Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CONTENTS
1 NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1.1 Nutrients
1.2 Photosynthesis
1.3 Photosynthesis in desert
1.4 Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates
1.5 Heterotroph modes of nutrition in plants
1.6 Saprotrophs
2 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
2.1 Different ways of taking food
2.2 Digestion in humans
2.3 Digestion in grass eating animals
2.4 Feeding and digestion in amoeba
3 FIBRE TO FABRIC
3.1 Animal fibers wool and silk
3.2 From fibers to wool
3.3 Silk
4 HEAT
4.1 Hot and cold
4.2 Measuring temperature
4.3 Transfer of heat
4.4 Kinds of cloths we wear in summer and winter
5 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
5.1 Acids and bases reaction with metals
5.2 Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates reaction with acids
5.3 Neutralization or acid base reaction with each other
5.4 Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
5.5 Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base
5.6 What do all acids and all bases have in common?
5.7 Measuring Strengthens of acid and base solutions
5.8 Salts
6 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
6.1 Mixture
6.2 Solution
6.3 Separating the components of a mixture
6.4 Physical and chemical changes
6.5 Types of pure substances
7 WEAHTER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE
7.1 Weather
7.2 Climate
7.3 Climate and adaptation.
8 WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONE
8.1 Air exerts pressure
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NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Nutrients
A substance that provides nourishment which is necessary for maintenance of life and
growth.
OR
A component in food that organism uses to survive and grow
Carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals. These are major nutrients in food.
By some tests we can measure the nutrients present in the food.
Carbohydrate
By using dilute iodine solution, we can test whether food has starch or not.
Functions provides energy (energy giving food)
Protein
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Add caustic soda and copper sulphate to the food. If it turns into violet color, then this
means food contains protein.
Functions growth and repair of our body. (body building food)
Fats
Put the food in a paper and crush it. If it leaves an oily patch or water patch on paper,
then it means food has fats.
Functions also provides energy but more compare to carbohydrate (energy giving
food)
Vitamins
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Photosynthesis
Leaves food factories of a plant.
While roots absorb water and minerals present in the soil.
Vessels transport the minerals and water to the leaves.
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We can say they have nose but it is called as stomata. Stomata is a pore which is
surrounded by guard cells. When the guard cells shrink the pore opens and exchange of
gases necessary for photosynthesis takes place.
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Leaves having deep red, violet or brown leaves also perform photosynthesis and they
too have chlorophyll (green pigment). Its just that large amount of red, brown and
other color mask the green color pigment.
Photosynthesis in desert
Photosynthesis also takes place in other parts of plants i.e. green stems and green
branches. So, in desert plants leaves are reduce to spines so less transpiration but green
stems of these plants do photosynthesis.
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Algae
Contain green chlorophyll which gives them green color. They are also autotrophs.
We have read about algal bloom in environment. (eutrophication)
Parasitism
We have read parasitism in environment.
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Insectivorous plants
These are plants which eats insects.
E.g. pitcher plant
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In pitcher plant the leaf of the plant is modified to pitcher and lid.
Whenever a fly or other insect lands in pitcher the lid closes and the hairs inside the
pitcher entangles the fly.
The pitcher releases some digestive juice which digests the fly.
1) Does pitcher plant carry photosynthesis? If yes, then why traps flies and other insects?
Because they grow in soils that are low in or completely void of nutrients. Feeding on
insects gives them required nutrients and enable them to grow more quickly.
Saprotrophs
Saprotrophs plants which use saprotrophic mode of nutrition. They are also heterotrophs.
Fungi - It is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular
microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar
fruiting forms known as mushrooms.
Fungi and other saprotroph organism secrete digestive juices on the dead and decaying
matter and convert it into a solution. So that they can easily absorb nutrients from
solution.
Fungi also grow on moist wood, leather and cloth when they are left in hot and humid
weather for long time.
This is the same reason for why we put blankets and Quilt in sunlight, few days before
using them.
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Disease by fungi
Athlete's foot - caused by the mold known as Epidermophyton floccosum
Aspergillosis - caused by the fungus Aspergillus and usually occurs in people with lung
diseases or weakened immune systems.
Blastomycosis - caused by the fungus Blastomyces, which lives in moist soil in parts of
the United States and Canada.
