Lte Opt

Informa Telecoms and Media
Maximising Performance and Efficiency
2 Informa Telecoms and Media

CONTENTS
Module Aims and Objectives 11
SECTION 1 NETWORK OPTIMISATION 13
Lesson 1 Optimising the Radio Network 15

Optimisation Goals and Performance KPIs ......................................................................... 15
Cell Configuration Parameters ............................................................................................ 16
LTE Frequency Bands ........................................................................................................ 17
Centre Frequencies and EARFCNs .................................................................................... 18
SFN (Single Frequency Network) or Frequency Plan? ........................................................ 19
Interference Mitigation......................................................................................................... 20
Cyclic Prefix Length ............................................................................................................ 20
Downlink/Uplink Switching in TDD Mode............................................................................. 21
Antenna Orientations and Optimisation ............................................................................... 22
Transmit Diversity ............................................................................................................... 23
Control Channel Configuration ............................................................................................ 24
SON Concepts .................................................................................................................... 24
Configuration for eMBMS .................................................................................................... 25
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 1) ................................................. 28
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 1) ............................................. 29
Lesson 2 Idle Mode Procedures and Mobility 30

Defining RRC Idle Mode ..................................................................................................... 30
LTE IRAT Interactions ......................................................................................................... 30
Idle Mode Functions ............................................................................................................ 31
PLMN Selection .................................................................................................................. 32
PLMN Selection Priorities ................................................................................................... 33
Initial Cell Selection ............................................................................................................. 34
Overall Reselection Process ............................................................................................... 36
LTE Measurement Rules .................................................................................................... 37
Inter-Frequency and IRAT Rules ......................................................................................... 37
Parameter Values ............................................................................................................... 37
Detailed Reselection Criteria from an LTE Cell ................................................................... 38
Scaling Modifications for Mobility ........................................................................................ 39
Defining LTE Neighbours for UMTS .................................................................................... 40
UMTS Measurement Rules with Priorities ........................................................................... 41
Reselection from UMTS to LTE with Priorities ..................................................................... 42
UMTS Measurement Rules without Priorities ...................................................................... 43
Reselection from UMTS to LTE without Priorities ................................................................ 44
Defining LTE Neighbours for UMTS .................................................................................... 45
Informa Telecoms and Media 3

GSM Measurement Rules ................................................................................................... 46

Reselection from GSM to LTE............................................................................................. 47
PRACH Configuration Parameters ...................................................................................... 48
PRACH Resource Parameters ............................................................................................ 49
PRACH Procedure Control Parameters .............................................................................. 50
PRACH Access Probe Procedure ....................................................................................... 51
Lesson 3 Connected Mode Procedures and Mobility 55

Defining RRC Connected Mode .......................................................................................... 55
LTE IRAT Interactions ......................................................................................................... 55
RRC Reconfiguration Message ........................................................................................... 56
Measurement Configuration ................................................................................................ 57
Measurement Gap Settings................................................................................................. 61
LTE Measurement Reporting Configuration ........................................................................ 62
LTE Measurement Report Trigger Events ........................................................................... 63
IRAT Measurement Reporting Configuration ....................................................................... 64
IRAT Mobility Triggers......................................................................................................... 65
LTE Speed Scale Factors ................................................................................................... 65
Measurement Reports......................................................................................................... 66
Measurement Report for UMTS Cells ................................................................................. 67
Measurement Report for GSM/GERAN ............................................................................... 67
Measurement Report for CDMA2000 Cells ......................................................................... 68
Inter-eNB Handover Procedure ........................................................................................... 68
IRAT Handover Procedure .................................................................................................. 69
UMTS Measurement Settings ............................................................................................. 70
UMTS Event Triggers.......................................................................................................... 70
UMTS Measurement Report ............................................................................................... 71
UMTS IRAT Handover Procedure ....................................................................................... 72
DRX (Discontinuous Reception) Procedures....................................................................... 73
Uplink Power Control .......................................................................................................... 73
Timing Advance .................................................................................................................. 74
CQI Reporting ..................................................................................................................... 75
Section 1 Assignment ..................................................................................................... 79
Section 1 Practice Paper ................................................................................................ 80
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 1) ............................................. 82

SECTION 2 LTE ADVANCED (LTE-A) 83
Lesson 1 Introduction to LTE-A 85

The Capacity Problem......................................................................................................... 85
What is LTE-A? ................................................................................................................... 86
LTE-A Key Features............................................................................................................ 87
3GPP Releases 10 to 13..................................................................................................... 88
Lesson 2 CA (Carrier Aggregation) 91

Contiguous and Non-Contiguous Carrier Aggregation......................................................... 91
CA Configurations ............................................................................................................... 92
Bandwidth Class ................................................................................................................. 93
Aggregated Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Bandwidth ........................................... 94
CA Cell Types ..................................................................................................................... 95
CA Scheduling .................................................................................................................... 96
Mobility for Carrier Aggregation ........................................................................................... 97
RRC Aspects ...................................................................................................................... 98
CA and Interference Reduction in HetNets.......................................................................... 99
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 2) ............................................... 101
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 2) ........................................... 102
Lesson 3 Relay Nodes, CoMP, and MIMO Enhancements 103

Relay Nodes ..................................................................................................................... 103
CoMP (Coordinated Multi-Point) Transmission.................................................................. 110
MIMO Enhancements ....................................................................................................... 115
E-PDCCH (Enhanced PDCCH) ......................................................................................... 119
Section 2 Assignment ................................................................................................... 123
Section 2 Practice Paper .............................................................................................. 124
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 2) ........................................... 126

SECTION 3 SMALL CELLS AND HETNETS 127
Lesson 1 Introducing Small Cells and HetNets 129

Meeting the Demands of Coverage ................................................................................... 129
What are Small Cells?....................................................................................................... 129
Cell Sizes and Types ........................................................................................................ 129
Small Cell Use Cases ....................................................................................................... 130
Macro Cells versus Small Cells ......................................................................................... 132
Reasons for Deploying Small Cells ................................................................................... 132
Capacity Gains.................................................................................................................. 133
Network Challenges .......................................................................................................... 134
Backhaul Technologies ..................................................................................................... 135
Backhaul Challenges ........................................................................................................ 136
Outdoor Challenges .......................................................................................................... 136
Integration of Wi-Fi into Small Cells .................................................................................. 137
Home eNBs ...................................................................................................................... 138
Cell Detection and Small Cells .......................................................................................... 140
Heterogeneous Networks .................................................................................................. 141
Lesson 2 Small Cell Planning Considerations 144

Initial Design ..................................................................................................................... 144
Site Survey ....................................................................................................................... 144
Detailed Design................................................................................................................. 145
Requirements of an Indoor Antenna System ..................................................................... 146
Relays and Repeaters....................................................................................................... 149
Lesson 3 Small Cell Performance 155

Indoor Solutions ................................................................................................................ 155
Outdoor Solutions ............................................................................................................. 160
Lesson 4 Managing Interference 165

Downlink Interference ....................................................................................................... 165
Uplink Interference ............................................................................................................ 169
Interference Summary....................................................................................................... 176
Section 3 Assignment ................................................................................................... 180
Section 3 Practice Paper .............................................................................................. 182
Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 3) ........................................... 184
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 185

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Network Optimisation Workflow.......................................................................... 15

Figure 2 Ockams Razor .................................................................................................. 16
Figure 3 LTE FDD Frequency Bands ............................................................................... 17
Figure 4 LTE TDD Frequency Bands ............................................................................... 18
Figure 5 EARFCNs .......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 6 SFN or Frequency Plan? .................................................................................... 19
Figure 7 SFN Interference Mitigation ................................................................................ 20
Figure 8 Normal and Extended CP................................................................................... 21
Figure 9 TDD Frame Structure ......................................................................................... 22
Figure 10 TDD UL/DL Switching Options ......................................................................... 22
Figure 11 MIMO Options .................................................................................................. 23
Figure 12 Control Channel Configuration Options ............................................................ 24
Figure 13 Configuration for eMBMS ................................................................................. 25
Figure 14 LTE IRAT Interactions ...................................................................................... 31
Figure 15 Idle Mode Procedures ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 16 Establishing Idle Mode ..................................................................................... 33
Figure 17 PLMN Selection ............................................................................................... 34
Figure 18 Femtocell Selection .......................................................................................... 35
Figure 19 Overall Selection Process ................................................................................ 36
Figure 20 LTE Measurement Rules .................................................................................. 37
Figure 21 LTE Reselection Criteria .................................................................................. 38
Figure 22 Modifications for Mobility State ......................................................................... 40
Figure 23 LTE Neighbours from UMTS ............................................................................ 41
Figure 24 UMTS Measurement Rules (with Absolute Priorities) ....................................... 42
Figure 25 UMTS Selection Criteria (with Absolute Priorities) ............................................ 43
Figure 26 UMTS Measurement Rules (without Absolute Priorities) .................................. 44
Figure 27 UMTS Reselection Criteria (without Absolute Priorities) ................................... 45
Figure 28 Cell Information in GSM/GPRS ........................................................................ 46
Figure 29 GSM/GPRS Measurement Rules ..................................................................... 47
Figure 30 GSM/GPRS Reselection Criteria ...................................................................... 48
Figure 31 PRACH Physical Layer Formats ...................................................................... 49
Figure 32 PRACH Resource Parameters ......................................................................... 50
Figure 33 PRACH Procedure Control Parameters............................................................ 51
Figure 34 PRACH Access Probe Procedure .................................................................... 52
Figure 35 LTE IRAT Interactions ...................................................................................... 56
Figure 36 RRC Reconfiguration ....................................................................................... 57
Figure 37 Measurement Objects IE .................................................................................. 58
Figure 38 Reporting Configurations IE ............................................................................. 58
Figure 39 Measurement Identities IE ................................................................................ 58
Figure 40 Other Parameters IE ........................................................................................ 59

