Exoplanet

planetary systems, conrmed detections.[4]

HARPS (since 2004) has discovered about a hundred ex-
oplanets while the Kepler space telescope (since 2009)
has found more than two thousand. Kepler has also
detected a few thousand[5][6] candidate planets,[7][8] of
which about 11% may be false positives.[9] On aver-
age, there is at least one planet per star, with a percent-
age having multiple planets.[10] About 1 in 5 Sun-like
stars[lower-alpha 1] have an "Earth-sized[lower-alpha 2] planet
in the habitable zone.[lower-alpha 3] Assuming there are 200
billion stars in the Milky Way,[lower-alpha 4] one can hypoth-
esize that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-
Artists
impression of how commonly planets orbit the stars in sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if plan-
the Milky Way[1] ets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included.[11]
The least massive planet known is Draugr (also known
as PSR B1257+12 A or PSR B1257+12 b), which is
about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive
planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-
P J082303.1-491201 b,[12][13] about 29 times the mass
of Jupiter, although according to some denitions of a
planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a
brown dwarf instead. There are planets that are so near
to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and
there are others so far away that they take thousands of
years to orbit. Some are so far out that it is dicult to
Discovered
exoplanets each year as of March 8, 2017 tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star.
Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the
Milky Way, but there have also been a few possible de-
tections of extragalactic planets. The nearest exoplanet is
Proxima Centauri b, located 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs)
from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri, the closest
star to the Sun.[14]
The discovery of exoplanets has intensied interest in the
search for extraterrestrial life. There is special interest in
Size
planets that orbit in a stars habitable zone, where it is pos-
comparison of Jupiter and the exoplanet TrES-3b. sible for liquid water, a prerequisite for life on Earth, to
TrES-3b has an orbital period of only 31 hours[2] and is exist on the surface. The study of planetary habitability
classied as a Hot Jupiter for being large and close to its also considers a wide range of other factors in determin-
star, making it one of the easiest planets to detect by the ing the suitability of a planet for hosting life.[15]
transit method.
Besides exoplanets, there are also rogue planets, which do
not orbit any star and which tend to be considered sepa-
An exoplanet (UK: /ek.spln.t/, US: rately, especially if they are gas giants, in which case they
/ek.sopln.t/)[3] or extrasolar planet is a planet are often counted, like WISE 08550714, as sub-brown
outside of our solar system that orbits a star. The dwarfs.[16] The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly
rst scientic detection of an exoplanet was in 1988. number in the billions (or more).[17][18]
However, the rst conrmed detection came in 1992;
since then, and as of 1 May 2017, there have been 3,608
exoplanets, in 2,702 planetary systems and 610 multiple

1
2 2 HISTORY OF DETECTION

1 Nomenclature In 1952, more than 40 years before the rst hot Jupiter
was discovered, Otto Struve wrote that there is no com-
Main article: Exoplanet naming convention pelling reason why planets could not be much closer to
their parent star than is the case in the Solar System,
and proposed that Doppler spectroscopy and the transit
The convention for designating exoplanets is an exten- method could detect super-Jupiters in short orbits.[24]
sion of the system used for designating multiple-star sys-
tems as adopted by the International Astronomical Union
(IAU). For exoplanets orbiting a single star, the designa-
tion is normally formed by taking the name or, more com-
monly, designation of its parent star and adding a lower
2.2 Discredited claims
case letter.[19] The rst planet discovered in a system is
given the designation b (the parent star is considered to
be a) and later planets are given subsequent letters. If Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since
several planets in the same system are discovered at the the nineteenth century. Some of the earliest involve the
same time, the closest one to the star gets the next let- binary star 70 Ophiuchi. In 1855 William Stephen Ja-
ter, followed by the other planets in order of orbital size. cob at the East India Company's Madras Observatory re-
A provisional IAU-sanctioned standard exists to accom- ported that orbital anomalies made it highly probable
modate the designation of circumbinary planets. A lim- that there was a planetary body in this system.[25] In
ited number of exoplanets have IAU-sanctioned proper the 1890s, Thomas J. J. See of the University of Chicago
names. Other naming systems exist. and the United States Naval Observatory stated that the
orbital anomalies proved the existence of a dark body in
the 70 Ophiuchi system with a 36-year period around
one of the stars.[26] However, Forest Ray Moulton pub-
2 History of detection lished a paper proving that a three-body system with
those orbital parameters would be highly unstable.[27]
For centuries scientists, philosophers and science ction During the 1950s and 1960s, Peter van de Kamp of
writers suspected that extrasolar planets existed,[20] but Swarthmore College made another prominent series of
there was no way of detecting them or of knowing their detection claims, this time for planets orbiting Barnards
frequency or how similar they might be to the planets of Star.[28] Astronomers now generally regard all the early
the Solar System. Various detection claims made in the reports of detection as erroneous.[29]
nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers. The In 1991 Andrew Lyne, M. Bailes and S. L. Shemar
rst scientic detection of an exoplanet began in 1988. claimed to have discovered a pulsar planet in orbit around
However, the rst conrmed detection came in 1992, PSR 1829-10, using pulsar timing variations.[30] The
with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets or- claim briey received intense attention, but Lyne and his
biting the pulsar PSR B1257+12.[21] The rst conrma- team soon retracted it.[31]
tion of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was
made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four-day
orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi. Some exoplanets
have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast ma-
jority have been detected through indirect methods, such
as the transit method and the radial-velocity method. 2.3 Conrmed discoveries

