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Informa Telecoms and Media
LTE Radio Network Planning
2 Informa Telecoms and Media

CONTENTS
Module Aims and Objectives 11
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO PLANNING 13
Lesson 1 Radio Planning Lifecycle 15

High-Level Network Design Cycle ....................................................................................... 15
Factors Affecting the LTE Planning Process ....................................................................... 19
Frequency Band.................................................................................................................. 19
Allocated Spectrum and Channel Bandwidth ...................................................................... 21
LTE Channel Parameters .................................................................................................... 21
Maximum Bit Rate per Channel .......................................................................................... 22
Equipment Performance ..................................................................................................... 23
Coverage or Capacity ......................................................................................................... 23
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 1) ................................................. 26
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 1) ............................................. 27
Lesson 2 RF and Baseband Signals 28

The Electromagnetic Wave ................................................................................................. 28
Baseband Information ......................................................................................................... 29
Lesson 3 Decibels (dB) and Noise in RF Theory 34

The Decibel and Applications for RF Practice ..................................................................... 34
Calculating Noise in RF systems ......................................................................................... 36
Lesson 4 Modulation Schemes for LTE 41

Principal Modulation Systems ............................................................................................. 41
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) ...................................................................................... 42
High-Level Modulation Schemes: QPSK and 8PSK ............................................................ 43
16QAM (16-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) .......................................................... 43
64QAM (64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) .......................................................... 44
The Effect of SNR on Modulation ........................................................................................ 45
Adaptive Modulation Schemes ............................................................................................ 45
Informa Telecoms and Media 3

Lesson 5 Multiple Access Schemes 49

Multiple Access in Radio Systems....................................................................................... 49
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) ....................................................................... 49
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) ............................................................................... 49
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)............................................................................... 50
Multi-Carrier Transmission .................................................................................................. 51
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) .......................................................... 51
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) ................................................. 52
Duplex Schemes ................................................................................................................. 52
Section 1 Assignment Questions .................................................................................... 56
Section 1 Practice Paper ................................................................................................ 57
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 1) ............................................. 59
SECTION 2 PROPAGATION PRINCIPLES, MODELLING, AND ANTENNAS 61
Lesson 1 Propagation Basics 63

Refraction of the Radio Signal............................................................................................. 63
Sub-Refraction .................................................................................................................... 65
Super-Refraction ................................................................................................................. 66
Extreme Cases Ducting ................................................................................................... 67
Lesson 2 Mechanisms of Propagation 71

Scattering............................................................................................................................ 71
Diffraction............................................................................................................................ 72
Attenuation Through Penetration ........................................................................................ 73
Fresnel Clearance............................................................................................................... 74
Multipath Propagation ......................................................................................................... 75
Rayleigh Environment ......................................................................................................... 76
Rician Environment ............................................................................................................. 76
Lesson 3 Interference and Frequency Reuse 80

Frequency Reuse Concepts ................................................................................................ 80
Frequency Reuse in LTE .................................................................................................... 82
Cell Size and Capacity ........................................................................................................ 82
Cell Deployment in LTE ...................................................................................................... 82

Lesson 4 Advanced Antenna Techniques for LTE 87

SISO (Single Input Single Output) ....................................................................................... 87
MISO (Multiple Input Single Output) Transmit Diversity .................................................... 87
SIMO (Single Input Multiple Output) Receive Diversity..................................................... 88
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) Spatial Multiplexing............................................... 88
Single User, Multiple User, and Co-operative MIMO ........................................................... 89
Beamforming ...................................................................................................................... 91
LTE Downlink Multiple Antenna Schemes ........................................................................... 92
Reporting of UE Feedback .................................................................................................. 95
Section 2 Practice Paper ................................................................................................ 99
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 2) ........................................... 101
Section 2 Assignment ................................................................................................... 102
SECTION 3 LINK BUDGETS 105
Lesson 1 Defining a Link Budget Statement 106

Introduction to Basic Radio Systems ................................................................................. 106
Typical Link Budget Requirements .................................................................................... 106
LTE Link Budget Variables ................................................................................................ 107
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 1) ............................................... 108
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 1) ........................................... 109
Lesson 2 Transmitter Power in LTE Link Budgets 110

LTE Transmit Power Capability For the UE ....................................................................... 110
Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output .................................................................. 110
Self-Assessment Exercise (Lesson 2) .......................................................................... 113
Lesson 3 eNB and UE Antenna Performance 114

Antenna Characteristics for the UE ................................................................................... 114
Antenna Characteristics for eNB ....................................................................................... 114
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 3) ............................................... 116
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 3) ........................................... 117
Lesson 4 Calculating Sensitivity 118

Sensitivity Calculation for the eNB and UE........................................................................ 118
Thermal Noise in Radio Systems ...................................................................................... 118
Type of Service and Impact on Noise Floor....................................................................... 119
Exercise ............................................................................................................................ 120
Implementation Margin UE and eNB .............................................................................. 121
Receiver Noise Figure....................................................................................................... 121
Total Noise Floor............................................................................................................... 121
Cascaded Noise................................................................................................................ 122
Exercise ............................................................................................................................ 123
Typical SNR for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes .................................................... 124
Duplex Gap and Duplex Distance, Effect on Receiver Sensitivity ...................................... 124

Lesson 5 System Gain and Maximum Path Loss 126

Calculating System Gain ................................................................................................... 126
Environmental Factors and Noise Rise ............................................................................. 126
Shadow Margin (Slow Fading) .......................................................................................... 127
Exercise 1 ......................................................................................................................... 128
Exercise 2 ......................................................................................................................... 129
Building and Foliage Losses ............................................................................................. 129
Body Loss ......................................................................................................................... 130
Uplink and Downlink Noise Rise ....................................................................................... 130
Lesson 6 Path Loss Modelling 132

Propagation Modelling ...................................................................................................... 132
Coverage from Link Budget............................................................................................... 133
Typical Propagation Loss Models ..................................................................................... 134
COST 231 Propagation Model .......................................................................................... 135
The WINNER Model.......................................................................................................... 136
Cell Range Calculations from MAPL ................................................................................. 137
Self-Assessment Exercises (Lesson 6) ........................................................................ 138
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 141

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 High Level Design Lifecycle ............................................................................... 15

Figure 2 Phase 1 Information ........................................................................................... 16
Figure 3 Phase 2 Information ........................................................................................... 17
Figure 4 Information Required at Phases 3 and 4 ............................................................ 18
Figure 5 FDD IMT Frequency Bands ................................................................................ 20
Figure 6 TDD IMT Frequency Bands ................................................................................ 20
Figure 7 Available Capacity and Channel Bandwidths for LTE ......................................... 21
Figure 8 LTE Channel Parameters ................................................................................... 22
Figure 9 Maximum Downlink Capacity per Radio Channel ............................................... 22
Figure 10 Maximum Uplink Capacity per Radio Channel.................................................. 22
Figure 11 Capacity-Limited Design .................................................................................. 24
Figure 12 Coverage-Limited Design ................................................................................. 24
Figure 13 Area to be Served ............................................................................................ 25
Figure 14 Electric and Magnetic Fields............................................................................. 28
Figure 15 Polarisation ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 16 A Comparison of Audio Signal Bandwidths ...................................................... 29
Figure 17 An Analogue Signal Shown in the Time Domain .............................................. 29
Figure 18 An Analogue Signal Shown in the Frequency Domain...................................... 30
Figure 19 A Time Domain Representation of a Square Wave .......................................... 30
Figure 20 A Frequency Domain Representation of a Square Wave ................................. 31
Figure 21 The Addition of Fundamental and Harmonic Components ............................... 31
Figure 22 Gain and Loss Expressed as Decibels ............................................................. 35
Figure 23 Table of Typical Values and their Conversions ................................................. 36
Figure 24 Calculating Noise Figure from Signal-to-Noise Ratios ...................................... 37
Figure 25 Noise in Cascaded Systems............................................................................. 37
Figure 26 Noise from Man-Made Sources ........................................................................ 38
Figure 27 ASK, FSK and PSK .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 28 BPSK (Time Domain) ....................................................................................... 42
Figure 29 BPSK Constellation ........................................................................................ 43
Figure 30 QPSK and 8PSK .............................................................................................. 43
Figure 31 16QAM ............................................................................................................. 44
Figure 32 64QAM ............................................................................................................. 44
Figure 33 The Impact of Noise and Interference on the 64QAM Signal ............................ 45
Figure 34 Modulation and Coding Scheme Options ......................................................... 46
Figure 35 The Multiple Access Concept ........................................................................... 49
Figure 36 Separate Radio Channels in FDMA.................................................................. 49
Figure 37 Individual Time Slots in TDMA ......................................................................... 50
Figure 38 Radio Channels and Timeslots in Hybrid TDMA/FDMA .................................... 50
Figure 39 User Information Spread in the Time and Frequency Domains ........................ 51
Figure 40 Single- and Multiple-Carrier Comparison .......................................................... 51

Figure 41 Sending Data in Parallel Radio Channels ......................................................... 52

Figure 42 Time and Frequency Sharing in OFDMA .......................................................... 52
Figure 43 FDD ................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 44 TDD ................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 45 The Geometric and Radio Horizon ................................................................... 63
Figure 46 The Refractive Index Reduces with Altitude ..................................................... 64
Figure 47 the 4/3s Earth ................................................................................................... 64
Figure 48 N Decreasing Under Normal Conditions ........................................................... 65
Figure 49 Sub-Refraction ................................................................................................. 66
Figure 50 The Effect of Sub Conditions On the Radio Path .............................................. 66
Figure 51 Super-Refraction .............................................................................................. 66
Figure 52 The Effect of Super Conditions On the Radio Path ........................................... 67
Figure 53 Surface Duct .................................................................................................... 67
Figure 54 Surface Duct Elevated Layer ............................................................................ 68
Figure 55 Elevated Duct Elevated Layer .......................................................................... 68
Figure 56 Radio Wave Reflection ..................................................................................... 71
Figure 57 Radio Wave Scattering..................................................................................... 71
Figure 58 Radio Wave Diffraction..................................................................................... 72
Figure 59 Modelling Radio Wave Diffraction..................................................................... 72
Figure 60 The Effect of Diffraction on the Radio Wave ..................................................... 73
Figure 61 Loss of Energy Through Penetration ................................................................ 73
Figure 62 Fresnel Clearance for Radio Links ................................................................... 74
Figure 63 The Fresnel Zones in Cross Section ................................................................ 75
Figure 64 Calculating Fresnel Clearance ......................................................................... 75
Figure 65 Rayleigh Environment ...................................................................................... 76
Figure 66 The Rician Channel .......................................................................................... 77
Figure 67 Typical View of Frequency Reuse .................................................................... 80
Figure 68 Calculating the Reuse Distance ....................................................................... 81
Figure 69 The Co-Channel to Interference (C/I) Ratio ...................................................... 81
Figure 70 Cell Splitting ..................................................................................................... 82
Figure 71 Typical Cell Sizes for LTE Systems .................................................................. 83
Figure 72 Layering of Different Cell Sizes ........................................................................ 84
Figure 73 SISO (Single In Single Out) .............................................................................. 87
Figure 74 MISO (Transmit Diversity) ................................................................................ 87
Figure 75 SIMO (Receive Diversity) ................................................................................. 88
Figure 76 MIMO (Spatial Multiplexing) ............................................................................. 88
Figure 77 Spatial Multiplexing .......................................................................................... 89
Figure 78 Single User MIMO ............................................................................................ 90
Figure 79 Multi-User MIMO .............................................................................................. 90
Figure 80 Co-operative MIMO .......................................................................................... 91
Figure 81 Beamforming Operation ................................................................................... 92
Figure 82 Coding Processes for LTE MIMO ..................................................................... 93
Figure 83 MIMO Antenna Reference Signals ................................................................... 95
Figure 84 Typical Arrangement of Radio System Components and Variables ................ 106
Figure 85 Table of Equipment Classes and Power Outputs ........................................... 110
Figure 86 Power Reduction for LTE Modulation Schemes ............................................. 111

Figure 87 Additional Power Reduction Factors............................................................... 111

Figure 88 Additional Power Reduction Factors............................................................... 112
Figure 89 LTE Antenna Specifications (Huawei) ............................................................ 114
Figure 90 Antenna Performance .................................................................................... 115
Figure 91 Bandwidth and the Impact On Background Noise .......................................... 119
Figure 92 Resource Block Allocation Effect on the Noise Floor ...................................... 120
Figure 93 Total Noise in the System .............................................................................. 121
Figure 94 Calculating Total Noise in Cascaded Systems ............................................... 123
Figure 95 Typical SNR Requirements for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes ........... 124
Figure 96 Duplex Distance and Duplex Gap .................................................................. 125
Figure 97 DFB Factor for Channel Bandwidths in Certain Frequency Bands ................. 125
Figure 98 Typical Link Budget Profile ............................................................................. 126
Figure 99 Calculating Shadow (Fading) Margins ............................................................ 127
Figure 100 Typical Path Loss Exponent Values ............................................................. 127
Figure 101 Typical Values for Standard Deviation .......................................................... 128
Figure 102 Building Penetration Losses ......................................................................... 129
Figure 103 Foliage Penetration Losses .......................................................................... 130
Figure 104 Typical Body Loss (3dB) .............................................................................. 130
Figure 105 Noise Rise in LTE Systems .......................................................................... 131
Figure 106 Isotropic Radiation and Spreading Loss ....................................................... 132
Figure 107 Converting Spreading Loss into Free Space Loss ........................................ 133
Figure 108 Empirical Models .......................................................................................... 133
Figure 109 Some Common Propagation Models and Frequency Ranges ...................... 134
Figure 110 Comparison of Path Loss Models ................................................................. 135
Figure 111 The Winner Model ......................................................................................... 136
Figure 112 Cell Range Calculations ............................................................................... 137


