Rule of Faith: In general, an authoritative
for many a decade, thanks to his timely ideas
statement of belief. In historic Christianity such
and colorful and lucid style of writing. Par-
statements appeared out of existing formulae
ticularly influential were his Emile, a book on
the early baptismal confessions)or were
education, and Social Contract, a work reviving
(e.g.,

an old political doctrine concerning the origin

formulated meet existing heresies. In Catholic
to

of human society, into which he introduced Christianity the Rule of Faith (Regula Fidci)
democratic His was includes the whole of apostolic teaching and its
novel ideas. thought
characterized by skepticism and criticism of the further elaborations. V.F.
Western civilization regarded by him as a sad Rule of inference: See logic, formal, 1, 3,

deviation from natural conditions of existence, and logistic system,

described imaginatively in his New Heloise. Russell, Bert rand A. W.:

(1872-) Fellow Trin-
R.B.W. ity College, Cambridge, 1895$ lecturer in philos-
ophy, University of Cambridge, 1910-1916.
Royce, Josiah: (1855-1916) Born in California,
Author of The Philosophy of Leibniz, 1900}
taught philosophy at Harvard. Neo-Hegelian
The Principles of Mathematics, 1903j Principia
idealist, conceivesReality as the career of an all-
Mathematica (in collaboration with A. N.
inclusive absolute mind, of which our minds are
Whitehead), 3 vols. 1910-13, (second edition,
fragmentary manifestations. Nothing short of
such a mind can terminate the quest of each
1925-27)j The Problems of Philosophy, 1912}
Our Knowledge of the External
finite consciousness for the true and final object World, 1914}
Introduction to Mathematical
of its experience, which is found always in more Philosophy, 1918}
The Analysis of Mind, 1921; The
experience fulfilling and giving significance to Analysis of
Matter, 1927j An Outline of Philosophy, 1928}
the experience in question. In an absolute ex- An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, 1940.
perience alone, to which all things are present Also numerous other works on
and by which all things are understood, can the philosophy,
politics and education, outrageously attacked
ultimate explanation and meaning of any and by
reactionaries.
all finite experience be revealed, all error be
Two aspects of Russell's work are likely to
corrected, all imperfection be overcome.
remain of permanent importance, (1) his
major
Though fragments of the absolute experience, part in the twentieth renaissance of
century
our minds somehow remain separate selves and
logic, (2) his reiterated attempts to identify
persons. Though infinite and all-comprehensive the methods of philosophy with those of the
in extent, and reviewing ad infinilum its own
sciences.
infinity in knowing that it knows that it knows,
the Absolute is nevertheless a finished and closed
(1) While the primary objective of Principia
was to prove that pure mathematics could be
whole. shot through and through with
Though derived from logic, the success of this under-
error and evil and sin and suffering, the Abso-
taking (as to which hardly any dissenting opinion
lute is nevertheless perfect, and perfect because
persists) is overshadowed by the importance of
of them, since struggle with them and triumph
the techniques perfected in the course of its
over them is of the essence of its perfection.
prosecution. Without disrespect to other pioneers
Though a temporal process, it is nevertheless in the field, it is sufficient to
overarches that process in a single act of com- point out that
a knowledge of the symbolic logic of Russell
prehension in which past, present, and future are and Whitehead is still a necessary
prerequisite
grasped, even as the successive notes of a musi- for understanding contemporary studies in
cal logic,
phrase are grasped, as an eternally present in the foundations of
mathematics, and the
completed fact.
philosophy of science.
The will, like the intellect, reaches after and
(2) Flirtations with realism, neutral monism,
finds its peace in the Absolute. The moral life
positivism or behaviorism have never seriously
lies in seeking the ever widening meaning of interfered with Russell's attempt to establish
our individual lives and identifying ourselves
philosophy as a science. The empirical data
with it. This self-identification with larger
being supplied by the experimental scientist,
meaning it loyalty the basis and the essence the specifically philosophical task becomes the
of all human virtue. B.A.G.F. such deliverances (with the full
analysis of
Main works: The Religious Aspect of Phi- resources of modern logistic). Unlike certain of
losophy, 1885j The Spirit of Modern Philoso- his followers, Russell has never been strenuously
phy, 1892j The World and the Individual, He has never held pragmatic,
anti-metaphysical.
1900j Lectures on Modern Idealism, 1919. still less conventional, views with regard to the
Rule, ethical or moral: Any general ethical nature of logic itself. And his general empirical
proposition enjoining a certain kind of action been constantly modified by
approach has
in a certain kind of situation, e.g., one%ho has
rationalistic views concerning the subsistence of
made a promise should keep it. Rules figure M.B.
universal*.
Saadia, ben Joseph: (Arabic Sa'id Al-Fayyumi) as well as the Torah. In general, Sadducee-ism,
(892-942) Born and educated in Egypt, he left holding the Law (Pentateuch) to be explicit and
his native country in 915 and settled in Baby- its language straight-forward, rejected the Mes-

lonia where he was appointed in 928 Gaon of sianic doctrine as regards the House of David,
the Academy of Sura. He translated the Bible but not as regards a priestly source, and also
and wrote numerous works, both in
into Arabic that of resurrection of the body, but not that
Hebrew and Arabic, in the fields of philology, of the soul. On the whole, however, Jesus and
exegesis, Talmudics, polemics, Jewish history, Paul both proved to be the enemies of Pharisee-
and philosophy. His chief philosophical work is ,
ism and in effect sided with the Sadduccees
the Kitab Al-Amanat iva'l-lttkadat, better against traditional law. F.K.
known by its Hebrew title, Emunot tve-Deot t Saguna: (Skr.) "possessed of qualities" (see
i.e., Doctrines and Religious Beliefs. Its purpose guna)j predicated of the Absolute from the
is to prove the compatibility of the principles exoteric point of view of the worshipper, ac-
of Judaism with reason and to interpret them cording to Sankara (q.v.j tee Nirguna).
in such a way that their rationality be evident. K.F.L.
The nine sections establish philosophically
first
Saint-Simon, Claude Henry, Count De:
the ten fundamental articles of faith, and the
(1760-1825) French philosopher who fought
tenth deals with ethics. Philosophically, Saadia with the French army during the American
was influenced by the teachings of the Mutazilia. Revolution. He supported the French Revolu-
See Jewish Philosophy. Q.V. tion. He advocated what he termed a new
Sabda: (Skr.) Sound, an Indian
metaphysical science of society to do away with inequalities
concept) word, particularly the cosmic or divine in the distribution of property, power and hap-
word (see vac)'* testimony, a valid source of Love for the poor and the lowly was
piness.
knowledge in some philosophic systems. K.F.L. basic for the reform he urged. He greatly in-
Sabellianism : The view of Sabellius who taught fluenced Comte and Positivism. LJ5.D.
in the first half of the third century the doctrine
Main work: L*Indus trie on discussion*
that there is one God but three (successive)
politiques, morales, tt philosophiqvts, dans
modes or manifestations of God: as creator and I*inter et de tout let hommts livres a des travail*
governor God is Father, as redeemerGod is utiles tt independants, 1817. Cf. Otuvres de
the Son, as regenerator and sanctifier God is
Saint-Simon, 46 vols., 1865-77.
the Holy Spirit one and ,the same God. The
Sakti: (Skr.) Strength, might, of feminine gender,
view approximated the later orthodox Trini-
the word designates in Tantric (see Tantra)
tarian conception (see Trinitarianism) but was
literature the female generative power of energy
too harsh to be maintained. Further clarifica-
in the universe, worshipped by the religious at
tion was needed. Sabellianism has been called
the wife of some deity or other, e.g., as Durga,
by several names, Modalism, Modalistic Mon-
wife of Shiva. See Shaktism. K.F.L,
archianism and Patripassianism (Father suffer-
Samadhi: (Skr.) The final stage in the practice
ing).-^.
of Yoga (q.v.) according to the Yogasutras
Sacerdotalism: (Lat. sacerdotalis: pertaining to
A (q.v.) in which individuality it given up while
a priest) religious system revolving about a
priestly order. The term, when employed in a merging with the object of meditation, thus
derogatory sense, means the unwholesome prefer- producing a state of unqualified bltssfulness and
ence for ecclesiastical and sacramental obser- unperturbed consciousness, which it moksa
(q.v.). K.F.L.
vance! in contrast to the more valid personal
and moral values. V.F. Simanya: (Skr. similar, generic, etc.) Generality,
Sadducee-ism: Both a party and a belief so universality} the universal in contrast to the
named after the Zadokites, sons of Zadok, the particular. The is understood in the
universal
family and temple hierarchy, advocates of the realist manner by Nyiyt-Vaisesikt to be
the
written Torah (teaching) in Judaism, the party eternal and distinct from, yet inherent in the
and attitude opposite to the Pharisees and particular i in the nominalist manner, by die
scribes, who prized oral and developing thought Buddhists, to have no intrinsic existence! in the
276 DICTIONARY QF PHILOSOPHY
manner of universal** in re by the Jainai and ordinary actions and judgments of one' fellows,
Advaita VedSnta^ K.F.L. (3) the civil or political sanction, i.e., the
Same and Other: One of the "persistent prob- threat of punishment or the promise of reward
lems" of philosophy which goes back at least made by the government, (4) the religious
to Parmenides and Heraclitus (q.v.). In its sanction, i.e., the fear of God, etc. J. S. Mill
most general form it raises the question: Is labelled these external, and added an internal
reality explicable in terms of one principle, sanction, viz., the desire or the feeling of
ultimately the same in all
things (monism), obligation to do the kind of conduct in question.
or is reality ultimately heterogeneous, requiring See Obligation. W.K.F.
a plurality of first principles (pluralism)? Sanga: (Skr. sticking to) Attachment, especially
Plato really developed the probleifc (in the to material things, or entanglement in earthly

Sophist, Parmenides and Timaeus) by suggesting cares, considered an impediment to spiritual

that both sameness and otherness are required attainment or mokfa (q.v.). K.F.L.
for a complete explanation of things. It is San kang: The Three Standards, i.e., the sover-
closely related to the problems of One and eign the standard of the minister) the father
is

Many, Identity and Difference, of Universal the standard of the son, and the husband the
and Individual in Mediaeval Scholasticism, %tandard of the wife) on the ground that the
With Hegel and Fichte the problem becomes active or male cosmic principle of the universe
fused with that of Spirit and Matter, or of (yang), to which the sovereign, the father, and
Self and Not-self. VJ.B. the husband correspond, is the standard of the

Samnyaain: (Skr.) A wise man, philosopher. passive or female cosmic principle (yin) to
K.F.L. which is his commentary on the VedSnta (q.v.)
Samsara: (Skr.) "Going about", the passage of respond. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.)
the soul in the cycle of births and deaths) the W.T.C.
round of existence j transmigration, a universally Sankara: One of the greatest of Indian philos-

accepted dogma in India, early justified philo- ophers, defender of Brahamism, who died about
sophically on the basis of karma (q.v.). and die
820 A.D., after having led a manysided, partly
nature of afman (q.v.), but its modus operandi legendary, life as peripatetic teacher and author
the object of practi-
It is of numerous treatises, the most influential of
variously explained.
cally every Indian philosophy to find a way to
which is his commentary on the Vedinta (s.v.)
moksa in which he established the doctrine of advaita
escape from samsara and attain ' (q.v.).
AT.F.L. (q.v.). K.F.L.
Samskara: Sankhya: Perhaps the oldest of the major systems
putting together) Mental im-
(Skr.
of Indian philosophy (q.v.), founded by Kapila.
pression, memory. Also the effects of karma
(q.v.) as shaping one's life. K.F.L. Originally not theistic, it is realistic in episte-
San cheng: The Three Rectifications, also called mology, dualistic in metaphysics, assuming two
san t'ung, which means that in the scheme of moving ultimates, spirit (purusa, q.v.) and
macrocosmos microcosmos relationship between matter (prakrti, q.v.) both eternal and uncaused.
man and the universe, the vital force (ch'i) Prakfti possesses the three qualities or principles
underlying the correspondence should be so of sattva, rajas, famas (see these and gna) t

directed and controlled that, first of all, the first in equipoise. When this is disturbed, the
world in its multifariousness evolves in con-
germination of things, its symbolic color, black,
and all governmental and social functions cor- junction with purufa wm'ch' becomes the plu-
responding to it} secondly, the sprouting of rality of selves in the process. The union
things together with its symbolic color, white, (samyofa) of spirit and matter Is necessary for
and social and political correspondences) and, worlcJ evolution, the inactivity of the former
thirdly, the movement
of things and its color, needing the verve of the latter, and the non-
red, and correspondence in human affairs all intelligence of that needing the guidance of
become correct. Applied to the interpretation of conscious puntfa. Successively, prakrti produces
means that the Hsia dynasty
history, 'this theory
mahat or buddhi, ahamkara t manas, the ten
(2207-1766 B.C.?) was the reign of Man, the indriya:, five tanmatras and five mahabkutas
Shang dynasty (1765-1122 B.C.?) that of (all of which tee). K.F.L.
Earth, and the Chou dynasty (1122? -249 B.C.) Sankhya-kirikI: (Skr.) The earliest extant text
that of Heaven. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 of the SSnkhya by Isvarakrs, na ) a famous com-
B.C.) W.T.C. mentary on it is that of Gauo*eapSda. K.F.L.
San chiao: The three systems, doctrines, philos- San piao: The three laws in reasoning and argu-
or religions of Confucianism, Buddhism,
ophies., mentation, namely, that "there must be a basil
and Taoism. W.T.C. or foundation" which can be "found in a study
Sanction: A sanction is anything which serves of the experiences of the wisest men of the
to move (and, in this sense, to oblige) a man past," that "there must be a general survey" by
to observe or to refrain from a given mode of "examining (its compatibility with) the facts

conduct, any source of motivation, and hence, of the actual experience of the people," and that
on a hedonistic theory, any source of pleasure "there must be practical application 1' by "putting
or pain. Gay and Bentham distinguished four it into law and governmental policies, and see
such sanctions: (1) the natural or physical whether or not it is conducive to the welfare of
anction, i.e., the ordinary course of nature, the state and of the people." (Mo Trfl, between
(2) the virtuous or moral sanction, i.e., the 500 and 396 B.C.) W.T.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 277

Santayana, George: For Santayana (1863-), Reason in Art, Reason in Science) j Winds of
one of the most eminent of contemporary Doctrine, 1913) Egottsm in German Philosophy,
naturalists, consciousness, instead of distorting 1.915$ Character and Opinion in the U. S.,
the nature of Reality immediately reveals it. 1920; Skepticism and Animal Faith, 1923$.
So revealed, Reality proclaims itself an infinity Realms of Being, 4 vols., 1927-40 (Realm of
of (Platonic Ideas) subsisting in and
essences Essence, Realm of Matter, Realm of Truth,
by themselves, some of which are entertained by Realm of Spirit).
minds, and some of which are also enacted in B.A.G.F.
and by a non-mental substratum, substance or Sarva-darsana-sangraha : (Skr.) A work by
matter, which adds concrete existence to their Midhvavacarya, professing to be a collection
subsistence. The presence of this substratum, (sangraha) of all (sarva) philosophic views
though incapable of rational proof, is assumed (darsana) or schools. It includes systems which
in action as a matter of animal faith. Further- acknowledge and others which reject Vedic
more, without it as a selective principle, the (s.v.) authority, such as the Cirvaka, Buddhist
concrete enactment of some essences but not of and Jaina schools (which see). K.F.L.
others is inexplicable. Sarvakartrtva: (Skr.) "All-makingness", descrip-
other things, external to tive of the ultimate principle in the universe,
Matter, among is

and independent of consciousness, conceived dynamically. K.F.L.

spatially ex-
tended, unequally distributed (corporeal), subject
Sarvam khalv idam brahma: (Skr.) "Indeed,
to locomotion and perhaps to intrinsic alteration all this is brahman", a famous dictum of Chan-
in its parts, and capable of becoming conscious. dogya Upaniehad 3.14.1, symptomatic of the
Its selective and progressive enactment of monistic attitude later elaborated in &ankara's
essences is not Ideological or intelligent, but is
Vedanta K.F.L.
jq.v.).
actuated by efficient causation and predetermined Sarvisti-vada : (Skr.) The doctrine (vada) of
by antecedent situations. HInayana Buddhism according to which "all
In organic bodies matter may become con- is" (sarvam astt), or all is real, that which was,

scious. Mindi being an activity of the body, and currently is, and will be but now is, potentially.
is not causally effective, but K.F.L.
unsubstantial,
Sastra: (Skr.) A Sanskrit textbook. AT.F.L.
simply entertains and contemplates essences both
enacted and unenacted. Its registration of the Sat: (Skr.) Being, a metaphysical concept akin
natural functions and drives of the body of to Eleatic thinking, which a school of thinkers
which the aura, is desire, which gives values
it is regards as fundamental, as in Chandogya
like truth, goodness, and beauty to the essences Upanishad 6.2.1: "In the beginning . this . .

entertained. The desire to know, satisfied by world was just being, one only, without a
intelligibility, creates science, which is investiga- second." It refutes the theory of non-being.
tion of the world of enacted essences, where (See MO*). K.F.L.
alone the explanation of things is to be found. Sat-cit-inanda, saccidinanda : (Skr.) "Being-
The natural desire to experience social harmony awareness-bliss", a VedSntic (s.v.) definition of
and to contemplate beauty creates morality, art, the highest, all-inclusive reality, also of the

poetry and religjpn, which entertain in imagina- atman (q.v.) insofar as it has attained its full

tion and seek to make concrete by action, com- realization. K.FJL.

binations of essences, often unenacted and purely Satire: Art holding vice or folly up to ridicule,
ideal. or lampooning individuals through the use of
These desires and drives, however, tend to irony or sarcasm. L.V.
stray beyond their proper provinces and to be- Sattva: (Skr. "be-ness") Being, existence, reality,
come intermingled and confused in attempts to etc. Also one of the three gunas (q.v.) of the
identify truth, goodness, and beauty, to Sarikhya (q.v.) and as such the quality of buoy-
turn justifications into explanations, to regard ancy, pleasure, and goodness of matter
or
subsistent ideals as concretely existent facts, prakrti (q.v.). K.F.L.
and to distort facts into accordance with desired Satya: (Skr.) Actual, real, true, valid} truth,
ideals. It is the business of reason and philos- reality) the real. K.F.L.
ophy to clear up this confusion by distinguishing Sautrintika: A
Buddhist school of representa-
human drives and from one another,
interests tionalism, same as Bahyanumeya-vada (q.v.).
K.F.L.
indicating to each its proper province and value,
and confining each to the field in which it is Scepticism: 1) a proposition about the limita-
valid tnd in which its appropriate satisfaction tions of knowledge: that no knowledge at all

may be found. doing, they dispel the

By so or that no absolute, unquettionable, trustworthy,
suspicion and with which the
antagonism, certain, complete, or perfect knowledge (or
attainable by
scientist, the moralist, the artist, and the theo- rationally belief) is
justifiable
logian are wont to view one another, and man or that such is not
by any attainable
enable a mind at .harmony with itself to con- knowert or that none of these kinds of knowl-
edge, if attained, would be recognisable
as
template t world in which the subsistent and
the existent form a harmonious whole. such) or that no such knowledge is attainable
Main works: Sense of Beauty, 1896$ Inter- about certain subjects, e.g., questions about exis-
pret, Poetry and Religion, 1900) Life of
of tence, ultimate reality, certain religious beliefs,
Reason, 5 vols., 1905-6 (Reason in Common or the existence or nature of certain entities
Sense, Reason in Society, Reason in Religion, (e.g., God, one's self, other selves, values, an
278 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
external world, or causal connections)) or that tarism which eventually made the assent of
one or more or all of these types of knowledge judgment a matter of will rather than of in-
is not attainable by certain methods or media, tellect, and a theory of the reality of universal
e.g.) reason, inference, revelation, any non- essences which led to a despair of the intellect's
empirical method, direct observation, or imme- capacity to know such objects and thus spawned
diate experience (hence identification of scepti- Ockhamism. Before 1317, Henry of Harclay
cism variously with anti-rationalism, anti- noticed that, since the two terms of efficient
supernaturalism, or doctrines of relativity of causal connection are mutually distinct and ab-
the senses or relativity of all knowledge)} solute things, God, by his omnipotent will, can
2) a proposition about a method of obtaining cause anything which naturally (naturaliter)
knowledge: that every hypothesis should be is caused by a finite agent. He inferred from

subjected to continual testing} that the only this that neither the present nor past existence

or the best or a reliable method of obtaining of a finite external agent is necessarily involved

knowledge of one or more of the above kinds in cognition (Pelstex p. 346). Later Petrus
is to doubt until something indubitable or Aureoli and Ockham made the same observation
as nearly indubitable as possible found} that is (Michalski, p. 94), and Ockham concluded that
wherever evidence is indecisive, judgment should natural knowledge of substance and causal con-
be suspended} that knowledge of all or certain nection fs possible only on the assumption that
kinds at some point rests on unproved postulates nature is pursuing a uniform, uninterrupted
or assumptions} 3) a proposition about values: course at the moment of intuitive cognition.
that morality is entirely a matter of individual Without this assumption, observed sequences
preference} or that there are no fixed and might well be the occasion of direct divine
eternal values} or that all values are relative causal action rather than evidence of natural
to time, place, or other circumstance (these causation. It is possible that these sceptical
propositions, properly or improperly, have been views were suggested by reading the arguments
called scepticism because of their association with of certain Moslem theologians (Al Gazali and
certain other propositions here mentioned)} 4) the Mutakallimun), as well as by a considera-
a method of: intellectual caution} systematic tion of miracles. The most influential sceptical
suspense of judgment on the basis of some author of the fourteenth century was Nicholas
criteria of certainty or truth} criticism, par- of Autrecourt (fl. 1340). Influenced perhaps
ticularly in absence of conclusive evidence; by the Scotist conception of logical demonstra-
questioning or doubting as a means to gaining tion, Nicholas held that the law of non-
absolute or relative certainty} 5) an attitude, contradiction is the ultimate and sole source of

belief, postulate, assumption, assertion, or ten- certainty. In logical inference, certainty is

dency favoring any of the above propositions guaranteed because the consequent is identical
or methods} an attitude of complete or dog- with part or all of the antecedent. No logical
matic disbelief} an attitude -involving greater connection can be established, therefore, between
inclination to disbelief than to belief} an atti- the existence or non-existence of" one thing and
tude involving no greater inclination to belief the existence or non-existence of another and
than to disbelief nor to disbelief than to belief, different thing. The inference from cause to
but favoring dispassionate consideration. Scepti- effect or conversely is thus not a matter of
cism may be treated as such attitudes, beliefs, certainty. The existence of substance, spiritual
etc.,as applied to all or only certain particular or physical, is neither known nor probable. We
are unable to infer the existence of intellect or
propositions} 6) a proposition negating the
will from acts of intellection or
sincerity, rectitude, or existence of motives of volition, and
human conduct other than selfish or at least sensible experience provides no evidence of ex-
negating their significance in human affairs} ternal substances. The only
certitudes properly
or a proposition expressing lack of confidence so-called are those of immediate experience and

in the worth or hope of success of any one or those of principles known tx ttrminis together
all of man's enterprises (cynicism)} or an with conclusions immediately dependent on
attitude, belief, postulate, assumption, assertion, them. This thoroughgoing scepticism appears to
or tendency favoring such propositions} or have had considerable influence in its time, for
moroseness, surliness, or pessimism growing out we find many
philosophers expressing, expound-
of cynicism or any of the aforesaid attitudes, ing, or criticizing it. John Buridan has a de-
beliefs, etc. Confusion of cynicism with other tailed criticism in his commentary on Aristotle's

conceptions of scepticism may result in great Physics (in 1. I, q. 4), Fitz-Ralph, Jacques
misunderstanding and harm. See Pyrrhonism, d'Eltville, and Pierre d'Ailly maintain views
agnosticism. M. . T.K. similar to with some modifications,
Nicholas',
Scepticism, Fourteenth Century: At the be- and there is one exposition of Nicholas'
at least

ginning of the 14th century, Duns Scotus views in an anonymous commentary on the
adopted a position which is not formally scepti- Sentences (British Museum, Ms. Harley 3243)
cal, though his critical attitude to earlier These sceptical views were usually accompanied
scholasticism may contain the germs of the by a kind of probabilism. The condemnation of
scepticism of his century. Among Scotistic pre- Nicholas in 1347 put a damper on the sceptical
sceptical tendencies may be mentioned the stress movement, and there is probably no continuity
on self-knowledge rather than the knowledge from these thinkers to the French sceptics of
of extra-mental reality, psychological volun- the 16th century. Despite this lack of direct
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 279

influence, the sceptical arguments of 14th cen- developments by unfolding powers or potencies,
tury thinkers bear marked resemblances to together forming one great organism in which
those employed by the French Occasionalists, nature is dynamic visible spirit and spirit in-
Berkeley and Hume. visible nature. Freedom and necessity are dif-
Michalski, C., Let sourest du criticisme et ferent refractions of the same reality. Supple-
du scepticisme dans la philosophic, du XIV e s., menting science which deals with matter as

(Cracovie, 1924). extinguished spirit and endeavors to rise from

Pelster, F., Heinrich v. Harclay u. seine nature to intelligence philosophy investigates
the development of spirit, theoretically, practically,
Quaestionen, Miscel. Fr. Ehrle, I, 307-355.
Rashdall, H., "Nicholas de Ultricuria, a and artistically, converts the subjective into the
medieval Hume," Proc. Aristotel. Soc. (Lond. objective, and shows how the world soul or
1907) N. S. VIII, 1-27. V.J.B. living principle animates the whole. Schelling's
Max monism recognizes nature and spirit as real and
Scheler, (1874-1928) was originally a
of Rudolf Eucken, but joined early
ideal poles respectively, the latter being the
disciple
at the University of Munich the Husserl circle positive one. It is pantheistic and aesthetic in
that it allows the world process to create with
of phenomenologists, of which school he be-
came one of the leading exponents. Moving free necessity unconsciously at first in the man-
from Kantianism and Eucken-personalism into ner of an artist. Art
perfect union of freedom
is

and necessity, beauty reflects the infinite in the

phenomenology, he later espoused successively
positions which may be called a synthesis be- finite. History is the progressive revelation of
tween phenomenology and Catholic philosophy, the Absolute. The ultimate thinking of Schelling
headed toward mysticism in which man, his
sociological dynamism, and ideo-realistic human-
ism. He was the psychologist, ethicist, and personality expanded into the infinite, becomes
absorbed into the absolute self, free from
religious and social philosopher of the phe-
nomenological movement. In common with necessity, contingency, consciousness, and per-
other phenomenologists, Sender's doctrine be- sonality. Sdmmtlichf Werkt, 14 vols. (1856,
gins with the assertion of an inherent correla-
re-edited 1927). Cf. Kuno Fischer, Schellings
tion of the essences of objects with the essences Leben, Werke und Lehre; Brehier, Schelling,
.

of intentional experience. His unique contribu- 1912; V. Jankelevitch, L'Odysee de la con-

tions lie in the comprehensiveness of his vision ; science dans la derniere phdosophie de Schelling,
in his interpretation of the value-qualities of 1933. K.F.L.
being j of emotional experience, especially love, Schema: (Gr. schema) Figure; external form
as the or structural in Aristotle's
key for the disclosure of being; of a plan; specifically,
hierarchy of concrete ("material" as against G.R.M..
logic, a syllogistic figure.
formal) values; of an analysis of "resentment" In Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (Tr. Anal-
as a thorough grudge (rancour) perverted emo- ytic): The procedure of the imagination by which
tional attitude towards the values of life; of the categories of the understanding are applied
his definition of "person" as the concrete unity to the manifold of sensuous intuitions. Imagina-

tion, working with the pure form

of acts; of his acknowledgment of total per- of time,

sonality beyond individual persons ; of his connects sense and understanding. This is

definition of "ethfcs" as a preferential system of possible because imagination contains an

values determinative for the validity of any
specific thought-form; of his development of
the sociology of knowledge as a distinct disci-
pline within cultural sociology; and of his
working out of a philosophical anthropology
the
element of both sense and understanding, and
thus is capable of formulating the rules and
procedures by means of which sensuous repre-
sentations may be subsumed under pure concepts.
See Kantianism. O.F.AT.

showing man's position in and towards the Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott: (1864-
whole of being. His most important works current
1937), unwilling to accept the idealism
include: Die transitendentale und die psycholo- at Oxford in his day on grounds that it was
gische Methods (1900); Der Formaltsmus in "absolutist", sought by a metaphysical pluralism
der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik (1916); not only to account for the unity and multi-
Vom Ewigen in Menschen (1921); Wesen und plicity of things, but also to furnish
the basis
Formen der Sympathie (1923); Schriften *ur for evolution theory. His developed philoso-
Soeiologieund Weltanschauungslehre (3 vols., phical was generally known as "per-
position
1923-1924)) DU Wissensformen und die sonal idealism", or "humanism", though it was
Gesellschaft (1926)j Die Stellung des Mtn- closely akin to the pragmatism of William
schen in Kosmos (1928)$ Philosophische James. The kinship may be seen in Schiller's
Weltanschauung (1929); Zur Ethik und Er- thesis that a theory of knowledge cannot be
kenntnislehre (1933). P.A.S. formed by abstracting from man's total ex-
Schilling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von perience, and may be seen further in his ad-
(1775-1854): Founder of the philosophy of vocacy of the "bogie of discovery" over the

identity which holds that subject and object "logic of proof." Main works: Riddles of the
coincide in the Absolute, a state to be realized Sphinx, 1891; Humanism, 1903; Logic For
in intellectual intuition. Deeply involved in Use, 1930. C.K.D.
romanticism, Schelling's philosophy of nature Schism: The withdrawal of a party from an
culminatei in a transcendental idealism where established group and its inclination to form a
nature and spirit are linked in a series of new order. The term may also mean "dissen-
280 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ion." The former meaning-, however, is the Wienl938 Problems of Ethics (Rynin, transl.),
usual one. Thus, the separation of the Greek New York 1939.S.S.S.
and the Roman Catholic churches (culminating Scholasticism: Scholasticism is both a method
in 10S4) is known as the "Great Schism."- and system of thought. The namo is derived
F.F. from its proponents who were called doctores
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel scholastic*. This term, in turn, came from
(1768-1834): Religion, in which Schleiermacher scholazein, which originally meant to have leisure
substitutes for a theology (regarded impossible or spare time but later, as in Xen. Cyr. 7. 5, 39,
because of the unknowableness of God) the feel- took the meaning to denote oneself to pupils
ing of absolute dependence, is sharply delineated or, conversely, to a master. The term Skolasti-
from science as the product of reason in which kos is used for the first time by Theophrastus
nature may ultimately attain its unity. Schleier- as recorded by Diog. L. 5. 37 (or V. 50 ac-
macher, a romanticist, exhibits Fichtean and cording to Ueberweg). From Roman antiquity
Schellingean influence, and transcends Kant the expression was handed down to the ninth
by proclaiming an ideal realism. Nature, the century, when doctores scholastici came into
totality of existence, is an organism, just as general usage and was applied indifferently to
knowledge is a system: Through the unity of those who taught the seven liberal arts or
the real and the ideal, wisdom, residing with theology in the cloister and cathedral schools.
the Absolute as the final unity, arises and is Hence in its widest sense Scholasticism em-
ever striven for by man. A determinism is evi- braces all the intellectual activities, artistic,
dent in religion where sin and grace provide two
philosophical and theological, carried on in the
poles and sin is regarded partly avoidable, medieval schools. Any attempt to define its
partly uur ai, and in ethics where freedom is narrower meaning in the field of philosophy
admitted only soteriologically as spontaneous raises serious difficulties, for in this case, though
acknowledgment of identity with the divine in the term's comprehension is
lessened, it still
the person of Christ. However, the right to has to cover many centuries of many-faced
uniqueness and individuality in which each thought. However, it is still possible to list
attains his real nature, is stressed. An elaborate several characteristics sufficient to differentiate
ethics ison four goods: State, Society,
based Scholastic from non-Scholastic philosophy. 1)
School, and Church, to which accrue virtues While ancient philosophy was the philosophy
and duties. An absolute good is lacking, except of a people and modern thought that of indi-
insofar as in the complete unity of reason
it lies
viduals, Scholasticism was the philosophy of a
and nature. K.F.L. Christian society which transcended the charac-
Complete works: Werke 32 vols., 1835-64. teristicsof individuals, nations and peoples. It
Cf. W.
Dilthey: Das Leben Schleiermachers. was the corporate product of social thought, and
Schlick, Moritz: (1882-1936) Taught at as such its reasoning respected authority in the
Rostock, Kiel, Vienna, also visit, prof.: Stan- forms of tradition and revealed religion. 2)
ford, Berkeley. Founder of the Vienna Circle Tradition consisted primarily in the systems of
(see Scientific empiricism.) Called his own view Plato and Aristotle as sifted, adapted and
"Consistent Empiricism." Main contributions: absorbed through many centuries. 3) It was
A logically revised correspondence view of the natural that religion, which played a paramount
nature of truth. A systematic epistemology based role in the culture of the middle ages, should
bring
on the distinction of (immediate) experience influence to bear on the medieval, rational view
and (relational) knowledge. Clarified the of life. Revelation was held to be at once a
analystic-a priori character of logic and mathe- norm and an aid to reason. Since the philos-
matics (by disclosing the "implicit definitions" ophers of the period were primarily scientific
in postulate systems). Repudiation of Kantian
theologians, their rational interests were domi-
and phenomenological
(synthetic) apriorism. nated by religious preoccupations. Hence, while
Physicalistic, epistemological solution of the in general they preserved the formal distinctions
psycho-physical problem in terms of a double between reason and faith, and maintained the
language theory. Earlier critical-realistic views relatively autonomous character of philosophy,
were and formulated as Empirical
later modified
the choice of problems and 'the resources of
Realism. Greatly influenced in this final phase science were controlled by theology. 4) The
by Carnap and especially Wittgenstein, he con- most constant characteristic of Scholasticism was
sidered the logical clarification of
meanings the its method. This was formed naturally by a
only legitimate task of a philosophy destined to series a) The need
of historical circumstances,
terminate the strife of systems.
Important spe- of a medium
of communication, of a consistent
cial applications of this
general outlook to logic body of technical language tooled to convey the
and methodology of science
(space, time, sub- recently revealed meanings of religion, God,
stance, causality, probability,
organic life) and man and the material universe led the early
to problems of ethics
(meaning of value judg- Christian thinkers to adopt the means most
ments, hedonism, free-will, moral motivation). most widely extant, and nearest at hand,
viable,
An optimistic, poetic view of the
meaning of viz. Greek scientific terminology. This, at first
life expressed in only partly published writ-
is
purely utilitarian, employment of Greek thought
ings on a "Philosophy of Youth." soon developed under Justin, Clement of Alex-
Major publications: Allgemeine Erkenntnis- andria, Origin, and St. Augustine into the
lehre, Berlin 1925) Gesammelte Aufsatze, "Egyptian-spoils" theory j Greek thought and
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 281

secular learning were held to be propaedeutic translations of the rest of his works (Physic*,
to Chriitianity on the principle: "Whatever Ethics, Metaphysics, De Anima, etc.) from the
things were rightly taid among all men are the Arabic by Gerard of Cremona, John of Spain,
property of us Christians. (Justin, Second Gundisalvi, Michael Scot, and Hermann the
Apology, ch. XIII). Thus was established the German, from the Greek by Robert Grotseteste,
first characteristic of the Scholastic method: William of Moerbeke, and Henry of Brabant
philosophy is directly and immediately sub- At the same time the Judae-Arabian speculation
ordinate to of Alkindi, Alfarabi, Avencebrol, Avicenna,
theology, b) Because of this sub-
ordinate position of philosophy and because of Averroes, and Maimonides together with the
the sacred, exclusive and total nature of revealed Neoplatonic works of Proclus were made avail-
able in translation. At this fame period the
wisdom, the interest of early Christian thinkers
was focused much more on the form of Gfeek Scholastic attention to logic was turned to
thought than on its content and, it might be metaphysics, even psychological and ethical
added, much less of this content was absorbed problems and the long-discussed question of
by early Christian thought than is generally
the universals were approached from this new
supposed. As practical consequences of this angle. Philosophy at last achieved a certain

specialized interest there followed two important degree of autonomy and slowly forced the
factors in the formation of Scholastic philos- recently founded universities to accord it a

ophy: a) Greek logic en bloc was taken over by separate faculty.