Main article: Discoveries of exoplanets

2.1 Early speculations See also: List of exoplanet rsts

In the sixteenth century the Italian philosopher Giordano

Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that
Earth and other planets orbit the Sun (heliocentrism), put
forward the view that the xed stars are similar to the Sun
and are likewise accompanied by planets.
In the eighteenth century the same possibility was men-
tioned by Isaac Newton in the "General Scholium" that
concludes his Principia. Making a comparison to the
Suns planets, he wrote And if the xed stars are the The three
centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed known planets of the star HR8799, as imaged by the
according to a similar design and subject to the dominion Hale Telescope. The light from the central star was
of One.[23] blanked out by a vector vortex coronagraph.
2.4 Candidate discoveries 3

ery was conrmed, and is generally considered to be the

rst denitive detection of exoplanets. Follow-up obser-
vations solidied these results, and conrmation of a third
planet in 1994 revived the topic in the popular press.[36]
These pulsar planets are thought to have formed from the
unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pul-
sar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be
the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that somehow sur-
2MASS vived the supernova and then decayed into their current
J044144 is a brown dwarf with a companion about 510 orbits.
times the mass of Jupiter. It is not clear whether this
On 6 October 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz
companion object is a sub-brown dwarf or a planet.
of the University of Geneva announced the rst deni-
tive detection of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence
star, namely the nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi.[37][38] This
discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence,
ushered in the modern era of exoplanetary discovery.
Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution
spectroscopy, led to the rapid detection of many new ex-
oplanets: astronomers could detect exoplanets indirectly
by measuring their gravitational inuence on the motion
of their host stars. More extrasolar planets were later de-
tected by observing the variation in a stars apparent lu-
minosity as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
Initially, most known exoplanets were massive planets
Coronagraphic that orbited very close to their parent stars. Astronomers
image of AB Pictoris showing a companion (bottom were surprised by these "hot Jupiters", because theories
left), which is either a brown dwarf or a massive planet. of planetary formation had indicated that giant planets
The data was obtained on 16 March 2003 with NACO should only form at large distances from stars. But even-
on the VLT, using a 1.4 arcsec occulting mask on top of tually more planets of other sorts were found, and it is
AB Pictoris. now clear that hot Jupiters make up the minority of exo-
planets. In 1999, Upsilon Andromedae became the rst
main-sequence star known to have multiple planets.[39]
As of 1 May 2017, a total of 3,608 conrmed exoplan-
Kepler-16 contains the rst discovered planet that orbits
ets are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, in-
around a binary main-sequence star system.[40]
cluding a few that were conrmations of controversial
claims from the late 1980s.[4] The rst published discov- On 26 February 2014, NASA announced the discov-
ery to receive subsequent conrmation was made in 1988 ery of 715 newly veried exoplanets around 305 stars
by the Canadian astronomers Bruce Campbell, G. A. H. by the Kepler Space Telescope. These exoplanets were
Walker, and Stephenson Yang of the University of Victo- checked using a statistical technique called verication
ria and the University of British Columbia.[32] Although by multiplicity.[41][42][43] Prior to these results, most con-
they were cautious about claiming a planetary detection, rmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to
their radial-velocity observations suggested that a planet Jupiter or larger as they are more easily detected, but the
orbits the star Gamma Cephei. Partly because the ob- Kepler planets are mostly between the size of Neptune
servations were at the very limits of instrumental capa- and the size of Earth.[41]