Figure blastomycosis
Ringworm - a common fungal skin infection that often looks like a circular rash.
Uses of fungi
Yeasts have been used for thousands of years in the production of beer, wine, and
bread.
Fungi not only directly produce substances that humans use as medicine, but they are
also versatile tools in the vast field of medical research.
Some fungi attack insects and, therefore, can be used as natural pesticides.
Penicillin is derived from a common fungus called Penicillium. It is used to fight bacteria
in our body.
How to remember difference between algae and fungi? A for algae and A for
autotrophs (i.e. chlorophyll) and fungi is opposite of algae so heterotroph
Symbiotic relationship
We have read it in environment.
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In this relationship some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients.
Example
o Rhizobium bacteria and plant roots
o Lichens algae and fungi live together
o Algae provides food and nutrients to fungi, as fungi cannot make its food own.
Fungi provide shelter, water and minerals to algae.
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NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Animals get their food from plants, either directly (by eating plants) or indirectly (eating
animals which eats plants).
E.g. Directly vegetables
o Indirectly deer, fish
Animals nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food and its
utilization in our body.
Our body cannot digest complex substance like carbohydrate as it is and so we require
breakdown of complex components into simpler substances. This process of breakdown
is called as digestion.
Digestion in humans
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In our body there is canal which starts from Buccal cavity and ends at anus.
This canal is known as Alimentary canal (Digestive tract)
It can be divided into various compartments
o Buccal cavity
o Food pipe or esophagus
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Large intestine
o Anus
Digestive system = digestive tract + gland associated with digestive tract
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2. Permanent teeth these set of teeth grow after 6 or 8 years age or they are
replacement of milk teeth. They last throughout life or fall off during old age or due to
dental disease.
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o Incisor - a narrow-edged tooth at the front of the mouth, adapted for cutting. In
humans there are four incisors in each jaw.
o Canine - a pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars of a mammal,
often greatly enlarged in carnivores like lion, dog, tiger etc.
o Premolar - a tooth situated between the canine and the molar teeth. An adult
human normally has eight, two in each jaw on each side.
o Molar - a grinding tooth at the back of a mammal's mouth.
Salivary gland
It secretes saliva, which breaks down the starch (present in food) into sugars.
Tongue
Fleshy muscular organ attached at back to the floor of the buccal cavity.
Free at front and can move in all directions.
Functions
Helps in talking (you cannot talk without your tongue)
Mixes saliva with food during chewing
Helps in swallowing food
Helps in tasting the food by its taste buds.
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Cough, hiccups
Windpipe in our body carries air from nostrils to lungs. This windpipe runs adjacent with food
pipe. Both share a common passage. While swallowing food windpipe remains close with flap
like valve and guides food into food pipe but sometimes the food particles enter the
windpipe and we feel choked, get hiccups or cough.
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The stomach
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To kill bacteria that entered with food and helps the digestive juices to act on food
Digestive juices breakdown protein into simpler substances.
Liver
Reddish brown gland
Situated in upper part of abdomen on right side
Largest gland in the body
Secretes bile juice (stored in a sac caked gall bladder)
Bile juice helps in digestion of fats
Pancreas
Large cream color gland
Just below stomach
Secretes pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice acts on
o Carbohydrates converted into glucose
o Fats fatty acids + glycerol
o Proteins animals acids
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The network of small and thin blood vessels close to the surface of villi helps villi in
absorbing substances.
These substances like nutrients are transported via blood vessels to different body
organs
These body organs utilize them to build complex substances like proteins. This is called
as assimilation.
In cells. The glucose is breakdown into CO2 and water with the help of O2. During this
process energy is released which is required by our body to do work.
In vehicles also similar process is there, the fuel in the presence of the O2
breakdown into and releases energy which moves the vehicle
Large intestine
Undigested and unabsorbed food enters into large intestine
It is wider but shorter than small intestine (actually small intestine is large in length and
large intestine is small in length)
1.5 metres long
Function absorb water and salts from undigested and unabsorbed food.
Remaining waste passed into rectum where it remains as semi-solid faeces.
Anus removed these faecal matter
This is called as egestion
Diarrhoea
Frequent watery stool is called as dirrohea.
Causes infection, food poisoning or indigestion.