Module Aims and Objectives
This module is designed to provide a comprehensive introduction to the LTE radio network
planning process. At the end of this module, you will be able to:
Determine the optimum cycle for planning LTE radio systems

Show which elements of LTE technology have most impact on the planning process
Perform calculations using decibels
List the modulation and coding schemes used by LTE and comment on the required
level of performance
Show how OFDMA works and explain its advantages over existing communication
systems
Discuss a range of propagation mechanisms and understand where extreme
propagation conditions might exist
Explain the basic theories behind MIMO antenna technique and discuss how they
can improve performance
Describe in detail the elements of the LTE link budget
Perform a detailed link budget for LTE systems


SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION TO RADIO PLANNING


Lesson 1 Radio Planning Lifecycle
High-Level Network Design Cycle
Network design is a complex and time consuming affair with many steps and processes.
However, from a high-level perspective there are four main steps in the planning cycle.
The process begins with information gathering and objective setting. Information gathered at
this stage will include both marketing and technical data. The marketing information is
important so that realistic objectives can be set. Technical data will include information about
the technology to be used, spectrum-related information, and possibly equipment
performance data from a vendor.
Figure 1 High Level Design Lifecycle
Information gathered during Phase 1 is used to test the objectives of the process and
determine the viability of the business case. Since there are no major investments at this
stage it is also a good time to analyse the risks involved using known information. The
assumptions and objectives can be tested iteratively until some initial design is settled upon.
Phase 2 uses the outputs of Phase 1 to determine the best location for the base-station sites
and to determine the backhaul requirements. Issues of co-location and new site builds would
also be addressed at this stage.
Phase 3 occurs once all the site locations have been determined. During this phase, initial
assumptions regarding coverage will need to be validated. This is done through the use of
software RF planning tools. Some design optimisations can also be determined during this
stage. Choice of software tools and models will have to be made; this is often a matter of
scale and budget.

Phase 4 comprises the build-out of the system. Some starting point must be determined,
possibly from the demographic information from the marketing team or from site availability.
Drive tests should be carried out during this stage to confirm the accuracy of the software
planning models used in Phase 3, and, if necessary, some redesign and optimisation can be
done. The use of additional software tools to plan the deployment may be used at this stage.
Phase 1 Detailed Procedure
As stated above, Phase 1 is the information-gathering and objective-setting stage. The more
information that can be gathered and tested at this stage, the better the understanding of the
design and the behaviour of the system when variables are included. Some of the additional
processes that need to be undertaken in the early stages of planning are:
Gathering relevant technical and marketing information

Setting primary objectives based on initial assumptions, type of service, coverage,
capacity, etc.
Drafting an initial plan based on objectives and other assumptions, equipment
selection, and technology selection
The use of simple modelling techniques to determine the number of base stations
required in order to fulfil the initial objectives
Testing the performance of the initial design based on market-assumption variability
Testing the business case based on market variability and equipment performance
Iterating the results and making any necessary changes to the basic plan
Figure 2 Phase 1 Information
Phase 1 Information
Phase 1 of planning is primarily about information gathering and initial system modelling.
More time spent at this at this stage understanding how the system responds to changes in
design inputs should result in more solid and reliable design in the later stages.

The basic premise of Phase 1 design is to determine the optimum number of base stations
to meet the required objectives of coverage and capacity. Marketing information and vendor
equipment data can be used for investigation and fact finding. This allows the setting of
coverage and capacity objectives.
A planning process can also be considered at this time, taking into account what tools are
available to the designer, such as RF planning tools and spreadsheets for determining
system operation criteria.
Phase 2 Detailed Procedures
An important output of Phase 1 is the number of base stations required to meet the
objectives. However, the location of the base stations has yet to be determined. Phase 2 is
about site selection and confirming that the assumptions from the first stage hold true
against the real location of sites.
Many operators will have existing sites on which they may co-locate the new LTE
equipment. However, one of the implications of mobile broadband is the number of new sites
that may have to be deployed (depending on the spectrum used). This will involved detailed
site planning and acquisition.
In addition, the backhaul requirements for both co-located and new sites will have to be
calculated and planned.
Detailed procedures that take place at Phase 2 include:
Introducing real site locations, including existing and new sites

Testing system performance using real locations against initial objectives
Beginning the site acquisition process
Determining the optimal build-out plan
Investigating and planning backhaul requirements
Figure 3 Phase 2 Information

Phases 3 and 4 Information
Phases 3 and 4 are primarily about site selection and building, and this is where planning
tools are most heavily used. These include RF planning tools, capacity planning tools, drive-
tests, and rollout and optimisation planning tools.
Selection of these products will be based on the type of system that is being planned and the
budget given to the planning department. There are many standalone tools, and an
increasing number of integrated products that allow planners to manage the design process
from start to finish.
Once the site locations have been established, software tools can be used to confirm
coverage and capacity assumptions. Changes can be made to the initial design, as well the
selection of ideal locations for new sites. It is important at this stage to develop a build-out
plan that will quickly establish the required coverage and capacity in the shortest time at
least cost.
Procedures that take place at Phase 3 include:
Using software tools to confirm initial assumptions about coverage and capacity
Making changes to site planning
Optimising the build plan
Beginning the build
Before a major build can be undertaken, the accuracy of the software tools must be
determined, therefore it is not uncommon to run drive tests against a test site. This can be
used to confirm the coverage predicted by the RF tools, and if the site is fully functional,
some estimate of cell capacity can also be determined. Any major discrepancy between the
RF prediction and the actual measurements can be used to tune the prediction models.
Figure 4 Information Required at Phases 3 and 4

Tuning of the software models is important in order to minimise retro-planning and site
building as the build progresses.
Factors Affecting the LTE Planning Process
Whilst LTE technology is new and complex, some of the basic rules of system planning do
not change. Much of the complexity of LTE is designed to make the best use of the available
spectrum. Achieving better spectral efficiency means that higher data rates can be achieved
in systems that are spectrum limited. Indeed, LTE is designed to support a single-channel
reuse pattern without the need for spread spectrum.
When considering capacity planning, or general system planning, the following factors need
to be taken into account:
Frequency band
Amount of allocated spectrum
Channel bandwidth
Equipment performance
Service area
Population density
Population demographic
Population penetration
Expected level of service
Each of these factors will have some impact on the overall system design, and the ultimate
capacity in each cell and across the whole system.
Frequency Band
There are many frequency bands potentially available for the deployment of LTE. The bands
detailed in the following table have been identified by the ITU. These bands are part of the
IMT spectrum and many are in use already by cellular technologies including GSM, UMTS
and WiMAX.
UEs are unlikely to support all of the bands. Instead they rely on a subset, which is
dependent on the intended area of deployment. National and international roaming are
provided for as cost-effectively as possible.

Figure 5 FDD IMT Frequency Bands
The chosen spectrum will have a large impact on the planning process, since the nominal
radius of the LTE radio cell depends on the frequency of operation.
Generally speaking, the lower the frequency, the larger the radio cell. Building penetration is
better at lower frequencies, and the system is less sensitive to atmospheric issues. These
are important considerations for operators as LTE deployment is expensive, and lower
frequency allocations can save a lot of money in capex not least because at lower
frequencies fewer eNBs are required.
Figure 6 TDD IMT Frequency Bands

Allocated Spectrum and Channel Bandwidth
The bands are regulated in terms of the allowed operating bandwidth. This is driven largely
by the amount of available spectrum in each band. Some bands do not allow the use of
narrow channels, whilst others prohibit the use of the larger bandwidths.
The amount of allocated spectrum will affect the capacity of both the overall network and
individual sectors. As with many aspects of system planning, more is better. Planning a
system with one or two channels is very challenging: even when the technology provides
complex mechanisms to allow for reuse factors of one, there will still be a negative impact on
capacity.
In some cases the operator may have the flexibility to choose the channel bandwidth
depending on the total amount of spectrum they have. Some analysis may have to be done
on the advantages and disadvantages of a few large bandwidth channels (e.g. 2 x 10 MHz)
versus a larger number of lower bandwidth channels (e.g. 4 x 5 MHz)
Figure 7 Available Capacity and Channel Bandwidths for LTE
LTE Channel Parameters
Once the individual channel bandwidths are known, it is possible to work out what the likely
capacity of the channel will be. This is complex in LTE for many reasons, not least of which
is the nature of the OFDM technique employed on the radio interface.

The table below shows the main attributes of the various channel bandwidths. It can be
seen that the entire channel is not occupied due to the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
sampling of the channel; this will yield a lower than expected capacity using the Nyquist and
Shannon assumptions.
Figure 8 LTE Channel Parameters
Maximum Bit Rate per Channel
Based on a simple Nyquist calculation and an assumption of the overall efficiency (80%) of
the radio spectrum, the following table shows the maximum data rates that can be expected
from the different channel bandwidths.
Figure 9 Maximum Downlink Capacity per Radio Channel
Figure 10 Maximum Uplink Capacity per Radio Channel

However, the actual cell capacity in LTE may vary due to considerations of serving-cell load
and adjacent-cell load, as well as the interference coordination feature of LTE.
Equipment Performance
System performance will be affected by many factors related to the equipment used in the
network. The fundamental aspects of the link budget rely entirely on the performance of the
equipment. Equipment parameters that need to be considered for capacity include:
BS/UE power output

BS/UE antenna gains
Receiver sensitivity
Link budget gains and losses
MIMO gains
Vendor-specific requirements
In many cases the vendor specification sheet will provide most of the information required to
perform basic link budgets. This may be enough during the initial phase of planning to
establish a baseline for capacity and performance.
Once the basic performance parameters have been worked out and certain levels of
performance have been determined, it becomes possible to include the more complex
features of the equipment to determine what additional gains can be achieved. These may
include MIMO antennas, beamforming antennas, and vendor-specific algorithms for
interference management.
Coverage or Capacity
Coverage-Limited Design
The performance of these systems is limited by the coverage that can be achieved from a
given set of performance attributes. The system design for coverage will maximise the range
from the base station at the expense of capacity. Coverage-limited systems are likely to
have a few widely spaced base stations.
Capacity Limited Design
A system that is limited by its capacity will deliver maximum capacity for a given set of
conditions, and at the expense of coverage. Systems designed for capacity will have many
closely spaced base stations.

Figure 11 Capacity-Limited Design
Figure 12 Coverage-Limited Design

Service Area
Having established the performance capabilities of LTE and the vendor-specific equipment,
the planning task then determines the capacity or coverage objectives. The objectives will of
course vary from area to area depending on the planning criteria.
Figure 13 Area to be Served

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 1)
Q1. Which phase of the planning cycle would include site selection and backhaul planning?
a) Phase 1
b) Phase 2
c) Phase 3
d) Phase 4
Q2. Which of the following processes is most likely to occur during Phase 1 of the planning
lifecycle?
a) Network build plan
b) Drive test and optimisation
c) Initial objective setting
d) RF predictions
Q3. When setting coverage objectives, which of the following is most useful?
a) Vendor selection
b) Market penetration
c) Allocated spectrum
d) Number of subscribers
Q4. Completion of Phase 1 planning yields what kind of information?

a) The final location of the base stations
b) The approximate number of base stations required
c) Detailed description of subscriber services
d) The radio channel frequency plan
Q5. In which phase of the planning cycle would real site locations be determined?
a) Phase 1
b) Phase 2
c) Phase 3
d) Phase 4
Q6. Drive test tools and optimisation processes are most like to occur in which phase of the
planning cycle?
a) Phase 1
b) Phase 2
c) Phase 3
d) Phase 4

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 1)
Transfer your answers onto the grid for easy assessment and future reference.
Name...
Question set

Lesson 2 RF and Baseband Signals
The Electromagnetic Wave
An alternating electrical current passing through a conductor causes an electromagnetic field

to be produced in the air around the conductor. This electromagnetic field will also alternate
in turn with the current that generates it. If the frequency of the current is sufficiently high, the
electric and magnet fields will propagate away from the conductor at the speed of light.
Figure 14 Electric and Magnetic Fields
It should be noted that the electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields are perpendicular to each
other. The orientation of the electric field is used both to determine the polarisation of the
transmitted energy and to describe the orientation of the antenna that transmits the signal. A
vertically oriented antenna will transmit a vertically polarised electromagnetic signal.
Figure 15 Polarisation
A radio frequency signal will propagate away from the transmitting element, making it
suitable to act as a carrier of information.

Baseband Information
Early radio transmission systems made use of very simple methods, merely switching the
transmitter on and off the send information. Morse code may be the best known example of
this kind of transmission system.
Today we wish to transmit much more complex signals. As well as voice this is likely to
include video and high-speed broadband data. The information that represents such data is
known as the baseband information.
The diagram below shows an analogue representation of the speech band. Human speech
happens to be very wide, up to 20 KHz, but we choose not to transmit all of the information
because we can understand what is being said even when the amount of information in the
signal has been reduced. This is convenient for transmission systems as the amount of
information they can typically carry is limited. In voice-based systems, wired or wireless, the
amount of speech information that is transmitted is normally limited to 3.1 KHz of the total
amount of information.
Figure 16 A Comparison of Audio Signal Bandwidths
The diagram below represents the speech information in the time domain, showing how the
amplitude of the information varies with time.
Figure 17 An Analogue Signal Shown in the Time Domain

This diagram represents the same information, but now the amplitude is shown against the
frequency domain. This kind of spectral analysis shows the bandwidth of the voice signal
and the nature of the individual frequency components.
Figure 18 An Analogue Signal Shown in the Frequency Domain
In todays communication systems it is usual to convert analogue information into digital

signals. The diagram below shows the time domain representation of a digital signal. This
signal is simply an ON/OFF waveform; real digital systems would have much more complex
waves.
Figure 19 A Time Domain Representation of a Square Wave
The same information can be shown in the frequency domain. From the signal shown below
it is possible to see that the simple square waveform has signal components at the
fundamental frequency of the waveform and then odd harmonic components. This is a
simplified description of a much more complex theory known as the Fourier Transform.

