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Background
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (KAEA 4234)
GEOTECHNICS (KAES 3235) 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
In situations where the soil at shallow depths is poor, in
Background order to transmit the load safely, the depth of the
- Deep Foundation - Type of Piles foundation has to be increased till a suitable soil stratum
- Installation Effect is met.
- Material
- Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
In view of increased depth, such foundations are called
3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION deep foundations.
Background Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pv Pv 1.0. INTRODUCTION Pu Pu
References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
- Material -Material
- Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY Skin friction 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Background Background
M M
1.0. INTRODUCTION H H 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Material -Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Horizontal loads:
Shallow foundation: Moments:
by friction or adhesion developed along the foundation - Shallow foundation:
soil interface. By redistribution of bearing pressure.
Deep foundation: Deep foundation:
by lateral earth pressures. by converting them to axial compression and uplift.
Background Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pile foundations are an example of deep foundations 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Piles are useful in transferring loads through poor soil
References References
Background Background
or water to a suitable bearing stratum by means of end
Type of Piles A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft, which is Type of Piles bearing. These are called end bearing piles or point
- Installation Effect driven or installed into the ground by suitable means. - Installation Effect bearing piles.
-Material -Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Piles are usually driven in groups to provide foundation 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
When the piles are installed in soft soils such that the
3.0. GROUP ACTION for structures. 3.0. GROUP ACTION load is transferred through friction along the length of
piles, they are called friction piles.
Pile group may be subjected to vertical loads, horizontal
loads or a combination of these two. Piles are also used to resist horizontal loads as in the
case of foundations for retaining walls, bridge
abutments and wharves. These piles are called laterally
loaded piles.
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Background Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION In case of large lateral loads, piles are driven at an angle 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Piles may be required to increase the stability of tall
References
and hence termed batter piles. These are found to serve References
structures, where the foundations are subjected to
Background Background
Type of Piles
better than vertical piles. Type of Piles large eccentric loads, inclined loads and moments.
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Material Short piles are sometimes used for compacting loose -Material
They are also used to avoid damage due to the
-Installation Mode sand deposits which get densified by the vibrations set -Installation Mode
possible scouring of the soil immediately below the
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION
upon driving. Such piles are known as compaction piles. 3.0. GROUP ACTION foundation.
c) Shape
- Cylindrical, tapered, underreamed, etc
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displaced laterally and upwards. In clays, large displacement piles remold the soil to a
distance of about twice the diameter of pile.
Non-displacement piles:
their installation does not lead to any displacement of
soil at all.
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There is no ground heave in case of such piles. These The construction process enables inspection of the
can be installed without noise and vibration. excavated soil and its comparison with soil exploration
data.
References
During the installation of piles, the soil on the sides of References
Bulb ends can not be made in granular soils.
Background the borehole softens due to contact with wet concrete Background
Type of Piles or due to water used in the borehole to facilitate Type of Piles It is essential that concrete is placed as soon as
- Installation Effect boring. This results into - Installation Effect
possible after the boring is done to minimize the
-Material -Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
softening of soil.
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
- Loosening of soil, if it is clay type 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION - Loss in shear strength and reduced pile bearing 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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The pipe piles are made of seamless or welded pipes and Commonly adopted length: up to 40 m.
are usually filled with concrete.
Allowable load up to 1800 kN.
These pipes may be driven close-ended with a driving
point or open ended.
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Splicing is difficult.
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Enlarged bases can not be formed in granular soils. Underreamed is pressed down and rotated.
References References
Background
action, the soil is cut and falls in the bucket. Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect When the bucket is full, underreamer is pulled out and - Installation Effect
-Construction Material
cleaned. -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION Underreamer is lowered again and the process is 3.0. GROUP ACTION
repeated.
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References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Chipping off piles from top using drilling Group of piles (how it looks above the
group)
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References References
Background Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Group of piles (how it looks above the Pile load capacity in compression
ground)
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY General requirements for satisfactory behavior of pile
Background Static Pile load
foundations are adequate safety against shear failure and
Load Test
Type of Piles
Cyclic Pile Load test permissible settlement.
- Installation Effect
Pile Driving Formulae
-Construction Material Correlation N-Spt
-Installation Mode 3.0. GROUP ACTION The load capacity of the pile can be estimated by several
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY methods which may be grouped into several categories.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3. Pile driving formulae Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
- This will cause shear stresses to develop between soil
and surface of shaft.