It can be fatal because of excessive loss of water and salts from the body
Treatment plenty of boiled and cooled water with pinch of salt and sugar dissolved in
it (i.e. ORS oral rehydration solution)
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food then forms into solid lumps, called cud, which the animal can regurgitate later for
chewing.
The cud is chewed slowly, with a side to side grinding motion, using their hind teeth,
before being swallowed. Grass and plants are hard to digest so this second chewing is
required to break the food down further for digestion. After food is swallowed the
second time it can be passed into the other parts of the stomach, the omasum, and
abomasum, the last of which is considered to be a true stomach.
Ruminants have a large sac like structure called caecum between small intestine and
large intestine.
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Amoeba is one of those small organisms which do not have mouth and a digestive
system
Amoeba is a microscopic (i.e. can be seen from microscope only) single celled organism
found in pond water.
It has a cell membrane, a rounded and dense nucleus and small vacuoles which looks
like small bubbles in cytoplasm.
It constantly changes its shape and position. It pushes out pseudopodia (finger like
projections) or false feet for movement and capture of food.
Eats microscopic organism.
When it senses food, it pushes out pseudopodia around the food particle and engulfs it.
The food is trapped in food vacuole and digestive juices are secreted into it.
These juices break down food into simpler substances
Gradually the digested food is absorbed and used for maintenance, growth and
multiplication.
Undigested residue of food is expelled outside by the vacuole.
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FIBRE TO FABRIC
Natural fiber fibers which are obtained from plants and animals
Synthetic fiber fiber which are made from chemical substances and not obtained from plants
and animals.
e.g. polyester, nylon, acrylic
Fiber strands yarn fabric cloth
Fiber to yarn by spinning using spindle or charkha.
Yarn to fabric by weaving and knitting.
Weaving process of arranging 2 sets of yarns to make a fabric
Knitting a single yarn is used to make a piece of fabric.
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Example
o yak wool Tibet and ladakh
o angora wool angora goat Jammu and Kashmir (hilly regions)
o goat hair Kashmiri goat (for pashmina shawls) Kashmir
o camel fur camel Rajasthan
o wool llama and alpaca south America
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Shearing process of removing of fleece of sheep long with thin layer of skin (dead skin and
hairs are removed during hot weather so sheep dont have any problem and till winter hairs
will grow again)
Hair woolen fibers woolen yarn
Scouring washing of hair to remove the dirt, grease and dust in tanks or by machine.
Sorting separation of different textures of hairs
Natural fleece of sheep color black, brown and white. These are dyed in various colors.
Rolling after straightening and combing, fibers are rolled into yarn.
Longer fibers are for sweater while shorter are for woolen cloths.
Occupation hazard in woolen industry sorters job is risky as sometimes they get
infected by a bacterium, anthrax, which causes a fatal blood disease called sorters
disease. Such risks faced by workers in any industry are called occupational hazards.
Silk
Silk fibers also come under animal fibers
Silk fibers are obtained from silkworms and rearing of silkworm is called as sericulture.
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Processing silk
The cocoon spinned by silk worms is kept under sun or boiled or exposed to steam so that silk
fibers get separated. This process of separating silk from cocoon is called as reeling the silk.
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HEAT
Measuring temperature
To measure a temperature a device is used called as thermometer.
Thermometer can be used to measure different temperature.
There are many thermometers but we will study 2 thermometers here and one in
climate chapter.
Clinical thermometer
Measures our body temperature
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Laboratory thermometer
Digital thermometers
As we have read in environment that mercury is a toxic substance and can cause minamata
disease + difficult to dispose. So, now days digital thermometer are used which dont have
mercury.
Transfer of heat
Heat always travels from hotter object to cooler object
Heat will not be transferred if temperature of 2 objects is same.
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Conduction
Conduction is a process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder
end of an object.
Conduction takes place when 2 objects are in contact with each other. Generally in
solids
All substances not conduct heat easily.
Conductors
Material which allow heat to pass through them easily.
Example Al, Cu, Iron (fe)
Insulators
Materials which do not allow heat to pass through them
Poor conductors of heat water and air
Convection
The process in which heat moves through a gas or a liquid as the hotter part rises and
the cooler, heavier part sinks.
Example
While heating water near the base of container heats first and rises up while the cold
water sinks into the base of container. This cold water gets heated and rises up.