Figure 41 Measurement Objects E-UTRA ........................................................................ 60

Figure 42 UMTS Neighbour Definition .............................................................................. 60
Figure 43 GSM/GERAN Neighbour Definition .................................................................. 61
Figure 44 Measurement Gap Settings .............................................................................. 62
Figure 45 Measurement Reporting Configuration ............................................................. 63
Figure 46 LTE Event Triggers .......................................................................................... 64
Figure 47 IRAT Reporting Configuration .......................................................................... 65
Figure 48 Inter-IRAT Mobility Triggers.............................................................................. 65
Figure 49 LTE Speed Scale Factors ................................................................................ 66
Figure 50 Example Measurement Report for E-UTRA...................................................... 66
Figure 51 Example Measurement Report for UTRA ......................................................... 67
Figure 52 Example Measurement Report for GERAN ...................................................... 67
Figure 53 Example Measurement Report for CDMA2000 ................................................ 68
Figure 54 LTE Handover Procedure (Inter-eNB) .............................................................. 69
Figure 55 LTE IRAT Handover Procedure........................................................................ 69
Figure 56 UMTS Measurement Settings .......................................................................... 70
Figure 57 UMTS Event Triggers ....................................................................................... 71
Figure 58 UMTS Measurement Report............................................................................. 72
Figure 59 UMTS IRAT Handover Procedure .................................................................... 72
Figure 60 Two-Stage DRX Procedure .............................................................................. 73
Figure 61 Uplink Power Control ....................................................................................... 74
Figure 62 Timing Advance ............................................................................................... 75
Figure 63 CQI Reporting .................................................................................................. 76
Figure 64 Rising Demands on the Network ...................................................................... 85
Figure 65 IMT-Advanced Candidate Technologies ........................................................... 87
Figure 66 LTE-A Releases 10 to 13 ................................................................................. 88
Figure 67 Carrier Aggregation .......................................................................................... 91
Figure 68 Aggregation Options ........................................................................................ 92
Figure 69 R11 Intra-Band Contiguous CA Operating Bands............................................. 92
Figure 70 R11 Intra-Band Contiguous CA Operating Bands............................................. 93
Figure 71 Aggregated Channel Bandwidth and Aggregated Channel Bandwidth Edges .. 94
Figure 72 CA Cell Types .................................................................................................. 96
Figure 73 Cross-Carrier Scheduling ................................................................................. 97
Figure 74 CA Handover Scenario (Inter-Band) ................................................................. 97
Figure 75 PCC Switching Procedure ................................................................................ 98
Figure 76 RRC Procedures for CA ................................................................................... 99
Figure 77 Carrier Aggregation and HetNet Interference Avoidance ................................ 100
Figure 78 Backhaul Links and Access Links .................................................................. 103
Figure 79 Interference Issues......................................................................................... 104
Figure 80 Relay Architecture .......................................................................................... 105
Figure 81 The Use of MBSFN Subframes ...................................................................... 105
Figure 82 Possible FDD Backhaul Configuration ............................................................ 106
Figure 83 R-PDCCH ...................................................................................................... 107
Figure 84 R-PDCCH Mapping ........................................................................................ 107
Figure 85 R-PDCCH Monitoring ..................................................................................... 108
Figure 86 Relay Cell Timing Derived from Backhaul Timing ........................................... 109

Figure 87 Backhaul Timing (Time Synchronised) ........................................................... 110

Figure 88 Inter-Site and Intra-Site CoMP ....................................................................... 111
Figure 89 Autonomous Distributed Control and Centralised Control............................... 111
Figure 90 CoMP Scenarios ............................................................................................ 112
Figure 91 CS/CB ............................................................................................................ 114
Figure 92 DPS ............................................................................................................... 114
Figure 93 JT ................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 94 LTE-A MIMO .................................................................................................. 116
Figure 95 UL and DL ICIC .............................................................................................. 118
Figure 96 E-PDCCH....................................................................................................... 119
Figure 97 Small Cell Deployment Scenarios .................................................................. 130
Figure 98 Small Cell Use Cases..................................................................................... 131
Figure 99 Total RAN Capacity Density ........................................................................... 134
Figure 100 Network Challenges ..................................................................................... 135
Figure 101 Small-Cell Backhaul Technologies Compared .............................................. 135
Figure 102 Backhaul Challenges.................................................................................... 136
Figure 103 Advantages of Wi-Fi Integration with the Cellular RAN ................................. 138
Figure 104 HeNB Architecture ....................................................................................... 138
Figure 105 HetNets (Heterogeneous Networks) ............................................................. 141
Figure 106 Initial Design ................................................................................................ 144
Figure 107 Detailed Design ............................................................................................ 145
Figure 108 Distributed Antenna Systems ....................................................................... 147
Figure 109 Active DAS ................................................................................................... 148
Figure 110 Using MIMO Antennas ................................................................................. 149
Figure 111 Repeater Isolation ........................................................................................ 150
Figure 112 Repeaters and Handover ............................................................................. 151
Figure 113 Donor Cell Desensitisation Example ............................................................ 151
Figure 114 Indoor Coverage and Traffic ......................................................................... 156
Figure 115 Interference Issues ....................................................................................... 157
Figure 116 Antenna Solutions for Lifts............................................................................ 158
Figure 117 Entry and Exit Points .................................................................................... 159
Figure 118 Outdoor DAS ................................................................................................ 161
Figure 119 Indoor Coverage from Outdoor Small Cells .................................................. 162
Figure 120 Scenario 1: Macro BS to Femto UE.............................................................. 165
Figure 121 Scenario 2: CSG BS to Non-CSG UE .......................................................... 166
Figure 122 Reducing Downlink Interference ................................................................... 167
Figure 123 Downlink Interference Reduction Method ..................................................... 168
Figure 124 Downlink Interference Example .................................................................... 169
Figure 125 Uplink Scenario 1: Femto UE to Macro BS ................................................... 170
Figure 126 UL Scenario 2 Non-CSG UE to CSG BS ................................................... 170
Figure 127 Reducing Uplink Interference ....................................................................... 171
Figure 128 Uplink Interference Reduction Method ......................................................... 172
Figure 129 Uplink Interference Example ........................................................................ 173
Figure 130 UL/DL Imbalance ......................................................................................... 175
Figure 131 Range Expansion ......................................................................................... 176
Figure 132 Summary of Interference Issues ................................................................... 176


Module Aims and Objectives
This module is designed to provide a comprehensive introduction to the ways in which

network performance can be maximised, and the best efficiency achieved.
By the end of this module you will be able to:
Set optimisation goals and discuss how you can optimise the performance of the
radio network in practice
List and expound upon a range of network performance KPIs
Describe a range of antenna orientations, and state how these can be optimised
Suggest the best ways to manage mobility in an LTE network
Discuss Idle Mode and Connected Mode procedures in respect of mobility
Discuss what LTE-Advanced can do to improve network performance and coverage
Explain the benefits of Carrier Aggregation and how it can improve network
performance
Suggest how interference can be managed in an LTE network through the
introduction of LTE procedures such as relays and CoMP
Explain what small cells and HetNets are, and how they can be configured to provide
optimum network coverage
Discuss how interference can be managed in small cells
Recognise a number of small-cell and HetNet scenarios, recognise the problems that
may be encountered during planning, and suggest solutions


SECTION 1
NETWORK OPTIMISATION


Lesson 1 Optimising the Radio Network
Optimisation Goals and Performance KPIs
At first sight the task of optimising an LTE network can seem daunting. There are far more
variables and ways in which network performance could be measured in LTE than was the
case in legacy technologies. For example, the optimiser is commonly involved in ensuring
handovers are successful, but in LTE they must consider not only LTELTE handovers but
potential handover functionality with GSM/GPRS, UMTS/HSPA and 1x/1xEV.
In terms of service provision, the optimiser needs to be concerned with variable bandwidth
and delay requirements. The optimiser needs to understand how resources are allocated
and all the factors that could affect the performance of an established connection.
The following diagram shows a general interpretation of a typical work flow. The network
management function generally takes a whole-network view and considers whether the
network is functioning correctly in terms of defined KPIs and customer satisfaction. Once a
problem has been identified it will be escalated to the optimisation function.
Figure 1 Network Optimisation Workflow