Figure 20 A Frequency Domain Representation of a Square Wave
In fact, Fourier stated that any complex waveform can be described by the sum of a series of
sinusoidal components. The diagram below illustrates the principle of the simple square
wave built from sinusoidal waveforms.
Figure 21 The Addition of Fundamental and Harmonic Components

Q1. The plane of polarisation of an electromagnetic (EM) wave is determined from the
angle of which EM component?
a) The magnetic field
b) The static field
c) The electric field
d) The magnestatic field
Q2. Analogue and digital data that represents information before coding and modulation is
referred to as which of the following?
a) Broadband
b) Wideband
c) In-band
d) Baseband
Q3. Fourier states that any complex wave can be represented by which of the following?
a) The sum of a series of sinusoidal signals
b) The inverse of a series of sinusoidal signals
c) The sum of all its fundamental sinusoidal components
d) The sum of a series of square waves
Q5. Fourier stated that any complex wave can be represented by which of the following?
a) The sum of a series of sinusoidal signals
b) The inverse of a series of sinusoidal signals
c) The sum of all its fundamental sinusoidal components
d) The sum of a series of square waves
Q4. A square wave consists of what sinusoidal components?

a) A fundamental component only
b) A fundamental component and odd harmonics
c) A fundamental component and even harmonics
d) Harmonic components only
Q6. In speech systems, how much speech information is generally transmitted?

a) 20 kHz
b) 3.1 kHz
c) 30 kHz
d) 5.1 kHz

Name...
Question set

Lesson 3 Decibels (dB) and Noise in RF Theory
The Decibel and Applications for RF Practice
In general it can be said that the decibel (dB) is another way of representing factors or
absolute values. It is a very convenient way to represent very small or very large numbers,
and consider them on a reasonable scale.
To define the decibel we should first look at the way in we represent the numbers associated
with logarithms:
th
is called the n power of x
x is the base
n is the index.
When considering the product or division of two numbers that are raised to the power of
some index, m and n in this case, the indices can be added or subtracted, as shown below.
+

= =

From the statement below it can be understood that the value 10 raised to the index x will
yield the value n, and that the logarithm to the base 10 of n will yield the value x.
= 10
10 =
This can be seen in the following numerical example:
100 = 102
10 100 = 2
These are examples of simple logarithms. The decibel refers specifically to factors and
absolute values.
The example below shows the ratio of two values, P1 and P2. If P1 = 10 and P2 = 5, then the
linear value would be:
1 10
= =2
2 5

The logarithm of this ratio would be:
1 10
10 ( ) = 10 ( ) = 0.3
2 5
This would be an expression of the ratio as a Bel, so to convert to decibels we need to

multiply by ten. So the ratio of 10 and 5, in decibels, is 3 dB. This is an example of a simple
gain factor, which can be used to describe the gain or loss of amplifiers, components, path
loss, etc.
1
= 1010 ( )
2
In some cases it is necessary to describe absolute values in decibels, therefore the value in
question must be referenced against some known value. For measurements of power the
reference is typically 1 mW. The following expression can be used to convert from linear
watts to dBm.
1
= 1010 ( )
1
In the example below, each component has a value of performance expressed as a figure of
gain in decibels. To establish the total performance of the combined components, we can
simply add the figures together.
Figure 22 Gain and Loss Expressed as Decibels

The table below shows some commonly used decibel values and their linear conversions.
Figure 23 Table of Typical Values and their Conversions
Calculating Noise in RF systems
Thermal noise is the wideband electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from all objects, the
cosmos, the stars, the earth and the conducting components that comprise a radio system.
Noise is inevitable in radio systems and cannot be completely eliminated. However, it is
possible to quantify the noise and to design systems that will work satisfactorily despite the
noise.
The expression below determines the amount of noise present in a radio channel of a
defined bandwidth. The constant and temperature T are often taken together to be a
constant value of 174 dBm/Hz, which amounts to 174 dBm of noise power present in one
hertz of radio bandwidth. It follows therefore that the total amount of noise present will be
proportional to the to actual bandwidth of the channel.
0
=
0
Where:
B = bandwidth in hertz
G = power gain
k = 1.38 1023 Joules/Kelvin

N = kTB watts
N0 = noise power output at room temperature (T0)
T = degrees Kelvin
System components configured in series or cascade will contribute to the overall noise
present in any radio system. The diagram below illustrates the principle. If we measure the
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) at the input and output of a system, represented by the box in
the middle, then the total noise contribution is the difference of the SNR dB at the input and
output. This figure is often expressed as the Noise Figure (NFdB) of the system.
Figure 24 Calculating Noise Figure from Signal-to-Noise Ratios
Cascaded Noise
Where there are multiple components in the receiver system, such as feeders, filters, and
amplifiers, each component will contribute noise to the total NF of the system. However, the
noise figure of the total system cannot be better than the noise figure of the first component.
Also, the gain of the first stage will impact the noise seen in the subsequent stages of the
system, thus a cascade calculation must be carried out to determine the total noise in the
system. This concept is outlined in the diagram below.
Figure 25 Noise in Cascaded Systems

Noise in radio systems will also be affected by the ambient noise level generated from
manmade sources such as street lighting, car ignition systems, and electricity distribution. It
follows that urban areas will exhibit more noise than rural areas given the greater density of
electrical systems. This noise may need to be considered as a margin when planning mobile
radio systems, although radio systems operating above 1 GHz are less affected by this
source of noise.
Figure 26 Noise from Man-Made Sources


n
Q1. In the expression X , X is referred to as which of the following?
a) Base
b) Index
c) Logarithm
d) Power
Q2. If a system consists of a x1000 gain amplifier and a cable which loses half the power,
what is the total gain of the system in dB?
a) 30 dB
b) 500 dB
c) 15 dB
d) 27 dB
Q3. Thermal background noise in radio systems is proportional to which of the following?
a) Boltzmanns constant
b) Radio frequency
c) Channel bandwidth
d) Transmitter power
Q4. In a cascaded system of three components, the noise contributed by the second stage
to the overall noise figure is primarily determined by which of the following?
a) The gain of the third stage
b) The noise of the first stage
c) The gain of the first stage
d) The noise in the third stage
Q5. Convert the following from linear units of watt to dBm.

a) 10 mW
b) 30 W
c) 1 W
d) 121 pW
e) 99 nW
Q6. Convert the following from dBm to linear units of power (watts).
a) 14 dBm
b) 60 dBm
c) 87 dBm
d) 100 dBm
e) 0 dBm

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Question set

Lesson 4 Modulation Schemes for LTE
Principal Modulation Systems
There are two types of signal in radio systems, the carrier and the baseband information.
The process of modifying the radio frequency carrier to represent or carry the baseband data
is known as modulation.
There are three principal modulation methods used by digital modulation schemes: ASK
(Amplitude Shift Keying), FSK (Frequency Shift Keying), and PSK (Phase Shift Keying).
The three systems are illustrated below.
Figure 27 ASK, FSK and PSK
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
With ASK, the amplitude or power of the radio carrier is varied to represent the baseband
information. In the example above, a low power represents a digital 0 and a high power
represents a digital 1. Such systems are simple in concept, but difficult to implement with
good performance in practice, since any variation in the radio signal during propagation will
also distort the baseband information, leading to errors in the receiver.

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
FSK systems keep the power constant and vary the transmitted frequency to represent the
baseband information. In this example a higher frequency represents the 0 whilst a lower
frequency represents the 1. This is a more practical system and is used in mobile
technologies such as GSM.
FSK is also more power efficient, since the constant envelope of the modulated signal can
be amplified easily. It could be said, however, that FSK systems are not as spectrally
efficient because they occupy a wide radio channel compared to the amount of data that can
be sent over the channel.
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
PSK is arguably the most spectrally efficient of all, allowing a lot of data to be sent relative to
the amount of radio spectrum occupied. However, these systems tend to be complex and
less power-efficient than FSK systems. The baseband information is not encoded into the
angle or phase of the transmitted radio carrier.
PSK system can be absolute, in that the angle of the carrier directly represents the
baseband information, or they can be differential, where the information is encoded into the
direction and magnitude of the phase change.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
BPSK modulation is the simplest of the PSK family. The transmitted radio signal has only
two possible angles, typically 0 and 180. the angles can represent the 1 or the 0 of the
baseband data. The diagram below shows the phase change occurring during the change of
the baseband data from a 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
Figure 28 BPSK (Time Domain)
The time domain representation of the BPSK modulated signal can be complex to study, so
the diagram below is a vector representation of the same signal. In fact, most PSK-based
modulation schemes are shown using this representation.

Figure 29 BPSK Constellation
High-Level Modulation Schemes: QPSK and 8PSK
This vector-based approach can also be used to show the high-order modulation schemes.
The figure below illustrates QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, which is used in LTE,
and 8PSK (8-Phase Shift Keying), used in EDGE systems. With QPSK, each point, or angle,
can represent two bits of information; in 8PSK, each angle represents two bits of information.
Figure 30 QPSK and 8PSK
16QAM (16-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
When the number of angles exceeds eight, the receivers become more sensitive to noise
and interference and it becomes more efficient to use the angle domain and the amplitude
domain together. These systems are known as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
schemes.

The constellation shown below is 16QAM and each point on the constellation represents four
bits of information. Such systems are highly spectrally efficient, although there is a
requirement for low noise in the radio link in order that the receiver can correctly determine
the point on the constellation. LTE also uses the 16QAM scheme.
Figure 31 16QAM
64QAM (64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
With 64QAM, each point on the constellation represents six bits of information. This is a very
efficient scheme, but it can only be used successfully in the best signal areas. 64QAM is
used by LTE.
Figure 32 64QAM

The Effect of SNR on Modulation
The following diagram illustrates the impact of noise and interference on the 16QAM
modulation system. Instead of the information being perfectly aligned with each target point,
the noise in the radio channel causes the information to arrive in a less than perfect location,
thus the information appears spread over the angle and amplitude domains. Some
distortion is allowed in the channel, but the more complex the scheme, the less distortion
can be tolerated before the receiver begins to make errors.
Figure 33 The Impact of Noise and Interference on the 64QAM Signal
Adaptive Modulation Schemes
In todays advanced mobile radio systems, multiple modulation and error coding schemes
are used and the link can dynamically adapt to the current radio conditions. This ensures
that the link can trade throughput or capacity for reliability for any given UE across the cell.
What this means in practice is that many users in the radio cell will be using different
modulation and coding schemes depending on their location. This makes it very difficult to
dimension the radio cell for capacity, since a user at the edge of the cell who is likely to be
communicating using the QPSK modulation scheme will use three times more cell resource
than a user who is situated closer to the base station and using 64QAM.
In cases like this, a base station function called a scheduler is important to ensure the
efficient use of system resources.
The diagram below shows a situation where four modulation and coding schemes are
available.

Figure 34 Modulation and Coding Scheme Options

Q1. Which of the following modulation schemes could be said to be more spectrally
efficient than power efficient?
a) ASK
b) FSK
c) PSK
d) GMSK
Q2. QAM-based modulation schemes use which of the following to represent the
modulated data?
a) Time and frequency
b) Angle and phase
c) Amplitude and frequency
d) Phase and amplitude
Q3. In 16QAM, how many bits of information are represented by each symbol?
a) 16
b) 2
c) 4
d) 8
Q4. Higher-order modulation schemes such as 16QAM and 64QAM generally require
which of the following:
a) A lower SNR
b) A higher SNR
c) Higher noise in the channel
d) Lower signal in the channel
Q5. Which of the following modulation schemes is NOT supported by the LTE radio
interface?
a) BPSK
b) QPSK
c) 16QAM
d) 64QAM
Q6. The effect of increasing noise in the transmission channel will:

a) Reduce the signal level
b) Decrease the bit error rate
c) Increase the throughput
d) Increase the bit error rate

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Question set

Lesson 5 Multiple Access Schemes
Multiple Access in Radio Systems
Given that radio spectrum is limited, it is important that communication systems offer the
highest possible capacity so that they can support as many users as possible. One way of
achieving this is by using multiple access techniques.
In radio systems there are generally only two resources that can be shared to achieve
multiple access: frequency, and time. Other systems, such as WCDMA (Wideband Code
Division Multiple Access), use methods based on spread spectrum techniques. These
exploit information theory to allow multiple users to communicate simultaneously.
Figure 35 The Multiple Access Concept
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
FDMA schemes divide spectrum allocation into smaller frequency segments, allocating each
signal a different frequency. Simple first-generation mobile networks used this method.
Figure 36 Separate Radio Channels in FDMA
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
TDMA enables signals to be transmitted on the same frequencies, but not at the same time
each signal is given its own timeslot within a frequency band.