The air near the heat source gets hot and rises. The air from the sides comes in place to
take its place and so on air gets heated.
Land breeze and sea breeze (only sea breeze is explained as it is already covered in
geography notes)
The air over the land warms up (during day) and rises up. To fill this gap cold air rushes
from sea. This is called as sea breeze.
Radiation
Transforming of heat without any medium
Example
The heat from sun comes to us by radiation and requires no medium.
So if you encounter a statement anywhere that heat from sun comes to us by
conduction and convection is a wrong statement.
Heat by heater in room.
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All hot bodies radiate heat. When this heat falls on some object, a part of it is reflected,
a part is absorbed and a part may be transmitted. The temperature of the object
increases due to the absorbed part of the heat.
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Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone. hydrogen ions in HCl are produced in the presence of
water. The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of
water.
Bases generate hydroxide (OH) ions in water.
Alkalis - Bases which are soluble in water
All bases do not dissolve in water.
They are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic one. (as more H+ ion
will be there)
The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated
acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns. The glass container may also
break due to excessive local heating
Dilution - Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions (H3O+ /OH)
per unit volume
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hibiscus lichen
The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH ions
produced, respectively
Diff. acids with same concentration produce different amounts of hydrogen ions
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Salts
Family of salts - Salts having the same +ve or -ve radicals are said to belong to a family.
For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts. Similarly, NaCl and KCl
belong to the family of chloride salts.
pH of Salts
1. Strong acid + strong base = salt having neutral pH value of 7
2. strong acid + weak base = salt, acidic in nature, with pH value <7
3. weak acid + strong base = salt, basic in nature, with pH value >7
1. Sodium hydroxide
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called
brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the chlor-alkali
process because of the products formed chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
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2. Bleaching powder
Chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder is
produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is
represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
Bleaching powder is used
I. Bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry
II. Bleaching wood pulp in paper factories
III. Bleaching washed clothes in laundry
IV. As an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries
V. For disinfecting drinking water
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For making baking powder = baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) + tartaric
acid (mild edible acid)
o When Baking powder heated or mixed in water following reaction takes
place
NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid (CO2 produced here make bread or
cake soft n spongy)
(From any acid)
Baking soda is also an ingredient in antacids.
It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers
4. Washing soda
NaCO3 .10H2O (washing soda) is obtained from sodium chloride
Sodium can be obtained by heating baking soda
2NaHCO3 He
at Na2 CO + H2O + CO2
(Sodium hydrogencarbonate) ( s o d i u m carbonate)
Recrystallization of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
10H2O signifies water of crystallization. This makes Na2CO3 wet
Uses of washing soda
Used in glass, soap and paper industries.
Used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
Can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
Used for removing permanent hardness of water.
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POP use - for making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
Calcium sulphate hemihydrate is called Plaster of Paris because large deposit of
gypsum in the Mont Martre hill in Paris.
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If something is pure, it means that all the constituent particles of that substance are the
same in their chemical nature. A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
Mixture
Types of mixtures
1. HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES OR SOLUTIONS - uniform composition throughout. Eg. Salt
in water
a. homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition.
2. HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES non uniform compositions
Solution
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Concentration of a solution
2 types dilute and concentrated or saturated solution
Saturated solution
when no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a
saturated solution.
By increasing temperature more solute can be added to solution
Solubility
The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is
called its solubility.
If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is
called an unsaturated solution.
Different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at the same
temperature.
Concentration of a solution
The amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of solution, or the amount of
solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent.
Concentration of solution = Amount of solute/Amount of solution
Or
Amount of solute/Amount of solvent
Suspension
Suspension - a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.
Properties of a Suspension
o Heterogeneous mixture.
o Particles can be seen by the naked eye.
o Scatter a beam of light
o Unstable - The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left
undisturbed. Filtration can separate them. When the particles settle down, the
suspension breaks and it does not scatter light any more.
Colloidal solution
The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution.
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This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who
discovered this effect.
Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed
in air.
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Centrifugation
The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles
stay at the top when spun rapidly.
Applications
Diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
Dairies and home separate butter from cream
Washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
Separating funnel
Applications
o To separate mixture of oil and water
o In the extraction of iron from its ore, the lighter slag is removed from the
top and molten iron remains at the bottom in the furnace.
