CHP For Existing Buildings Guidance On Design and Installation

A BSRIA Guide www.bsria.co.
uk
CHP for Existing Buildings
Guidance on design and installation

By Arnold Teekaram, Anu Palmer and James Parker
BG 2/2007
BG 2-2007 covers WITH SPINE.p65 3 01/11/2007, 15:57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BSRIA would like to thank the following sponsors for their contribution
which has led to the production of this report:
Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. (Formally

known as the Department of Trade and Industry)
Ian C. Davis Birmingham City Council
Joe Knowles Brotherhood Aircogen
Graham Meeks CHPA (Combined Heat and Power Association)
Chris Wilcox EA Technology
Jim Hibbert HB Energy Consultants Ltd
John Amos Hoare Lea Consulting Engineers
Don Lack Leicester City Council
Martin Wager Cogenco Ltd (Formerly Nedalo (UK) Limited)
Brian Latham Dept of Health (formerly NHS Estates)
William Orchard Orchard Partners
Brian Cave Poolsbrook Heating Development Ltd
John Forte Private Consultant
R H Pearson Shepherd Engineering Services
Bob Martindale Turbomach Ltd
Alan Breeze University of Portsmouth
George Henderson Atkins Consultants
The contributing authors were John Amos, Jim Hibbert, Joe Knowles,
and William Orchard. Dr Arnold Teekaram, Dr Anu Palmer, James
Parker and Reginald Brown contributed from BSRIA.
This publication has been produced by BSRIA as part of a contract

placed by the Department of Trade and Industry. The contract was let
under the Partners in Innovation programme, which provided part
funding of collaborative research. Any views expressed are not
necessarily those of the Department.
The authors have sought to incorporate the views of the steering group,
but final editorial control of this document rested with BSRIA.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher.
BSRIA 70198 November 2007 ISBN 978 0 86022 665 9 Printed by ImageData Group
CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS
05/12/07 CHP FOR Existing Buildings BSRIA BG 2/2007

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN 4
3 THERMAL INTERFACING OF CHP PLANT 7

3.1 Heat rejection from CHP 10
3.2 Interfacing chp with boiler circuits 12
3.3 The effect of mixing on flow temperature settings for
boilers and CHP 13
3.4 Items for consideration for effective control of CHP 18
4 FURTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 19
4.1 Introduction 19
4.2 Schematic of a typical CHP unit 20
4.3 Retrofitted CHP unit interface with boilers and heating
systems 20
4.4 Retrofitted chp control options 22
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES 24
5.1 Circuits used by Cogenco 24
5.2 Circuits used by AirCogen 24
6 PRACTICAL INSTALLATION GUIDANCE 33
6.1 Introduction 33
6.2 Off-loading and positioning 33
6.3 Secondary water system 33
6.4 Intercooler water system (when fitted) 35
6.5 Exhaust system 37
6.6 Gas supply 38
6.7 Heat rejection circuit 39
6.8 Cold water top-up 40
6.9 Combustion and ventilation air requirements 41
6.10 Electrical 41
6.11 Earthing system 42
6.12 Insulation 42
6.13 Noise and vibration control 42
6.14 Health and safety 44
6.15 Testing and commissioning 44
7 NEW RETROFIT SITES 46
7.1 Airbus UKs Manufacturing Facility, Broughton, Cheshire 46
7.2 Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Gateshead 50
7.3 Time Capsule, Coatbridge 52
8 POST-INSTALLATION AUDITS 61
8.1 Post-installation checklist 61
8.2 Royal Mail, Peterborough 61
8.3 St Matthews, Leicester 70
8.4 Whiteabbey Hospital, Northern Ireland 72
8.5 Heathrow Marriott Hotel 74

TABLES
Table 1: Technical and operational constraints and solutions 4

Table 2: Effect of two-way and three-way valve control 8
Table 3: An example of effect on CHP performance and heat
rejection as load varies 11
Table 4: Calculation of boiler temperature rise 14
Table 5: Required flow temperature off the boiler to achieve a
flow temp of 822C 15
Table 6: CHP details at Stringers 46
Table 7: CHP details at the Airbus Skin Mill 48
Table 8: CHP details at the Airbus West Factory 49
Table 9: CHP details at Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art 50
Table 10: Details of the CHP system at the Time Capsule 52
Table 11: Emission measurements at the Time Capsule 59
Table 12: CHP details at mail centre in Peterborough 62
Table 13: Emissions from the Royal Mail CHP units at
Peterborough 70
Table 14: Emissions from Royal Mail CHP units at Greenford 70
Table 15: CHP details at St Matthews 71
FIGURES
Figure 1: Typical Gas Engine CHP (courtesy of Brotherhood Air

Cogen) 2
Figure 2: Examples of the most common types of heating
systems 8
Figure 3: Examples of heating system connections deemed
unsuitable for CHP 13
Figure 4: Boiler circuit to illustrate the effect of mixing on flow
temperatures 14
Figure 5: CHP circuit taken from literature which is deemed
unsuitable see text 16
Figure 6: Example of a heat recovery system for CHP engine
linked to a dry air-cooler 17
Figure 7: Schematic of a typical CHP unit 20
Figure 8: Typical CHP System Schematic 21
Figure 9: Example of the heat recovery system for CHP unit 27
Figure 10: Example of CHP with system heat rejection circuit 28
Figure 11: Example of CHP unit with intercooler heat rejection
circuit 29
Figure 12: Example of CHP with absorption chilling 30
Figure 13: Example of a heat recovery system to air and water in
air-CHP 31
Figure 14: Schematic of air-CHP 32
Figure 15: Secondary water circuit 34
Figure 16: Intercooler water system 35
Figure 17: Exhaust system 37
Figure 18: CHP condensate drains 38
Figure 19: Gas supply 39
Figure 20: Heat rejection circuit 40
BSRIA BG 2/2007
FIGURES
Figure 21: Installation of two 407 kWe AirCogen air-CHP units at

the Stringers Facility 47
Figure 22: Total heating and electrical demands of the Stringers
building (design condition) 47
Figure 23: Total energy demands of the Stringers building 48
Figure 24: Installation of three 1020 kWe air-CHP units at the
West Factory 49
Figure 25: Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Gateshead
(courtesy of Aircogen Ltd) 50
Figure 26: Time Capsule overview 52
Figure 27: Schematic of CHP installation at Time Capsule
(courtesy of HB Energy Consultants) 54
Figure 28: Schematic of the heat recovery systems for IVECO
CHP engine 54
Figure 29: Example data of the CHP unit at Time Capsule 57
Figure 30: Power management 58
Figure 31: Heat output 59
Figure 32: CHP cumulative efficiencies 59
Figure 33: Front view of the CHP unit 60
Figure 34: Side view of the CHP unit 60
Figure 35: Peterborough mail centre 62
Figure 36: Electrical connection schematic 65
Figure 37: Gas connection schematic 66
Figure 38: Daily efficiency in the first year of operation 67
Figure 39: Weekly energy use in the first year of operation 68
Figure 40: First year cost savings, net of maintenance 68
Figure 41: CHP at Royal Mail Peterborough 69
Figure 42: Whiteabbey Hospital, Northern Ireland 72
Figure 43: CHP installation at Whiteabbey Hospital, Northern
Ireland 73
Figure 44: The Heathrow Marriott Hotel 74

SYMBOLS
BSRIA BG 2/2007
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 11
1 INTRODUCTION
Combined Heat and Power (CHP), also known as co-generation, is the

simultaneous generation of both usable heat and electrical power from
the same source.
CHP has developed into an established technology and has become a key
part of the UK governments strategy to reduce CO2 emissions. The
government has set a target of 10 000 MWe (Megawatt electrical) of
good quality CHP capacity to be installed by 2010. This includes
industrial plants, district heating and CHP in buildings. The quality is
being monitored by the CHP Quality Assurance programme (CHPQA),
which began in 2001.
CHP systems are most suitable for applications where there is primarily a
significant year-round demand for heating as well as the electricity
generated by the CHP unit. These are typically applications such as
hospitals, leisure centres and hotels, although CHP is installed at a wide
range of sites. The CHP systems installed for hospitals represent the
largest generation capacity, with a total electrical capacity of 1051 MWe
and a heating capacity of 2208MWth (Megawatt thermal). This is
compared with CHP in the leisure sector (447 MWe and 681 MWth)
and hotel schemes (374 MWe and 588 MWth).
CHP systems are usually categorised according to the size of the electrical
1
output. The terminology for the different sizes is as follows:
Micro CHP: <5 kWe

Mini CHP: 5 to 500 kWe
Small scale CHP: 500 kWe to 5 MWe
Medium scale CHP: 5 to 50 MWe
Large scale CHP: <50 MWe.
CHP uses a variety of different technologies for the prime mover, as well
as a variety of fuels. Technologies include reciprocating engines, steam
turbines, gas turbines, and combined cycle systems.
Reciprocating engines (see Figure 1) dominate the smaller end of the

market (micro, mini and small scale CHP). The majority of
reciprocating engines used in CHP are automotive or marine engines
that have been adapted to run on natural gas. These CHP systems
produce two grades of heat, high grade from the engine exhaust, and low
grade from the engine cooling circuits.
Steam turbines are generally used for the medium and large scale CHP
applications and include back-pressure steam turbine systems and pass-out
condensing steam turbine systems. In both systems the steam is
generated in a boiler before entering the turbine. In the back-pressure
system all the steam is used in the turbine before being exhausted at the
required pressure.
In the pass-out condensing system, some of the steam is extracted at an

intermediate pressure from the turbine with the remainder being fully
condensed before being exhausted.
1
DEFRA, The Governments Strategy for Combined Heat and Power to 2010, Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs, London, 2004
CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 1

BSRIA BG 2/2007
1 INTRODUCTION
Gas turbine systems are available for mini CHP applications upwards.
They are often developments of aero-engines with the exhaust gases used
to produce the usable heat, normally in the form of steam.
In combined cycle systems the plant has more than one prime mover, for
example a gas turbine and steam turbine. These gas turbine exhaust gases
are used in a steam generator, with the steam in turn passing through a
steam turbine. This is known as a combined cycle gas turbine plant
(CCGT) and is suited to large installations.
Figure 1: Typical Gas Engine CHP (courtesy of Brotherhood Air Cogen).
In addition to the environmental and energy benefits, CHP systems are

being installed because of their electrical supply benefits. They can
improve the quality of power supply by stabilising supply currents and
voltages. They can also black start (automatic start if power is lost) in
island mode (disconnected from the grid) for when the grid goes down.
CHP units are rarely installed as the exclusive provider of hot water and
electricity. Commonly, CHP units are sized to provide a base heat load
for a building, with supplementary boilers to meet the higher levels of
thermal load. Correct integration and control of the CHP unit with the
boilers and with the buildings electrical system is the key for maximum
energy efficiency. However, problems arise when the CHP unit is
controlled in the same way as boilers running on partial load. When this
occurs the return temperature rise, causing the CHP unit to trip out due
to over-heating. This problem is alleviated by setting the control so that
the CHP is the lead unit, taking the heat load in preference to the boilers
at all times. These integrated systems provide security of supply for both
electrical and thermal requirements.
In the UK, the procedures for designing and installing CHP plant may
differ between CHP providers. Systems are implemented based on past
experience and individual perception of what constitutes good practice.
In this study, the main objective has been to encourage uptake of small
scale CHP by assessing the practical problems and devising solutions
2 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS
BSRIA BG 2/2007
INTRODUCTION 1
when retrofitting existing installations. The solutions that are presented

here are based upon the current practice by some of the main CHP
providers. The purpose of this publication is not to fuel the debate on
which schemes are designed correctly or incorrectly, but mainly to give
examples of schemes that have been successfully installed, together with
pertinent guidance.
While this publication provides guidance on the retrofitting of small-scale