An important first task for optimisation is to verify that the problem exists and that it is caused
by a weakness in the part of the network of interest. To do this the optimiser needs to have
an awareness of dependencies with functionality in other parts of the network.
LTE network represents the first widespread use of SON (Self-Optimising Network)
functionality, but it would be a mistake to assume that this removes the need for network
performance monitoring and optimisation. Indeed, it is likely that a greater understanding of
network behaviour will be required.
There are many parameters defined that can influence the behaviour of the LTE radio
interface. Whilst it may be tempting to experiment with very fine control using a large number
of parameters, the unpredictable nature of radio signals and the potential for error in
parameter setting suggest a simple-is-best approach. This not a new concept for LTE, but
the more complex a system becomes, the greater the need to control carefully those
adjustments that are made to the system.
The advice of fourteenth-century English academic and monk William of Ockham (Occam)
pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate translates more or less as plurality should not
be posited without necessity. It remains a good starting point for anyone dealing with
potentially complex problems.
Figure 2 Ockams Razor
Cell Configuration Parameters
PCI (Physical Cell Identifier)
The PCI defines the coding of the reference signal on the cell. It acts as a local identifier
differentiating a cell from its immediate neighbours. The PCI values must be allocated such
that a UE will not see two cells on the same frequency with the same PCI value.
There are 504 PCI values available organised into 168 groups of 3. Note that there is no
requirement for the grouping to be related to the association between an eNB and its cells.
Although the PCI value can be manually planned and configured, it is a likely parameter to
part of a SON solution.

Frequency Allocation
In most cases an LTE network is organised into frequency layers so there is no requirement
for frequency planning. A cells type will determine its frequency allocation by default. Even
where frequency planning is being used it is a simple process and it may be that the antenna
orientation determines the frequency allocation. The frequency is identified using an
EARFCN (E-UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number).
Bandwidth Configuration
LTE is often described as bandwidth agnostic, which refers to the potential for this single
technology to be configured to operate in a range of bandwidths. There are many factors
that may determine a cells configured bandwidth, including licence conditions, power
availability, service requirements, hardware performance, infrastructure sharing, and the
band in use. It is by no means the case that an operator must use the same bandwidth on all
cells, or even that they use the same bandwidth in the uplink and downlink directions.
LTE Frequency Bands
A very large number of FDD and TDD frequency bands are defined for the operation of LTE.
This reflects a need to accommodate as many different regulatory environments as possible
in order that LTE should be a viable option in any geographical region.
Figure 3 LTE FDD Frequency Bands

LTE can be deployed in bands that are already being used for 2G and 3G technologies, if
operators choose to re-farm their spectrum, i.e. replace their existing 2G/3G infrastructures
with LTE. Spectrum neutrality is becoming increasing widespread, where the regulator lifts
the technology specific nature of the licenses.
Figure 4 LTE TDD Frequency Bands
Centre Frequencies and EARFCNs
LTE channel centre frequencies are identified with a numerical value known as an EARFCN
(E-UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number). For FDD channels a separate
EARCFN describes the uplink and downlink. For TDD channels one EARFCN describes
both the uplink and downlink directions.
Figure 5 EARFCNs

EARFCNs are spaced in steps of 100 kHz across each defined LTE band. It is up to an
operator to decide which EARFCN to use; however, account must be taken of the channel
bandwidth since transmission cannot be made outside the licensed spectrum. This means
that dependent on the band and bandwidth in use, some EARFCNs will be unusable.
The diagram shows the formulae for nominal adjacent channel spacing and for the
determination of channel centre frequency from a given EARFCN.
SFN (Single Frequency Network) or Frequency Plan?
LTE offers great flexibility to an operator in respect of how licensed spectrum is utilised. At
its most basic level this includes the possibility to opt for an SFN approach or to use some
form of frequency planning strategy.
The SFN approach enables an operator to use the widest channel bandwidth with
consequent benefits in terms of potential cell throughput. However, there will be an impact in
terms of interference, particularly at the cell edge.
The frequency-planned approach mitigates, to some extent, the problems of inter-cell

interference, but at the cost of absolute cell throughput. However, individual users may still
receive an acceptable service and the reduction in interference could result in more
consistent performance across the coverage area.
Figure 6 SFN or Frequency Plan?

Interference Mitigation
Potential interference between eNBs allocated the same channel frequencies can be
avoided, or at least mitigated, through coordinated resource allocation. Because the LTE air
interface is based on a multicarrier physical layer, OFDMA and SC-FDMA, when a resource
is allocated it represents only a fraction of the complete resource available in a cell. UEs in
the edge-of-cell area can be allocated different blocks from the available spectrum. UEs in
the centre of the cell coverage area can potentially be allocated larger resources because
interference potential is significantly lower in this region. Thus UEs 1 and 4 could use the
same spectrum simultaneously while UEs 2 and 3 need to be allocated different spectrum.
To some extent this process will occur naturally through the action of the resource allocation
algorithm and, of course, an eNB can coordinate resource allocation between all the cells
that it controls. However, if an X2 interface exists between eNBs then they can communicate
directly to negotiate resource allocation.
Figure 7 SFN Interference Mitigation
Cyclic Prefix Length
LTE offers the choice of two CP (Cyclic Prefix) lengths, Normal and Extended, both of which
are applicable to FDD and TDD modes. The CP provides protection against the effects of
time dispersion in the channel. The amount of time dispersion present in a channel is
determined by the physical environment. In most cases the RMS delay spread will be less
than about 6 s and therefore the normal CP is applicable for most cells.
More extreme time dispersion may occur when there are distant strong reflectors within the
cell coverage area. Common examples are hilly or mountainous terrain or suburban areas

with sight of a high-rise dense urban district. In such cases much longer time dispersion can
occur and the expended cyclic prefix should be used.
The CP reduces the number of OFDM symbols per slot from seven to six with a consequent
reduction in potential capacity in the ratio 6/7. Therefore the CP should only be used by
exception and then usually only if a time dispersion problem has been detected and
confirmed.
Figure 8 Normal and Extended CP
Downlink/Uplink Switching in TDD Mode
The diagram shows the frame structure used on a TDD channel. It has an identical overall
timing structure to the FDD frame, but with modifications to subframes 1 and 6.
Subframes 1 and 6 are referred to as special subframes; subframe 1 is mandatory and

subframe 6 is optional. As can be seen, the structure of the special subframes contains
periods referred to as the DwPTS (Downlink Pilot Time Slot) and UpPTS (Uplink Pilot Time
Slot); these are separated in the sub-frame by a GP (Guard Period). DwPTS and UpPTS
can contain scheduled data, but the GP provides time for downlink to uplink switching.

Figure 9 TDD Frame Structure
The points for uplink to downlink are variable in location and the options are given in the
table. There are seven different frame configurations.
Figure 10 TDD UL/DL Switching Options
Antenna Orientations and Optimisation
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
MIMO is fully supported by LTE at release 8/9 up to rank 2 (2x2 MIMO) and partially
supported up to rank 4 (4x4 MIMO). LTE-A supports 8x8 MIMO in the downlink. LTE also
supports 4x4 uplink MIMO.
Most LTE systems include MIMO capability. although full support cannot be assumed for all
devices, and it may not be an appropriate option for use in all scenarios.
In any case it could be assumed that todays LTE devices support 2x2 DL MIMO, although
for planning purposes, it is recommended that MIMO is not included in the initial capacity
planning. Rather, MIMO should be considered as an improvement to cell efficiency once
active. It is difficult to predict what the overall performance improvement from MIMO would
be without live drive testing.