Figure 37 Individual Time Slots in TDMA
TDMA and FDMA Hybrid
Some systems, notably GSM, use both the time and frequency domains to create multiple
separate radio channels, each of which is divided in the time domain into timeslots. Network
operators are allocated a portion of spectrum, which is then split into radio carrier
frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart. This satisfies the FDMA criterion. Each carrier frequency
band is then divided into eight separate timeslots, i.e. TDMA. Thus a channel allocation will
include both a frequency domain and time domain description.
Figure 38 Radio Channels and Timeslots in Hybrid TDMA/FDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
CDMA allows all signals to share the same frequency and time domains. In order to
distinguish signals at the receiver, unique codes are attached to each signal.
To envisage this, imagine a crowded room. In a TDMA system, everyone in the room is
speaking the same language. Therefore in order to hear someone speaking on the other
side of the room, it is necessary for everyone else to stop speaking. Each person could
therefore be allocated a recurring timeslot during which they could speak, with multiple
conversations supported by allocating a different timeslot to each. Using CDMA, everyone in
the room is speaking a different language. Therefore even when other people in the room
are speaking at the same time, it is still possible to pick out what the person on the other
side of the room is saying, so long as they are speaking the language that you understand.

Figure 39 User Information Spread in the Time and Frequency Domains
Multi-Carrier Transmission
Multi-carrier systems split the high-speed stream of serial baseband data into lower-speed
parallel streams. The lower bit rate on each sub-carrier results in a narrower radio channel
which is resistant to the frequency selective fade.
Figure 40 Single- and Multiple-Carrier Comparison
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Multi-carrier systems need to exhibit good spectral efficiency: each sub-carrier must be
placed close to its adjacent carrier without causing interference.
The channel spacing is 1/Ts where Ts is the symbol time of information modulated onto the
carrier. Spacing the channels in this manner ensures that the centre of each carrier
corresponds with a zero crossing point for each of the neighbouring sub-carriers. This
means that the centre of the sub-carriers can be sampled, free from interference from the
adjacent sub-carriers.

Figure 41 Sending Data in Parallel Radio Channels
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Whilst the concept of multi-channel systems have many performance benefits in the multi-
path environment, there is still a requirement to allow multiple access.
LTE uses OFDMA to organise and schedule data transmission to the users in the cell.
Simple OFDM systems exploit the time domain to allow multiple access; OFDMA also allows
multiple access to extend to the frequency domain. This yields a system that is flexible and
efficient, but at the same time complicated to manage. The scheduler function within the
base station is very important in addressing this issue.
Figure 42 Time and Frequency Sharing in OFDMA
Duplex Schemes
LTE supports both TDD (Time Division Duplex) and FDD (Frequency Division Duplex).
In FDD, the uplink and downlink communications are separated in the frequency domain: the
base station and mobile device transmit and receive on different frequencies.
TDD uses the same frequency in both the uplink and the downlink, so the uplink data and
downlink data are transmitted at different times.
The differences between the systems can be seen in the figures below.

Figure 43 FDD
Figure 44 TDD
Most LTE deployments will make use of the FDD mode, requiring paired spectrum
allocations.

Q1. Which of the following multiple access schemes use the frequency domain as the
primary means of sharing the radio channel resources?
a) FDMA
b) CDMA
c) TDMA
d) OFDM
Q2. in TDMA systems the time allocated to the users for transmission and reception is
generally known as which of the following?
a) Slot
b) Burst
c) Timeslot
d) Sub-channel
Q3. Out of the following multiple access schemes, which is generally thought to make most
efficient use of the radio spectrum?
a) TDMA
b) FDMA
c) TDMA/FDMA Hybrid
d) CDMA
Q4. Which of the following modulation schemes will perform best in a multipath
environment for mobile broadband systems?
a) TDMA
b) WCDMA
c) OFDMA
d) FDMA
Q5. In OFDMA systems the data is:

a) Modulated on to a single wideband carrier
b) Spilt in to parallel narrow radio channels
c) Spread with a wideband code before transmission
d) Transmitted in parallel on multiple wideband channels
Q6. In OFDMA the user information uses which of the following to enable a multiple access
scheme?
a) Only the time domain
b) Only the frequency domain
c) Both frequency and time domains
d) The code domain

Name...
Question set

Section 1 Assignment Questions
These questions are designed to encourage further research.
Q1. Investigate what the radio planning practices are within your own company, and
comment on the differences between these practices and those described above.
Q2. Look at a typical non-LTE link budget for your own system and comment on where the
main differences would occur when considering an LTE link budget. Where possible,
include details of the vendors you may choose for the LTE network.
Q3. LTE supports up to 16 different modulation and coding schemes. List the schemes
supported and the SNR required for good performance.

Section 1 Practice Paper
Q1. At which phase of the radio planning process are assumptions likely to be confirmed
and the build plan optimised?
a) Phase 1
b) Phase 2
c) Phase 3
d) Phase 4
Q2. Which of the following statements about LTE UEs is true?

a) They only support one frequency band
b) They are likely to support a subset of the frequency bands
c) They are likely to support all the frequency bands
d) They must support all the frequency bands
Q3. At lower frequencies cells tend to be:

a) Larger than cells operating at higher frequencies
b) Smaller than cells operating at higher frequencies
c) Dependent on a clutter-free environment to provide coverage
d) The same size as cells operating at higher frequencies
Q4. How many FTT points will be used to decode an LTE radio channel of 10 MHz
bandwidth?
a) 512
b) 1000
c) 1024
d) 2048
n n
Q5. In the expression X , is referred to as which of the following?
a) Base
b) Index
c) Logarithm
d) Power
Q6. In determining the amount of noise present in a radio channel, the constant k and
temperature T are often considered together to have a constant value of:
a) 174 dBm
b) 0 dBm
c) 3 dBm
d) 174 dBm
Q7. Above what frequency do mobile radio systems tend to become less affected by noise
generated by manmade sources?

a) 1 MHz
b) 10 MHz
c) 1 GHz
c) 10 GHz
Q8. In adaptive modulation systems, users at the edge of the cell are more likely to use
which of the following modulation schemes?
a) QPSK
b) 16QAM
c) 64QAM
d) 8PSK
Q9. In systems that support adaptive modulation schemes the capacity of the radio cell will
be reduced when:
a) Most of the users are close to the base station
b) The radio cell has fewer users
c) Most of the users are closer to the cell edge
d) The radio cell has many users
Q10. The individual radio channels that form the overall OFDMA radio channels are known
as which of the following?
a) Radio channels
b) Sub-channels
c) Sub-carriers
d) Tones
Q11. Which of the following statements about the LTE radio channel is true?
a) LTE is a TDD only system
b) LTE is an FDD only system
c) LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using TDD
d) LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using FDD
Q12. In OFDM, the user information uses which of the following to enable a multiple access
scheme?
a) Only the time domain
b) Only the frequency domain
c) Both frequency and time domains
d) The code domain

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 1)
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Question set


SECTION 2
PROPAGATION PRINCIPLES,
MODELLING, AND ANTENNAS


Lesson 1 Propagation Basics
Refraction of the Radio Signal
It is generally assumed that radio waves travel in straight lines. This is not the case,
however. Radio waves follow a curved trajectory determined by the properties of the medium
though which they travel. This means that the radio horizon is further than the optical or
geometric horizon, as illustrated below.
Figure 45 The Geometric and Radio Horizon
Radio waves can be assumed to have a vertical dimension which increases as the wavefront
travels further from the transmission source. This means that the top and bottom of the
wavefront will be travelling through the transmission medium air, in this case with
different properties. Air has a refractive index, which is determined by air pressure,
temperature, and water vapour pressure. It can be generally stated that the refractive index
grows less as height increases.
(units of refractivity) is a dimensionless quantity
= ( 1). 106

= 77.6 + 3.73 105
2
Where:
P = atmospheric pressure (mb)

T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
e = water vapour pressure (mb)
The variation in refractive index will alter the speed at which the radio wave travels,
effectively moving faster at the top of the wavefront, thus causing the entire wavefront to
follow the curved path.

Figure 46 The Refractive Index Reduces with Altitude
The figure below shows an alternative view. Here, the radio wave is shown as a straight line
and the geometric line is drawn as a curved line. This is referred to as the 4/3 model, where
the relative size of the earths radius would have to be increased to 4/3s of its actual radius
to cause the radio wave to be drawn as a straight line. The 4/3 rule applies to normal
refractive and propagation conditions, although there are extreme conditions where the 4/3
does not apply.
Figure 47 the 4/3s Earth

The 4/3 earth radius scan be calculated based on the following expression:
Equivalent earth radius am = a0[1 0.4665exp(0.0057N)]-1
0 = 6,370 km (actual earth radius)
= /0 = (4/3 for standard earth atmosphere)
Radio horizon = 3.57.
The refractive index is given the value N, which is a unitless value. Under normal refractive
conditions this value can be seen to change by 40 units for every 1000 m gained in altitude.
It is normally shown in a graphical format, as seen below.
Figure 48 N Decreasing Under Normal Conditions
There are non-standard conditions that can occur where the value of N changes by more
than 40 units/1000m or less than 40 units/1000m.
Sub-Refraction
The refractive index falls more slowly as height is increased. This is referred to as
sub-refraction, and is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 49 Sub-Refraction
The impact of this condition on the radio signal is that it will tend to follow a straighter
trajectory, and in extreme cases can lift off and fail to reach the target receiver.
Figure 50 The Effect of Sub Conditions On the Radio Path
Super-Refraction
When the refractive index falls more rapidly than is standard it is referred to as super-
refraction, and is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 51 Super-Refraction

When this condition occurs the radio wave will follow a more curved trajectory, causing it to
bend more toward the earth than under standard conditions. This may reduce the radio
range.
Figure 52 The Effect of Super Conditions On the Radio Path
Extreme Cases Ducting
Where there are extreme variations in temperature, air pressure or water vapour pressure, a
phenomenon known as ducting can occur.
In the illustration below, the refractive index falls with altitude but then reverses and begins
to increase. This sharp change in refractive index will cause the radio wave to be reflected
from the boundary and become trapped in the duct. The duct can exhibit a very low
propagation loss and the signal may travel for many miles before becoming very weak.
Ducts like this may be the cause of de-coupled point-to-point links and interference.
Regions such as the Middle East and other areas where extreme temperatures and humidity
are common (particularly coastal areas) tend to suffer from ducting effects.
Figure 53 Surface Duct
The two diagrams below illustrate other forms of ducting. Areas where cool thermal layers
sits over warm surface air (or vice versa) will cause these elevated ducts.

Figure 54 Surface Duct Elevated Layer
Figure 55 Elevated Duct Elevated Layer

Q1. Generally speaking, in relation to the optical horizon the radio horizon is:
a) Further
b) Nearer
c) The same
d) Wider
Q2. Which one of the following parameters will influence the refractive behaviour of the
radio wave?
a) Radio frequency
b) Antenna height
c) Air pressure
d) Distance
Q3. Under normal refractive conditions, a radio wave can be drawn as a straight line when
the earth radius is considered to be which of the following?
a) 3/4
b) 4/4
c) 4/3
d) 2/3
Q4. The refractive index N will decrease by how many units for every 1000 metres gained
in altitude?
a) 40
b) 80
c) 20
d) 1000
Q5. What happens to the refractive index as height increases?

a) It decreases more rapidly
b) It increases more rapidly
c) It remains constant
d) It decreases more slowly
Q6. Sub-refractive conditions may cause the radio wave to be:

a) Bent upwards away from the earth
b) Bent downwards towards the earth
c) Follow a straight line
d) Be attenuated more rapidly

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Question set

Lesson 2 Mechanisms of Propagation
There are many mechanisms by which radio energy propagates around the environment.
The actual effect of these mechanisms depends largely on the wavelength of the radio
signal.
Reflection
Radio energy which arrives at a surface will be reflected or scattered. The amount of energy
reflected depends on the wavelength and the nature of the material itself and the angle of
incidence. Smooth, conducting surfaces such as metal or sea water will tend to reflect the
signal. A reflected signal will carry most of the energy of the incident wave, while some of the
energy will be absorbed or transmitted through the surface.
Figure 56 Radio Wave Reflection
Scattering
Scattering of the radio wave tends to occur when the height of the surface feature is large
relative to the wavelength of the signal. The incident wave is dispersed in multiple directions,
each of the new signal components having lower energy compared to the incidence wave.
Figure 57 Radio Wave Scattering

Diffraction
When planning and making signal predictions for macrocells and microcells, diffraction of
radio energy around objects in the radio path is one of the main mechanisms that is
analysed. A radio wave that strikes an object tends to be bent around the object, yielding a
soft shadow.
Figure 58 Radio Wave Diffraction
The amount of energy diffracted depends on the wavelength and the shape of the object.
Basic mathematical analysis of diffraction would model spherical and knife-edge objects.
The path between transmitter and receiver may of course contain multiple objects, so more
advanced analysis calculates multiple edge diffraction in order to predict the signal strength.
Software planning tools do this as a matter of course, and use both terrain and building
features in their predictions.
Figure 59 Modelling Radio Wave Diffraction

Through this analysis it is possible to determine curves, such as the one shown below, for
the amount of signal energy behind the object, the shape of the curve being defined by the
wavelength, the shape of the object, and the percentage of obstruction of the radio signal.
Figure 60 The Effect of Diffraction on the Radio Wave
Attenuation Through Penetration
When making propagation predictions, the amount of energy that will pass though objects is
also of interest. This is of particular importance when predicting in-building coverage in
macro- and micro-cellular systems. The radio frequency, building material, thickness, and
angle of incidence will all determine the amount of energy transmitted through the object.
These penetration loss values are often built empirically from tests on different types of
building using different frequency bands. There is no single reference table that can be
consulted during the planning stages, since local variations play a large part in the final
attenuation value.
Figure 61 Loss of Energy Through Penetration

