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KEYWORDS: CATHETERISATION
Continence Catheters Urinary tract infection Infection control
Many people transferring from
hospital to primary care will
M
anaging patients in the Nurses visiting patients homes have a urinary catheter still in
community involves a needs a certain skill-set to work place (Seymour, 2007). Similarly,
number of challenges in an environment that may be many patients seen regularly by
that differ significantly to those of contaminated with household community nurses, such as elderly
hospital-based healthcare. This is refuse or pets, for example, patients in nursing homes, will
particularly relevant to infection and where there may be issues have a long-term catheter in situ.
control. In the hospital environment around showering and washing. Therefore, community nurses need
the patients surroundings and Community nurses caseloads to understand the basic principles
personal hygiene can, to a certain can include a large number of behind this common procedure.
extent, be managed. However, in catheterised patients with differing
the community, these circumstances issues. For example, blocked urinary The purpose of urinary
are not so easily controlled. For a catheters are a significant problem catheterisation is to drain urine from
range of patients, infection control for district nurses (Evans and the bladder into a collection device,
can be a particular challenge, for Painter, 2001), and many end of life such as a catheter bag. The catheter
example those with indwelling patients have catheter-related needs itself comprises a flexible tube,
catheters, leg ulcers or post-surgical (Young and Conway, 2011). usually manufactured from silicone,
wound sites. which is inserted through the urethra
Catheter-related infection is a or sometimes via an abdominal
significant problem between incision (suprapubic catheterisation).
1030% of patients who are In order to perform catheterisation,
catheterised for a short period the clinician guides the catheter into
(24 days) develop bacteria in the the bladder permitting urine to flow
urine (bacteriuria), a figure that into the drainage device (Ghaffary et
rises to 90100% of those who are al, 2013).
catheterised long-term (Brusch,
2013). Similarly, approximately 80% Urinary catheters can be in place
of hospital-related (including post- for either a short time or be used as
discharge) urinary tract infections a longer-term measure.
(UTIs) are related to urethral
catheterisation (Brusch, 2013). Reasons for short-term
catheterisation might include:
This means that catheter-related Post surgery when anaesthetic
Tim Sandle, Head of Microbiology, infection can take up a significant has interfered with bladder
Bio Products Laboratory Limited, Watford amount of community nurses time function
In preparation for procedures Once bacteria enter the bladder, CAUTIs are common and
such as hysterectomy they can multiply rapidly and in contribute up to 40% of all HCAIs
To monitor urine output more serious cases, symptoms (Kennedy et al, 2013). Some
To deal with temporary blockage include (Chenoweth and Saint, community patients are more at
such as gall stones. 2011): risk, including:
Dysuria Women
Long-term catheterisation is Frequency Older male patients in long-
often necessary in the following: Urgency term residential care
People who can no longer control Pain Those who are
their bladder due to nerve damage Fever. immunocompromised
(neuropathic bladder) Patients with diabetes mellitus
To treat urinary incontinence (Infection Control Today, 2006).
(loss of bladder control), for There are a number of
example in patients with spinal steps that the community REDUCING THE RISKS OF
injury or late-stage dementia. nurse can take to reduce the CATHETERISATION IN THE
COMMUNITY
Community nurses are more
risk of catheter-associated
likely to see patients with long- infections. There are a number of steps that
term catheterisation, although as the community nurse can take
mentioned above, some patients to reduce the risk of catheter-
will be discharged from hospital The presence of urinary catheters associated infections when caring
with a short-term catheter in place. and the length of time they remain for patients at home or in a primary
in situ are both contributory factors care setting, such as a residential
The risk of infection increases to the development of what is facility. These include (Health
the longer a patient is catheterised known as catheter-associated Protection Scotland, 2012):
and best practice dictates that urinary tract infection (CAUTI) Ensure that there is a regular
the procedure should be avoided (Saint and Chenoweth, 2003), as are review of the need for the
unless clinically essential and, contamination originating from the indwelling urinary catheter
even then, should be removed as patients skin, or that transferred Remove if possible
soon as possible to avoid potential from the hands of healthcare staff. Ensure the connection between
complications including, infection, the indwelling urinary catheter
bacteraemia, haematuria, urethritis CAUTI and the drainage system is not
and bladder perforation (Saint et al, interrupted, except to meet
2006; A Strategy for the Control of CAUTI is a frequent and clinical requirements (e.g. when
Antimicrobial Resistance in Ireland problematic HCAI, which causes changing the bag)
[SARI], 2006). discomfort and can result in serious Make sure regular meatal (area
health problems if left undetected. around the urethra) hygiene is
RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH These infections often develop performed
CATHETERISATION because of inadequate skin cleansing Make sure the drainage bag
before the catheter is inserted, or is emptied when clinically
UTIs are one of the commonest from cross-contamination from the indicated; avoid touching
healthcare-associated infections hands of healthcare workers, such the drainage tap with any
(HCAIs) and up to 80% of these as community nurses (Pratt et al, environmental surface
are related to urinary catheters 2007). It has often been debated Ensure hand hygiene is
(Lo et al, 2008). In common with whether the use of an antimicrobial performed and gloves are worn
any invasive healthcare procedure, on the skin before insertion could be before touching the indwelling
catheterisation carries an infection effective in reducing the likelihood urinary catheter.
risk, in this case bacteriuria (a of infection.