CHP systems, many of the issues are the same for a first time installation.
Included is guidance on the issues, both technical and operational,
involved with the practical installation of such systems. This includes
thermal interfacing with existing plant, effective control, and heat
rejection. In addition to the practical guidance there are case studies that
illustrate sites with retrofitted CHP plant.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
2 FEASIBILITY ANDFEASIBILITY
DESIGN AND DESIGN
2 FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN
Good planning and the ability to foresee potential problems are essential
to any retrofitting project. Table 1 lists the main issues to be considered
with respect to feasibility, design, installation and operation. This
guidance should be used to produce an installation plan.
Table 1: Technical and operational constraints and solutions.
Constraints Solutions
Feasibility
Obtaining accurate information on Review utility bills for the previous two years
the actual electrical, heating and Carry out an initial feasibility audit on the site
cooling loads of the existing systems.
The original installation may have Implement pre-design monitoring period using temporary instrumentation
had a degree of over-specification or Identify the largest electrical transient demand
change in use has led to lower loads
Use data loggers over three or six month periods. Data logging for two months in both
than original
summer and winter is desirable
Analysis of swimming pool evaporation rates is important for leisure centres. This will
determine the base heating load for the swimming pool
Lack of knowledge of the existing Carry out detailed site assessment survey
installation and the control strategy
of the existing heating system
Obtaining accurate information on Assess the condition of plant items and pipework using non destructive testing
the age, quality and suitability of the Identify the condition of reusable items, such as flue systems
existing installation for CHP retrofit
Connection to electricity networks (A Discuss with gas and electricity companies as soon as possible in the planning stage
potential problem with old Ensure the electricity company local requirements are fully understood and addressed
installations.)
Commercial arrangement for the Discuss with electricity companies at the feasibility stage and before project commitment
import and export top up and spill
power
Arrangements for export sales of Invite potential partners to discuss possibilities early in the planning stage
heat and linking with energy
networks to optimise the economies
of scale for plant
Cost of installing equipment to lower Carry out a separate optimisation study
emissions In gas turbines, dry low NOx results in a slightly higher capital cost but this is lower than
(Reducing NOx can lower efficiency the through life costs associated with water or steam injection. Dry low NOx running
thus increasing CO2 emissions.) costs are zero
Design
Sizing of CHP plant Size the CHP for the base heat-load requirement (not the electrical load)
The base heat load should equal the CHP minimum output typically 50 percent of the
maximum
Consider the value and implications of a heat-dump system, if any
Include part-load operation in the economic model
Thermal interfacing of CHP with an Design for CHP to operate at constant load as this requires less complicated connections
existing heating system and control arrangements compared to a situation where the CHP works with the boiler,
where the heat load demands fluctuate
Design for CHP to take the heat load at all times in preference to boilers
Consider practicalities of using low grade (normally waste) heat to maximise efficiency
Whatever variations in load are allowed for, when the system heat load is below the CHP
unit design load, the temperature of the water reaching the CHP unit must be below the
maximum allowable CHP return temperature
Operation of CHP at a partial load Consider the way CHP is connected in relationship to boilers
(the same way as boilers) Consider the way CHP is controlled in the connection
CHP tripping out on high jacket Modulate CHP off on rising building water return temperature or
temperatures Transfer heating controls to building water return temperature. Note that this could
result in lower flow temperatures than is allowable
BSRIA BG 2/2007
FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN 2
Arrangements for heat dump May be justified by seasonal, short-term low heat demand and high electricity values
facilities Should not be used to compensate for ineffective heating system controls
Implement modulation of CHP equipment in control software to match the thermal
demand
Noise issues Install an acoustic enclosure around the CHP prime mover to reduce ambient noise
Install CHP in a building, which is designed to attenuate ambient noise
Install a silencer in the ductwork or chimney to reduce exhaust noise
Size the silencer appropriately for the allowable pressure drop
Define and specify the noise level required in the plant room and eternally
Consider noise direction issues. The direction in which outlet ducts face can often
obviate the need for costly attenuation
Vibration issues Install anti-vibration mountings on the engine and pipework systems
Adaptation or modification of Include the controls in the retrofitting project
existing controls Design a new control scheme rather than adapt an existing one. Consider BMS
integration issues
Ensure that adequate status information is available to allow common fault diagnosis
without specialist equipment
Connection to gas supply Verify that the mains pressure available is adequate for the intended CHP unit
Verify that the mains can accommodate the increased gas demand
Take account of pressure drops through the site gas-main and all its fittings
Beware of high pressure drops through solenoid-operated gas shut-off valves
Beware of transient reductions in gas pressure when boilers fire, as this could trip the
CHP unit
Fit ample gas pressure test-points close to CHP units
Combustion and ventilation BS5410, Part 2 says that where combustion and ventilation to the boiler room is by
requirements to boiler room with natural means, low and high level ventilation should be provided by permanent openings.
2
CHP The low-level ventilation requirements are: opening should be not less than 02 m for
each 300 kW of combined (CHP and boiler) installed heating capacity. High-level
2
ventilation should not have a free area of less than 01 m for each 300 kW of combined
(CHP and boiler) installed heating capacity. The minimum requirement for high level
2
ventilation is 1200 mm
BS5410, Part 2 says that mechanical ventilation systems, if necessary, should be
independent of any system service in other parts of the premises
Requirement for low emissions from Install a catalytic converter (for CO and NOX)
CHP Consider lowering the average temperature within the combustion zone to lower NOx
production
In gas turbines, consider injecting high purity water or steam to the combustion chamber
to lower NOx. (Dry low NOx combustion systems.)
(Water and steam injection is now less favoured due to the possibility of engine damage
due to impurities in the water)
Engines should be commissioned to get the best efficiency and lowest emissions
In compression-ignition engines, use a relatively high level of excess air in the combustion
chamber to lower average combustion temperatures
Consider location and height of flue. See BS 6644:1991 and Clean Air Act 1993
Installation
Location of CHP unit Existing boiler house may be suitable
If existing boiler house is not suitable then build a new building or consider contaminated
plant
Consider maintenance access in the event of a major failure
Use fully weatherproofed outdoor installation
Time for installation and linkage Take factors such as patterns of use and season into consideration in the planning stage
Plan to install the CHP unit at the most appropriate time, for example when electrical
and heating shutdown will not affect the buildings service delivery
Prepare a fully detailed programme for every window of opportunity affecting public
access if it is a public building, for example, swimming pools
Use pre-assembled modules to cut down on site installation time

BSRIA BG 2/2007
2 FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN
Building plantroom adaptation and Identify all obstructions to the insertion of CHP equipment
installation issues, such as routing of Define access pathways
flues, pipes and ducts, equipment
installation access Identify systems and equipment requiring temporary or permanent re-positioning, and
their operational consequences
Find the easiest access route at the planning stage
Dismantle and reassemble the equipment if necessary, keeping in mind that this will cost
time
If a crane is required, ensure access and ground conditions are suitable
Consider outdoor installation in weatherproof housing
Fuel supply and metering Ensure this meets quality assurance standards for the installation
Location and isolation of existing Identify all break-in points requiring shutdown
services Identify all connection points not requiring shutdown
Asbestos in the building Risk analysis followed by agreement on who will manage the risk
Weight of the equipment Ensure the support structure is strong enough
Provide temporary certification of structural joists for lifting purposes
Draw up a schedule of module or component weights to accompany the project plan
Operation
Water treatment Sample and analyse building services water
Clearly specify water and the anti-corrosion chemical dosing standards to be met
Keeping the operation running in a Plan in detail beforehand
way that causes least disruption Anticipate possible downsides in operation, perform risk assessments and create
contingencies
Monitor early operational performance for at least the first six months operation and
fine-tune the system until the desired operational efficiencies become stable
Involve the host management in shutdown planning at an early stage
Fluctuation in mains supply voltage Monitor mains voltage over a period
resulting in G59 trips Request the local ESC to adjust the incoming supply voltage to no more than the nominal
value, such as 400 volts +/- 10%
BSRIA BG 2/2007
THERMALTHERMAL INTERFACING
INTERFACING OF CHP
OF CHP PLANT
PLANT 33
3 THERMAL INTERFACING OF CHP PLANT
Introduction
The main purpose of this section is to make designers aware of the issues
which need to be addressed when considering their own designs for the
installation of CHP. It is not to provide the designer with a design or
circuit that could be installed.
Characteristics of common heating systems

To maximise heat recovery from CHP, attention should be given to the
design of the heating system it serves as well as its interface with other
heat-producing appliances. Designers should not merely consider CHP
to be a lead boiler, as CHP and its heat rejection circuits have quite
different operational characteristics to a boiler.
Problems associated with CHP often arise due to the lack of

understanding by designers in relationship to the part load operation of
the CHP, matching of the CHP to the part load performance to heating
systems and constraints on return and flow temperatures for heat
recovery from the CHP units different heat rejection circuits.
The characteristics of the most common heating systems are illustrated in

Figure 2. These are:
One-pipe systems
two-pipe systems using three-way valve control
two-pipe systems using two-way valve control.
Several systems can be a mixture of two-way and three-way valve

controls. Typically, two-way control is used on radiators while three-
way valve control is used on air handling units and calorifiers.
When a CHP unit is fed with return water from a one-pipe system or
two-pipe systems using three-way valve control, the effect is similar to a
heating system with a constant flow temperature running under part load:
return temperature rises as the load reduces.
The effect on the CHP unit of circuit A (the two-port fully modulating
valve control) is to provide falling return temperatures on part load and
lower flow rates.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 2: Examples of the most common types of heating systems.
2 PMV - two port modulating valve

3 PMV - three port modulating valve.
A - two-pipe system with a two-way valve

B - two-pipe system with a three-way valve
C - one pipe system with two-way valves on heat emitters.
Table 2 illustrates the return temperature from a modulated three-way

valve controlled heat emitter (system B) and from the modulating two-
way valve emitter system (system A).
Table 2: Effect of two-way and three-way valve control.
For flow temperature of 80C Heat emitter load
Load 100% 75% 50% 25% 0%

Three- Way
Return temperature full flow three-way 60C 65C 70C 75C 80C
Flow (three-way control) 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
With a variable-flow system using a two-way modulating valve,

the return temperature will be approximate depending on the 60C 45C 32C 25C 20C
Two-Way
emitter
Flow (two-way modulating control) 100% 4286% 2083% 909% 0%
BSRIA BG 2/2007
THERMAL INTERFACING OF CHP PLANT 3
Under a zero load situation when domestic hot water calorifiers use
three-way valve control and the heat demand is satisfied, the three-way
valve diverts the flow directly to the return and the return water
temperature rises to the flow temperature. This can affect the operation
of a CHP unit that has been engineered to shut down or operate its
dump cooling circuit when a return temperature is higher than that
anticipated during design.
If a CHP unit is to provide its full output to a circuit using three-way

valves then the designer should consider how (if the CHP has a constant
flow through it and a constant temperature rise) the CHP will raise its
flow temperature as the return temperature rises so as not to reduce the
CHPs heat output. The designer should also consider whether the
raised return temperature will affect the quantity and temperature of heat
picked up from circuits, such as the intercooler or oil cooler.
Three-port valves normally cause sub-optimum CHP operation and

should be avoided in heat distribution circuits wherever possible. The
control system for heat emitters most suited to either condensing boilers
or CHP (on account of the falling return temperature characteristic on
part load) is a fully modulating, two-port valve control system.
For an example of a fully variable-flow two-way valve heating circuit

design, see the Bodle Orchard circuit described in the BSRIA application
guide AG 16/2002: Variable Flow Water Systems-Design, Installation and
Commissioning Guidance.
Designers should also consider how to maximise the heat picked up from
the CHP unit on part load using the lower return water temperatures
while maintaining the required flow temperature from the CHP unit.
This may be used to signal sequencing of other heat input devices. The
solution is to vary the flow rate through the engines heat exchange
circuits, but this needs care to ensure that other functions are not
impaired, such as oil cooling. (This solution is being considered by CHP
package manufacturers.)
Many engines use engine-driven pumps for their normal jacket cooling
system. As pump speed will vary with engine speed the flow rate
around the jacket will fluctuate. Little attention may have been given to
this aspect of CHP engine design, as only power, and not power plus
heat are usually the basis of most discounted energy purchase contracts.
Most engines used for CHP are adapted from engines designed for other
purposes where the heat is not used. The main objective is to minimise
the cost of the heat rejection circuits and protect the engine.
Designers should note that some package suppliers of CHP are reluctant
to consider variable flow.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
3.1 HEAT REJECTION Most packaged CHP units are designed on the basis of a constant flow
FROM CHP rate. Depending on the quality of maintenance, the heat output from
the various heat rejection circuits will change. Output will also
fluctuate depending on the power load being met by the CHP unit.
Table 3 indicates how the performance and heat rejection for a CHP
unit varies with the load. This table is based on net or lower calorific
values of the energy in the fuel.
A higher overall efficiency value is given when using the net calorific
value of the fuel in the efficiency calculations. Care should be taken
when comparing efficiencies to ensure that the comparison is like-for-
like, for example, that both calculations are based on net gross calorific
value.
Depending on its source and composition, natural gas has different

calorific values. North Sea natural gas typically has a net calorific value
3 3
of 3482 MJ/m and a gross calorific value 3862 MJ/m .
The ratio of the net over gross is therefore 0902 and the gross over net
1109. A power plant with a quoted efficiency of 50 percent based on
the net calorific value would therefore have an efficiency of 4508
percent based on the gross calorific value.
It is recommended that all efficiencies be based on the gross or higher

calorific value of the fuel, whether for boilers or power.
For a CHP unit running on full load, the heat outputs will change as the
engine performance changes. Efficiency will also drop between servicing
and tuning.
Usual arrangements by package suppliers are to maintain the return

temperatures to a low enough value to recover heat from the oil cooler and
other circuits recovering lower grade heat from the cooling water. This is
with a constant flow-rate, and with output and engine protection
temperature set to specific values. A radiator or air-cooler is used to
discharge heat to atmosphere if the return temperature is too high.
A common problem is CHP units tripping out on high jacket

temperature where there is no provision for additional cooling of the
return water.
Rejecting heat to atmosphere is undesirable but may be necessary in

some circumstances to keep the CHP operating at low load.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Table 3: An example of effect on CHP performance and heat rejection as load varies.
Speed 1500 Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) 1770 bar

rev/min at maximum continuous rating
Fuel Gas Natural gas Compression ratio 118
3 3
NOx-emission 500 mg/m Co-emission (approximate value) 950 mg/m
Jacket water outlet maximum 90C Intercooler water temperature 40C
maximum
Minimum methane number 70 Exhaust gas manifold Un-cooled
3
Maximum oil temperature 0C Intercooler flow rate; low-temperature 0 m /h
3
Return temperature high-temperature 0C Intercooler flow rate; high- 0 m /h
temperature
Standard rating conditions and tolerances. See general specification; volume values at normal conditions; exhaust flow at silencer;
Exhaust pressure (Pe) = Standard performance for constant level speed of rotation and constant level of loads (ICFN) (ISO 3046/I)
Energy balance
Engine load % 100 75 25 000
Engine rating kW 646 485 162 0
BMEP bar 1770 1328 443 000
Heat consumption kWh/kWh 243 249 303 0
Energy balance absolute
Input kWh 1568 1208 489 130
Mechanical kWh 646 485 162 0
Jacket water kWh 196 189 112 51
Oil-cooler kWh 67 55 39 22
Exhaust gas total kWh 479 373 141 34
Exhaust gas 180C kWh 333 262 101 25
High temperature intercooler kWh 93 41 0 0
Low temperature intercooler kWh 32 24 0 0
Surface heat kWh 20 18 27 19
Balance kWh 31 23 10 4
Energy balance relative (%)
Mechanical % 412 401 330 00
Jacket water % 125 156 228 396
Oil-cooler % 43 46 80 168
Exhaust gas total % 306 309 287 260
Exhaust gas 180C % 212 216 206 190
Exhaust gas 120C % 249 252 238 218
Exhaust gas 100C % 261 264 248 227
High temperature intercooler % 60 34 00 01
Low temperature intercooler % 21 20 00 00
Surface heat % 13 15 55 145
Balance % 20 19 20 30
Exhaust gas temperature C 485 494 516 534
Fuel/Air ratio 1 167 165 144 123
Exhaust gas mass flow rate, wet kg/h 3358 2558 909 208
Exhaust gas mass flow rate, dry kg/h 3104 2363 830 187
Exhaust gas volume, wet m3/h 2656 2024 721 166
Exhaust gas volume, dry m3/h 2352 1789 626 141
Combustion air mass flow rate kg/h 3245 2471 874 199
Combustion air volume m3/h 2510 1912 676 154
Supplied by Clarke Energy and used with permission of Jenbacher.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
3.2 INTERFACING CHP For most boiler circuits, the issue of higher return temperatures is not a
WITH BOILER problem as many arrangements include circuits to maintain a minimum
CIRCUITS
return temperature to the boilers.
The control of the boilers is simple, with the heat output usually being
controlled by a thermostat in the flow from the boiler and the thermostat
controlling the input from the burner to meet the required flow
temperature. Burners are either modulating, staged high/low or on/off.
If a CHP unit is treated as a lead boiler, this would mean engineering the
boiler control so that the CHP engine runs to full load with the other
boilers not being allowed to put heat into the system until the CHP unit
is unable to meet the heat load. This approach allows the CHP unit to
run for a longer period at full power, thus providing the best efficiency.
A heat-raising system based on a set of boiler modules will usually be run

to balance the hours-run for each boiler module. Each boiler will get the
chance to act as the lead boiler. If this method of control is applied to a
heat-raising system that includes a CHP unit, the CHP engine will not
run for as many hours as anticipated during design. This would reduce
the contribution of the CHP unit, and therefore reduce the potential
energy efficiency of the heating system.
It is therefore important to consider how the CHP unit is connected to

the boilers and how that connection is controlled.
Where a CHP system is require to pre-heat water with a constant return

temperature, much simpler, connection arrangements and controls are
likely to be required than where the heat load demands modulate and
return temperatures vary.
It is essential for a CHP unit to take the heat load at all times in
preference to the boilers if carbon savings from the technology are to be
maximised.
Examples of heating system designs likely to cause a high return

temperature problem are shown in Figure 3.
Designers should consider the suitability of the circuits outlined in Figure