Christians) b) from the beginning of the Chris- the roots of Scholasticism

Though are to be
tian era to the end of the XII century, no found the preoccupation of the
in Patristical

provision was made in Catholic centers of (vide) period, its proper history does not begin
until the Carolingian renaissance in the ninth
learning for the formal teaching of philosophy.
There was a century. From that date to the present day,
faculty to teach logic as part of
the trivium and a faculty of theology. For itshistory may be divided into seven divisions.
1, Period of Preparation (9-12 cent.). Though
-
these two reasons, what philosophy there was
he does not belong in time to this period, the
during this long period of twelve centuries,
was dominated first, as has been seen, by most dominant figure in Christian thought was
St. Augustine (+430)), who constructed the
theology and, second, by logic. In this latter
point is found rooted the second characteristic
general framework within which all subsequent
of the Scholastic method: its preoccupation
Scholastic speculation operated. Another in-
fluential figure was Boethius (+525) whose
with logic, deduction, system, and its literary
opuscula sacra established the Scholastic method
form of syllogistic argumentation. 3) The third
and who furnished many of the classical defini-
characteristic of the Scholastic method follows
tions and axioms. The first great figure of this
directly from the previous elements already
indicated. It adds, period was John Scottus Erigena (+c. 877) who
however, a property of its
introduced to Latin thought the works of Denis
own gained from the fact that philosophy dur-
the Pseudo-Areopagite, broadened the Scholastic
ing the medieval period became an important
method by his glossary on Boethius' opuscule
instrument of pedogogy. It existed in anH i~*
sacra and made an unfruitful attempt to interest
the schools. This new element coupled with the
his contemporaries in natural philosophy by his
domination of logic, the tradition-mindedness
and social-consciousness of the medieval Chris- semi-pantheistic De Division* Naturae. Other
figures of note: Gerbert (+1003) important in
tians, produced opposition of authorities for or
the realm of mathematics and natural philos-
against a given problem and, finally,
disputa-
ophy) Fulbert of Chartres (+1028) influential
tion, where a given doctrine is sylloffistically
in the movement
to apply dialectics to theology)
defended against the adversaries' objections.
This third element of the Scholastic method is Berengar of Tours (+1088) Fulbert's disciple,
who, together with Anselm the Peripatetic, was
its most original characteristic and accounts
a leader in the movement to rationalize the-
more than any other single factor for the forms
of the works left us from this
period. These
ology. Peter Damiani ( 1072), preached +
are to be found as commentaries on
strongly against this rationalistic spirit. More
single or moderate and more efficacious in his reaction to
collected texts; summae, where the method is
the dialectical spirit of his age was Lawfranc
dialectical or disputational in character.
(+1089), who strove to define the true bound-
The main sources of Greek thought are aries of faith and reason.
relativelyfew in number: all that was known II. Early Scholastics (12 cent.) St. Anselm
of Plato was the Timaeus in the translation and
of Canterbury (+1109) did more than anyone
commentary of Chalcidius. Augustine, the else in this early period to codify the
spirit of
pseudo-Areopagite, and the Liber de Causis were Scholasticism. His motto: credo, ut intelligam t
the principal fonts of Neopl atonic literature.
taken from St. Augustine, expressed the organic
Parti of Aristotle's logical works (Categoriae relation that existed between the supernatural
nd de Interpre.) and the hugoge of Porphyry and the natural during the Middle Ages and
were known through the translations of the interpretative and the directive force which
Boethius.Not until 1128 did the Scholastics faith had upon reason. In this
period a new
come know the rest of Aristotle's logical
to interest was taken in the problem of the uni-
works. The golden age of Scholasticism was versals. For the first time a clear demarkation
heralded in the late Xllth century by the was noted between the realistic and the nemi-
282 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
nalistic solutions to this problem. William of testc (+1253). The last three were instru-
mental in interesting Scholastic thought in the
Champeaux (+1121) proposed the former and
Roscclin (+c. 1124) the latter. A third solu- natural sciences while the last (Robert), if
5

not the author of, was, at least, responsible for

tion, conceptualistic in character, was proposed
by Abelard (+1142) who finally crystalized the first Sutttma philosophiae of Scholasticism.
the Scholastic method. He was the most subtle Scholastic philosophy has now reached the sys-
dialectician of his age. Two schools of great tematizing and formularizing stage and so on
importance of this period were operating at the introduction of Aristotle's works breaks up
Chartres and the Parisian Abbey of St. Victor. into two camps: Augustinianiwn % comprising
The first, founded by Fulbert of Chartres in those who favor the master theses of Augustine
the late tenth century, was characterized by its and look upon Aristotle with varying degrees
leanings toward Platonism and distinguished of hostility} Aristotelianism, comprising those
by its humanistic tendencies coupled with a love who favor Aristotle, without altogether aban-
of the natural sciences. Many of its Greek, doning the Augustinian framework. Augus-
Arabian and Jewish sources for studies in tinianism. Alexander of Hales (+1245) is
natural sciences came from the translations of the founder of this line and the first great
Constantino the African (+c, 1087) and Scholastic to utilize all of Aristotle's works,
Adelard of Bath. Worthy to be noted as mem- whose terminology concepts and
adopted he
bers of or sympathizers with this school are: rather than the spirit. Others worthy of men-
Bernard and Thierry of Chartres (+c. 1127; tion are: John de la Rochelle (+1145), Adam
c. 1150), William of Conches ( 1145) and + of Marsh (+1258) and Thomas of York
Bernard Silvestris (+1167). The two most im- (+1260). The Metaphysica of this latter con-
portant members of the School were Gilbert stitutes a milestone in philsophy's fight for
de la Porree (+1154) and John of Salisbury autonomy. The outstanding representative of

(+1180). The latter was a humanistic scholar this group is Bonaventure ( + 1274), who com-
of great stylistic skill and calm, balanced bined great constructive ability with profound*
judgment. It is from his works, particularly psychologicaland mystical insight. Prominent
the Metalogtcus, that most of our knowledge among his pupils were Matthew of Aquasparta
of this period still derives. Juxtaposed to the (+1302), John Peckham ( 1292), William +
dialectic, syllogistic and rationalistic tendencies de la Mare ( +
1298) and Walter of Brugge
of this age waa a mystical movement, headed by (+1306). Also prominent in this line are
St. Bernard of Clairvaux ( 1153). This+ Roger of Marston, Richard of Middleton
movement did not oppose itself to dialectics in (+1308), of
a Duns Scotua,
forerunner
the uncompromising manner of Peter Damiani, William of Ware, Duns Scotus' master, and
but sought rather to experience and intcriorize Peter Johannis Olivi (+1298). Among the
truth through contemplation and practice. Dominicans who belonged to this group should
Bernard found a close follower and friend in be mentioned Roland of Cremona, Peter of
William of St. Thierry (+1148 or 1153). An Tarantaise (+1276), Richard Fitacre (+1248)
attempt to synthesize the mystic and dialectical and Robert Kilwardby (+1279). Among the
movements is found in two outstanding mem- secular clergy, althoughmore independent in
bers of the Victorine School: Hugh of St. Victor their allegiance, we may place here Gerard
( + 1141) who founded its spirit in his omnia of Abbeville and Henri of Ghent (1293).
dtsce,vtdebis postea nihil esse supervuum and Aristoteltanistn: In this group there are two
Richard of St. Victor (+1173), his disciple, broad currents of thought. The first attempted
who introduced the a posteriori proof for God's to harmonize Aristotle with St. Augustine and
existence into the Scholastic current of thought. the Church's dogmas. This line was founded
Finally, this century gave Scholasticism its by St. Albert the Great (+1280), who
principal form of literature which was to remain amassed the then known Aristotelian literature
dominant for some four centuries. While the but failed to construct any coherent synthesis.
method came from Abelard and the formulas His pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas (+1274) suc-
and content, in great part, from the Didascalion ceeded to a remarkable degree. From the stand-
of Hugh of St. Victor, it was Robert of Melun point of clarity and formula fixation, St. Thomas
(+1167) and especially Peter the Lombard marks the apex of medieval Scholasticism.
(+1164) who fashioned the great Summae Pupils and adherents worthy of note: among
sententiarum. Albert's, Hugo and Ulrich of Strassburg, this

Golden Age (13

III. cent). The sudden latter (+c. 1277), together with Dietrich of
elevation of and interest in philosophy during Freiberg (+c. 1310) revealing marked Neo-
this period can be attributed to the discovery pl atonic tendencies j among Thomas', Aegidius
and translation of Aristotelian literature from of Lessines(+1304), Herveus Natalis (Herve*
Arabian, Jewish and original sources, together Nedelec, +1318), John (de Regina) of Naples
with the organization of the University of Paris (+c. 1336), Aegidius Romanus (+1-316),
and the founding of the Franciscan and Godfrey of Fontaines (+1306 or 1309), quite
Dominican Orders. Names important in the independent in his allegiance, and the great
introduction and early use of Aristotle are: Dante Alighieri (+1321). The second broad
Dominic Gundisalvi, William of Auvergne current Latin Averroism. This
of thought is

(+1149), Alexander Neckam (+1217), movement, accepting Averroes' interpretation of

'

Michael Scot (+c. 1234) and Robert Grosse- Aristotle and his doctrine of separated orders
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 283

of truth, gave birth to

theory the two-truth omy, Albert of Sachsen (+1390), first Rector
which eventually led to rationalism and which of University of Vienna, Peter d'Ailly
together with nominalism brought about the (+1420), John Gerson (+1429), Marsiliue of
first decline of Scholasticism. The main pro- Inghen (+1396), first Rector of Heidelberg,
ponents of this period were: Siger of Brabant and Gabriel Biel (+1495), who introduced
(+1282)) Boece of Dacie and perhaps Bernier Luther to Occamism. Scotism: from the stand-
of Another movement of thought
Nivelles. points of number and
influence, this was the
worthy of note was Neoplatonism. Grounded next most important school of this period.
by Ulrich of Srassburg on texts found in Among the pupils of Duns Scotus,. may be
Albert the Great, this movement gathered mentioned: Anthony Andreas (+1320), Francis
momentum, particularly in Germany under of Meyronnes (de Mayronis) (+1325) and
Dietrich of Freiberg until it ended in the John de Bassolis (+1347). Walter Burleigh
mysticism of Meister Eckehart (4-1327). Other (+1343) was a vigorous opponent of Nomi-
figures worthy of mention who ft wholly into nalism; Thomas Bradwardine (+1349), a
none the above currents of thought are
of mathematician and philosopher whose deter-
+
Raymond Lull ( 1315), an active opponent minism influenced John Wiclif (+1384), John
of Averroism and the inventor of the famous Hus and the German reformers. In the XV
Art magna which intrigued young Leibnitz j cent., this school is represented by William of
Roger Bacon (+c. 1293) who under the in- Vaurouillon ( + 1464), Nicholas of Orbellis
fluence of Platonism, furthered the mathematical (+1455), John Anglicus, Thomas Bricot and
and experimental methods 5 William of Moer- the great Peter Tartaret ( + 1494). Tkomists:
beke ( +
1286), one of the greatest philologists John Capreolus, Thontistarum princeps,
of the M.A., who greatly improved the transla- (+1444), Denis the Carthusian (+1471) and
tions of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic literature Peter Nigri (+c. 1484). Two other important
by consulting directly Greek sources 5 the first ,
schools of this period are the Latin Averrojsts
proponents of the via moderna doctrine in and the Mystics. In the first group we find
Logic, William Shyreswood ( 1249) and + Peter d'Abano (+1315) who made Padua the
Petrus Hispanus ( +
1277). Finally the period center of this John of Jandun
movement,
ends with the great John Duns Scotus ( 1308), + (+1328), John Baconthorp (+1348), Aver-
whose thought is characterized by great acuteness roistarum princeps, Paul of Perusio, Paul of
and a fine critical sense. In opposition to that Venice ( + 1429),
Cajetan of Tiene (+1465)
of St. Thomas, his synthesis lays greater stress The mystical school, dominated by Eckehart,
on the traditional Augustinian theses. IV. First and the famous Peter Pomponazzi (+1525).
Decline. (14-16 cent.) St. Thomas* position in is represented by Tauler (+1361) and Seuse
many points had been so radical a departure ( +
1366), who tried to conform the Master's
from the traditional thought of Christendom teaching with the Church's dogmas, and Jan
that many masters in the late 3tlII and early van Ruysbroeck (+1381). From this school
XIV centuries were led reexamine philosophy
to stemmed the anonymous "Deutsche Theologie"
in the light of Aristotle'sworks. This gave which Luther edited (1516). Gerson belonged
rise to a critical and independent spirit which to this group and also Nicholas of Cusa
multiplied systems and prepared for the indi- ( + 1464), the first systematic philosopher of
vidualism of the Renaissance. Noteworthy in modern V. Spanish Renaissance (16-17
times.
this movement are: James of Metr, Durand de cent.). This renaissance took place in the
St. Pourcain ( +
1334), Peter Aureoli ( 1322) + Thomistic school and was remotely prepared for
and Henry of Harclay (+1317). The greatest by such figures as Thomas del Vio (Cajetan)
figure, however, is William of Occam ( 1349), + ( +1534), Peter Crockaert ( 1514), Francis +
founder of modern thought, who renewed the de Sylvestris (+1528), Conrad Koellin
Nominalism of the XI and XII cent., restricted (1536) and Chrysostom (+1550).
Javellus
the realm of reason but made it quite inde- It began as a concerted movement under Francis
pendent in its field. In reaction to this critical Victoria (+1566) at Salamanca and Ignatius
and independent movement, many thinkers Loyola (+1556), founder of the Society of

gathered about the two great minds of the past Jesus. Dominicans of note were: Dominic Soto
century. Thomas and Duns Scotus, contenting (1560), Mclchior Cano (+1560), de Medina
themselves with merely reproducing their (+1581), and Bane* (+1604). Jesuits:
masters' positions. Thus Scholasticism broke up Francis Toledo ( +
1596), Fonseca (+1599),
into three camps: Thomism, Scotism and Molina (+1600), Vasquez (+1604), Lesslus
Nominalism or Terminismj the first two stag- ( + 1623), Valentia (+1603), Bellarmine
de
nant, the third free-lance. Nominalism: critical (+1625), Suarer
Francis (+1617), the
and skeptical, this is the largest and most greatest philosopher and jurist of this period,
Important mem-
influential school of the period. whose Disputationes Metaphysicae constitutes
bers are, Occam's pupils: Adam Wodham
first, perhaps the greatest philosophical work pro-
(+1358), Walter Chatton, and Robert Holcot duced by Scholasticism. Others worthy of men-
(+1349), then come Gregory of Rimini tion: Cosmas de Lerma (+1642), John a S.
(+1358), of Mirecourt, Nicholas of
John Thoma (+1644), Goudin (+1695), Philip a
Autrecourt, medieval Hume, John Buridan
a SS. (+1671), Ruiz de Montoya
Trinitate
(+c. 1360) and Nicholas of Oresme (+1382), (+1632), Cosmas Alamannus (+1634), Hur-
two forerunners of modern physics and astron- tado de Mendora (+1651), De Lugo (+1660),
284 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Arriaga (+1667), Sylvester Maurua (+1687). which Schopenhauer found greatest personal
Among the Scotistj active during this period: satisfaction. Propounding a determinism and a
Maurice a Portu (+1513), Francis Lychetus consequential pessimism (q.v.), Schopenhauer
a Brixia (+1520), John Poncius (+1660), concurs with Kant in the intelligible character

Bellutus (+1671) and Mastrius (+1673). In of freedom, makes compassion (Mitleidt see
XVII Pity) the foundation of ethics, and upholds the
the second half of the cent., a group of
Buddhist ideal of deitrelessness as t means for
Scholastics attempted to modify the traditional
allaying the will. Having produced intelligence,
system by adopting some of the modern theses
the will has created the possibility of its own
particularly from Cartesianism.
This tendency,
negation in a calm, ascetic, abstinent life.
together with the conservative reaction which
SSmmtlich* Werke, ed. P. Deussen, 14 vols.
accompanied it, brought about the second decline
of Scholasticism. Two movement
leaders in this JT.F.L.
were Emmanuel Maignau (+1676) and Hon- Schroder, (Fried rich Wilhelm Karl) Ernst,
oratus Fabri (+1688). VI. Second Decline 1841-1902, German mathematician. Professor
of mathematics at 1876-1902. Hit
(18-19 cent.)* This group and its tendencies Karlsruhe,
three-volume Algebra der Logik
were continued by Du Hamel (+1706), (1890-1895,
with a posthumous second part of vol. 2
Tolomei (+1726), Fortunatus a Brizia pub-
lished in 1905) is an able compendium and
(+1754), Steinmeyer (+1797) and Reuss systematization of the work
Louis of his predecessors,
(+1798). Among the conservatives:
with contributions of his own, and may be re-
de Lossada (+1748). In 1773 the Society of
garded as giving in nearly all essentials the
Jesus was suppressed. This disaster completed
final form of the Nineteenth
the downfall of Scholasticism. Not until its Century algebra of
reiteration in 1814 did the Church's traditional
logic (q. v.), including the algebra of relatives
(or relations). 4. c.
philosophy revive. Prominent in preparing for J. Lflroth, Ernst Scbrtdtr, Jthresbericht der
this second renaissance was the Jesuit-trained Deutschen
kathematiker-Vereinigung, vol/12
Vincent Bruzzetti (+1824). Others: Taparelli i^U'^V
Algebra der Logik,
2 9 - 26 ;
A ? "P'iateS
vol. 2, part 2.
Schrdder's
(+1862), Liberatore (+1872), Sanseverino
Science of Science: The analysis and description
+ 1865), Kleutgen ( + 1883), Zigliara
of science from various points of view, includ-
(+1893) and Gonzalez (+1895). For the first
time in the modern period, history began to ing logic, methodology, sociology, and history
of science. One of the chief tasks of the science
play an important part in Scholasticism. Karl
of science is the analysis of the language of
Werner (+1888) and Al. Stoeckl (1895) were
science (see Semiotic).
the first figures in this movement. VII. Leonine Scientific empiricism
Restoration (1879). The Encyclical Aeterni (q.v.) emphasizes the r61e of the science of
Patrit of Leo XIII gave this new movement a science, and tries to clarify
the different aspects.
conscious direction. Since Leo XIII's time to
Some empiricists believe that the chief task of
the Catholic Scholars have been philosophy is the development of the logic and
present day,
active both in the fields and
of speculation methodology of science, and that most of the
problems of traditional as far as
history. Numerous reviews have been founded philosophy,
and Scholasticism has raised its voice even in they have cognitive meaning (see Meaning,
the non-sectarian Universities of America.
Kinds off 1, 5), may be construed as problems
H.G. of the science of science. R.C.

Schopenhauer, Arthur: (1788-1860)
manysided philosopher, at times caustic, who
attained posthumously even popular acclaim. His
principal work, The World as Will and Idea,
starts with the thesis that the world is my idea,
a primary fact of consciousness implying the
inseparableness of subject and object (refutation
of materialism and subjectivism). The object
underlies the principle of sufficient reason whose
Brilliant, Science, philosophy of: That philosophic dis-
cipline which is the systematic study of the
nature of science, especially of its methods, its
concepts and presuppositions, and its place in the
general scheme of intellectual disciplines.
No very precise definition of the term is
possible since the discipline shades imperceptibly
into science, on the one hand, and into philos-
ophy in general, on the other. A working divi-

fourfold root Schopenhauer had investigated pre- sion of its subject-matter into three fields is

as that of helpful in specifying its problems, though the

viously in his doctoral dissertation
and three fields should not be too sharply differen-
becoming (causality), knowing, being,
tiated or separated.
acting (motivation). But the world is also
obstinate, blind, impetuous will (the word taken
1. A critical study of the method or methods
of the of the nature of scientific
in a larger than the dictionary meaning) which sciences,
in the symbols, and of the logical structure of scientific
objectifies itself in progressive stages
world of ideas beginning with the forces of symbolic systems. Presumably such a study
nature (gravity, etc.) and terminating in the should include both the empirical and the
will to live and the products of its urges. As rational sciences. Whether it should also include
the methods of the valuational studies (e.g.,
thing-in-itself, the will is one, though many
in its phenomenal forms, space and time serv- ethics, esthetics) and of the historical studies,
ing as principia individuationis. The closer to
will depend upon the working definition of
science accepted by the investigator. Valuational
archetypal forms the ideas (Platonic influence*)
and the less revealing the will, the greater the studies are frequently characterized as "norma-

of in art in tive" or "axtological" sciences. Many of the

possibility pure contemplation
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 285

recognized sciences (e.g., anthropology, geology) Science?, 1921. C. D. Broad, Scientific Thought,
contain important historical aspects, hence there 1923. A. D. Ritchie, Scientific Method, 1923.
if tome justification for the inclusion of the E. W.Hobson, Domain of Natural Science,
historical method in this aspect of the philosophy 1923. A. S. Eddington, Nature of the Physical
of science. As a study of method, the philosophy World, 1929. M. R. Cohen, Reason and
of science includes much of the traditional logic Nature, 1931. A. C. Benjamin, An Introduction
and theory of knowledge The attempt is made tothe Philosophy of Science, 1937. W. H.
Werkmeister, A Philosophy of Science, 1940.
to define and further clarify such terms as

induction, deduction, hypothesis, data, discovery A.C.B.

and verification. In addition, the more detailed Scientific Empiricism; Unity of Science
and specialized methods of science (e.g., ex- Movement: A philosophical movement origi-
perimentation, measurement, classification and nated by the movement of Logical Positivism
idealisation) (q.v.) are subjected to examina- but including many other groups and persons
tion. Since science is a symbolic
system, the gen- (see II below).
eral theory of signs plays an I. Vienna Circle} Logical Positivsm; Logical
important role in
the philosophy of science.
Empiricism.
2. The attempted clarification of the basic A. The Vienna Circle, founded by M.
concepts, presuppositions and postulates of the Schlich (q.v.) in 1924, ending with his death
sciences, and the revelation of the empirical, in 1936. Among its members: G. Bergmann,
rational, or pragmatic grounds upon which they R. Carnap (q.v.), H. Feigl, Ph. Frank (q.v.),
are presumed to rest. This aspect of the K. Godel (q.v.), H. Hahn (d. 1934), O. Neu-
philosophy of science is closely related to the rath, F. Waismann.
foregoing but includes, in addition to the logical B.Seen historically, the movement shows in-
and epistemological subject-matter, a large por- fluences from three sides: (1) the older empiri-
tion of metaphysics. Roughly, the task here is cism and positivism, especially Hume, Mill,
two-fold. On the one hand it involves the '
Mach; (2) methodology of empirical science,
critical analysis of certain basic notions, such as developed by scientists since about the middle
as quantity, quality, time, space, cause and of the 19th century, Helmholtz, Mach,
e.g.,
law, which are used by the scientist but not sub- Poincare*, Duhem, Boltzmann, Einstein 5 (3)
jected to examination. On the other hand it symbolic logic and logical analysis of language
*

includes a similar study of certain presupposed as developed especially by Frcge, Whitehead and
beliefs, such as the belief in an external world, Russell, Wittgenstein. Russell (q.v.) was the
the belief in the uniformity of
nature, and the first to combine these trends and therefore had
belief in the rationality of natural an especially strong influence.
processes.
3. A highly composite and diverse study C. The views developed in the V. C. have
which attempts to ascertain the limits of the been called Logical Positivism (A. E. Blum-
sciences, to disclose their interrelations
special berg and H. Feigl, J. Phil. 28, 1931 )j many
one with another, and to examine their implica- members now prefer the term "Logical Empiri-
tions so far as these contribute to a theory cism". Among the characteristic features: em-
either of the universe as a whole or of som? phasis on and on co-operation}
scientific attitude
pervasive aspect* of it. This aspect of the philos- hence emphasis on intersubjective (q.v.) lan-
ophy of science is the least precise and definite guage and unity of science. Empiricism: every
of the three, and employs the more speculative
knowledge that is factual (see Meaning , Kinds
methods. One of the most characteristic of its is connected with
of, 1), experiences in such a
problems is that of the of the
classification way that verification or direct or indirect con-
sciences.This involves the attempt to construct firmation is possible (see Verification),
a general table, or diagram, or map of the
The emphasis
sciences which will properly integrate the on logical analysis of language (see Semiotic)
sciences according to method, subject-matter, or movement from earlier empiri-
distinguishes this
tome other principle of organization. Another cism and positivism. The task of philosophy is
characteristic problem is that of the implications analysis of knowledge, especially of science chief \

of science for some general theory of the method: analysis of the language of science
universe, e.g., idealism, materialism, positivism, (tceJSemiotia Meaning, Kinds of).
mechanism, teleology, monism, or pluralism. In D. Publications concerning the historical
recent years a new type of problem has appeared development of this movement and its chief
which, if it is properly part of the philosophy views: Wissemchaftliche Weltaujassung: Der
of science at all, belongs to this aspect of the Wiener Kreis, Wien 1929 (with bibliography).
subject.- This is the problem of the social rela- O. Neurath, Le Developpement du Cercle de
tions of science. It examines such problems as
Vienne, et I'Avenir de I'Empirisme Logique,
the place of science in a given cultural scheme, 1935. C. W. Morris, Logical Positivism,
e.g., its relations to government, business, art, Pragmatism, and Scientific Empiricism, Paris
religion and morality. 1937. E. Nagel, "Impressions and Appraisals
Bibliography: Karl Pearson, Grammar of of Analytic philosophy in Europe", I, II,
Science, 1892. Henri Poincare, Science and tic Empiricism in Germany, and the Present

Hypothesis, 1905.' W. S. Jevons, Principles of State of its Problems. Ibid. E. Nagel, "The
Science, 1907. J. A. Thomson, An Introduction Fight for Clarity: Logical Empiricism", Amer.
to Science, 191 K
N. Campbell, What is Scholar, 1938. Many papers by members of
286 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the group have been published in "Erkenntnis" 1. The periodical "Erkenntnis", since 1930,
since 1930, now continued as "Journal of now continued as "Journal of Unified Science".
Unified Science". 2. The "Encyclopedia of Unified Science", its

Compare M. Black, "Relations between first ("Foundations of the Unity of

part
Logical Positivism and the Cambridge School Science", 2 vols.) consisting of twenty mono-
of Analysis", J. Un. Sc. 8, 1940. graphs (eight appeared by 1940). Here, the
II. Scientific Empiricism. A wider movement, foundations of various fields of science are dis-
comprising besides Logical Empiricism other cussed, especially from the point of view of the
groups and individuals with related views in unity of science and scientific procedure, and
various countries. Also called Unity of Science the relations between the fields. Thus, the work
Movement. intends to serve as an introduction to the
Among members: W. Dubislav (1937),
its science of science (q.v.). 3. A series of Inter-
K. Grelling, O. Helmer, C. G. Hempel, A. national Congresses for the Unity of Science
Herzberg, K. Korsch, H. Reichenbach (q.v.) y
was started
by a preliminary conference in
M. Strauss. Prague 1934 (see report, Erkenntnis 5, 1935).
A. Many members of the
following groups The congresses took place at Paris in 1935
may be regarded as adherents of Scientific ("Actes", Paris 1936} Erkenntnis 5, 1936)}
Empiricism: the Berlin Society for Scientific at Copenhagen in 1936 (Erkenntnis 6, 1937)}

Philosophy, the Warsaw School, the at Paris in1937} at Cambridge, England, in

Cambridge School for Analytic Philosophy 1938 (Erkenntnis 7, 1938)} at Cambridge,
(<?.v.), further, in U. S. A., some of the Mass., in 1939 (J. Unif. Sc. 9, 1941); at Chi-
representatives of contemporary Pragmatism cago in 1941.
(?.v.), especially C. W. Morris, of Neo- Concerning the development and the aims of
Realism (?.v.), and of Operationalism (<?.t>.)
this movement, see -O. Neurath and C. W.

Amongthe individual adherents not belong- Morris (for both, see above, I D), further H.
ing to the groups mentioned: E. Kaila (Fin- Reichenbach, Ziele and Wege der heutigen
land), J. Jorgensen (Denmark), A. Ness (Nor- Naturphilosophie, 1931} S. S. Stevens, "Psy-
way)} A. J. Ayer, J. H. Woodger (England); chology and the Science of Science", Psych.
M. Boll (France) $ K. Popper (now New Bull 36, 1939 (with bibliography). Biblio-
Zealand)} E. Brunswik, H. Gomperz, Felix graphies in "Erkenntnis": L 1931, p. 315, p.
Kaufmann, R. V. Mises, L. Rougier, E. Zilsel 335 (Polish authors)} 2, 1931, p. 151, p. 189}
(now in U. S. A.)j E. Nagel, W. V. Quine, and 5, 1935, p. 185, p. 195 (American authors),
many others (in U.S.A.). p. 199 (Polish authors), p. 409, larger biblio-
B. The general attitude and the views of graphy: in Encycl. Unif. Science, vol. II, No.
Scientific Empiricism are in esential agreement 10 (to appear in 1942). R.C.
with those of Logical Empiricism (see above, Scotism: The philosophical and theological sys-
1). Here, the unity of science is especially tem named after John Duns Scotus (1266?-
emphasized, in various respects (1) There is 1308), Doctor Subtilis, a Franciscan student and
a logical unity of the language of science; the later professor at Oxford and Paris and the
concepts of different branches of science are not most gifted of the opponents of the Thomist
of fundamentally different kinds but belong to school. The name is almost synonymous with
one coherent system. The unity of science in subtlety and the system generally is characterized
this sense is closely connected with the thesis by excessive criticism, due to Duns Scotus'
of Physicalism (q.v.), (2) There is a practical predilection for mathematical studies the in-
task in the present stage of development, to fluence, perhaps, of his Franciscan predecessor,
come to a better mutual
adaptation of ter- Roger Bacon, upon him. This spirit led Scotus
minologies in different branches of science. (3) to indiscriminate attack upon all his great
There is today no unity of the laws of science. predecessors in both Franciscan and Dominican
It isan aim of the future development of science Schools, especially St. Thomas, upon the
to come, if possible, to a simple set of connected, ground of the inconclusiveness of their philo-
fundamental laws from which the special laws sophical arguments. His own system is noted
in the different branches of science, including especially for its constant use of the so-called
the social sciences, can be deduced. Scotist or formal distinction which is considered

C. Here the analysis of language is to be on the one hand less than real, because it
also,
as one of the chief methods of the is not between thing and thing, and yet more
regarded
science of science. While logical positivism than logical or virtual, because it actually
stressed chiefly the logical side of this analysis, exists between various thought objects or "for-

it is here carried out from various directions,
an analysis of the biological and
including
sides of the activities of
sociological
and knowledge, as they have been emphasized
earlier by Pragmatism (?.v.), especially C. S.
Peirce and G. H. Mead. Thus the development
leads now to a comprehensive general theory of
signs or'semiotic (?.v.) as a basis for philosophy.
D. The following publications and meetings
may be regarded as organs of this movement.
malities" in one and the same individual prior
to the action of the mind distinctio jormalis
language actualis ex natura ret; e.g., the distinction be-
tween the essence and existence, between the
animality and rationality in a man, between
the principle of individuation in him and his
matter and form, and between the divine attri-
butes in God, are all formal distinctions. This
undoubtedly leaves the system open to the
charge of extreme realism and a tendency
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 287

generally to consider the report of abstract rent of

thought originated by the Scottish

thought with little regard for sense experience. thinker, Thomas Reid (1710-1796), and dis-
Further by insisting also upon a formal unity seminated by his followers as a reaction against
of these formalities which exists apart from the idealism of Berkeley and empiricism and

conception and is therefore apparently real, the skepticism of Hume. Its most salient charac-
system appears to lead logically to monism, teristic is the doctrine of common sense, a

e.g., the really distinct materiality in all ma- natural instinct by virtue which men are
of
terial things is formally one apart from the prompted to accept certain fundamental prin-
abstracting and universalizing activity of the ciples as postulates without giving a reason for
mind. By insisting that this formal unity is their truth. Reason is subordinated to the
less than real unity; the Scotists claim to role of a servant or able assistant of common
escape the charge. sense. Philosophy must be grounded on common
The general superiority of theology in this sense, and skepticism is a consequence of aban-
system over the admittedly distinct discipline of doning its guidance. JJ.R.
philosophy, makes it impossible for unaided Secondary Qualities: Those sensible qualities
reason to solve certain problems which Thomism which are "nothing in the objects themselves,
claims are quite within the province of the latter, but powers to produce various sensations in us

e.g., the omnipotence of God, the immortality by their primary qualities." This is the defini-
of the soul. Indeed the Scotist position on this tion of John Locke. Such qualities (colors,
latter question has been thought by some critics sounds, tastes, smells) are distinguishable from
to come quite close to the double standard of primary in that they are highly variable, less
truth of Averroes, (q.v.) namely, that which constant. They appear in human consciousness
true in theology be false in philosophy. in various forms} whereas the primary ones
is may
The univocal assertion of being in God and remain the same. See Primary Qualities. V.F.
creatures; the doctrine of universal prime matter
Secunda Petri: the second of Peter,
Literally,
even angels, that is the second part of a work on logic,
(q.v.) in all created substances,
Institutions Dialecticae, of Pierre de la Rame"e,
though characteristically there are three kinds
of the of forms in latinized Petrus Rarnus (15 15-1572), which
prime matter)} plurality
substances two
in man) giving successive treated of judgments, de iudicio. Hence a stupid
(e.g.,
generic and specific determinations of the sub- person was said to be deficient in secunda Petri,
or sound judgment.JJ.R.
stance; all indicate the opposition of Scotistic
to that of Thomism despite the Secundi adjacentis: Latin expression employed
metaphysics
to describe a proposition which consists solely
large body of ideas the two systems have in
common. The denial of real distinction between of a subjectand a predicate without even a

the soul and its faculties; the superiority of will copula. JJ.R.
over the attainment of perfect hap-
intellect}
Secundum quid: (Lat.) Relatively, in some
in a sense} contrasted with
piness through a will act of love} the denial of respect, qualified
the absolute unchangeableness of the natural simpliciter, absolutely. V.J.B.
law in view of its dependence on the will of Secundum quid, or more fully, a dicto simpli-
ctter ad dictum secundum quid, is any fallacy
God, acts being good because God commanded
f
themj indicate the further rejection of St. arising from the use of a general proposition
Thomas who holds the opposite on each of without attention to tacit qualifications which
these questions. However the opposition is not would invalidate the use made of it. A. C.
Selective Theories of Sensa: A selective in
merely for itself but that of a voluntarist
contrast to a creative holds that sensa
against an intellectualist. This has caused many theory,
students to point out the affinity of Duns Scotus experienceable by any mind under all possible
with Immanuel Kant, (q.v.) But unlike the conditions of perception; preexists the act of

great German philosopher who relies entirely sensing and that, consequently the function of
the of moral consciousness, the mind in relation to the sensa is selective
upon supremacy
Duns makes a constant appeal to revela- rather than creative. The selective
Scotus theory has
and its order of truth as above all philos-
been advanced by such
tion contemporary Realists
In his own age, which followed imme- as B. Russell (The E. B.
ophy. Analysis of Mind),
Holt (The Concept of
diately upon the great constructive synthesis Consciousness), J. Laird
of Saints Albert, Bonaventure, and Thomas, (A Study in Realism). See Creative Theory of
this lesser light was less a philosopher be- Sensa. L.W.
cause he and his School were incapable of Self: 1. Ego, subject, I, me, as opposed to the
powerful synthesis and so gave themselves to object or to the totality of objects? may be
analysis and controversy. The principal Scotists distinguished from "not-me," as in W. James*
were Francis of Mayron (d. 1327) and Antonio statement (Principles of Psychology, I, 289)
Andrea (d. 1320)} and later John of Basoles, "One great splitting of the whole universe into
John Dumbleton, Walter Burleigh, Alexander two halves is made by each of us, and for
of Alexandria, Lychetus of Brescia and Nicholas each of us almost all of the interest attaches
de Orbellis. The complete works with a life toone of the halves^ but we all draw the line
of Duns Scotus were' published in 1639 by of division between them in a different place.
Luke Wadding (Lyons) and reprinted by Vives When I say that we all call the two halves
in 1891. (Paris) C.A.H. by the same names, and that those names are
Scottish philosophy: Name applied to the cur- 'me* and 'not-me* respectively, it will at once
288 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
be seen what I mean." or not all of our actions, approvals, etc., are
2. The and persistence
quality of uniqueness motivated entirely by self-love. Hobbes holds
through changes (Lat. ipe), by virtue of which that they are. Spinoza, similarity, holds that

any person calls himself I and leading to the the endeavor to conserve oneself is the .basis
distinction as in such of all of one's actions and virtues. Shaftesbury,
among selves, implied
words as myself, yourself, himself, etc. (By Hutcheson, Butler, and Hume, in opposition to
transfer, this applies to the uniqueness of any- Hobbes, argued that benevolence or sympathy
thing, as in 'itself').
and the moral sense or conscience are springs
3. The metaphysical principle of unity under- of action which are not reducible to self-love.
Butler also pointed out that self-love itself pre-
lying subjective experience, which may be con-
ceived as dependent upon the given organism supposes the existence of certain primary desires,
or as distinct in nature $ sometimes identified such as hunger, with whose satisfaction it is
with the soul. concerned, and which therefore cannot be sub-
Some philosophers doubted or even denied sumed under it. See Egoism. W.K.F.
the existence of the self. Thus, Hume pointed Self- Realization : A notion central to the ethics
out (Treatise of Human Nature, I, pt. 4) that, of recent Idealism, e.g., T. H. Green, F. H.

apart from the bundle of successive perceptions, Bradley, J. Seth, J. H. Muirhead. These writers
hold that self-realization is the end, and that
nothing justifying the concept of self can be
discerned by introspection. right action is action which conduces to self-
The meaning of self, with its metaphysical, realization. W.K.F.
linguistic and psychological distinctions, has Selves, Knowledge of other: The knowledge
become so ambiguous that it may be useful to by one self of another. See Intersubjective
distinguish between:
Intercourse. L W..

(a) the self as applied to the

bearer of Semantics: (1) "The study of the relation of

subjective experience, or the physical or somatic signs to the objects to which the signs are

(G. S. Hall, The American Journal of Psy- applicable" (C. W. Morris). A department of
semiotic.
chology, 1897-1898) self} and
(b) the self as applied to the contents of (2) The study of signs and symbolism. In
that experience, or the psychological self, which this sense equivalent to semiotic (q.v.). M.B,
is "an organization of experiences in a dynamic The theory of the relation between the for-
whole." (W. Pillsbury, Attention, 217). mula* of an interpreted logistic system (semanti-
R.B.W. cal system in Carnap's terminology) and their
Self-Consciousness: The knowledge by the self meanings. Name relation; Semiotic 2j and
See
The term is usually restricted to Truth, semantical. A.C.
of itself.
self-consciousness. (See Empirical .C. W. Morris. Foundations of the Theory of
empirical Signs, International Encyclopedia of Unified Science,
Ego)L.W. vol. 1, no. 2, Chicago, 1938. R. Carntp, Pounda-
Self-determination: a) In political theory: the tions of Logic and Mathematics, International
its own Encyclopedia, of Unified Science, vol. 1. no. 3.
working out by a people or nation of 1939.
free from interference Chicago,
problems and destiny, Semasiology: Noun derived from the Greek,
from without. It is often said that peoples and
semasia, signification of a term 5 the equivalent
nations have a right to self-determination, at of semantics, the science of the meanings of
least under certain conditions.
words. JJ.R.
b) In ethics the notion of self-determination Semiosis: The process in which something func-
is used by self-determinists to solve the free-
tions as a sign. It involves that which acts
will problem. H. Rashdall, e.g., uses the
as a sign (the sign vehicle), that which the
notion of a "causality of a permanent spiritual
sign refers to (the designatum), and that effect
self" as mediating between the indeterminlsts
upon some interpreter in virtue of which the
on the one hand and the mechanical deter-
thing in question is a sign to that interpreter.
minists on the other, his view being that our
See also Semiotic.
actions are indeed determined but determined
by "the nature or character of the self" and Semiotic; Theory of Signs: A general theory
of signs and their applications,
not just mechanically, and that it is in this especially in
determination by the self that our moral freedom language} developed and systematized within
Scientific Empiricism II C). Three
consists. W.K.F. (q.v.
branches: pragmatics, semantics, syntactics.
Self -Evidence: That property of a proposition
1. pragmatics. Theory of the relations be-
by which its truth is open to direct inspection
and requires no appeal to other evidence. See tween signs and those who produce or receive
Intuition.- A.X.B. and understand them. This theory comprehends
Selfhood: The Unique individuality possessed by psychology, sociology, and history of the use
a self or ptnon.-^-L.W. of cigns, especially of languages. 2. Semantics.
Self-love: The may be used to denote Theory of the relations between signs and what
tern\
self-complacency or se'{-admiration (see Spinoza, they refer to (their "designata" or "denotata").
Ethics, Book III, Prop.\55, note), but in ethical This theory contains also the theory of truth
discussions it usually (designates concern for (q.v., semantical definition) anrd the theory of
one's own individual interest, advantage, or logical deduction. 3. Syntactics. Theory of the
happiness. Taking the terr.1 in this latter sense
formal relations (see Formal 2) among signs.
philosophers have debated the question whether Logical Syntax it syntactics applied to theoretical
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
language (language of science) j it contain! faculty by meant of which the mind receives
the theory of formal calculi (?.v.), including sensuous intuitions (q.v.). The sensibility It

formalized logic. Compare C. W. Morris, receptive (passive), while understanding and

Foundations of the Theory of Signs, 1938) reason are spontaneous (active). See Kantianism.
R. Carnap, Foundations of Logic and Mathe- O.P.K.
matics, 1939. R.C. Sensing: The mental act of apprehending a
Semi-Pelagianism : A movement in Christian sensum or sense datum. See Sense Datum. L.W.
theology which attempted to find a middle Sensum (PI. sensa): (Lat. sensus, pp. of sentiore
ground between the extreme doctrine of total to feel or discern by sense) Equivalent to sense
depravity and predestination as over against datum. See Sense Datum. L.W.
the doctrine of the determinative character of Sensun-Theory: Epistemological theory which
the human will in the matter of salvation. The explains perception and other higher forma of
Semi-Pelagian view held that regeneration was knowledge by meant of inferences and con-
the result of the cooperation of divine grace and structions from sensa. See Senswn.L.W.
thehuman will. Although the view was con- Sentence: Denotes a certain class of complex
demned by church councils in favor of pre- symbols in a language. Which combinations of
destination Semi-Pelagianism has con-
(q.v.), symbols are to be regarded at sentences in the
tinually reappeared in Christian theology with- language it normally determined (a) by certain
out its label. V.F. specifiable formation rules (e.g. in English, that
Sempiternal: (Lat. semper, always) aeternus, any proper name followed -fcy a verb in the
eternal) Everlasting, endless, having no be- singular constitutes a sentence), (b) by the
ginning and no ending. V.F. presence of certain "morphemes" or
specific
Sempiternity: (Lat. semper, always) Eternity symbolic features indicating form (e.g., the
conceived as everlasting existence or perpetuity. characterisitic falling intonation-pattern of Eng-

May have a beginning, but no end* an end, lish declarative sentences).

but no beginning} neither a beginning nor There is little agreement as to the correct
analytical definition. To define a sentence as
Seneca: (4-65 A.D.) A Roman Stoic and in- a complete utterance
(Bloomfield, Language,
structor of Nero, who emphasized the distinc- 27) merely shifts the difficulty to that of
tion between the soul and body and developed deciding when symbols are not incomplete. A
the ethical elements of Stoicism. R.B.W. similar objection applies to Gardiner's definition
Main works: Naturalium quaestionum libri (Speech and Language, 182): "those single
septemf Dialogorum libri duodecim. words or combinations of words which taken
Senia: Plural of sensum (q.v.). The transi- as complete in themselves give satisfaction by
tory particulars or objective constituents of shadowing forth the intelligible purpose of a
perceptual situations that have spatial charac- speaker."
teristics, colors, shapes, sizes, privacy and are An exact definition is of some importance in
body-dependent. (Broad) H.H. view of the tendency of some contemporary
Sensationalism: (Lat. sensatio, from sentire, to logicians to replace the use of the term proposi-
feel or perceive) Subvariety of empiricism which tion by that of sentence.
asserts that all knowledge is ultimately derived Like all designations of symbols, the term is

from sensations. Hobbes (De Corpore, 16SS) subject to Type-Token Ambiguity (q.v.).
is considered the founder of modern sensational- References: J. Ries, Was ist ein Sat*? 208,
ism and Condillac (Traite des Sensations, 1754) ff. (for quoted definitions). R. Carnap, Logical
is most typical exponent. Sensationalism is Syntax of Language, 26. M.B.
uscually combined with associationism. See In connection with logic, and logical syn-
A ssociationism L. W. tax, the word sentence is used for what might
Sensation: (Ger. Empnndwng) In Kant: The con- be called more explicitly a declarative sentence
tent of sensuous intuition, or the way in which thus for a sequence of words or symbols which
a conscious subject is modified by the presence (in some language or system of notation, at
of an object. Kant usually employs the term determined by the context) expresses a proposi-
to designate the content sensed instead of the tion (q. v.), or which can be used to convey an
process of sensing. The process he calls 'intui- assertion. A
sequence of words or symbols which
tion' (q.v.)) the faculty he names 'sensibility' contains variables and which expresses a
free
(q.v.). See Kantianism. O.F.K. proposition when values are given to these vari-
Sense and denotation: See descriptions. ables (see the article variable) may also be called
Sense Datum (pi. sense data): (Lat. sensus, a a sentence.

feeling datum, a gift from dare, to give). In connection with logistic systems, sentence
A datum conditioned by one of the outer senses. is often used as a technical term in place of
See Datum.L.W. formula (see the explanation of the latter term
Sense, internal: The mind's supposed ability to in the article logistic system). This may be done
scrutinize reflectively its own inner operations. when, under the intended interpretation of the
The term was suggested by J. Locke (Essay system, sentences in this technical or formal
Human Understanding, 1690, Bk. sense become sentences in the sense of the pre-
Concerning
II, ch. 1, 4.) .W. ceding paragraph. A.C.
Sense Manifold: See Manifold of Sense. Sentences (Scholastic): Sententiae were origi-

Sensibility: (Kant. Ger. Sinnlichkeit) The nally collections of various propositions and
290 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
explanations thereof} e.g., the Sententiae
divinitatis of Anselm of Laon. Peter Lombardua
condensed the main theological and philosophical
ideas of his time into the famous Quattuor libri
sententiarum which became the textbook for the
medieval universities and had to be studied
and expounded by everyone aspiring to higher
academic honors. The student had to pass the
degree of sententiarius, and as such he had to
read on the sentences. From these expositions
developed the many commentaries on the four
books of sentences. Practically every scholar of
renown has left such a commentary. Peter's
books are divided into "distinctions" which
division is conscientiously followed by the
commentators. R.A.
Sentential calculus: Same as proportional cal-
culus (see logic, formal, 1).
Sentential function has been used by some
syntactical term, to mean a sentence (q. v.) con-
taining free variables. This notion should not
be confused with that of a prepositional junction
(q. v.) ; the relationship is that a prepositional
function may be obtained from a sentential func-
tion by abstraction (q. v.)
Sentience: (Lat. sentiens, from sentire, to feel)
Consciousness at a rudimentary sensory level.
of religion common in Siberia and neighboring
regions without systematic beliefs but entirely
inspired by the shaman (priest or priestess)
who, working up a frenzy by dancing, puts
himself in touch with the spirits of animals or
deceased humans for purposes of magic or
divination, K.F.L.
Shan: Goodness, "the practice of virtue." (Con-
fucianism). It is antecedent to the Great
Ultimate (T'ai Chi) and motion, although it
is involved in the Reason of the universe.
(Neo-Confucianism) W.T.C.
Shang ti: Anthropomorphis, Supreme Emperor or
Ruler on High, who as the highest authority,
presides over an elaborate hierarchy of spirits;
the supreme object of veneration used inter-
changeably with the above. Also called Heaven
A.C. (Tien'ien), August Heaven (Huang T'ien),
as a and Sovereign (Ti). H.H.
Shang t'ung: 'The principle of agreement with
the superior' by Mo Tzfl that all people must
without the slighest divergence put themselves
in agreement with their superior. H.H,
Shao K'ang-chieh: Shao K'ang-chieh (Shao
A.C. Yung, Shao Yao-fu, 1011-1077) was son of
a scholar (Ch'eng I-ch'iian's teacher). Although
he served in the government in a few minor
L.W. capacities, in general, his life was that of

Sentimentalism : Anexaggerated and distorted quietude and poverty. But his reputation of
sentiment, revealing a lack of, integrity and scholarship grew so high that
expression of
or a superficiality of feeling. L.V. scholars far and near regarded him as their
SextUS Empiricus: A physician who lived about "teacher," and people "warned one another to
200 A.D. His writings contain numerous refrain from evil for fear that Master Shao

arguments of a sceptical empiricistic variety might know." His Htiang-cM Ching-shih,

drawn from Pyrrho (q.v.) and directed against (Supreme Principles for the States and for
absolute truth, especially in Society) is a standard Neo-Confucian
dogmatic claims to (li

the sciences and ethics. His Adversus Mathe- hsueh) work. W.T.C.
maticos (Against the Mathematicians} is an Shao vin: The Minor Mode of Passivity. See:
important source for the history of the sciences T'ai Chi.
of astronomy, geometry, and grammar as well Shao yang: The Minor Mode of Activity. See:
as of the Stoic theology of the period. M.F. T'ai Chi.