Transmit Diversity
In cases where the eNB has MIMO capability but the UE does not it is still possible to use
the eNBs antenna array to create transmit diversity in the downlink channel. This will
provide increased throughput in any given channel conditions.
SU-MIMO (Single User MIMO)
SU-MIMO is the standard MIMO configuration where the feature is fully supported by both
eNB and UE. The most common implementation is 2x2 MIMO.
MU-MIMO (Multi User MIMO)
MU-MIMO is a feature for use only in the uplink direction where an eNB has MIMO capability
but the UE does not. The uplink channel is configured such that a MIMO effect is created
from two separate UE sharing the same allocated resource. This enables the capacity gains
of MIMO to be realised at cell level, although individual users are limited to rates equivalent
to those of a non-MIMO (SISO) channel. This benefit is limited in scope since it works best
when the uplink channel conditions for the two UEs in the MU-MIMO pair are coherent.
Beamforming
It is possible to use the precoding and antenna array associated with MIMO support to
create a beamforming effect. Additional features such as UE-specific reference signals are
included in the LTE standards to enhance this capability.
Figure 11 MIMO Options

Control Channel Configuration
There is very little that needs to be manually configured in terms of control channel
configuration in LTE. Indeed, in most cases the control channel configuration is implicit or
driven dynamically according to the mode of operation, the traffic mix being carried, and the
nature of the particular vendors scheduling algorithm.
The chief options, however, are the number of OFDM symbols occupied in each subframe in
the downlink direction by the PDCCH, and the number of slots per subframe occupied in the
uplink direction by the PUSCH. In both these cases the configuration on a working cell would
typically be dynamic and determined by instantaneous need. In some cases, however, the
optimiser may have the ability to limit the range of dynamic operation.
Additionally, if use is being made of a coverage planning tool or an automatic cell planning
tool, then typical values may need to be entered for static simulations.
There are also several possibilities for the range of scheduling modes and signalling formats
that may be used in the PDCCH.
One exception in terms of optimisation potential is the PRACH, for which there are many
configuration options. Configuration of this channel may also be covered by SON
functionality, but even in this case careful consideration should be given to the setting of
operating rules for the SON algorithm.
Figure 12 Control Channel Configuration Options
SON Concepts
The LTE technical standards outline the principles of SON (Self-configuring and Self-
Optimising Networks). However, the standards do not define how the aims of SON would be
achieved; the solutions themselves are proprietary vendor solutions.
TS 36.902 outlines nine intended use cases for SON as follows:
Coverage and capacity optimisation

Energy savings

Interference reduction
Automated configuration of PCI
Mobility robustness optimisation
Mobility load balancing optimisation
RACH optimisation
Automatic neighbour relation function
Inter-cell interference coordination
Configuration for eMBMS
The LTE standards include provision for the support of MBMS (Multimedia Multicast
Broadcast Service) in the form of a collection of features generally referred to as eMBMS
(enhanced MBMS).
MBMS data is passed to the E-UTRAN using two additional functional nodes, the MCE
(Multi-cell/multicast Coordination Entity) and the MBMS GW (MBMS Gateway). The MCE
deals with admission control and the efficient and coordinated allocations of resources
across multiple eNBs. The MBMS GW acts as the collation point for MBMS data from
providers for onward transmission to eNBs.
Figure 13 Configuration for eMBMS
It is possible to implement eMBMS in a single cell using a defined set of logical and transport
channels intended solely for this purpose. However, a much more efficient solution is to use
these channels in a multi-cell context. This mode of operation is referred to as MBSFN

(Multicast Broadcast Single Frequency Network). This mode of operation is applied only in
TDD mode and involves the use of a halving of the standard subcarrier spacing of 15 kHz to
just 7.5 kHz. This results in a doubling of the OFDM symbol period, which in turn allows the
extended CP to be doubled to approximately 30 s.

MBMS data is then transmitted simultaneously from multiple synchronised LTE cells to a
defined MBSFN synchronisation area. UEs supporting the service receive the data from
multiple cells and the extended CP enables them to deal with the more extreme time
dispersion that results from variable propagation delay.

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Questions (Lesson 1)
Q1. The PCI defines the coding of the reference signal on the cell. How many PCI values
are there?
a) 504
b) 168
c) 244
d) 132
Q2. EARFCNs are spaced in steps of _________ across each defined LTE band.
a) 50 kHz
b) 100 kHz
c) 100 MHz
d) 200 kHz
Q3. Which of the following is true about Cyclic Prefix lengths Normal and Extended?
a) Normal is applicable to FDD mode and Extended to TDD mode
b) Normal is applicable to both FDD and TDD modes but Extended only to TDD mode
c) They are both applicable to TDD and FDD modes
d) Extended is applicable to both FDD and TDD modes, but Normal only to FDD
mode
Q4. In the TDD frame structure, which of the following provides time for DL to UL
switching?
a) DwPTS
b) UpPTS
c) TS1
d) GP
Q5. 8x8 DL MIMO is supported from:

a) Release 8
b) Release 9
c) Release 10
d) Release 11
Q6. Which channel has the most configuration options in LTE?

a) PDCCH
b) PRACH
c) PUCCH
d) PDSCH

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Lesson 1)
Transfer your answers onto the grid for easy assessment and future reference.
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Lesson 2 Idle Mode Procedures and Mobility
Defining RRC Idle Mode
A UE in RRC idle mode is one that is switched on, has performed PLMN and cell selection,
and has registered successfully with a network. Once in this state it monitors broadcast
signalling as required by cell configuration and monitors neighbour cells for potential cell
reselection as determined by system information parameters.
A key characteristic of idle mode is that mobility is controlled by the UE. However, the UEs
behaviour is driven by parameters and mode settings broadcast in system information that
are part of either manual or SON-based optimisation activities.
The UE in idle mode monitors a paging channel to detect the following:
Incoming calls
System information change
ETWS notification (for ETWS-capable UEs)
CMAS notification (for CMAS-capable UEs)
It also performs neighbouring cell measurements and cell selection and reselection, acquires
system information, and performs logging of available measurements together with location
and time for logged-measurement-configured UEs.
LTE IRAT Interactions
LTE idle mode corresponds directly with UMTS idle mode, and transitions between the two
technologies for UEs in this mode are handled through cell reselection. All that is required for
this to function is the definition of appropriate neighbour information and measurement rules
for each respective technology.
One minor complication is that there are sub-states within UMTS connected mode that have
no equivalent in LTE; these being CELL_PCH and URA_PCH. UEs in this state are in
connected mode but perform mobility procedures as if they are in idle mode. In this case,
return to LTE is handled through cell reselection controlled with idle mode parameters.
Interaction with GSM/GPRS is a little more complex. For normal GSM operation there may
be direct reselection between the two technologies. However, for interactions between LTE
and GPRS there are a number of possibilities dependent on the specific activity in GPRS
mode. GPRS Packet_Idle maps to LTE idle mode. Even when a GPRS mobile is in packet
transfer mode, in some cases interaction may be by CCN (Cell Change Notification), which
is a form of cell reselection.

Figure 14 LTE IRAT Interactions
Idle Mode Functions
There are three main functions performed by the UE in idle mode: cell reselection, PLMN
reselection and location registration. These are common in terms of definition with other
3GPP technologies. Release 8 of the technical specifications adds behaviour in connection
with CSGs (Closed Subscriber Groups), which relates to Home eNBs, i.e. femtocells.
Cell Reselection
While in idle mode the UE will work to ensure that it is always camped on the cell most likely
to offer the most reliable service should a move to connected mode be required. This
process involves evaluation in terms of radio signal quality assessment, but also service
attributes such as consideration of CSG cell availability and access to the home PLMN as
opposed to visited PLMNs.
PLMN Reselection
When a UE is in idle mode on a visited network it is required periodically to search for its
home network. The periodicity of this search is controlled by a timer value written onto the
SIM card.

Location Registration
Location registration, known as a TAU (Tracking Area Update) in LTE, is of itself a

connected mode procedure, but it is initiated as a result of idle mode cell reselection
procedures.
Figure 15 Idle Mode Procedures
PLMN Selection
PLMN selection is performed by the NAS. The AS will scan according to a stored list or, if
there is no stored information, it will scan the complete UE band/RAT capability. Each
PLMN/RAT combination that is found is presented to NAS for consideration. The decision
will be performed either in automatic mode or manually by the subscriber.
Cell Selection
Once a PLMN has been selected by NAS and indication is given to the AS to scan for a
suitable cell to camp on, AS scans for the strongest corresponding cell and tests it for
suitability. Once the UE has camped on a suitable cell an indication is given to NAS, which
will initiate a registration process. This involves the use of connected mode, but, once
complete, the UE drops into idle mode.
Cell Reselection
Once in idle mode the UE performs neighbour cell measurements according to defined
measurement rules. Measured cells are then evaluated using defined offsets and timers for
reselection. Both measurement rules and neighbour cell evaluation parameters are subject
to optimisation activity.

Figure 16 Establishing Idle Mode
PLMN Selection Priorities
PLMN selection may be performed in either automatic or manual mode. In automatic mode
NAS makes the selection according to defined priorities. In manual mode NAS presents a list
of available PLMN/RAT combinations to the users as a list ordered according to the same
defined priorities.
Highest priority is the home PLMN. If the Home PLMN or an Equivalent PLMN is not
available then the UE checks first the user-controlled PLMN selector file and then the
operator-controlled PLMN selector file in the SIM. If a PLMN defined in this list is available it
will be selected with highest priority given to the user-controlled list.
If no PLMNs appearing in the user- and operator-defined lists on the SIM are available or if
the lists are not populated then the UE will randomly select a PLMN from those that are
available and that fulfil the high-quality criterion. For LTE the high-quality criterion is defined
as an RSRP greater than or equal to 110 dBm.
Only if there are no PLMNs meeting the high-quality criterion will the UE select a PLMN
presenting the strongest signal level.