3 and how they can be controlled to ensure the CHP unit across the lead
heat-raising device.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 3: Examples of heating system connections deemed unsuitable for CHP.
3.3 THE EFFECT OF Circuit B in Figure 3 shows a common arrangement of a CHP unit
MIXING ON FLOW acting as a return water pre-heater.
TEMPERATURE
SETTINGS FOR
BOILERS AND CHP Designers should consider the flow rate in the return and through the
CHP in determining how the CHP will work with the boilers and their
flow temperature settings.
Figure 4 illustrates a boiler circuit where a CHP unit is connected as in

Figure 3, diagram B.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 4: Boiler circuit to illustrate the effect of mixing on flow temperatures.
Table 4 and Table 5 consider the settings required for thermostats on

boilers in order to achieve a flow temperature of 822C for the heating
system for up to nine boilers, as illustrated in Figure 4.
The circuits shown above are not recommended. They are shown so
that designers can examine circuits from the literature and think about
flow rates and flow and return temperatures.
Many such systems are designed for the boiler thermostats to be set at the
same temperature as the required flow temperature. An analysis of the
circuit hydraulics shows that if the full installed boiler output is to be
achieved, then the thermostats need to be set significantly higher than
822C.
Table 4 calculates the rise in temperature after a boiler has put its heat
into the common flow. With only one boiler, the return temperature
for the next boiler would have to be 822C to meet the requirement.
From the return temperatures the required flow temperature of the boiler
can be calculated to achieve an 822C flow.
Table 4: Calculation of boiler temperature rise.
Temperature Return Return for next boiler C Required

rise after from return
boiler of system temperature
combined for each
C
flow C successive
boiler C
Boiler 1 1110 7110 8220
Boiler 2 555 7110 7665 8220
Boiler 3 370 7110 7480 7850 8220
Boiler 4 278 7110 7388 7665 7943 8220
Boiler 5 222 7110 7332 7554 7776 7998 8220
Boiler 6 185 7110 7295 7480 7665 7850 8035 8220
Boiler 7 159 7110 7269 7427 7586 7744 7903 8061 8220
Boiler 8 139 7110 7249 7388 7526 7665 7804 7943 8081 8220
Boiler 9 123 7110 7233 7357 7480 7603 7727 7850 7973 8097 8220
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Table 5: Required flow temperature off the boiler to achieve a flow temp of 822C.
Temperature Return Flow temperature setting required C

rise after boiler from
of combined system
flow C C
Boiler 1 1110 711 8220
Boiler 2 555 711 8220 8775
Boiler 3 370 711 8220 8590 8960
Boiler 4 278 711 8220 8498 8775 9053
Boiler 5 222 711 8220 8442 8664 8886 9108
Boiler 6 185 711 8220 8405 8590 8775 89.60 9145
Boiler 7 159 711 8220 8379 8537 8696 8854 9013 9171
Boiler 8 139 711 8220 8359 8498 8636 8775 8914 9053 9191
Boiler 9 123 711 8220 8343 8467 8590 8713 8837 8960 9083 9207
Table 5 shows that where a mixed flow circuit is generated by multiple

boilers and a CHP unit, the output flow temperatures from successive
boilers in the arrangement have to be progressively higher to meet the
target flow temperatures of 822C.
A CHP unit shown in configuration B has a heat load that may well be
less than one quarter of the total heat load. This would be equivalent to
a four-boiler arrangement, illustrated in Table 5. To reach a mixed flow
temperature of 82C the CHP unit would need to be producing a flow
temperature of 905C.
In the case of boilers in parallel but with the pumping conditions

illustrated in Figure 3 circuit C, mixed-flow conditions need to be
considered, as the circuit as drawn shows flow through the boilers at all
times.
For circuit C, designers may wish to consider the effect of stopping the
flow through some boilers where the CHP pump shown in the diagram
is operating in series with the other pumps.
Examples of CHP circuits deemed unsuitable

Figure 5 and Figure 6 illustrate examples from the literature of how heat
should be recovered from CHP. These circuits are not considered
satisfactory, as they are likely to result in overheating of the jacket.
The purpose of showing the circuits in Figure 5 and Figure 6 is to

encourage the designer to try to work out how the CHP could be
controlled to act as a lead boiler given the fundamental hydraulic design
and the pumping arrangements of existing systems.
Many examples from CHP literature (even some government

publications) should be treated with caution. However reputable the
source of the information, the designer must always analyse the actual
circuit.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 5: CHP circuit taken from literature which is deemed unsuitable see text.
In Figure 5 a circuit is drawn showing the return water passing through a

filter and then pumping through an exhaust heat exchanger, then
through the engine jacket heat exchanger and possibly the oil cooling
circuit. In the authors opinion, the flows of water and the heat pick up
is in the wrong direction.
Low-grade heat from the condensing exhaust heat exchanger and the
intercooler would normally be picked up first followed by the oil cooler,
the jacket and finally the exhaust heat exchanger.
The circuit in Figure 5 would not normally be used, but still finds its way
into CHP literature.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 6: Example of a heat recovery system for CHP engine linked to a dry air-cooler.
The circuit in Figure 6 reflects a standard circuit offered by CHP package

manufacturers. The circuit is designed to protect the engine and is not
intended to maximise the utility of the heat produced from the engine
for heating purposes.
The dry air-cooler is normally designed to maintain a return water

temperature to prevent overheating of the jacket. Many discounted
energy purchase contracts for CHP guarantee the power output within
defined parameters, but not the useful heat output. Designers
considering this circuit should consider how to control the dry air-cooler
in relation to the CHP unit and then consider how to control and
connect the circuit to any boiler circuits. This should include adding
top-up heat to the system to ensure that the dry air-cooler does not run
when a boiler is running.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
3.4 ITEMS FOR The following details should be considered with regards to finding the
CONSIDERATION most effective control of CHP:
FOR EFFECTIVE
CONTROL OF CHP
Whether or not to operate with a supplementary boiler. Where
electrically efficient gas fired CHP displaces coal or oil fired central
generation, CO2 savings arise even when the supplementary boiler is
running due to the higher carbon content of the centrally generated
electricity and the carbon losses in transmission and distribution of
electricity.
Whether to operate the CHP unit on a heat-led basis or an
electricity-led basis.
How to decide when to run, and at what level of output.
How to calculate when it is economic or uneconomic to run the
CHP and over what hours.
Consider and recognise that the financial arrangements and form of
contract for electricity, fuel, maintenance and financing will change
operating decisions. Once the capital investment in CHP has been
made, operating decisions should be made on the contribution that
can be achieved from its operation. A common mistake is not to run
the CHP system if the contribution is less than the capital repayment.
How to achieve control and differentiate between different sources
of heat supply and heat loads under conditions of inevitable
fluctuations in flow temperatures from boilers and the CHP unit, and
system return water temperatures.
The sensitivity and accuracy of the controls.
The capabilities of different burner/boiler combinations depending
on whether the burner is on/off or modulating and its turn down
limitations.
The choice between on off control and partially modulating or fully
modulating systems.
Consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of two-way and
three-way valve control systems and the hydraulic and temperature
effects of these different systems.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
FURTHERCONSIDERATIONS
FURTHER DESIGN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 44
4 FURTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION CHP units normally need to run for at least 4 500 h/y, and preferably
for 7 500 h/y, or 90 percent of the annual hours available. The best
CHP systems achieve over 95 percent availability. Standard boilers are
relatively cheap, and it matters little if they are somewhat oversized, but
CHP units are relatively expensive, and they need to be accurately sized.
It is essential to obtain and analyse fuel bills for the past two years.
Ideally hourly heating and electricity fuel usage profiles should be
recorded for summer, winter and mid-season. Where recorded profiles
do not exist, the operator should arrange for hourly profiles to be
recorded for at least a week. Base heating load should be estimated with
care. In most cases it should be equal to the CHP unit's minimum load,
typically 50 percent of the CHP unit's maximum load.
Designers should determine the type of heating systems that could be

served by a CHP system. Loads such as direct-fired water heating should
be excluded.
Designers should also determine the most suitable type and size of CHP
unit for the application under consideration. CHP units with differing
efficiencies and output characteristics are available from different vendors.
These include:
Gas engine units with typical flow and return temperatures of

90/70C.
Gas engine units with higher flow and return temperatures but with
reduced thermal outputs.
Diesel engine units with higher electrical outputs than gas engine
units (mainly used on sites without gas supplies).
Reciprocating engine CHP units normally have separate heat exchangers

for the lubrication oil, water jacket and exhaust system. These heat
exchangers may be connected either in series for maximum heat output,
or in other ways to suit different applications.
For CHP systems to function optimally, it is essential to ensure that the

heating system return water temperature is less than the allowed
maximum for all or most of the expected hours of operation.
Depending on mains electricity and CHP fuel costs, and on the forms of
operating subsidies available, it may be attractive to reject some of the
CHP heat via a heat rejection radiator.
Heat rejection radiators allow a margin for error in estimating system

heating loads. They can also be used to maximise electricity production.
This may be of commercial advantage in discount energy purchase
arrangements. Heat rejection radiators should not be employed except
for good technical or economic reasons. Heat rejection radiators involve
extra capital costs, provision of a suitable site, and extra electrical loads.
The heat rejected is also wasted.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Note that typical low temperature hot water (LTHW) heating systems in
the UK can operate without major problems even when their
connections and controls are not optimum. However, heating systems
incorporating CHP units require greater precision in their design and
specification than normal heating systems. Performance failures or
uneconomical operation can occur if this requirement is not met.
Note too that there are also significant technical differences between
CHP systems and the building heating systems in which they may be
installed. There are many complications and pitfalls. It is not possible to
provide comprehensive guidance that will provide an optimum
installation to suit every case. Careful investigation by experienced
engineers is invariably required.
4.2 SCHEMATIC OF A Figure 7: Schematic of a typical CHP unit.

TYPICAL CHP
UNIT
Note that the design of CHP units, their enclosures and auxiliary
equipment is normally proprietary to the supplier. The type and
characteristics of the engines and their auxiliary equipment also vary
considerably. It is essential that the building services designer ensures
that the interfaces between the CHP unit and the building engineering
systems are well understood and agreed between the parties.
4.3 RETROFITTED When retrofitting a CHP unit into an existing building it is normally
CHP UNIT necessary to accept the heating system as it exists, with alterations
INTERFACE WITH
BOILERS AND restricted to the CHP installation and revised system controls.
HEATING SYSTEMS
A major problem is that conventional LTHW heating system designs use
design full load flow and return temperatures of typically 82/70C.
Return temperatures may be much greater than 70 C at other than full
load.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
FURTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 4
LTHW heating systems typically use heat emitters controlled by three-

port valves. Also, hot water radiators are normally controlled by
thermostatic valves without flow restrictors, to control return
temperatures. As a consequence, too much hot water is bypassed into
the heating system return mains. Unless such systems are modified,
heating system return temperatures will be above the allowable CHP
system return temperature for much of the year.
Typically boiler circuits may be fitted with a low-loss header between

the flow and return mains to separate the boiler circuits from the heating
systems they serve. This arrangement results in further quantities of
water at flow temperature reaching the boiler return circuit. This may
not greatly matter with normal heating systems, but it does matter when
a CHP unit is to be incorporated. For CHP operation, it is normally
essential to modify the boiler and heating system connections so that
water reaching the CHP unit is within allowable temperature limits.
Figure 8: Typical CHP system schematic.
The diagram shows a typical CHP unit and boiler connections.
One or more pumps serve the various building LTHW heating

systems.
The heating flow and return mains form a continuous loop.
Water is circulated through the CHP unit and boilers in turn via
pumped injection circuits.
The CHP unit in this case serves a leisure centre swimming pool and
has a condensing exhaust heat exchanger, which injects heat into the
pool water return-header.
Many variations in the arrangement of heating systems, boiler

installations and their controls are possible and acceptable, provided that
the temperature of the return water to the CHP unit is within acceptable
limits, and that the CHP unit supplies the base heating load.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
4.4 RETROFITTED CHP To ensure that the CHP unit operates as intended, and without
CONTROL unnecessary CHP unit shut downs or heat dumping, the control options
OPTIONS
available include:
Reduce the boiler flow temperature

Control boiler firing according to the heating system return
temperature
CHP and heating system controls
Reduce the boiler flow temperature