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Shen: (a) In religion: Spirits; heavenly spirits
Earl of: (1671-1713) He was a pupil and later as against earthly spirits (kuei); spiritual power
a patron of Locke although in the field of which is unfathomable in the movement of
morals, for which he remains best known, he yin and yang or passive and active cosmic
was opposed to the Lockean position. He advo- forces; the or yang aspect of the soul
active
cated the so-called moral sense view which finds (hun) as against the passive aspect (p'o).
a sense of right and wrong in man, guiding (b) In philosophy: god-like power, spiritual
him with social or natural affections to the power, or creative power; mystery; the divine
good of the species rather than to self-interest. man, a spirit man, god-like man, a sage who
He was a lover of liberty in thought and in is beyond our knowledge; vital force; the mind;
political affairs. He was numbered among the the animal spirit; energy j the operation of the
deists but remained a churchman throughout active cosmic principle yang (as in Neo-Con-
his life. His most famous work was his fucianism).
Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, (c) In aesthetics: Rhythmic vitality; ex-
Times. L.E.D. pression; wonderful quality; style full of spirit,
Shaktism, Saktism: The philosophy, supported energy or vivacity. W.T.C.
by liturgy and ritual of various degrees of (c) What is given by nature. W.T.C.
purity, of the believers in the Tantra (q.v.). Sheng (jen) : (a) A person of the highest
It explains Brahma as absolute spirit which, wisdom.
on becoming Shiva and Shakti, the male and (b) A sage (Confucianism). Agreat man
female principles, produces through mayd (q.v.) who exercises a transforming influence (as in
from itself as the One in a series of 36 tattvas Mencius).
(q.v.) the Many, a process which at the end of (c) Confucius.
the world is made to retrogress and again (d) The ideal ruler. (Lao TzQ).
progress periodically. K.F.L. (e) One who "regards nature as the essential,
Shamanism: (from Tungusic shaman) A type the character of Tao (tc) as the basis, Tao as
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 291

the way, and follows the indications of (q.v.). One of the trimurti (q.v.). K.F.L.
changes." (Taoism ) W.T.C. Shivaism, Sivaism, Saivism: One of the major
Shen Jen: 'The spiritual man', one who has groups of Hinduism which has evolved, in
reached a state of mystical union with the addition to religious doctrines and observances,
universe, or "who has not separated from the also philosophical systems of note, based upon

pure and the mysterious." (Chang Tzu, be- certain Agamas (q.v.). Shiva, as one aspect of
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) H.H. the trimurti (q.v.), has inspired cosmological
Shen tu: Being watchful over himself when one speculations no less than psychological and
is alone. This is important in Confucian moral logical ones. As philosophy it attained its

training, because "there is nothing more evident greatest flower in the Kashmirian Trika (q.v.).
than that which cannot be seen by the eyes AT.FX.
and nothing more palpable than that which Shu: "The benevolent exercise of the principle of
cannot be perceived by the senses." It is a way human nature in relation to others}" "the
of "making one's will sincere," and of ex- extension of the principle of the self to other
hausting one's heart and nature. W.T.C. people and things}" "the application of the
Shih: Actuality, substance, to which a name principle of true manhood (jen)}" "the applica-
must correspond. W.T.C. tion of the principle of the central self
Shih: (a) Authority and power natural to the (chung)}" "putting oneself in the position of
position of a ruler, especially the power of others}" "measuring others by oneself}" con-
reward and punishment as in Han Fei Tzu sideration} altruism} reciprocity} the Confucian
"central thread" (i kuan) with respect to social
(d. 233 B.C.). See: fa chia. (Legalists).
(b) External force $ tending force circum- } relationship, as being truet to the principles of
stances; such as that which completes things one's nature (chung) is with respect to the
after Tao engeners them and the Individual self. W.T.C.
Principle (te) develops them. (Lao Tzu). Shu: (a) Statecraft, craft, tact, or method for
(c) Movement} tendency. W.T.C. a ruler to keep the ministers and the people
Shih fei: Right and wrong, with reference to under control, "to award offices according to
both opinion and conduct, a distinction strongly their responsibilities, to hold actualities in ac-
stressed by the Confucians, Neo-Confucians, cordance with their names, to exercise the power
Mohists, Neo-Mohists, Sophists, and Legalists of life and death, and to make use of the
alike, except the Taoists who repudiated
such ability of the ministers." See: fa chia. (Le-
distinction as superficial, relative, subjective, galists).
unreal in the eyes of Tao, and inconsistent with (b) Magic. See- shu and shu shu. W.T.C.
the Taoist idea of the absolute equality of Shu: Number, which gives rise to form (hsiang)
things and opinions. To most of the ancient according to which things become. This philos-
Chinese schools, correspondence of name to ophy was based on the / Ching (7, Book of
actuality, in the social sense
both and the Changes), developed in the medieval interpreta-
served as the standard of right
sense,
tion of it (chan wei), and culminated in Neo-
logical
and wrong. The
Sophists often employed the Confucianism, especially in Shao K'ang-chieh
result of as the standard. The (1011-1077). According to this philosophy, to
argumentation
one who won was right and the one who lost Heaven belong the odd numbers which represent
was wrong. The Neo-Mohists emphasized logi- the active principle (yang) and are charac-
terized by the tendency to increase, and to
cal consistency, whereas the Legalists insisted
on law. The early Confucians emphasized con- Earth the even numbers, which represent the
formity with the moral order. "Whatever con- passive principle (yin) and are characterized
forms with propriety is right and whatever does by the tendency to decrease, forming two series
not conform with propriety is wrong." As of five numbers. The numbers of Heaven add
Hsiin Tzu (c335-c 288 B.C.) put it, "What- up to twenty-five and those of Earth to thirty,
ever conforms with the system of the sage-kings making a total of fifty-five. It is by these
is right and whatever does not conform with that changes and transformations are ef-
the
the system of the sage-kings is wrong." To the fected and the heavenly and earthly spirits have
their movements. The system of numbers be-
Neo-Confucians, "Whatever is in accord with
Reason (li) is right." "The right is the ex- gins with 1, which represent the Great Ultimate
('ai Chi) and is completed with 5, which cor-
pression of justice and impartiality based on the
Universal Reason, and the wrong is the ex- responds to the Five Elements (wu hsing) out
of selfishness and partiality based on of the interplay of which all things are what
pression
human desire."- W.T.C. they are. Thus, in the final analysis, every-
Shiites: A collective name for countless groups things comes from number, by which it can
small in number, whose basic be understood, evaluated, and adjusted to other
of an Islamic sect,
that AH and his descendants are the things with a corresponding number. W.T.C.
dogma is

sole legitimate successors of Mohammed. They Shuo: Inference, one of the methods of knowl-
arc the rallying point for all revolutionary edge of the Neo-Mohists (Mo chS). W.T.C.
and heterodox tendencies among Islamic Shu shu: (a) Divination and magic in ancient
peoples outside Arabia. H.H. China, including astrology, almanacs, the art
Shiva, Siva: (Skr. the kind one) Euphemistic of coordinating human affairs by the active and
name of the God Rudra, the ultimate destruc- passive principles of the universe (yin yang)
tive principle in the philosophies of Shivaism and the Five Elements (wu hsing), fortune
292 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
telling by the use of the stalks of the divination arities, the geographical segregation, and even
plant and the tortoise shell, and miscellaneous the beliefs and rituals of those who use them.
methods such as dream interpretation, the regula- Their study would also give material for
tion of forms and shapes of buildings, etc. various syntactical, semantical and logical prob-
(b) The method of enforcing law and main- lems.
taining the order of the state. -W.T.C. Note on the Indian Sign-Language* Certain
Sibylline Books: These were allegedly ancient, general principles concerning gesture speech may
mythical and inspired utterances of prophecy be established, by considering the sign-language
consulted in times of calamity. Their destruc- of the North American Indian which seems
tion led to composite and forged versions. The to be the most developed. (1) A sign-language
so-called Sibylline Oracles were a group of is established when equally powerful tribes of
Jewish and Christian writings dating from the different tongues come into contact. (2) Better
2nd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D., gestures are composed and undesirable ones are
written in Homeric style, and in imitation of weeded out, partly as a result of tribal federa-
the lost Sibylline Books. They included prophe- tions and partly through the development of
cies of future events, of the fate of eminent technical skills and crafts. (3) Signs come into
persons, of cities and kingdoms. V.F. being, grow and die, according to the needs
Siddhi: (Skr.) Reaching of the aim, success, of the time and to the changes in practical
particularly the attainment of supernatural processes. (4) Stimulus of outside intercourse
powers, such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, is necessary to keep alive the interest required
levitation, the penetration of matter, etc., for the maintenance and growth of a
gesture
claimed for the Yogin (q.v.) in the highest speech j without it, the weaker tribe is absorbed
stage of the practice of Yoga (q.v.). K.F.L. in the stronger, and the vocal
language most
Sidgwick, Henry: (1838-1900) Last of the lead- easily acquired prevails. (5) Sign-languages in-
ing utilitarians, remembered principally for his volve a basic syntax destined to convey the
work in ethics. He was an advocate of college fundamental meanings without refinement and
education for women and one of the founders in abbreviated form. Articles, prepositions and
of the Society for psychical Research. See: conjunctions are omitted} follow
adjectives
Utilitarianism. L.E.D. nouns } verbs are used in the present tense j
Main works: Method of Ethics, 1875; Off/- nouns and verbs are used in the
singular,
lines of the History of Ethics (5th ed. 1902)} while the idea of plurality is expressed in some
Scope and Nfethod of Economic Science, 1885} other way. The use of signals with the
smoke,
Lect. on Philosophy of Kant, 1905. the pony,- the mirror, the blanket and the drum
Sign: (Lat. signum, sign) Logic has been (as is also the case with the African tam-tams)
called the science of signs. In psychology: may be considered as an extension of the sign-
that which represents anything to the cognitive language, though they are related more directly
faculty. That which signifies or has significance j to the general art of
signalling. T.C.
a symbol. Semasiology or sematology is the Signate: (In Schol.) Refers to the intention or
science of signs. See Logic > symbolic ; Symbolism. direction of the agent} as distinguished from
For Theory of Signs, see Semiotic. J.K.F. exercite, which refers to the effects of the
Any event of character A whose occurrence work or the exercise. E.g., one who studies
is invariably accompanied by another event of
mathematics, signate intends to acquire the
character B may be said to be an index of that knowledge of truths concerning quantity,
event. Any index which is recognized as being but exercite, or in the exercise itself of
studying,
such may be said to function as a sign. Thus, renders the mind more able and
apt for
as contrasted with 'index*, the use of 'sign' pre- reasoning rightly. H.G.
supposes a triadic relations. M.B. Signifies: Theory of Meaning (q.v.). See Peirce,
Sign -Language: A system of signs established Semiotic.
either (primitive tribes) or tech- Signification: Signify
traditionally may be synonymous with
nically (deaf-mutes) for the purpose of com- designate (q.v.), or it may be used rather for
municating concepts or sentences, rather than the meaning of words which are not or are
letters or sounds or words as in signalling. not thought of as proper
names, or it may be
The question of the priority of vocal and used to indicate the intensional rather than the
gesture speech is much debated} but there is no extensional meaning of a word. A.C.
doubt that
primitive peoples used signs for Similarity, Law of: (Lat. similis, like) Asso-
communicating intentions and expressing their ciation depending upon resemblance between
needs, especially when dealing with tribes with the associated ideas. See Association, Laws of.
a different tongue. This is almost a psychological yy
reflex, as it may be noted in the elementary Similia similibus percipiuntur : like
(Lat.
improvised mimic of travellers among people things are apprehended through like
things)
they do not understand, and also in the vivid Like knows likej the basic
principle of nearly,
gestures accompanying the utterances of even all
epistemologies, viz., that knowledge involves
civilized people like those of the Mediterranean an assimilation of subject to object, or vice
shores. Sign-languages have a versa. V.J.B.
psychological,
sociological and ethnological importance, as Similitudo (Scholastic): Similitude may be
they may reveal the fundamental trains of called anything which stands for another so
thought, the sociological status, the race peculi- that the second may be known by the first.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 293

Aquinas use* the term at a translation of symbol according to certain philosophers of modern
in Aristotle. It does not necessarily imply any times Hooker, Hobbes, Althusius, Spinoza,
resemblance. -RJ( . Locke, Pufendorf, individuals have united
etc.

Simmel, Geor*: (1858-1918) Occupying himielf and formed the This theory' was com-
state.
bined with the older idea of the governmental
mostly with the reciprocal effects between in-
contract by which the people conferred the
dividuals, he practically ignored the problem of
the individual to the group. Calling attention power* of government upon a single person or
to the psychical interactions as constituting the a group of persons. This theory goes back
real foundation of community life, he stressed to ancient philosophy and was upheld by
the reciprocity of relations. As alleged founder medieval thinkers, such as Thomas Aquinas,
of the "formalistic" sociology, he regards the Marsilius of Padova. Though most of the
forms of socialization, the kinds of interactions philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth
of individuals upon each other as the distinctive century realized that no such original compact
as the idea of the Social Contract called
subject of sociology. He defended in his earlier for,
had actually occurred, the idea, nevertheless,
years a descriptive and relative, as opposed to
a normative, absolutistic ethics. Subscribing to
served as a criterion to determine whether any
act of the government was
a metaphysics of life, he characterizes life as just or not, i.e.,
ceaseless self-transcendence. H.H. whether the consent of the governed might be
Main works -.Problem d. Geschichtsphilosophie,
assumed (especially Rousseau, Kant). The theory
of the Social Contract had a remarkable in-
1892) Philosophie des Geldes, 1900} Soziologie,
fluence upon the political
1908) Goethe, 1913) Lebensanschauung, 1918. philosophy of the
American colonies. See Political Philosophy.
Simple Enumeration: (Bacon) The name given
by F. Bacon to the Aristotelian and the Scho- W.E.
lastic process of induction whicl} advances to Socialism, Marxian: Early in their work, Marx
the knowledge of laws from the knowledge of and Engels called themselves communists (e.g.,
facts established by observation and experiment 'the "Communist Manifesto")* Later they found
it more accurate, in view of the
and clearly arranged. This type of induction terminology of
treats instances by noting the number of ob- the day, to refer to themselves as socialists.

served coincident happenings of the antecedent During the war of 1914-'! 8, when socialists
and the consequent under investigation, and then split into two camps, one supporting and the
other opposing participation in the War, Lenin
formulating a causal connection between them.
Bacon that
considers Simple Enumeration proposed for the latter group, which became
the Third International, a return to the name
lacks methodological characteristics which
the
he conceived (rather than determined and ap- communist, so far as a party designation was
plied) for the process of induction. It may be concerned, which proposal was adopted. Those
added that the ancient and medieval logicians who remained connected with the Second Inter-
were fully aware of this type of induction. national retained the name socialist as a party
T.G. designation. This split not only involved the
Simplicius: (6th cent.) A prominent commenta- problem of the war, but crystallized other
tor on Aristotelian works in the closing years of fundamental divergences. For example, among
the New Academy of Plato. Af.F. "socialists", there was a widespread belief in
Main works: Commentaries on Aristotle's De gradualism the doctrine that the socialist so-
De Anima, and Categoriae.
Caelo, Pfiysica, ciety could be attained by piecemeal reform
Simulacrum: (pi. simulacra) (Lat. likeness, within the capitalist system, and that no sudden
image) A likeness or copy of an original) change or contest of force need be anticipated.
applied especially to a perceptual image which
These beliefs were rejected by the "communists".
copies its object. See Effluxes, Theory of L.W. By way of connoting different types of society,
Simultaneity: The condition of belonging to the many contemporary Marxists, especially in the
same time. As two or more events observed U.S.S.R., building upon Marx's analysis of the
as simultaneous may actually take place at two phases of "communist society" ("Goth a
different moments, it is useful to distinguish Program") designate the first or lower phase
between subjective and objective simultaneity. by - the term socialism, the second or higher
See Relativity, theory of. R.B.W. by the term communism (q.v.). The general fea-
tures of socialist society (identified by Soviet
Singular proposition : See logic, formal, 4, 5.
thinkers with the present phase of development
Skepticism: See Scepticism.
Skolem paradox: See Lotvenheim's theorem. of the U.S.S.R.) are conceived as follows:

Smith, Adam:(1723-1790) Professor of Moral 1) Economic: collective ownership of the means

Philosophy and Logic at Glasgow. He is best

of production, such as factories, industrial equip-
known for his The Wealth of Nations, ment, the land, and of the basic apparatus of
but he is not to be forgotten for his contribu- distribution and exchange, including the banking
tions to the study of ethics, expressed principally system) the consequent abolition of classes,
in his "The Theory of Moral Sentiments." private profit, exploitation, surplus value, (q.v.)
He finds sympathy as the fundamental fact of private hiring and firing and involuntary un-
the moral consciousness and he makes of sym- employment; an integrated economy based on
pathy the test of morality, the sympathy of the long time planning in terms of needs and use.
impartial and well-informed spectator. L.E.D. It is held that only under these economic con-

Social Contract: The original covenant by which, ditions is it possible to apply the formula,
294 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"from each according to ability, to each ac- rationally defensible. A strong ethical note

cording to work performed", the first part of pervaded their theology. They opposed the view
which implies continuous employment, and the of" sacramental mysteries. Although condemned
second 'part, the absence of private profit. 2) by the Protestant churches, the Socinians exerted
Political: a state based upon the dictatorship a tremendous influence even after their formal
of the proletariat (q.v.) 3) Cultural: the extension dissolution as a party. V.F,
of all educational and cultural facilities through Sociology: The word "sociologie" was coined by
state planning; the
emancipation of women the French philosopher, Auguste Comte, (1798-
through unrestricted economic opportunities) the 1857).
abolition of race discrimination through state The study of society, societal relations. Orig-
that the
enforcement} a struggle against all cultural inally called Social Physics, meaning
and which oppose the socialist
social institutions methods of the natural sciences were to be
applied to the study of society. Whereas
and attempt to obstruct its realization. the
society
Marx and Engels held that socialism becomes pattern originally was physics and the first
the inevitable outgrowth of capitalism because sociologists thought that it was possible to find
the evolution of the latter type of society laws of nature in the social realm (Quetelet,
generates problems which can only be solved Comte, Buckle), others turned to biological con-
by a transition to socialism. These problems are siderations. The "organic" conception of society
traced primarily to the fact that the economic (Lilienfeld, Schaeffle) treated society as a com-
relations under capitalism, such as individual plex organism, the evolutionists, Gumplowicz,
ownership of productive technics, private hiring Ratzenhofer, considered the struggle between
and firing in the ligljt of profits and production different ethnic groups the basic factor in the
for a money market, all of which originally evolution of social structures and institutions.
released powerful new productive potentialities, Other sociologists accepted a psychological con-
come to operate, in the course of rime, to pre- ception of society j to them psychological phe-
vent full utilization of productive technics, and nomena (imitation, according to Gabriel Tarde,
to cause periodic crises, unemployment, economic consciousness of kind, according to F. H. Gid-
insecurity and consequent suffering for masses of dings) were the basic elements in social inter-
people. Marx and Engels regarded their doc- relations (see also W. McDougall, Alsworth
trine of transformation of capitalist into
the Ross, etc.). These relations themselves were
socialist society as based upon a scientific ex- made the main object of sociological studies
amination of the laws of development of by G. Simmel, L. Wiese, Howard Becker. A
capitalism and a realistic appreciation of the kind of sociological realism was fostered by the
role of the proletariat, (q.v.) Unlike the Utopian French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, and his
socialism (q.v.) of St. Simon, Fourier, Owen (q.v.) school. They considered society a reality, the
and others, their socialism asserted the necessity group-mind an actual fact, the social phenomena
of mass political organization of the working The new "sociology of knowl-
"choses sociales".
classes for the purpose of gaining political edge", inaugurated by these French sociologists,
power in order to effect the transition from has been further developed by M. Scheler, K.
capitalism, and also foresaw the probability of Mannheim and W. Jerusalem. Recently other
a contest of force in which, they held, the branches of social research have separated some-
working majority would ultimately be vic-
class what from sociology proper: Anthropogeography,
torious. The view taken is that Marx was the dealing with the influences of the physical
first to explain scientifically the nature of environment upon society, demography, social
capitalist exploitation as based upon surplus psychology, etc. Problems of the methodology
value and to predict its necessary con- of the social sciences have also become an
sequences. "These two great discoveries, the important topic of recent studies. W,E.
materialist conception of history and the revela-
Sociology of Law: The
sociology of law is a
tion of the secret of capitalist production by
comparatively infant type of investigation and
means of surplus value we owe to Marx. With
consequently exhibits, to an even greater degree
these discoveries socialism became a science . . ." than most fields of sociology (q.v.), confusion
(Engels: Anti-Dubring, pp. 33-34.) See His- and variety in methods and results. It can be
torical materialism. J.M.S. defined, then, only in terms of its subject
Socinians: Followers of the 1 6th century Italian, matter, which is neither the metaphysical and
humanistic Christians, Socinus (Sozzini), Laelius ethical bases of the law nor law as a separate
and Faustus. They advocated freedom of field of social fact. It is, rather, all aspects of
thought over against the orthodox expressions the law considered in their relation to all other
of Christianity. The Racovian Catechism
(1605) social institutions and processes. M.EM.
states their method and doctrines. In general, Socrates: (c. 470-399 B.C.) Was one of the most
they were anti-Trinitarians (see Trinitarian- influential teachers of philosophy. The son of an
ism), anti-Augustinian (opposing the doctrines Athenian stone cutter, named
Sophroniscus, and
or original sin,
depravity, predestination), anti- of a mid-wife, Socrates learned his father's
Catholic inttitutionalismf their interpretation of
trade, but, in a sense, practised his mother's.
Christianity was that it is a religion of the Plato makes him describe himself as one who
attainment of eternal life, Jesus being the re- assists at the birth of ideas. With the exception
vealer of God, and the Scriptures giving a of two periods of military service, he remained
supernatural revelation which is necessary and in Athens all his life. He claimed to be guided
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 295

by a daimon which warned him against what Somatic Datum: Somatic data are those origi-
wat wrong, and Plato suggests that Socrates nating within the bodily organism (e.g., feelings
enjoyed mystic experiences. Much of his time of muscular tension, fatigue, organic and cir-
was spent in high-minded philosophic discussion culatory sensations, etc.) in contrast to sense
with those he chanced to meet in the public data, which are conditioned by the organs of
places of Athens. The young men enjoyed his outer senses. See Datum , Sense Datum. L.W.
easy methods of discussion and delighted in his Some: It is now recognized that to construe such
frequent quizzing of the Sophists. He was a phrase as, e.g., "some men" as a name of an
eventually charged in the Athenian citizen undetermined [non-empty] part of the class of

court with being irreligious and corrupting the men (thus as a sort of variable) constitutes an
young. Found guilty, he submitted to the court inadequate analysis. In translation into an exact
and drank the poison which ended the life of logical notation the word "some" is usually to
one of the greatest of Athenians. He wrote be represented by an existential quantifier (q.v.).

nothing and is known through three widely A.C.

divergent contemporary accounts. Aristophanes Sophia: (Gr. sophia) Theoretical as distinguished
has caricatured him in the Clouds; Xenophon from practical wisdom; specifically, in Aristotle,
has described him, with personal respect but knowledge of first principles, or first philosophy.
little understanding of his philosophical pro- G.R.M.
fundity ; dialogues idealize him and
Plato's Sophism An : or contentious syllogism \ dis-
eristic

probably develop the Socratic philosophy far tinguished from paralogism by the intent to de-
beyond the original thought of his master. ceive (Aristotle). G.R.M.
Socrates personifies the Athenian love of reason Sophistic: (Gr. sophistike) The art of specious
and of moderation; he probably taught that reasoning pursued for pay, according to
virtue is knowledge and that knowledge is only Aristotle; thus distinguished from eristic, whose
true when it reaches the of definition. . end is simply victory in disputation. G.R.M.
stage
See: Socratic method. VJ.B. Sophistic! Elenchi: (Gr. sophistikoi elenchoi)
Socratic method: (from Socrates, who is said by
The last of the logical treatises of Aristotle,
dealing with fallacies in argumentation.
Plato and Xenophon to have used this method)
is a way of teaching in which the master pro-
G.R.M.
fesses to impart no information, (for, in the Sophists: (5th Cent. B.C.) Wandering teachers
case of Socrates, he claimed to have none), but
who came to Athens from foreign cities, and
draws forth more and more definite answers sought to popularize knowledge. They filled a
need felt in Greece at this time for a general
by means of pointed questions. The method is
dissemination of that scientific knowledge which
best illustrated in Socrates* questioning of an
had previously been more or less privately culti-
unlearned slave boy in the Meno of Plato. The
vated in learned societies. Nowhere was this need
slave is led, step by step, to a demonstration
more widespread than in Athens where a politi-
of a special case of the Pythagorean theorem.
cal career necessitated an acquaintance with the
Socrates' original use of the method is predicated
on the belief that children are born with knowl-
intellectual attainments of the race. The
Sophists came to Athens to assist young men
edge already in t^eir souls but that they cannot
in achieving political success. Before long, this
recall this knowledge without some help, (theory
brought with it the subordination of purely
of anamnesis). It is also associated with Socratic
theoretical learning to its
Irony, i.e., the profession of ignorance on the practical usefulness,
who may be in fact quite and the Sophists, far from teaching what is most
part of a questioner,
likely to be true, instructed the youth in what
wise. VJ.B.
alone
is most likely to bear political fruit. Thus,
Solipsism: (Lat. solus, -f- ipse, self)
The epistemological eloquent public appeal and the art of rhetoric
(a) Methodological:
soon took the place of pure science and philos-
doctrine which considers the individual self and
it states the only possible or legitimate starting
ophy. In this very desire, however, to persuade
for construction. See and refute, the problem presented itself as to
point philosophical
whether among the various conflicting opinions
Co git o t ergo sum-t Ego-centric predicament,
which the Sophists had taught their pupils to
Subjectivism.
of idealism defend and to oppose, there was anything of
(b) Metaphysical: Subvariety
which maintains that the individual self of the permanent value which could claim the assent
of all men everywhere. This quest of the uni-
solipsistic philosopher is the whole of reality
versal in knowledge and in conduct forms the
and that the external world and other persons
basis of the Socratic Quest. Af.F.
are representations of that self having no inde-
L.W. Sophocracy: (Gr. sophos, wise) Government by
pendent existence.
Soma: One of the three important gods of the the wisest. (Montague). H.H.
Vedic religion, about whom the ninth book of Sorge: (Ger. concern) The most essential structure
the This god is associated of human consciousness and of the world; the
Rig-Veda cente/8.
with the plant growing in northern India which basis of all 'being'. (Heidegger). H.H.
was made into an intoxicating liquor. The Sorites: A
chain of (categorical) syllogisms, the
effects of this drink became associated with conclusion of each forming a premiss of the next
supernatural powers. V.F. traditionally restricted to a chain of syllogisms
Somatic: (Gr. somatikos, from soma, body) in the first figure (all of which, with the possible
exception of the first and last, must then
be
Pertaining to the bodily organism. L.W.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
syllogisms in Barbara). in the U. S. S. R.
la the statement of a sorites all conclusions There are two major points of reference for
except the last are suppressed, and in fact the tracing the path that Soviet philosophy has
sorites may be thought of as a single valid in- taken the successive controversies around the
ference independently of analysis into constituent issues of mechanism and of idealism. The first

syllogisms. According to the order in which the began in the early twenties as a discussion
premisses are arranged, the sorites called is centering on the philosophy of science, and
progressive (if in the analysis into syllogisms eventually spread to phases of philosophy.
all
each new premiss after the first is a major The central issue was whether materialism could

premiss, and each intermediate conclusion serves be identified with mechanism. Those who an-
as a minor premiss for the next syllogism) or swered in the affirmative, among them Timiri-
regressive or Goclenitn (if each new premiss atev, Timinski, Axelrod and Stepanov, were
after the firstminor premiss, and each
is a called mechanistic materialists. Their position
intermediate conclusion a major premiss). A.C. tended to an extreme empiricism which was
Soul: (Gr. psyche) In Aristotle the vital prin- suspicious of generalization and theory, saw
ciple) formal cause, essence, or entelechy
the little if any value Hegel's philosophy, or
in
of a natural organic body. G.RM . in dialectical as distinguished from formal logic,
Soul (Scholastic): With few exceptions (e.g., and even went so far, in some cases, as to deny
Tertullian) already the Fathers were agreed the necessity of philosophy in general, resting
that the soul is a simple spiritual substance. content with the findings of the specific sciences.
Some held that it derived from the souls of It was considered that they tended to deny the
the parents (Traducianiim), others that it is reality of quality, attempting to reduce it
created individually by God (Creationism), the mechanically to quantity, and to interpret evolu-
latter view being generally accepted and made tion as a mere quantitative increase or decrease
an articleof faith. Regarding the union with of limited factors, neglecting the significance
the body, the early Middle-Ages, following
of leaps, breaks and the precipitation of new
St. Augustine, professed a modified Platonic qualities. In opposition to their views, a group
Dualism: the body is a substance in itself to of thinkers, led by Deborin, asserted the neces-
which the soul is added and with which it sity of philosophic generalization and the value
enters a more or less accidental union. With of the dialectical method in Hegel as a neces-
the revival of Aristoteleanism, the hylemorphic sary element in Marxian materialism. In 1929,
theory became general: the soul is the lub- at conference of scientific institutions attended
stantial form of the body, the only origin of by 229 delegates from all parts of the country,
all vital and mental performances, there is no the issues were discussed by both sides. gen- A
other form besides. This strictly Aristotelan- eral lack of satisfaction with the mechanist
Thomistic view has been modified by later position was expressed in the form of a resolu-
Scholastics who assume the existence of a tion at the close of the conference. However,
forma corporeit&iis distinct from the soul. (See the Deborin group was also criticized, not
Form) The soul is simple but not devoid of only by the mechanists, but by many who were
accidents) the "facuities" (q.v.) are its opposed to the mechanists as well. It was felt
proper accidents) every experience adds an acci- by Mitin, Yudin and a group of predominantly
dental form to the soul. Though a substance younger thinkers that neither camp was really
in itself, the soul is naturally ordained towards meeting the obligations of philosophy. While
a body) separated, an "incomplete" sub-
it is they felt there was much that was valuable in
stance. It is created in respect to the body Deborin's criticism of mechanism, it seemed to
it will inform, so that the inheritance of bodily them that he had carried it too far and had
features and of mental characteristics insofar fallen over backward into the camp of the
as they depend on organic functions is safe- idealists. They called his group menshevizing
guarded. As a simple and spiritual substance, that is to say, people who talked like
idealists,
the soul is immortal. It is not the total human the Mensheviks, a pre-revolutionary faction of
the Russian Social Democratic Party. By this
nature, since person is the composite of matter
informed by the soul. Animals and plants was meant that they were unduly abstract, vague
too have souls, the former a sensitive, the and tended to divorce theory from practice.
latter a vegetative soul, which function as the In particular, they seemed to accept Hegelian
principles of life. These souls are perishable} dialectics as such, overlooking the deeper im-

they too are substantial forms. The human soul plications of the materialist reconstruction of
it

contain* all the powers of the two other which Marx insisted upon. Moreover, they had
souls and is the origin of the vegetative and neglected the field of social problems, and con-
sensitive performances in man. R.A. sequently made no significant philosophic con-
Soul-Substance Theory: Theory that the unity tribution to momentous social issues of the

of the individual mind is constituted by a times such as collectivization of the land, aban-
single, permanent, and indivisible spiritual sub- donment of NEP, the possibility of a Five
stance. (See Ego, Pure). The theory is usually Year Plan. At a three day conference in 1930,
combined with a faculty psychology. See the situation was discussed at length, by all
Ftcvlty Psychology. L.W. interested parties. Deborin, Karev and Sten
Soviet philosophy: The contemporary develop- leading the discussion on one side, Mitin and
ment of the philosophy of dialectical materialism Yudin on the other. The sense of the meetings
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 297
was that the criticisms made of the Deborin when
empirical, they assume that perceptual
group were valid. space emerges from the correlation of the spatial
In respect to the field of ethici in gen- features of the different senses. LW.
eral, Soviet philosophers have lately been Space-Time: The four-dimensional continuum
developing the doctrine known as socialist including the three dimensions of space (length,
or proletarian humanism. As distinguished width and height) and one of time) the unity
from "bourgeois humanism", this term of space and time. The concept was first sug-
signifies that system of social institutions and gested by H. Minkowski and immediately after-
personal values designed to insure that there be ward incorporated by A. Einstein into his
no underprivileged group or class de facto ex- (special) theory of relativity. The former con-
cluded from full participation in the v good life tended that nothing can exist or be conceived
conceived in terms of the educational and of as physical apart from space-time; for every
cultural development of the individual and the object must have not only length, width and
full enjoyment of the things of this world. height, but also duration in time. As a result,
Such objectives, it is held, are only possible of a complete description and location of an
attainment in a classless society wheer there object must be given in terms of four coor-
is economic security for all. The view taken dinates. Space-Time is mathematically grounded
is that the freedoms and liberties proclaimed in world-points, or durationless geometrical
by "bourgeois humanism" represented a great points, as the foundation of all four-dimensional
historical advance, but one that was, in general, measurement, and in world-lines, or geometrical
limited in application to the emancipation of lines across the four dimensions. An
cutting
the bourgeoisie (q.v.) from the restrictions of enduring geometrical point thus becomes a
feudalism while retaining and making use, to geometrical line (or possibly a curve) in space-
greater or lesser extent, of slavery, serfdom and time. Space-Time is physically conceived of as
a system of private capitalism involving the a general structure determined
by the relation-
precarious economic existence and cultural dark- ship among world-events, or four-dimensional
ness of large proletarian masses. While it is events. The universe of four dimensions
(the
held that there is an absolute right binding omniverse, as it may be called) includes space
upon all, vaguely expressed in such formulations
with all of its events and objects as well as
as, each for all and all for each, it is asserted time with its changes and motions. As
such,
that in class the and class this four-dimensionaluniverse must be change-
society, position
interest of one class may motivate it to oppose less and motionless, insofar as things move
a genuine application of this right, whereas and change only when taken in abstraction
the class interest of another class may coincide from time, or rather when space and time are
with such an application. It is held that the regarded as separate.
proletariat is in this latter position, for its According to the classical or Newtonian
class interest as well as its moral obligation theory, space-time isseparable in an absolute
is considered to lie in abolishing itself as a way into the two elements, space and time)
proletariat, which is taken to mean, abolishing on the
other hand, according to either the
classes generally. , special or the general theory of relativity, this
Lenin, V. I.: Materialism and Empiric-Criti- separation is not possible in an absolute sense
cism} State and Revolution; Karl Marx; Leo but is relative to a choice of a coordinate system.
Tolstoy at Mirror of the Russian Revolution. A somewhat different, metaphysical, interpre-
(These works, with the exception of State and tation of Space-Time was formed by S. Alex-
Revolution, appear in Lenin: Selected Works, ander and C. L. Morgan. According to their
vol. XL 7.M.S. doctrine of
Emergent Evolution, space-time is
Space: In Aristotle, the container of all objects. the matrix of
the world, out of which have
In the Cambridge Platonists, the sensorium of emerged matter, life, mind, and Deity. The
God. In Kant: the a priori form of intuition of world as we know it has evolved out of the
external phenomena. In modern math., name original space-time. R.B.W.
for certain abstract, invariant groups or sets. Species: A relatively narrow class or better,
See Space-Time. P.P.W. class concept thought of as included (in the
Space, homogeneous: A form of sensibility) sense of class inclusion, c ) within a wider class
an intuition peculiar to man which enables him or class concept the genus* A.C.
to externalize his concepts in relation to one In Scholasticism: 1. In logic: the subdivi-
another^ reveals the objectivity of things) fore- sion of genus, comprising several individuals,
shadows and prepares the way for social life. constituted by the differentia specifica. 2. In
... ontology: the common nature or essence, indi-
Space-perception: (Lat. spatium) The appre- vidualized by some agent. This agent is in
hension of the spatial properties and relations Thorn ism conceived as matter, in Scotism as a
of the concrete objects of
ordinary sense per- form of "thisness" (haecceitas). No agreement
ception in contrast to the conceptual knowledge has been reached on the number of ontological
of the abstract spaces of
physics and mathematics. species some hold that there is an indefinite
\
Theories of space-perception are: a) nativistic,
number, others that the number is limited. 3.
when they endow themind with a primitive In psychology of cognition: (a) regarding
intuition of space which becomes qualitatively sensory cognition: The tenses are affected' by
differentiated through sense experience) the object through the medium) this affection
b)
298 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
results in the species impress*which, however, he evidenced from his earliest writings a strong
is not merely the immutation of the sense organ bias for individualism. See: Evolutionism,
or the nervous apparatus belonging thereto, but Charles Darwin. L.E.D.

implies a "psychic immutation". As conscious

Main works: System of Synthetic Philosophy
percept the ultimate effect of sense affection
in (First Principles of Biology, Psychology, Sociol-
the mind becomes the species expressa, (b) ogy, Ethics), 1862-92* On Moral and Physical
regarding intellectual cognition: the active Education, 1861.
intellect, by "illuminating" the
phantasm dis- Spens, Will: An English educator (born 1882),
engages therefrom the species intelligibilis im-
who as Master of Corpus Christ! College in

pressa which in turn actuates, through informing Cambridge, has written widely on educational
intellect and becomes theory, as In philosophy and theology, he has
it, the passive theory.
the known concept, the species intelligibilis ex- developed a theory of Christian doctrine as
based on religious experience, which it general-
pressa, also called verbum mentis. This "word"
is not of the "inner language", but belongs izes and in terms whose adequacy is
states

to preverbal thought and becomes, when given determined by their capacity to nourish and
verbal form, the "meaning" of the spoken develop that experience (Belief and Practice) }
which refers primarily to the mental
he has also written on sacramental theology,
word,
secondarily to the object. including several essays (chiefly in the sym-
concept and, by this,
R.A. posium Essays, Catholic and Critical) on the
Specificative : (in Schol.) Any concrete thing is Eucharist; here his view is that by the "real
taken specificatively or denominatively when the presence" meant the congeries of opportunities
is

predicate which is attributed to it belongs to

of through material means the
experiencing
it by reason of the concrete subject itself: if W.N.P.
spiritual reality of Christ.
we say: the philosopher sleeps, philosopher is Sphaeriker: (German) A term used by Friedrich
taken specificatively, for he sleeps as man. Froebel to designate those, including himself
H.G. and Pestalozzi, who believe in or realize in

Specious Present: (Lat. speciosus, from species, practice the totality or wholeness of man in
look or apprehend) The psychological or felt whom all polarities, such as mind and emotion,
and
soul, are unified, the sphere with
present is a spread of duration embraced within spirit

the mind's momentary experience. Contrasts centre being the symbol of this attitude. K.F.L.
with the physical present which is an ideal limit Spinozism: The philosophic doctrine of Benedict
or boundary between the past and the future. Spinoza (1632-1677). Described by Hegel as
L.W. the philosophy of Substance. Spinoza denies
the possibility of a plurality of substances, and
Speculative Idealism: Doctrine, founded on the
coherence theory of truth, that Reality comprises reserves the term for absolute reality. Hence
one Self, Mind, or spiritual principle. See Spinozism is sometimes used as equivalent to
Coherence, Internal theory of Relations, Pan- Monism. It is also identified with Pantheism,

theism, Organictsm, Dialectic, W. T. Harris. although this is a highly misleading characteriza-

W.L. tion.