Fresnel Clearance
In point-to-point or LOS systems the radio path can usually be designed largely free from
mid-path objects. However, the definition of path clearance must be determined with respect
to the first Fresnel zone.
Fresnel zones are described by path lengths that are half, one, one and a half, etc.
wavelengths longer than a direct bore-sight path between the transmitter and receiver
antennas.
When determining clearance it is only the first Fresnel zone that needs to be considered.
This comprises all paths between the transmitter and receiver that are half a wavelength
longer than the bore sight path.
The radius of this zone can be calculated using the expression shown below.
Figure 62 Fresnel Clearance for Radio Links

The first Fresnel zone is shown in cross section below. In point-to-point links about 9% of the
transmitted power is delivered in this zone, therefore clearance of the zone is important.
Figure 63 The Fresnel Zones in Cross Section
The zone does not need to be completely clear, however. It is sufficient to have 60% of the
first Fresnel zone clear for maximum power over the link. Engineers planning these links will
establish a path profile and determine the height of the transmitting and receiving antenna
based on a 60% clearance.
Figure 64 Calculating Fresnel Clearance
Multipath Propagation
In non-LOS systems, every propagation mechanism will be used to ensure that there is
some level of coverage in all locations in the required cell area. These mechanisms create

an environment where there is no single LOS path between the transmitter and receiver;
instead there will be many paths of radio energy. This is referred to as the multipath
environment.
Rayleigh Environment
One of the many issues in multipath environments is fading. Where there are many radio
paths and each one has a roughly equal power distribution, the multi-paths cause deep
fading of the received signal. This can be as much as 3040 dB less than the expected
mean signal. This is known as Rayleigh fading.
Figure 65 Rayleigh Environment
Rician Environment
Multipath can exist where one of the signal paths has a much higher energy than the other
paths. Fading will still occur, but its magnitude is much less than that experienced in the
Rayleigh case. In this instance, fades of up to 1020 dB less than the expected mean can be
seen.

Figure 66 The Rician Channel

Q1. Which type of radio wave will carry most of the energy of the incident wave?
a) Refracted
b) Diffracted
c) Reflected
d) Scattered
Q2. When a radio wave encounters a surface where the surface features are large relative
to the signal wavelength, the signal is more likely to be:
a) Refracted
b) Diffracted
c) Reflected
d) Scattered
Q3. When considering path clearance, which one of the following Fresnel zones is normally
taken in to account?
a) First
b) Second
c) Third
d) Fourth
Q4. For point-to-point links at least how much of the First Fresnel zone must be clear from
obstruction?
a) 100%
b) 90%
c) 60%
d) 40%
Q5. In a Rayleigh multipath environment the radio signal tends exhibit which of the
following properties?
a) Many radio paths, each of low signal strength
b) Many radio paths, each of high signal strength
c) A dominant signal path with other weaker signal paths
d) A single radio path
Q6. In a Rician multipath environment the radio signal tends exhibit which of the following
properties?
a) Many radio paths, each of low signal strength
b) Many radio paths, each of high signal strength
c) A dominant signal path with other weaker signal paths
d) A single radio path

Name...
Question set

Lesson 3 Interference and Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse Concepts
Radio systems that use large radio cells, such as traditional PMR, do not use very many
base stations so they cannot offer very high capacity. Using smaller radio cells and reusing
the same block of frequencies over and over again yields much higher network capacities.
The diagram below illustrates the main concept of frequency reuse. Each cell within a
cluster, i.e. A to G, uses a different frequency. However, the same frequencies can be
reused within an adjacent cluster as long as the cells do not abut each other.
The trick in such systems is to manage the amount of co-channel interference across the
system. Greater capacity can be provided by using the radio channel multiple times over the
same area, but unfortunately this also increases interference levels. Getting the balance
right is very important when designing high-capacity networks.
Figure 67 Typical View of Frequency Reuse
The parameter that affects the amount of interference is the distance between the cell
centres of the reused cells, as illustrated below.
Whilst the reuse distance is of some importance, however, the ratio of cell radius to reuse
distance has more impact on the amount of interference.

Figure 68 Calculating the Reuse Distance
The expression above for the reuse distance can be transposed to:

= 3

Where N is the number of cells in the reuse pattern. A value of N = 7 will yield a particular
capacity and interference value; where N = 4 the capacity will be higher and the interference
will also be higher.
The diagram below describes the interference concept. At the cell edge the mobile device
will receive a wanted signal, C, but will also receive unwanted power from the interferer, I.
The amount of interference is expressed as a ratio of these two values, C/I.
C/I is also a factor when calculating the total SNR experienced by the device, and will
determine the capacity available to the user in that location. This is particularly important in
LTE since the selection of modulation and coding scheme is driven largely by the SNR.
Figure 69 The Co-Channel to Interference (C/I) Ratio

Frequency Reuse in LTE
For LTE networks the challenge of frequency reuse is very high since it is very unlikely that
operators will have more than six channels. As an example, Verizon in the USA deployed
the first phase of its LTE system using only a single 10 MHz radio channel. This meant that
every radio cell was using the same radio channel, potentially leading to very high co-
channel interference.
LTE uses a mechanism called interference coordination, whereby each eNB negotiates the
use of time and frequency resources with neighbouring eNBs. When there is very high use
of a particular radio channel a base station can send an interference warning to its adjacent
sites, thereby allowing them to avoid resource collisions and high interference. This
coordination mechanism is crucial to the successful operation of LTE networks.
Cell Size and Capacity
Practically, a network will not have cells of only one size. Instead, cell sizes will depend on
factors such as the type of area to be covered and the capacity required in those locations.
The diagram below show the progressive splitting of cells to meet the local capacity
requirements of an urban area.
Figure 70 Cell Splitting
Cell Deployment in LTE
LTE is designed to work using radio cells whose sizes range from just a few meters to one
hundred kilometres. The figure below shows the basic concept of the different cell sizes.

Figure 71 Typical Cell Sizes for LTE Systems
Systems that support mobility often have multiple layers of cells to increase network
reliability and capacity. Thus it is possible to service mobiles with different levels of mobility
(speed) within the different layers of radio cell. Smaller radio cells can be overlaid on the
larger macro cells and will have antenna heights of lower altitude. It is also common to have
base stations inside public buildings to increase the reliability of the network.
Large buildings such as shopping centres and airports may use distributed antenna systems
and remote radio heads to provide cost-effective coverage.
The concept of layering cells is shown in the following diagram.

Figure 72 Layering of Different Cell Sizes

Q1. A radio system that employs a high radio frequency reuse factor will tend to exhibit
which of the following characteristics?
a) Low capacity and low interference
b) Low capacity and high interference
c) High capacity and high interference
d) High capacity and low interference
Q2. In a simplified frequency reuse system the amount of interference is governed primarily
by which of the following?
a) The reuse distance
b) The cell radius
c) The number of cells in the reuse pattern
d) The frequency of the radio channels
Q3. If the frequency reuse factor N is reduced from 7 to 4, the system capacity will:
a) Stay the same
b) Increase
c) Reduce
d) Be reduced, but interference will lower
Q4. As well as increasing the frequency reuse factor, operators may also increase network
capacity in specific areas by using which of the following methods?
a) Cell splitting
b) Introducing a greater number of large radio cells
c) Increasing the transmit power of base stations
d) Using a lower reuse factor
Q5. Which of the following can most affect the amount of interference experienced?
a) Reuse distance
b) Cell radius
c) Ratio of cell radius to reuse distance
d) Number of channels
Q6. What is currently the smallest cell size deployed by LTE networks?
a) Nanocell
b) Femtocell
c) Microcell
d) Picocell

Name...
Question set

Lesson 4 Advanced Antenna Techniques for LTE
SISO (Single Input Single Output)
SISO represents the traditional method of accessing the radio channel. Each transmitter
has a single antenna, as does each receiver. This method is used as the baseline against
which the performance of all multiple antenna techniques is compared.
Figure 73 SISO (Single In Single Out)
MISO (Multiple Input Single Output) Transmit Diversity
With MISO (which also known as transmit diversity), each transmit antenna transmits
essentially the same stream of data. The multipath environment impacts upon the
transmitted signal resulting in the arrival of time-displaced replicas of the same signal at the
receiver. This is used to improve the SNR at the receiver and thus the reliability of data
transmission. It is usual to apply antenna-specific coding to the signals prior to transmission
to increase the diversity effect.
Transmit diversity does not increase data rates as such, but supports the same data rates
using less power, or allows a higher order modulation scheme to be used if sufficient
improvement in SNR is experienced at the receiver. The performance of transmit diversity
can be enhanced if the receiver is able to feedback parameters for use by the transmitter to
adjust the balance of phase and power used for each antenna.
Figure 74 MISO (Transmit Diversity)

SIMO (Single Input Multiple Output) Receive Diversity
SIMO uses one transmitter and two or more receivers and is usually referred to as receive
diversity. It is particularly well suited to low SNR conditions. There is no improvement in the
data rate as only one data stream is transmitted, but coverage at the cell edge is improved
due to the lowering of the usable SNR.
Figure 75 SIMO (Receive Diversity)
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) Spatial Multiplexing
MIMO, also known as spatial multiplexing, requires two or more transmitters and two or
more receivers. Multiple data streams are transmitted simultaneously in the same frequency
and time, taking full advantage of the multiple paths in the radio channel. For a system to be
described as MIMO, it must have at least as many receivers as there are transmit streams.
Figure 76 MIMO (Spatial Multiplexing)
Adding receive diversity (SIMO) to transmit diversity (MISO) does not create MIMO, even
though there are now two transmit and two receive antennas. If N data streams are
transmitted from fewer than N antennas, the data cannot be fully descrambled since
overlapping streams result in interference. However, by spatially separating N streams
across at least N antennas, N receivers will be able to reconstruct the original data streams
fully, provided the crosstalk and noise in the radio channel are low enough.

One other crucial factor for MIMO operation is that the transmissions from each antenna
must be uniquely identifiable so that each receiver can determine what combination of
transmissions has been received. This identification is usually done with pilot or reference
signals.
The spatial diversity of the radio channel means that MIMO has the potential to increase the
data rate. The figure below shows a simplified illustration of spatial multiplexing. In this
example, each transmit antenna transmits a different data stream. One data stream is
uniquely assigned to one antenna. The multipath characteristics of the channel should
ensure that each receiver antenna sees a combination of each stream. The receivers
decode the received signals by analysing the patterns that uniquely identify each transmitter
and then determine what combination of each transmit stream is present. The application of
an inverse filter and summing of the received streams recreates the original data.
Figure 77 Spatial Multiplexing
A more advanced form of MIMO includes special precoding, which results in each stream
being spread across more than one transmit antenna. For this technique to work effectively
the transmitter know the channel conditions and, in the case of FDD, these conditions must
be provided in real time by feedback from the UE. Such optimisation significantly
complicates the system, but it can also provide higher performance.
Precoding for TDD systems does not require receiver feedback as the transmitter can
independently determine the channel conditions by analysing the received signals that are
on the same frequency.
Single User, Multiple User, and Co-operative MIMO
SU-MIMO (Single User MIMO)
This is the most common form of MIMO and can be applied in the uplink or downlink.
The main purpose of SU-MIMO is to increase the data rate to a single user. There is also a
corresponding increase in the capacity of the cell. The following figure shows the downlink
form of 2 x 2 SU-MIMO, in which two data streams are allocated to a single UE. The data
streams are pre-coded such that each stream is represented at a different power and phase
on each antenna. The two mixed data streams are then transmitted from each antenna. The

transmitted signals are further mixed by the channel. The purpose of the precoding is to
optimise the transmission to the characteristics of the radio channel so that when the signals
are received, they can be more easily separated back into the original data streams.
Figure 78 Single User MIMO
MU-MIMO (Multiple User MIMO)
MU-MIMO is used only in the uplink. MU-MIMO does not increase an individual users data
rate, but it does offer cell capacity gains.
In the following diagram, the two data streams originate from different UEs. The two
transmitters are much further apart than in the single user case, and the lack of physical
connection means there is no opportunity to optimise the coding by mixing the two data
streams. However, the extra spatial separation does increase the chance of the eNB picking
up pairs of UEs which have uncorrelated paths. This maximises the potential capacity gain.
This is different from the pre-coded SU-MIMO case, in which the closeness of the antennas
could be problematic, especially at frequencies less than 1 GHz.
MU-MIMO has an additional important advantage: the UE does not require the expense and
power-drain of two transmitters, yet the cell still benefits from increased capacity.
Figure 79 Multi-User MIMO

Co-MIMO (Co-operative MIMO)
The essential element of co-MIMO is that two separate entities are involved at the
transmission end. The example below shows two eNBs collaborating by sharing data
streams to pre-code the spatially separate antennas for optimal communication with at least
one UE.
The most advantageous use of downlink co-MIMO occurs when the UE is at the cell edge.
Here the SNR will be at its worst, but the radio paths will be uncorrelated, which offers
significant potential for increased performance. When co-MIMO is applied in the downlink it
is sometimes called network MIMO.
Co-MIMO is also possible in the uplink but is fundamentally more difficult to implement as no
physical connection exists between the UEs to share the data streams. Uplink Co-MIMO is
also known as virtual MIMO.
Figure 80 Co-operative MIMO
Beamforming
Beamforming effectively reduces the SNR on the link. The technique uses the same signal
processing and antenna techniques as MIMO, but rather than exploiting de-correlation in the
radio path, it aims to exploit correlation so that the radiation pattern from the transmitter is
directed towards the receiver. This is done by applying small time delays to a calibrated
phase array of antennas. The effectiveness of beamforming varies with the number of
antennas. With just two antennas little gain is seen, but with four antennas the gains are
more useful.
Obtaining the initial antenna timing calibration and maintaining it in the field are challenging.
Turning a MIMO system into a beamforming system is simply a matter of changing the
precoding matrices. In practical systems, however, antenna design has to be taken into
account, and things are not so simple. It is possible to design antennas to be correlated or
uncorrelated; for example, by changing the polarisation. However, switching between
correlated and uncorrelated patterns can be problematic if the physical design of the
antennas has been optimised for one or the other.