Where it is economically unattractive to modify the existing building
heating system and its controls to provide adequate control of the
LTHW return temperature, it may be acceptable to reduce the boiler
flow temperature setting.
Operators should set the boiler flow temperature setting to the maximum
return temperature that the CHP unit can accept, providing the building
LTHW heating system will function adequately with this setting. The
boilers should be disabled when the system return temperature reaches,
say, 2C above the CHP maximum return temperature. By this means,
the CHP unit will provide the entire base heating-load and the
remaining heat load up to its maximum output.
Higher temperatures may be needed for domestic hot water calorifiers

than for space heating circuits. Separating the DHW and space heating
functions may be attractive in some circumstances, but this will also
reduce the available base-load for CHP operation.
Control boiler firing according to the heating system return

temperature
If it is not economically attractive to modify the existing building heating
system to provide adequate control of the LTHW return temperature, it
may be acceptable to control boiler according to the heating system
return temperature.
In one installation using this design approach, the boilers had two-stage
burners with thermostats set to 82 C and were sequenced according to
the system return temperature. When the return temperature reached
79 C, one boiler burner was switched off. When the return
temperature reached 82 C both boiler burners were switched off, and
on. By this means the CHP unit runs for long periods without shutting
down.
CHP and heating system controls

For a retrofitted CHP system it is normally necessary to review the
existing heating system controls and to replace them or modify them as
appropriate.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
FURTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 4
The CHP unit can be fitted with its own controls and temperature
detectors to control internal functions. Among other things, the CHP unit
controls will reduce the CHP unit output and then shut it down if the
maximum allowed heating system return temperature is exceeded.
Alternatively, where a heat rejection unit is fitted, the CHP unit controls
will bring on the heat rejection unit pumps and fans, when the heating
system return temperature rises instead of shutting down the CHP unit.
Reducing the boiler flow temperature probably requires the least

modification. Controlling the boiler firing sequence according to the
heating system return temperature requires more complex controls.
A building management system (BMS) may be necessary to sequence the

CHP unit and boilers and other control functions. Because correct
operation depends on rather close temperature differentials, it will
generally be necessary to use the return temperature detector in the CHP
unit as the BMS reference point for sequencing the CHP unit and boiler
firing sequence.
Note that there are many system functions which, through some
inadequacy or maladjustment, can cause a CHP unit to shut down and
lose running hours. These include dips in gas supply pressure, electricity
mains voltage straying outside tolerance, and sundry other CHP unit
faults. All significant malfunctions should be recorded, investigated and
remedied as soon as possible.
Unless staff with the necessary skills and experience are available on site
the functioning of a CHP unit should be monitored remotely by a
maintenance contractor able to provide 24 h cover and speedy
attendance on site to investigate and resolve problems. Most CHP
vendors provide such a service; this may be essential in the first year or so
of operation.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
55 DESIGN EXAMPLES
DESIGN EXAMPLES
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES
5.1 CIRCUITS USED BY Details of commonly-used circuits based on different engine packages
COGENCO are included in this section. The examples are based on individual
practices by CHP providers. The operation of the circuits and how
they are controlled may differ from supplier to supplier.
The following circuits (Figure 9 to Figure 12) are used by Cogenco.

(Designers can contact Cogenco for more details on the circuits and how
the various elements in the circuits are controlled when the CHP
package is integrated with boilers and different types of heating circuits
and their controls.)
Figure 9 shows a typical heat recovery system used with CHP units. Heat
is recovered from the jacket water and oil in the engine, together with
recovery from the exhaust gases. Recovered heat is then fed into the site
heating system through the plate heat-exchanger in the heating return,
where the CHP will act as the lead boiler. The temperature rise across
the engine is typically 10C based on a maximum return water
temperature of 80C.
Figure 10 shows the system heat-rejection circuit using an air-cooled

radiator, also known as a dry air-cooler. This is used to reject heat, for
example in summer periods when thermal demand may be low. This
situation the return temperatures will be approaching the system design
temperature. This will enable full electrical output to be maintained.
Variable speed fan controllers are fitted.
Figure 11 shows an intercooler circuit installed to reject the intercooler

heat when a CHP engine is turbo-charged. As in Figure 10, an air-
cooled radiator is used. Where this is used dual-coil coolers are normally
fitted, one for the heat rejection circuit, the other for the intercooler.
This offers space savings and maintains all heat rejection in one unit.
Again, variable speed fan and controllers are fitted
Figure 12 shows the integration of an absorption chiller into the system.

The CHP provides heat to drive the chiller and is installed in the heating
return prior to the chiller. Often the chiller is matched to CHP output.
However, the boiler plant can provide heat to the chiller via the heating
flow as shown. The heat rejection radiator from the chiller is shown
through the adiabatic cooler (a dry air-cooler with water sprays),
although cooling towers can be used if site conditions allow.
5.2 CIRCUITS USED BY The use of air-CHP is a development of the conventional push-pull air
AIRCOGEN handling unit, where the ahu incorporates CHP technology to achieve
direct heating of air by the waste heat from electricity generation.
Buildings which require a significant quality of power and heated air
will benefit from the application of this type of CHP. An air-CHP unit
can also export hot water for other distribution heat uses.
The addition of an absorption chiller can allow a CHP unit to be

configured as a full air-conditioning package.
Applications for air-CHP include airports and aircraft hangers, factories,

warehouses, distribution operations, wet or dry leisure centres and
supermarkets.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
DESIGN EXAMPLES 5
An air-CHP schematic is shown in Figure 13, with the heat recovery

circuits in Figure 14. The components and circuitry in Figure 14 are all
contained within the engine section of the air-CHP. These include a
number of heat exchangers permitting the effective use of waste heat in
the engine exhaust and water jacket. High-efficiency is achieved by
condensing the exhaust gases in the air-to-exhaust heat exchanger.
Control of air-CHP
With air-CHP systems, all heat recovery is to the ventilating air stream,
except where hot water extraction is used for distributed heating in the
building. The combination of the extract fan and mixing box in the air
handling part of the system ensures both control of heat input into the
building space, and minimal additional power requirements for heat
rejection. The control of heat into the ventilated space is infinitely
variable using a three-way mixing box. This also has the effect of
introducing additional ambient air into the building when not all the
heat is required.
When the heat recovered by the various circuits associated with the air-
CHP system exceeds the heat requirement for the building, the normal
control strategy is modulation of the mixing box to dump heat. This can
be supplemented by modulation of the engine to its minimum
continuous output before modulating the dampers to achieve higher
year-round efficiency.
In applications involving air-CHP, it is fairly normal to design the air-

CHP for the full air heat-load of the space, thus preventing the need for
additional heat input from boilers. However, there are systems where
boilers are required to provide top-up and standby heat input to the air-
CHP unit airstream. In this case, the boilers only operate to achieve the
required heat input to the space.
Air-CHP units are controlled on return air temperature, which is

adequate for a single zone space. However, it is more common to
control on space temperature from one or more strategically positioned
sensors. In multi-zone systems, the output from one or more CHP
engines can be delivered to several zones at different temperatures by
providing separate ahus drawing from one hot-air plenum.
It is not usual to operate air-CHP in parallel with boilers. The water

heat to the distributed system is delivered by the air-CHP system when it
is able to do so; in other words, when there is reduced demand for air
heat. The boilers are held off until the three-port valve exporting from
the CHP system is at 100 percent, which automatically means that the
CHP is unable to maintain circulating temperatures. Close integration of
the boiler controls and the provision of a sensible temperature window
before starting the boilers can work well. However, it should be pointed
out that air-CHP is usually applied to fairly simple buildings where the
boiler-supplied load is generally significantly less than the air-heat load.
There are some AirCogen sites where no boilers are installed and others
where the boilers are rarely required to operate.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Boilers have limited turndown capability; in some cases they use as few as
two steps: 50 percent and 100 percent output. Both the hot water and
air heat from CHP are infinitely variable. When boilers are required to
operate in conjunction with air-CHP systems, two approaches can be
adopted. The ideal is to have full modulation down to 10 percent load.
The alternative is to use modular packaged boilers to achieve the
required minimal duty. This minimal duty is less than the heat input
required to close the temperature window between CHP on full heat
and the first stage of boiler operation.
With air-CHP, air temperatures do not fluctuate wildly, and normally

control space temperature to within 1C of the set-point. By holding off
the boilers until the LTHW export valve is fully open, the temperature
will fluctuate. Current practice is to apply three-port valve control to
the primary circuit within the CHP unit to ensure that the system is
always capable of achieving the LTHW temperatures, and that only an
increase in load will drive temperatures down.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
DESIGN EXAMPLES 5
Figure 9: Example of the heat recovery system for CHP unit.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Figure 10: Example of CHP with system heat rejection circuit.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
DESIGN EXAMPLES 5
Figure 11: Example of CHP unit with intercooler heat rejection circuit.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Figure 12: Example of CHP with absorption chilling.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
DESIGN EXAMPLES 5
Figure 13: Example of a heat recovery system to air and water in air-CHP.
(Numbers cover Figure 14 as well)

BSRIA BG 2/2007
5 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Figure 14: Schematic of air-CHP.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
PRACTICAL
PRACTICAL INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION GUIDANCE
GUIDANCE 66
6 PRACTICAL INSTALLATION GUIDANCE
6.1 INTRODUCTION This section gives generic guidance on issues that arise when retrofitting
a CHP installation. The guidance should be considered when drawing
up the specification for the installation contractor.
Many of the issues are important to resolve at the planning stage in order
to ensure that the CHP system operates efficiently at minimal cost and
disruption.
6.2 OFF-LOADING The following points should be taken into consideration when
AND POSITIONING manoeuvring a CHP unit into position. This includes off-loading the
unit from the transport, hoisting it and locating it into position. Access
to the plantroom should be considered very carefully as this may prove
difficult in older buildings. Locating the CHP unit externally in a
weatherproof housing may be an option.
The CHP unit should be protected against damage at all times during
loading and off-loading. Adequate space should be made available to
enable the unit to be off-loaded safely.
The lifting eyes of the engine and generator must be used together to
lift the complete unit. Using the lifting eyes separately will seriously
damage the mountings.
Horizontal manoeuvring should be carried out using suitable pipes,
rollers or skates positioned underneath the base-frame.
The CHP unit should be located on a flat, level surface, such as a
floor or plinth, which is structurally capable of supporting the weight
of the unit.
In noise and/or vibration sensitive areas, the unit should sit on
suitable vibration isolation pads inserted between the base of the unit
and the floor.
Sufficient space should be allowed around the unit for servicing.
The minimum recommended clearances are 1 m on all sides, except
in front of the control panel where 15 m is required. A clearance of
at least 15 m should be allowed above the unit.
6.3 SECONDARY The CHP unit may be plumbed into the building LPHW water
WATER SYSTEM pipework either in parallel with the boilers, or into the LPHW return
pipework as shown in Figure 15. The preferred method of connection
is in parallel with the boilers.
Chapter 4, section 4.2 outlines the interface issues arising when

connecting a CHP unit into a conventional heating circuit. When
designing the CHP/heating system interface, due consideration should be
given to the behaviour of the existing heating system under varying load
and its potential effect on CHP operation. It is particularly important to
recognise when a falling heat load will give rise to rising return water
temperature, and whether a change to the heating system design is
required to maintain efficient operation of the CHP unit.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 15: Secondary water circuit.
In the connection shown in Figure 15, to prevent re-circulation of the

water the inlet and return connections should be spaced a minimum of
1 m apart. It is recommended that the connection of a CHP unit with
an existing system be carried out without draining or shutting down the
system. This can be done by employing a hot tapping method or pipe
freezing. If the system has to be drained, it must be correctly refilled and
vented.
The provision to isolate the complete CHP unit secondary water system
should be included by fitting suitably sized and rated gate-type isolation
valves.
As a minimum, all new pipework should conform to heavyweight

specification (Red band) mild steel conforming to BS EN 10255, and be
adequately supported to prevent strain on any associated components or
parts. It should also be isolated with expansion bellows to prevent
transmission of vibration to the building structure.
A heat meter with associated temperature probes and integrator should

be fitted as indicated in Figure 15. A mesh Y-type strainer should be
installed on the inlet side of the secondary water system circulation pump
to prevent debris fouling the pump.
A three-phase, four-pole water circulation pump should be installed to

circulate water from the building LPHW system through the CHP and
back to the building system. The duty of this pump should be selected
to overcome the pressure drop produced by the CHP units heat
exchanger, connecting pipework, ancillary items, and the dry air-cooler
at the unit design flow rate. Flexible connections, isolating butterfly-type
valves, and binder test-points should be fitted either side of the
circulation pump. If the unit is connected in parallel with the boilers, the
BSRIA BG 2/2007
PRACTICAL INSTALLATION GUIDANCE 6
overall system pressure-drop should be considered at the best and worst

case heat delivery configurations.
It is recommended that the flow rate is trimmed, to the design

parameters of the unit, by a double regulating-valve, close-coupled to a
flow measurement device incorporating test points, installed in the CHP
outlet pipework. A second flow-regulating valve in the CHP inlet
pipework may be needed to regulate the flow through the dry air-cooler.
A three-way control valve should be fitted to control the flow to the dry
air-cooler.
Flexible connections should be fitted to the CHP inlet/outlet

connections to prevent strain on the unit heat exchanger and to isolate
the unit from vibration transmission. The flexible connections must be
suitable for the maximum working temperatures and pressures of the
system.
Automatic air vents should be fitted to all high points of the pipework,
and be installed in such a way that they operate while the CHP pump is
operating. Drain points should be fitted to all system low points.
As a minimum, all new pipework should be painted and insulated to a

similar standard as that of the original building installation.
Binder-test points should be fitted at the header connections, unit

connections, and around the three-port valves.
6.4 INTERCOOLER If the CHP unit is fitted with a dry air-cooler to reject the intercooler
WATER SYSTEM circuit heat, this should be a dual-coil unit, with one circuit for the
(WHEN FITTED)
intercooler and one circuit for the jacket water. The intercooler circuit
should be installed as in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Intercooler water system.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
The dry air-cooler should be mounted external to the plantroom on

suitable foundations, and clear of any obstructions that may impede the
airflow.
The flow and return water pipework should be installed to interconnect

the unit with the dry air-cooler, complete with suitably rated isolating
valves for isolation of the system.
Flexible connections should be fitted at both the unit and dry air-cooler
termination points to prevent strain on the connections and to isolate any
transmitted vibration. The flexible connections must be suitable for the
maximum system working temperatures and pressures.
A three-port valve should be installed to control the water temperature

allowing the engine intercooler circuit to reach its design temperature it
will also ensure that the engine is not over-cooled before the dry air-
cooler becomes operational. This circuit, inclusive of pump and valves,
should be installed as close as possible to the CHP unit.
All new pipework should be adequately supported to prevent strain on