Speculum: (Lat. mirror) In ordinary language: In his work, the Ethica, Spinoza's
chief
a mirror. Special meanings in optics, astronomy, teaching expressed in a manner for which
is

surgery, and in ornithology. In medieval phi- geometry supplies the model. This expository
losophy, mind is the speculum of nature and device served various purposes. It may be inter-
God. V.F. preted as a clue to Spinoza's ideal of knowl-
Speech Situation: (1) A situation in which a edge. So understood, it represents the condensed

complete utterance is made by a speaker and and ordered expression, not of 'philosophy*
correctly interpreted, by a hearer to whom it alone, but rather of all knowledge, 'philosophy'
is addressed, as referring to some feature of
and 'science', as an integrated system. In such
the immediate environment. an ideal ordering of ideas, (rational) theology
(2) More generally: the circumstance's attending and metaphysics provide the anchorage for the
any use of speech from which some of the system. On the one hand, the theology-meta-
defining characteristics of a primary speech physics displays the fundamental principles
situation are absent. See Language. M..E. (definitions, postulates, axioms) upon which the
Spencer, Herbert: (1820-1903) was the great anchorage depends, and further displays in de-
English philosopher who devoted a life time to ductive fashion the primary fund of ideas upon
the formulation and execution of a plan to which the inquiries of science, both 'descriptive'
follow the idea of development as a first prin- and 'normative' must proceed. On the other
ciple through all the avenues of human thought. hand, the results of scientific inquiry are
A precursor of Darwin with his famous notion anchored at the other end, by a complementary
of all organic evolution change "from
as a metaphysico-theological development of their
homogeneity from the simple
to heterogenity," significance. Ideally, there obtains, for Spinoza,
to the complex, he nevertheless was greatly both an initial theology and metaphysics a
influenced by the Darwinian hypothesis and em- necessarypreparation for science and a cul-
ployed its arguments in his monumental works minating theology and metaphysics, an inter-
in biology, psychology, sociology and ethics. He pretative absorption of the conclusions of science.
aimed to interpret life, mind and society in The fixity of this theoretical structure is not
terms of matter, motion and force. In politics, to be interpreted as incompatible with the con-
 DICTIONARY. OF PHILOSOPHY 299

tinuous movement of discovery. The function of The structural nature of this ideal ordering
philosophy as such, in any age, is that of reflects, of course, the Spinozistic view of the
attempting to effect the theoretical ordering of real. Ultimate reality, as Causa tut and as sub-
the available fund of knowledge. There is stance, is all-inclusive. Causality is immanent
implicit in Spinoza's conception of this function causality, and every determinative being lies
the recognition of the two-fold character of the within the one substantial being. Spinoza's
task of philosophy. The task, on the one hand, doctrine of attributes, infinite and finite modes,
is reflection upon the available fund of insight serve to express both the all-encompassing and
and ideas, upon all the fruits of reflection and systematic nature of the one ultimate reality
inquiry, with the purpose of coherent ordering and to distinguish and to determine the status
and expression of the fund. In this sense, of finite beings within this reality. In its im-

'philosophy' is that which can be displayed in manentism as well as in its rational mysticism,
the geometrical fashion. It is equally the task the doctrine of Spinoza is not improperly re-
of philosophy, however, to prepare for this dis- garded as a Plotinism re-directed by the in-
play and
ordering. Paradoxically, philosophy fluence of Descartes and invigorated by the
must prepare for itself. Philosophy, in this enterprise of modern science. A.G.A.B.
function, is reflection upon the conditions of Main works: Exposition more geometric* of
all the discoverygrounds of
of the Descartes' Principles, 1663} Tract. Theol.-
inquiry,
method, of the proper and indispensable assump- Politicus,1670 (only two books published dur-
tions of inquiry as such, and of the basic ideas ing Spinoza's lifetime); Ethics , demonstrated in
within whose domain inquiry will move. If geometrical order, 1677} Political Treatise,
inquiry is to be undertaken at all, then mind 1677} De intellects emendatione, 1677 (On
must discover within itself, and disclose to it- the Improvement of the Human Mind). Cf.
self, whatever authoritative guidance can be Vloten and Land, 2 vol. edition of Spinoza's
assured for the enterprise. The competence of works.
the mind to know, the determination of the Spir, African: (1837-1890) native of Russia, A
range of that competence, the rational criteria
whose philosophy was influenced by Spinozistic
of truth, the necessities revealed to mind by the and Kantian traditions. The main thesis of his

very reflections of mind these and
questions define the task of philosophy as pro-
paedeutic both to philosophy itself and to science.
In this recognition of the two-fold character of
related philosophy is that sensory experience and reason-
ing are basically contradictory, insofar as the
former informs us of constant change, whereas
the latter is characterized by the a priori prin-

philosophy, and of its relation to science, ciple of identity. R.B.W.

Spinoza is re-stating the spirit of Descartes.
Main works: Denken u. Wirklichkeit, 1873}
Moralitat u. 1874} Empirie u. Phi-
The precipitates propaedeutical effort
of the Religion,
are to be found, for Spinoza, in the definitions, losophie, 1876.
Spirit: (L.
axioms, postulates, and within the structural Spiritus: breath, life, soul, mind,
It spirit).
plan expressed in the geometrical ordering.
1. the Stoic
is highly probable that Spinoza would have ad- Originally, fire-like, animating
and energizing
mitted the tentative character of at least some principle (pneuma) of the
Cosmos.
of the definitions} axioms, and postulates formu-
lated by him. He doubtless saw the possibility
2. A being capable of consciousness and com-
that the process of inquiry, revising, augmenting, monly considered as possessing will and intel-
ligence.
and re-coordinating the fund of knowledge,
3. Immaterial being.
might demand alteration in the structural bases
of systematic expression as well as in the knowl-
4. A disembodied or incorporeal conscious
being.
edge to be ordered. Such changes, however,
5. The supersensuous, ideal order of being
would occur within limits set by the propaedeuti-
framework. or realm mind: the intellectual, rational,
of
cal disclosures and the general
Advance might require the abandonment of an noetic, aesthetic, moral, holy, divine.

older metaphysical element, and the substitu-

6. Medieval and alchemic: subtle stuff} an A
element. W.L.
tion of a new one. But with equal likelihood,
Doctrine that ancestral or other
knowledge would make possible Spiritism: 1.
the advance of
a richer and deeper apprehension of the content spirits can communicate with man} also the
of fixed principles. To illustrate: The first practice of contacting them.
2. Belief in the existence of conscious, volun-
definition of the Ethic a, that of Causa sui, might
well be for Spinoza a principle that awakened tary beings other than of the organic, corporeal
reason must accept, a truth whose priority and type represented by animals and man, such as
He might souls connected with inorganic Nature, disem-
validity could not be undermined.
bodied nature spirits, manes or ancestral spirits,
regard it as a minimal definition of reality, of
the nature of the ultimate object of inquiry. On demons, celestial beings, angelic beings, deities.
the other hand ,Spinora, it may be conjectured, See Animism, Demonism, Spiritualism (4).
would not claim for every element of his system W.L.
a similar Just as he recognizes the
finality. Spiritual Realism: The theory that only the
role of hypothesis in science, in a similar way, truly good will is Causality free. based on
he would recognize the tentative character of spiritual activity. Self-forgetfulness as the way
tome metaphysical and theological elements. to a supreme realization of personality. Ravais-
300 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
son expressed it in the phrase: "To simplify (b) Filial piety, respect for elders, loyalty
one's self." R.T.F. to superiors (chung), and good faith in social
is the doctrine relationship (hsin).
Spiritualism: Spiritualism (1)
that the ultimate reality in the universe is Spirit, (c) Lady-like conduct, speech, skill, and ap-
(Pneuma, Nous, Reason, Logos) an Over-Mind pearance. Also called ssfi hsing. W.T.C.
akin to human spirit, but pervading the entire Stu tuan: All men possess the 'four beginnings'
universe as its ground and rational explanation. of benevolence (Jen), righteousness (I), pro-
It is opposed to materialsm. priety (li), and wisdom (chin). (Mencius).
Spiritualism (2) is sometimes used
to denote iH.H.
the Idealistic view that nothing but an absolute St. Louit School of Philosophy: Started with
The world of the first meeting between Henry Brokmeyer and
Spirit and finite spirits exist.
sense in this view is a realm of ideas. Wm. Torrey Harris (q.v.) in 1858, it became
ter- one of the most important and influential move-
Spiritualism (3) is used in religious
minology to emphasize the direct influence of ments in America to die in the early 1880's
the Holy Spirit in the sphere of religion and
with the dispersion of the members who in-
cluded among others Denton J. Snider, Adolph
especially to indicate the teaching of
St. John's

Gospel that God is Spirit and that worship is Kroeger, George H. Howison, and Thomas
.

direct correspondence of Spirit with spirit. Davidson. It engendered the St. Louis Philo-
Spiritualism (4) means the faith that spirits sophical Society (founded in Feb., 1866) and
of the dead communicate with the living the Journal of ^Speculative Philosophy. Cf. D. S.
Louis Movement, and Charles M.
through persons who are "mediums" and Snider, St.

through other forms of manifestation. The word Perry, St. LouisMovement in Philosophy.
is more properly used for this faith. K.F.L.
Spiritism
-R.M.J. State: (Lat. status, Ital. stato* the term intro-
Latin, the ruling
duced by Machiavelli) A political organization
Spiritut rector: Literally in
or master spirit} some sort of subtle natural based upon a common territory and exercising
force in corporeal beings. The alchemists ap- control over the inhabitants of that territory.
Essential for a state the existence Of a
plied the expression to some substance, or dis-
is

tilled product, said to be capable of transmuting government, and in the "legal state", a written
metals into gold, and also to an elixir which or unwritten constitution. By the pure theory
was supposed to prolong life indefinitely. of law (Kelsen), the state is identified with
JJ.R. law. By others (Duguit) considered a mere
(Lat. sponte, of free will) The fiction,devised to conceal the matter of fact
Spontaneity:
supposed ability of the will to act on its own preponderance of particular persons or groups.
initiative (sua sponte) and in independence of The state is sometimes explained as the positive
antecedent conditions. See Free-Will. L.W. or actual organization of the legislative or

Spranger, Eduard: (1882-) Developed Dilthey's judicial powers. (In America also: one of the
commonwealths which form the United States
thought, favoring like him, descriptive instead
of America, Brazil, Mexico). W.E.
explanatory psychology. As leading exponent
of the Verstehungspsychologie, he postulates ideal
State of Nature: The state of man as it would
be if there were no political organization or
types representing ultimate categories of value.
These types of personality represent merely government. The concept was used by many
"schemata of comprehensibility," theoretical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth
H.H. centuries as a criterion of what man's natural
guides or aids in understanding people.
Main works: Grundl. d. Geschichtswiss., condition might be and as to what extent
that condition has been spoiled or corrupted by
1905* Lebensformen, 1914) Die Geistestviss. u.
civilization. It was used as an argument for
d. Schule, 1920) Die wisstnsch. Grundl. d.
man's original rights to liberty and equality
Schulverfassungslehre u. d. Schulpolitik, 1925;
Das deutsche Bildungtideal, 1928}* Volk, Stoat, (Hooker, Locke, Rousseau), but occasionally
1930. also as an argument for the necessity of the
Erwhung,
Stu: (a) state and its right to control all social relations
Partiality) selfishness.
(b) A private name. "Only a particular sub- (Hobbes). W.E.
stance bears the name." (Neo-Mohiim). Statement: See Meaning, Kinds of, 1.
W.T.C. Statistics: The systematic study of quantitative
Stu: (a) Deliberation, thinking, facts, numerical data, comparative materials,
(b) Wish, obtained through description and interpretation
(ci Idea. W.T.C. of group phenomena. 2. The method of using
Ssu chiao: The four things which Confucius and interpreting processes of classification,
taught his pupils, namely, letters, personal con- enumeration, measurement and evaluation of
duct, being one's true self (chung), and good group phenomena. 3. In a restricted sense, the
faith in social relationship (hsin). W.T.C. materials, facts or data referring to group
Stu te: The Four Virtues: phenomena and forming the subject of sys-
(a) Being attentive to the fundamentals, tematic computation and interpretation.

penetrative, beneficial, and unflinching the The Ground of Statistics. Statistics have
virtues of the trigram ch'ien (Heaven, male, developed from a specialized application of the
yang) and therefore ethical ideals of the superior inductive principle which concludes from the
man. characteristics of a large number of parts to
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 301

those of the whole. When we make generaliza-
tions from empirical data, we are never certain
of having expressed adequately the laws con-
necting all the relevant and efficient factors in
the case under investigation. Not only have
we take into account the personal equation
to
involved and the imperfection of our instru-
ments of observation and measurement, but also
the complex character of physical, biological,
psychological and social phenomena which can-
not be subjected to an exhaustive analysis.
Statistics reveals precisely definite trends and
in these
treatment. The purpose of such an inquiry is
to integrate its results into the general problems
and schemes of philosophy proper. Cf. Richard
von Mises, Statistics, Probability, and Truth.
T.G.
Stem, William: (1871.1938) Psychologist and
philosopher who has contributed extensively to
individual psychology (see Individual Psychol-
ogy)* child psychology and applied psychology.
He was an innovator in the field of intelligence
testing, having suggested the use of intelligence
quotient (I.Q.) obtained by dividing an in-
dividual's mental age by his chronological age *

frequencies subject to approximate laws,

various fields in which phenomena result from and recognized that this quotient is relatively
constant for a given individual. The Psycho-
many independently varying factors and involve
a multitude of numerical units of variable logical Methods of Testing Intelligence. Stern's
character. Statistics differs from probability in- psychology with
emphasis on individual
its

as makes a more consistent use of differences affords the foundation for his pcr-
sofar it

data considered, and

objectively
of sonalistic philosophy, the main contention of
empirical
methods directly inspired by the treatment of which is that the person is
psycho physical a

these data. unity, characterized by purposiveness and in-

The Method of Statittics. The basic principle dividuality. See Die Psychologie und der Per-
of statistical method ii that of simplification, sonalismus (1917) Person und Sache, 3 Vols.
which makes possible a concise and compre- Die Philosophic der Gegenwart in Selbsfdar-
hensive knowledge of a mass of isolated facts stellung, Vol. 6. L.W.
by correlating them along definite lines.
Sthenic: An adjective derived from the Greek,
A) The various stages of this method are: Sthenos, strength. It was applied by Dr. John
(1) precise definition of the problem or field Brown (1735-1788), a British physician, to
of inquiry; (2) collection of material required diseases distinguished by a usual or excessive

by the problem; (3) tabulation and measure- accumulation of vital power, or nervous energy.
ment of material in a manner satisfying the Kant applied it to vigorous or exciting emotions.
purpose of the problem) (4) clear presentation JJ.R.
of the significant features of tabulated material Stirner, Max: Pen name of Johann Caspar
(by means of charts, diagrams, symbols, graphs, Schmidt (1806-1856) Most extreme and
equations and the like)} (S) selection of mathe- thoroughgoing individualist in the history of
matical methods for application to the material philosophy. In his classic, The Ego and his
obtained; (6) necessary conclusion from the Own, he regards everything except the indi-
facts and (7) general inter- vidual as minor; state and all
figures obtained; family, society
pretation within the limits of the problem and disappear before the individual ,the ego, as the
the procedure used. primary power for life and living. L.E.D.
B) The special methods of treating statistical Stoic School: Founded by Zeno (of Citium, in
data are: collecting, sampling, selecting, tabulat- Cyprus) in the year 308 B.C. in Athens. For
measur- Stoicism virtue alone is the only good and the
ing, classifying, totaling or aggregating,
ing, averaging, relating and correlating, pre-
virtuous man is the one who has attained
senting symbolically. Each one of these meth- happiness through knowledge, as Socrates had
ods uses specialized experimental or mathe- taught. The virtuous man thus finds happiness
matical means in its actual application. in himself and is independent of the external
C) The special methods of interpreting statis- world which he has succeeded in overcoming
cal data already treated are: analyzing, estimat- by mastering himself, his passions and emotions.
ing, describing, comparing, explaining, applying
As for the Stoic conception of the universe as a
and predicting. whole, their doctrine is pantheistic. All things
D) In order to be conclusive, the various and all natural laws follow by a conscious
stages and types of the statistical method must determination from the basic World-Reason,
avoid (1) loose definitions, (2) cross divisions and it is this rational order by which, according
resulting from conflicting interpretations of the
to Stoicism, the wise man seeks to regulate
problem, (3) data which are not simultaneous
his life as his highest duty. M.F.
or subject to similar conditions, (4) conclusions Strato: of Lampsacus, head of the Peripatetic
from poor or incomplete data, (5) prejudices in School of Greek philosophy from 287-269 B.C.
judging, even when there is no corruption of M.F.
evidence. Strauss, David Friedrich: (1808-1874) German
) The philosophy of statistics is concerned philosopher who received wide popularity and
in general with the discussion and evaluation condemnation for his Life of Jesus. He held
of the mathematical principles, methods and that the unity of God and man is not realized
results of this science) and in particular with in Christ but in mankind itself and in its his-
a critical analysis of the fitness of biological, tory. This relation, he believed, was immanent
psychological, educational, economic and socio- and not transcendent. His numerous writings
logical materials, for various types of statistical displayed many currents from Hegelianism and
302 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Darwinism to a
pantheism that approaches Charles Darwin as a premise for his evolu-
atheism and then back to a naturalism that tionary hypothesis of natural selection. There is
clings devoutly to an inward religious ex- constant struggle in a species resultant from
perience. Main works: Das Leben Jesu, 1835; the over production of offspring. This notion
Die Christliche Dogmatik, 1 840 5 Dtr alte u. d. is an outgrowth of the influence of Malthus
neue Glaube, 1872. L.E.D. on Darwin. Darwin does not mean actual or
Stream of Consciousness or Thought: Thought necessary combat at all stages, but requisite
considered a process of continuous change.
as dependence of one upon another and of each
The metaphor of the stream was suggested by upon all factors in the environment leading to
W. James. See The Principles of Psychology, the natural selection of the fittest: See: Evolu-
Vol. 1, ch. IX, entitled "The Stream of tionism, Natural Selection, Charles Darwin,
Thought" especially p. 239. L.W. Herbert Spencer, Thomas Henry Huxley.
Strict implication: As early as 1912, C. I. Lewis L.E.D.
projected a kind of implication
between proposi- Stuff, Neutral: A
reality posited by certain
tions, to be called strict implication,
which philosophers which is neither mental nor phy-
should more nearly accord with the usual mean- sical, but which underlies both. See Neutral

ing of "implies" than does material implication Monism. L.W.

(see logic, formal, should make "p implies
1), Stumpf, Carl: (1848-1936) A life long Platonic
q" synonymous with "q is deducible from p," realist, he was philosophically awakened and
and should avoid such so-called paradoxes of influenced by Brentano. His most notable con-
material implication as the theorem [p => q] v tributions were in the psychology of tone and
[q
= p}. The first satisfactory formulation of music, and in musicology. Metaphysics is, in
a calculus of propositions with strict implication his opinion, best constructed inductively as a

appeared in 1920, and this system, and later continuation of the sciences. H.H.
modified forms of it, have since been extensively Main works: Tonpsychologie, 2 vols., 1883-
investigated. An essential feature is the intro- 90 j Die Anfange der Musik, 1911} Empfindung
duction of modalities through the notation (say) u. Vorstellung, 1918} Gefuhl u. Gefiihlsemp-
M[p], to mean "p is possible" (Lewis uses a findung, 1928} Erkenntnislehre, I, 1939.
diamond instead of M). The strict implication Sturm und Drang: (German, "Storm and
of q by p is then identified with ~M[p
""?], Stress"), a period sweeping the German coun-
whereas the material implication p q given3 is tries about 1770-1785, in which men like
by ~[p '*'?] In 1932 Lewis, along with other Hamann, Herder, the young Goethe, Schiller,
modifications, added a primitive formula (in- Wagner, Christian Schubart, and Friedrich
volving the binding of prepositional variables Maximilian Klinger (from whose play the
by existential quantifiers) which renders defini- movement got its name) advocated, in a flush

tively impossible an interpretation of the system of creative

enthusiasm, the forces of native
which would make Mp the same as p and strict talent, the value of emotion, and the power of
implication the same as material implication. genius as a conscious reaction against the
Consistency of the system, including this addi- enlightenment which had spread from France.
tional primitive formula, may be established by K.F.L.
means of an appropriate four-valued preposi- Su: 'Unadornment', (p'u) 'unadorned simplicity'}
tional calculus, the theorems of the system being (ching) 'quiescence' bespeaking all the complete
some among the tautologies of the four-valued absence of desires, but really meaning that the
prepositional calculus. A. C. desires should be made fewer. (Lao Tzu)
Lewis and Langford, Symbolic Logic, New York Seeking for the tao, emptiness, singleness, con-
and London, 1932. E. V. Huntington, Postulates
centrated attention (tu), quiescence are all rules
for assertion, conjunction, negation, and equality,
Proceedings of the American Academv of Arts and for man's conduct. (Hsun Tzu C355-C288
B.C.)
Sciences, vol. 72, no. 1, 1937. W. T. Parry,
Modalities in the Survey system of strict implica- . .
~H H ' '

tion, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 4 Suarezianism : A school of philosophy and the-
(1939), pp. 137-154. ology founded by Francisco Suarez, of the
Structuralism: (Lat. structure, a building) The Society of Jesus, Spain, 1548-1617. His philo-
conception of mind in terms of its structure sophic position is, in general, that of Christian
whether this structure be interpreted: (a atom- Aristotelianism. The immediate background of
his to be found
istically. See Psychological Atomism; Structural thought in
is
Albertinism,
Psychology) } or b) configuration ally. (Gestalt Thomism, Scotism and Nominalism.
Psychology). L.W. The Disputationes Metaphysicae (no Eng. trans-
Structural Psychology: A tendency in American lation) forms a complete exposition of Suarez
psychology, represented by .B. Titchener. general metaphysics, psychology, theory of knowl-
(A Textbook (1909-10) which
of Psychology, edge, cosmology and natural theology. Basic is
in opposition to Functional Psychology (see the rejection of the thomistic real distinction
Functional Psychology; Functionalism) adopted between essence and existence in finite things.
as method of psychology the analysis of
the Physical substances are individuated, neither by
mental states into component sensations, images their matter nor their form, but by their total
and feelings; the structure of consciousness is entities. Their components, matter and form,
for structural psychology atomistic. L.W. are individual entities united in the composite
Structural Theories of Mind : See Structuralism. of physical substance by a "mode" (unto)
Struggle For Existence: This is given by which has itself no reality apart from the com-
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 303

posite. Except in the case of the human form A Symposium on Suarez (Five papers and
which is the soul, matter and form in the a good bibliography by American Jesuit schol-
natural order cannot exist in isolation. Acci- ars), Proc. Jesuit Educat. Assoc. t (Chicago,
dental "modes" are used to explain the associa- 1931) pp. 153-214.
tion of accidents with their subjects. Spiritual Jesuit Thinkers of the Renaissance, ed G.
creatures (angels and human souls) are not Smith, S.J., (Milwaukee, 1939). VJ.B.
specific natures as in Thomism, but are indi- Subalternation : See Logic, formal, 4.

viduals, constituted such by their own entities. Subclass: A class a is a subclass of a class o if
The soul is the principle of all vital actions a c b. See Logic , formal, 7.

and, though these vital operations on the bio-

A class a is a proper subclass of a class b if
a c b and a * A.C.
logical, sensory and intellectual levels are
attri- b.

buted to various "faculties", these faculties are Subconscious Mind: (Lat. sub, under cum
not really distinct from the essence of the soul. together -f- scire to know) A compartment of
In this life the human intellect cannot operate the mind alleged by certain psychologists and
without the aid of images supplied by sense per- philosophers (see Psycho-analysis) to exist below
ception. An intellectual concept of a single the threshold of consciousness. The subconscious,
individual thing may be formed directly and though not directly accessible to introspection
then a universal concept of the common nature (see Introspection), is capable of being tapped
of many sensible things within a class may be by special techniques such as random association,
developed by the intellect through the process dream-analysis, automatic writing, etc. The doc-
of abstraction. The will is the faculty of trine of the subconscious was foreshadowed in
rational appetite} it is free in the ultimate Leibniz's doctrine of petites perceptions (Mona-
choice of its object, which is called a "good." dology, Sections 21, 23) and received philo-
Suarez emphasizes the psychological and moral sophical expression by A. Schopenhauer, The
supremacy of the will. The Suarezian theory World as Will and Idea, and E. von Hartman,
of knowledge is what would be called naive .Philosophy of the Unconscious and has become
realism today. an integral part of Freudian psychology. See
As a free creature, man is responsible for Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, esp. pp.
his freely performed actions. Man knows the 425-35, 483-93. L.W.
basic principles of the Divine Law through the Subcontrary: See Logic, formal, 4.
natural use of his intellect. Thus known, the Subject: (Lat. subjicere to place under)
Divine Law is called the natural moral law. It a) In Epistemology: The subject of knowledge
is immutable. Suarez' ethics provides a rational is the individual knower considered either as a

justification for most of the accepted moral pure ego (see Ego, Pure), a transcendental ego
standards of Christianity. The individual has (see Ego, Transcendental) or an act of aware-
rights and duties in regard to other creatures ness. (See Awareness).
and himself; he has duties toward his Creator. b) In Psychology: The psychological subject
The political theory of Suarez is most noted for is the individual
subjected to observation. Thus
its opposition to the divine right of kings. He the introspective psychologist may either rely
held that a ruler derives his authority imme- on the report of another subject or he may self-
diately from the qpnsent of the people, ultimately introspect, i.e., serve as his own subject. (See
from God. Suarez maintained that there are Introspection). L.W.
several forms of political organizations in which For the use of this word in traditional logic,
social justice may be secured. see Predicate.

According to Suarez, theology is not part a Subjective Idealism: Sometimes referred to as

of philosophy, but a supreme scince having a psychological idealism or subjectivism. The doc-
supernatural justification and deriving its prin- trine of knowledge that the world exists only

ciples from Divine revelation. However, in

his for the mind. The only world we know is thc-
natural theology, Suarez examined the arguments world-we-know shut up in the realm of ideas.
for the existence of God. The attributes of God To be is This
to be perceived: esse est percipi.
can be but dimly known by the unaided reason famous doctrine (classically expressed by Bishop
of man. Berkeley, 1685-1753) became the cornerstone
Suarezianism is systematic, orderly, easy of modern metaphysical idealism. Recent
to teach} it has become the framework idealists tend to minimize its significance for
of many Catholic text-books in philosophy, metaphysics. V.F.
particularly of those by Jesuit authors. Schopen- Subjective Tightness: An action is subjectively
hauer, Spinoza, Leibniz and Descartes mention right if it is done in the belief that it is
their reading of the Disputations. See: Grab- objectively right. See Objective Tightness.
mann, M., "Die Disp. Metaph. F. Suarez in W.F.K.
ihrer methodischen Eigenart und Fortwirkung," Subjectivism: a) In Epistemology: The restric-
in Franz Suarez, S. J., (Innsbruck, 1917). tion of knowledge to the knowing subject and
(Pedro Descoqs, S J., is an outstanding con- its sensory, affective and volitional states and

temporary Suarezian). to such external realities as may be inferred

Opera Omnia, ed C. Berton, (Paris, 1856- from the mind's subjective states. See Solipsism,
1878), 30 vols. (not quite complete). Ego-centric Predicament.
De Scorraille, R., F. Suarez, de la Compagnie b) In Axiology. The doctrine that moral and
de Jesus, 2 volt. (Paris, 1912). aesthetic values represent the subjective feelings
304 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and reactions of individual minds and have no substance is grammatically distinguished from
status independent of such reactions. Ethical sub- its (adjectival) properties and modifications
jectivism finds typical expression in Westermarek's which "are present in and predicable of a
doctrine that moral judgments have reference subject."
to our emotions of approval and disapproval. Secondary 'substance is expressed by the uni-
See The Origin and Development of Moral versal term, and by its definition which are "not

Ideas, Vol. 1, Ch. 1. L.W. present in a subject but predicable of it." See
Subjectivism, episcemological : Doctrine con- Categoriae, ch. 5.
tending that every object apprehended is created, b) Physics'. Independence of being emerges
constructed by the apprehender. (Montague). as a fundamental characteristic of substance in
H.H. the analysis of change. Thus we have:

Sublimation: (Lat. from sublimare,

sublimatio, 1) Substantial change: Socrates comes to be.
to elevete, lift up) The psychological mechanism, (Change simply).
described by Freudian, which consists in the 2) Accidental change} in a certain respect
discovery of a substitute object for the expres- only: Socrates comes to be 6 feet tall. (Quan-
sion of a basic instinct or feeling, e.g., the titative). Socrates comes to be
musical (Qualita-
sublimation of the sex impulses in aesthetic tive). Socrates comes to be inCorinth (Local).
creation. L.W. As substantial change is prior to the others
Subliminal: (Lat. sub. under + limen, the and may occur independently of them, so the
threshold) Term
popularized by F. Myers to individual substance is prior in being to the
describe allegedly unconscious mental processes accidents} i.e., the accidents cannot exist inde-
especially sensations which lie below the thresh- pendently of their subject (Socrates), but can be
old of consciousness. See Unconscious Mind. only in him or in another primary substance,
L.W. while the reverse is not necessarily the case.
Subsistents: Abstract and eternal entities, values, c) Logic: Out of this analysis of change
universals in a non-mental and non-physical there also emerges a division of being into the
world. H.H. schema of categories, with the distinction be-
Substance: (Lat. sub + stare = Gr. hypo -f tween the category of substance and the several
stasis, tostand under. Also from Lat. quod accidental categories, such as quantity, quality,
quid or quod quid erat esse
est, Gr. to ti en. = place, relation, etc. In a corresponding manner,
einai, i.e., that by virtue of which a thing has the category of substance is first} i.e., prior to
its determinate nature, which makes it what the others in being, and independent of them.
it is, as distinguished from something else. See d) Metaphysics: The character of substance
ousia, natura, subsistentia, essentia. Thus Augus- as that which ispresent in an individual as the
tine writes (De Trin. VII, ch. 4, "essence #7) cause of its being and unity is developed in
(ousia) usually means nothfng else than sub- Aristotle's metaphysical
writings; see especially
stance in our language, i.e., in Latin"). Bk. Z, ch. 17, 1041b. Primary substance is not
Substance is the term used to signify that the matter alone, nor the universal form com-
which is sought when philosophers investigate mon to many, but the individual unity of matter
the primary being of things. Thus Plato was and form. For example, each thing is com-
primarily concerned with investigating the being posed of parts or elements, as an organism is
of things from the standpoint of their intelligi- composed of cells; yet it is not merely its
bility. Hence the Platonic dialectic was aimed elements, but has a being and unity over and
at a knowledge of the essential nature (ousia) above the sum of its parts. This something
of things. But science is knowledge of uni- more which causes the cells to be this organism
versals } so the essence of things considered as rather than a malignant growth, is an example
intelligible is the universal common to many; of what is meant by substance in its proper
i.e., the universal Form or Idea, and this was sense of first substance (substantia prima).
for Plato the substance of things, or what Substance in its secondary sense (substantia
they are primarily. secunda) is the universal form (idea or species)
Besides the universal intelligiblebeing of which is individuated in each thing.
things, Aristotle was also primarily concerned For the later development of the conception
with an investigation of the being of things of substance, see Thomas Aquinas, especially De
from the standpoint of their generation and Ente et Essentia, ch. 2.
existence. But only individual things are gener- Note that according to Aristotle, the sub-
ated and exist. Hence, for him, substance was stance of a thing is always intelligible. Thus
primarily the individual: a "this" which, in there are sensible substances, but the substance
contrast with the universal or secondary sub- of these things is itself neither sensible nor
stance, is not communicable to many. The capable of being apprehended by the senses
Aristotelian meaning ff substance may be de- alone, but only when the activity of the intellect
veloped from four points of view: is added. In later scholastic philosophy this
a) Grammar: The nature of substance as the point was missed, so the Aristotelian doctrine
ultimate subject of predication is expressed by. of substance quite naturally ceased to be any
common usage in its employment of the noun longer intelligible.
(or substantive) as the subject of a sentence In modern thought, two general types of
to signify an individual thing which "is neither usage are discernjble. In the empirical tradition,
present in nor predicable of a subject." Thus the notion of thing and properties continues
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 305

the meaning of independence expressed at in of substances. The attributes of the one sub-
first substance. Under the impact of physical stance are plural and are constitutive. But the
science, the notion of thing and its properties plurality of attributes implies that substance as
tends to dissolve. Substance becomes substratum such cannot be understood by way of any one
as that in which properties and qualities inhere. attribute or by way of several. Accordingly,
The critique of Berkeley expressed the resultant Spinoza declares that substance is also per st,
dilemma: either sub-stratum is property-less and i.e., conceived through itself. The infinite mode
quality-less, and so is nothing at all) or else of an attribute, the all pervasive inner charac-
and specific coherence ter which defines an attribute in distinction
it signifies the systematic
of properties and qualities, and so substance or from another, is Spinoza's adaptation of the
sub-stratum is merely the thing of common Cartesian constitutive essence.
sense. Within science 'first substance* persists The critique of Kant resolves substance into
as the ultimate discrete particle with respect to the apriori category of Inherence-and-sub-
which spatial and temporal coordinates are as- sistence, and so to a necessary synthetic activity
signed. Within empirical philosophical thought of mind upon the data of experience. In the
the element of meaning described as 'inde- dialectic of Hegel, the effort is made to unify
pendence* tends to be resolved into the order the logical meanings of substance as subject
and coherence of experience. and the meaning of absolute independent being
In the rationalistic tradition, Descartes intro- as defined in Spinoza. L.M.H. It A.G.A.B.
duces a distinction between finite and infinite In Scholasticism: The nature of substance
'

substance. To conceive of substance is to con- is that it exists in itself, independently from

ceive an existing thing which requires nothing another being. While accidents are in another,
but itself in order to exist. Strictly speaking, substance is in itself. It is what underlies the
God alone is substance. Created or finke sub- accidents, persists even if these are changing)
stances are independent in the sense that they insofar as its being in itself is considered, it is

need only the concurrence of God in order to spoken of as subsistence (subsistentia), Sub-
exist. "Everything in which there resides im- stances are either material, and as such depen-

mediately, as in a subject, or by means of which dent on matter informed by a substantial form,

there exists anything that we perceive, i.e., any or spiritual, free of any kind of matter (even
property, quality, or attribute, of which we have a spiritual one, as Aquinas points out in
a real idea, is called a Substance." (Reply to De Ente against Avencebron, i.e., Ibn Gebirol),
Obj. II, Phil. Works, trans, by Haldane and and as such is called forma subsisttns. Sub-
Ross, vol. II, p. 53j see Prin. of Phil. Pt. I, stantial forms* are not substances, with the one
51, 52). Substance is that which can exist exception of the human soul
which, (q.v.)
by itself without the aid of any other sub- however, is when separated from the body only
stance. Reciprocal exclusion of one another an incomplete substance. See Form, Matter.
belongs to the nature of substance. (Reply to .