Principle - immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities
Sublimation
Principle solid to gas without changing into liquid state
Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor,
naphthalene and anthracene, separation of mixture of salt and ammonium chloride
Chromatography
Usually, a dye is a mixture of two or more colours. The coloured component that is
more soluble in water, rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.
Chromatography Kroma in Greek means colour and so it is the technique used for
separation of those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.
Applications
To separate
Colours in a dye
Pigments from natural colours
Drugs from blood.
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E.g. separate acetone and water from their mixture via distillation flask . acetone vaporises,
condenses in the condenser and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
Fractional distillation
separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids for which difference in
boiling points is less than 25 K
e.g. Separation of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum products
Crystallization
CRYSTALLIZATION - process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a
solution
e.g. salt we get from sea water can have many impurities in it.
Crystallization technique is better than simple evaporation technique as
Some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On
evaporation these contaminate the solid.
Applications
Purification of salt that we get from sea water.
Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.
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Properties such as shape, size, color and state of a substance are called its physical
properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties
is called a physical change
Interconversion of states is a physical change because no change in chemical
composition and no change in the chemical nature
CHEMICAL CHANGE - A change in which one or more new substances are formed. It is also
called a chemical reaction.
e.g. Explosion of a firework is a chemical change, apple acquires a brown colour, ozone abosrbs
UV rays of sun and breaks down to oxygen
Burning is a chemical change because one substance reacts with another get new
substances. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO) + Water (H2O) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
Magnesium hydroxide is a base
Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or neela thotha) mixed with water and acid gives blue
colour and when it is mixed with iron it gives green colour because of reaction between
copper sulphate and iron and formation of iron sulphate
Copper sulphate solution (blue) + Iron Iron sulphate solution (green) + Copper (brown
deposit)
Vinegar (Acetic acid) + Baking soda (Sodium hydrogen carbonate) Carbon dioxide +
other substances
Carbon dioxide (CO2) + Lime water [ C a( OH )2] C a l c i u m C a r b o n a t e
(CaCO3) + Water (H2O)
o When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, calcium carbonate is
formed, which makes lime water milky. The turning of lime water into milky is a
standard test of carbon dioxide
Rusting of iron
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O) rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)
For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is essential.
In fact, if the content of moisture in air is high, which means if it is more humid,
rusting becomes faster.
To prevent rusting
Apply a coat of paint or grease
Deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. This process of depositing a
layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation.
The salt water makes the process of rust formation faster. Therefore, ships suffer
a lot of damage from rusting in spite of being painted
Stainless steel = iron + carbon + chromium + nickel and manganese. It does not rust.
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Elements
Robert Boyle coined term element in 1661.
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), establish an experimentally useful definition of an
element. He defined
element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical reactions.
Compounds
Composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one another in a fixed
proportion.
1. Known elements 100
a. 92 natural
b. 8 man made
2. Majority are solid.
3. Eleven elements are in gaseous state
4. Two elements are liquid at room temperature mercury and bromine.
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Compound
Mixture
Elements or compounds just mix together to
form a mixture and no Elements react to form new compounds.
new compound is formed.
Composition of each new substance
Variable composition
Is always fixed.
Shows the properties of the
Different properties
Constituent substances.
Constituents can be seperated easily by physical Only by chemical or electrochemical
methods. Reactions.
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In a weather report the maximum and minimum temperatures are measured every day.
(remember the maximum and minimum temperature measuring thermometer)
Generally, max. temperature afternoon while minimum in early morning.
All changes in weather are because of sun.
Climate
The average weather pattern taken over long time (about 25 or 35 years) is called as
climate of place.
Example Rajasthan climate is hot and dry.
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white color of fur helps from predators and helps in catching prey. Protect from
extreme cold.
Fats under skin to insulate them from cold (move slowly to avoid overheating of
body)
But they would be needing cooling in summer so, they swim in water.
Can swim under water for longer duration by closing nostril
Strong sense of smell helps in catching prey.
Long curved and sharp claws helps in walk on ice.