any associated components or parts, and isolated to prevent transmission
of vibration into the building structure.
A three-phase four-pole circulating pump should be installed to circulate

water from the unit through the dry air-cooler. The duty of this pump
should be selected to overcome the pressure drop produced by the CHP
unit, the dry air-cooler, connecting pipework, and ancillary items at the
unit design flow-rate. Flexible connections, isolating butterfly-type
valves, and binder test-points should be installed either side of the
circulation pump.
The flow rates should be regulated to the unit design parameters by

double regulating valves closed coupled to a flow measuring device
incorporating test points.
Automatic air vents should be fitted to all high points of the pipework,
and installed in such a way that they operate while the circulating pump
is operating. Drain points should also be fitted to all system low points.
A static pressurisation unit (expansion vessel) should be installed with

sufficient volume and pressure rating for the system.
A fresh water top-up connection should be provided. This should be

fitted at a location with easy access to ensure the system to be charged
with glycol. A mix of 30 percent ethylene glycol should be added for
freeze protection.
On completion, all pipework must be pressure tested to 15 times the

system working pressure and test certificates issued. As a minimum
standard the new pipework should be painted and insulated to a similar
standard to that of the original building installation.
Pressure relief valves should be installed, rated to satisfy the system design
criteria, and outlets piped to ground level.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
6.5 EXHAUST SYSTEM The exhaust system should be installed in accordance with the British
Gas publication IM/17 Code of Practice, as in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Exhaust system.
The exhaust system of the CHP unit must have a separate flue and must
not be combined with any other plant or engines.
The exhaust vent should be sited clear of any doors, windows or air
inlets to prevent ingress of exhaust fumes into the building, and also be
fitted with a bird mesh grille made from non-corrosive material.
All horizontal exhaust-pipe runs should be installed with a fall in the

direction of the exhaust gas flow. They should also incorporate
condensate traps to prevent condensate run back to the engine. Trap
outlets should be piped to an adequate building foul drain. The exhaust
system should be constructed from good quality stainless steel (AISI 304
or equivalent) flanged and/or welded.
Where the exhaust system includes a reactive and absorption silencer,

there should be at least 1 m between the silencers. If the second silencer
is to be mounted in a vertical position (only vertical specification type
silencers can be used in this position), the condensate drain connection
should be connected to the inlet of this silencer (bottom). The flexible
connection should be fitted adjacent to the CHP unit and mounted
without any static preload in any direction.
For health and safety reasons, the exhaust system should be insulated
where it can be touched. As a minimum standard, the system should be
insulated up to and including the first silencer, or the whole of the
system within the plantroom area if required. A minimum of 25 mm
mineral wool section with stucco aluminium covering should be used.
Where the exhaust system passes through the building structure, it should
be ensured that the pipework is clear of combustible material and is
adequately sleeved. Pipework should be sealed around sleeve annulus
with a non-combustible material (not cement) to prevent weather ingress
into the building.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
The exhaust system should be designed such that the pressure drop over
the system does not exceed the unit maximum.
Condensate traps should be manufactured from heat resistant PVC or

stainless steel with a height of at least 600 mm (see Figure 18). After the
traps, heat resistant PVC pipework can be used.
Individual pipes from each silencer and exhaust pipe drain points to the
condensate traps should be installed to prevent exhaust gasses passing
through the pipe. A minimum of the first metre of condensate pipe
connected to the exhaust system should be made from stainless steel,
thereafter high temperature rated PVC may be used.
Figure 18: CHP condensate drains.
6.6 GAS SUPPLY The gas supply pipework should conform to the following British Gas
code of practices as in Figure 19:
IM/17 Code of Practice for Natural Gas Fuelled Spark Ignition and Dual
Fuel Engines, and
IM/16 Installation of Gas Pipework, Boosters and Compressors in
Customers Premises.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 19: Gas supply.
The whole of the gas installation should be carried out by CORGI

registered personnel. The gas installer should hold a current certificate of
competency, a copy of which should be available for inspection and
recording before commencement of work on site.
Gas supply for the CHP unit should be taken from the existing metered
gas supply in the building. The installer should ensure that the required
volume and pressure of gas is available. If not, a gas booster should be
included. For installations operating in island mode (isolated from the
grid), connect the gas prior to the use of any shutoff/emergency cut-off
valve.
A suitable isolation valve should be fitted adjacent to the main gas take-
off point, and the gas supply line run to the CHP, including test and
purge points.
A compensated gas meter should be installed in the gas train, and a

pocket should be installed for the compensator temperature probe.
Attention should be given to ensure that the meter is installed in
compliance with the manufacturers instructions with regard to position
and number of straight lengths of pipework required before and after the
meter.
An isolation valve should be installed adjacent to the CHP unit, with a

flexible connection to connect the supply to the unit, thereby
eliminating any possibility of transmitted vibration.
On completion of the installation, the gas supply line should be clear of

loose material, purged and tested for gas tightness generally in accordance
with IM/5 at 15 times the working pressure. A test certificate should be
issued.
The completed pipework should be painted to identify its purpose in

accordance with BS1710.
6.7 HEAT REJECTION The CHP unit may be fitted with a dry air-cooler to reject heat when
CIRCUIT the building water return temperature exceeds the CHP maximum
allowable inlet temperature, and where continued operation of the CHP
unit is required. This circumstance may arise if the CHP unit is
required to provide emergency power, and efficiency is a secondary
consideration.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Alternatively, heat rejection during periods of low heat demand may be

economically justified by the design model. In either case, the design
should ensure that boiler heating operation is inhibited when heat
rejection is initiated. A typical piping connection arrangement is shown
in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Heat rejection circuit.
The dry air-cooler should be mounted external to the plantroom on

suitable foundations, clear of any obstructions that may impede the
airflow.
A suitable tap-off from the CHP secondary water system should be made
for the supply to the dry air-cooler, terminating at the dry air-cooler in a
suitable isolation valve and flexible connection.
The return from the dry air-cooler should be connected to the three-
way valve via a suitable isolation valve and flexible connection.
A three-way electrical diverting valve should be supplied in the

secondary water system. The valve should be suitable for a 24 V DC
supply, with a 0-10 V control signal both supplied from the dry air-
cooler panel.
A pocket should be provided in the secondary water system pipework to

accommodate the dry air-cooler temperature probe.
6.8 COLD WATER A fresh cold water top-up should be provided to the CHP unit from the
TOP-UP mains water-supply in the plantroom. The supply should be tapped off
the mains supply via a local 22 mm isolating valve and run adjacent to
the CHP unit, terminating with a double check-type non-return valve
and a 22 mm bib tap complete with hose adapter.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
6.9 COMBUSTION The CHP enclosure should be provided with a ventilation fan to
AND maintain an acceptable unit operating temperature. Inlet and discharge
VENTILATION AIR
REQUIREMENTS air attenuators should be mounted to the unit to minimise noise
breakout from the enclosure.
When the ventilation air is ducted to the outside of the plantroom, the
ducts should be located in suitable positions such that air recirculation is
avoided. Suitable ducting should be provided and installed to connect
the inlet and discharge attenuators to the outside, with louvres and bird
mesh grilles fitted. The louvres should be sized with a free air area to
ensure the cooling air requirements meet the design criteria. If the
ducting is connected to a wall, a flexible connection should be provided
to eliminate any transmitted vibration.
Where the CHP uses the combustion and ventilation air from within a
plantroom (which is ventilated naturally), low and high level ventilation
should be provided by permanent openings.
The low-level ventilation requirements are: opening should be not less

than 02 m for each 300 kW of combined (CHP plus Boiler) installed
heating capacity. High-level ventilation should not have a free area of
less than 01 m for each 300 kW of combined (CHP plus Boiler)
installed heating capacity. The minimum requirement for high level
ventilation is 1200 mm BS5410 Part 2.
The dimensions of the ducting are to be calculated such that the

maximum air speed is limited to 30 m/s.
Should the CHP unit be required to be mounted on extra anti-vibration

mountings, then all ducting to the unit should incorporate flexible
connections.
6.10 ELECTRICAL The electrical installation should comply with the Energy Networks
Association (ENA) engineering recommendation G59/1 and the current
1
edition of the IEE Regulations (BS 7671:2001 ).
A suitably rated padlocked fused switch or mains circuit breaker (MCB)

should be provided for connection of the CHP to the low voltage
system. This can be either fitted to the existing main low voltage
switchboard, or mounted in a position to be agreed.
Mains cabling should be provided between the CHP isolator and the
CHP control panel, as all cable should comply, and be sized to comply
with BS 7671. The neutral conductor should be fully rated and of
sufficient size to comply with BS 7671.
Mains cabling should be adequately supported on cable trays for top or

side entry into the CHP panel, and suitable cable glands should be fitted
at all through points. Local isolation switches should be provided for all
pumps and auxiliary equipment.
1
BS 7671:2001, Requirements for Electrical Installation (IEE Wiring Regulations 16th Edition)

BSRIA BG 2/2007
6.11 EARTHING SYSTEM The earthing installation should comply with the ENA engineering
recommendation G59/1, the current edition of BS 7671 and the local
energy suppliers earthing system requirements.
6.12 INSULATION Thermal insulation should be fitted to the following:

Water pipework
Ductwork distributing heated air
Ductwork carrying outside air through heated or cooled spaces and
adjacent voids
Exhaust system from the CHP unit.
Insulation should be fitted in accordance with recommendations as stated
in BS 5422, BS 5970, and BS 6700 as applicable. The thickness should
be as recommended in BS 5422, using conductivity measured in
accordance with BS 874.
Unless otherwise indicated, all services should be insulated individually

leaving a minimum clearance between finished surfaces of 25 mm for
pipes and 50 mm for ducts.
Where practicable, sectional or bevelled lags should be used, or, in

combination with slabs to correctly fit the surface.
It is recommended, if possible, that the insulation should be applied in

the largest continuous section. Insulation to long straight pipes, ducts or
large surfaces should not be fitted from off-cuts. Flexible connections
should not be insulated with rigid sections.
6.13 NOISE AND Once the system balancing and commissioning has been completed, all
VIBRATION necessary steps should be taken to limit noise and vibration transmission
CONTROL
from mechanical systems to the specified criteria.
Where no criteria is indicated, the following are to be complied with:
Noise in occupied spaces within the building should not exceed the
appropriate noise rating (NR) curve for the building/space purposes
1 2
as recommended by the CIBSE Guide A , and BS 8233:1999 .
Noise from mechanical systems measured externally should not
exceed any statutory limits imposed by any local authority or the site.
Vibration forces transmitted to the structure or to other equipment
should not exceed the levels present prior to the installation of the
CHP unit.
All criteria should be applied to all mechanical equipment operating in

the absence of noise from any other source. Ductwork, pipework and
fittings should be designed or treated to prevent generation of noise and
the transmission of noise and vibration from adjacent equipment.
1
CIBSE Guide A, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London, 1999
2
BS 8233:1999, Sound Insulation and Noise Reduction for Buildings. Code of practice, British Standards Institute, London, 1999
BSRIA BG 2/2007
If required, additional sound attenuators should be fitted (in addition to

the standard attenuators supplied with the CHP unit) between each fan
and air duct system, grille or louvre to limit airborne noise to that
required to meet the specified criteria. Attenuators should be sealed to
meet the criteria in relation to the installed equipment and be suitable for
the space available. Attenuators should be positioned to prevent flanking
of noise round the attenuator.
Additional attenuators should consist of an outer casing of galvanised

sheet steel containing the silencing element and packed with an in-fill of
non-combustible, non-hygroscopic, vermin-proof material. The units
should incorporate a suitable mild-steel flange for connecting to
adjoining ductwork at each end, and be compatible as far as possible with
the physical size of the ductwork served. The aerodynamic pressure
should be as low as possible and not affect the CHP canopy fan.
If required, acoustic louvres should be provided to meet the criteria at

intake and discharge points and at plantroom ventilation openings.
Louvres should consist of a rigid metal frame containing deep trapezoidal

blades. If required to meet the noise criteria, the blades should have solid
external and upper faces and perforated internal and lower faces. They
should contain inorganic, non-hygroscopic, sound absorbent in-fill,
wrapped in an impervious membrane to prevent water logging.
The louvre construction should be of corrosion-resistant metal and fitted

with corrosion resistant fixings. The blades should be designed and
spaced to prevent the ingress of water, and the whole unit sealed to the
structure to both reduce noise and water ingress.
Vibration isolators (anti-vibration mounts) should be fitted when

necessary to reduce the transmitted vibration from any vibrating,
oscillating, reciprocating or rotating equipment to the specified limits.
Vibration isolators should be selected relative to the force, and frequency

of the equipment and the natural frequency of the structure on which it
is mounted.
All vibration isolators on any piece of equipment should be equally

loaded. Where the mounting holes on the equipment do not permit
this, an extended base-plate should be fitted.
Vibration isolators may be located on pad, neoprene or spring mounts.