Obj. IV). Spinoza brings together medieval Substance Theory of Mind: The conception of
Aristotelian meanings and the Cartesian usage, the individual mind as a permanent, self-
but rejects utterly the notion of finite substance, identical substance. (See Soul-Substance
leaving the* infinite. The former is, in
only Theory). The Substance Theory is distinguished
effect, contradiction in terms, according to
a from the substantive theory by C. W. Morris,
him. Spinoza further replaces the Aristotelian (Six Theories of Mind, Chs. I and V) but the
distinction between substance and accident with distinction is difficult to maintain. L.W.
that between substance and mode. (See Wolfson, "Substantive States": (Lat. substantivus, self-
The Phil, of Spinoza, vol. I, ch. 3). "By existent) Substantive states of mind in contrast
substance, I understand that which is in itself to transitive or relational states are the tem-
and is conceived through itself j in other words, porary resting-places in the flow of the stream
that, conception of which does not need
the of thought. The term was introduced by W.
the conception of another thing from which it James (The Principle* of Psychology, Vol. I,
must be formed." (Ethics, I, Def. III). Sub- pp. 243-8). L.W.
stance is thus ultimate being, self-caused or Substantive Theory of Mind: A diluted form
from itself (a se) y andso absolutely independent of the Substance Theory of mind which asserts
being, owing its being to itself, and eternally that the mind, while not strictly a substance,
self-sustaining. It is in itself (in **), and all possesses a substantial character. See Substance
things are within it. Substance is one and Theory of Mind. L.W.
there can be but one substance ) God is this Substitution, rule of: See logic, formal, 1.
substance. For Descartes, every substance has a Substratum: (Gr. hypokeimenon) That in which
principal attribute, an unchangeable essential an attribute inheres, or of which it is predicated)
nature, without which it can neither be nor substance) subject. In Aristotle's philosophy
be understood. The attribute is thus constitutive hypokeimenon sometimes means matter is under-
of substance, and .the latter is accessible to lying form, sometimes the concrete thing as
mind only through the former. By virtue of possessing attributes, sometimes the logical sub-
having different constitutive essences or attri- ject of predication. G.R.M.
butes,substances are opposed to one another. Subsumption: Noun signifying that the subject
Spinoza, rejecting the idea of finite substance, of a proposition is taken under the predicate.
necessarily rejects the possibility of a plurality Also the inclusion of the species under the
306 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
genus, and the individual under the species.
The Summists: (Lat. Summa, a compendium) A
minor premiss which applies a general law group of writers in the 12th to 14th centuries
stated by the major premiss of a syllogism is who produced compendious, encyclopedic works
called a subsumption. JJ.R. known as Summae. Beginnings of the summa-
Succession and Duration: These concepts are form are to be found in Peter Abaelard's
of 'flowing' time Sic et Non (early 12th C.) and Peter Lom-
inseparable from the idea
in which eevry event endures relatively to a
bard's Libri IV Sententiarum (mid 12th C.).
succession of other events, In Leibniz's view, Theological Summae consisted of collections of
succession was the most important characteristic opinions (sententiae) from earlier authorities,
particularly Patristic, with some attempt sat a
of time defined by him as "the order of suc-
cession." Some thinkers, notably H. Bergson, resolution of the conflicts in such opinions.

regard duration (duree) as the very

essence of Hugh of St. Victormay have been the first
time, "time perceived as indivisible," in
which to use" the name, Summa. Wm. of Auxerre
the vital impulse (61an vital) becomes the crea- (Summa Aurea), Alexander of Hales and his
fellow Franciscans (Summa universae theo-
tive source of all change comparable to a
snow-ball rolling down a hill and swelling logiae), John La Rochelle (S. de anima)^
of
A. N. Whitehead, St. Albert (S. de Creaturis, and an incomplete
on its way. According to
slab of nature' possessing temporal 5. Theologiae)> and St. Thomas Aquinas (S.
duration is 'a

thickness; it is a cross-section of the world contra G entiles , and S. Theologiae), are im-
13th C. Summists. There were philo-
in process, or "the immediate present con-
its portant
dition of the world at some epoch." R.B.W. sophical Summae, also, such as the S. Logicae

F of Lambert of Auxerre, the 5.modorum signi-

Sufficient condition: a sufficient condition
is
= ficandt of Siger of Courtrai (14th C.), and
of G if F(x) (*). See Necessary condi-
the Summa phtlosophtae of the Pseudo-Grosse-
tion. A.C.
teste (late 13th C.). VJ.B.
Sufficient Reason, Principle of: Consists in the Summum Bonum: (Lat. the supreme good)
necessary relation object or event to
of every A term applied to an ultimate end of human
every other. Time, space, causality, ground of conduct the worth of which is and
intrinsically
knowledge and motivation are so many forms substantively good. It is some end that is not
of this most basic principle of the rclatedness of subordinate to anything else. Happiness, plea-
phenomena. (Schopenhauer). In Leibniz, see
sure, virtue, self-realization, power, obedience
Principle of Sufficient Reason. H.H. to the voice of duty, to conscience, to the will
Sufism : A
developmentclassical
mysticism of of God, good will, perfection have been claimed
and a reaction from the legalism and rigidity as ultimate aims of human conduct in the
of orthodox Islam. Being a sect seeking to history of ethical theory. Those who interpret
attain a nearer fellowship with God by scrupu- all ethical problems in terms of a conception of
lous observation of the religious law, it repre-
good they hold to be the highest ignore all
sents an infiltration into Islam of the Christian-
complexities of conduct, focus attention wholly
gnostic type of piety with its charismatic and
upon goals towards which deeds are directed,
ascetic Gained many of its converts
features.
restrict their study by constructing every good
from the heterodox Moslems in Persia, H.H. in one single pattern, center all goodness in
Sui generis: (Lat.) Alone of its kind; the
one model and thus reduce all other types
condition of a subject which is unique; applied
of good to their model. H.H.
particularly to God. VJ.B.
Summum Genus: The highest genus in a divi-
Sukha-duhkha (Skr.) Pleasure and pain, to
:
a which is not a species of a
sion; genus
which is often added moka (q.v.), a stereotyped G.R.M.
higher genus.
expression for the involvement in activity and
Sunnites: Denotes the orthodox, traditionalist, by
thought preventing tnoksa (q.v.). K.F.L,
far the larger numbered Islamic sect which
Summa (Scholastic) : Name of comprehensive denies the Shiite claim that Ali and his des-
treatises, subdivided in tractatus or quaesttones, cendants are alone entitled to the caliphate.
which in their turn may contain several articles H.H.
or membra. The classical procedure is that of A Buddhist theory (vada) holding
Sunya-vada:
the disputata
quaestio (see quaestio) which the world to be void (sunya) or unreal. Other-
developed from the method adopted first by the wise known as Madhyamaka (q.v.), this
students of Canon Law (Yves of Chartres, a.o.) school founded
Mahayana (q.v.) as by
and applied to philosophical and theological Nagarjuna and elaboraeted in the Madhyama-
discussion by Abelard (Sic et Non). The 12th kasastra, is hardly correctly translated by nihil-
century produced some works entitled Summa ism. To be sure, the phenomenal world is said
but not yet showing the strictly logical and to have no the world
reality; yet underlying
systematical structure of the later works (e.g. it defies description, also because of our inability
Summa sacramentorum t attributed (?) to Hugh to grasp the thing-in-itself (svabhSva). All we
of St. Victor). The 13th century gave birth its co-called"dependent origination". Thus,
to the classical form. R.A.. know is its dependence on some other condition,

Summation, Psychic: (Lat. summa, sum) nothing definite being able to be said about the
Fusion or combination of separate states of real, it is, like the apparent, as nothing, in other
mind to form a new whole. See Fusion t Psychic. words, sunya, void. K.F.L.
L.W. Supererogation: (Lat. super, above) and erogare,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 307

to spend public funds) The act or condition of tha.t God positively decreed the Fall of man ai
doing more than is strictly required by law; a means to the manifestation of His Power of
in Catholic moral terminology, an act of salvation;attributed to Calvinism but opposed
supererorogation consists in doing more than by some "Jnfralapsarian" Calvinists. See: Pre-
one's duty, a practice of special virtue. VJ.B. destination. VJ.B.
Superman: The name given by Nietzsche to Su p'ui "Unadorned simplicity", being the state
what he deems a higher type of humanity, of original nature, ii a state of desire less ness,
viewed as the goal of evolution. H.H. of total absence of knowledge distinctions, of
Supernatural: That which surpasses the active pure instinctivity. (Chuang Tzfi, between 399
and exactive powers of nature or that which and 295 B.C.). H.H.
natural causes can neither avail to produce nor Surrealism : a. Spiritualistic trend of art.

require from God as the compliment of their b. A

recent artistic school representing dreams
kind. H.G. interpreted according to Freud's theoriesr-I..F.
Suppositio: In medieval logic, the kind of mean- Artistic movement which maintains that

ing in use which belongs to nouns or

substan- there exists, and seeks access to, a "real"
tives; opposed to copulatio, belonging to adjec- world that lies behind the artificial world of

tives and verbs. A

given noun having a fixed ordinary objects given in normal awareness.
signification might nevertheless have that what is found on the conscious
different Argues
supposition** (stand for different things).
Vari- level is an arbitrary construct of mind, deter-
ous kinds of suppositio, i.e., various ways in mined by habit and custom, and that the func-
which a noun may stand for something, were tion of art is to recover and report the world

distinguished. A.C. as originally experienced and felt. Seeks to

Petri Hispani Summulae Logicales cum Ver- disintegrate the clear logical life of intellect,
sorii Parisiensis clarisstma expositions, editions so as to search for its materials on the sub-

e.g. Venice 1597, 1622). J. Maritain, Petite conscious level, and discover there the true

Logique, Paris, 1933. .and primitive meanings that things have for
Suppositio discreta: The kind of suppositio be- us prior to the forms that we impose on them.

longing to a proper name; opposed to suppositio

communis. A.C. Sutra: (Skr. string) An aphorism, the earliest
Suppositio materialis: The use of a word au- form chosen for mnemonic reasons, in which
tonymously, or as a name for itself (see au- philosophic thought was couched in India, neces-
tonymy) "Homo est disyllabum"; opposed to sitating often elaborate commentaries (bhd^ya)
suppositio formalis f the use of a noun in its which frequently differ widely in their inter-
proper or ordinary signification. A.C. pretation of the original and have occasioned
Suppositio naturalis : The use of a common noun various schools. K.F.L.
to stand collectively for everything to which the Svabhava: (Skr.) being-in-itself, essence, natural
name applies "Homo
est mortalis." It would state, inherent or innate nature; the thing-in-
now usually be held that this involves an in- itself aspect of anything; independent being; in
adequate or misleading analysis see copula. the view of some Indian philosophers, the
A.C. principle governing the universe through the
Suppositio personalia: The use of a common spontaneity and individual character of the
various substances. K.F.L,
noun, or class name, to stand for a particular
member of the class "Homo currit." Contem- Svaraj: (Skr.) self-rule, self-determination, cur-
porary logical usage would supply, in such a case, rently a designation of the home rule movement
either a description (corresponding in English to in India. K.F.L.
the definite article the} or an existential quanti- Svatantra: (Skr. "what has itself as basis")
fier(corresponding to the indefinite article a). Presuppositionless, absolute, free, said of the
ultimate in its in-it-self aspect. K.F.L.
Suppositio personalis confusa (opposed to the
preceding as suppositio personalis determinata) Svetambara: (Skr. "white-robed") branch of A
was further ascribed to a common noun used for the Jainas (k.v.) differing with the Digambaras
the subject or predicate of a universal affirma- (q.v.) in doctrine and habits. K.F.L.
tive proposition. The relation of this to sup- Swedenborgianism : A
highly developed reli-
positio naturalis and suppositio simplex is not gious philosophy arising from Emanuel Sweden-
clear, and not uniform among different writers. borg (Jan. 29, 1688-March 29, 1772). Sweden-
A.C. borg claimed direct spiritual knowledge. 'He
Suppositio simplex: The use of a common noun recognized three descending levels or "degress
to stand for the class concept to which it refers of being in God"; Love the Celestial, Spirit
"Homo est species." Suppositio simplex was or the End; then Wisdom, the Spiritual or Soul,
also ascribed to a common noun used for the Cause; and finally the degree of Use, the
predicate of an affirmative proposition.
A.C. Natural and Personal, the realm of Effect*.
Supposititious: (Lat. suppositicius, put in the Swedenborgism was formally launched in

place of, substituted) Epistemological expression

London in 1783 and is often called the New
applying to any object which is assumed or (or New Jerusalem) Church. F.K.
posited by the mind without being actually given Syadvada: (Skr.) The theory of "somehow"
L.W. (syat), a theory of judgment of the Jainas
by experience.
Supralapsarianism : (Lat. supra, before* and (q.v.) which takes full account of the partiality
view of the judged reality and the idiosyncracy of
lapsus, the Fall of man) The theological
308 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the one who is judging in the world of dis- and through weakness hinders development.
course. K.F.L. Sympathy, as a force, becomes pro-
cultural
Syllogism: See Antilogy Figure (syllogistic) i gressively more evident in the increasing estab-
and Logic, formal, 2, 5. lishment of benevolent institutions, such as
Symbol : ( 1 ) Used by tome writers as synonymous hospitals, asylums, etc., a more general altruism
with sign (q.v.). and ejection (Clifford), an extension of kind-
(2) A
conventional sign, i.e., a sign which ness even to animals (first taught by Buddhism}
functions as such in virtue of a conven- see Ahimsa), reform and relief movements of
tion, explicit or implicit, between its users. all kinds, etc. Still regarded highly as a praise-
In this sense 'symbol* is sometimes opposed to worthy virtue, it has been gradually rid of its
'natural sign*. M.B. dependence on individual ethical culture by
Symbolism: An artistic trend flourishing at the scientific conditioning in social planning on a
end of the XlXth century in reaction to faith large scale. See v. Orelli, Die philosophischen
in the beauty of nature, and endeavoring to Auffassungen des Mitleids (1912)j Scheler,
represent spiritual values by means of abstract
Wtsen und Formen der Sympathie (1926).
signs. L.V. K.F.L.
Symmetry: A dyadic relation R is symmetric if, Synaesthesia : (Gr. syn. with -j- aesthesis, sensa-
for all * and y in the field of R, xRy = yRxi tion) Aconnection between sensation of dif-
it asymmetric if, for all x and y in the field
is ferent senses which indepedent of association
is
of R, xRy 3 ~* yRx\ non-symmetric if there established by experience. For example, the
are * and y in the field of R
such that [xRy] [~ capacity of certain musical notes to induce
yRx]. An -adic prepositional function F is
color-images.L.W.
symmetric if F(i, *,...,*) ismaterially Syncategorematic (word): Approximately a syn-
equivalent to the proposition obtained from it onym of incomplete symbol (q. v.), but usually
by permuting xi, *,...,* among themselves applied to words of such a language as English
in any fashion for all sets of n arguments an, rather than to symbols or expressions in a fully
*,...,** belonging to the range of F. formalized logistic system. A. C.
A dyadic function /, other than a preposi- Syncretism: (Gr. syn., with; and either kretid-
tional function, is symmetric if, for all pairs of
zein, or kerannynai, to mix incompatible ele-
arguments, x, y t belonging to the range of /, ments) A movement to bring about a harmony
/(*, y) =
/(y, *). An fi-adic function / is of positions philosophy or theology which
in
symmetric if, for any set of n arguments belong- are somewhat opposed or different. Earliest
ing to the range of /, the same value of the usage (Plutarch) in connection with the Neo-
function is obtained no matter how the argu- Platonic effort to unify various pagan religions
ments are permuted among themselves (i.e., if in the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D. Next used
the value of the function is independent of the in Renaissance (Bessarion) in reference to the
order of the arguments). proposed union of the Eastern and Western
In geometry, a figure is said to be symmetric Catholic Churches, also denoted the contemporary
with respect to a point P if the points of the movement to harmonize the philosophies of
figure can be grouped in pairs in such a way Plato and Aristotle} again in 17th century used
that the straight-line segment joining any pair
by Georg Calixt in regard to proposed union of
has P as its mid-point. A figure is symmetric the Lutheran with other Protestant bodies and
with respect to a straight line / if the points can also with Catholicism. V.J.B.
be grouped in pairs in such a way that the
Synderesis: (Late Gr. synteresis, spark of con-
straight-line segment joining any pair has / as science { may be connected with syneidesis, con-
a perpendicular bisector. These definitions apply In Scholastic philosophy: the habitus,
science)
in geometry of any number of dimensions. Simi- or permanent, inborn disposition of the mind
lar definitions be given of symmetry with
may to think of general and broad rules of moral
respect to a plane, etc. A.C. conduct which become the principles from
Sympathy: On psychological levels, a participa- which a man may reason in directing his own
tion in and feeling for other living beings in moral activities. First used, apparently, by St.
adversity or other emotional phases, not always Jerome (In EtekieL, I, 4-1$) as equivalent to
painful, which may or may not lead to par- the scintilla conscientiae (spark of conscience),
ticipating or alleviating action, explained the term became very common and received
naturalistically as a general instinct inherent various interpretations in the 13th century.
in all creatures, ethically sometimes as an orig- Franciscan thinkers (St. Bonaventure) tended
inal altruism, sociologically as acquired in the to regard synderesis as a quality of the human
civilisatory process through needs of co-opera- will, inclining it to embrace the good-in-general.
tion, mutual aid, and fellow-feeling in family St. Thomas thought synderesis a habitus of the
and group action. Stressed particularly in intellect, enabling it to know first principles
Hinduism, fostered along with pity (q.v.) in of practical reasoning) he distinguished clearly
Christianity, discussed and recommended as a between synderesis and conscience, the latter
shrewd social expedient by such men as Hobbes,
being the action of the practical intellect decid-
Bentham, and Adam Smith, Schopenhauer ing whether a particular, proposed operation is
raised sympathy (Mitleid), as an equivalent to
good or bad, here and now. Duns Scotus also
love, into an ethical principle which Nietzsche considered synderesis a quality belonging to
repudiated because to him it increases suffering intellect rather than will. VJ.B.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 309
Syndicalism: Thit social and political theory, Synkatathesis, to deposit together. In the pas-
usually considered as the creation of George* sive voice the verb means, to assent
to, to
Sorel, it philosophically rooted in a radical agree with. Used by the Stoics in the sense of
anti-intellectualism. Will, faith and action are agreement, or conviction. In general it signifies,
the basic and creative realities of human nature, the acknowledgment of the truth of a
proposi-
whereas all ideological factors are but tion, or consent given to it with someone else.
1
creatures of these realities they are 'myths. JJ.R.
Working upon this metaphysical assumption and Syntactics: See Syntax, logical, and Semiotic 3.
upon the Marxist concept of the class struggle,
Syntagma: The systematized wholes of life views,
Syndicalsm argues that the ills and vices of of life tendencies such as aestheticism, natural-
bourgeois society can be eliminated only if that ism and intellectualism. (Eucken). HJi.
class which possesses the most creative
power Syntax language: See Object language.
(such a class is known as the 'elite') destroys
Syntax, logical : "By the logical syntax of a lan-
the present form of society by direct action
and violence guided by the 'myth of the general guage," according to Carnap, "we mean the
formal theory of the linguistic forms of that
strike. 1 The working class
is, of course, taken
to be this elite, and hence the trade
language the systematic statement of the for-
unions, mal rules which govern it together with the
or 'syndicates', become the center of the revolu-
development of the consequences which follow
tion. The economic aim of the revolution is to
from these rules. A theory, a rule, a definition,
substitute collectivism for capitalism) its political
or the like is to be called formal when no
aim, to substitute 'proletarian management* reference is made
it either to the
in meaning of
through the instrumentality of the various syn- the symbols or to the sense of the expressions,
dicates (which represent functional interests)
but simply and solely to the kinds and order of
for political control through the instrumentality
the symbols from which the expressions are
of the State. Some features of Syndicalism have
constructed."
been consciously incorporated into the ideology
This definition would make logical syntax co-
of Italian Fascism. M.B.M. incide with Hilbertian proof theory (q. v.), and
Synechism: (Gr. syn, with} and echein, to hold)
in fact the adjectives syntactical, metalogical,
A theory of philosophical explanation developed, metamathematical are used nearly interchange-
and first named by C. S. Peirce
(Monist, II, ably. Carnap, however, introduces many topics
534). He defined the theory as: "That tendency not considered by Hilbert, and further treats
of philosophical thought which insists upon the
not only the syntax of particular languages but
idea of continuity as of prime importance in
also general syntax, i.e., syntax relating to all
philosophy, and in particular, upon the necessity
languages in general or to all languages of a
of hypothesis involving true continuity." (Bald-
given kind.
win, Diet, of Philos. and Psych., N. Y. 1902,
Concerning Carnap's contention that philo-
II, 657). Continuity seems to have been the
sophical questions should be replaced by, or re-
name chosen by Peirce for the complete inter-
formulated as, syntactical questions,' see scientific
dependence and inter-relationship of all things.
empiricism I C, and Carnap's book cited below.
An explanation is not good which relies upon
A. C.
an inexplicable ultimate. In this he was reacting, R. The Logical Syntax
Carnap. of Language,
possibly, to such contemporary principles of New York and London. 1937. Review by S. Mic'
as Spencer's Unknown, and the Ltne, Bulletin of the American Mathematical So-
explanation vol. 44
ciety, J1938), pp. 171-176. Review by
Absolute of German and English Hegelianism.
4 0939)T. 82-87 .
J OUtn S^a >lic **** v l - ^
Synechism was no doubt an important fore-
runner of the Pragmatic theory of Synthesis: In method of de-
logic, the general
explanation,
but Peirce, in duction or deductive reasoning, which proceeds
describing synechism, stressed the
value of generalization, ("the form under from the simple to the complex, from the
which alone anything can be understood is the general to the particular, from the necessary
form of generality, which is the same to the contingent, from a principle to its applica-
thing
as continuity"), much more than modern prag- tion, from a general law to individual cases,
matism does. V.J.B. from cause to effect, from an antecedent to
Synechology: The doctrine that simple conscious its consequent, from a condition to the condi-

functions correspond to composite physical tioned, from the logical whole to the logical
events, the psycho-physical view of Fechner part.
(q.v.). K.F.L. 2. The logical composition or combination of

Synergism: (Gr. syn., with) and ergein, to separate elements of thought) and also the
work) The theological position that there is result of this process. A
judgment is considered
more than one principle actively working in the as a synthesis when its predicate is accidental
salvation of man) the term became common in or contingent with respect to the subject: ts
the 16th century disputes of Melancthon against the ground of such a synthesis is experience,
the "Monergism" of Luther) Melancthon held synthetic judgments are a posteriori. The
that the Holy Spirit, the Word of God, and the Kantian doctrine of synthetic judgments a priori
human will are three co-operating principles involves a synthesis between two terms, prior
in conversion. VJ.B. to experience and through the agency of the
Synkatathesis: Greek noun derived from syn, forms of our intuition or of our understanding.
together, and katathesis, to put down) hence 3. The logical process of adding some ele-
310 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
mentt to the comprehension of a concept in ments. Also, the complex substance so formed.
order to obtain iU 'logical division* in contra- T.G.
distinction to the 'real division' which breaks
Synthetic Judgment: (Kant. Ger. synthetische
up a composition by analysis. Urfeil) A judgment relating a subject concept
4. The third phase in the dialectical process,
with a not included within
predicate concept
combining the thesis and the antithesis for the the The of such a
subject proper. validity
emergence of a new level of being.
5. In natural philosophy } the process of com- judgment depends on its 'ground'. Kant's cen-
tral question was: "Are synthetic a priori judg-
bining various elements into a new
material
substance. The art of
making or building up a ments possible?" See Kantianism Scientific Em-
,

compound by simpler compounds or by its ele- piricism, See also Meaning^ kinds of, 2. O.F.K.
Ta: General name. "All substances necessarily (e) The Great Ultimate which is identical
call for such a name." (Neo-Mohism). W.T.C. with the Reason (li) of the universe, of the
Taboo or Tabu: Anthropological term of Poly- two (yin and yang) vital forces (ch'i), and of
nesian origin applied to persons or things with the Five Elements (wu hsing). It is the Reason
which contacts are borbidden under severe social of ultimate goodness. "Collectively there is only
and religious penalties. The primitive belief one Great Ultimate, but there is a Great Ulti-
in taboos, affording as it does religious sanc- mate in each thing." (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200).
tions for moral prohibitions, is of great ethical W.T.C.
significance and has even been considered by T'ai ch'u: At the 'great beginning* there was
some to be the origin of morality and ethics. non-being, which had neither being nor name.
L.W. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.).
Tabula rasa: Literally, a blank tablet. John The great origin, or the beginning of the vital
Locke (1632-1704) held that human knowledge force (ch'i). (Lieh Tzu, third century A.D.).
came by way of experience. The mind is like H.H.
a slate upon which experience records impres- T'ai Ho*: Grand Harmony or Infinite Harmony,
sions. This is a denial of innate, a priori the state and totality of being anterior to, but

knowledge. V.F. inclusive of, the Ultimate Vacuity (T'ai Hsu)

Ta i: 'The great unit', the greatest with nothing and the vital force (ch'i)} identical with the
beyond itself. (Sophism). H.H, One (I) or the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi).
Ta i: The Great Unit. See: t'ai i. (Chang Heng-ch'u, 1020-1077). VTT.C.
T'ai Chi: (a) The Great Ultimate or Terminus, T'ai Hsu: The Ultimate Vacuity, the course, the
which, the beginning of time, "engender*
in basis and the being of the material principle,
the TwoPrimary Modes (i), which in turn ch'i, or the universal vital force the concentra-
engender the Fouf Secondary Modes or Forms tion and extension of which is to the Ultimate

(hsiang), which m their turn give rise to the Vacuity as ice is to water. (Chang Heng-ch'u,
Eight Elements (pa kua) and the Eight Ele- 1020-1077). W.T.C.
ments determine all good and evil and the T'ai Hsuan: The Supremely Profound Principle,
great complexity of life." (Ancient Chinese "extending to and covering the myriad things
philosophy). without assuming ahy physical form, which
(b) The Great Ultimate which comes from, created the universe by drawing its support from
but is one with, the Non-Ultimate
originally the Void, embraces the divinities, and deter-
(wu chi). Its movement and tranquillity en- mines the course of events." (Yang Hsiung,
gender the active principle, yang, and the d.18 B.C.). WM\C.
passive principle, yin, respectively (the Two T'ai I: The Great Indeterminate, the state of

Primary Modes), the transformation and the existence before the emergence of the vital force
union of which give rise to the Five Agents (ch'i). (Lieh T,
third century A.D.). W.T.C.
(wu hsing) of Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and T'ai i: (a) The Great Unit, the Prime Force
Earth, and thereby the determinate things. before appearance of Heaven and Earth.
the
(Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073). Also called ta i. (Ancient Confucianism).
The Great Ultimate which is One and
(c) (b) Ultimate Oneness, which involves both
unmoved, and which, when moved, becomes the Being (yu) and Non-Being (wu) (as in Chuang
Omnipotent Creative Principle (shen) which Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.)} or "which
engenders Number, then Form, and finally pervades Heaven and Earth, indeterminate but
corporeality. Being such, the Great Ultimate is simple, existing but uncreated," (As in Huai-
identical with the Mind} it is identical with nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.).
the Moral Law (tao). (Shao K'ang-chieh, (c) The Lord of Heaven (Huai-nan Tzu).
1011-1077). W.T.C.
(d) The Great Ultimate which is identical T'ai Shih: The Great Beginning, the first ap-
with the One (1), or the Grand Harmony pearance of material form. W.T.C.
(T'ai Ho). (Chang Heng-ch'fl, 1020-1077). T'ai Su: The Great Element, the beginning of
312 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
qualities things. (Liek Tu, third century
of from it was printed its first edition by Bomberg,
A.D.). W.T.C. Venice, 1523-24. #.,,<?.
T'ai yangt The Major Mode of Activity. See Tamaa: (Skr.) One of the three gunas (q.v.)
Tai CM. of the Sankhya (q>v.), representing the principle
T'ai yin: The Major Mode of Passivity. See: of inactivity, sluggishness, and indifference in

TM CM. matter or prakfti (q.v.). K.F.L.

T'an: The opposite of 'grossness') remaining de-
Tai Tung-yuan: Chen, Tai Shen-hsiu,
(Tai
tached from all outside things} the climax of
1723-1777) came from
a poor family, self-
fineness. It is to have in oneself no contraries)
made to be a leader in oustanding intellectual
the climax of in the sense of 'un-
purity,
activities of the time, and became an authority
mixedness'. (Chuang Tru, between 399 and 295
in philology, mathematics, geography as well
as philosophy. By reinterpreting the teachings B.C.). H.H.
of Mencius, he attempted to rediscover the Tanmatra: (Skr.) One of the five "subtile
elements" in the philosophy of the Sankhya
original meanings of Confucius and Mencius.
His TM-shih l-shu (works) consists of 31 (q.v.) and other systems, corresponding to the
chdans in several volumes. W.T.C. matter apprehended in the sensation of sound,
and smell; generally, the
Ta Ku: Major cause. See: ku. touch, color, taste,
manifold of sensory experience, perhaps also the
Talmud: (Learning) An encyclopedic work in or sensation-generals, equivalent to
"reals",
Hebrew-Aramaic produced during 800 years bhutamatra (s.v.).~K.F.L.
(300 B.C.-500 A.D.) in Palestine and Babylon. Tantra: (Skr.) One of a large number of
Its six stdarim (orders) subdivided in 63
non-indogermanic Hindu and
treatises reflecting
maisektot (tractates) represent the -oral tradition
Mongolian influence, composed in the form of
of Judaism expounding and developing the re-
diaogues between Shiva (q.v.) and Durga (see
ligious ideas and civil laws of the written
Sakti) on problems of ritual, magic, philosophy,
special hermeneutic middot (measures) of
and other branches of knowledge. The Tantras,
law (i.e., the Hebrew Bible) by means of main current of Vedic (q.v.) think-
outside the
Rabbi Hillel, 13 of R. Ishmael and 32 of R.
ing yet sharing many of the deepest specula-
Eliezer of Galilee.
tions, stress cult and teach the supremacy of the
However, it is more than a mere commentary female principle as power or sakti (see
on the, old testament, but a veritable storehouse K.F.L.
Shaktism).
of ancient Jewish philosophy, theology, 'history,
Tantric: Adjective to Tantra (q.v.).
ethics, sciences, folklore, etc., that accumulated Tao: The Way-)
(a) principle} cosmic order}
during those eventful 8 centuries. The Talmud nature. "The Tao that can be expressed in
consists of an older layer, the Mishnah (q.v.)
words is not the eternal Tao." It is "vague
compiled in Palestine (200 A.D.) and younger and eluding," "deep and obscure," but "there
layer th* Gtmara (q.v.) as commentary on
is in it the form" and "the essence." "In it is
the former. The Gemara produced in Palestine
reality." It "produced the One) the One pro-
together with the Mishnah is known as the duced the two) the two produced the three) and
Jerusalem Talmud (q.v.) and the Gemara pro- the three "standard
produced all things." Its
duced in Babylon together with the same
is the Natural." (Lao Txfi).
Mishnah is known as the Babylonian Talmud. "Tao has reality and evidence but no action
Contemporary with the Talmud developed a nor form. It may be transmitted, but cannot
somehow similar literature closely related to be received. It may be attained, but cannot be
the text of (he Hebrew Bible and known as seen. It is its own essence, and its own root."
Midrash (interpretation), containing both "Tao and results follow," "Tao has
operates,
halakah (law) and aggada (homily). H.L.G. no limit." "It is in the "a tare," "a
ant,"
Talmud, Babylonian: The Palestine Mishna potsherd," "ordure." (Chuang Ttii, between 399
was carried to
Babylon by 7and studied and 295 B.C.).
generations of Amoraim in the Academies of
(b) The Confucian "Way)" the teachings of
Nehardea (under Samuel). H.L.G. the sagej the moral order) the moral life)
Talmud, Palestinian: Was arranged first by truth) the moral lawj the moral principle. This
Rabbi Johanan (d. 279 A.D.) and finally com- means "the fulfillment of the law of our human
piled early in the 5th century. It is based on nature." It is the path of man's moral life.
the Mishnah of R. Judah as interpreted in the "True manhood (Jen) is that by which a man
academies of Lydda, Caesaria, Sepphoris and is to be a man. Generally speaking, it is the
Tiberias (closed 425 A.D.). Its Getnaras ex- moral law." (Mencius, 371-289 B.C.). "To
tend presently only over 39 of the 63 tractates proceed according to benevolence and righteous-
of the Mishnah, but it is assumed that many ness is called the Way." (Han YQ, 767-824).
Gemaras were lost during the many persecutions. (c) The Way, which means following the
In the latest edition, the Palestine Talmud Reason of things, and also the Reason which is
occupies ca. 2663 pages. in everything and which everything obeys.
Wherever opinions differ, it is the Babylonian (Neo-Confucianism).
Talmud that is considered as authoritative for (d) The Way or Moral Law in the cosmic
the Jews. sense, signifying "what is above the realm of
A complete manuscript of the Palestinian corporeality," and the "successive movement of
Talmud it found in the Leiden Library, and the active (yang) and the passive principles
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 313

(yin)." In the Utter sense as understood both be quiet like purity Lao Tan (Lao Ttfi)
. . .'

in ancient Confucianism and in Neo-Confucian- said, 'Know manhood (active force), and pre-
ism, it is interchangeable with the Great Ulti- serve womanhood (passive force)) become the
mate (T'ai Chi). Shao K'ang-chieh (1011- ravine of the world. Know whiteness (glory))
1077) said that "The Moral Law is the Great endure blackness (disgrace)) become a model of
Ultimate." Chang Hng-ch'u (1022-1077) the world.* Men all seek the first) he alone
identified it with the Grand Harmony (Ta Ho) took the last . . Men all seek for happiness)
.

and said that "from the operation of the vital he alone sought contentment in adaptation . . .
force (ch'i) there is the Way." This means that He regarded the deep as the fundamental)
the Way is the principle of being as well as moderation as the rule . . .
the sum total of the substance and functions "Silent and therefore formless, changing and
of things. To Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107) therefore impermanent, now dead, now living,
"There is no Way independent of the active equal with Heaven and Earth, moving with the
(yang) principle and the passive (yin) prin- spiritual and the intelligent, disappearing
cile. Yet it is precisely the Way that deter- where ? Suddenly whither? . . . These were
mines the active and passive principles. These some aspects of the system of Tao of the
princiles are the constituents of the vital force ancients. Chuang Chow (Chuang Tzu) heard
(ch'i), which is cororeal. On
the other hand, of them and was delighted ... He had per-
the Waytranscends corporeality." To Chu Hsi sonal communion with the spirit of Heaven
(1130-1200), the Way is "the Reason why and Earth but no sense of pride in his superi-
things are as they are." Tai Tung-yuan (1723- ority to all things. He did not condemn either
1777) understood it to mean "the incessant right or wrong, so he was at ease with the
transformation of the universe," and "the opera- world . .Above he roams with the Creator)
.

tion of things in the world, involving the below he makes friends of those who transcend
constant flow of the vital force (ch'i) and beginning and end and make no distinctions
change, and unceasing production and reproduc- between life and death . ." W.T.C. .

tion. "-W.T.C. Tao chiao: The Taoist religion, or the religion

Tao chia: The Taoist school, the followers of which was founded on the exotic interpretation
Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Lieh Tzu, etc., who of the teachings of the Yellow Emperor and
"urged men to unity of spirit, teaching that all Lao Tzu (Huang Lao) that flourished in the
activities should be in harmony with the unseen Han dynasty (206 B.C. -220 A.D.), which
(Tao), with abundant liberality toward all assimilated the Yin Yang philosophy, the prac-
As to method, they accept the tice of alchemy, and the worship of natural
things in nature.
orderly sequence of nature from the Yin Yang objects and immortals, and which became highly
school, select the good points of Confucianists elaborated through wholesale imitation of the
and Mohists, and combine with these the im- Buddhist religion. W.T.C.
portant points of the Logicians and Legalists. Tao Hsueh: The "Moral Law" School. See:
In accordance with the changes of the seasons, It W.T.C.
ht&eh.
they respond to the development of natural Taoism: See: Tao chia and Chines* philosophy.
objects." Tao shu: The essence of Tao, or the axis of Tao
"By studying the principles of success and at the center of which all Infinities converge
failure, preservation and destruction, calamity and all distinctions disappear. (Chuang Tzfi,
and prosperity from ancient to recent times, they between 399 and 295 B.C.). W.T.C.
learn how to hold what ;s essential and to grasp Tapas: (Skr. heat) Austerity, penance) intense
the fundamental. They guard themselves with application of Yoga (q.v.). K.F.L.
purity and emptiness, in humility and weakness Tarka: (Skr.) Reasoning, logic; also a name for
they maintain themselves . . . Afterwards thoe the NySya (q.v.). K.F.L.
who act without restraint desired to reject learn- Ta shun: Complete harmony, as a result of the
ing and the rules of propriety, and at the same Profound Virtue or Mysterious Power. See:
They said that the world could be governed hsuan te. W.T.C.
time, discard benevolence and righteousness, Taste: a. The
faculty of judging art without
simply by purity and emptiness." rules, through sensation and experience.
"To regard the fundamental as the refined b. of preferences shown by an
The ensemble
essence and to regard things as its coarse em- artist in his choice of elements from nature

bodiment) to regard accumulation as deficiency; and tradition, for his works of art. L.V.
to dwell quietly and alone with the spiritual and Ta te: Universally recognized moral qualities of
the intelligent) these were some aspects of the man, namely, wisdom (chih), moral character
system of Tao of the ancients . . . They built (je"n), and courage (yung). (Confucianism).
their system upon the principle the eternal Non- W.T.C,
Being and centered it upon the idea of Ultimate Ta t'i: "The part of man which is great."
Unity. Their outward expression was weakness (Mencius). H.H.
and humility. Pure emptiness without injury to Tattva: (Skr.) "Thatness", "whatness", one of

objective things was for them true substance. the principles ranging from abstract factors oi
Kuan Yin said, "Establish nothing in regard conscious life to relations and laws governing
to oneself. Let things be what they are} move natural facts. The Trika (q.v.). knows 36
like water i be tranquil like a mirror) respond t&ttva: which come into play when the universe
like an echo. Pass quickly like the non-existent) "unfolds", i.e., is created by Shiva in an ad
314
variously symbol! red by the awakening of his
mind or a "shining forth" (see abhdsea).
Tat tvam asi: (Skr.) "That art thou", the sum
and substance of the instruction which &vetaketu
received from his father UddSlaka Aruni, ac-
cording to the Chandogya Upanishad. It hints
the identity of the self, atman, with the essence
of the world as the real, satya. K.F.L.
Ta t'ung: (a) The period of Great Unity and
Harmony the Confucian Utopia. (Early Con-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
God} in other essays, he declares that grounds
for belief are found in cosmology, in conscience
K.F.L. and in religious experience. As an Anglo-
Catholic, he has given (in volume two of his
Giffords) a learned apologia for this position,
on philosophical grounds. W.N.P.
Te: (a) Virtue} power} character} efficacy The
Individual Principle, Tao particularized or in-
herent in a thing, the "abode of Taoj" through
"the obtaining of which" a thing becomes what
it is.

fiicianism}K'ang Yu-wei, 1858-1929). (b) Virtue, moral character, "that which ob-
'(b) The Great Unity, Heaven and Earth tains in a person;" "that which Is sufficient in
and all things forming an organic unity. the self without depending on any external

(Ancient Chinese philosophy). W.T.C. help," referring particularly to benevolence and

Ta t'ung i: The great similarity-and-difference; righteousness which are natural to man (Han
all things are in one way all similar, in another Yu, 767-824 A.D.).
way all different. (Sophists). H.H. (c) Kindness.

Tauler, Johannes: (1300-1361) was an out- Techne: (Gr. techne) The set of principles, or
standing German mystic and preacher. Born rational method, involved in the production
of an object or the accomplishment of an end;
in Strassburg, he entered the Dominican Order
and did his and theological the knowledge of such principles or method}
philosophical
studies at Cologne, where he was probably art. Techne resembles episteme in implying
influenced by Eckhart. He was most interested knowledge of principles, but differs in that
in the ethical and religious aspects of mysticism, itsaim is making or doing, not disinterested
and, like Eckhart, he concentrated on an understanding. G.R.M.
analytical intuition of his own consciousness TeichmQller, Gustav: (1832-1888) Strongly in-

in his endeavor to grasp the immanent reality fluenced by Leibniz and Lotze and anticipating
of God. Die Predigten Tattlers, ed. F. Vetter, some recent philosophic positions, taught a
(Berlin, 1910) is the most recent edition of thoroughgoing personalism by regarding the
his sermons. V.J.B. "I'', given immediately in experience as a unit,
as the real substance, the world of ideas a
Tautology: As a syntactical term of the preposi-
projection of its determinations (perspectivism).
tional calculus this is defined in the article on
Nature is
appearance, substantiality being
logic,formal (q. v.). Wittgenstein and Ramsey
ascribed to it only in analogy to the "I". Con-
proposed to extend the concept of a tautology to
sciousness and knowledge are clearly separated,
disciplines involving quantifiers, by interpreting
the latter being specific and semiotic. Reality
a quantified expression as a multiple (possibly
is interpreted monadologically. K.F.L.
infinite) conjunction or disjunction; under this
Telegnosis: (Gr. tele, at a distance gnosis,
extension, however, it no longer remains true
that the test of a tautology is effective. knowledge) Knowledge of another mind which
The name law is presumably not mediated by the perception of
of tautology is given to either
of the two related theorems of the
his body nor by any other physical influence by
dually
which communication between minds is or-
prepositional calculus,
[p v p] p, & pp pt s dinarily mediated. See Intersubjective Inter-
or either of the two corresponding dually re- course, Telepathy. L.W.
lated theorems of the algebra of classes, Telegnostic situations: "Cognitive situations in
a **> a a, = a * a =. a.
which a mental event belonging to another
Whitehead and Russell reserve the name prin-
mind is the sole objective constituent." (Broad).
~/i./i.
ciple of tautology for the theorem of the propo-
sitional calculus, [p v p} => Telegram Argument: Argument for the efficacy
p, but use law of
of mind resting on a radical difference of
tautology in the above senses. A. C.
L. Wittgenstein, Tractates Logico-Pbilosophicus, response to two slightly differing stimuli because
New York and London, 1922. F. P. Ramsey, of their difference of meaning. The Telegram
The foundations of mathematics, Proceedings of
theLondon Mathematical Society, ser. 2, vol. 25 Argument is so called because of the illustration
(1926), pp. 338-384; reprinted in his book of of two telegrams: "Our son has been killed"
the same New York and London, 1931.
title, and "Your son has been killed" received by
Taylor, Alfred Edward: Born in 1869, pro- parents whose son is away from home and
fessor of philosophy at St. Andrews and Edin- whose difference of reading depends only on the
burgh, after teaching for many years at Oxford. presence or absence of the letter "Y". See C. D.
Taylor's metaphysics were predominantly Hegel- Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature,
ian and idealist (as in Elements of Metaphysics) pp. 118 ff.
during his early years } in later years (as in Teleoklin: Adjective meaning, tending toward a
numerous essays in Mind, and his Gifford purpose} used in German by Oskar Kohnstamm,
Lectures Faith of a Moralist) he has become born in 1871. He held that Teleoklise, the
something of a neo-scholastic, although he fol- inclination toward purposive activity, is a charac-
lows no school exclusively. In his Gifford teristic of all life. -JJ.R.
Lectures he argues from moral experience to Teleologieal Argument for God: (Gr. telos,
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 315
end or purpoie) Sometimes referred to at the Academia Telesiana, which he founded at
argument from design. Events, objects, or Naples, stressed empirical methods and Telesio
persons are alleged to reveal a kind of relation- tried to explain all physical phenomena in
ship which suggests a purpose or end toward terms of heat and cold, at expanding and
which they move. Such ends reveal a Fashioner contracting forces in matter. He wrote: De
or Designer who guides and directs toward the Natura rerum juxta propria principia (1570),
fulfillment of their functions. This Architect ed. V. Spampanato, 2 vol. (Modena-Genoa,
is God. Paley (1745-1805) in his Natural 1911-13). VJ.S.
Theology a classic expositor of the argument.
is Telos: (Gr. telos) The end term of a process j
Kant favored the argument, but held that it specifically, in Aristotle, the purpose or final
leaned too heavily upon the cosmological argu- cause. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
ment which in turn rested upon the ontological, Temple, William: For many years Archbishop
both of which crumbled when critical analysis of York, Temple (born 1881) has written ex-
is applied. V.F. tensively on the philosophy of religion. In
Teleological ethics: A species of axiological Mtns Creatrix and most recently in Nature
ethics which makes the determination of the Man and God, he has argued for a universe of
Tightness of an action wholly dependent on an levels, culminating in value, and pointing to
estimate of its actual or probable conduciveness God as Supreme Value and hence Ultimate
to some end or of its actual or probable pro- Reality. Recent work on the nature of revela-
ductiveness, directly or indirectly, of the maxi- tion has given him the definition of revelation
mum good. E.g., utilitarianism. W.K.F. as "coincidence of divinely guided event and
Teleological Idealism: Name given by Lotze divinely guided apprehension") in this setting
for his system of semi-monistic personalism.WX. he places (see Christ the Truth) the Incarna-
Teleological Personalism: The doctrine that tion as central and most significant event
God is to be thought of not as First, but as apprehended by the Christian community. He is
Final Cause. Applied to Lotze and Howison. ' a Platonist in tendency, although within recent
R.T.F. years this has been modified by scholasticism,
Teleology: (Gr. telos, end, completion) The and a study of Marxian philosophy. W.N.P.
theory of purpose, ends, goals, final causes, Tension: Since normal mental life oscillates
values, the Good (s.). The opposite of Mech- between two extremes: a plane of action in
anism. As opposed to mechanism, which ex- which sensori-motor functions occur, and a plane
plains the present and the future in terms of of dream, in which we live our imaginative
the past, teleology explains the past and the life, of which memory is a major part, there
present in terms of the future. Teleology as are as many corresponding intermediate planes
such does not imply personal consciousness, as there are degrees of 'attention to life',

volition, or intended purpose (q.v.). adaptation to reality. The mind has a power sui
1. Phyaics, Biology: See Vitalism. generis to produce contractions and expansions
2. Psychology: See Hormic, Instinct, Hedon- of itself. Calling attention to the need of dis-
ism , Voluntarism. tinguishing various heights of tension or 'tones'
3. Epistemology: the view that mind is guided in psychic life, Bergson interprets the life of
or governed by j purposes, values, interests, "in- the universe and the life of human personality
stinct",as well as by "factual", "objective" or in terms of tension. H.H.
logical evidence in its pursuit of truth (see Term : In common English usage the word "term"
Fideism, Voluntarism, Pragmatism, Will-to -be- is syntactical or semantical character, and
in
lieve, Value judgment). means simply a word (or phrase), or a word
4. Metaphysics: The doctrine that reality is associated with its meaning. The phrase "un-
ordered by goals, ends, purposes, values, formal defined term" as used in mathematical postulate
or final causes (q.v.). theory (see mathematics) is perhaps best referred
5. Ethics: The view that the standard of to this common meaning of "term." In tradi-
human life is value, the Good, rather than duty, tional logic, a term is a concept appearing as
law, or formal decorum. W.L. subject or predicate (q. v.). of a categorical
Teleosis : Noun used in German by Ernst Haeckle proposition) also, a word or phrase denot-
(1834-1919) denoting organic improvement or ing such a concept. The word "term" has
perfection. -JJ.R. also employed in a syntactical sense in
been
Telepathy: (Gr. tele, at a distance -|- pathein, various special developments of logistic systems
to experience) The phenomenon of direct com- (q. v.), usually in a way suggested by the
tradi-
munication between two minds separated by a tional usage.