4. Correlation with penetration data Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
- As a result, applied load is distributed as friction load
along a certain length of pile measured from the top.
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If Qf >>Qpu,
the pile is called as a friction pile
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Qf = fs As
where cub = undrained shear strength of clay at the base
of pile tip
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Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Bearing capacity factor for
circular deep foundations
(after Kezdi, 1975)
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Driven piles: 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load using the effective stress analysis, one can assume Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
c = 0 for a granular soil. The ultimate load capacity of a - Sand
-Clay
-Examples single pile, driven into a granular soil, is obtained by -Examples
Load Test Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae Qu = qpu Ab + fs As Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Point bearing: In a granular soil, qpu = Nq
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Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
It appears that the unit point resistance increase in direct 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The critical depth depends on the angle of shearing
Static Pile load proportion to the embedded length of the pile. However, Static Pile load resistance of the soil and the width ( or diameter) of the
- Sand
-Clay
several field observations indicate that these values - Sand
-Clay
pile.
-Examples increase only up to a limited depth, beyond which these -Examples
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
values remain constant. This depth is called critical depth. Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
Its value may vary from about 15D in loose to medium
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae sands to 20D in dense sands, where D is the diameter or
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the arching Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
width of the pile.
action in the granular soil.
The critical depth concept is not applicable to piles
embedded in clay strata where arching action is absent
Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The maximum recommended value of unit point 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Code recommends that in working out pile capacities
Static Pile load resistance qps be limited to 11,000 kN/m in normal Static Pile load using static formula for piles longer than 15 to 20 pile
- Sand
-Clay
silica sand and 5,000 kN/m for calcareous sand. - Sand
-Clay
diameters, maximum effective overburden pressure
-Examples -Examples should correspond to pile lengths equal to 15 to 20
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
diameters.
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
A factor of safety of 2.5 on the ultimate load capacity is
recommended for computing the safe load.
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Qf = fs(avg) As
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Example 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Code recommends that for working out the safe load, a 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
A 12 m long, 300 mm diameter pile is driven in a uniform
Static Pile load minimum factor of safety 2.5 should be used. Static Pile load deposit of sand ( = 40). The water table is at a great
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
depth and is not likely to rise. The average dry unit weight
-Examples Static load formula may be used only as a guide for load -Examples of sand is 18 kN/m. using Nq = 137, calculate the safe load
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
capacity estimates. Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
capacity of pile with a factor of safety of 2.5.
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
More reliance is to be placed on load test on piles. Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example 1 Example 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
For concrete piles, adopt = = 30 and K = 2.0 for 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The ultimate pile load capacity is given by
Static Pile load dense sand. Static Pile load Qu = qpu Ab + fs As
- Sand - Sand
-Clay -Clay
-Examples For L /D = 15, the critical depth of the pile -Examples
qpu = Nq
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
= 15 x 0.3 = 4.5 m Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test fs(av) = (av) K tan
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Limiting vertical effective stress at 4.5 m Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION Skin friction resistance over length 4.5 m:
= 18 x 4.5 = 81 kN/m av = 81/2 = 40.5 kN/m
From 4.5 m to 12.0 m, unit point bearing resistance and fs(av) = av x 2 x tan 30 = 46.8 kN/m
skin friction remain constant at = 81 kN/m
Skin friction resistance = 46.8 x x 0.3 x 4.5
= 198 kN
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Example 1 Example 2
1.0. INTRODUCTION Skin friction resistance over the remaining length 1.0. INTRODUCTION
A 450 mm wide, square in section concrete pile, 15 m long,
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load
av = 81 kN/m Static Pile load is driven in a deep deposit of uniform clay. Laboratory
- Sand fs(av) = 81 x 2 x tan 30 = 93.5 kN/m - Sand
unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples
-Clay -Clay
-Examples -Examples indicate an average qu value of 75 kN/m. calculate the
Load Test Skin friction resistance = 93.5 x x 0.3 x 7.5 Load Test
ultimate load capacity of the pile.
Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae
= 661 kN Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qf = 198 + 661 = 859 kN 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example 2 Example 2
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
For an unconfined compressive strength = 75 kN/m2, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Substituting the data in equation
Static Pile load the undrained cohesion value (Cu) = 75/2 = 37.5 kN/m2 Static Pile load
- Sand - Sand
-Clay
For Cu = 37.5 kN/m2, = 0.8 -Clay Qu= cub Nc Ab + cu As
-Examples -Examples
Load Test Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
Qu = (37.5 x 9 x 0.45 x 0.45) + (0.8 x 37.5 x 4 x 0.45 x 15)
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION = 68 + 810
= 878 kN
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These are very useful for cohesionless soils. Initial test should be carried out on test piles to estimate
the allowable load, or to predict the settlement at a
In case of cohesive soils, the data from pile load test working load.
should be used with caution on account of disturbance
due to pile driving, development of pore pressure and Routine test is carried out as a check on working piles
inadequate time allowed for consolidation settlement. and to assess the displacement corresponding to the
working load.
A test pile is a pile which is used only in a load test and The test load on such piles should be up to 1.5 times
does not carry the load of superstructure. the safe load or up to the load at which total settlement
attains a value of 12 mm for a single pile and 40 mm for
a group of piles, whichever is earlier.
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Therefore, Se + Sp = l + Sc + Sb
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Example 3 Example 3
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY The following data refers to a cyclic pile loadtest carried 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY From the data given, total settlement, net settlement and
Static Pile load out on a 300 mm diameter, 10m long pile. Plot the load Static Pile load elastic settlement for various loads have been computed
Pile Load Test Pile Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
settlement curve and estimate the allowable load of the Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae pile . Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Qa = 0.5 x 600 = 300 kN Allowance is made for losses of energy due to elastic
contraction of pile, pile cap and subsoil and losses due
to inertia of pile.
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c) For single or drop hammer striking a well- conditioned Static cone penetration test data and standard
driving cap and helmet with hard wood dolly while penetration test data are often used to determine the
driving reinforced concrete piles or directly on head of pile load capacity.
timber pile, e = 0.25.
The static cone penetration test gives the variation of
d) For a deteriorated condition of the head of pile or of cone resistance value at the tip of the cone, qc and the
dolly, e = 0. skin friction resistance fc on the sleeve, with depth.
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4.3. Correlation with penetration test 4.3. Correlation with penetration test
1.0. INTRODUCTION qc = static cone resistance, fs = local side friction 1.0. INTRODUCTION
For non-homogeneous soils, the ultimate point
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load Static Pile load bearing capacity, qpu may be calculated using the
Pile Load Test Type of soil Local side friction, fs Pile Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test Cyclic Pile Load test
following relationship:
Pile Driving Formulae Clay and peats qc / 30 < fs < qc/10 Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation Penetration Test Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION Clays qc / 25 < fs 3.0. GROUP ACTION
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION GROUP ACTION
INTRODUCTION Generally, for smaller spacing between piles, < 1. INTRODUCTION When driven piles are spaced closely in dense soils or
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION GROUP ACTION
in soft clays, the soil between the piles tends to move
Ultimate Load Capacity For larger spacing, the effect of pile interaction Ultimate Load Capacity upwards and the piles to be lifted up.
Spacing of Piles diminishes and approaches to unity. Spacing of Piles
Failure Failure
On the other hand, large spacing necessitate a bigger
Settlement Settlement
Examples
In driven piles where the soil around the pile gets Examples
pile cap, which is uneconomical.
densified, as in loose to medium sand, may be even
more than 1. Bored cast-in-situ piles permit smaller spacing,
because their installation in the ground does not
The pile group tends to behave like a block or like an result in a densification of soil around piles.
equivalent pile circumscribing all the pile in the group.
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INTRODUCTION Code recommends a minimum spacing of 2.5 times the INTRODUCTION Experimental evidence has indicated that a group of piles
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
shaft diameter for point bearing piles, 3 times the shaft GROUP ACTION
may fail in one of the following two ways:
Ultimate Load Capacity diameter for friction piles. Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles Spacing of Piles
A. By block failure
Failure
In loose sands or fill deposits, a minimum spacing of 2 Pile Failure
Settlement Settlement
Examples
times the shaft diameter is suggested. Examples
B. By individual pile failure
INTRODUCTION Block failure normally occurs when piles are spaced less INTRODUCTION where,
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
than 2 to 3 pile diameter. GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity cub = undrained strength of clay at base of pile group.