Pad mounts are pads of composite rubber material inserted between the
equipment and its support or the building structure. Individual bolts and
metal washers should be used between the mounting and the fixing
location on the equipment and between the mounting to the support or
structure to ensure maximum isolation of equipment. Pad mounts are
not to be used where the static deflection of the equipment exceeds
5 mm.
Neoprene mounts are conical or cylindrical neoprene blocks with a

centre hole. They have a moulded top plate and bush, and base plate.
The bush should have a plain bolt hole and back plate, or a tapped bolt
hole to accept equipment mounting bolts without contact with the base

BSRIA BG 2/2007
plate or support. Base plates should have two or more fixing holes.
Neoprene mounts are not to be used where the static deflection would
exceed 10 mm.
Spring mount use helical springs which should be secured to a lower steel
body-section and upper cap section. Together these completely enclose
the spring. Neoprene pads or washers should be located between the
spring, the body, and the cap to isolate high frequency vibrations. The
cap and body are to be manufactured and fitted such that a small
horizontal clearance exists between them, then sealed by a flexible low-
friction seal to prevent contact between them while maintaining stability.
6.14 HEALTH AND Health and safety method statements and risk assessments should be
SAFETY carried out for all aspects of the installation works, including (but not
limited to) equipment offload and positioning, hot tapping works,
welding, pressure and leak testing of pipework, and integrity testing of
electrical systems.
Health and safety procedures should also be in place for future

maintenance. This should include appropriate warning signs to warn
engineers of hot surfaces and risks of electrocution.
6.15 TESTING AND On the completion of all works, the installer should test the installation
COMMISSIONING and provide mechanical and electrical test certificates to the
manufacturer of the CHP system. This should be done before any
commissioning works commence.
Prior to setting to work on the CHP unit, the installer should flush all
pipework, charge systems with oil and coolant, and commission all
sections of the installation to prove flow rates and temperatures, and
provide setting data. Pipework pressure test, gas supply test and electrical
test certificates should be provided prior to commissioning.
On completion of mechanical and electrical integrity tests, functional

testing of all subsystems, controls, interlocks and protective devices and
systems should be carried out before any prime mover operation is
permitted.
Initial operation of the CHP engine should be carried out in accordance

with the manufacturers instructions, and should include the making of a
full record of operating settings and parameters at each stage of operation.
When stable speed control has been achieved, alternator phase rotation
should be checked before synchronising tests are carried out. Before the
machine is synchronised, the electrical and mechanical protection
tripping chains should be verified. Care is needed to ensure the actual
function of the protection device is tested, not just its electrical circuit.
The low oil pressure should be simulated, not just activation of the
electrical safety circuit.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
After synchronising, and at a suitable stable load, the G59 protection

should be tested and witnessed (if required) by a representative of the
local Electricity Supply Comenergy supplierpany. In some cases a G59
system disconnection test may be required, causing loss of electrical
supply to the whole facility. This should be carefully planned to
minimise inconvenience to the owner.
After placing the CHP unit into commercial operation, a period of

running-in at reduced load may be necessary before full load operation
can take place. Full and regular records of plant parameters should be
taken during this period.
After the commencement of commercial operation, the controls may

need to be adjusted and optimised over a period of several weeks or
months, reflecting seasonal variations in the demands placed on the
equipment.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
77 NEW RETROFIT NEW
SITES RETROFIT SITES
7 NEW RETROFIT SITES
7.1 AIRBUS UKS The extensive redevelopment of Airbus UKs manufacturing facility in
MANUFACTURING Broughton, Cheshire comprises several buildings, accommodating the
FACILITY,
BROUGHTON, equipment required to manufacture the wings for the A380 airliner.
CHESHIRE With a number of manufacturing units dispersed around the site, Airbus
was keen to explore the possibility of implementing a distributed CHP
solution that could secure power and flexible thermal outputs to serve
both space heating and process requirements.
Working with McAlpine Business Services and taking full responsibility

for the design, manufacture, and installation and commissioning of each
air-CHP package, Aircogen delivered a solution that aimed to maximise
the commercial and environmental benefits to Airbus.
The three buildings considered in this case study are:
The Stringers Facility

The Skin Mill Machining Centre
The West Factory (wing assembly).
The Stringers facility

Table 6: CHP details at Stringers.
Customer Airbus
Consultants AMEC
CMR Babcock International (Energy)
System supplier McAlpine Business Services
CHP supplier Brotherhood Aircogen
CHP model Air-CHP
Fuel input 2596 kW
Power output 814 kWe total
Fuel Natural gas
Heat output in kilowatts Up to 1656 kW (air heating), up to 1024 kW for
LTHW. Maximum values cannot be obtained for both
simultaneously.
2
The Stringers building has a floor space of 20 000 m and a high velocity
air system for process needs using 75 percent fresh air. The principal
heating demand in this building is for seasonal air heating. There is also a
requirement for a constant supply of hot water for the treatment tanks
and a small paint shop located in the building.
To meet the hot water needs, Aircogen supplied two 407 kWe air-CHP
units, each housing a single Perkins 4008 TESI gas engine. Both CHP
units are located externally to the building. The units are configured to
supply base load electricity, hot water and air heating, and can provide
1656 kW of air heating and 1024 kWth of LTHW. The peak air load is
2400 kW, and boilers are provided to supplement the air-CHP capacity
at peak heating times.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
NEW RETROFIT SITES 7
The projected heating and electrical loads for the CHP units are shown
in Figure 22, and the total energy demands in Figure 23.
Figure 21: Installation of two 407 kWe AirCogen air-CHP units at the Stringers
Facility.
Figure 22: Total heating and electrical demands of the Stringers building (design
condition).

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 23: Total energy demands of the Stringers building.
Since the Stringers Facility entered operation in January 2003, the air-
CHP units have operated up to their peak efficiency of around
95 percent, but the electrical load is much closer to the CHP capacity of
800 kW.
The Skin Mill Facility

Table 7: CHP details at the Airbus Skin Mill.
Customer Airbus
Consultants AMEC
System supplier Stiell Facilities Management Limited
CHP model air-CHP
Fuel input 1298 kW
Power output 407 kWe
Fuel Natural gas
Heat output in kilowatts Up to 828 kW (air heating), up to 512 kW (LTHW).
Maximum values cannot be obtained for both
simultaneously.
The Skin Mill is a machining centre for the highly profiled, aerodynamic
wing sections. The only heating requirement for the Skin Mill is the
usual seasonal air heating. Next to the Skin Mill is the Treatments
building which has s a constant demand for hot water. Beyond the
Treatments building is a new building which heat-treats the machined
components. This building only needs supplementary heating during the
winter as much of its heating comes from its processes.
For this facility Aircogen supplied a single 407 kWe air-CHP unit
consisting of a Perkins 4008 TESI gas engine. This is configured to
supply base load electricity and air heating to the Skin Mill and any
unused heat as LTHW to both the Treatments and Creep buildings.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
The West Factory Wing Assembly

Table 8: CHP details at the Airbus West Factory.
Customer Airbus
Consultants AMEC
System supplier Stiell Facilities Management Limited
CHP model air-CHP
Fuel input 9387 kW
Power output 3060 kWe
Fuel Natural gas
Heat output in kilowatts Up to 5859 kW (air heating), up to 3360 kW
(MTHW). Maximum values cannot be obtained for
both simultaneously.
Figure 24: Installation of three 1020 kWe air-CHP units at the West Factory.
The West Factory at Airbuss Broughton site is a 93 000 m building for

the assembly of the wing for the A380 aircraft, and includes the wing
painting facility. It has a significant demand for thermal energy.
Three 1020 kWe Aircogen air-CHP units were installed adjacent to the
new wing-painting facility. These units generate electricity at 11 kV that
is supplied to the site distribution network.
The heated air from each of the CHP units is supplied to the inlet of the
paint shop air replacement plant, which controls the climate conditions
for the painting process. The paint application process has varying
requirements in terms of air temperatures and volumes, with temperatures
varying from 18C for preparation work to 80C for baking.
As the painting process rarely requires the full output from each CHP
unit in air heating mode, the units are configured to provide medium
temperature hot water for heating and processes in the facility. This
flexibility allows each CHP unit to maintain its average operating
efficiency at the highest possible level.
During commissioning tests, the peak performance of the air-CHP units

was measured at 965 percent efficiency. AirBus has since ordered two
further units of this design for installation in its main factory.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
7.2 BALTIC CENTRE Figure 25: Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Gateshead (courtesy of
FOR Aircogen Ltd).
CONTEMPORARY
ART, GATESHEAD
Table 9: CHP details at Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art.
Customer Balfour Kilpatrick

Consulting Engineers Atelier Ten
CHP model air-CHP
Type Nimbus 400
Fuel Natural gas
Heat 516 (water) kW
Cooling 354 kW
Internal Electrical 402 kW
Key dates Installed July 2000
Commissioned November 2001
The Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art in Gateshead opened in July

2002. The facility is the largest visual arts centre in the UK outside
London, and forms part of the regeneration of the area next to the River
Tyne.
The internal environment of the building is important. Being open to

the public, the building requires comfortable conditions all year round, as
does an environment conducive with the protection of the enclosed
works of art. These environmental requirements were met with close-
control air-conditioning, which requires the constant availability of
heating, cooling and electrical power.
The solution installed in the Baltic Art Centre is called trigeneration.

This is where waste heat from power generation is used to provide
heating, cooling and power from a single integrated system. The system
is produced by coupling a CHP unit to an absorption chiller, which
produces chilled water from the engine waste heat. The system is a
Nimbus 400M packaged CHP unit housing a single Guascor SFGLD 240
gas engine rated at 402 kWe. The cooling was provided by a Carrier
16JB-010 absorption chiller capable of supplying 354 kW at 55C. The
CHP unit is capable of producing up to 516 kW of heated water at
120C through exhaust and jacket water heat exchangers, which supply
BSRIA BG 2/2007
both the cooling (through the absorption chiller) and heating for the
building. For heating, the recovered heat is supplied as LTHW
generated for the centres distributed heating systems.
The indoor climate is maintained by the process control within the CHP
system. This directs the flow rate of heated water to the heating medium
in the correct proportions. The system can also be operated at part load
by using the variable-speed drives on the pump and fans. On the power
generation side, the system is designed to isolate the mains and continue
to supply the essential loads of the building during a mains power failure.
The unit automatically resynchronises on the return of the mains supply.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
7.3 TIME CAPSULE, Figure 26: Time Capsule overview.

COATBRIDGE
Table 10: Details of the CHP system at the Time Capsule.
Customer Time Capsule

Consultants HB Energy Ltd
CHP model IVECO
Type GEA291SRG75
Fuel Natural gas
Heat 504 kW
Electricity 325 kW
First use March 2002
Background
The Time Capsule a large leisure centre constructed in 2001 contains a
leisure pool with flumes and splash pools, an ice rink, fitness facilities and
indoor games halls.
Energy was supplied to the facility via a dedicated electricity substation, a

set of gas boilers and three 90 kW Waukesha reciprocating CHP units.
The CHP units were connected thermally into the buildings heating
return water main.
The installed engines were obsolete and subject to escalating repair costs
as well, with falling reliability. The owner decided to replace the engines
with a new unit, and controls capable of linking to the existing building
management system.
The energy demand profile justified a substantially larger CHP

installation. A single IVECO engine driving a Newage alternator was
chosen consisting of a turbocharged synchronous unit with heat and
electrical outputs of 504 kW and 325 kW, respectively. It was
anticipated that substantial additional energy cost savings would be
achieved.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
The machinery space was very congested with no direct means of access
for large equipment. A temporary penetration was required in the roof
of the building to allow removal of the old units and their replacement
with the new unit. The boiler plant was taken out of commission for a
period to allow movement of equipment and some water treatment plant
had to be decommissioned. Meantime, the facility continued to be open
to the public and was expected to operate normally. The programme of
work had to be carefully controlled to minimise other plant downtime,
and reduce the risk of operational disruption and exposure of the plant to
weather.
The CHP unit was equipped with a ComAp InteliSys controller to

provide a simple user interface; this was also capable of remote
interrogation.
New unit installation

In common with many other leisure centres of 10 years old or more the
Time Capsule was constructed without heavy lifting facilities and with
no provision for removal or replacement of large equipment. The
process plant space comprised a basement containing the CHP plant,
heating boilers, water treatment plant vessels, and pumping equipment,
with a mezzanine level above containing HVAC fans and ducting. The
mezzanine area, which was at street level, was naturally ventilated via full
height louvres fitted along its whole length of about 35 m on the south
side.
The size and location of the single roller shutter door giving access to the
mezzanine floor was found to be inadequate for the insertion of the new
CHP unit. It was therefore decided to establish a route into the building
by removing a 35 m square section of the roof together with some
purlins, in order to temporarily relocate the eight incoming power
conductors, remove sections of the chemical unloading and ventilation
lines, demolish a tank bund, and remove all of the heating boiler burner
assemblies.
The route allowed for crane access to the basement through the roof
penetration, skidding of the old units along the length of the basement
and their removal by crane, and insertion of the new CHP enclosure
components, alternator, engine, and pumping skid for their reassembly
on the foundation plinth.
The whole of this process was carried out in a 24 h period, during which
the heating system was shut down for eight hours overnight.
Limited headroom and access around the CHP unit plinth required re-
positioning of the enclosure ventilation exit duct, the enclosure inlet air
silencer, end and rear panels and roof before the reassembled CHP unit
was skidded over to its final position and bolted down.
Connection of the unit used two of the existing connection points to

loop it into the service water return main. A new gas connection was
made, and the electrical connection was made along the previously used
route to a new mains circuit board.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 27: Schematic of CHP installation at Time Capsule (courtesy of HB Energy Consultants).
Commissioning
The CHP system went into service on 20 March 2002 and
commissioning tests were conducted for six days. The CHP was allowed
to run from seven to 10 days at 300 kW electricity output.
Initial filling of the engine water system and the service water pipework
brought to light a number of faulty welds, which had to be cut out and
repaired. This process identified further poor quality welds in the engine
cooling system leading to delay in the commissioning process. Further
delay was caused by an error in the installation of the gas supply zero
pressure valve.
Loading of the Intelisys controller software and trimming of the basic

settings was carried out over a two-day period. This was followed by a
further day during which protection systems and device functionality
were checked, and the Comap NPU G59 relay functionality was
demonstrated to Scottish Power.
Initial off-load operation of the engine was subsequently achieved

without incident. A full commissioning check was subsequently carried
out on the engine by IVECO, including the application of final settings
to the engine governing system. The CHP unit was then placed in
service at a run-in load level of 300 kW for the first hundred hours
followed by service at 325 kW.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Early operation resulted in a number of gas pressure low alarms and

several trips. After investigation it was found that although the gas main
pressure was normal, the gas supply to the engine had a greater than
expected pressure drop. It was necessary to reduce the alarm and trip
values to eight and five mbar respectively.
Problems were also experienced in achieving full priming of the

intercooler water circuit because of its location at the end of a long run
of nearly horizontal pipe. This problem was dealt with by changing the
filling procedure to prevent air locking. During the commissioning
period it was also found the performance of the intercooler radiator was
insufficient to maintain the charge air temperature below the alarm level
of 55C.
Commissioning and subsequent integration of the CHP into the process

was greatly simplified by the highly informative combination of on-board
analogue instrumentation and the accessibility of that information
together, with all of the digital data and internal settings of the control
system, through an Intelisys display.
Figure 28: Schematic of the heat recovery systems for IVECO CHP engine.