bilities at the time, astronomers remained skeptical for On 23 July 2015, NASA announced Kepler-452b, a near-
several years about this and other similar observations. It Earth-size planet orbiting the habitable zone of a G2-type
was thought some of the apparent planets might instead star.[44]
have been brown dwarfs, objects intermediate in mass
between planets and stars. In 1990 additional observa-
tions were published that supported the existence of the
planet orbiting Gamma Cephei,[33] but subsequent work
in 1992 again raised serious doubts.[34] Finally, in 2003,
improved techniques allowed the planets existence to be 2.4 Candidate discoveries
conrmed.[35]
On 9 January 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wol- As of March 2014, NASAs Kepler mission had iden-
szczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two tied more than 2,900 planetary candidates, several of
planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12.[21] This discov- them being nearly Earth-sized and located in the habit-
able zone, some around Sun-like stars.[5][6][45]
4 5
Kepler mission new exoplanet candidates as of 23 July
2015.[46]
3 Methodology
The rst exoplanet was detected on 6 October 1995, and
was named 51 Pegasi b.[47] When an extrasolar planet is
observed to transit their parent star, astronomers are able
to assess some physical properties of the planet from an
interstellar distance, including planetary mass and size,
which in turn provide fundamental constraints on models
of their physical structure.[48] Furthermore, such events
aord the opportunity to study the dynamics and chem-
istry of its atmosphere.[48]
Statistical surveys and individual characterization are
the keys to addressing the fundamental questions in
exoplanetology.[49] As of August 2016, varying tech-
niques have been used to discover 3,502 exoplanets.[50]
Documenting the properties of a large sample exoplan-
ets at various ages, orbiting their parent stars of various
types, will contribute to increased understanding or
better models of planetary formation (accretion), ge-
ological evolution, orbit migration,[49][51] and their po-
tential habitability.[52] Characterizing the atmospheres of
extrasolar planets is the new frontier in exoplanetary
science.[53]
3.1 Detection techniques
Main article: Methods of detecting exoplanets
About 97% of all the conrmed exoplanets have been
discovered by indirect techniques of detection, mainly
by radial velocity measurements and transit monitoring
techniques.[52] The following methods have proved suc-
cessful for discovering a new planet or conrming an al-
ready discovered planet:[54]
Radial velocity
Gravitational microlensing
Direct imaging
PLANET-HOSTING STARS
Polarimetry
Astrometry
Transit photometry
Reection/emission modulations
Light variations due to relativistic beaming
Light variations due to ellipsoidal variations
Timing variations
Pulsar timing
variable star timing
Transit timing variation method
Transit duration variation method
Eclipsing binary minima timing
4 Formation and evolution
See also: Accretion (astrophysics), Nebular hypothesis,
and Planetary migration
Planets form within a few tens of millions of years of their
star forming,[55][56][57] and there are stars that are form-
ing today and other stars that are ten billion years old, so
unlike the planets of the Solar System, which can only
be observed as they are today, studying exoplanets allows
the observation of exoplanets at dierent stages of evo-
lution. When planets form they have hydrogen envelopes
that cool and contract over time and, depending on the
mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen is even-
tually lost to space. This means that even terrestrial plan-
ets can start o with large radii.[58][59][60] An example is
Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth
but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times
the mass of Earth. Kepler-51b is quite young at a few
hundred million years old.[61]
5 Planet-hosting stars
Main article: Planetary system Planet-hosting stars
There is at least one planet on average per star.[10]
The Morgan-Keenan spectral classication
About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars[lower-alpha 1] have an Earth-
sized[lower-alpha 2] planet in the habitable zone.[63]
6.1 Color and brightness 5

Artists impression of exoplanet orbiting two stars.[62]

Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the

Sun, i.e. main-sequence stars of spectral categories F, G,
or K. Lower-mass stars (red dwarfs, of spectral category This colorcolor diagram compares the colors of planets in the
M) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be de- Solar System to exoplanet HD 189733b. The exoplanets deep
tected by the radial-velocity method.[64][65] Despite this, blue color is produced by silicate droplets, which scatter blue light
several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been dis- in its atmosphere.
covered by the Kepler spacecraft, which uses the transit
method to detect smaller planets.
Stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun are more
likely to have planets, especially giant planets, than stars
with lower metallicity.[66] is TrES-2b, a hot Jupiter that reects less than 1% of the
light from its star, making it less reective than coal or
Some planets orbit one member of a binary star
black acrylic paint. Hot Jupiters are expected to be quite
system,[67] and several circumbinary planets have been
dark due to sodium and potassium in their atmospheres
discovered which orbit around both members of binary
[68] but it is not known why TrES-2b is so darkit could be
star. A few planets in triple star systems are known
due to an unknown chemical.[74][75][76]
and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64.
For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with
increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless
there are clouds to modify this eect. Increased cloud-
6 General features column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths,
but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical
6.1 Color and brightness albedo increases with age, because older planets have
higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases
See also: Sudarskys gas giant classication with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant plan-
In 2013 the color of an exoplanet was determined for ets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower
the rst time. The best-t albedo measurements of HD cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause
189733b suggest that it is deep dark blue.[69][70] major uctuations in atmospheric composition, which
[71] can have a signicant eect.[77]
Visually, GJ 504 b would have a magenta color.
There is more thermal emission than reection at some
Kappa Andromedae b, if seen up close, would appear near-infrared wavelengths for massive and/or young gas
reddish in color.[72] giants. So, although optical brightness is fully phase-
The apparent brightness (apparent magnitude) of a planet dependent, this is not always the case in the near
depends on how far away the observer is, how reective infrared.[77]
the planet is (albedo), and how much light the planet re- Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with
ceives from its star, which depends on how far the planet distance from their star. Lowering the temperature in-
is from the star and how bright the star is. So, a planet creases optical albedo even without clouds. At a su-
with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear ciently low temperature, water clouds form, which fur-
brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from ther increase optical albedo. At even lower temperatures
the star.[73] ammonia clouds form, resulting in the highest albedos at
The darkest known planet in terms of geometric albedo most optical and near-infrared wavelengths.[77]
6 6 GENERAL FEATURES

6.2 Magnetic eld thermal emissions.[93][94]

In 2014, a magnetic eld around HD 209458 b was in-

ferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the 6.5 Rings
planet. It is the rst (indirect) detection of a magnetic
eld on an exoplanet. The magnetic eld is estimated to The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6 is orbited by an
be about one tenth as strong as Jupiters.[78][79] object that is circled by a ring system much larger than
Saturns rings. However, the mass of the object is not
Interaction between a close-in planets magnetic eld and
known; it could be a brown dwarf or low-mass star instead
a star can produce spots on the star in a similar way to
of a planet.[95][96]
how the Galilean moons produce aurorae on Jupiter.[80]
Auroral radio emissions could be detected with radio The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could
telescopes such as LOFAR.[81][82] The radio emissions be due to starlight reecting o a circumplanetary ring
could enable determination of the rotation rate of a planet system with a radius between 20 and 40 times that of
which is dicult to detect otherwise.[83] Jupiters radius, about the size of the orbits of the Galilean
moons.[97]
Earths magnetic eld results from its owing liquid
metallic core, but in massive super-Earths with high pres- The rings of the Solar Systems gas giants are aligned with
sure, dierent compounds may form which do not match their planets equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit
those created under terrestrial conditions. Compounds close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead
may form with greater viscosities and high melting tem- to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the
peratures which could prevent the interiors from sepa- planets orbital plane around the star. A planets inner-
rating into dierent layers and so result in undierenti- most rings would still be aligned with the planets equa-
ated coreless mantles. Forms of magnesium oxide such tor so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then
as MgSi3 O12 could be a liquid metal at the pressures and the dierent alignments between the inner and outer rings
[98]
temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a would create a warped ring system.
[84][85]
magnetic eld in the mantles of super-Earths.
Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius 6.6 Moons
than expected. This could be caused by the interaction
between the stellar wind and the planets magnetosphere In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet
creating an electric current through the planet that heats it was announced.[99] No exomoons have been conrmed so
up causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a far.
star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the elec-
tric current leading to more heating and expansion of the
planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar 6.7 Atmospheres
activity is correlated with inated planetary radii.[86]
Main article: Exoplanet atmosphere