bacterial infection of in the urine). In terms of the last point
UTIs can have a number of causes: Bacteria colonise a catheter and above, there is an ongoing debate
The patients own colonic flora form biofilms, which involve clusters as to the use of soap and water
coming into contact with of cells covered in a protective matrix for hand hygiene and whether an
the urethra of polysaccharide polymers (Kirker, antimicrobial substance would
Contamination from the 2009; Greener, 2011). Another be more efficient. Some evidence
environment, such as other problem is that some of bacteria exists that antimicrobials contribute
patients, the healthcare may include antibiotic-resistant to the elimination of CAUTIs
environment or bacteria in pathogens, including Escherichia (Matsumoto et al, 1997; Pickard
the home coli, Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp., et al, 2012) and the efficiency of
Cross-infection from the hands Proteus sp. and Citrobacter sp., and antimicrobials for skin cleansing
of healthcare staff Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which was demonstrated in a recent
The outer layers of the patients makes them difficult to treat study, using octenilin cleaning
own skin. (Sandle, 2013). solution.
Octenilin incorporates ensure that most of the natural skin The study concluded that
octenidine dihydrochloride as its bacteria were removed, then the E. octenilin cleaning solution had a
active ingredient, which acts as coli (less than 200 colony forming greater effect, eliminating 91% of
a broad-spectrum antimicrobial units [CFUs] per arm) were applied the known bacterial population,
and is suitable for use on skin, to the forearms and allowed to dry. compared with the saline rinse,
mucous membrane and for wound The study was repeated twice which removed 55%. The average
antisepsis. Octenilin also contains during the first episode, the efficacy population of the control counts
ethylhexylglycerin (a conditioning of octenilin cleaning solution varied a little, with the octenilin
agent and preservative), which was examined and the numbers receiving a higher challenge
reduces the skins surface tension, of remaining microorganisms while the differences were not of
providing optimal moistening and measured. For the second study, great significance, the numbers
cleansing, even on difficult-to- saline (0.9% w/v solution) was show the large extent to which the
reach areas. used before the numbers of bioburden on the forearms of each
microorganisms were again subject were reduced.
STUDY INTO THE measured. Both solutions were
ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTIVENESS left in contact with the subjects CONCLUSION
OF A SKIN CLEANSER forearms for two minutes.
Community nurses visit a large
For community nurses, being able variety of patients in a wide
to ensure that their skin and that Before the study, the range of settings and one of the
of the patient has been adequately forearms of all subjects were commonly encountered problems
cleansed before any catheter- washed to ensure that most is that of CAUTI. This article
related intervention is paramount. has discussed the problems
Community nurses can find
of the natural skin bacteria associated with catheterisation in
themselves dealing with different were removed. the community, and highlighted
patients in a variety of environments some of the measures that can
and the ability to easily transport a be taken by community nurses
reliable antimicrobial could have a The microorganisms were to reduce the contamination risk,
major impact on patient care. assessed using a contact agar plate including cleansing the skin before
(the growth medium was tryptone catheterisation as well as during
A recent study conducted in an soya agar) and incubated for five any catheter-related intervention.
independent laboratory compared days at a temperature of 3035oC.
an antimicrobial (octenilin cleaning Following this, the numbers of In an independent study, the
solution) with a standard hand- surviving colonies were calculated. use of an antimicrobial solution
washing procedure to reduce the demonstrated superior microbial
microbial content of the skin. Before depositing the bacteria reduction properties compared
The study involved 30 skin tests onto the arm, the number of with a saline rinse. Based on this,
using different subjects for both bacterial cells were assessed. This it would be prudent for community
techniques. To safeguard the safety allowed any surviving bacteria, nurses to consider the use of an
of the subjects, the microorganism post-treatment, to be compared to antimicrobial before the insertion or
chosen was Escherichia coli strain a control count. The reduction in management of a catheter. JCN
K12 (which is safe to use in bacteria from each of the subjects
humans). E.coli is representative forearms was then calculated by REFERENCES
of the types of contamination that comparison with the controls. The
could be associated with catheters comparative efficiency of both Brusch JL (2013) Catheter-Related Urinary
(Nicolle, 2005). octenilin cleaning solution and Tract Infection. Available online at:
saline were compared in relation http://emedicine.medscape.com/
Before the study, the forearms to the reduction in microorganisms article/2040035-overview (accessed 23
of all subjects were washed to achieved by each solution (Table 1). October, 2013)
Chenoweth CE, Saint S (2011) Urinary
tract infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am
Table 1: A summary of the experimental data, showing the average values obtained for the 25(1):10315
octenilin cleaning solution (study A) and saline studies (study B) compared with the control counts Evans E, Painter D (2001) Blocked urinary
catheters: nurses preventive role. Nurs
Study A: Study B: Times 97(1): 37
Results
octenilin cleaning solution 0.9% saline solution
Ghaffary C, Yohannes A, Villanueva C,
Control counts 144 CFU 121 CFU Leslie SW (2013) A practical approach
Mean counts from skin tests 13 CFU 55 CFU to difficult urinary catheterizations. Curr
Maximum count 31 CFU 98 CFU Urol Rep [epub ahead of print]
Greener M (2011) Octenidine:
Minimum count 0 CFU 12 CFU
antimicrobial activity and clinical efficacy.
Mean percentage reduction 91% 55% Wounds UK 7(3): 748