great distance and without the normal operation
of the organs of sense. Telepathy
variety of telegnosis (see Telegnosis)
is characterized by its felt directness or
diacy. L.W.
Telesio, Bernardino: (1508-1588) was one of
the fathers of the scientific movement of the
Renaissance. He was born at Cosenza, near
Naples, studied philosophy and mathematics at
Padua, and natural science at Rome. The
The mathematical use of the word "term"
is a sub- appears in such phrases as "the terms of a sum"
which (i.e., the separate numbers which are added to
imme- form the sum, or the expressions for them),
"the terms of a polynomial," "the terms of a
proportion," "the terms of an infinite series," etc.
Similarly one may speak of "the terms of a
logical sum," and the like. A.C.
Terminitm: See Nominalism.
Tertiary Qualities: Those qualities which are
316 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
said to be imparted to objects by the mind. In Semitic thinkers, Christian apologetics, ancient
contrast to primary and secondary qualities and modern metaphysical idealists, and by
which are directed toward the objects (primary natural science philosophers. Transcendency of
being thought of distinctly a part of objects) God removes him from human affairs, renders
tertiary qualities are the subject's reactions to fellowship and communication in Church ways
them. A thing, for example, is said to be ineffectual, yet preserves God's majesty and
good: The good points to the subject's reaction absoluteness such as is postulated by philosophies
rather than to the object itself. V.F. which introduce the concept of God for want
Tertii adjacentis: Latin expression employed to of a terser term for the
ultimate, principal
describe a proposition in which the subject, reality. Like Descartes and Spinoza, they allow
and copula the personal in God to fade and
predicate, are clearly distinguishable. approach the
JJ.R. age-old Indian pantheism evident in much of
Vedic and post-Vedic philosophy in which the
Tertium comparationis : (Lat.) A basis of
comparison. VJ.B. personal pronoun may be the only distinguishing
Tertium non datur: See Excluded middle, law of. mark between metaphysical logic and theology,
Tertium quid: (Lat.) A third something) a similarly as in Hegel. The endowment postu-
term to be discovered in addition to two original lated of God lends character to a theistic

ones. VJ.B. system of philosophy. Much of Hindu and Greek

Tertullian: A Christian philosophy stresses the knowledge and reason
(165-220) prominent
aspect of the deity, thus producing an epistemo-
Apologist, later the leader of the sect of the
logical theismj Aristotle, in conceiving him as
Montanists. He took an excessively dogmatic
the prime mover, started a
position toward faith, regarded it as standing teleological one}
above reason, and expressed the attitude in his mysticism is psychologically oriented jn its
famous statement "Credo quia absurdum est". theism, God being a feeling reality approach-
able in appropriate emotional states. The theism
Cf. Migne PL (vols. 1, 2). R.B.W.
of religious faith is and
unquestioning pragmatic
Tetractys: Literally the Greek term signifies, in its attitude toward
an aggregate of four; specifically it was applied God) theology has often
felt the need of offering proofs for the existence
to the Pythagorean perfect number, ten, which
of God (see God), thus tending toward an
is the sum of
one, two, three, and four. JJ.R.
theism j
ontological metaphysics incorporates
Thales: 6th Cent. B.C.} of the Milesian School occasionally the concept of God as a thought
of Greek Philosophy} is said to have predicted
necessity, advocating a logical theism. Kant's
the eclipse of 585; had probably been to Egypt
critique showed the respective fields of pure
and was proficient in mathematics and physics. philosophic enquiry and theistic speculations with
Thales, with the other cosmological
along their past in historic creeds. Theism is left a
thinkers of the Ionian school, presupposed a
possibility in agnosticism (q.v.). K.F.L.
single elementary cosmic matter at the base of In discussions of
religion, syn. for the belief
the transformations of nature and declared this in a personal God. God is here usually con-
to be water. M.F. ceived of as Creator, as having brought into
Thanatism: A term employed by Ernst Haeckel existence realities other than himself
which,
1834-1919) to express his doctrine of the though he is not completely (although for
mortality of annihilation of the human soul; certain purposes, partly) dependent
upon them,
the contrary of athanatism, immortality. JJ.R. nevertheless are dependent upon him. Theism
Theism: (Gr. theos, god) Is in general that has characteristically held to a combination of
type of religion or religious philosophy (see both the transcendence and immanence of God.
Religion, Philosophy of) which incorporates a V.F.
conception of God as a unitary being,, thus may Theistic Personal ism: The theory most gen-
be considered equivalent to monotheism. The erally held by Personalists that God is the
speculation as to the relation of God to world ground of all being, immanent in and tran-
gave rise to three great forms: God identified scendent over the whole world of
reality. It is
with world in pantheism (rare with emphasis on pan-psychic but avoids pantheism by asserting
God)) God, once having created the world, the complementary nature of immanence and
relatively disinterested in it, in deism (mainly transcendence which come together in and are
an 18th cent, phenomenon)) God working in in some degree essential to all personality. The
and through the world, in theism proper. Ac- term used for the modern form of theism.
cordingly, God either coincides with the world, Immanence and transcendence are the contra-
is external to it (deus ex machina), or is pletes of personality. R.T.F.
immanent. The more personal, human-like God, Thelematism: Noun derived from the Greek,
the more theological the theism, the more ap- thelema, will. The equivalent of voluntarism,
pealing to a personal adjustment in prayer, employed in
German, if at in
scarcely, all,
worship, etc., which presuppose either that God, English. JJ.R,
being like man, may be swayed in his decision, Thelematology: (from Gr. thelema, will) The
has no definite plan, or subsists in the Very doctrine of the nature and phenomenology of
stuff man is made of (humanistic theism). the will.JC.F.L.
Immanence of God entails agency in the world, Thema: A term proposed by Bturggndicius to
presence, revelation, involvement in the historic indicate a sign which signifies its object directly
process) it has been justified by Hindu and as a result of a convention or intellectual
insight
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 317

without the necessity of factual connection in templated truth. For Aristotle, pure knowledge
previous experience. C.A.B. as opposed to the practical. An
abstraction from
Theocracy: (Gr. theos, godj kratos, govern- practice. The principle from which practice
ment, power) A view of political organization proceeds. Opposite of: practice. J.K.F.
in which God is sole ruler. All political laws (1) Hypothesis. More loosely: supposition,
come under what is held to be the Divine Will. whatever is problematic, verifiable but not veri-
Church and State become one. Examples: the fied.

development of the Hebrew ideal and Judaism; (2) (As opposed to practice): systematically
Mohammedan politics; Calvinism in Geneva; organized knowledge of relatively high gen-
Puritan New England. V.F. erality. (See "the theory of light").

Theocrasy: (Gr. theos god; krasis a mixture) (3) (As opposed to laws and observations):
a) A mixture of the worship of different explanation. The deduction of the axioms and
gods. theorems of one system from assertions (not
b) The intimate union of the soul with God in necessarily verified) from another system and
of a relatively less problematic and more intel-
contemplation as in NeoPlatonism. V.F.
Theodicy: (Gr. theos, god; dike, justice)
The ligible nature.
technical term for the problem of justifying the (Note: Since criteria of what is 'intelligible*
character of a good, creative and responsible and 'problematic' are subjective and liable to
God in the face of such doubts as arise by the fluctuation, any definition of the term is bound
If God is good, why evil? V.F. to be provisional. It might be advisable to
fact of evil.
Title of Leibniz's essay on evil (Essai de distinguish between laws (general statements in
a system), principles
Theodicee). (axioms), and theories
Theology: (Gr. theos, god; logos, study) Simply (methods for deriving the axioms by means of
stated, theology is a study of the question
of appropriate definitions employing terms from
God and the relation of God to the world of other systems). M.3.
reality. Theology, in the widest sense of the Theosis: The ultimate absorption of the soul into

term, is a branch of philosophy, '.*., a special Deity. V.F.

field of philosophical inquiry having to do with Theosophy: (Gr., lit. "divine wisdom") is a
God. However, the term is widely employed to term introduced in the third century by Am-
mean the theoretical expression of a particular monius Saccas, the master of Plotinus, to
religion. In the latter sense, theology becomes identify a recurring tendency prompted often by
"Christian", "Presbyterian",
"Jewish", "Re- renewed impulses from the Orient, but implicit
formed", etc. When thus employed, theology in mystery schools as that of Eleusis, among
becomes in a narrow sense "historic", "system- the Essenes and elsewhere. Theosophy differs
atic", "polemic", "ecclesiastical", "apologetic", from speculative philosophy in allowing validity
to some classes of mystical experience as regard
etc., phases of theoretical discussions within a
particular religious faith. Theology need not soul and spirit, and in recognising clairvoyance
have any necessary reference to religion; it may and telepathy and kindred forms of perception
be a purely theoretical discussion about God as linking the worlds of psyche and body. Its

and God's relation to the world on a dis- content describes a transcendental field as the
interested plane*- of free inquiry. V.F. only real (approximating to Brahman, Nous, and
Theomachy: (Gr. theoi, machein, battle against Pleroma) from which emerge material universes
the gods), a term implying opposition to the in series, with properties revealing that supreme
divine will. K.F.L. Being. Two polarities appear as the first mani-
Theophany: (Gr. theos, God; phaino, to ap- festing stage, consciousness or spirit (Brahma,
pear) The manifestation of God to man by Chaos, Ghost), and matter or energy
Holy
actual appearance. V.F. (Siva,Logos, Father). Simultaneously, life ap-
Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.), the most im-
: pears clothed in matter and spirit, as form or
portant and friend of Aristotle, left
disciple species (Vishnu, Cosmos, Son). In a sense,
voluminous writings of which only fragments life is the direct reflection of the transcendent

are extant; they dealt with many topics of supreme, hence biological thinking has a privi-
philosophy and science (notably, botany) and leged place in Theosophy. Thus, cycles of life
defended his master's philosophy against rival are perceived in body, psyche, soul and spirit.
schools of thought, particularly against Stoics. The lesser of these is reincarnation of im-
Cf. Characters of Theophrastus. R.B.W. personal soul in many personalities. A larger
Theorem: (Gr. theorema, a sight, theory, epoch is "the cycle of necessity", when spirit
theorem) Any proposition which is demonstrated evolves over vast periods. F.K.
in terms of other more basic propositions. Thesis: (Gr. thesis) In Aristotle's logic (1) an
A.C.B. undemonstrated proposition used as a premiss
Theoretical Reason: (Kant. Ger. theoretische in a syllogism, sometimes distinguished from

Vernunft) Reflective thought dealing with cogni- axiom in that it need not be self-evident or
tion, knowledge land science. Contrasted with intrinsically necessary; (2) any proposition con-
practical reason (q.v.) which is concerned with trary to general opinion but capable of being
moral and religious intuitions. See Kantianism. supported by reasoning. See Antithesis, Dialectic^
O.F.K. Synthesis. G.R.M.
Theory: (Gr. theoria, viewing) The hypothetical Thetics: (from Grk. Thetikps) According to
universal aspect of anything. For Plato, a con- Kant the sum total of all affirmations.- AT.K.L.
318 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Theurgy: (Gr. theos, god; ergon, work) The (Tai Tung-yUan, 1723-1777).Pf.r.C.
work of some supernatural agency in
divine, T'ien ti: Heaven and Earth:
the affairs of men, generally by direct interven- (a) as the universe;
tion. V.F. (b) as the origin of life;
^

Thnetopsychite : (Gr.) One who confesses the doc- (c) as the consolation of the pure and impure
trine that the soul dies when the body dies and vital forces (ch'i) respectively}
rises when it is resurrected. K.F.L. (d) as the active or male (yang) and the
Thought-Transference: Equivalent to Teleg- passive or female (yin) phases of the universe,
nosis. See Telegnosis. L.W. respectively. W T.C.
.

Thoreau, Henry David: (1817-1862 One of Timarchy: (Gr.) A type of government charac-
the leading American transcendentalists, of the terized by voluntary or ace 1 amatory rule of
Concord group. He was a thoroughgoing in- worthy and competent men, not aristocrats.
dividualist, most famous for the attempts to be AT.FX.
self-sufficient that he recounts so brilliantly in Time: The general medium in which all events
his diaries, lectures, essays and expositions, such take place in succession or appear to take place
was the famous "Walden". L.E.D. in succession. All specific and finite periods
Tit (a) The Confucian anthropomorphic Lord of time, whether past, present or future, consti-
or Supreme Lord (Shang Ti), almost inter- tute merely parts of the entire and single Time.
changeable with Heaven (T'ien) except that Ti Common-sense interprets Time vaguely as some-
refers to the Lord as the directing and govern- thing moving toward the future or as something
ing power whereas Heaven refers to the Lord in which events point in that direction. But
in the sense of omnipresence and all-inclusive- the many contradictions contained in this notion
ness. have led philosophers to postulate doctrines
(b) The world-honored deities (such as those purporting to eliminate some of the difficulties
of the four directions and the Five Elements). implied in common-sense ideas. The first famous
(c) Mythological sovereigns whose virtues but unresolved controversy arose in Ancient
approximate those of Heaven and Earth. Greece, between Parmenides, who maintained
W.T.C. that change and becoming were irrational illu-
Ti: Also t'i. sions, and Heraclitus, who asserted that there
(a) Respect for elders. See: hsiao. was no permanence and that change charac-
(b) Brotherliness. terized everything without exception. Another
(c) Younger brother. W.T.C. great controversy arose centuries later between
T'i: Generic relationship or part and whole disciples of Newton and Leibniz. According to
relationship, one of the proofs of agreement. Newton, time was independent of, and prior
See:Mo W.T.C.
cht. to, events; in his own words, "absolute time,
Ti chih tse: 'The pattern of the Lord', by which and mathematical time, of itself, and from its
is meant the political and social regulations own nature, flows equably without regard to
instituted by the supreme ruler or emperor on anything external." According to Leibniz, on
high. (Taoism). H.H. the other hand, there can be no time indepen-
T'ien: A material or physical sky, spoken in dent of events: for time is formed by events
opposition ruling or presiding
to earth* a and relations among them, and constitutes the
Heaven, anthropomorphic by nature i a fatalistic universal order of succession. It was this latter
heaven, one equivalent to Nature; an ethical doctrine which eventually gave rise to the doc-
heaven, one having a moral principle and trine of space-time, in which both space and
which is the highest primordial principle of time are regarded as two systems of relations,
the universe. HJi, distinct from a perceptual standpoint, but in-

T'ien chfi: The 'evolution of nature' is the separably bound together in reality. All these
controversies led many thinkers to believe that
change things undergo from one form to an-
the concept of time cannot be fully accounted
other, the beginning and end of whose changes
are like a circle, in which no part is any more for, unless we distinguish between perceptual,
the beginning than another part. (Chuang Tzu, or subjective, time, which is confined to the
between 399 and 295 B.C.). The mind is the perceptually shifting 'now' of the present, and
'natural ruler'. (Hsiin Tzfi, c335-c288 B.C.). conceptual, or objective, time, which includes
H.H. all periods of time and in which the events we
T'ien i: The evolution of nature is the 'boundary call past, present and future can be mutually
and related. See
of nature'. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 fixedly Becoming, Change,
B.C.). H.H. Duration, Persistence, Space-Time. R.B.W.
T'ien Jen: The heavenly man, one "who is not Time- Arrow: The general direction of change
separated from The Natural." (Taoism).
in time; is supposed to point toward the future.
W.T.C. The concept was suggested by A. S. Eddington.
T'ien Heaven-endowed nature.
li: (a) R.B.W.
(b) The Reason of Heaven the Divine $
Timeless: Having no end in time, pertaining to

Law; the moral principle of Heaven which is no time, or transcending time. R.B.W.
embodies in benevolence, righteousness, pro- Time-perception: The apprehension of the pro-
and wisdom (ssfi tuan) (Chu Hsi, tensive or durational character of the data of
priety,
11300-1200)} the Law of Nature, which is the experience. See Dimensions of Consciousness i
Reason (li) in all things and is impartial. Pro tensity. L. W.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 319

Timoiogy: (Gr. time, esteem, dignity j logos, Transcendent: (L. transcendent: to climb over,
stud/ of) A
term meaning a study of excellence surpass,go beyond) That which is beyond, in
or worth. More particularly, the term refers any of several senses. The opposite of the im-
to a theory of value which holds that value manent (q.v.).
has an intrinsic worth apart from considerations In Scholasticism notions are transcendent
1.

of any particular point of view. Opposed, e.g., which cannot be subsumed under the Aristotelian
to the view that value is relative to an indi- categories.The definitive list of transcendentia
vidual. A
notable expounder of the timological comprises ens, unum, bonum, verum, res t and
view in theory of value is G. E. Moore. V.F. aliquid.
Timon of Phlius: (320-230 B.C.) A sceptic 2. For Kant whatever
is beyond possible ex-

who held that an ultimate knowledge of things perience transcendent, and hence unknowable.
is

was beyond man's capacity. Author of Sillot. 3. Metaphysics and

Theology: God (or the
See Pyrrho, teacher of Timon. M.F. Absolute) is said to be transcendent in the
Tone: (Music) The following senses: (a) perfect, i.e., beyond limita-
larger intervals in diatonic
tion or imperfection (Scholasticism)-,
scale. b) incom-
prehensible (negative theology, mysticism)} c)
(Painting) The modification of colors through
remote from Nature (Deism)} d) alienated from
the general effect of light and shade. L.V.
natural man (Barthianism). Pluralism
posits the
Topics: (Gr. Topika) The title of a treatise by
essential mutual transcendence of substances or
Aristotle on dialectical reasoning, so named
reals.
because the material is grouped into convenient
4. Epistemology: Epistemological dualism (q.
in
topoi, or common-places of argument, useful
v.) holds that the real transcends apprehending
examining an opponent's assertions. See Dia-
consciousness, i.e., is directly inaccessible to it.
lectic. G.RM.
Totemism: Of A Thought is said to be "self-transcendent" when
(Totem, Ojibway origin)
held to involve essentially reference beyond it-
feature of primitive social organization whereby '
self (s. intentionality).
the members of a tribe possess group solidarity
5. Ethics: Moral idealism posits the tran-
by virtue of their association with a class of scendence of the will over Nature (see Free-
animals or in some cases plants or inanimate
dom). W.L.
objects. The primitive conception of the totem
as the essential unity and solidarity among the
Transcendent Reference: The reference of a
different members of a class of men and of mental state to something beyond itself. See
animals may have the way for the Reference. L.W.
prepared
philosophical doctrine of substantival universals Transcendental: (Ger. transcendental) In Kant's
and of the participation of many individuals in Philosophy: Adjective applied to the condition
a single universal. L.W. of experience or anything relating thereto. Thus
Totum divisum: Latin expression denoting a transcendental knowledge is possible while
whole having some kind of unity, which is to transcendent knowledge is not. In the Dialec-
be divided,or is capable of division. Thus a tic, however, the term transcendental is often

logical whole, some general idea, may be used where one would expect transcendent.
broken up into smaller classes, or members, A.C.E.
according to some principle of division, or point Transcendental analytic: The first part of Kant's
of view. JJ.R. Logic} its function is "the dissection of the whole
Trace Theory of Memory: Physiological ex- of our a priori knowledge into the elements of
planation of memory through the conservation the pure cognition of the understanding," (Kritik
of traces in the nervous system. Opposed to d. reinen Vernunft, Part II, div. I, tr. M.
the theory of Mnemic causation. See Mnemic Muller, 2nd ed., pp. 50-1); to be distinguished
Causation. L.W. from (1) Transcendental Aesthetic, which
Traditionalism: In French philosophy of the studies the a priori forms of sensation, and (2)

early nineteenth century, the doctrine that the Transc. Dialectic, which attempts to criticize the
truth particularly religious truth is never dis- illusory and falsifying arguments based on
covered by an individual but is only to be found a priori principles. V.J.B.
in "tradition". was revealed in potentia at
It Transcendental idealism: See Idealism. A.C.E.
a single moment God and has been develop-
by Transcendental Illusion: (Kant. Ger. trans-
ing steadily through history. Since truth is an szendentaler Schein) An illusion resulting from
attribute of ideas, the traditionalist holds that
the tendency of the mind to accept the a priori
ideas are super-individual. They are the prop-
forms of reason, valid only in experience, as
of society and are found embedded in
constituting the nature of ultimate reality. Thus
erty
language which was revealed to primitive man we are led, according to Kant, to think Ideas,
by God at the creation. The main traditionalists such as God, World, and Soul, though we can-
were Joseph de Maistre, the Vicomte de Bonald, not know them. See Kantianism. O.F.AT.
and Bonetty. G.B. Transcendental method: (In Kant) The analy-
Traducianism : The view that the soul (as well sis (a priori forms of intui-
of the conditions
as the body) is generated from the souls of
tion, categories of the understanding, ideals of
parents. A doctrine dating back to Tertullian reason) that make possible human experience
(200 A.D.). The process of natural propagation and knowledge. See Kantianism.
procreates the soul. V.F. Transcendental Ger. trans-
Object: (Kant.
320 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
xendentale Objekt) The pure rational which V whatsoever. They are: Being, Thing, Something,
Kant defines as the general form of object or One, True, Good. While thing (res) and
the object as such. It is not a particular con- being (ens) arc synonymous, the other four
crete object, but the ideal objective correlate of name properties of being which, however, are
pure consciousness as such. It is the object only virtually distinct from the concept to which
which the mind seeks to know in each empirical they apply. R.A.
cognition. See Kantianism. O.F.K. Transfinite induction: A generalization of the
Transcendental Philosophy: 1. Kant's name method of proof by mathematical induction or
for his proposed a priori science of pure science recursion (see recursion, proof by), applicable
("pure reason") which would include both a to a well-ordered class of arbitrary ordinal
detailed analysis of its fundamental
concepts number especially one of ordinal number
and a complete list of all derivative notions. greater than omega (see ordinal in
number)
Such a study would go beyond the purpose and a way similar to that in which mathematical
scope of his Critique of Pure Reason. induction is
applicable to a
well-ordered class
2. Name
given to Kant's philosophy. of ordinalnumber omega. A.C.
Schelling's term for his science of
3. Mind, Transfinite ordinals: See ordinal number.
as opposed to the science of Nature. Transformator: In R. Reininger's philosophy,
4. Transcendentalism (q.v.). W.L. the agent or factor bringing about the change
Transcendental proof: In Kant's Philosophy: from the physical sensation or perception to
Proof by showing that what is proved is a experience as something psychic. K.F.L.
necessary condition without which human ex- "Transitive States": (Lat. transire, to passover)
perience would be impossible and therefore valid W. James* term which designates those
of all phenomena. A.C.E. parts of the stream of thought which effect a
Transcendentalism: Any doctrine giving em- transition from one substantive state to another.
phasis to the transcendent or transcendental See Substantive States. L.W.
(q.V.). Transitivity: A dyadic relation R is transitive
Originally, a convenient synonym for the
1. if, whenever xRy and yRz both hold, xRz also
"transcendental philosophy" (q.v.) of Kant and holds. Important examples of transitive relations
Schelling. are: the relation of or equality j the
identity
2. By
extension, post-Kantian idealism. relation than among whole numbers, or
less
Any idealistic philosophy positing the im-
3.
among rational numbers, or among real num-
manence of the ideal or spiritual in sensuous bers j the relation precedes among instants of
experience. time (as usually taken); the relation of class in-
4. The philosophy
of the Absolute (q.v.), the clusion,
=
( 8Ce i ogiC) j orm al, 7)* the rela-
doctrine of: a) the immanence of the Absolute tions of material implication and material
equiv-
in the finite $ b) the transcendence of the Ab- alence among propositions; the relations of
solute above the finite conceived as illusion or formal and formal equivalence
implication
"unreality". among monadic propositional functions. In the
5. A name, originally pejorative, given to prepositional calculus, the laws of transitivity of
and later adopted by an idealistic movement material implication and material
equivalence
in New England centering around the informal (the conditional and biconditional) are:
and so-called "Transcendental Club," organized IP => *][* =. r] = [p a r ],
at Boston in 1836. An outgrowth of the [p 3
q}[q 55 r] = [p =5 ,].
romantic movement, its chief influences were Similar laws of transitivity may be formulated
Coleridge, Schelling, and Orientalism. While for equality (e.g., in the functional calculus of
it embodied a general attitude rather than a firstorder with equality), class inclusion,
(e.g.,
systematically worked out philosophy, in general in the Zermelo set
theory), formal implication
it opposed Lockean empiricism, materialism, (e.g., in the pure functional calculus of first
rationalism, Calvinism, Deism, Trinitarianism, order), etc. A.C.
and middle-class commercialism. Its metaphysics Transmigration of Souls: See Metempsychosis.
followed that of Kant and post-Kantian ideal- Trans-ordinal laws: Connecting properties of
ism posited the immanance of the divine in aggregates of different orders. Laws connecting
finite existence, and tended towards the characteristics of
pantheism inorganic things with
(Emerson's "Nature", "Oversoul", "The Trans- living things. (Broad). H.H.
cendentalist"). Its doctrine of knowledge was Transpathy: (Lat. trans, across -f pathos, feeling)
idealistic and intuitive. Its ethics embraced As distinct from sympathy is feeling engendered
idealism, individualism, mysticism, reformism, by 'contagion'. In sympathy the function of
and optimism regarding human nature. Theo-
'after-experiencing' is so interwoven with true
logically it was autosoteric, Unitarian, and sympathy that an experienced separation of the
broadly mystical (Theo. Parker's "The Transient two never occurs. In the case of transpathy,
and Permanent in Christianity"). the two functions are distinctly separated from
6. Popularly, a pejorative term for any view each other in experience. Transpathy takes
that is "enthusiastic", "mystical", extravagant, place between emotional states, presupposes no
impractical, ethereal, supernatural, vague, ab- knowledge of the other's joy or sorrow. One
struse, lacking in common sense. W.L. detects afterwards that an emotion which one
Transcendental* (Scholastic): The transcen- finds in oneself derives from
'contagion', which
dentalia are notions which apply to any being took place in an earlier gathering. See Sympathy.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 321

Transposition: The form of valid inference of

the propotitional calculus from A = B
3 ~A. The law of transposition is
rem of the propoiitional calculus,
[*=>*] 3 [~* = ~*].
Tran subjective Reference: (Lat. trans,
-f- subjectivus from subjicere) The reference of
an item of thought to an object independent
of the knowing subject. L.W.
Transvaluation of values: Nietische's proposal
of revolutionizing the reigning tendencies and
H.H.
sentiments of one's age.
Trendelenbur*, Friedrich Adolf: (1802-1872)
A German idealist who attempted to substitute
the concept of 'motion' for Hegel's dialectics j
the central theme of his writings is the notion
of purpose. R.B.W.
Main works: Logitche Untersuchungent 1840;
Die sittliche Idee des Rechts, 1849) Naturrecht
aufdem Ofunde d*r Ethik 1860.
t
relationship of the three led to the formulation
to ~B by the Council of Nicea in 325, and after fur-
the theo- ther disputes, by the Council of
Constantinople
in 381 of the orthodox Trinitarian creed (the
A. C.
Niceno-Constantinopolitan). Roman and Greek
across Catholicism split on the doctrine of the status
of the H.S. The Western church added die
expression 'filioque" (the H.S. proceeding "and
from the Son") making more explicit the com-
plete equality of the three} the Eastern church
maintained the original text which speaks of the
H.S. as "proceeding from thet Father." Or-
thodox Protestantism maintains the Trinitarian
conception. V.F.
Tripitaka: "The Three Baskets", the Buddhistic
Canon as finally adopted by the Council of
Sthaviras, or elders, held under the auspices of
Emperor Aioka, about 24S B.C., at Pitaliputra,
consisting of three parts: "The basket of discip-
and
line", "the basket of (Buddha's) sermons",

Trichotomy: (Gr. tricha, threefold) temno, to "the basket of metaphysics." -K.F.L.

cut) Literally, a division into three parts. More Tritheism: Name given to the opinions of John
specifically: the doctrine that man consists of
Philoponus, the noted commentator on Aristotle,
soul, body and spirit. This view appears as a
Conon, Bishop of Tarsus, and Eugenius, Bishop
later doctrine in the Old Testament, in Stoic
of Seleucia in Isauria, leaders of a group of
thought and was held by St. Paul. V.F.
Monophysites of the sixth century, which were
Trika: An Indian philosophic system founded by understood in the sense that the Father, Son,
Vasugupta in the 9th cent. A.D., having and Holy and
Spirit are three partial substances
flourished among the Shivaites of Kashmir till
distinct individuals, consequently three Gods.
the 14th cent., and now reviving along with
Any similar doctrine is usually called Tritheism.
the Southern, Tamil, offshoot of the Shaiva-
JJ.R.
siddhinta. Its aim is the recognition of Shiva
as one's own inmost nature (see pratyabhijnd)
Trivium: (Lat. tres, and'viae, three ways) The
first three disciplines in the mediaeval, educa-
from which ensues progressive dissolution of
tional system of seven liberal arts. The trivium
manifoldness and reduction of the threefold
includes: grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. See
(trika) reality of Shiva, sakti (q.v.), and soul
Quadrivium. VJ.S.
to Oneness, thus reversing the "unfolding" of
the universe through the 36 tattvas (q.v.). Truth: See also Semiotic 2.

K.F.L. Truth: A characteristic of some prepositional

See Proof by cases. meanings, namely those which are true. Truth
Trjlemma: as of "ideas"
is today
Trimurti: (Skr. The Hindu (or falsity) predicated
paving three shapes)
trinity, religiously interpreted as the three gods normally restricted to those which are preposi-
tional in nature, concepts being spoken of as
Brahm9-Vishnu-Shiva, or metaphysically as the
three principles of creation-maintenance-destruc- being exemplified or not rather than as being
tion operative in cosmo-psychology. K.F.L. true or false. Truth is predicable indirectly of

Trinitarianism : a) Referring to a Roman Cath- sentences or symbols which express true mean-
olic order founded in 1198 to redeem Christian ings. (See Truth, semantical.)
captives from Mohammedans. It is customary to distinguish between the

The usual meaning of the term: the doc- nature of truth and the tests for truth. There
b)
trine of the Trinitarians who hold that the are three traditional theories as to the nature
nature of God is one in substance and three in of truth, each finding various expression in
embodiment (Latin: persona)/ Upon the basis the works of different exponents. (1) According
of Platonic realism (q.v.) which makes the to the correspondence theory, a proposition (or

universal fundamental and the particulars real meaning) is true if there is a fact to which it

in terms of the universal, the Christian Trini- corresponds, if it expresses what is the case. For
tarians made philosophically clear their doctrine example, "It is raining here now" is true if it
of one Godhead and three embodiments, Father, is the case that it is raining here nowj otherwise

Son and Holy Spirit: th'ree and yet one. The it is false. The nature of the relation of cor-
doctrine was formulated to make religiously respondence between fact and true proposition
valid the belief in the complete Deity of Jesus is variously described by different writers, or

and of the Holy Spirit (referred to in the New left largely undescribed. Russell in The Prob-

and the Old Testaments) and to avoid the pit- lems of Philosophy speaks of the correspondence
falls of polytheism. Jesus had become the object as consisting of an identity of the constituents
of Christian worship and the revealer of God of the fact and of the proposition.
and thus it was felt necessary to establish (to- (2) According to the coherence theory (see

gether with the H.S.) his real Deity along with H. H. Joachim: Tkt Nature of Tr*tk)> truth
monotheistic belief. A
long controversy over the is systematic coherence. This is more than
322 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
logical consistency. A
proposition is true insofar Truth-Frequency: (Prob.) See Probability, sec.
as it is a necessary constituent of a systematic- D (III).
allycoherent whole. According to some (e.g., Truth-function is either: (1) a junction (q. v.)
Brand Blanshard, The Nature of Truth), this from propositions to propositions such that the
whole must be such that every element in it truth-value of the value of the
is function
necessitates, indeed entails, every other element. uniquely determined by the truth-values alone
Strictly, on this view, truth, in its fullness, of the arguments) or (2) simply a function from
is a characteristic of only the one systematic truth-values to truth-values. A, C.
coherent whole, which is the absolute. It attaches Truth-table method: See logic, formal, and
1,
to propositions as we know them and
to wholes propositional calculus, many-valued.
we know them A C. S. Peirce, On the algebra of logic, American
as only to a degree. proposi-
Journal of Mathematics, vol. 7 (1885). pp. 180-
tion has a degree of truth proportionate to the 202; reprinted in his Collected Papers, vol. 3.
completeness of the systematic coherence of the J. Lukasiewicz, Logika duntwartoiciowa, Przeglad

system of entities to which it belongs. Filozonwny, vol. 2* (192i). pp. 189-205. E. I.

Post, Introduction to a general theory of ele-
(3) According to the pragmatic theory of
mentary propositions, American Journal of Mathe-
truth, a proposition is true insofar as it works matics, vol. 43 (1921). pp. 163-185.
or satisfies, working or satisfying being described
Truth- value: On the view that every proposition
variously by different exponents of the view. is either true or false, one may speak of a propo-
Some writers insist that truth characterizes sition as having one of two truth-values, viz.

only those propositions (ideas) whose satisfac- truth or falsehood. This is the primary meaning
tory working has actually verified them} others of the term truth-value, but generalizations have
state that only verifiiability through such con- been considered according to which there are
sequences necessary. In either case, writers
is more than two truth-values see prepositional
differ as to the precise nature of the
verifying calculus, many-valued. A. C.
experiences required. See Pragmatism. C.A.B. Tsa chia: The "Miscellaneous" or "Mixed"
Truth, semantical: Closely connected with the School, which "drew from the Confucians and
name relation (q. v.) is the property of a prepo- the Mohists and harmonized the Logicians and
sitional formula (sentence) that expresses a
it the Legalists," including Shih Tzu (fourth cen-
true proposition (or if it has free variables, that tury B.C.), Lu Pu-wei (290? -235 B.C.), and
it expresses a true proposition for all values of Huai-nan TzQ (d. 122 B.C.). W.T.C.
these variables). As in the case of the name Ts'ai: a) This means that when a man is not
relation, a notation for the concept of truth in good, it is not because he is actually lacking in
this sense often cannot be added, with its natural the basic 'natural powers,' 'natural endowment/
properties, to an
(interpreted) logistic system or 'raw material', whereby to be good. His
without producing contradiction. particular A badness results simply from the fact that he has
system may, however, be made the beginning of not developed the beginnings of Virtue, which
a hierarchy of systems each containing the truth is not the fault of his 'natural powers'.
concept appropriate to the preceding one. (Mencius).
The notion of truth should be kept distinct b) Power. Heaven, Earth, and Man are the
from that of a theorem, the true formulas being three Powers or Forces of Nature. H.H.
in general only some among the theorems (in Tsao hua: (a) Creator, also called tsao wu
view of GSdePs result, Logic , formal, 6). (che).
The first paper of Tar ski cited below is de- (b) Heaven and Earth; the Active or Male
voted to the problem of finding a definition of Cosmic Principle (yang) and the Passive or
semantical truth for a logistic system L, not in Female Cosmic Principle (yin). W.T.C.
L itself but in another system (metasystem) con- Tsao wu (che) : Creator. Also called tsao hua.
taining notations for the formulas of L and for W.T.C.
syntactical relations between them. This is at- Tsao Yen: Nothing is known of this founder
tractive as an alternative to the method of of the Yin Yang School except that he was a
introducing the concept of truth by arbitrarily scholar in the state of Ch'i in the third century
adding a notation for it, with appropriate new B.C., who "inspected closely the rise and fall
primitive formulas, to the metasystem) but in of the passive and active principles and wrote
many important cases it is possible only if the more than one hundred thousand
essays totalling
metasystem is in some essential respect logically words." His works are now lost. W.T.C.
stronger than L. Ts'e yin: The feeling of commiseration.
Tar ski's conceptof truth, obtained thus by a (Mencius). H.H.
syntactical definition, is closely related to Car- Tso wang: 'Sitting in forgetfulness'j that state
nap's concept of analyticity. According to Tar- of absolute freedom, in which the distinctions
ski, they are the same in the case that L is a between others and is forgotten, in which
self

"logical language." See further semiotic 2. lifeand death are equated, in which all things
A.C. have become one. A state of pure experience,
A. Tarski. Der Wabrbeitsbegriff in dtn for- in which one becomes at one with the infinite.
maluierten spracken, Studia Philosophica, vol. 1
(193)), pp. 261-405. A. Tarski, On mndecidable (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.).
statements in enlarged systems of logic and the H.H.
concept of truth, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, Ts'un hsin: Preserving one's native mind, that
vol.. 4 (1939). 105-112. .R. Carnap. The
Logical Syntax of Language t New York and Lon- is, preserving in one's heart benevolence and
don, 1937. propriety which are natural to man. (Meqciui).
W.T.C.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 323
TVun hiing: Putting the desire* into proper ense that it is the nature of man to be tranquil,
harmony by restraint f the way to achieve 'com- but when man comet into contact with external
plete preservation of one's nature'. (Yang Chfi, things, his nature is moved, and desire* and
c 440-c 360 B.C.). H.H. passions fpllow. (Confucianism). W.T.C.
Ts'un sheng: 'Completeness of living', which is Tung: (a) Mere identity, or sameness, especially
the best, is the enjoyment of life not to excess, in social institutions and standards, which is
a life in which all desires reach a proper inferior to harmony (ho) in -which social dis-
harmony. While advocating restraint of the tinctions and differences are in complete con-
cord.
desires, Yang Chu
(c 440-c 360 B.C.) at the (Confucianism).
same time maintains the fulfillment of these. (b) Agreement, as in "agreement with the
H.H. superiors" (shang t'ung).
Tsung heng: Diplomatists in ancient China. (c) The method of agreement, which includes
W.T.C. identity, generic relationship, co-existence, and
Tu: Steadfastness in quietude, in order to com- partial resemblance. "Identity means two sub-

prehend Fate, The Eternal, and Tao (Lao Tzfi).

stances having one name. Generic relationship
W.T.C. means inclusion in the same whole. Both being
in the same room is a case of co-existence.
T'u: Earth, one of the Five Agents or Elements.
Partial resemblance means having some points
See: tou hsing.W.T.C. of resemblance." See: Mo the. (Neo-Mohism).
Tuan: Human nature is innately good insofar as
W.T.C.
all men possess the 'beginnings' of the virtues, T'ung i: The joint method of similarities and
which if completely developed, make a man a
differences, by which what is present and what
sage. (Mencius). H.H. is absent can be See: Mo chi.
distinguished.
Tufts, James Hayden: (1862-) Emeritus Pro- W.T.C.
fessor of Philosophy of Chicago University.
Tung Chung- shu: (177-104 B.C.) was the lead-
He has been strongly influenced by Kant. He col- Confucian of his time, premier to two
ing
laborated with Dewey in the standard, "Ethics", feudal and consultant to the Han
princes,
and among his other writings are: "Ethics of
emperor in framing national policies. Firmly be-
Cooperation," "Education* and Training for
lieving in retribution, he strongly advocated
Social Work" and "America's Social Morality." the "science of catastrophies and anomalies,"
L.E.D. and became the founder and leader of medieval
Tu hua: Spontaneous transformation, the uni- Confucianism which was extensively confused
versal law of existence, the guiding principle with the Yin Yang philosophy. Extremely
of which is neither any divine agency or any
antagonistic towards rival schools, he established
moral law but Tao. (Kuo Hsiang, d. 321 A.D.). Confucianism as basis of state religion and
W.T.C. education. His best known work, Ch-vn-ch'iv
Tui: The opposite. Everything has its opposite. Fan-lu, awaits English translation. W.T.C.
"When there is the active force (yang), there is Turro y Darder, Ramon: Spanish Biologist and
the passive force (yin). When there is good, Malgrat, Dec. 8, 1854.
Philosopher. Born in
there is evil. As yang increases, yin decreases, Died in Barcelona, June 5, 1926. As a Biologist,
and as goodnesfe is augmented, evil is dimin- his conclusions about the circulation of the
ished." (Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086). more than half a century ago, were ac-
blood,
W.T.C. cepted and verified by later researchers and
T'ui: The method of induction or extension in theorists. Among 6ther things, he showed the
argumentation. See: pien. W.T.C. insufficiency and unsatisfactoriness of the mech-
Tuism: (from Latin /, thou) In ethics the doc- anistic and neomechanistic explanations of the
trine which puts the emphasis on the well-being circulatory process. He was also the first to
of one's fellow-men. Another name for busy himself with endocrinology and bacterio-
altruism, which see. K.F.L. logical immunity. As a philosopher Turr6 com-
Tung: (a) Activity} motion) "the constant fea- bated the subject! viatic and metaphysical type
ture of the active or male cosmic principle of psychology, and circumscribed scientific in-
(yang)" of the universe, just as passivity is the vestigation to the determination of the condi-
constant feature of the passive or female cosmic tions that precede the occurrence of phenomena,

principle (yin). According to Chou Lien-hsi considering useless all attempt to reach final