6.3 Plate tectonics

Atmospheres have been detected around several exo-
In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to planets. The rst to be observed was HD 209458 b in
[100]
opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tec- 2001.
tonics on larger super-Earths[87][88] with one team saying KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet, very close to its
that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant[89] and star, that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud
the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on and dust like a comet.[101] The dust could be ash erupting
super-Earths even if the planet is dry.[90] from volcanos and escaping due to the small planets low
If super-Earths have more than 80 times as much water as surface-gravity, or it could be from metals that are vapor-
Earth then they become ocean planets with all land com- ized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star
[102]
pletely submerged. However, if there is less water than with the metal vapor then condensing into dust.
this limit, then the deep water cycle will move enough In June 2015, scientists reported that the atmosphere
water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents of GJ 436 b was evaporating, resulting in a giant cloud
to exist.[91][92] around the planet and, due to radiation from the host star,
a long trailing tail 14106 km (9106 mi) long.[103]

6.4 Volcanism
6.8 Insolation pattern
Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have
been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing Tidally locked planets in a 1:1 spinorbit resonance would
large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block have their star always shining directly overhead on one

spot which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere
receiving no light and being freezing cold. Such a planet
could resemble an eyeball with the hotspot being the
pupil.[104] Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked
in other resonances. 3:2 and 5:2 resonances would result
in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern
and western hemispheres.[105] Planets with both an ec-
centric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more
complicated insolation patterns.[106]
See also: Astrobiology, Circumstellar habitable zone,
and Planetary habitability
As more planets are discovered, the eld of exoplanetol-
ogy continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar
worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on
planets beyond the Solar System.[52] At cosmic distances,
life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary
scale and strongly modied the planetary environment, in
such a way that the modications cannot be explained by
classical physico-chemical processes (out of equilibrium
processes).[52] For example, molecular oxygen (O
2) in the atmosphere of Earth is a result of photosynthesis
by living plants and many kinds of microorganisms, so
it can be used as an indication of life on exoplanets,
although small amounts of oxygen could also be pro-
duced by non-biological means.[107] Furthermore, a po-
tentially habitable planet must orbit a stable star at a dis-
tance within which planetary-mass objects with sucient
atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their
surfaces.[108][109]
7 Cultural impact
On 9 May 2013, a congressional hearing by two United
States House of Representatives subcommittees dis-
cussed "Exoplanet Discoveries: Have We Found Other
Earths?", prompted by the discovery of exoplanet Kepler-
62f, along with Kepler-62e and Kepler-62c. A related
special issue of the journal Science, published earlier, de-
scribed the discovery of the exoplanets.[109]
8 See also
Exocomet
Exomoon
Exoplanetology
Extragalactic planet
List of exoplanets
List of exoplanet extremes
List of exoplanet search projects
7
List of planets
Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
Planetary system
9 Notes
[1] For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic, Sun-like means
G-type star. Data for Sun-like stars was not available so
this statistic is an extrapolation from data about K-type
stars
[2] For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic, Earth-sized means
12 Earth radii
[3] For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic, habitable zone
means the region with 0.25 to 4 times Earths stellar ux
(corresponding to 0.52 AU for the Sun).
[4] About 1/4 of stars are GK Sun-like stars. The number
of stars in the galaxy is not accurately known, but assum-
ing 200 billion stars in total, the Milky Way would have
about 50 billion Sun-like (GK) stars, of which about 1 in
5 (22%) or 11 billion would be Earth-sized in the habit-
able zone. Including red dwarfs would increase this to 40
billion.
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[4] Schneider, J. Interactive Extra-solar Planets Catalog.
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[108] Kopparapu, Ravi Kumar (2013). A revised estimate
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doi:10.1126/science.340.6132.565. Retrieved 18 May
2013.

11 Further reading
Boss, Alan (2009). The Crowded Universe: The
Search for Living Planets. Basic Books. ISBN
978-0-465-00936-7 (Hardback); ISBN 978-0-465-
02039-3 (Paperback).

Dorminey, Bruce (2001). Distant Wanderers.

Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-95074-7 (Hard-
back); ISBN 978-1-4419-2872-6 (Paperback).

Jayawardhana, Ray (2011). Strange New Worlds:

The Search for Alien Planets and Life beyond Our
Solar System. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14254-8 (Hardcover).

Perryman, Michael (2011). The Exoplanet Hand-

book. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
521-76559-6.

Seager, Sara, ed. (2011). Exoplanets. University of

Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2945-2.
 13

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