Figure 17 PLMN Selection
Initial Cell Selection
Once the NAS has made a PLMN/RAT selection it requests that the AS finds a suitable cell.
This commences with a scan for the strongest cell measured in terms of RSRP. The
strongest cell is then tested for suitability. A cell is suitable if:
The cell is in the selected PLMN or equivalent PLMN

The cell is not barred
The cell is in at least one TA that is not part of forbidden TAs for roaming
For CSG, the cell is part of the UEs CSG white list
Srxlev > 0 (dB)
Where:
Srxlev = Qrxlevmeas (Qrxlevmin + Qrxlevminoffset) Pcompensation
Pcompensation = max(PEMAX_H PpowerClass, 0)
Qrxlevmeas = measured cell downlink RSRP in dBm

Qrxlevmin = minimum required cell downlink RSRP in dBm
Qrxlevminoffset = offset for Qrxlevmin in dB (set to 0 for initial cell selection)
PEMAX_H = maximum permitted UL TX power in the cell in dBm
PPowerClass = maximum UE TX power in dBm (from power class)

The criteria for suitability involve checks for access rights and an assessment of radio
usability. This latter part involves the calculation of the value Srxlev. A cell is suitable if
Srxlev is greater than zero. Note that the outcome of Srxlev can be influenced by optimised
parameters that are broadcast to the UE in system Information.
The main parameter influencing Srxlev is Qrxlevmin such that a higher value would make a cell
less likely to be considered suitable. Qrxlevminoffset has no effect since it will be considered to be
zero during initial cell selection.
At present there is only one UE power class defined for LTE (Class 3), which means that
Pcompensation cannot be used to differentiate between different UE types.
Femtocell Selection
The NAS may additionally request that the AS scans for CSG IDs (Closed Subscriber Group
Identities). These are used to identify cells that are HeNBs (femtocells). In this case the AS
will report the CSG ID to the NAS along with the HeNB name if present. If the NAS indicates
that a reported CSG ID is selected then the suitability test includes the requirement that the
cell belongs to the selected CSG.
Figure 18 Femtocell Selection

Overall Reselection Process
The overall cell reselection process broadly follows the strategy first used by 3GPP for
UMTS. A UE in idle mode will apply measurement rules to determine whether or not
neighbour cell measurements should be taken. This involves the use of quality thresholds
and a quality measurement taken only on the currently camped-on cell. As with UMTS the
application of measurement rules is not mandatory.
Cells that are measured after the application of measurement rules are evaluated. In effect
this is a check for suitability as applied for initial cell selection. However, the parameter
values used can be modified and, optionally, account can be taken of the UEs self-assessed
mobility state. If layer priority levels are applied to frequency layers, reselection can be
triggered directly for neighbours that are suitable if they are in a higher priority layer than the
current selected cell. If priority levels are not applied to frequency layers, or if an evaluated
neighbour is not in a higher priority layer, then ranking is used to assess the need for
reselection.
Ranking is used to compare the quality measure of an evaluated neighbour with that of the
current selected cell. Offsets and hysteresis values are used to influence ranking, and these
can be layer-specific, cell-specific, or both. The UEs mobility state can also be accounted
for.
Figure 19 Overall Selection Process

LTE Measurement Rules
Intra-Frequency Rules
Intra-frequency measurements are controlled by the parameter Sintrasearch. If SServingCell is

evaluated as higher than Sintrasearch then the UE is not required to make measurements on
intra-frequency neighbour cells.
Inter-Frequency and IRAT Rules
Both inter-frequency and IRAT measurements are controlled by the same parameter
Snonintrasearch. In this case account is also taken of the relative priority of the layer containing
the potential measured neighbour cells.
In the case where neighbours are in a higher priority layer, they must always be measured.
In the case where they are in an equal or lower priority layer they may not be measured
when SServingCell is evaluated as higher than Snonintrasearch.
Parameter Values
Both Sintrasearch and Snonintrasearch are broadcast in SIB 3 and are variable in the range 031 dB.
Figure 20 LTE Measurement Rules

Detailed Reselection Criteria from an LTE Cell
The criteria outlined in the following diagram apply to any reselection carried out from a
current selected cell that is LTE. Thus it includes intra-frequency LTE reselections, inter-
frequency LTE reselections and IRAT reselections. It assumes that priority levels have been
set for frequency layers. If priority has not been set for a frequency layer then resection
evaluation will not be performed for that layer.
Figure 21 LTE Reselection Criteria
Higher Priority Neighbours
Higher priority neighbours are reselected if they exceed the defined quality threshold
Threshx,high for TreselectionRAT seconds. This is done without ranking against the current
selected cell. Note that if more than one neighbour meets this criteria then ranking is used to
determine the best neighbour.
Equal Priority Neighbours
Equal priority neighbours are reselected if they meet the suitability criteria Srxlev > 0 and if
they are ranked higher than the current selected cell for TreselectionRAT seconds. If this
condition is true for more than one neighbour cell then ranking is also used to determine the
best neighbour. Note that this case will never be applicable for IRAT neighbours because
IRAT frequency layers cannot be allocated equal priority to LTE frequency layers.

Lower Priority Neighbours
Lower priority neighbours are reselected only if no other type of suitable cell is available
while the current serving cells quality measure (Srxlev) is below the quality threshold
Threshserving,low for TreselectionRAT seconds. In this case a lower priority neighbour could be
either LTE or IRAT as defined by priority allocations. However, to be reselected a
neighbours quality measure still has to exceed the quality threshold Threshx,low for
TreselectionRAT seconds.
Scaling Modifications for Mobility
The UE determines its mobility state in terms of the frequency at which cell reselections are
being performed. This assessment is based on the broadcast parameters TCR and NCR as
shown in the diagram. These parameters are set through the optimisation process.
In the Normal mobility state no changes are made to any parameters relating to the standard
cell reselection evaluation and ranking processes.
When a UE determines that it is the Medium mobility state then the value QHyst used in the
ranking process and TreselectionRAT, used in both the evaluation and ranking processes are
modified. QHyst is reduced through the addition of q-HystSF-Medium, which has a negative
value (6, 4, 2, 0). TreselectionRAT is scaled through multiplication with TreselectionRAT-SF-
Medium, which has a value between 0 and 1 (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1). The net effect of this is to
speed up the reselection decision-making process.
When a UE determines that it is the High mobility state then the value QHyst used in the
ranking process and TreselectionRAT, used in both the evaluation and ranking processes are
modified. QHyst is reduced through the addition of q-HystSF-High, which has a negative value
(6, 4, 2, 0). TreselectionRAT is scaled through multiplication with TreselectionRAT-SF-High,
which has a value between 0 and 1 (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1). The net effect of this is to speed up
the reselection decision making process.
Both q-HystSF-Medium/High and TreselectionRAT-SF-Medium/High are frequency-layer

specific and as such are transmitted in the SIB relevant to the layer of interest.

Figure 22 Modifications for Mobility State
Defining LTE Neighbours for UMTS
The standard message in UMTS for the definition of neighbour lists is SIB 11. However,
although this message does contain a field identified as IRAT neighbours, it is only specified
for GSM/GPRS neighbour cell descriptions. Therefore, in order to define LTE neighbour
relations a new message is defined, SIB 19. This message is only used for LTE neighbour
descriptions.
It should be noted that SIB 19 does not make any provision for the description of specific
LTE cells. Instead, the message simply identifies an LTE frequency layer along with its
priority. There is, however, the option to include a field containing an black cell list, i.e.
specific LTE cells that are not to be considered for reselection.

Figure 23 LTE Neighbours from UMTS
UMTS Measurement Rules with Priorities
When frequency layer priorities are used for neighbour cell definitions in UMTS the way in
which measurement rules are applied is very similar to LTE.
For neighbour cells in higher priority frequency layers measurements must always be taken.
Thus if an operator chooses to make LTE a higher priority than UMTS, the UE will always be
scanning for and measuring LTE neighbours.
Alternatively, an operator may choose to define LTE frequency layers as a lower priority than
UMTS. In this case neighbour cell measurements are not mandatory while quality measures
of the current selected cell, defined in terms of Srxlev and Srxqual, are both above the
respective thresholds Sprioritysearch1 and Sprioritysearch2.
Note that an LTE frequency layer cannot be defined as equal in priority to a UMTS frequency
layer.

Figure 24 UMTS Measurement Rules (with Absolute Priorities)
Reselection from UMTS to LTE with Priorities
When frequency layer priorities are used for neighbour cell definitions in UMTS the way in
which reselection criteria are applied is very similar to LTE.
Threshx,high for TreselectionRAT seconds. This is done without ranking against the current
selected cell. Note that if more than one neighbour meets this criteria, ranking is used to
determine the best neighbour.
This never applies to LTE neighbours because an LTE frequency layer cannot be defined
as equal in priority to a UMTS frequency layer.
Lower priority neighbours are reselected only if either the current serving cells Srxlev quality
measure is below the quality threshold Threshserving,low for TreselectionRAT seconds, or
the current serving cells Srxlev quality measure is below zero. However, to be reselected a
neighbours quality measure still has to exceed the quality threshold Threshx,low for
TreselectionRAT seconds.