1017-1173), "the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi)
moves, becomes active, and generates the active
principle (yang). When its activity reaches its
limit, it becomes tranquil, engendering the
passive principle (yin). When the Great Ulti-
mate becomes completely tranquil, it begins to
move again. Thus, movement and tranquillity
alternate and become the occasion of each other,
giving rise to the distinction of yin and yang,
and the Two Primary Modes are thus estab-
lished." To the entire Neo-Confucian school,
activity is potential tranquillity (ching).
(b) Being moved, being awakened, in the
essences.. Turro does not admit, however, that
the psychical series or conscious states may b
causally linked to the organic series. His
formula was: Physiology and Consciousness are
phenomena that occur, not in connection, but
in conjunction. His most important work is
Filosofla Critica, in which he has put side by
side two antagonistic conceptions of the uni-
verse, the objective and the subjective concep-
tions. In it he holds that, at the present crisis
of science and philosophy, the business of in-
telligence is to realize that science works on
philosophical presuppositions, but that philosophy
324 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
it no better off with itt chaos of endleti con- ent contradiction thereby involved is removed by
tradiction!and countless systems of thought The speaking of the individual marks as tokens, In
taik to be realized ii one of coming together, to contrast with the one type of which they are in-
undo what has been done and get at far as the stances. And word may then be said to be sub-
original primordial concepts with which philo- ject to type-token tmbiiuity. The terminology
sophical inquiry began. /*4,F. can easily be extended to apply to any kind of
Tyehiim: Aterm derived from the Greek, tyche, symbol, e.g. at in speaking of token- and type-
fortune, chance, and employed by Charles San- sentences.
ders Peirce (1839-1914) to express any theory Reference: C. S. Collected
Peirce, Papers t
which regards chance as an objective reality, 4.537. M.B.
operative in the cosmos. Also the hypothesis that Tz'u: (a) Parental love, kindness, or affection,
evolution occurs owing to fortuitous variations.
the ideal Confucian virtue of parents,
JJ.R.
(c) Love, kindness in general. W.T.C.
Types, theory of: See Logic, formtl, 9 6 P*ra-
doxes, logical tRamified theory of types.
Tzu hut: Self-transformation or
spontaneous
transformation without depending 'on any divine
Type-token ambiguity: The words token and
type are used to distinguish between two senses guidance or external agency, but following the
of the word toord. thing's own principle of being, which is Tao.
(Taoism). W.T.C.
marks, more or less resembling
Individual
each other (as "cat" resembles "cat" and Tzu jan: The natural, the natural state, the state
"CAT") may (1) be said to be "the same word" of Tao, spontaneity as against artificiality. (Lao
or (2) so many "different words". The appar- Tzuj Huai-nan Tu, d. 122 B.C.) W.T.C.
 u
Ubicatio: (Lat. ubi, where) Whereness, the attacks the concepts of "man", "Society", "Hu-
condition of being located in space. V.J.B. manity", etc. as mire abstractions of the philoso-
Ueberweg, Friedrich: (1826-1871) Is mainly phers, and argues for the "Concrete", "experi-
known for his exhaustive studies in the history ential" facts of the individual living man. On
of philosophy. R.B.W. his doctrine of man as an individual fact onto-
Main works: System d. Logik u. Gesch. d. logically valid, Unamuno roots the second prin-
logischen Lehre, 1857} Grundriss d. Gesch. d. ciple of his philosophy, namely, his theory of
Philosophic, 1863-66. Immortality. Faith in immortality grows out,
Ultimate Value: See: Value, ultimate. not from the realm of reason, but from the realm
Ultramontanism (Lat. ultra,
:
beyond) and mon- of facts which beyond the boundaries of
lie

tanus, pertaining to mountains, i.e., the Alps) reason. In reason as such, that is, as a
fact,
'

Extreme theory of the absolute supremacy of the logical function is absolutely disowned by Una-
Pope, not only in religious but in political muno, as useless and unjustified. The third prin-
matters. V.J.B. ciple of his philosophy is his theory of the Logos
Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de: Spanish Professor which has to do with man's intuition of the
and writer. Born at Bilbao, Spain, September world and his immediate response in language
29, 1864. Died 1936. First and secondary and action. J.A.F.
education in Bilbao. Philosophical studies and Unanimism : A term invented by Jules Remains
higher learning at the Central University of to mean (I) a belief "in a certain reality of a
Madrid since 1 880. Private instructor in Bilbao, spiritual nature," and (2) a belief that the
1884-1891. Professor of Greek language and human soul can enter into direct, immediate,
literature at the University of Salamanca since and intuitive communication with the universal
1891. President of the University of Salamanca soul. G.B.
and at the same time Professor of the History A
Uncertainty principle: principle of quantum
of the Spanish Language, in 1901. Madariaga mechanics (q.v.), according to which complete
considers him "The most important literary fig- quantitative measurement of certain states and
ure of Spain". *If he does not embody, at least
processes in terms of the usual space-time co-
it may be asserted that Unamuno very well ordinates is impossible. Macroscopically negligi-
symbolizes the character of Spain. His conflict ble, the effect becomes of importance on the
between faith and reason, life and thought, cul- electronic scale. In particular, if simultaneous
ture and civilization, depicts for us a clear pic- measurements of the position and the momen-
ture of the Spanish cultural crisis. Among his most tum of an electron are pressed beyond a certain
important works the following must be mentioned: degree of accuracy, it becomes impossible to in-
Pa* en la Guerra, 1897) De la Ensenanza Su- crease the accuracy of either measurement except
perior en Espana, 1899) En Tomo al Casticismo, at the expense of a decrease in the accuracy of
1902) Amor y Pedagogia, 1902) Vida.de Don the other) more exactly, if a is the uncertainty
Quijote y Sancho, 1905$ Mi Religion y Otros of the measurement of one of the coordinates of
Ensayos, 1910) Soliloquies y Conversaciones, position of the electron, and b is the uncertainty
1912$ Contra Esto y Aquello, 1912) Ensayos, of the measurement of the corresponding com-
7 vols., 1916-1920) Del Sentimiento Trdgico ponent of momentum, the product ab (on prin-
de la Vida en los Homines y en los Pueblos, cannot be less than a certain constant h
ciple)
1914) NieHa> 1914) La Agonia del Cristian- (namely Planck's constant, q.v.). On the basis.
ismo, 1930) etc. that quantities in principle unobservable are not
Unamuno conceives of every individual man to be considered physically real, it is therefore
as an end in himself and not a means. Civilisa-
held quantum theorists that simultaneous
by
tion has an individual responsibility towards of an exact position and an exact
ascription
each man. Man lives in society, but society as momentum to an electron is meaningless. This
such is an abstraction. The concrete fact is the
has been thought to have a bearing on, or to
individual man "of flesh and blood". This doc- limit or modify, the principle of determinism in
trine of man constitutes the first principle of his * A.C.
physics.
entire philosophy. He develop! it throughout C. G. Darwin. The nncertainty principle, Science,
his writings by way of a soliloquy in which he vol. 73 (1931), PP. 633-660.
 326 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Unconscioui: According Ed. v. Hartmann
to Christian ministers who are Unitarian in
(q.v.) the united unconscious will and uncon- thought but not in name. The British and
scious idea.-K.F.L. Unitarian Association dates formally to
Foreign
Unconscious Mind : A compartment of the mind 1825. Manchester College, Oxford, was claimed
which lies outside the consciousness existence of Unitarian. Leading theologians were Joseph
which has frequently been challenged. See for Priestly (1733-1804), James Martineau (1805-
example W. James, The Principles of Psychol- 1900), James Drummond and J. E. Carpenter.
ogy, Vol. I, pp. 162ff. See Subconscious Mind. American Unitarianism was given expression in
L.W. King's Chapel, Boston (1785), in a number of
Understanding: (Kant. Ger. Verstand) The fac- associations, in Meadville Theological School
ulty of thinking the object of sensuous intuition} (1844) and Harvard Divinity School (the chief
or the faculty of concepts, judgments and prin- seat of the movement prior to 1878). Channing
ciples. The understanding is the source of con- (1780-1842) and Theodore Parker (1810-1860)
cepts, categories and principles by means of directed the movement into wider liberal chan-
which the manifold of sense is brought into the nels. V.F.
unity of apperception. Kant suggests that un- Unity of Science, Unified Science: See Scien-
derstanding has a common root with sensibility. tific Empiricism IIB.
See Kantianism. O.F.K. Universal: (Lat. universalia, a universal) That
Undistributed middle: In the categorical syl- term which can be applied throughout the
logism (logic, formal, 5), the middle term universe. A possibility of discrete being. Ac-
must appear in at least one of the two premisses cording to Plato, an idea (which see). Accord-
(major and minor) as distributed i.e., as de- ing to Aristotle, that which by its nature is fit
noting the subject of a proposition A or E, or to be predicated of many. For medieval
realists,
the predicate of a proposition E or O. Violation an entity whose being is independent of its
of this rule is the fallacy of undistributed middle. mental apprehension or actual exemplification.
A.C. (See: Realism). For medieval nominalists, a
Uniformity of Nature: what
Principle that general notion or concept having no reality of
happens once in nature will, under a sufficient its own in the realm of
being (see: Nominal-
degree of similarity of circumstances, happen ism). In psychology: a concept. See Concept,
again and as often as the same circumstances General, Possibility. Opposite of: particular.
recur. A.C.S. J.K.F.
Unio myatica: (Lat.) Mystical union; the merg- In Scholasticism: Until the revival of
ing of the individual consciousness, cognitively Aristotelism in the 13th century, uniycrsals
or affectively, with a superior, or supreme con- were considered by most of the Schoolmen as
sciousness. See Mysticism. VJ.B. real "second substances". This medieval Realism
Union: (in Scholasticism) Is often designated (see Reahsm), of those who legebant in re,
from the effect which united parts manifest, as found but little opposition from early Nom-
an essential union by which parts constituting inalists, legentes in voce, like Koscellin. The
the essence of a thing are united, or accidental latter went to the other extreme
by declaring
union by which an accident is united to a sub- universal names to be
nothing but the breath of
stance. H.G. the voice flatus vocis. Extreme realism as
Unipathy: (Ger. Einsfuhlung) Is a form of emo- represented by William of Champeaux, crumbled
tional seems close to the term
identification, under the attacks of Abelard who taught a
"participation" of Levy-Bruhl. There are two modified nominalism, distinguishing, however,
types of unipathy: idiopathic and heteropathic. sharply between the mere word, vox, as a
In the one the alter is absorbed by the ego, and physicalphenomenon, and the meaningful word,
in the other the ego is absorbed by the alter. sermo. His interests being much more in logic
See Sympathy. H.H. than in ontology, he did not arrive at a definite
Unit class: A having one and only one
class solution of the problem. Aquinas summarized
member. Or, to give a definition which does and synthetisized the ideas of his predecessors
not employ the word one, a class a is a unit by stating that the universal had real existence
class if there is an * such that xta and, for all
only as creative idea in God, ante rem, whereas
y, yta implies y=*. A. C. it existed within experienced
reality only in the
Unitarianism : The name for
theologicalthe individual things, in re, and as a mental fact
view which emphasizes the oneness of God in when abstracted from the particulars in the
opposition to the Trinitarian formula (q.v.). human mind, post rem. A view much like this
Although the term is modern, the idea under- had been proposed previously by Avicenna to
lying Unitarianism is old. In Christian theology whom Aquinas seems to be indebted. Later
any expression of the status of Jesus as being Middle-Ages saw a rebirth of nominalistic con-
less than a metaphysical part of Deity is of the ceptions. The new school of Terminists, as
spirit of Unitarianism (e.g., Dynamistic Mon- they called themselves, less crude in its ideas
archianists, AdoptionisU, Socintans, and many than Roscellin, asserted that universals are only
others). Unitarians hold only the highest regard class names. Occam is usually considered as the
for Jesus but refuse to bind that regard to a rnost prominent of the Terminists. To
Aquinas,
Trinitarian metaphysics. In general, their views the universal was still more than a mere name 5

of the religious life have been prophetic of it to an

corresponded ontological fact; the
liberal thought. Today there are numbers of liberal definition of the universal reproduces the essence
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 327

of the things. The universal! are with Occam frage, tendencies to breakdown caste, philosophic
indeed natural signs which the mind cannot dialogues and congresses, celebrated similes, suc-
help forming, whereas the terms are arbitrary, cession of philosophic teachers, among other
signa ad placitum. But the universal is only a things, may be studied in the more archaic,
sign and does not correspond to anything onto- Upanishads. See ayam atema brahma,
classical
logical. R.A. aham brahma asmi, tat tvam asi, net neti.
Universal class : See logic, formal, 7. K.F.L.
Universal proposition: See particular proposi- Upasana: (Skr. sitting near) Worship, reveren-
tion. tial attitude. K.F.L.
Universal quantifier: See quantifier. Upasanakanda (Skr.) That portion of the Veda
:

Universalism : The doctrine that each individual dealing with worship.

(q.v. ) g
K.F.L.
should seek as an end the Welfare of all. Usiologie: A
German term apparently not used
Usually advanced on the basis of the principle in English, derived from the Greek, Ousia, es-
that the intrinsic value of an entity, e.g., sence, hence the science of essence. JJ.R.
pleasure, does not vary with the individual pos- Uti: St. Augustine holds that the verbs uti and
sessing it. C.A.B. frui have not the same meaning. use things We
In Theology: Unless otherwise defined, the because we need them, whereas we enjoy that
term refers to the Christian denomination which which causes pleasure) utimur pro necessitate,
emphasizes the universal fatherhood of God and fruimur pro iucunditate. JJ.R.
the final redemption and salvation of all. The Utilitarianism: (a) Traditionally understood as
doctrine is that of optimism in attaining an the view that the right act is the act which,
ultimate, ordered harmony and stands in op- of all those open to the agent, will actually or
position to traditional pessimism, to theories of probably produce the greatest amount of pleasure
damnation and election. Universalists look back or happiness in the world at large (this is the
to 1770 as an organized body, the date of the so-called Principle of Utility). This view has
'
coming America of John Murray. Unitarian
to been opposed to intultionism in the traditional
thought (see Unitarianism) was early expressed sense in a long and well-known controversy.
by Hosea Ballou (1771-1852), one of the It receivedclassical form in Bentham and
its

founders of Universalism. V.F. the two Mills. Earlier it took a theological

Universe: (a) Metaphysics: (1) The complete form in Gay and Paley, later an evolutionistic
natural world) (2) That whole comprised of all form in Spencer, and an intuitionistic form
particulars and of all universal 35 (3) The Abso- (in the wider sense) in Sidgwick.
lute, Logic: The universe of discourse in
(b) (b) More recently understood, especially in

any given treatment is that class such that all England, as the view that the right act is the
other classes treated are subclasses of it and act which will actually or probably produce at

consequently such that all members of any class least as much intrinsic good, directly or in-
treated are members of it. v. logic, formal, directly, as any other action open to the agent
7, %.C.A.B. in question. On this interpretation, traditional
Universe of discourse: See individual; and utilitarianism is one species of utilitarianism
logic, formal, 7, 8. that which regards pleasure as the good. Ideal
Upadhi: (Skr. substitute, disguise) One of many utilitarianism, on the other hand, holds that
conditions of body and mind obscuring the true other things besides pleasure are good (see
state of man or his self which Indian philos- G. E. Moore, H. Rashdall, J. Laird). In Amer-
ophies try to remove for the attainment of ica utilitarianism is chiefly associated with volun-
moksa (q.v.). K.F.L. or "interest" theories of value, e.g., in
taristic

Upamana: (Skr.) Comparison, a valid source of the pragmatic ethics of James and Dewey, and
knowledge and truth in some Indian philo- in R. B. Perry. See intuitionlsm, deontological
sophical systems. K.F.L. ethics, ideological ethic*. W.K.F.
Upanishad, Upanisad: (Skr.) One of a large Utopia: (Gr. ou-topos, the Land of Nowhere)
number of treatises, more than 100. Thirteen An expression used by Sir Thomas More in his
of the oldest ones (Chindogya, Brhadaranyaka, book "De optimo reipublicae statu deque nova
Aitareya, Taittirlya, Katha, Isa, Mun<Jaka, Kau- insula Utopia," 1516, which in the form of a
fltaki, Kcna, Prasna, Svetaivatara, Mandukya, novel described an ideal state. Plato's Politeia
Maitrl) have the distinction of being the first is the first famous Utopia. Plato, however, had
philosophic compositions, antedating for the several predecessors and followers in this type of
most part the beginnings of Greek philosophy j literature. From the Renaissance on the most
others have been composed comparatively recently. famous Utopias besides Thomas More's book
The mode of imparting knowledge with the Tommaso Campanella: The City of the
were:
pupil sitting (upa-ni-sad) the teacher
opposite Sun, 1612; Francis Bacon, New Atlantis, 1627 \

amid an atmosphere of reverence and secrecy, Cabet, Voyage en Icarie, 1842j Bellamy, Look-
gave these originally mnemonic treatises their ing Backward, 1888. W.E.
name. They are remarkable for ontological, Utopian socialism: Given wide currency by the
metaphysical, and ethical problems, investiga-
.
writings of Marx and Engels, this term signifies
tions into the nature of man's soul or self (see the socialist ideas of thinkers like Owen, St.
atman), God, death, immortality, and a sym- Simon and Fourier who protested against the
bolic interpretation of ritualistic materials and sufferings of the masses under capitalism and
observances. Early examples of universal suf- who saw in social ownership of the means of
328 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
production t remedy which would eliminate un- opposed to it their own "scientific socialism",
employment and tfford economic security to til, See Socialism, Marxian. J.M.S.
but who it the same time felt that socialism
Utttft-Mimimsi : Same as VedSnta (q.v.).
could be attained by persuading the ruling .... .
/, \ . .

Utttnptkst: (Skr.) "Subsequent view", the sec-

classes

positions
to give up voluntarily their privileged
and extensive holdings. Marr and ond or ** & k* rt* wn view <tated aftcr ^
Engels criticized such a conception of method refutation (kfanjana) of the opponent's view
and tactics as Utopian, naive, unhistorical, and (see prvapakfa). AT.F.L.
Vie: (Skr.) Speech, voice, word. In Vcdic (q.v.) vague in L if it is vague in at least one context
philosophy vac and sabda (q.v.) have a similar of L.
rdle as the Logos in Greek philosophy (see Vagueness needs to be distinguished from
e.g. Rigveda 10.125). It appears personified Generality and Ambiguity (q.v.). See also Vague.
(feminine) and close to primeval reality in the References: B. Russell, "Vagueness", Austral-
hierarchy of emanations. K.F.L. asian J. of Phil. I, 88. M. Black, "Vagueness:

Vida: (Skr.) Theory.

An exercise in logical analysis" Phil, of Sci.
4,427. M.B.
Vague: A word (or the idea or notion associated Vaibhisika: (Skr.) A Buddist school of realism
with it) is vague if the meaning is so far not so named after a commentary (vibhasa) on one
fixed that there are cases in which its applica- of their standard texts j same as Bahyapratyaksa-
tion is in principle indeterminate although vida K.F.L.
(q.v.).
there may be other cases in which the applica-
tion Thus longevity Vairigya: (Skr.) Disgust, aversion} renunciation
is quite definite. is vague of worldly things, recommended for the attain-
because, although a man who dies at sixty ment of moksa (q.v.). K.F.L.
certainly does not possess the characteristic of
Vaisesika: One of the major systems of Indian
longevity and one who lives to be ninety cer-
philosophy (q.v.) founded by Ulaka, better
tainly does, there is doubt about a man who dies
known by his surname Kanada. It is a plural-
at seventy-five. On the other hand, octogenarian
istic realism, its main insistence being on
is not vague, because the precise moment at
visesa or particularity of the ultimate reality,
which a man becomes an
octogenarian may (at
incidental to an atomism. There are theistic
least in principle) be determined. Of course,
the vagueness of longevity might be removed by implications. Reality falls into seven categories:
nine substances (dravya, q.v.), 24 qualities
specifying exactly at what age longevity begins,
but the meaning of the word would then have (guna y q.v.), action (karma, q.v.), universality
been changed. (See further the article Relative.) (samanya, q.v.), particularity (visesa), inher-
ence (samavaya), and non-existence (abhava),
Similarly a criterion or test, a convention, a
a command is vague if there are cases
rule, Valid: In the terminology of Carnap, a sentence
in which it is in principle indeterminate what
(or class of sentences) is valid if it is a con-
the result of the test is, or whether the conven-
sequence of the null class of sentences, contra-
tion has been followed, or whether the rule or valid if every sentence is a consequence of it
command has been obeyed. A.C. The notion ot consequence here refers to a full
Vagueness: A term may be said (loosely) to be set of primitiveformulas and rules of inference
vague if there are "borderline cases" for its for the language or logistic system (q. v.) in
applicability, i.e. cases for which the rules of question, known as c -rules, and including (in
the language containing the term do not specify general) non-effective rules. If the notion of
either that the term shall or that it shall not consequence is depend only on the
restricted to
apply. Thus
certain shades of reddish-orange in d-rulfs i.e., the subclass of the c-rules which
the spectrum are borderline cases for the appli- are effective it is then called d-consejuence or
cation of the term "red". And "red" is vague derivability,and the terms corresponding to
in the English language. valid and contravalid are demonstrable and re-
More precisely: Let "S" be a symbol (simple futable respectively.
or complex) in the language L. And let f(S) The formulas and the c-rulet of the language
be any sentence containing "S" and constructed in question may include some which are extra-
in conformity with Jthe syntactical rules of L. logical in character corresponding, e.g., to
Let "ei" be any experiential sentence of L. Then physics! laws or to matters of empirical fact.
"S" may be said to be vague in the context Carnap makes an attempt (which, however, has
"/()" H, for at last one ei the rulet of L been questioned) to define in purely syntactical
do not provide that f(S) be either consistent or terms when a relation of consequence is one of
inconsistent with ei. And "S" may be said to be logical consequence. If the notion of consequence
330 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
It restricted to that of logical consequence, the specific value-qualities (Werte) analogous to

terms corresponding to valid and contravalid are colors.

analytic and contradictory respectively. If the When used as a very ("to value") our term
c-rules are purely logical in character, the class denotes a certain mental act or attitude of valu-
of analytic sentences coincides with that of valid ing or valuation.
sentences, and the class of contradictory sen- Now value-theory is concerned both with the
tences with that of contravalid sentences. property of value and with the process of valu-
The explicit definition of analyticity (etc.) for ing. About the former it asks various questions.
a particular language of course requires state-
What is its nature?
Is it a quality or a rela-
ment of the c-rules. Actually, in the case of his tion? Is objective or subjective?
it Is it a

"Language II," Carnap prefers to define analytic single property, or is it several properties, value
and contradictory first, and consequence in terms being an ambiguous term? Is its presence in a
of these. thing dependent on or reducible to the fact that
Part of the of the definition of the thing is valued by someone? About the
purpose
latter it also has various questions. Is it a mere
analyticity is to secure that every logical sentence
is either analytic or contradictory. (The cor- feeling or desire? Or does it involve judgment
responding situation with demonstrability and
and cognition? And if so, is this a cognition of
a value already there independently of the act
refutability is impossible in many significant cases
in consequence of Godel's theorem see logic, of valuing or of knowing?

formal, 6.) A distinction is often drawn between two

Refer further to the article syntax, logical, kinds of value, namely: intrinsic value and ex-
where references to the literature are given. trinsic or instrumental value. By extrinsic value
A.C. is meant the character of being good or of hav-
Valid inference: In common usage an inference ing value as a means to something. By intrinsic
is said to be valid if it is permitted by the laws value is meant the character of being good or
of It isto specify this more valuable in itself or as an end or for its own
logic. possible
sake. See Intrinsic Value-theorists
exactly only in formal terms, with reference to goodness.
a particular logistic system (q.v.). have been mainly concerned with intrinsic value.
The question of the validity of an inference The term "worth" has sometimes been used as
from a set of premisses is, of course, independent equivalent to intrinsic value (Kant). But the
of the question of the truth of the premisses. distinction has often been criticized, e.g., by
A.C. Dewey and Laird.
Vallabha: An
Indian thinker and theologian of Two contrasts in which the term "value"
the 15th century A.D., a follower of the occurs remain to be mentioned. (1) "Value" is

Vedanta (q.v.) and of Vishnuism (q.v.), who sometimes contrasted with "fact" or "existence".
Here the contrast intended is that of the "ought"
interpreted all to be the divine reality with its
threefold aspect of sat-cit-ananda (q.v.) with versus the "is", and the term "value" is used to
world or matter obscuring cit-ananda, the human cover not only the various kinds of goodness,
soul ananda. K.F.L. but also beauty and rightness. And the main
Valuation: The problem is that of the relation of value and
process, act or attitude of assign-
ing value to something, or of estimating its existence. (2) "Value" more nar-
is also used
value. See Value; Evaluation. R.B.W. rowly, being contrasted with rightness. Here
the distinction intended within the "ought"
Value: The contemporary use of the term "value" ""
is
as opposed to the and is between the "good"
and the discipline now known as the theory of
and the "right", with "value" taken as equiva-
value or axiology are relatively recent develop-
ments in philosophy, being largely results of
lent to "goodness". Then the main problem
concerns the relation of value and
certain 19th and 20th century movements. See obligation.
In the sense of value involved in the former
Ethics. "Value" is used both as a noun and as
contrast value-theory will include ethics. In the
a verb. As a noun it is sometimes -abstract,
latter it will not. See
sometimes concrete. As an abstract noun it des- Axiology, Ethics, Obliga-
tion.W.K.F.
ignates the property of value or of being valu-
able. In this sense "value" is often used as Value, contributive : The value an entity has
equivalent to "worth" or "goodness", in which
insofar as its being a constituent of some
case evil is usually referred to as "disvalue". whole gives value to that whole. (G. . Moore).
But it is also used more broadly to cover evil C.A.B.
or badness as well as goodness, just as "tempera- Value, instrumental: The value an entity pos-
ture" is used to cover both heat and cold. Then sesses in virtue of the value of the consequences
evil referred to as negative value
is and good- it produces) an entity's value as means. Some-
ness as positive value. times the term is applied with reference only to
As a concrete noun, singular ("a value") or the actual consequences, sometimes with ref-
plural ("values"), our term refers either to erence to the potential consequences. C.A.B.
things which have this property of value or to Value, intrinsic: Sometimes defined as (a) the
things whihc are valued (see below). value an entity would have even if it were to
There 'Is also a use of the terms "a value" have no consequences. In this sense, an entity's
and "values" which is intermediate between the intrinsic value is equivalent to its total value
two uses so far indicated, and which appears less its instrumental value; it would include
mainly in German writings. Here they refer to its contributive value.
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 331

Sometimes defined as (b) the value an entity, in particular, the real magnitude is known in
would have were it to exist quite alone. In this some cases, but its evaluation tends to be on the
sense, an entity's intrinsic value would be average too large or too small. The average
equivalent to its total value less the sum of its error is the average departure from the true
instrumental and contributive values. C.A.B. magnitude} while the variable error is the de-
Values, Hierarchy of: (in Max Scheler) viation as already defined. T.G.
A scale of values and of personal value-types, Veda, plural Vedas: (Skr. knowledge) Col-
based on "essences" (saint, genius, hero, lead- lectivelythe ancient voluminous, sacred litera-
ing spirit, and virtuoso of the pleasures of ture India (in bulk prior to 1000 B.C.),
of
life, in descending scale). P.A.S. composed of Rigveda (hymns to gods), Sima-
Value, Ultimate: The intrinsic value of an entity veda (priests' chants), Yajurveda (sacrificial
possessing intrinsic value throughout. For ex- formulae), and Atharvaveda (magical chants),
ample, a hedonist might say that a pleasant which among theosophic speculations contain
evening at the opera has intrinsic value and the first philosophic insights. Generally recog-
yet maintain that only the hedonic tone of the nized as authority even in philosophy, extended
evening has ultimate value, because it alone and supplemented later by sutras (q.v.) and
has no constituents which fail to have intrinsic various accessory textbooks on grammar, astron-
value (G. E. Moore). C.A.B. omy, medicine, etc., called Vedangas (Mem-
Variable: A occurring in a mathematical
letter bers of the Veda") and the philosophical
or logistic formula and serving, not as a name treatises, such as the Upanishads (q.v.). K.F.L.
of a particular, but as an ambiguous name of Vedanta: The "end of the Veda" (q.v.), used
any one of a of things
class this class being both in the literal sense and that of final goal,
known as the range of the variable, and the or meaning. Applied to the Upanishads (q.v.)
members of the class as values of the variable. and various systems of thought based upon
Where a formula contains a variable, say x, them. Specifically the doctrine elaborated in the.
as a free variable, the meaning of the formula Brahmasutras of Badarayana, restated, reinter-
is thought of as depending on the meaning of x. preted, and changed by later philosophers,
If the formula contains no other free variables notably Sankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madh-
than x, then it acquires a particular meaning va, and Vallabha (which see). The central
when x is given a value i.e., when a name of theme is that enunciated in the Upanishads of
some one value of x is substituted for all free the relation between world soul and individual
occurrences of * in the formula or, what comes soul or self. Within the Vedanta, a number of
to the same thing for this purpose, when the solutions were found and taught with varying
free occurrences of x are taken as denoting some success. Sankara supposed God and soul iden-
one value. tical (see advaita), Madhva different (see
Frequently an
(interpreted) logistic system dvatia), R2minuja different yet identical (see
(q. v.) is so constructed that the theorems may visiftadvaita), Vallabha had a theory of ob-
contain free variables. The interpretation of scuration, etc. K.F.L.
such a theorem is that, for any set of values, of Vedantasutras : See Brahmasutras.
the variables which occur as free variables, the Vedantic: Adjective, "belonging to the VedSnta"
indicated proposition is true. I.e., in the in- (q.v.).
terpretation the free variables are treated as if Vedic: (Skr.) Adjective, referring to the Vedas
bound by universal quantifiers (q. v.) initially (q.v.) or the period that generated them, con-
placed. sidered closed about 500 B.C. K.F.L.
A bound variable, or apparent variable, in a Vedic Religion: Or the Religion of the Vedas
given formula, is distinguished from a free vari- (q.v.). It is thoroughly cosmological, in-
able by the fact that the meaning of the formula and ritualistic, priest and sacrifice
spirational
does not depend on giving the variable a par- playing an important role. It started
with belief
ticular value. (The same variable may be al- in different gods, such as Indra, Agni, Surya,
lowed, if desired, to have both bound occur- Vishnu, Ushas, the Maruts, usually interpreted
rences and free occurrences in the same formula, as symbolizing the forces of nature \ but with
and in this case the meaning of the formula the development of Hinduism it deteriorated
depends on giving a value to the variable only into a worship of thousands of gods correspond-
at the places where it is free.) For examples, see
ing to the diversification of function and status
Abstraction, and Logic, formal, 3. in the complex social organism. Accompanying
For the terminology used in connection with there was a pronounced tendency toward magic
functions, see the article function. Cf. also the even in Vedic times, while the more elevated
articles Constant, and Combinatory logic. A.C. thoughts which have found expression in mag-
Variable error: The average departure or de- nificent praises of the one or the other deity
viation from the average between several given finally became crystallizedin the philosophic
values. In successive measurements of magni- thought of the Upanishads (q.v.). There
tudes considered in the natural sciences or in is a distinct break, however, between Vedic cul-
experimental psychology, the observed differ- ture with its free and autochthonous religious
ences are the unavoidable result of a great num- consciousness and the rigidly caste and custom
ber of small causes independent of each other controlled religion as we know it in India to-
and equally likel yto make the measurement too day, as also the religion of bhakti (q.v.).
small or too large. In experimental psychology JC.F.L.
332 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Venn diagram: See Eider diagram. ,
best of all possible worlds, these truths can
Verbal : Consisting of pr pertaining to words. Hav- never equal in* certainty the truths of reason,
which depend not on God's will, but on the
ing to do (merely) with the uie and meaning
of words. -v4.C. Principle of Contradiction, which not even God
himself can make to be false. F.L.W.
Verbum mentis: (Lat mental word) The con-
cept) the intra-mental product of the act of Vicious circle: A
vicious circle in proof (drc*-
lus in probando} occurs if pi Is used to prove
intellection. VJ.B.
fo p* to prove ft, . . . , p++ to prove p, and
Veridicity: A property of certain perceptions,
finally p* to prove pi fa fo . . . , p* being
memories and other acts of cognition which, then taken as all proved. This is a form of the
though not in the strictest sense true since
fallacy of petitio principii (q. v.).
truth is an exclusive prop-
usually considered A vicious circle in definition (circuits in
erty of propositions and judgments tend to
definiendo) occurs if Aj is used in defining Aa
form true propositions. Non-veridical cognitions
As in defining At, . . . , An-i In defining An,
including illusions and hallucinations though and finally A in defining Ai. (The simplest
not in themselves false are deceptive and foster
case is that in which =1, Ai being defined in
falsity and error. L.W. terms of There of course, a fallacy if
itself.) is,
Verification: (Ger. Bewahrung) In Husserl:
A], A% . .
} A are then vied as defined abso-
Fulfilment) especially, fulfilment of the sense
lutely. Apparent exceptions, such as definition
of a dozic thesis. D.C. by recursion (q. v.), require special justification,
Verification, Confirmation: Verification: the
1.
e.g., by finding an equivalent form of definition
procedure of finding out whether a sentence (or which is not circular.
proposition) is true or false. 2. A sentence is The term vicious circle fallacy is used by
verifiable (in principle) if a (positive or nega- Whitehead and Russell (1910) for arguments
tive) verification of it is possjble under suitable violating their ramified theory of types (q. v.).
conditions, leaving aside technical difficulties.
Similarly, the name circtdus vitiotus is Applied
3. Many philosophical doctrines (e.g. Scientific by Hermann Weyl (1918) to an argument in-
Empiricism, ?.v.) hold that a verification is volving impredicative definition (q. v.). A. C.
replaced here by the concept of confirmation. Vidya: (Skr.) Knowledge) especially knowledge
A certain hypothesis is said to be confirmed of the real, noumenal. K.F.L.
to a certain degree by a certain amount of Vienna Circle: See Scientific Empiricism I.
evidence. The concept of degree of confirmation Vijnina: (Skr.) Consciousness) the faculty of
is closely connected or perhaps identical apprehension or individualixation of experience,
(Reichenbach) with the statistical concept of and as such perhaps equivalent to aharkkara
probability (?.v.) 4. A sentence is confirm- K.F.L.
able if suitable (possible, not necessarily actual) Vijnana-vada: (Skr.) of con-
Theory (vSda)
experiences could contribute positively or nega- sciousness, specifically consciousness is of
that
tively to its confirmation. 5. Many empiricists the essence of reality) also the Buddhist school
(see e.g. Scientific Empiricism 1C) regard either of subjective idealism otherwise known as
verifiability (e.g. Wittgenstein, the Vienna YogScara (q.v.).- K.F.L.
Circle in its or confirmability as
earlier phase) Virtue: (Gr. arete) In Aristotle's philosophy
a criterion of meaningfulness (in the sense of that state thing which constitutes its
of a
factual meaning, 'see Meaning, Kinds of, 2). peculiar excellence and enables it to perform its
This view leads to a rejection of certain meta- function well) particularly, in man, the activity
physical doctrines (see Anti-metaphysics, 2). of reason and of rationally ordered habits.
R.C. (Lat. virtus) In Roman philosophy, virtue
became associated with and strength of
Veritt de fait (Verite* de raison) : There are virility
two kinds of truth, according to Leibniz, truths character. In the Italian renaissance, e.g.
of fact and truths of reason (or reasoning). Machiavelli, (Ital. virtu), the word means
These two classes of truths are exhaustive, and shrewd prudence. G.R.M.
also, with the single exception of the existence Vifpu: (Skr.) Deity of the Hindu trinity
of God, which has a logically anomalous posi- (see Trimurti). In philosophy, the prin-
tion of being a necessary truth about existence, ciple of conservation, maintenance, or stability,
reason are com- the principle worshipped in Vishnuism (q.v.).
completely exclusive. Truths of
pletely certain and necessary, for their denial
K.F.L.
involves a contradiction and is hence impossible. Visbnuism: (Vifnuism) One of the major
Truths of fact, on the other hand, are not philoiophico- religious groups into which Hindu-
completely certain and necessary. Their denial ism has articulated itself. It glorifies Vishnu
involves no contradiction} they rest upon ex- as the supreme being who creates and maintains
the world periodically by means of his bhuti
perience j and they have, hence, only a limited
inductive certainty. The truth of inductive in- and kriyd iaktis (q.v.) or powers of becoming
ferences which go beyond the evidence of and producing, corresponding to the causae
immediate experience depends upon the Law materialis et efficient. The place of man's soul
of Sufficient Reason, which is the expression in in this development is explained variously, de-

logic of the choice of the best on the part of pending on the relation it maintains to the
God. Since God conceivably could have chosen world-ground conceived in Vishnuite fashion.
another world for realisation, rather than this K.FJL.
 DICTIONARY Of PHILOSOPHY 333

Visistadvaitt: (Skr.) "Qualified non-duality", versal character of morals in which he firmly be-
the Vedftntic (q.v.) doctrine of qualified monism lieved. His famous, Candide is illustrative of
advocated by RamJnuja (q.v.) which holds the his keen satire in its blasting of the Leibniiean
Absolute to be personal, world and individual* best of all possible worlds.L.E.D.
to be real and distinct (rift;**), and salvation Main works: Lettrts philosophisest 1734;
attainable only by grace of God earned through Blimints de la philos. de Newton, 1738) Essai
bhakti ( q.v.). K.FX. sur les moeurs et Vetprit des nations (Philo-

The doctrine that phe- sophie de Christoire\ 1756) Traite de tolerance,

Vitalism: (Lat. vita, life)
sui generis by 1763) Diet, philosophipte, 1764.
nomena of life possess a character
virtu* of which they differ radically from Voluminouiness: (Lat volumen, volume) The
physico-chemical phenomena. The vitaliit vague, relatively undifferentiated spatiality
ascribes the activities of living organisms to
the characterizing sensations of every sense. See W.
operation of a "vital force"
such as Driesch's James, The Principles of Psychology, Vol. II,
"entelechy" or Bergson's flan vital. (See H. p. 134 ff. See Extensity. L.W.
Dricich, Der Vitalismtu ah Geschichte itnd all Voluntarism: (Lat voluntas, will) In ontology,
Lehre (1905) j The Science and Philosophy of the theory that the will it the ultimate con-
Organism, 2 Vols. (1908)j The Problem of stituent of reality. Doctrine that the human
Individuality (1914)* H. Bergson, Creative will, or some force analogous to it, is the pri-
Evolution.) Opposed to Vitalism is biological mary stuff of the universei that blind, purposive
mechanism Mechanism) which asserts that
(see impulse ii the real in nature, (a) In psychology,
living phenomena can be explained exclusively theory that the will is the most elemental psychic
in physico-chemical terms. (See J. Loeb, The factor, that striving, impulse, desire, and even
Organism as a Whole from a Physico-chemical action, with their concomitant emotions, are
View-Point, 1919j The Dynamics of Living alone dependable, (b) In ethics, the doctrine
Matter, 1910. See also C. D. Broad, The
Mind that the human will is central to all moral
and Its Place in Nature, ch. II.) LW. questions, and superior to all other moral cri-
Vivarta: (Skr. turning, whirling) The Cyclonic teria,such as the conscience, or reasoning power.
process of manifestation by which the One be- The subjective theory that the choice made by
comes the (illusory) Many, an essentially the will determines the good. Stands .for in-
Vedantic (s.v.) concept of cosmogonic as well determinism and freedom, (c) In theology, the
as psychologico-philosophical implications. will as the source of all religion, that blessed-
ness is a state of activity. Augustine (353430)

Volkelt, Johannes: (1848-1930) Was influenced held that God is absolute will, a will independ-
German idealism since Kant.
by the traditions of ent of the Logos, and that the good will of man
His most imported work consisted in the analysis is free. For Avicebron
(1020-1070), will is
of knowledge which, he contended, had a double indefinable and nature and soul,
stands above
source) for it requires, first of all, empirical matter and form, as the primary category. De-
data, insofar as there can be no real knowledge spite the metaphysical opposition of Duns Scotus
of the external world apart from consciousness, (1265-1308) the realist, and William of Occam
and also logical thinking, insofar as it elaborates (1280-1347) the nominalist, both considered the
the crude material of perception. Consequently, will superior to the intellect. Hume (1711-
knowledge may be described as the product of 1776) maintained that the will is the determin-
rational operations on the material of pure ex- ing factor in human conduct, and Kant (1724-
perience. Thus he arrived at the conclusion that 1804) believed the will to be the source of all
reality "tram-subjective"} that is to say, it
is moral judgment, and the good to be based on
consists neither of mere objects nor of mere data the human will. Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
of consciousness, but is rather a synthesis of both posited the objectified will as the world-sub-
elements of existence. R.B.W. stance, force, or value. James (1842-1910) fol-

Main works: Erfahritng Denken, 1886]

. lowed up Wundt's notion of the will as the
System d. Aesthetik, 1905-14} PhSnomenologie purpose of the good with the notion that it is
u. Metaphysik d. Zeit, 1925; Problem d. Indi- the essence of faith, also, manifest in the will

vidualitut, 1928.
to believe. See Will, Conation. Opposed to

Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de: (1694- Rationalism, Materialism^ Itellectualism.