2. Penguin
White color of body merges with white background of snow
Similar to bear it also has thick skin and lot of fats under skin
They stay together so that they can keep themselves warmer
Web feets make them good swimmer
Streamlined body
3. Other animals
Musk
Oxen
Rein deer
Foxes
Seals
Whales
Fishes
Birds
Fishes - can live in cold water
Birds they need to keep their body warm and so they migrate to warmer regions when winter
starts. Example
Siberian crane travels from Siberia to bharatpur keoladeo national park, Rajasthan and
sultanpur, Haryana.
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o Monkey long tails for grasping the tree branches. Hands and feet for easy hold
on branches.
o Competition lead to some animals to adapt to get food not easily reachable.
o E.g. bird Toucan large beak helps in reaching those fruits which dont support
its weight.
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o Good climber
o Feeds on fruits, seeds, young leaves, stems, flowers and buds.
Elephant
o Uses trunk as nose and so has strong sens e of smell.
o Pick up food by trunk
o Tusks modified teeth (tear bark trees)
o Large ears helps in listening soft sounds, keep elephant cool in hot and humid
climate.
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Destruction by cyclones
Very destructive
Strong winds coming towards coasts are warming of cyclones.
When cyclone move towards coast its like water-wall moving towards coast.
Entry of sea water causes great loss to life and property and also reduces the soil fertility
Continuous rainfall can cause flood.
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SOIL
Soil profile
In geography we have seen that weathering helps in formation of soil (weathering
breaking down of rocks by action of wind, water and climate)
The color, texture and properties of soil depends on types of rocks from which it had
made.
Type of vegetation also soils nature
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Soil profile
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Horizon A
Uppermost horizon
Dark color
Rich in humus and minerals
Humus make soil fertile and provide nutrients to growing plants
Soft, porous layer and can retain more water.
Also called as the topsoil or the A-horizon.
Provides shelter for many living organisms such as worms, rodents, moles and beetles.
Roots of small plants are embedded entirely in the topsoil.
Horizon B
Lesser amount of humus but more of minerals.
Harder and more compact
Also known as B-horizon or the middle layer.
Horizon C
3rd layer
Made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks and crevices.
Below it is bedrock (very hard and difficult to dig)
Soil types
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Q) Why horse dung is mixed with clayey soil, which is used to make pots, surahis?
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When items made of clay are baked horse dung burns and helps open up the pores in the soil.
So that water could percolate out of the matkas and surahis, evaporate and cools the water
inside.
Soil erosion
Destruction of soil by wind or rain after vegetation cover is removed.
Soil erosion is a particular problem in less developed countries (LDCs), where population
pressure leads to deforestation and over-grazing. It also occurred in the American
dustbowl.
Water erosion can be controlled by contour terracing and the construction of small
storage dams, and both forms of erosion can be prevented by planting ground-cover
vegetation. (more covered in geography notes)
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RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
Q) Why do we respire?
Our cells perform various functions like nutrition, transport, excretion and reproduction
and to perform these functions energy is needed.
This energy is inside the food but to harness that energy we need to breakdown the
food so that energy can be obtained. This function is performed by respiration.
During respiration O2, which we have inhaled, breakdown the food so that energy can
be obtained. This function is performed by respiration.
During respiration O2 is carried to all the cells of our body. The O2 in cells breakdown
the food and release energy. This process is called as cellular respiration. It takes place
in all the cells of an organism.
Food is breakdown means glucose is break down into CO2 and water. This process is
called as aerobic respiration.
Glucose CO2 + water + energy.
If food is break down in absence of O2 then it is called as anaerobic respiration.
Yeasts (an organism) can survive in absence of air and called as anaerobes.
o Get energy through anaerobic respiration
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Answer is yes but only for a short period of time. When there is temporary deficiency of
O2.
Fast running, heavy exercises demand O2 but because of less supply of O2 our muscles
respire anaerobically which accumulates lactic acid which is the reason for muscle
cramps after heavy exercise
Glucose lactic acid + water
If we take a hot water bath or massage then the supply of blood will improve in body
and that means more supply of O2 which will breakdown lactic acid into CO2 and water
and so relief from muscle cramp.
Breathing
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Breathing taking in air rich of O2 and giving out air rich in CO2
Inhalation when we take air rich in O2
Exhalation when we give out air rich in CO2
Breathing is a process which goes on all time and throughout life.
Breathing rate number of times a person breathes in a minute
Inhalation and exhalation goes alternatively not simultaneously.