Figure 25 UMTS Selection Criteria (with Absolute Priorities)
UMTS Measurement Rules without Priorities
If priorities are not applied for frequency layers then the standard UMTS measurement rules
are applied. There are two variants for this that are referred to as either with or without
HSC rules. Since most operators use the version without HCS rules this is the variant
described here as an example.
In this case, separate thresholds are defined for each type of frequency layer, intra-
frequency, inter-frequency and IRAT. Thus the thresholds that apply to LTE neighbours are
SsearchRATm and SHCS,RATm. They are applied as indicated in the table on the left of the diagram.
It is important to note that most operators will also need to consider reselection from UMTS
to GSM and measurement rules for this scenario also use SsearchRATm and SHCS,RATm. However,
these parameters are set per RAT, so a separate pair of values for SsearchRATm and SHCS,RATm
can be defined for use with GSM neighbours.

Figure 26 UMTS Measurement Rules (without Absolute Priorities)
Reselection from UMTS to LTE without Priorities
After the application of measurement rules those neighbour cells that are measured are
submitted for evaluation. Although the standard process involves the calculation of both
Srxlev and Srxqual, for LTE neighbours only Srxlev is calculated. The values of Qrxlevmin
and P_MAX are specific to the LTE frequency layer and are broadcast in SIB19.
All the evaluated cells that are evaluated as meeting the cell selection criterion are submitted
for ranking. The value of Qoffset is specific to the LTE frequency layer and is broadcast in
SIB19.
An LTE cell will be reselected if it is the highest ranked cell for Treselection seconds. The
value of Treselection is specific to the LTE frequency layer and is broadcast in SIB19.

Figure 27 UMTS Reselection Criteria (without Absolute Priorities)
Defining LTE Neighbours for UMTS
LTE neighbour information is broadcast in System Information Type 2quater messages.

Since the information field may be quite large and the overall size of a single system
information message in GSM is restricted by the physical layer structure, the information
field may be fragmented and mapped into more than one occurrence of the message. Thus
an MS may need to read several copies of Type 2quater before it has stored all the required
neighbour information, particularly where an operator has multiple GSM bands, UMTS and
LTE. Fragmentation is indicated to the MS through the inclusion of Start/Stop bits in the
information field.
It should be noted that System Information Type 2quater does not make any provision for
the description of specific LTE cells; instead the message simply identifies an LTE frequency
layer along with its priority and other reselection parameters. There is, however, the option to
include a field containing not-allowed cells, i.e. specific LTE cells that are not to be
considered for reselection.
Note also that it is mandatory to use layer priorities to control the GSM to LTE reselection
process.

Figure 28 Cell Information in GSM/GPRS
GSM Measurement Rules
Normal idle mode behaviour is substantially modified for Release 8 and this new mode of
operation is mandatory for reselection to LTE. Instead of continuous neighbour cell
monitoring, the concept of measurement rules is introduced into GSM. This works in a very
similar way to UMTS and LTE.
For neighbour cells in higher priority frequency layers, measurements must be taken of each
higher priority layer at least once every 60 seconds. Thus if an operator chooses to make
LTE a higher priority than GSM, then the UE will always be scanning for and measuring LTE
neighbours.
Alternatively, an operator may choose to define LTE frequency layers as a lower priority than
GSM. In this case neighbour cell measurements are not mandatory while quality measure of
the current selected cell, defined in terms of RLA_C (RSSI), is above the threshold
THRESH_Priority_Search.
Note that an LTE frequency layer cannot be defined as equal in priority to a GSM frequency
layer.

Figure 29 GSM/GPRS Measurement Rules
Reselection from GSM to LTE
Frequency layer priorities are mandatorily used for LTE neighbour cell definitions in GSM
and the way in which reselection criteria are applied is very similar to LTE. Note that once
this procedure is applied for LTE neighbour cell reselection it will also be used for reselection
of UMTS cells from GSM.
THRESH_E-UTRAN for T_reselection seconds. This is done without ranking against the
current selected cell. Note that if more than one neighbour meets this criteria then ranking is
used to determine the best neighbour.
This never applies to LTE neighbours because an LTE frequency layer cannot be defined as
equal in priority to a GSM frequency layer.
The diagram shows the reselection criteria for reselection to cells in a lower priority layer. In
general it will only occur if the quality of the current serving cell is poor, the quality of the
target neighbour cell is good and there are no other acceptable GSM cells. This condition
must be maintained for T_reselection seconds.

Figure 30 GSM/GPRS Reselection Criteria
PRACH Configuration Parameters
The random access process must be used before any kind of transaction can be performed
between the UE and the eNB. It may also be used while a UE is in RRC connected mode for
resource requests. It is therefore important that it works reliably and with minimal
unnecessary interference contribution. In this regard there are a significant number of
PRACH-related parameters that may be part of the optimisation process.
Preamble Formats
There are four preamble formats that may be used. They differ in terms of the relative
durations of the cyclic prefix, preamble and guard period. In total they may have a duration
of either one, two or three slot periods, as shown.
The preamble format to be used is indicated to the UE as part of the parameter

prach_ConfigIndex, which is transmitted in SystemInformationBlockType2.
The choice of CP length will be based on expected cell time dispersion conditions, and the
guard period is selected according to the expected maximum cell radius. Note that the
maximum cell radius is 100 km.

Figure 31 PRACH Physical Layer Formats
PRACH Resource Parameters
The single parameter prach_ConfigIndex controls three time domain aspects of PRACH
resource configuration. The first of these is the preamble format. In addition it indicates what
is referred to as the PRACH burst period. This is described in terms of a list of subframes in
which PRACH may start and how frequently frames containing PRACH may occur. This is
achieved by making the numerical value of prach_ConfigIndex (063) reference a table
listing all possible combination in the standards (TS 36.211, 5.7.1). The example shown in
the diagram is for value 9. The table indicates that this means preamble format 0, starting
subframes 1, 4 and 7 and every frame available for PRACH use.
The frequency domain definition of the space allocated for PRACH transmission is provided
by prach_FreqOffset. The parameter indicates the first RB to be used, but in all cases a total
of six RBs are allocated. The example shows the allocation when the parameter is set to the
value 6.
The range of preamble sequences available for use on a cell must also be defined. As
shown there are three parameters with the information element prach-Config that influence
this.

Figure 32 PRACH Resource Parameters
PRACH Procedure Control Parameters
The PRACH procedure itself is also subject to optimisation. The diagram shows the contents
of the information element rach-Config. It can be seen that this contains the four key
parameters that are used to control the transmission procedure. Between them they control
power and power steps along with retransmission timings and numbers.
Note that this information element also contains more parameters that define the available
preamble sequences. One aspect of this is the option to associate sub-ranges of preamble
sequences (A and B) to different random access causes. A UE will use a preamble from
Group B according to two thresholds. The first relates to the size of the layer 3 message that
will be transmitted and the other relates to the power offset between the last successful
preamble and the message transmission itself.

Figure 33 PRACH Procedure Control Parameters
PRACH Access Probe Procedure
The probing process is controlled using four key parameters that may be part of the
optimisation process. The first, preambleInitialReceivedTargetPower is used by the UE to
calculate an initial power for the first preamble transmission attempt. Subsequent preamble
transmissions are then stepped up in power by an amount determined by the setting of the
parameter powerRampingStep.
Once a preamble has been transmitted the UE will wait for a response in the form of a
resource allocation in PDCCH identified with a corresponding RA-RNTI. The wait time is
determined by the parameter ra-responseWindowSize. Finally, the total number of preamble
attempts before the procedure would be abandoned in the event that no response is
received as set by the parameter preambleTransMax.