1778) French dramatist and historian. He was
one of the leading Encyclopaedists, He preached Vortices: (Lat. vortex) Whirling figures used in
a natural religion of the deist variety. Though Cartesian physics to explain the differentiation
characterized as an atheist because of his fervent on geometrical principles of pure extension into
antagonism to the bigotry he found in the or- various kinds of bodies. See: Cartesianism.
ganized religions, he nevertheless believed in a VJJ9.
righteous God. He was opposed to all intoler- Vyipakatva: (Skr.) "All-resching-ness", omni-
ance and fought passionately to right the evils presence. AT.FX.
he discerned in religion and in society in gen- Vyivaharika: (Skr.) Relating to practical or
eral. In ethics, he baaed his views on the uni- empirical matters. J5T.FX.
 w
Wai tan: External alchemy, as a means of Wave mechanics: See Quantum mechanics.
nourishing life, attaining Tao, and immortality, Weber, Max: (1864-1920) Weber started his

including transmutation of mercury into gold career as a jurist in Berlin and later taught po-
(also called chin tin), medicine, charms, magic, litical economy at Heidelberg and
Freiburg,
attempts at disappearance and change of bodily Munich. He was founder of the Deutsche
a
form. (Taoist religion). W.T.C. Gesellschaft fur Soziologie and editor of Archiv
Wai wang: Often used as referring to the man fur Sozialtoissenschaft und Sozialpoiitih. Much
the of his scholarly work was devoted to the sociol-
who through his virtues and abilities gains
necessary qualifications of a ruler. (Mencius). ogy of religion. He participated in the Peace
HJJ. Conference at and argued against
Versailles,
27-c. 100 ratification of the but later he became
treaty)
Wang Chung: (Wang Chung-j en,
a member of the committee on the constitution
A.D.) Although strongly Taoistic in his natural-
for the German Republic. The provision in that
ism, was independent in thinking. His violent
constitution for the popular election of the presi-
and rational attack on all erroneous beliefs re-
He dent was inserted largely because of Weber's
sulted in a strong movement of criticism.
pressure. Main works: Gesammel/e Aufsatze .
was a scholar and official of high repute. (Lun
Religionssoziologie (1920)j .
So*iologie u.
Hi*?, partial Eng. by A. Forke, Metteilungen
tr.

des Seminars fur Orientalische Sprachen, Vols. Sowalpolitik (1922) } z. Wissenschaftelehre

(1924). ^.JJf..
IX-XI.) W.T.C.
Wang tao: The ideal institutions described by Weber-Fechner Law : Basic law of psychophysics
constitute the 'Kingly Way 1
one that which expresses in quantitative terms the relation
Mencius ,

H.H. between the intensity of a stimulus and the in-

is a kingly or virtuous government.
Wang Yang-ming: (Wang Shou-jen,
an, 1473-1529) Was a count,
a cabinet member,
and a general credited with many successful cam-
his
paigns against invaders and rebels. Drawing
inspiration from the teachings of
Lu Hsiang-
shan, he developed Neo-Confucianism (li hsiieh)
on the basis of the doctrine of the Mind (hsin
hsueh). His complete works, Wang Yang-ming
Ch'uan-chi (partial Eng. tr. by F. G. Henke:
The Philosophy of Wang Yang Ming)
of 38 chuans in several volumes. W.T.C.
Watson, John Broadus: (1878-) American psy-
chologist and leading exponent of Behaviorism
(see Behaviorism), studied and served as
structor at the University of Chicago, and
appointed Professor of Experimental Psychology
at John Hopkins University 1908 where he
served until 1920. Since then he has been en-
gaged in the advertising business in New York
City. The program for a behavioristic psychol-
ogy employed the objective methods of the bio-
logical sciences and excluded the introspective
method of earlier psychology j it is formulated
by Watson in "Psychology as the Beh'aviorist
Vines lt t Psychological Review XX (1913),
and Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative
Psychology, 1914. L.W.
tensity of the resultant sensation. E. H. Weber
Wang Po-
applying the method of "just noticeable differ-
ence" in experiments involving weight discrimi-
nation found that the ability to discriminate two
stimuli depends not on the absolute difference
between the two stimuli but on their relative
intensities and suggested the hypothesis that for
each sense there a constant xpressing the rela-
is
tive intensities of stimuli producing a just no-
ticeable difference of sensation. Fechner, also
consist
employing the method of just perceptible differ-
ence, arrived at the formula that the sensation
varies with the logarithm of the stimulus:
S == C log R
In-
where S represents the intensity of the sensa-
was
tion, R that of the stimulus and C a constant
which varies for the different senses and from
individual to individual and even for the same
individual at different times. L.W.
Wei: The product of culture, social order, and
training} ability acquired through training and
accomplishment through effort) human activity
as a result of the cogitation of {he mind, as
opposed to what is inborn. (HiQn Tcfi, c 335 -
c 288 B.C.). W.T.C.
Wei wp: "For the self/* in the sense of "pre-
serving life and keeping the essence of our
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 335

being intact and not to injure our material London, 1914-24. Professor of Applied Mathe-
existence with things," erroneously interpreted matics at the Imperial College of Science and
by Mencius as egotism, selfishness, "everyone Technology, London. From 1924 until retire-
for himself." (Yang Chu, c 440 - c 360 B.C.). ment in 1938, Professor of Philosophy aT
W.T.C. Harvard University. Among his most important
Well-ordered: See Ordinal number. philosophical works are the Principia Mathe-
Weltanschauung: (Ger.) The compound term matica, 3 vols. (1910-13) (with Bertrand
means world-view, perspective of life, concep- Russell)} An Enquiry concerning the Principles
tion; of things. of Natural Knowledge (1919)) The Concept of
Wen: (a) Culture: evidences of the Confucian Nature (1920)} Science and the Modern World
Moral Law (tao), such as propriety, music, (1926); Religion in the Making (192$)*
social institutions, governmental systems, educa- Symbolism (1928)) Process and Reality (1929);
tion, etc.} the tradition of the Chou dynasty and Adventures of Ideas (1933). The principle
which Confucius attempted to preserve. of relativity in physics is the key to the under-
(b) Appearance: polish} superficiality. standing of metaphysics. Whitehead opposes the
(c) Letters: literature, one of the four things current philosophy of static substance having
Confucius taught (ssQ chiao). W.T.C. qualities which he holds to be based on the
Wertfrei: (Ger. value-free) Seeing the central simply located material bodies of Newtonian
strength of the scientific attitude in its valua- physics and the "pure sensations" of Hume.
tional neutrality, Max Webe (1864-1920) in- This 17th century philosophy depends upon a
sisted that the deliberate abstention from taking "bifurcation of nature" into two unequal
sides for the value or against the disvalue of a systems of reality on the Cartesian model of
thing scientific scrutiny was essen-
when under mind and matter. The high abstractions of
progress in the social sciences.
tial to H.H. science must not be mistaken for concrete
Wertheimer, Max: (1880-) One of the origina- realities. Instead, Whitehead argues that there
tors along with Koffka and Kohler of Gestalt is only one reality} what appears, whatever is

psychology. The three began their association at given in perception, is real. There is nothing
Frankfort about* 19 12 and later Wertheimer and existing beyond what is present in the experience
Kohler worked together at the University of of subjects, understanding by subject any actual
Berlin. Wertheimer was led to the basic con- entity. There are neither static concepts nor
ception of Gestalt in the course of his investiga- substances in the world} only a network of
tions of apparent movement which seemed to events. All such events are actual^ extensions
indicate that the perception of movement is an or spatio-temporal unities. The philosophy of
integral experience and not the interpretative organism, as Whitehead terms his work, is
combination of static sensations. "Experimental based upon the patterned process of events. All
studien fiber das Sehen von Bewegungen, Zeits- things or events are sensitive to the existence
chrift fur Psychologic, 1912, Vol. 61, pp. 161- of all others} the relations between them con-
265. L.W. sisting in a kind of feeling. Every actual
Wesen: (Ger. being, essence, nature) Designates entity is then a "prehensive occasion", that is,
essential being without which a thing has no it consists of all those active relations with
reality. It has been conceived variously in the other things into which it enters. An actual
history of philosophy, as Ousia or constant be- entity is further determined by "negative pre-
ing by Aristotle; as essentia, real or nominal, hension", the exclusion of all that which it is
or species, by the Schoolmen} as principle of all not. Thus every feeling is a positive prehension;
that which belongs to the possibility of a thing, every abstraction a negative one. Every actual
by Kant} generally as that which is uncondition- entity is lost as an individual when it perishes,
ally necessary in the concept of a thing or is not but is 'preserved through its relations with other
dependent on external, causal, temporal or spe- entities inframework of the world. Also,
the
cial circumstances. Its contrast is that which is whatever has happened must remain an absolute
unwesentlich (defined by Schuppe as that which fact. In this sense, past events have achieved
has relation to or for something else), accidental, "objective immortality". Except for this, the
contingent. K.F.L. actual entities are involved in flux, into which
Wesensachau: (Ger. intuition of essence) In there is the ingression of eternal objects from
Scheler: The immediate grasp of essences. are universals whose selection is necessary to the
P.A.S. actual entities. Thus the actual world is a
Wesenswissen, i.e., Wesensschau (in Max the realm of possibilities. The eternal objects
Scheler) The knowledge of essences
: condi- certain selection of eternal objects. God is the
tioned by the elimination of acts which posit principles of concretion which determines the
reality and by the inclusion of pure devotion where-
selection. "Creativity" it the primal cause
to the qualities of objects as such (this type of by are selected in the advance of
possibilities
knowledge is
opposed to scientific
knowledge, actuality toward novelty. This movement is

which is "outer knowledge," not Wesenstoissen). termed the consequent nature of God. The pure
P.A.S. possibility of the eternal objects themselves is

Whitehead, Alfred North: British philosopher. termed his primordial nature. J.K.F.
Born in 1861. Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- Whole: The term "whole" has been used fre-

bridge, 1911-14. Lecturer in Applied Mathe- quently in attempts to describe or to explain

matics and Mechanics at University College, certain features of biological, psychological, or
336 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ociolofical (but sometimes alto of physical and has developed a formal theory of the part-whole
chemical) phenomena which were laid to be in- relationship within the framework of a so-called
accessible to a "merely mechanistic" or "summa- calculus of individuals) one of the theorems of
tive" analysis. In fact, most applications of the this theory states that every object is identical
concept of whole explicitly resort to a principle with the sum of This is, of course, a
its parts.

which asserts that a whole is more than the sum
of its parts.
Fromthe viewpoint of empiricist methodolgy,
that whole-part principle, and in most cases also
the use of the term "whole" is open to various
consequence of the way in which die axioms of
that calculus were chosen, but that particular
construction of the theory was carried out with
an eye to applications in logical and epistemologi-
cal analysis, and the calculus of individuals has

objections: In particular, the meanings of the already begun to show its value in these fields.
terms "whole", "part", "sum", and "more" are See Leonard and Goodman, Tht Calculus of
far from clear and change from case to case, Individuals and Its Us*s, The Journal of Sym-
and accordingly, so does the meaning and the bolic Logic, S (1940), pp. 45-55. C.C.H.
validity of the part-whole principle: In many Will: a) In the widest sense, will is synonymous
cases, a whole is simply meant to be an object with conation. See Conation.
of study which has parts (in some one of the b) In the restricted sense, will designates the
many senses of the word), and the part-whole sequence of mental acts eventuating in decision
principle is taken to assert either (1) that for or choice between conflicting conative tendencies.
a complete knowledge of tuch an object or An act of will of the highest type is analyzable
system, not only those parts, but also their into:
mutual relationships have to be known, or (2) (1) The envisaging of alternative courses of
that such an object has properties which can be action, each of which expresses conative ten-
found in none of its parts. In either of these dencies of the subject.
interpretations, the part-whole principle is trivi- (2) Deliberation, consisting in the examina-
ally true in every case, but just for this reason tion and comparison of the alternative courses
itcannot furnish an explanation of any empirical of action with special reference to the dominant
phenomenon such as the specific behavior of a ideals of the self.
developing embryo, taken as a "biological (3) Decision or choice consisting in giving
whole", or of visual gestalten, etc. assent to one of the alternatives and the rejec-
For that explanatory function, empirical laws tion of the rest. L.W.
are needed, and occasionally the part-whole Will (Scholastic): Will the two
is one of
principle is tacitly identified with some specific rational faculties of the human
Only man, soul.
law (or group of laws) governing the phenom- as a rational animal, possesses will. Animals are
enon under consideration. Whatever explanation prompted to action by the sensory appetites and
is achieved in such a case, is obviously due, not in this obey the law of their nature, whereas
to the vague part-whole principle but rather to human will is called free insofar as it deter-
the specific empirical law which is tacitly sup- mines itself towards the line of action it

planted for it) and any empirial law which chooses. Though the objects of will are pre-
might be chosen here, applies to a certain specific sented by the intellect, this' faculty does not
type of phenomena only and cannot pass for a determine will which may still act against the
comprehensive principle governing all kinds of intellect's judgment. The proper object of ra-
wholes. tional will is good in its universal aspect.
According to another interpretation of the Goodness is one of the original ("transcen-
notion of whole and of the part-whole prin- dental") of being) envisioned under
aspects
ciple, a whole is an object whose parts are this aspect,becomes a possible end of will.
it

mutually interdependent in the sense that a As such, it is apprehended by reason, arousing

change affecting one of its parts will bring about a simple volitive movement. Follow the ap-
changes in all of the other parts) and because proval of "synderesis" (v. there), striving,
of this interdependence the whole is said to be deliberation, consent, final approval by reason,
"more" than the sum of its parts. The part- choice of means and execution. Thus, there is
whole principle then obviously is true simply by a complicated interplay of intellectual and
definition, and again, lacks explanatory value. volitive performances which finally end with
Besides, the above interdependence criterion
if action. Action being necessarily about particulars
for wholes is taken literally, then any object and these being material, will, an "immaterial"
turns out to be a whole. What die concept of faculty cannot get directly in touch with reality
whole is actually meant
to refer to, are specific and needs, as does on its part intellect, an
types of interdependence as found in living or- intermediary) the sensory appetites are the ulti-
ganisms, etc.) but then, again, an adequate de- mate executors, while the vis cogitativa or prac-
scription and explanation of those phenomena tical reason supplies the link on the side of
can be attained only by a study of their special intellectual performance. True choice exists only
regularities, not by a sweeping use of the vague in rational beings ) animals appearing to deliber-
concept of whole and of the unclear part-whole ate are, in truth, only passively subjected to
principle. (For the points referred to in the pre- the interference of images and appetites, and
ceding remarks, see also Emergent Evolution, their actions are automatically Determined by
the relative strength of these factors. While
Recently, the Polish logician St. Lesniewski man's will is essentially free, it is restricted
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in the exercise of its freedom by imagination,
emotion, habit. Whatever an end will aims at,
it is always a good, be it one of a low degree.
Will, the Free Elective: (in Kant's
Kant's "free elective will" (fr*i* Willkur) is
a will undetermined by feeling at the time of
willing, even though it is destined to be sanc-
tioned and confirmed by a subsequent accrual
of feeling. Such a will, Kant says, is freedom.
P.A.S.
Will to Believe: A phrase made famous by
William James (1842-1910) in an essay by
that title (1896). In general, the phrase charac-
terizes much of James's philosophic ideas: a
defence of the right and even the necessity to
believe where evidence is not complete, the
adventurous spirit by which men must live,
the heroic character of all creative
the open-mind to possibilities, the repudiation
of the stubborn spirit and the will-not-to-know,
the primacy of the will in successful living, the
reasonableness of the whole man acting upon
presented data, the active pragmatic disposition
in general. This will to believe does not imply
mdiscriminative faith j
it implies a genuine op-
tion,one which presents an issue that is lively,
momentous and forced. Acts of indecision may
be negative decisions. V.F.
William of Champeaux: (1070-1121) He was
among the leading realists holding that the
genus and species were completely present in
each individual, making differences merely inci-
dental. He was one of the teachers of Abelard.
L.E.D.
Windelband, Wilhelm: Windelband (1848-
1915) was preeminently an outstanding his-
torian of philosophy. He has nowhere given a
systematic presentation of his own views, but
has expressed them only in unconnected essays
and discourses^ But in these he made some sug-
gestions of great import on account of which he
has been termed the founder and head of the
''South-Western German School." He
he belonged to the tradition of German
ism without definitely styling himself a Neo-
Kantian, Neo-Fichtean or Neo-Hegelian. His
fundamental position is that whereas it is for
science to determine facts, it is for philosophy
to determine values. Facts may be gathered
from experience, but values, >.*., what "ought"
to be thought, felt and done, cannot and hence
must in some tense be a priori* Of particular
was his effort later worked out by
significance
H. Rickert
to point out a fundamental distinc-
tion between natural
and historical science: the
former aims at establishing general laws and
considers particular facts only insofar as they
are like others. In contrast to this "nomothetic"
type of science, history is "idiographic", *.., it
is interested in the particular as such, but, of
course, not equally in all particulars, but in
such only as have some significance from the
point of view of value, //.<?.
Main works: Gttchicht* . Naturutitttnscktft,
1924 (9th ed.)i History of
1894) Pralitditn,
Modern Philotopky (Eng. tr.).
337
Wiflttntchaftslehre: (Ger. doctrine of science)
Since Ftchte who understood by it critical
phi-
losophy in general and his idealistic system
R.A. based on consciousness of the absolute
ego apart
ethics) from any definite content of knowledge in
par-
ticular, a term characterizing philosophy as a
scientific systemof knowledge embracing the
principles and methodology of all sciences under
exclusion of their factual content or
specific con-
clusions. K.F.L.
Wittgenstein, Ludwitf : (Lecturer in philosophy at
University of Cambridge, 1929-1939} professor
and head of department since 1939. Author of
Tractatus Logico-Pbilosophicus, 1922.
Apart from technical innovations in logical
theory (notably in the discussion of tautology
and main contribu-
probability), Wittgenstein's
tion to contemporary philosophy has been his
thinking, demonstration of the importance of a study of
language. The Tractatus is concerned chiefly to
determine the conditions which any symbolism,
qua representation of fact, must necessarily sat-
isfy. Such a "language" must consist of ele-
ments combined in such ways as to mirror in
one-one correspondence the elements and struc-
ture of the "world". A crucial distinction is
made between "saying" (aiasagtn) and "show-
ing" (*eigcn)] a statement is able to assert a
certain state of affairs by virtue of having the
same structure as that which it represents. The
common structure, however, cannot itself be as-
can only be shown in the symbols. Much
serted,
philosophy is held to consist of trying to say
what can only be shown, a misguided proceed-
ing provoked by failure to understand 'Hhe logic
Certain mystical conclusions
of our language".
follow.
Wittgenstein's doctrines were a major
influ-
ence in the evolution of Logical Positivism (q.
v.) though his later
work is out of sympathy
with that movement. Later lectures (in the form
of unpublished mimeographed notes) embody a
more relativistic approach to language, and are
felt that
of a therapeu-
largely devoted to the inculcation
Ideal-
tic method directed against the perennial tempta-
tion to ask senseless questions in philosophy.
References: Russell, Introduction to English
edition of the Tractatus. J. Weinberg, Examina-
tion of Logical Positivism, Ch. 1. M. Black,
"Some problems connected with language", Proc.
Aris. Soc., 39, 43. M.B.
Wolff, Christian: (1679-1754) A most outstand-
ing philosopher of the German Enlightenment,
and exponent of an all pervasive rationalism, who
was professor of mathematics at Halle. He was
a dry and superficial systematic popularicer of
dogmatic philosophy whose laws have for him
a purely logical and rational foundation. HJf.
works
Main works: In German a series of
on
Vtmunftig* Gfdankt (Rational Thoughts)
etc. followed by a
logic, psychologic, ethics,
similar series Empirical psychology, etc.
Woodbridie, Frederick Junes Eu|eoe: (1867-
1940) Was Professor of Philosophy of Columbia
University and one of the Editors of the Journal
of Philosophy. He was an important member of
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the realist school. For him consciousness was a called wu t. (The Yin Yang School in the
relation of meaning, a connection of objects, and third and fourth centuries B.C. and the Han
structure was a notion of greater philosophic dynasty, especially Pan Ku, 32-92 A.D., and
value than substance. His beat known works Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.).
are: Philosophy of Hobbit, The Realm of Mind (b) The Five Agents which are the five
and Nature and Mind.L.B.D. vital forces (ch'i) engendered by the trans-

World-event : An event conceived in four dimen- formation of yang, the active cosmic principle,
sions, its duration. See Space-Time. and its union with yin, the passive cosmic
including
&B.W. principle, each with its specific nature. When
World Ground* The source, cause, essence, or
the being of the Great Ultiamte (T'ai Chi) and
the essence of yin and yang come into mysterious
sustaining power within or behind the World.
See Absolut*. W.L. union, determinate being ensues, with the
heavenly principle, yang, constituting the male
World-line: A line conceived in four dimensions}
element and the earthly principle, yin, con-
a line cutting across space-time. See Space-
stituting the female element, giving rise to the
Time.R.B.W.
myriad things. (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073).
World-point: A four-dimensional point} a dura-
(c) The Five Constant Virtues. See: ttiu
tionless geometrical point. See Space-Time.
ch'ang. W.T.C.
R.B.W.
Wu hua: The transformation of things, that is,
World soul: 1. An intelligent, animating, in- the conception that entities should be, and could
dwelling principle of the cosmos, conceived as be, so transformed, spiritually speaking, that
its organizing or integrating cause, or as the
absolute identity may exist between them, espe-
source of its motion) thus posited on the analogy
cially between the self and the non-self, and
of the human soul and body. Such a doctrine,
between man and things. (Chuang Tzfl, between
common among primitive peoples, was taught 399 and 295 B.C.). W.T.C.
by Plato, Stoicism, Neo-Platonism, Renaissance Wu lun: The five human relationships, "those
Platonism, Bruno, etc. between the father and the son, the ruler and
2. This view has affinities with, and has oc-
subordinates, husband and wife, the elder and
casionally developed into, the notion of a World the younger, and friends." Also called the Five
Mind 'or Absolute Mind as posited in Vedantic
Constants (wu ch'ang). "Between father and
and Buddhist idealism, patristic and scholastic
son, there should be affection} between sovereign
Christian theism, objective idealism, and abso-
and ministers, there should be righteousness)
lute idealism. See Idealism, The Absolute.
between husband and wife, attention to their
W.L.
separate functions) between old and young, a
Wrong action: Any action that is not right.
proper order) and between friends, good faith
See: Right action. C.A.B.
(hsin)." (Mencius). W.T.C.
Wu: 'Eternal Non-Being' is that which is op-
Wundt, Wilhelm Max: (1832-1920) German
refers to
posed to being of material objects) physiologist, psychologist and philosopher, who,
the essence of Tao t the first principle. (Lao after studying medicine at Heidelberg and Ber-
T*u). H.H. lin and lecturing at Heidelberg, became Profes-
Wu: Creatures, things j matter j the material sor of Philosophy at Leipzig in 1875 where he
principle i the external world) the non-self j founded the first psychological laboratory in
objects of the senses and desires affairs.
1879. Wundt's psychological method, as ex-
W.T.C.
emplified in his Principles of Physiological Psy-
Wu ch'ang: (a) The Five Constant Virtues of chology, 1873-4, combines exact physical and
ancient Confucianism: righteousness on the part physiological measurement of stimulus and re-
of the mother, brotherliness on the part of the sponse along with an introspective analysis of
elder brother, respect on the part of the young the "internal experience" which supervenes be-
brother, and filial piety on the part of the son. tween stimulus and rsponse) he affirmed an
Also called wu chiao and wu tien. exact parallelism or one-to-one correspondence
of Confucian-
(b) The Five Constant Virtues between the physiological and the psychological
ism from the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) series. Wundt's psychology on its introspective
on: benevolence (je"n), righteousness (i), pro- side, classified sensations with respect to modal-
priety (li), wisdom (chih), and good faith
duration, extension, etc.) and feel-
ity, intensity,

(hsin). Also called wu hsing and wu t. ings as: (a) pleasant or unpleasant, (b) tense
(c) The Five Human Relationships
of Con- or relaxed, (c) excited or depressed. He ad-
fucianism (wu lun).TF.r.C. vanced but later abandoned on introspective
Wu chi: The Non-Ultimate. See: Tal Chi.
grounds the feeling of innervation (discharge
W.T.C. of nervous energy in initiating muscular move-
Wu chiao: The Five Teachings. See: wu ch'ang. ment). Among psychologists influenced by
Wu hiing: (a) The Five Agents, Elements,
or Wundt are Cattell, Stanley Hall and Titchener.
Powers of Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth, L.W.
the interaction of which gives rise to the multi- Other works: Logik, 1880-3) Ethik, 1886)
plicity of things, and which have their cor- VSlkerpsychologie, 10 vols. (34 ed., 1910-20).
respondence in the five senses, tastes, colors, Wu thin: The Five Origins of Order in the
tones, the five virtues, the five atmospheric con- medieval Confucian interpretation of history,
ditions, the five ancient emperors, etc. Also namely, the beginning of Heaven is rectified
 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 339

by the depth of the Prime) the government of was to love life or to have death. He did not
the empire 11 rectified by the beginning of rejoice in birth nor resist death. Spontaneously
Heaven^ the position of the princei is rectified he went) spontaneously he came) that was all*
by the government of the empire} and the order He did not forget whence he came} nor did he
of the state ii rectified by the position of the seek whence he would end. He accepted things
princes. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.). gladly, and returned them to nature without
W.T.C. reminiscence.. This is called not to hurt Tao
Wu te: (a) The Five Powers, or the charac- with the human heart, nor to assist heaven with
teristics of the Five Agents or Elements (wu man." (Chuang Tzu, between 399-295 B.C.).
hsing) of the Yin Yang school. "The meaning of 'wu wei* is that there is
(b) The Five Constant Virtues. See: u>u no going in advance of nature. The meaning
cb'ang. W.T.C. of 'wu pu wei' (there is nothing undone) is
Wu tien: The Five Constant Virtues. See: wu that, in following Tao, everything is done. The
meaning of 'wu chin' (no governing) it that
Wu wei:
^

Following nature) non-artificiality) there is no interference with naturalness. And

non-assertion^ inaction) inactivity or passivity. the phrase 'wu pu chih' (there is nothing that
It means that artificiality must not replace is not governed) is that the end if attained in

spontaneity, that the state of nature must not be accordance with the mutual fitness of things.*'
interfered with by human efforts, superficial
(Huai-nan Ttu, 122 B.C.). W.T.C.
morality and wisdom. "Tao undertakes no ac- Wu wu: To regard things as things, that ii, to
tivity (wu wei), and yet there is nothing left
undone. If kings and princes would adhere to regard things with objectivity and no attach-
ment or selfishness, on the one hand, and, with
it, all creatures would transform spontaneously."

(Lao Tzu). the conviction that the self and the non-self
"The true man of old did not know what it form an organic unity on the other. W.T.C.
 X
Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570 - c. 480 B.C.) : 1918. Studied and worked under Ortega y
A contemporary of Pythagoras who may have Gasset, Serra Hunter, Cossio, and Morente.
been t student of Anaximander. Usually asso- Main Works: LAS Conditions I* U
ciated with the Milesian school, his studies car- Vtrdai Et*r*a tn Ltibni*, 1921) Rowta* y
ried him into an examination of the phenomena Us Idtas Politics Modtmas, 1923) El Stntido
of nature. He held that all living creatures had d* la Vtrdad, 1927) Dtuartn y tl Idtalismo
an origin, that plants and animals had natural Subjttwiit* Modimo, 1927) Amor y Mttndo,
origins.tf.//. 1940) Introduction a la Ftnomtnolcgla, 1941.
To Xenophanes is due the saying: "The According to Xirau the very essence of phi-
gods of the Ethiopians are dark-skinned and losophic thought (Influence of Husserl and
snub-nosed) the^gods of the Thracians a,re fair Heidegger) opposes the conception of philosophy
and blue-eyed} if oxen could paint, their gods as mere play of ideas or speculation of concepts.

would be oxen." Philosophy is, above all, called upon to develop

man in the sense of actualicing his inborn po-
XifftU Palau, Joaquin: Born in Figueras, Spain, tentialities and bringing the fact and concept of
1805. At present, in Mexico. Xirau specialized
personality to full fruition. Philosophy thus be-
in philosophy, literature and law, obtaining his comes pedagogical, and ai such it will always
Ph.D. from the Central University of Madrid in have a great destiny to realitc. J.A.F.
Ya evam veda: (Skr.) "He who knows this", which some early Taoists implied an attitude
a common Upanishadic (q.v.) refrain suggesting towards life rather than a system of hygiene.

compensation of some nature for one conversant HJi.

with philosophic truth. K.F.L.
Yang sheng: "Nurturing life," conserving one's
Yajna: (Skr.) Sacrifice, a Vedic (q.v.) institution vital powers, by which later Taoists understood
which became philosophically interpreted as the sex breath control, the physical exercises
life,
self-sacrifice of the Absolute One which, by an and diet. H.H.
act of self-negation (nijfdha-vydpdra) became
Yeh ch'i: The "air of the night," i.e., the
the Many.A:.FX.
strength or force obtained through the rest and
Yajnavalkya: One of the foremost teachers in
.
recuperation during the night, suggestive of the
the classic age of Upanishads (q.v.). K.F.L.
moral invigoration from the calmness and re-
Yama: (Skr.) Restraint, particularly moral re-
pose of the mind which is necessary for the
straint as the first condition for attaining the
realization of one's good nature.
(Mencius, 371-
object of Yoga (q.v.), including ahimsa (q.v.) 289 B.C.). W.T.C.
and brahmacarya (q.v.), relinquishing theft and
Yi: Change. See: i.
desire for gratuities. K.F.L,
Yin yang: (a) Passive and active principles,
Yang: (a) The active, male cosmic principle or
respectively, of the universe, or the female,
force. See: yin yang.
negative force and the male, positive force,
(b) The school of Yang Chu (c 440 -c 360
always contrasting but complimentary. Yang
B.C.) and his followers, whose main doctrines
and yin are expressed in heaven and earth, man
are neither hedonism as Lieh Tzu seems to
and woman, father and son, shine and rain,
represent him, nor egoism as Mencius inter-
hardness and softness, good and evil, white and
preted him, but rather the Taoist doctrines of
black, upper and lower, great and small, odd
following nature, of "preserving life and keep- number and even number, joy and sorrow,
ing the essence of our being intact and not reward and punishment, agreement and opposi-
injuring our material existence with things," of
tion, life and death, advance and retreat, love
"letting life run its course freely," and of
and hate, and all conceivable objects, qualities,
"ignoring not only riches and fame but also
situations, and relationships.
life and death." W.T.C.
Yang ch'i: (a) Nourishing one's vital force, the (b) The Two Modes (i and in

basis of the human body, by the practice of trigram, or kua, symbols) of the Great Ultimate
(T'ai Chi), from the interplay of which all
benevolence, righteousness, and uprightness, and
the obedience of the moral law (tao) so that things are engendered.
the vital forcebe most great and most
may (c) A
system constituted by the Five Agents
strong "to the extent of filling up all between or Elements (wu hsing) of Water, Fire, Wood,
Heaven and Earth." See: hao /an chih ch'i. Metal, and Earth, which in turn constitute the
(Confucianism). Great Ultimate. (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073).
(b) Nourishing life through breath control. (d) The two forces of ch'i, or the vital

(Taoism). W.T.C. force which is the material principle of the

Yang Chu: (c, 440-360 B.C.) Was a great Taoist universe. (Neo-Confucianism).
whose teachings, together with thoie of Mo (e) Name
of a school (400-200 B.C.) headed
Tsti, the empire" and strongly rivaled
"filled by Tsou Yen, which advocated that all events
Confucianism at the time of Mencius (371-239 are manifestations of the passive or female force
B.C.). His main doctrines of following nature and the active or male force of the universe,
and preserving life and the essence of being and which was closely associated with popular
have been distorted as hedonism and egoism in geomancy, astrology, eic.~ W.T.C.
the work bearing his name (Ch. VII of Lieh Yo: Music, or the social and cosmic principle of
T*&, c. 300 A.D.j Eng. tr. by A. Forke: Yang harmony. See: / (propriety). W.T.C.
Chits Garden of Pleasure). W.T.C. Yoga: (Skr. ''yoking") Restraining of the mind
Yang-haing: 'Nurturing the bodily frame', by (see Manas), or, in Patanjali's (q.v.) phrase:
342 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
etas vftfi *r4*4j disciplining the activity of controlled and our conscious minds are dis-
consciousness. The
object of this universally tracted by the material world, we love our true
recommended practice in India ii the gaining selves and the principle of reason in Nature is
of peace of mind and a deeper insight into the destroyed . . . The people are therefore con-
nature of reality. On psycho-physical assump- trolled through the rituals and music instituted
tions, several aids are outlined in all works on by the ancient kings." As
Tai Tung-yuan
Yoga, including moral preparation, breath- (1723-1777) puts it, "Man and creatures all
control, posture, and general toning up of the have desires, and desires are the functioning!
system. Karma or kriya Yoga is the attainment of their nature ... If functioning* and opera-
of Yoga ends primarily by doing, bhakti Yoga tions do not err, they are in harmony with the
by devotion, jftana Yoga by mental or spiritual characteristics of Heaven and Earth . Good- . .

means. The Yogasutras (q.v.) teach eight paths: ness nothing but the transformation of
is

Moral restraint (see yama\ self-culture (see Heaven and Earth and the functionings and
niyama), posture (see asana), breath-control capabilities of nature . . . We should not be
(see prjpay***)> control of the senses (see without desires, but we should minimize them.
pratyahara) t concentration (see dharava)* medi- W.T.C.
tation or complete surrender to the object of Yu: "Eternal being" refers to the function of
meditation (see samadhi). See Hathayoga. the metaphysical' principle Tao. It is no mere
K.F.L. zero or nothingness, having as first principle

Yogieira: A MahiyJna (q.v.) Buddhist school brought all things into being. (Lao Tcu,
which puts emphasis on Yoga (q.v.) as well as Taoists). H.H.
acdra, ethical conduct. Believing in subjective Yuan: (a) The beginning. For the One-Prime,
idealism, it is also designated as Vijnina-vJda see: * yuan.
(q.v.). Since we know the world never apart (b) The beginning of number, one.
from the form it has in consciousness, the (c) The beginning of the material principle
latter is an essential to
it. All things exist in or the vital force (ch'i).
consciousness) they cannot be proven to exist (d) The originating power of the Heavenly
otherwise. K.F.L. Element (chien) in the system of the Eight
Yogasutrai: Famous work by Patanjali (q.v.) Elements (pa kua)j "being attentive to the
on which is founded Yoga, one of the great fundamentals the first and the chief quality
systems of Indian philosophy (q.v.). It is of goodness," one of the four virtues (ssu* tS).
essentially a mental discipline in eight stages (e) The great virtue of Heaven and Earth
(see Yoga) for the attainment of spiritual which expresses itself in production and repro-
freedom without neglecting physical and moral duction. W.T.C.
preparation. In philosophic outlook, the sutras Yuan: The method of analogy in argumentation.
(q.v.) and most commentaries on them are See: pien. W.T.C.
allied to the Sahkhya (q.v.), yet not without Yuan ch'i: The primal fluid or the Prime-Force,
having theistic leanings. K.F.L. the product of the cosmos. Its pure and light
Yogfa, Yogini: (Skr.) The man, the woman, portion collected to form Heaven and its im-
practicing Yoga (q-v.) K.F.L. pure and heavy portioji, Earth. (Huai-nan Tzu,
Yoni: (Skr. womb) Source, origin, matrix, first d. 122 B.C.)- W.T.C.
cause. See garbh*. K.F.L. Yung: Courage, one of the universally recognized
Yu: Being, existence, the mother of all things, moral qualities of man (ta te), especially of
which comes from Non-Being (wu). Both man. W.T.C.
the superior
Being and Non-Being are aspects of Tao. Yung: (a) Harmony.
W.T.C. (b) What is common, ordinary, universal.
Yu: Space, or "what extends to different places" To the Confucians this is "the eternal law of
and "covers the four directions." (Neo-Mohism). the universe." See: chung yung. To Chuang
W.T.C. Tzti (between 399 and 295 B.C.) "the common
Yu: Desire, which the Taoists regard as detri- and the ordinary are the natural function of
mental to a good life and the understanding of all which expresses the common nature
things,
Tao, but which the Confucians accept as natural of the whole. Following the common nature
and reasonable if under control. "The nature of the whole, they are at ease. Being at ease,
of man is tranquil, but when it is affected by they are near perfection. This is letting nature
the external world, it begins to have desires . . . take its course, without being conscious of the
When the likes and dislikes are not properly fact. This is Tao. W.T.C.
Zaddik, Joseph Ibn: Judge at Cordova (1080- Zetetie: (Gr. zeteo, to seek) A procedure by
1149). Philosophic work written in Arabic is inquiry. A search (in mathematics) after un-
the Microcosm (Heb. Olam Katon). See Jewish known quantities. A seeker. V.F.
Philosophy. Ziehen, Theodor: (b. 1862) A German thinker
Zarathuttra : A historic personality whose life be- whose main interest lay in the field of physiologi-
came enshrowded in legend. He lived .not later cal psychology. R.B.W.
than the 6th century B.C. in ancient Persia
Zoroastrianism: (from Zoroaster) A life-
(Iran or Bactria) and is credited with establish-
a dualism called after him Zoroastrianism affirming Indo-Iranian religion, also known as
ing
In Also sprack Zarathustra, Nietzsche Mazdaism, Bah Din, Parsiism, and Fire-wor-
(q.v.).
makes him, though dissociated from his doc- ship, established by Zarathustra (q.v.), weakened

trines, the bearer of his message. K.F.L. by the conquests of Alexander the Great, resusci-
tated, then practically extinguished by the ad-
Zendavesta: (from Middle Persian Zend u
vance of Mohammedanism, but still living on in
Avista, "commentary and text") The Com-
the Gabar communities of Persia and the Parsis
mentary, still used today as sacred scripture
of Bombay. It is ethical and dualistic in that
among the Parsis (see Zoroastrianism), on the
the struggle between good and evil is projected
basic text which was composed by the followers
into cosmology and symbolized by a warfare
of Zarathustra (q.v.), but had become unintellig-
K.F.L. between light and darkness which is conceived
ible due to its archaic nature.
Zeno o! Elea: (about 490430 B.C.) Disciple of on the one hand naturalistically and manifest-
ing itself in a deification of the shining heavily
Parmenides) defended the doctrine of his master
that only changeless "Being" is real by indirect bodies, veneration of fire, fear of defilement, and
proofs exposing the logical absurdities involved purificatory rites ,and, on the other, mythologi-
in the opposite view, namely that plurality and cally as the vying for supremacy between Or-
change are reaj. Zeno's famous arguments mazd and Ahriman (q.v.) and their hosts
against the possibility of motion were intended of angels and demons. Man must choose be-
as proofs that motion was full of contradic- tween light and darkness, truth and falsehood,
tions and that it could not therefore serve as a moral right and wrong, and thus gain either
principle for the explanation of all phenomena, eternal bliss or agony. K.F.L.
as the atomists, Heraclitus, Empedodes and
others had taught. Zwingliism: The theological thought of Huld-
M.F.
reich Zwingli (1481-1531), early Protestant
Zeno the (c. 340-265 B.C.) A native of
Stoic:
Reformer of Zurich, Switzerland. His theology
Cyprus and the founder of the Stoic School in was theocentric: God's activity is all-pervading
Athens. His philosophy was built on the prin-
and widely revealed. He was a student of the
ciple that reality ii a rational order in which
Greek N.T. and of humanistic subjects, a friend
nature is controlled by laws of Reason, inter-
of Erasmus. (See Reformation). He followed
preted in the vein of pantheism. Men's lives
are guided by Providence against which it is Augustine's doctrine of man's original sin and
futile to resist and to which wise men willingly sinfulness with some modifications. He antici-

submit. R.B.W. pated Calvin's doctrine of election (see Calvin-

Zermelo, Emit (Fried rich Ferdinand), 1871-,
German mathematician. Professor of mathe-
matics at Zurich, 1910-1916, and at Freiburg,
1926-. His important contributions to the foun-
dations of mathematics are the Zermelo
matic set theory (tee logic, formal, 9), and
the explicit enunciation of the axiom of choice
ism) as an act of the Divine good and rational
will; and he held the feudalists theory of the
atonement of substitution framed by Anselm.
The sacraments were not mystical conveyors of
axio-
divine grace to him) they were rather outward
signs of an inward spiritual grace. In the

(q. v.) and proof of its equivalence to the

famous Marburg Colloquy, he broke with Luther
proposition that every elast can be well-ordered. and his followers on the interpretation of the

Lord's Supper. V.F.