1 Breathe = 1 inhalation + 1 Exhalation
In normal cases i.e. human beings at rest breathes in and out 15-18 times in a minute.
But during heavy exercises the breathing rate increases and it goes up to 25 times per
minute.
After physical activity we feel hungry because all the energy is get exhausted.
When we breathe air it is not pure O2 because if we take pure O2 there would be
several negative effects, including accumulation of fluid in the lungs, chest pain and
slowed gas flow across the alveoli, which causes the person to breathe more to retain
enough oxygen. Also, the total volume of exchangeable air in the lungs decreases by 17
percent, and mucous plugs collapse the alveoli.
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Answer is low oxygen levels in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus of
the brain can induce yawning.
How do we breathe?
When we inhale air it passes through our nostrils into the nasal cavity.
From there it passes though windpipe and reaches to lungs
Lungs are in chest cavity which is surrounded by ribcage and diaphragm (large muscular
sheet) forms the floor of chest cavity
During inhalation the ribs moves up and outwards and diaphragm moves down. It
increases space in our chest cavity and air rushes into lungs to fill them with air.
During exhalation exactly opposite ribs contract (moves down and inwards)
diaphragm moves up decreases space air pushes out.
Q) why do we sneeze?
Sneezing happens when something irritates the nose or throat's mucous membranes.
The most common cause for people to sneeze is catching a cold or being ill with a flu.
People with allergies sneeze to expel dust, pollen, mold and animal dander. Certain nose
sprays, which contain corticosteroids, can also cause sneezing.
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It shows us that when we inhale the chest is expanded and vice versa.
The oxygen gas absorbed by the skin diffuses into the blood and transported to all the
cells of the body. In the cells, oxygen is used up for oxidation of food.
During this process, carbon dioxide is produced. Then, this carbon dioxide mixes in the
blood and diffused out of the body through its moist skin.
Frogs have a pair of lungs like human beings, they can also breathe through their skin,
which is moist and slippery.
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Heart and blood vessels function is to transport the substances to different parts of
body and forms a circulatory system
Blood
It is a fluid which flows in blood vessels
It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to other parts of the
body
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Type of cell
Contains red pigment called Hb (Haemoglobin)
Haemoglobin
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Platelets
Type of cell
Helps in blood clotting
Without it blood will keep on flowing in case of injury
Blood vessels
Artery
Type of blood vessel
Carry O2 rich blood from heart to call parts of our body
Have thick walls because of rapid blood flow at high pressure
Pulse
Throbbing of blood vessel
Because of blood flowing in the artries
Pulse rate no. of beats per minute.
Resting person pulse rate 72 to 80 beats per minute.
Veins
Type of blood vessel
Carry O2 rich blood from all parts of body to heart
Have thin walls
Valves in veins allow blood to flow only towards heart.
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Capillaries
Extremely thin tubes which are divided from vessels
Join up to veins which empty into heart
Heart
Beats continuously so can act as a pump for transport of blood
Located in chest cavity
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The pulmonary vein carries O2 rich blood from lungs to heart. It further travels to heart.
From there it is transported to all the cells of the body and from all the cells to CO2 rich
blood is transported back to heart via veins.
From heart it is transported to lungs through pulmonary artery
Heart beat
The chamber walls are made of muscles. These muscles contract and relax rhythmically
Heartbeat constitutes of rhythmic contraction flowed by relaxation constitute a
heartbeat.
The heartbeat can be listened with an instrument called stethoscope.
Stethoscope
Device to amplify the sound of the heart
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Consists of a chest piece that carries a sensitive diaphragm, 2 ear pieces and a tube
joining the parts.
Excretion in animals
When cells perform their functions they also produce waste which are toxic and so need
to be removed.
Excretion removal of waste products produced in cells
Excretory system organs which are involved in removing waste from our body.
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o 95% water
o 2.5% urea
o 2.5% other wastes
Sweating keeps our body cool. Sweat contains salt and water.
The removal of waste chemicals depends on availability of water.
Aquatic animals excretes cells waste as ammonia which dissolves in water.
Birds, lizards, snake uric acid (white color compound) and semi-solid.
Humans major excretory product urea
Dialysis
Artificial filtering of blood through artificial kidney
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Transpiration
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