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CHP operation
The CHP plant was designed to operate on the basis of system demand
for power and heat, with power modulating down to 60 percent output
with rising process water return temperature, or with falling system
electrical demand. A minimum net import value prevented accidental
export to the Scottish Power system.
The initial heat demand modulation settings resulted in the CHP plant
frequently modulating off base-load. It was found that a small increase in
the temperature modulating start temperature resulted in suppression of
boiler on/off modulation and steady base-load operation of the CHP
unit.
The old CHP plant had been set by timer to operate for 17 h each day
and it was expected that the new unit would behave in a similar manner.
However, it was found that the new CHP system operates beneficially
for up to 22 h each day because of significant periods of power and heat
demand overnight.
Early operation was disrupted by operation of the G59 protection on an

almost nightly basis. This was found to be caused by a high system
voltage at the local 415 V substation. After some discussion Scottish
Power agreed to adjust the transformer tapchanger, which cured the
problem in the short term. Further G59 trips occurred due to high
voltage during the local school vacation so that a further tap change was
thought to be necessary.
Availability was significantly affected during the first few months of

operation due to further water leaks from components on the engine,
one of which resulted in damage to two cylinder-head seals and a major
loss of coolant.
An example of the measured parameters during warm-up and on load

operation is shown in Figure 29. At the time of this study the following
was recorded:
Running hours: 1185 h

Electricity generated: 343 503 kWh

3
Gas consumed: 96 977 m
Heat: 5171 MWh.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 29: Example data of the CHP unit at Time Capsule.
There are four 375 kW gas-fired boilers associated with the heating
circuit incorporating the CHP unit. The CHP unit design heat delivery
is 504 kW. Typical winter demand is for up to 1200 kW.
The boilers are controlled by the site BMS, which acts to maintain the
building water flow temperature at its preset level. In November 2002
this was set to 73C to ensure that the CHP plant takes up the heat-load.
It was anticipated that, in winter high demand conditions, the flow
temperature set-point would need to be raised to maintain the required
heat delivery to the facility and prevent an unacceptably low return
temperature.
Boiler sequencing is managed by the BMS, which rotates the sequence

position of each boiler every 1000 h of operation. At the time of the
survey the Time Capsule management were unable to state the value of
the temperature dead-band associated with each sequence position, but
had undertaken to interrogate the BMS to find out.
Each boiler is equipped with a high temperature override set at 80C.

Each boiler is also equipped with automatic high/low fire control details,
which were not available at the time of preparing this case study.
CHP unit power management strategy

The Time Capsule demand varies between about 160 kW at night to
about 750 kW during the day. The CHP unit was set to run at rated
load (325 kW) during daytime hours and to modulate down to maintain
a minimum import of 60 kW or to shut down if demand was less than
the sum of the minimum import and the minimum CHP load level. At
the time of this study the CHP minimum load was set to 180 kW or 55
percent of rated output. The Time Capsules management found that

BSRIA BG 2/2007
the minimum import value of 60 kW was a little larger than the largest
single consumer and was selected to prevent accidental power export.
Rates of change of demand tended to be rapid, with groups of plant

starting in sequence. A restart level of 280 kW system demand was
therefore selected. This ensured the availability of a significant load for
the CHP on restart and also helped to reduce the frequency of stop-start
cycles.
Figure 30: Power management.
CHP unit heat output management

The facilitys heat demand can be as high as 1200 kW but less than
300 kW outside working hours. The CHP unit produced 504 kW at
base load.
To maximise round-the-clock generation without heat dumping, power

modulation with rising low pressure hot water (LPHW) return
temperature was employed as shown above. Heat dumping was, in any
case, not possible because of space considerations on site.
The modulation range was set so that all boilers were off-load before the
minimum power level was reached.
Experience indicated that when the CHP unit was initially put in service,
one or two cycles of partial modulation of duration around 15 minutes
took place before one or more of the operating boilers were displaced
from service. The CHP unit then settled into base-load operation with
periodic boiler cycling.
Import power modulation and LPHW return temperature power

modulation operated concurrently with the minimum value controlling
generation.
Emission measurements taken at full and part-load conditions using a

portable flue gas analyser give the following results (see Table 11).
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Figure 31: Heat output.
Figure 32: CHP cumulative efficiencies.
Table 11: Emission measurements at the Time Capsule.
Parameter 325 kW 280 kW 250 kW 325 kW

(full load) (full load)
CO (ppm) - 288 300 296
O2 (%) 58 46 42 58
CO2 (%) 86 93 95 86
NO (ppm) 4155 5799 5722 3761
NO2 (ppm) 45 68 67 48
NOx (ppm) 4200 5867 5789 3809
Flue temperature (C) 1214 1216 1161 1282

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Figure 33: Front view of the CHP unit.
Figure 34: Side view of the CHP unit.
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POST-INSTALLATION
POST-INSTALLATION AUDITS AUDITS 88
8 POST-INSTALLATION AUDITS
Post-installation audits are useful in determining how well a CHP

installation is performing, and for identifying problems.
8.1 POST- Issues that should be considered during a post installation audit are:
INSTALLATION
CHECKLIST
How well have the feasibility study results and projection stood the
test of time?
What issues, problems and solutions were encountered during the
installation?
What developments or changes have been implemented since
installation, such as control of HTHW or LTHW, reconfiguration of
control systems, or reconfiguration of operating patterns?
What issues were encountered with regard to reliability, availability,
maintenance and on-going management efforts required to maximise
CHP benefits?
What issues have arisen from the way the project was financed, for
example self/CEM/ESCO?
Did the CHP unit run the predicted numbers of operational hours in
practice?
How many times did the protection system for the CHP unit
operate? (recorded by a centrally monitored unit; if cutting out
frequently, then the controls between boiler and CHP may not be
not synchronised properly)
The electrical and heat efficiency of the unit.
The downtime of the unit (such as when the unit is not working for
central maintenance) why and how often? Is the downtime as
expected?
Do heat and electricity loads meet the predicted curves in feasibility
studies? (A potential problem can occur if there have been
modifications as a result of unexpected problems.)
8.2 ROYAL MAIL, Royal Mail operations

PETERBOROUGH The processing of mail is a 24 h, 360 day operation, making the
buildings in which such activities are carried out ideal for the application
of combined heat and power. As it is essential that more processing is
uninterrupted, the additional security to power supplies afforded by
CHP is an advantage.
Modern mail-sorting and distribution operations are highly mechanised
and centralised processes. Typically the buildings are similar to large
2
warehouses, with an overall floor area of around 20 000 m comprising a
large sorting hall, distribution warehouse, and a variety of offices and staff
facilities. Generally, such sites have a road traffic workshop.

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Table 12: CHP details at mail centre in Peterborough.
Customer Tilbury Douglas

Engineer National Design Consultancy, Colchester
System supplier Aircogen, Peterborough
CHP model air-CHP
Fuel Natural gas
Heat 964 kW (air), 300 kW (water)
Electrical 432 kW
First use October 1995
Figure 35: Peterborough mail centre.
Early experience with CHP at Royal Mail

Over a number of years, Royal Mail has installed CHP in both new and
existing buildings with varying degrees of success. In some instances,
there was a gap between the expectations of Royal Mail and the
capability of the installed CHP systems.
For a building with a completely seasonal heat load and only nominal
domestic hot water needs, the CHP system has to be able to dump some
or all of the recovered heat when the demand reduces. Royal Mail also
wish to safeguard their operational effectiveness, and standby generation
is therefore incorporated into their key buildings as standard.
CHP was seen as an opportunity to improve on the standby generator

principle, providing that sufficient generating capacity could be installed
for operation of the building during mains failure. Where small CHP
generators were installed or no dump system was provided, the benefit to
Royal Mail was limited.
Peterborough mail centre

At a relatively late stage of the design process for the Peterborough Mail
Centre, Royal Mail Anglia were introduced to the air-CHP concept.
However, it was evident to the energy manager and the design team that
this form of CHP was capable of being configured to match their wider
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POST-INSTALLATION AUDITS 8
needs more closely. It was decided to redesign the system to incorporate

air-CHP.
The justification was made on the basis of complete replacement of the

standby generator for the site, the main sorting hall air handling plant,
and a large portion of the boiler capacity in favour of two air-CHP units.
These would be capable of providing 432 kWe and over 1000 kW of
heat, of which up to 300 kW could be LTHW. Of the 432 kWe,
approximately 50 kWe was used within the air-CHP system to drive the
fans and pumps (marginally more than the same devices would absorb in
conventional systems). Physically, the equipment would occupy more
plantroom space than the air handling systems displaced, but the offset
savings in boiler room and standby generator facilities balanced this.
At approximately 20 tonnes per unit, care was exercised in ensuring that

the mass was properly applied to the main structure of the second floor
plantroom, and that noise and vibration transmission to the occupied
spaces below were minimised.
Objectives for air-CHP

The design objectives of air-CHP for the Peterborough Mail Centre
were to:
Provide the peak air heat input to the sorting hall.

Supply any excess heat capacity as LTHW for distributed use.
Generate 80-85 percent of the buildings electrical power
requirements.
Operate through mains power failures, with the assistance of a
computerised load-shedding system.
Achieve high availability against an agreed target of 95 percent.
In addition, it was necessary to ensure that exhaust condensate was

neutralised before discharge to drain. Approximately 60 percent of the
water portion of the products of combustion is extracted by the
condensing exhaust gas heat-exchanger in winter. This equates to more
than 15 tonnes per day of water at pH 33 (highly acidic) which could
not be discharged into the main drainage system.
Rating of air-CHP against building load

The advantage of a multi-site operator in designing a new building is the
wealth of accumulated information from previous designs. It was with
some confidence that the rating requirements of the air-CHP system
were determined from operating experience on a similar building in
Romford, Essex, albeit modified to reflect the construction, location and
configuration of the Peterborough Mail Centre.
As the only source of heat into the sorting hall, the air-CHP system had
to provide for the peak heating demand in this area. However, as the
building is rarely completely inoperative, the rating could be tempered as
there was unlikely to be a frequent need for warm-up from cold. The
design load of 730 kW for the sorting hall left a balance of 300 kW
which could be exported from the air-CHP system in the form of

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LTHW for use in the kitchen, dining room, workshop and adjacent
areas. In the light of experience, further uses have been found for the
under-utilised LTHW capacity from the air-CHP system, specifically for
the supply of new door air-curtains over the main direct accesses to the
sorting hall.
Though the building would rarely meet a warm-up situation, such

conditions are unlikely to coincide with a high demand for the electrical
output of the plant, and consequently a lower heating capacity from the
CHP system. A simple measure was introduced to counter these adverse
circumstances. By installing electric heaters in the air-CHP outlet to the
building, an effective boost heating system was provided. For every
kilowatt of electric heating switched on with the CHP generator at less
than full load, more than 3 kW of heat becomes available to the system.
With an electrical heating capacity of 200 kW at Peterborough, a boost
heat input to the building of 1230 kW is achieved. As the building
electrical load rises, or when temperatures are satisfied, the boost heaters
are progressively switched off.
The building has an additional 1900 kW of heating capacity installed in

the form of boiler capacity for office accommodation and the workshop,
and radiant heating for the distribution warehouse.
A more critical match for the air-CHP system was to provide adequate
power generation to meet the requirement for a no-break power supply.
With a heat-to-power ratio of greater than 2:1 (because of the high peak
efficiency achieved by air-CHP) the maximum system output, based on
the portion of building heating capacity supplied, was 432 kW. The air-
CHP system output was also limited in part by the space constraints of
the plantroom designed for alternative systems.
The building connected load is 1200 kW. With a diversity of 50 percent

or more based on experience, the peak running load was anticipated to
be between 500 and 600 kW, falling to around 300 kW at minimum
demand. The air-CHP system would therefore provide something less
than 80 percent of the peak demand, but would supply around 85
percent of the total buildings electrical needs.
Design integration
The air-CHP system interfaces with the building services installation at
more points than conventional CHP systems producing hot water. The
integration into the design of the building of the air-CHP system
therefore needs to be done at the earliest possible stage.
As it replaces an air handling plant of similar function, the air-side

integration to return, supply, exhaust and fresh air ducting is relatively
simple. However, the air-CHP plant is larger than its equivalent air
handling unit (ahu), therefore plantroom space imposes limitations on
duct system design.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
Water systems are also simplified, in that the LTHW is circulated from
the air-CHP rather than to the equivalent ahu. This results in fewer
circuits.
Electrical integration is more complex. The standby generator

changeover switch is eliminated, and the air-CHP system takes control of
the main breaker through a G59 panel incorporating the protection
equipment required by the embedded generation regulations. In
addition to monitoring the mains for fault conditions, the G59 system
controls the import of power to the site, and provides resynchronisation
of the site on return of mains power after failure.
With an installed capacity (maximum continuous rating) of 432 kWe,

which gives a one hour rating of 475 kWe operating against a building
load of 600 kWe or more at times, it is essential that load is shed at the
instant of power failure to ensure continued operation of the CHP
generators. However, over-shedding of load can be as harmful as
overloading the generators. For this reason (and to provide maximum
functionality of the building in the event of mains failure) a computer
controlled load-shedding system was employed which constantly
monitors the status and condition of both air-CHP units and the mains.
The buildings low voltage distribution boards and individual breakers are
prioritised in a load table held within the computer, and varied during
the day to reflect changes in the importance of operating functions. At
the instant of mains failure, the system knows both the value of the
imported load, and the capacity available from the CHP system, and
immediately sheds the lower priority loads to match the generating
capacity.
Figure 36: Electrical connection schematic.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
Figure 37: Gas connection schematic.
Limitations of the Peterborough installation

The principal limitation of the installation is the lack of integration with
other building heating systems. When the air-CHP system has satisfied
heat demand in the areas, to which it is dedicated, the excess heat output
is dumped to atmosphere. Meanwhile, other heating devices are
operating to satisfy the needs of their dedicated areas. Some of this
inflexibility is being addressed by the extension and linking of the
LTHW output from the CHP system to other areas. However, the
installed capacity of 300 kW will easily be absorbed, and will show only a
small increase in overall operating efficiency of the system.
Electrically, the system operates at full load for over 80 percent of the
time, and rarely falls to less than 75 percent of its rated output. If
combined with wider distribution of the heat output, a larger system
would be economically viable. In addition, the introduction of a new
generation of sorting machines will increase the power demand on the
building, and at the same time reduce the heat input requirement to the
sorting hall. It is even considered likely that the higher machine loads
will require air cooling to be installed for summer use.
Operating experience of the first 12 months

The major achievement was in the reliability of the system, which
achieved an availability of 98 percent for the first year. This is made
possible by introducing measures to improve the quality of engine
lubrication into the design of air-CHP, allowing service intervals to be
extended to 2000 h, and minimising the time to carry out services.
However, subsequent premature failures of engine components have
forced a more cautious approach to the servicing of these particular units.
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An average operating efficiency of 563 percent was recorded for the

system for the whole operating year. The calculation of energy
efficiency is carried out continuously by the monitoring system, and is
based on the metered fuel input and electrical output, calculation of the
heat input to the air and water systems, and a balance against the dumped
air heat and flue gas residual energy. Care is taken to avoid double
counting of the energy input via fan and pump drive motors by
measuring temperatures before these devices. One area where there may
be a small overstatement of heat recovery is into the fresh air entering the
building. As the heat energy is always available, at times the effect of the
air-CHP system is to introduce more fresh air into the building than
would be required by the winter design condition. The heat input to
this additional fresh air is included in the efficiency calculation, and it is
arguably an advantage to the building to induce a higher fresh air rate
thereby improving the internal air quality.
Figure 38 shows the system efficiency on a daily basis with a high of 88

percent, and a summer low of around 34 percent of which 31 percent
would be attributable to power generation. Figure 39 (overleaf) indicates
the use to which the energy was put each week, with a fairly constant
rate of power production and seasonal heat requirement. The July dip in
the power output was due to the loss of one unit for four days through
failure of the motorised synchronising breaker.
Figure 38: Daily efficiency in the first year of operation.