Figure 34 PRACH Access Probe Procedure

Q1. When performing initial cell selection, a cell is considered to be suitable if Srxlev is:
a) < 0 dB
b) > 0 dB
c) > 3 dB
d) < 2 dB
Q2. In the equation Srxlev = Qrxlevmeas (Qrxlevmin + Qrxlevminoffset) Pcompensation, the

parameter Qrxlevmeas is the:
a) Maximum permitted UL TX power in the cell in dBm
b) Offset for Qrxlevmin in dB (set to 0 for initial cell selection)
c) Minimum required cell downlink RSRP in dBm
d) Measured cell downlink RSRP in dBm
Q3. A CSG (Closed Subscriber Group) is most likely to relate to:

a) HeNBs
b) Pico cells
c) Micro cells
d) Macro cells
Q4. In which SIB are Sintrasearch and Snonintrasearch broadcast ?

a) SIB 2
b) SIB 3
c) SIB 4
d) SIB 6
Q5. SIB 19 is used for:

a) GSM/GPRS neighbour descriptions
b) UMTS neighbour descriptions
c) Wi-Fi hotspot descriptions
d) LTE neighbour descriptions
Q6. When considering reselection from UMTS to LTE, which of the following reselection
criteria does not apply?
a) Higher priority neighbours
b) Lower priority neighbours
c) Equal priority neighbours
d) They all apply

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Lesson 3 Connected Mode Procedures and Mobility
Defining RRC Connected Mode
The LTE RRC connected state is defined in TS 36.331. It is similar to connected mode in
other 3GPP technologies, but in LTE there is no dedicated channel. All signalling and traffic
transfer between the UE and the eNB is handled through scheduling of the uplink and
downlink shared channel resource. To avoid the need for continuous monitoring of the
PDCCH for prolonged periods of time while in connected mode, the use of DRX, a feature
normally associated with idle mode, is introduced. Note the UE is also required to maintain
awareness of system information.
Another key differentiator from idle mode is that mobility is under control of the network.
Network behaviour in this respect is driven by parameters and mode settings broadcast in
system information that are either part of manual or SON-based optimisation activities.
TS 36.331 defines RRC connected mode as follows:
Transfer of unicast data to/from the UE

At lower layers, the UE may be configured with a UE-specific DRX
Network controlled mobility, i.e. handover and cell change order with optional NACC
(Network Assisted Cell Change) to GERAN
The UE:
Monitors a paging channel to detect incoming calls, system information change;
for ETWS capable UEs, ETWS-notification; and for CMAS-capable UEs, CMAS
notification
Monitors a paging channel and/or System Information Block Type 1 contents to
detect system information change, for ETWS capable UEs, ETWS notification,
and for CMAS capable UEs, CMAS notification
Monitors control channels associated with the shared data channel to determine
if data is scheduled for it
Provides channel quality and feedback information
Performs neighbouring cell measurements and measurement reporting
Acquires system information
LTE IRAT Interactions
LTE standards define handovers and cell reselection between the E-UTRAN and both UMTS
and GSM/GPRS networks. Transition from LTE in idle mode is primarily through cell
reselection, with the exception of GPRS, which may employ CCO (Cell Change Orders). In
RRC_Connected mode, the E-UTRAN decides which cell a UE should hand over to in order
to maintain the radio link.

The diagram shows the state transition model. A UE will be either Connected or Idle with
respect to the E-UTRAN. The sub-states CELL_PCH, URA_PCH and Cell FACH do not
exist in LTE.
Handovers will occur between cell DCH and LTE connected. However, a UE in the UMTS
states CELL_PCH and URA_PCH would return to LTE through cell reselection.
Similarly, real-time traffic will probably handover to/from GSM, whilst non-real-time traffic
using GPRS will probably utilise CCO with NACC (Network Assisted Cell Change).
Figure 35 LTE IRAT Interactions
RRC Reconfiguration Message
The RRCConnectionReconfiguration message is a multi-purpose message, using many sub-

headers to control a UEs behaviour whilst in connected mode. Only relevant information
elements will be included for mobility control, which will be investigated in detail throughout
this lesson.
The main information element that controls a connected mode UE is measConfig, which is
used to set up, modify or remove measurement commands. In a similar manner to UMTS, a
UE will be instructed to start measuring, and then when certain triggers or events occur,

send measurement reports. Alternatively, measurement reports may be periodical.
The RRC Configuration message contains the following:
Measurement configuration
Mobility control information
Dedicated information NAS List
Security configuration
Non-critical extensions
Figure 36 RRC Reconfiguration
Measurement Configuration
The measConfig IE (Information Element) consists of the following IE sets:
Measurement Objects
Reporting Configurations
Measurement Identities
Additional parameters
Measurement objects define either LTE, UMTS, GSM or CDMA2000 neighbours to

measure. Each command is assigned a unique-per-UE measurement identity, and may
include up to 32 neighbours per RAT/frequency layer.
Details of the IE sets are given below.

Figure 37 Measurement Objects IE
Triggers or events for reporting are held within the Reporting Configurations IE. Reports may
be set to event-based or periodical. Appropriate timers and hysteresis values will also be
conveyed to a UE. A report configuration ID is used for each defined configuration message.
Figure 38 Reporting Configurations IE
Measurement Identities are used to bind together combinations of reporting configurations

and measurement objects.
Figure 39 Measurement Identities IE

Other parameters which may be used are contained here including speed scaling,
measurement gaps, measurement filter coefficients and serving cell quality thresholds.
Figure 40 Other Parameters IE
Measurement Objects E-UTRA
The following diagram shows an example of the parameters which may be used to control
measurements on LTE cells.
It is possible to instruct a UE to measure a frequency layer only (from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz).
The inclusion of the optional cellsToAddMod list allows more precise targeting of specific
cells.
Note that if the cellsToAddMod list is not included, cells may still be barred from the
measurement command using black lists.

Figure 41 Measurement Objects E-UTRA
Measurement Objects IRAT (UMTS )
The measObject information element may include UMTS cells, as shown in the diagram. Up
to 32 UMTS cells may be defined in each UMTS frequency layer. A UARFCN and cell code,
corresponding to the primary scrambling code, is defined for UMTS neighbours.
Figure 42 UMTS Neighbour Definition

Measurement Objects IRAT (GSM)
The measObject information element may include GSM neighbour cells, as shown in the
diagram below. Up to 32 GSM cells may be defined by listing ARFCNs.
Note that no BSIC is included for GSM neighbours. However, the use of NCC permitted may
be used restrict unwanted PLMN measurements.
Figure 43 GSM/GERAN Neighbour Definition
Measurement Gap Settings
Measurement gap parameters are used to define time periods when no uplink or downlink
transmission will be scheduled for a specific UE, thus enabling a UE to take neighbour
measurements. This is similar in concept to compressed mode in UMTS or Idle frames in
GSM.
LTE monitoring gap patterns occur in multiples of 10 ms, and have a duration of 6 ms. A
single monitoring pattern is defined for both LTE neighbours and Inter-RAT. Note that the 6
ms gap period should be sufficient to allow a UE to synchronise onto LTE neighbours for cell
identification. (PSS and SSS every 5 ms). However, careful selection of gap repetition must
be employed to allow a UE to decode a GSM synch burst to obtain BSIC and the SFN.

Figure 44 Measurement Gap Settings
LTE Measurement Reporting Configuration
The diagram shows the parameters and trigger events a UE may be instructed to perform on
neighbouring LTE cells.
Depending on measurement type, a UE may measure and report serving cell, listed cells or
any cells detected on a listed frequency. A UE can trigger a report based on either RSRP or
RSRQ. However, both may be included in any report.
The E-UTRAN can influence the UE report entry condition by setting configurable
parameters such as offsets and hysteresis. For any event to be triggered the entry condition
must be met for at least the Time-to-Trigger value.

Figure 45 Measurement Reporting Configuration
LTE Measurement Report Trigger Events
The diagram shows the event triggers defined for LTE.
Event A1 Serving cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.

Event A2 Serving cell becomes worse than an absolute threshold.
Event A3 Neighbour becomes better than an offset relative to serving cell.
Event A4 Neighbour cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.
Event A5 Serving cell becomes worse than an absolute threshold and neighbour cell
becomes better than a second absolute threshold.
Remember that each event will have associated hysteresis and time-to-trigger values.

Figure 46 LTE Event Triggers
IRAT Measurement Reporting Configuration
The parameters relevant for IRAT reports are shown in the diagram. Note that monitoring of
IRAT neighbours will be performed during available monitoring gaps. The three UMTS
physical channels required for identification and measurement are P-SCH, S-SCH and
CPICH. GSM requires RSSI and BSIC decode. Events may be periodical or event based,
and as with LTE reports, appropriate hysteresis values and time-to-trigger will be set by the
E-UTRAN.

Figure 47 IRAT Reporting Configuration
IRAT Mobility Triggers
The diagram shows the two trigger events associated with IRAT mobility.
Event B1 Neighbour cell becomes better than an absolute threshold

Event B2 Neighbour cell becomes better than an absolute threshold and serving cell
becomes worse than an absolute threshold.
As for the other event reports, hysteresis and time-to-trigger values may be employed.
Figure 48 Inter-IRAT Mobility Triggers
LTE Speed Scale Factors
In idle mode, it was seen that it is possible to apply hysteresis and scaling factors to a UE
based on a number of cell reselections in a given time.