Since beamforming is related to the physical position of the UE, the required update rate for
the antenna phasing is much lower than the rates needed to support MIMO precoding. Thus
beamforming has a lower signalling overhead than MIMO.
Figure 81 Beamforming Operation
LTE Downlink Multiple Antenna Schemes
The following multiple antenna schemes previously described are supported in the LTE
downlink:
Single-Antenna transmission, no MIMO

Transmit diversity
Open-loop spatial multiplexing, no UE feedback required
Closed-loop spatial multiplexing, UE feedback required
Multi-user MIMO (more than one UE is assigned to the same resource block)
Beamforming

Open-loop Transmit Diversity
This is the simplest downlink LTE multiple antenna scheme. LTE supports either two or four
antennas for transmit diversity. As an example, a single stream of data can be assigned to
the different layers and coded using Space-Frequency Block Coding (SFBC). Since this form
of tranmit diversity has no data rate gain, the code words CW0 and CW1 are the same.
SFBC achieves robustness through frequency diversity by using different subcarriers for the
repeated data on each antenna.
Receive Diversity
Receive diversity is mandatory for the UE. It is the baseline receiver capability for which
performance requirements will be defined. A typical use of receive diversity is maximum ratio
combining of the received streams to improve the SNR in poor conditions. Receive diversity
provides little gain in good conditions.
Spatial Multiplexing MIMO
MIMO is supported for two and four antenna configurations. Assuming a two-channel UE
receiver, this scheme allows for 2 x 2 or 4 x 2 MIMO. A four-channel UE receiver, which is
required for a 4 x 4 configuration, has been defined but is not likely to be implemented in the
near future. The most common configuration will be 2 x 2 SU-MIMO. In this case the payload
data will be divided into the two code-word streams CW0 and CW1 and processed according
to the steps in the figure below.
Figure 82 Coding Processes for LTE MIMO
Spatial Multiplexing MIMO
Depending on the precoding used, each code word is represented at different powers and
phases on both antennas. In addition, each antenna is uniquely identified by the position of
the reference signals within the frame structure. The UE must obtain an accurate picture of
the channel conditions for each antenna. Therefore, when a reference signal is transmitted
from one antenna port, the other antenna ports in the cell are idle.

Closed Loop MIMO
As the streams must be pre-coded, the transmitter must have knowledge of the channel. The
UE estimates the radio channel and selects the optimum precoding matrix. This channel
information is provided by the UE on the uplink control channel. The channel feedback uses
a codebook approach to provide an index into a predetermined set of precoding matrices.
Since the channel is continually changing, this information will be provided for multiple points
across the channel bandwidth, at regular intervals, up to several hundred times a second.
Fundamentally, the UE that can best estimate the channel conditions and then signal the
best coding to use will get the best performance out of the channel. Although the use of a
codebook for precoding limits the best fit to the channel, it significantly simplifies the channel
estimation process by the UE and the amount of uplink signalling needed to convey the
desired precoding.
Open Loop MIMO
If the UE is moving at a high velocity, the quality of the feedback may deteriorate. Thus, an
open loop spatial multiplexing mode is also supported which is based on predefined settings
for spatial multiplexing and precoding. The eNB selects the optimum MIMO mode and
precoding configuration. The information is conveyed to the UE as part of the Downlink
Control Information (DCI) on PDCCH.
CDD (Cyclic Delay Diversity)
This technique adds antenna-specific cyclic time shifts to create multipath artificially on the
received signal and prevent signal cancellation caused by the close spacing of the transmit
antennas.
Normally, multipath would be considered undesirable, but by creating artificial multipath in an

otherwise flat channel, the eNB UE scheduler can choose to transmit on RBs that have
favourable propagation conditions.
The CDD system works by adding the delay only to the data subcarriers while leaving the
RS subcarriers alone. The UE uses the flat RS subcarriers to report the received channel
flatness and the eNB schedules the UE to use the RB that it knows will benefit from the
artificially induced multipath.
By not applying the CDD to the RS, the eNB can choose to apply CDD on a per-UE basis.

Figure 83 MIMO Antenna Reference Signals
Reporting of UE Feedback
In order for MIMO schemes to work properly, each UE has to report information about the
mobile radio channel to the base station. A lot of different reporting modes and formats are
available which are selected according to the MIMO mode of operation and network choice.
The reporting may consist of a number of elements, which are detailed below.
CQI (Channel Quality Indicator)
CQI is an indication of the downlink mobile radio channel quality as experienced by a UE.
Essentially, the UE is proposing to the eNB an optimum modulation scheme and coding rate
to use for a given radio link quality, so that the resulting transport block error rate would not
exceed 10%. Sixteen combinations of modulation scheme and coding rate are specified as
possible CQI values. The UE may report different types of CQI.
A so-called wideband CQI refers to the complete system bandwidth. Alternatively, the UE
may evaluate a sub-band CQI value per sub-band of a certain number of resource blocks
which is configured by higher layers. The full set of sub-bands would cover the entire system
bandwidth. In case of spatial multiplexing, a CQI per code word needs to be reported.

PMI (Precoding Matrix Indicator)
PMI is an indication of the optimum precoding matrix to be used in the base station for a
given radio condition. The PMI value refers to the codebook table. The network configures
the number of resource blocks that are represented by a PMI report. Thus to cover the full
bandwidth, multiple PMI reports may be needed. PMI reports are needed for closed loop
spatial multiplexing, multi-user MIMO and closed-loop rank 1 precoding MIMO modes.
RI (Rank Indication)
RI defines the number of useful transmission layers when spatial multiplexing is used. For
transmit diversity the rank is equal to 1. The reporting may be periodic or aperiodic and is
configured by the radio network. Aperiodic reporting is triggered by a CQI request contained
in the uplink scheduling grant. The UE would send the report on PUSCH. In the case of
periodic reporting, PUCCH is used if PUSCH is not available.

Q1. Antenna systems that have a single receive antenna and multiple transmit antennas
are known as which of the following?
a) SISO
b) MISO
c) SIMO
d) MIMO
Q2. Receive diversity could also be referred to as which of the following?

a) SISO
b) MISO
c) SIMO
d) MIMO
Q3. The term spatial multiplexing is associated with which of the following?
a) SISO
b) MISO
c) SIMO
d) MIMO
Q4. What is the primary benefit of MIMO?

a) Increasing the gain of the antennas
b) Improving the SNR of the channel
c) Increasing the capacity of the radio channel
d) Less power transmitted from the UE
Q5. MIMO improves radio link capacity:

a) In the uplink direction only
b) In the downlink direction only
c) In both the uplink and downlink directions
d) Mostly on the uplink but some improvement on the downlink
Q6. What is the effect of multi-user MIMO?

a) Improves the link capacity on the downlink
b) Increases the number of users on the uplink
c) Increases the capacity for users on the uplink
d) Increases the number of users on the downlink

Name...
Question set

Section 2 Practice Paper
Q1. Super-refractive conditions may be observed when the refractive index ____________
as it gains altitude?
a) Decreases more rapidly
b) Increases more rapidly
c) Remains constant
d) Decreases more slowly
Q2. Super-refractive conditions may cause the radio wave to be:

a) Bent upward away from the earth
b) Bent downwards toward the earth
c) Follow a straight line
d) Be attenuated more rapidly
Q3. Where two layers of extreme temperature differences are observed the effect on the
radio wave is known as which of the following?
a) Propagation
b) Path loss
c) Ducting
d) Super-refractive
Q4. Which one of the following parameters will NOT influence the refractive behaviour of
the radio wave?
a) Radio frequency
b) Air pressure
c) Temperature
d) Water vapour pressure
Q5. When radio waves reach an object, they tend to bend round it and cause a shadow.
This is known as:
a) Diffusion
b) Diffraction
c) Distraction
d) Sub-refraction
Q6. How much less than the expected mean signal can Rayleigh fading be?
a) 1020 dB
b) 2030 dB
c) 3040 dB
d) 4050 dB

Q7. How much less than the expected mean signal can Rician fading be?
a) 1020 dB
b) 2030 dB
c) 3040 dB
d) 4050 dB
Q8. If the frequency reuse factor N is reduced from 7 to 4, the interference will:
a) Stay the same
b) Increase
c) Reduce
d) Be reduced, but interference will lower
Q9. The mechanism called whereby each LTE eNB negotiates the use of time and
frequency resources with neighbouring eNBs is called:
a) Interference coordination
b) Co-channel coordination
c) Cell coordination
d) eNB coordination
Q10. When downlink MIMO information is distributed between two or more eNBs, it is known
as:
a) SU-MIMO
b) MU-MIMO
c) Co-MIMO
d) CU-MIMO
Q11. Beamforming in LTE networks provides which of the following performance

improvements?
a) Directly increases downlink capacity
b) Directly increases uplink capacity
c) Reduces the SNR on the link
d) Improves the SNR on the link
Q12. What is the name of the codebook technique that requires reporting of channel
conditions several hundred time per second?
a) Open-loop MIMO
b) Closed-loop MIMO
c) Beamforming
d) Cyclic delay diversity

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 2)
Name...
Question set

Section 2 Assignment
Q1. Super refraction, sub refraction and ducting are examples of extreme propagation
conditions, research what causes these conditions and give examples of where these
might occur. Also, determine what might be done to mitigate these effects when
planning radio systems.
Q2. Building attenuation is one of the most common factors when performing link budgets
and it is generally said that building penetration increases with frequency. Do some
research and build a table of typical attenuation values for different building materials
and frequency bands.
Q3. LTE supports many different frequency bands and it is likely that operators will choose
different band depending on local availability and regulatory conditions. Do some
research and find out what frequency bands are being proposed in different parts of
the world, give examples of operators and which bands that are proposing to use.
Comment on some of the issues regarding the diversity of bands.

Q4. MIMO is an antenna technique that will be widely deployed by LTE operators. Do some
research and find out which vendors are supporting the MIMO technology, which
operators are planning to use it and where possible include the results of any trails that
have taken place and comment on the performance increases.


SECTION 3
LINK BUDGETS

Lesson 1 Defining a Link Budget Statement
Introduction to Basic Radio Systems
Every radio system is a series of components and links, from the transmitter to the receiver.
Each element of the system will exhibit some attribute of performance that affects the overall
performance of the end-to-end system. A typical link budget exercise needs to quantify each
of these performance attributes and understand the impact they may have on the system
performance, i.e. the capacity and coverage.
Many factors can be determined from manufacturers data sheets, including transmit power,
feeder losses, and antenna gains. However, some parts of the system, for example the radio
interface, must be modelled in order to determine a satisfactory plan.
Figure 84 Typical Arrangement of Radio System Components and Variables
The diagram above shows the typical arrangement of components in a radio system. The
operating frequency, feeder loss, antenna gain, noise figures, and performance values must
be understood and quantified in order to plan a radio system successfully.
Typical Link Budget Requirements
One of the main aims of calculating a link budget is to determine the maximum path loss
allowed across the radio link for a given performance objective. The link loss will be due in
part to the performance of the transmitter and receiver components, although the
environment through which the signal will propagate will also be influential.

The goal of link planning is to determine the parameter MAPL (Maximum Allowable Path
Loss):
= (,,,)
System gain is a function of the radiated power from the transmitter system and the
minimum signal power that can be presented to the face of the receiving antenna. The value
of system gain is an indication of the maximum and minimum values in the link budget.
Link margins are subtracted from the system gain to determine the maximum path loss for a
given set of assumptions for the transmitting and receiving system. This MAPL can
subsequently be converted into a nominal cell range using an appropriate propagation
model.
System gain is determined by subtracting the maximum transmit power from the minimum
receive power:
Where EIRP and IRLmin are given by:
= +
= +
The values of feeder and connector (and any other) losses can be determined from
manufacturer data sheets, as can the transmit power of the eNB and UE. It is likely that the
receiver sensitivity will also be quoted by the vendor for the eNB and UE. However, as the
calculation is complex and can involve many parameters that will ultimately have a great
impact on the overall system performance, it is worth a closer examination.
LTE Link Budget Variables
The basic expression used above can be formulated to include aspects of the LTE link
budget. The expressions below show how the MAPL for the UL and DL can be calculated. It
is assumed in these cases that the UE will have no losses due to cables or connectors.
Since most cellular systems are limited by uplink performance it is common to begin the link
budgeting process with the uplink and look for a link balance with the downlink.
= (_ + ) (_ + _ ) ,,,
= (_ _ + _ ) (_ _ ) ,,,

Q1. EIRP IRLmin. Which link budget parameter can be calculated from this expression?
a) EIRP
b) MAPL
c) System gain
d) IRL
Q2. IRLmin can be calculated from which of the following expressions?

a) Tx_PWR Ltx + Gtx
b) Rx_SENS + Lrx Grx
c) Tx_PWR+ Lrx
d) EIRP IRLmin
Q3. Which one of the following would not typically be considered as a margin?
a) Building penetration
b) Body loss
c) Foliage loss
d) Feeder loss

Name...
Question set

Lesson 2 Transmitter Power in LTE Link Budgets
LTE Transmit Power Capability For the UE
The power output of the UE is straightforward since at present only one maximum power
output is specified. However, it could be possible in future to have different power outputs
depending on the power class of the UE in each of the specified bands. The following
maximum output powers can be assumed:
Figure 85 Table of Equipment Classes and Power Outputs
Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output
The maximum power output of an LTE UE is specified to be 23 dBm, although there are
other factors that may result in a reduced power output, which are considered below.