Spacing of Piles In block failure, the soil bound by perimeter of the pile Spacing of Piles
cu = average undrained strength of clay along length of
Pile Failure
group and the embedded length of the pile acts as one Pile Failure
Settlement Settlement block.
Examples
unit or block. Examples
Nc = bearing capacity factor, taken as 9.
The ultimate load capacity of pile group by block failure, Ab = cross-sectional area of block.
Qug is given by
Pb = perimeter of the block.
Qug = cub Nc Ab + Pb L cu L = embedded length of the pile.
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Qug = n Qu
An efficiency factor of 1 is commonly assumed in design. The method of installation of bored cast-in-situ piles in sand
results in a general loosening of soil around the piles,
In piled foundation, the pile cap resting on the soil can especially when the boring is to be done below the water
mobilize additional support from the soil. For this table.
support to materialize, considerable downward
Further, the cleaning of the bottom of the borehole before
movement of pile cap is required and the restriction on
concreting is always difficult.
permissible settlement of the foundation may not allow
this.
As there is no compaction of soil around the soil, is never
more than unity.
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INTRODUCTION The vertical movement that occurs at the level of pile cap is INTRODUCTION The settlement of a pile group in clay can not be
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
largely due to the settlement of the soil supporting the pile. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
estimated form the data of a load test on a single pile
GROUP ACTION GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity because the time effect, the effect of remolding of soil
Spacing of Piles Those has to be restricted to a value within permissible Spacing of Piles due to pile driving and the scale effect are quite different
Pile Failure settlement for the structure in question. Pile Failure
for the single test pile and the group of piles.
Settlement Settlement
Examples Examples
Settlement of pile group is more than the settlement of a The widely used approach for calculating the settlement
single pile even when the load on the single pile and the of a pile group in clay is the equivalent raft approach.
load on each pile of the pile group are the same.
In this method, the pile group is assumed to act as a
This is because of the fact that the zone of influence of a pile
single and large raft is assumed to be placed at some
group is much deeper than that of a single pile.
arbitrary depth inside the soil.
In case of driven piles in sand, the larger thickness of soil
contributing to settlement is also more compressible than
the soil below a single pile which can be regarded as pre-
compressed on account of pile driving.
INTRODUCTION The piles are assumed to transfer the vertical load INTRODUCTION Assumptions for equivalent raft:
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
acting on them, Q g to this depth and the settlement of GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity the raft is calculated. Ultimate Load Capacity 1) For the displacement piles or friction piles in
Spacing of Piles Spacing of Piles homogenous clay, the common practice is to assume
Pile Failure
Settlement of the pile group is taken as the Pile Failure
the equivalent raft at a depth of 2/3rd of pile length
Settlement Settlement
Examples
settlement of this fictitious raft. Examples
over an area enclosed by the piles at the depth.
Depending on subsoil conditions, several assumptions The load Q g assumed to be transferred at this level, is
have been used to identify the location of equivalent then assumed to spread out at 2 vertical and 1
raft. horizontal distribution in order to work out the value
of stress increase at the mid-depth of clay stratum.
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INTRODUCTION 2) For bored piles or end bearing piles bearing on firm INTRODUCTION For estimating the settlement of pile group in sand,
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
stratum, the equivalent raft is assumed at the base of GROUP ACTION
the common practice is to extrapolate this from the
Ultimate Load Capacity the pile over an area enclosed by the piles at this Ultimate Load Capacity settlement of an individual test pile measured in a
Spacing of Piles depth. A load spread of 2:1 is assumed from this Spacing of Piles load test.
Pile Failure
depth. Pile Failure
Settlement Settlement
Examples Examples
Skempton (1953) compared the settlements of a
3) This situation relates to piles driven into a firm or number of pile groups, consisting of driven piles, with
strong stratum through an overlying clay stratum. If the settlement of individual piles in sand, for the same
the length of piles embedded in the strong stratum is load per pile.
L, the load Q g is assumed to act at a depth equal to
2/3rd the length L below the top surface of the string The settlement of a pile group, Sg is expressed as
layer and spreading out at 2:1 slope. multiple of the settlement of an individual pile, Si.
INTRODUCTION Sg / Si is called the settlement ratio (for the same average INTRODUCTION Meyerhof (1959) expressed the settlement ratio for
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
load Q per pile) and is expressed as PILE LOAD CAPACITY square pile groups in sand in the form:
GROUP ACTION GROUP ACTION
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