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Figure 39: Weekly energy use in the first year of operation.
An extraordinary number of G59 events arose during the first twelve

months. The system disconnected from the mains on 23 occasions,
power-off times ranging from less than one minute to eight hours. Just
over half were minor mains spikes which caused disconnection only for
the required resynchronisation time, and only one, coincident with the
loss of the CHP breaker, caused loss of the CHP system.
Figure 40: First year cost savings, net of maintenance.
The final, and most important, indication of a successful installation is the

energy savings achieved by the building. These are best measured as cost
savings, which are used to justify and ultimately pay for the additional
capital cost of the system. As can be seen from Figure 40 the savings
exceeded those anticipated in every operating month. These savings are
net of system maintenance costs, which, for air-CHP, include
replacement of air filters and the servicing of fans and other airstream
components. The factors, which made these savings possible include
lower than budgeted gas costs, helped by a higher generating efficiency
than anticipated, and by the high availability achieved by the system.
BSRIA BG 2/2007
As a result of the improved performance, the estimated simple payback

for the system has reduced to less than three years from an initial 36
years. The installation was estimated to have cost approximately
300 000 more than a conventional heating system.
Absorption refrigeration economic factors

Sorting halls need to be cooled to maintain operating reliability of
modern mail sorting machines through the hottest summer periods.
However, the most intense operating period for the Mail Centre is from
early evening through to the early hours of the morning. Cooling may
therefore be needed for a longer period than in many buildings.
Absorption refrigeration, if correctly sized, can be a viable addition to the
CHP system.
The anticipated simple payback for the air-CHP system at Royal Mail is
calculated at between three and four years. The addition of an
absorption system extends the payback to between five and six years.
There is a high cost attached to the absorption equipment. The use of

engine jacket water at 95C limits the output of the absorption machine
to about 66 percent of its capacity. In other words, to achieve its
optimum performance the absorption chiller must be oversized. A
reluctance to use cooling towers limits the available cooling water
temperature to the chiller, which in turn further de-rates the output, and
also reduces the COP of the unit. To maximise performance from the
available heat and meet these criterion the absorption chiller will be
operating at 41 percent of its design duty.
While considered as a complete CHP/absorption system, the achieved

payback may be acceptable. However, it is common to isolate the
system components to assess their individual benefit; when this is done,
up to 10 years may pass before the savings are realised from the
absorption system.
Figure 41: CHP at Royal Mail Peterborough.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
The air-CHP system comprises two units designed to provide 75-80

percent of the peak electrical load of the building, and to heat the main
sorting hall and adjacent office and staff accommodation. Each CHP unit
has accumulated in excess of 35 000 h. A feature of the system is the first
application of a no-break supply to a Royal Mail building. Operating in
conjunction with a computer-controlled power through mains
interruptions, the system ensures no disruption to the complex mail
sorting and handling processes.
Emissions
Emission measurements taken from both units (200 kWe each) are
shown below. It should be noted that the engines installed on this site
are old and hence the emissions are higher when compared to newer
engines.
Table 13: Emissions from the Royal Mail CHP units at Peterborough.
CHP unit NOx (ppm) CO2 (%) O2 (%) CO (ppm)

Unit 1
5376 98 37 232
200 kWe
Unit 2
5633 94 44 318
200 kWe
The table below is presented as a comparison on emissions from a newer

engine. This data was recorded from a Perkins 4008 TESi engine
installed at Royal Mail in Greenford.
Table 14: Emissions from Royal Mail CHP units at Greenford.
CHP unit NOx (ppm) CO2 (%) O2 (%) CO (ppm)
Unit 1 400
130 66 92 488
kWe
8.3 ST MATTHEWS, Background

LEICESTER Leicester City Council set a target of halving energy usage and CO2
emissions by the year 2025. To achieve this goal, it formed a
partnership with PowerGen Energy Solutions to develop a CHP
scheme. In this scheme CHP units were retrofitted in existing
community heating schemes in the Councils estates.
One of these estates was St Matthews Estate, which contained over 800
dwellings, a day centre, sports centre, shops, a school, and an old peoples
home. They were served by the community-heating scheme, which
provided heat for the space heating and domestic hot water requirements
of the dwellings and other buildings. Leicester City Council owned most
of the dwellings and some were owner-occupied.
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Table 15: CHP details at St Matthews.
Customer Leicester City Council

Consultants PowerGen Energy Solutions
System supplier PowerGen Energy Solutions
CHP model Perkins Reciprocating Engine
Fuel Natural gas
Heat kW 950
Electrical kW 600
First use 1997
CHP scheme
PowerGen Energy Solutions designed, supplied, installed and
commissioned the CHP scheme as a turnkey operation in 1997 at a cost
of around 430 000. This included 55 000 for the upgrade of a
substation. The community heating scheme was served by boilers and a
600 kWe reciprocating engine CHP that provides 950 kW heat output.
The scheme benefited from a grant from the Energy Saving Trust.
PowerGen undertook to finance the project along with long-term

monitoring, maintenance and repair, Leicester City Council was charged
a fixed price per unit of electricity generated by the plant. This
arrangement eliminated the uncertainties related to maintenance and
repair budgets. The occupants of dwellings were charged a flat rate for
heat based on the type of dwelling connected. For example, flats were
charged less on a pro-rata basis than houses.
Since commissioning the unit has operated successfully, providing a high

level of performance. In 2000 the CHP operated for around 5000 h and
produced annual cost savings of around 90 450. The savings were used
to repay the capital cost of the scheme and provide the buildings on the
community heating scheme with lower heating costs.
Thermal output from the CHP unit was fed into a wet system, served by
a central boiler house, to meet residents heating and hot water needs.
The heating system employed medium-pressure hot water, which was
delivered by the CHP unit to the buildings at a temperature of up to
120C.
Only a small proportion of the electricity generated was consumed by

landlord services, such as for pumping water. Most of the electricity
generated was exported across the Distribution Network Operators
system to other premises owned by Leicester City Council in other parts
of the city. Leicester City Council had an electricity supply contract
which provided top-up electricity to these buildings when the total
demand exceeds that provided by the CHP unit. To distinguish the
exported electricity from any other electricity at the point of
consumption, half-hourly metering was installed at all relevant premises
both on the estate and elsewhere in the city. The readings from the
import meters were electronically reconciled with the export readings of
energy generated by the CHP plant to ensure correct billing.

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The CHP scheme was certified by the CHPQA programme, and hence
it qualified for Climate Change Levy (CCL) exemption which provided
an economic benefit to Leicester City Council. It was estimated that in
the financial year 2001/2002 the savings increased by a further 13 000
as the CHP displaced electricity that would otherwise have been
imported from a public electricity supplier and liable for CCL. Leicester
City Council invested the income from the electricity generation in
energy efficiency measures within the housing stock.
The gas for the CHP (and the top-up boilers) was purchased by Leicester
City Council through a gas supply contract. It was an interruptible tariff
and gave a lower unit rate (p/kWh). Powergen Energy Services was
responsible for the maintenance of the unit.
8.4 WHITEABBEY Figure 42: Whiteabbey Hospital, Northern Ireland.

HOSPITAL,
NORTHERN
IRELAND
The estates office at the Whiteabbey Hospital in Northern Ireland put

forward a proposal for installation of a combined heat and power unit on
the grounds of energy cost savings and environmental benefits. The
electricity consumption of the hospital was in the region of 15 GWh. A
feasibility study concluded that a 167 kWe CHP unit could operate with
good economic advantage at the site. The contract was put out to tender
and Nedalo was selected to supply the unit. The gas-fired Nedalo 167
kWe CHP unit operates for 3111 h/y, giving 95 percent availability.
This leads to an efficiency of 8036 percent.
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Figure 43: CHP installation at Whiteabbey Hospital, Northern Ireland.
The CHP unit was integrated with the hospitals existing electrical and
heating systems in a way as to ensure maximum economic benefit. The
availability of natural gas in the area provided the opportunity to convert
13 of the independent boiler houses on the site from gas-oil fired to
natural gas firing. This provided even greater environmental and cost
saving benefits. The CHP unit operates in parallel with the mains
electricity supply, allowing the deficit between the site demand and the
CHP output to be imported from the grid. This ensures the security of
the electricity supply if the CHP unit fails.
The heat output from the CHP unit is in the form of low-pressure hot
water at 80C. This is fed directly into the common low-pressure hot
water return header. The control strategy employed is configured to
define the CHP unit as the lead source of thermal energy, thereby
minimising the amount of fossil fuel used by the boiler plant. During the
summer months (and other periods of low heating and hot water
demand) some of the thermal energy from the CHP unit is dissipated to
the atmosphere via an air blast radiator. Overall, this wasted thermal
energy has no significant effect on the overall energy, environmental and
economic benefits that the CHP unit offers.
Taking fuel costs into account, the installation of the CHP unit, together
with the boiler conversions, provided an overall net cost saving of
50 000 a year compared with the previous energy procurement
arrangements. This saving provides a very short payback. The
installation of the CHP unit along with the boiler conversions, have
enabled the Whiteabbey Hospital to have the best energy performance of
any acute hospital in Northern Ireland.

BSRIA BG 2/2007
8.5 HEATHROW Figure 44: The Heathrow Marriott Hotel.

MARRIOTT HOTEL
The hotel industry is highly suited to the application of combined heat

and power due to the constant demand for hot water, warm or cool air,
and high levels of electricity. The Heathrow Marriott Hotel is one of
the Marriott chain of hotels. The first combined heat and power units
were installed at a Marriott hotel over four years ago. The efficiency of
this unit, and other units installed later, convinced the chain to continue
to use CHP.
The CHP installation included a gas-fired Nedalo 400 kWe engine. This
reduced the carbon dioxide emissions by 30 percent and the electricity
consumption by 25 percent. The CHP system installed at the Heathrow
Marriott hotel gives an estimated energy saving of 223 MWh a year of
electricity and 340 MWh a year thermal. This gives an overall cost
saving in excess of 43 000 and an annual reduction of 2482 tons of
CO2.
BSRIA BG 2/2007

CHP For Existing Buildings Guidance On Design and Installation

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A BSRIA Guide www.bsria.co.

CHP for Existing Buildings

Guidance on design and installation

BG 2-2007 covers WITH SPINE.p65 3 01/11/2007, 15:57

Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. (Formally

This publication has been produced by BSRIA as part of a contract

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

05/12/07 CHP FOR Existing Buildings BSRIA BG 2/2007

2 FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN 4

3 THERMAL INTERFACING OF CHP PLANT 7

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

05/12/07 CHP FOR Existing Buildings BSRIA BG 2/2007

Table 1: Technical and operational constraints and solutions 4

Figure 1: Typical Gas Engine CHP (courtesy of Brotherhood Air

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

Figure 21: Installation of two 407 kWe AirCogen air-CHP units at

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

05/12/07 CHP FOR Existing Buildings BSRIA BG 2/2007

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

Combined Heat and Power (CHP), also known as co-generation, is the

Micro CHP: <5 kWe

Reciprocating engines (see Figure 1) dominate the smaller end of the

In the pass-out condensing system, some of the steam is extracted at an

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 1

Figure 1: Typical Gas Engine CHP (courtesy of Brotherhood Air Cogen).

In addition to the environmental and energy benefits, CHP systems are

2 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

when retrofitting existing installations. The solutions that are presented

While this publication provides guidance on the retrofitting of small-scale

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 3

2 FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN

Table 1: Technical and operational constraints and solutions.

4 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 5

6 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

3 THERMAL INTERFACING OF CHP PLANT

Characteristics of common heating systems

Problems associated with CHP often arise due to the lack of

The characteristics of the most common heating systems are illustrated in

Several systems can be a mixture of two-way and three-way valve

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 7

Figure 2: Examples of the most common types of heating systems.

2 PMV - two port modulating valve

A - two-pipe system with a two-way valve

Table 2 illustrates the return temperature from a modulated three-way

Table 2: Effect of two-way and three-way valve control.

For flow temperature of 80C Heat emitter load

Load 100% 75% 50% 25% 0%

Flow (three-way control) 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

With a variable-flow system using a two-way modulating valve,

Flow (two-way modulating control) 100% 4286% 2083% 909% 0%

8 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

If a CHP unit is to provide its full output to a circuit using three-way

Three-port valves normally cause sub-optimum CHP operation and

For an example of a fully variable-flow two-way valve heating circuit

CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS 9

Depending on its source and composition, natural gas has different

It is recommended that all efficiencies be based on the gross or higher

Usual arrangements by package suppliers are to maintain the return

A common problem is CHP units tripping out on high jacket

Rejecting heat to atmosphere is undesirable but may be necessary in

10 CHP FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

Speed 1500 Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) 1770 bar