MPR (Maximum Power Reduction)
MPR is a reduction in the power output of the UE due to a high-order modulation scheme
being used. This reduction in power eases some of the problems that occur with high peak
values in the power amplifier. The disadvantages of a reduction in power may be outweighed
by reduced complexity in the power amplifier stages of the transmitter.
Figure 86 Power Reduction for LTE Modulation Schemes
A-MPR (Additional-Maximum Power Reduction)
It is possible for the network to signal additional power reductions in specific deployments
where there are tighter requirements of ACLR (Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio) and other
spectrum emission requirements.
Figure 87 Additional Power Reduction Factors

eNB Power Output Characteristics
The 3GPP specifications detail three classes of base station: wide-area base stations, local-
area base stations, and home base stations.
Wide-area base stations are characterised by requirements derived from macro cell
scenarios with a BS-to-UE minimum coupling loss equal to 70 dB. No upper limit for power
output is specified by 3GPP for this class of base station (some regional limits apply, and
there are CEPT band limits that should also be considered).
Local-area base stations are characterised by requirements derived from pico cell scenarios
with a BS-to-UE minimum coupling loss equal to 45 dB. The limitations on power output
depend on the number of antenna ports used.
Home base stations are characterised by requirements derived from femtocell scenarios.
The limitations on power output depend on the number of antenna ports used.
For link budgets, the typical eNB power outputs for macro cell deployments would be in the
range 2060 W (4348 dBm) depending on channel bandwidth. Typical power outputs may
depend on the bandwidth being used. For wide-area base stations the BS-to-UE link loss is
< 70 dB; for local-area base stations, the BS-to-UE link loss is < 45 dB.
Figure 88 Additional Power Reduction Factors
Typical Losses in the eNB
There will be many components within the eNB that insert loss in to the transmitted and
received signals. Losses should be kept to a minimum. The total amount of loss will
determine the radiated power (EIRP) and the received signal. Additionally, the losses in the
receive path will add noise, which changes the SINR requirement on the link.
Other Losses in the Transmit/Receive System
There are other components in the transmitter and receiver chains that will incur additional
insertion losses. Ideally these will be kept to a minimum by choosing high quality
components, or keeping feeder runs to a minimum length.

Self-Assessment Exercise (Lesson 2)
Complete the following table by researching vendor specification sheets for the components
listed in the table.

Lesson 3 eNB and UE Antenna Performance
Antenna Characteristics for the UE
The use of MIMO in LTE devices makes the design and implementation of the UE antenna
challenging. However, for basic link budgeting purposes it is reasonable to assume a low-
gain figure for the antenna, typically 0 dBi. This will depend on the type of LTE device; it
could be worse than this. USB dongles, handheld smartphones and other consumer devices
as well as machines employing M2M are likely to have differing antenna performances. It will
be largely up to the vendors of the devices to provide the relevant figures.
Antenna Characteristics for eNB
In most cases, the eNB can make use of the cellular antennas that have been used for other
mobile broadband systems such as WiMAX and UMTS/HSPA. A typical example of LTE
antenna specifications, in this case from Huawei, is shown below.
If operators implement spatial multiplexing or transmit diversity, this impact the link budget
calculations. It is expected that the vendors of these systems will provide the appropriate
figures of gain to be included in any calculations.
Figure 89 LTE Antenna Specifications (Huawei)

Figure 90 Antenna Performance

Q1. What is a typical gain figure for a mobile antenna?

a) 0 dB
b) 0 dBd
c) 0 dBi
d) 3 dBi
Q2. Which of the following base station antenna properties would be used when calculating
link budgets?
a) Front-to-back ratio
b) Beam width
c) Gain
d) Tilt angle
Q3. Which is the most likely antenna beam width to be used in a 120 sector?
a) 120
b) 90
c) 65
d) 45

Name...
Question set

Lesson 4 Calculating Sensitivity
Sensitivity Calculation for the eNB and UE
In calculating the required or minimum IRL it is necessary to determine the sensitivity of the
receiver. It is highly probable that the vendor of the eNB and mobile device will quote the
sensitivity in the specification sheets for their product. However, it is important to be able to
derive the sensitivity of the receivers for all cases of modulation/coding schemes and
resource block usage.
The expression below shows the calculation and all the parameters required to make the
calculation. The following pages will explain each parameter.
_ = 174 / + 10 ( 180 ) + + +

_ = 174 + 10 ( 180 ) + + + 3

Where:
174 / = (Boltzmann constant x temperature)

= the number of radio blocks allocated
180 = the bandwidth of 1 RB
= the total noise figure of the eNB system
= the signal-to-noise ratio required, i.e. for the modulation scheme in use
= an implementation margin dependent on the modulation and coding used
3 = the multiple antenna gain for the UE
= a frequency-band-specific relaxation factor for the UE
Thermal Noise in Radio Systems
Thermal noise is present in everything. It is a measure of the amount of noise power present
due to the random motion of the atoms and molecules excited by temperature. In electronic
and radio systems the noise is always present and there is little that can be done to
eliminate it completely.
In radio systems the noise is present in two forms, thermal background noise and noise that
is present in the system components.
The thermal background noise is present as a result of the big bang (cosmic background
radiation), the galaxies, the stars, our own sun and natural radiation from the surface of the
earth and the objects upon it. There is no way that we can prevent this kind of noise entering
the radio system, but there is a way to quantify the amount of noise present.

The following expression shows that noise is proportional to the bandwidth of the radio
systems and temperature:
=
Where:
= Boltzmanns constant, 1.38 1023

= the temperature (normally 290 K)
= the bandwidth of the channel in hertz
The bandwidth of the radio system under investigation is really the only variable, since
temperature is taken to be that of the warm earth or 290 K.
The graph below shows the rise of noise with radio channel bandwidth and the range of LTE
radio channel bandwidths plotted for comparison.
Figure 91 Bandwidth and the Impact On Background Noise
Type of Service and Impact on Noise Floor
LTE is very flexible, not only in terms of the system bandwidth, but also the amount of
bandwidth or RBs that can be allocated to a single mobile device. This variable allocation
can be demonstrated in the following example.
A typical voice call in LTE may require 64 kbps. Given that call reliability will be important
across the whole cell, robust modulation schemes can be allocated for the voice call events,

QPSK 1/3, for example. In this case, only two RBs will be required, a total allocated
bandwidth of 2 x 180 KHz or 360 KHz. This figure can be used to work out the thermal noise
floor.
By way of contrast, a device that is attempting to receive 1 Mbps will have to be allocated
between two and 13 RBs, depending on the selected modulation and coding scheme. Thus
the noise floor could rise up to 10 dB (or more) for high-capacity allocations.
The graph below shows the potential noise floor rise for RB allocation between one and 25
(25 RB corresponds to a channel bandwidth of 5 MHz).
For a voice service at 64 kbps and using QPSK, two resource blocks will be required. For a
data service at 1 Mbps using QPSK 1/3, 13 resource blocks would typically be required, but
this will depend on the modulation scheme in use. If 64QAM 2/3 is used instead, only two
resource blocks will be required.
Figure 92 Resource Block Allocation Effect on the Noise Floor
Exercise
Use the spreadsheet to examine the effect of the number of radio blocks on the sensitivity of
the receiver. You should use the sensitivity tab on the spread sheet.

Implementation Margin UE and eNB
Included in the sensitivity calculation is a margin due to the implementation of the modulation
scheme. It is not possible for the receiver to be completely accurate, particularly for the
higher-order schemes, therefore an implementation margin is added. Typical values are:
QPSK 2.5 dB
16QAM 3 dB
64QAM 4 dB
The margin accounts for the difference in the theoretical SINR values and the practical
implementation that is actually possible.
Receiver Noise Figure
Noise will also be present in the receiver itself. The noise performance of the receiver is
normally quoted as the NF (Noise Figure). How much noise is present is largely down to the
design of the receiver by the vendor of that component. However, it is expected that the
typical noise figures will not exceed 5 dB for an eNB and 9 dB for a UE.
The noise figure will impact cell range. The LTE documents specify a figure similar to those
quoted for WCDMA devices and it is felt that the figure is a compromise between reasonable
cell range and practical receiver design performance. This range of values also allows some
scope for the vendors to improve the performance of the device receivers and therefore
improve the sensitivity of the devices. This is also a key differentiator in the device market.
Total Noise Floor
The overall system noise floor is the sum of the external noise present and the total
component noise.
Figure 93 Total Noise in the System

Cascaded Noise
Where there are multiple components (active and passive) in the receiver system, the total
noise can be calculated using the cascade method.
Using the cascade formula, the noise figure reference point can be assigned at any point
before the first active (amplifier) component. The first system component will have the
greatest influence, meaning that the system NFdB cannot be better than the NFdB of the first
component, on the system NFdB. Stages after an amplifier have progressively less impact on
total system NFdB.
The performance of a cascaded system of components is based on the configuration and

performance parameters of the individual components. The above two systems use the
same components in different configurations. The key to the performance of these two
systems is the placement and performance of the LNAs (Low Noise Amplifiers).
The first stage in a cascade limits the receiver system NFdB it can never be better than the
NFdB of the first component. The purpose of the LNA is to increase the noise floor enough to
reduce the impact of loss from successive stages while having a minimum effect on the C/N.
A high-gain LNA with a low NFdB can provide benefit even after a coax loss. Without
sufficient gain, benefit is minimum. Too much gain can overdrive the receiver in the
presence of a strong receive signal.
There are two systems, described below.
System 1
A significant loss in front of the LNA limits the receiver system NFdB. A high gain in the LNA
can help to minimise the post-LNA losses. This configuration (indoor-mounted LNA) can be
beneficial if the coax loss to the LNA is reasonably low and the LNA has sufficient gain
relative to the post-LNA losses. A low-gain LNA offers little performance benefit in this or any
deployment. An LNA with too much gain reduces the dynamic range of the receiver and
could overload the receiver, causing other problems.

Figure 94 Calculating Total Noise in Cascaded Systems
System 2
Theoretically, this can provide the best performance. If there is a significant amount of gain
in the LNA, the post-LNA losses have little impact on the system NFdB. If a small amount of
gain is used, the LNA provides little or no benefit. In cellular deployments, this is referred to
as a TTA (Tower-Top Amplifier).
Since LNAs are typically rated for their operating NFdB at 23C ambient temperature, there
can be a degradation of performance when the ambient temperature increases above this
value. Remember, an LNA with too much gain reduces the dynamic range of the receiver
and could overload the receiver, causing other problems.
Exercise
Convert the values from dB to linear terms and use the cascade formula to determine the
total noise contribution from the configuration shown above.
You can attempt this with a calculator or use the spreadsheet entitled Cascade Formula.xls.

Typical SNR for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes
Given that there are different modulation and coding schemes in use for the LTE radio
interface, the SINR for each must be determined. This is largely down to the design of the
receiver and the efficiency of the error coding schemes used.
The table below shows the expected values of SINR and the respective IM, although the
actual number may vary between vendors.
Figure 95 Typical SNR Requirements for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes
Duplex Gap and Duplex Distance, Effect on Receiver Sensitivity
The calculation for UE sensitivity includes an extra parameter, which is a margin due to the
separation between the UL and DL radio channels.
Where the channel bandwidth is very large and the duplex separation between them is
relatively small, this causes the UE receiver to fall directly into the realm of the transmitter
spectral output. This will require better filtering in the UE. Filters with the characteristics
required to eliminate any significant receiver de-sensing have a higher insertion loss, which
contributes to a higher receiver NF.
For the bands affected by this problem a relaxation factor is taken into account when
calculating the sensitivity of the receiver, DFB (Distributed Feedback).

Figure 96 Duplex Distance and Duplex Gap
Typical Figures for the DFB margin appear in the table below.
Figure 97 DFB Factor for Channel Bandwidths in Certain Frequency Bands
It should be noted that this margin only applies to full duplex devices. The margin is not
required for TDD or FDD-HD devices.

Lesson 5 System Gain and Maximum Path Loss
Calculating System Gain
Once all the equipment operating parameters have been determined, the EIRP and
sensitivity can be calculated. From this, the system gain can be determined.
System gain is a measure of the maximum drop of power from the transmit antenna to the
receive antenna, but it does not take into account any additional margin from radio interface
effects such as fading and penetration losses.
Figure 98 Typical Link Budget Profile
Environmental Factors and Noise Rise
Having worked out the system gain, it is now possible to determine the MAPL (Maximum
Allowable Path Loss). MAPL is the system gain less any environmental margins. Typical
margins include:
Shadow (fading)
Building loss
Foliage loss
Clutter
Body loss
Noise rise

= (,,,)
Shadow Margin (Slow Fading)
When deploying NLOS implementations, shadow fading (due to path obstructions) must be
considered. Measurements have shown that for any distance from a base station, the path
loss at different locations is random and has a log-normal distribution. Over a large number
of measurement locations having the same distance between subscriber unit and base
station, the random shadowing effects are described by a log-normal distribution. This is
often referred to as log-normal shadowing (or fading). A common approach is to calculate
the log-normal probability of adequate signal strength in a coverage area.
The probability is a function of the path loss exponent and the standard deviation of signal
values for a given environment. The amount of margin determined from the environmental
values is based on coverage objectives for a given implementation. Mobile radio (cellular)
prioritises the area service objective, while fixed wireless services may consider margins for
area or edge coverage.
Figure 99 Calculating Shadow (Fading) Margins
The propagation constant (n), also called the path loss exponent, accounts for the distance-
dependent mean of the signal level based on the propagation environment.
Figure 100 Typical Path Loss Exponent Values

The standard deviation(s) statistically describe the path loss variability for arbitrary locations
with the same distance between subscriber unit and cell site. The ratio of s/n is used to
determine the amount of margin required to satisfy an area reliability objective.
Figure 101 Typical Values for Standard Deviation
The following expression can be used to work out the percentage of useful service area
(assuming a circular cell) where the factors listed below are known. It is more usual to
specify the area reliability figure (for example, 90% area reliability) and then work out what
margin is required in the link budget to achieve the required availability.
1 1 2 1
= [1 erf() + ( ) (1 )]
2 2
Where:
0
= and = 10 10 ( )
2 2
= fraction of useful service area within a circle

0 = minimum receivable signal strength at subscriber
= signal strength at mobile unit for radius
= standard deviation of possible signal values
= propagation constant (path loss exponent)
Exercise 1
Given a path loss exponent of 3.5, a minimum signal level of 94 dBm, and a standard
deviation of 10 dB, what is the margin required for an area coverage probability of 90%?

Exercise 2
Using the spreadsheet (you should find it on the Distance Learning Adobe platform),
determine what margin is required for an area reliability of 95% if the radio environment is
assumed to be urban (n = 3.5) and the standard deviation is 12 dB. Assume a threshold
value of 80 dBm.
Building and Foliage Losses
Many studies provide penetration loss data based on frequency, but without other key
information the values provided can only provide a general idea of what can be expected.
Key information includes:
Angle of incidence
Material composition
Material thickness
Material texture
Foliage loss is a function of absorption and scattering. Building loss is primarily absorption
loss.
Wet surfaces will generally increase the amount of energy reflected rather than transmitted,
thus increasing overall penetration loss.
In both foliage and building loss, it is important to establish local parameters to be used
during planning processes.
Figure 102 Building Penetration Losses

Figure 103 Foliage Penetration Losses
Body Loss
Handheld devices will incur an additional loss due to absorption by the human body. The
actual figure will depend on how the device is held, whether near the head or away from the
body, and the angle at which the device is held. UE antenna radiation patterns may also
affect the amount of energy lost.
The figure normally assumed for radio planning purposes is 3 dB.
Figure 104 Typical Body Loss (3dB)
Uplink and Downlink Noise Rise
Noise rise occurs in TDMA/FDMA systems when the same frequency and time resources
are used simultaneously in neighbouring cells.

This is a key factor for implementing LTE networks. eNBs will communicate across the X2
interface regarding resource allocation, either warning of potential noise or simply indicating
what resources are currently being used. In lightly loaded systems the noise rise should be
kept to a minimum by the interference coordination between the base stations. However,
when the system becomes loaded the noise rise is likely to have a greater impact on overall
system performance.
Factors affecting noise rise include:
The UL and DL system load

The number of RBs used by the victim UE
The number of RBs used by aggressor systems
The average path loss between the aggressor and victim BSs
Figure 105 Noise Rise in LTE Systems

Lesson 6 Path Loss Modelling
Propagation Modelling
Propagation modelling, or prediction, is the science of predicting the path loss of a particular
radio frequency when some of the system attributes are known.
The information required consists of the radio frequency, the tower and UE heights, and the
distance. However, more complex models can use the average height of buildings or terrain,
the relative angle of roads, antenna tilts, etc., to produce more accurate results.
The model shown below is fundamental to this method. This models the theoretical
wavefront from an isotropic radiator and predicts the field strength at a given distance.
Figure 106 Isotropic Radiation and Spreading Loss
If a value for the receive antenna attributes is included it is possible to derive the free space
path loss model. In the free space path loss model energy radiated from the source decays
in proportion to the square of the distance a doubling of distance will increase the path loss
by a factor of four.

Figure 107 Converting Spreading Loss into Free Space Loss
Coverage from Link Budget
Having calculated the MAPL it is now possible to convert the path loss into a nominal cell
range using an appropriate propagation model.
The results will vary according to the model used. There are many different kinds of model,
the classical empirical models such as Okamura-Hata, Walfisch-Ikegami and those used by
RF planning models. It is important to select the correct model and some tuning is required
to obtain theoretical results that reflect the actual loss or distance likely to be experienced in
the field.
The following is a list of empirical models that can be used in the preliminary stages of
planning.
Figure 108 Empirical Models

Typical Propagation Loss Models
Comparison Between Models
There are many different models for use under different circumstances. The choice of model
will depend on system design parameters such as the frequency band used, LOS or NLOS
systems, whether the antennas are above or below rooftop height, and so on.
The diagram below shows some of the standard models in common use and the range of
frequencies over which they will return sensible results.
Some of these are empirical models, which means that they are also dependent on the
circumstances under which they were developed. In many cases different models will return
different path loss results for the same set of inputs (frequency, tower height, link distance
etc.), therefore several models may need to be tested to determine which one returns the
most accurate results for the area under consideration.
Many RF planning tools will allow you to select different propagation models in order that
comparisons can be made. In addition, the RF software development companies will offer
their own models that use a combination of empirical and physical models to predicate the
path loss.
Figure 109 Some Common Propagation Models and Frequency Ranges

Figure 110 Comparison of Path Loss Models
COST 231 Propagation Model
The model shown below is the COST 231 model, is an adaptation of the OkamuraHata
model. COST 231 is an empirical model designed to model NLOS radio systems in the
frequency range 1.52.0 GHz, making it suitable for cellular systems such as GSM1800,
UMTS, and even mobile WiMAX technologies.
This is a baseline model which can be used to make comparisons with other empirical and
custom-designed models.
= 46.3 + 33.9 log 13.82 log ( ) + (44.9 6.55 log ) log +
Where:
= operating frequency (15002000 MHz)

= base station antenna height (30200 metres)
= mobile antenna height (110 metres)
= distance between the base station and the mobile unit (120 km)
Correction factors:
Medium city and suburban
( ) = (1.1 log 0.7) (1.56. log 0.8)

Large city
( ) = 3.2((11.75. ))2 4.97
0 dB medium city and suburban areas

= {3 dB metropolitan centres
The WINNER Model
The WINNER model had been developed by Information Society Technologies (IST) for
predication for indoor and outdoor systems.
The novel features of the WINNER models are its parameterisation, using of the same
modelling approach for both indoor and outdoor environments, new scenarios like outdoor-
to-indoor and indoor-to-outdoor, elevation in indoor scenarios, smooth time (and space)
evolution of large-scale and small-scale channel parameters (including cross-correlations),
and scenario-dependent polarisation modelling. The models are scalable from a SISO or
MIMO link to a multi-link MIMO scenario, including polarisation among other radio channel
dimensions.
WINNER II channel models can be used in link-level and system-level performance

evaluation of wireless systems, as well as comparison of different algorithms, technologies
and products. The models can be applied not only to the WINNER II system, but also any
other wireless system operating in the 26 GHz frequency range with up to 100 MHz RF
bandwidth. The models supports multi-antenna technologies, polarisation, multi-user, multi-
cell, and multi-hop networks.
= 2010 () + 46.4 + 2010 ( /5.0)
Figure 111 The Winner Model

Cell Range Calculations from MAPL
The link budget calculations done previously can now be used with the propagation models
to determine the nominal cell range based on the equipment performance assumptions. The
path loss models require some transposition to derive distance rather than path loss; this is
best done by modelling within spreadsheets or other software models.
Figure 112 Cell Range Calculations
Exercise
Use spreadsheet entitled Cost 231 PL distance.xlsx to examine the impact of MAPL on
the link distance. Note the varying distances according to the terrain classification.

Self-Assessment Exercises (Lesson 6)
Q1. Link Planning Exercise.
Given the following information, calculate the uplink and downlink system gain:
= (_ + _ ) (_ + _ _
= ( + _ + _ ) (_ _
Step 1 Determine the EIRP
= _ +
= _ +

Step 2 Determine the IRLreq
_ = 174 / + 10 log( 180 ) + + +
_ = 174 / + 10 ( 180 ) + + + 3
_ =
_ =
The answer above may now be used to find the IRLreq.
_ = _ + _ _
_ = _ _
_ =
_ =
Step 3 Determine System Gain
= _
= _

Q2. MAPL Exercise
Based on the above results and the additional data given below, determine the MAPL for
the uplink and downlink.
Shadow (fading) Margin 8 (90% area availability in Urban)
Building loss 10 dB
Foliage loss 5 dB
Body loss 0 dB
Noise rise margin 4 dB
Total margin 27 dB
= ,,,
= ,,,
= 103 dB
= 114 dB

GLOSSARY OF TERMS


Term Definition
16QAM 16-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
64QAM 64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
8PSK 8-Phase Shift Keying
ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio
A-MPR Additional-Maximum Power Reduction
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
BS Base Station
CDD Cyclic Delay Diversity
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
CEPT
Administrations
Co-MIMO Co-operative MIMO
CQI Channel Quality Indicator
CW Code Word
DCI Downlink Control Information
DFB Distributed Feedback
DL Downlink
EDGE Enhanced Data-rates for GSM Evolution
EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
eNB Evolved Node B
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
IM Implementation Margin
IMT International Mobile Telephony
IRL
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LNA Low Noise Amplifier
LOS Line Of Sight
LTE Long Term Evolution
MAPL Maximum Allowable Path Loss
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output

MISO Multiple Input Single Output

MPR Maximum Power Reduction
MU-MIMO Multiple User MIMO
NF Noise Figure
NLOS Non-Line Of Sight
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel
PMI Precoding Matrix Indicator
PMR Private Mobile Radio
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PUCCH Physical Uplink Control Channel
PUSCH Physical Uplink Shared Channel
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RB Resource Block
RF Radio Frequency
RI Rank Indication
RS Reference Signal
SFBC Space-Frequency Block Coding
SIMO Single Input Multiple Output
SINR Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio
SISO Single Input Single Output
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SU-MIMO Single User MIMO
TDD Time Division Duplex
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TTA Tower-Top Amplifier
UE User Equipment
UL Uplink
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

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Informa Telecoms and Media

LTE Radio Network Planning

2 Informa Telecoms and Media

Module Aims and Objectives 11

SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO PLANNING 13

Lesson 1 Radio Planning Lifecycle 15

Lesson 2 RF and Baseband Signals 28

Lesson 3 Decibels (dB) and Noise in RF Theory 34

Lesson 4 Modulation Schemes for LTE 41

Informa Telecoms and Media 3

Lesson 5 Multiple Access Schemes 49

SECTION 2 PROPAGATION PRINCIPLES, MODELLING, AND ANTENNAS 61

Lesson 1 Propagation Basics 63

Lesson 2 Mechanisms of Propagation 71

Lesson 3 Interference and Frequency Reuse 80

4 Informa Telecoms and Media

Lesson 4 Advanced Antenna Techniques for LTE 87

SECTION 3 LINK BUDGETS 105

Lesson 1 Defining a Link Budget Statement 106

Lesson 2 Transmitter Power in LTE Link Budgets 110

Lesson 3 eNB and UE Antenna Performance 114

Lesson 4 Calculating Sensitivity 118

Informa Telecoms and Media 5

Lesson 5 System Gain and Maximum Path Loss 126

Lesson 6 Path Loss Modelling 132

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 141

6 Informa Telecoms and Media

Figure 1 High Level Design Lifecycle ............................................................................... 15

Informa Telecoms and Media 7

Figure 41 Sending Data in Parallel Radio Channels ......................................................... 52

8 Informa Telecoms and Media

Figure 87 Additional Power Reduction Factors............................................................... 111

Informa Telecoms and Media 9

10 Informa Telecoms and Media

Module Aims and Objectives

Determine the optimum cycle for planning LTE radio systems

Informa Telecoms and Media 11

12 Informa Telecoms and Media

INTRODUCTION TO RADIO PLANNING

Informa Telecoms and Media 13

14 Informa Telecoms and Media

Lesson 1 Radio Planning Lifecycle

High-Level Network Design Cycle

Figure 1 High Level Design Lifecycle

Informa Telecoms and Media 15

Phase 1 Detailed Procedure

Gathering relevant technical and marketing information

Figure 2 Phase 1 Information

16 Informa Telecoms and Media

Phase 2 Detailed Procedures

Detailed procedures that take place at Phase 2 include:

Introducing real site locations, including existing and new sites

Figure 3 Phase 2 Information

Informa Telecoms and Media 17

Phases 3 and 4 Information

Phase 3 Detailed Procedures

Procedures that take place at Phase 3 include:

Phase 4 Detailed Procedures

Figure 4 Information Required at Phases 3 and 4

18 Informa Telecoms and Media

Factors Affecting the LTE Planning Process

Informa Telecoms and Media 19

Figure 5 FDD IMT Frequency Bands