The assessment of speed state whilst in connected mode is performed in a similar fashion.
However, a UE will now count consecutive handovers. Based on a number of consecutive
handovers a UE will apply a speed scaling factor to the time-to-trigger value, thus enabling
better mobility management, especially in a hierarchical cell structure.
Figure 49 LTE Speed Scale Factors
Measurement Reports
A periodical or event-based trigger will cause the UE to generate a measurement report. The
specific contents of the report will vary dependent on the measurement command provided
by the E-UTRAN. Only information elements specifically asked for in the measurement
command will be reported by the UE. For example, Cell Global Identity may or may not be
included. Usually the physical cell identity will suffice.
Figure 50 Example Measurement Report for E-UTRA

Measurement Report for UMTS Cells
The diagram shows an example report for UMTS (UTRA) cells. Note that on receipt of the
MobilityFromEUTRACommand message the UE will start timer T304 and attempt to connect
to the new node. Expiry of this timer before a handover complete message will result in
handover failure.
Figure 51 Example Measurement Report for UTRA
Measurement Report for GSM/GERAN
The diagram shows an example report for GSM/GERAN cells. Note that the
MobilityFromEUTRACommand message will contain either a L3 signalling message from the
destination BSS/GERAN or, in the case of CCO, a target cell and frequency.
Figure 52 Example Measurement Report for GERAN

Measurement Report for CDMA2000 Cells
The diagram shows an example report for CDMA2000. For CDMA2000, additional
procedures have been defined, using SRB1, to register a UEs presence in the destination
core prior to any handover procedure.
Figure 53 Example Measurement Report for CDMA2000
Inter-eNB Handover Procedure
The diagram shows the air interface signalling flow for an Inter-eNB handover. The stages
for handover are as follows:
1. The UE sends a measurement report.

2. The source eNB requests that the target cell prepares for handover. Note that in the
case of X2-based handover either lossless or seamless handovers are defined.
3. If no X2 interface is available, an S1-based handover may be triggered by the source
eNB.
4. The source eNB sends a RRCConnectionReconfiguration message to the UE,
including mobility control IEs (new C-RNTI, Cell identity and, optionally, target cell
frequency).
5. The UE will initiate the random access procedure and start timer T304.
6. After the successful random access procedure the UE stops timer T304.

Figure 54 LTE Handover Procedure (Inter-eNB)
IRAT Handover Procedure
The major difference between an Inter E-UTRA handover and IRAT handover is that in the
IRAT case the E-UTRA has no direct connection to the target radio network. These
interactions have to be handled by the MME.
Once the MME has relayed the appropriate inter-RAT cell information to the source eNB it
can instruct the UE to hand over using the MobilityFromEUTRACommand message. On
receipt of this message the UE will change to the appropriate radio technology and
implement the handover procedure. RRC or RR handover complete messages will then be
used for UMTS and GSM respectively.
Figure 55 LTE IRAT Handover Procedure

UMTS Measurement Settings
The information elements contained in the diagram are passed to a UE in connected mode
using RRC measurement control. For the purpose of LTE handover, the most relevant
parameters will be the EARFCN and bandwidth information element. LTE itself is specified
as a measurement object and no specific cell identities are defined.
Note that a UE that is RRC connected and in the state Cell-DCH will be given compressed
mode gap configuration information to enable inter-frequency measurements. Reporting
criteria may be either event based or periodical and multiple events can be specified.
The trigger points for events can be modified with time-to-trigger values and hysteresis.
Figure 56 UMTS Measurement Settings
UMTS Event Triggers
The diagram shows the inter-RAT events and can be defined as follows:
Event 3a UMTS active set quality becomes worse than an absolute threshold and
an LTE neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
Event 3b An LTE neighbour becomes worse than an absolute threshold
Event 3c An LTE neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
Event 3d Best LTE neighbour cell change

As UMTS is a CDMA system, a UE will potentially be involved in a soft handover and thus
serving cell quality may be derived across an active set as follows:

= 10 = 10 ( ) + (1 ) 10
=1
Where:
Mi = Quality of ith cell in active set

MBEST = Quality measure of best cell in active set
Na = Number of cells in active set
W = Weighting factor to manipulate sum of Mi and MBEST
Figure 57 UMTS Event Triggers
UMTS Measurement Report
When the appropriate trigger conditions or period is met the UE will compose and send a
measurement report.
Note that prior to release 8, GSM CDMA2000 and intra-UMTS measurements could be
reported. New information elements have been included in release 8 and a software upgrade
in an existing UTRAN will be required to support LTE measurement reports.

Figure 58 UMTS Measurement Report
UMTS IRAT Handover Procedure
A UE that is RRC connected to the UTRAN may not necessarily be in compressed mode. It
would be usual for a UE to send a measurement report (1) based on an event trigger such
as e6a or e1f (Serving cell RSCP reduction or UE Tx Power respectively). This would allow
an RNC to send a Measurement Command and physical channel reconfiguration information
(2) to the UE with gap parameters for compressed mode and new measurement commands
for LTE Neighbours. Once in compressed mode (3), if the appropriate trigger event is met
(Event 3a to 3d) a UE will send a measurement report (4) to the RNC. The source UTRAN
may then retrieve appropriate LTE cell information for the target eNB (via core network) and
issue a Handover from UTRAN (5) command to the UE.
The UE will then attempt to reconnect (6) via LTE using the LTE random access procedure.
Figure 59 UMTS IRAT Handover Procedure

DRX (Discontinuous Reception) Procedures
DRX will be configured for a UE in connected mode so that a UE does not need to
permanently monitor the PDCCH, thus saving battery life. The parameters for DRX have a
trade-off between latency and battery life and are configurable for LTE.
The onDurationTimer (Multiples of 1 ms) defines the amount of time the UE monitors
downlink control channels whilst DRX is active.
A short and long DRX cycle can be defined for LTE. By taking, for example, a UE involved in
an active web browsing session, the long DRX cycle could be employed whilst a UE is RRC
connected but no data is being received, and the UE will switch to the short DRX cycle when
a web page has been downloaded to ensure no further data is immediately forthcoming.
When a UE receives a scheduling message for its c-RNTI, it will start its DRX inactivity timer
and begin to decode data. If instructed by a MAC control element, or if this timer expires, the
UE will enter the short DRX cycle. If no data is received and the drxShortCycleTimer expires,
then the UE may revert to the long DRX cycle.
Figure 60 Two-Stage DRX Procedure
Uplink Power Control
Uplink power control is needed in any mobile system, primarily to achieve a required Eb/No
value at the eNB, but also to reduce overall system interference and preserve battery life.
Detailed power control formulae are defined for LTE for the PUSCH, PUCCH and sounding
reference signals. The formula for each channel follows the same basic principle and
consists of a basic open-loop operating point (derived from static or semi-static parameters
issued by an eNB) and dynamic offsets derived on a sub-frame basis. Note that a UE will
never exceed maximum Tx power (23 dBm).

The bandwidth element is derived from the number of scheduled radio blocks.
The static/semi-static control point is derived from both the Po-PUSCH(j) (defined cell by cell
from 126 dBm to +23 dBm) and Pl (an estimation of path loss made by the UE).
TPC (Transmit Power Control) commands are transmitted on the PDCCH to individual UEs
via a specific TPC_RNTI to control the dynamic closed loop offset.
Note that a UE (for example capable of transmitting 23 dBm) must report power control
headroom to the eNB. The eNB can then use this information to schedule uplink bandwidth
to a UE. Power control headroom has a range +40 dBm to 23 dBm. The negative value
would enable a UE to indicate that it has been allocated more radio blocks than it has power
available to transmit in, thus enabling the eNB to reduce allocated uplink bandwidth.
Figure 61 Uplink Power Control
Timing Advance
Like GSM, timing advance must be employed by LTE to ensure uplink transmission from
multiple UEs arrives at the eNB orthogonally.
Uplink timing advance utilises MAC control elements to update UE transmission time based
on distance from the base station to counteract different propagation delays.
Initial timing advance is set during the random access procedure, allowing an initial setting
with granularity from 0.52 s to 0.67 ms. Granularity of subsequent timing advance
commands is again 0.52 s (or 16 Ts). The command utilises a 6-bit MAC CE with a range
of 063. Values 031 reduce timing advance, 3163 increase timing advance.

Figure 62 Timing Advance
CQI Reporting
Link adaptation, or the process by which a transmitter should try to match the appropriate
data rate for each users variable air interface characteristics, is utilised within LTE.
The AMC process will define both the modulation scheme (from QPSK to 64QAM) and
amount of error protection required for both uplink and downlink transmission.
Uplink adaptation should be calculated by the source eNB based on measurements of uplink
UE transmission, or, alternatively, an eNB may request a UE to transmit sounding reference
signals.
A UE can be configured to report CQI values in order to allow the eNB to determine an
appropriate downlink MCS (Modulation and Coding Scheme) as seen in the diagram. Note
that the CQI value is NOT a direct indication of SINR, but an indication of the highest MCS
that it can decode with a transport block error rate probability not exceeding 10%.

Figure 63 CQI Reporting

Q1. Which of the following states does not exist in LTE?

a) CELL_PCH
b) URA_PCH
c) Cell FACH
d) None of them
Q2. LTE monitoring gap patterns have a duration of:

a) 6 ms
b) 10 ms
c) 16 ms
d) 1 ms
Q3. The LTE Measurement Report Trigger Event A2 states that:

a) Neighbour becomes better than an offset relative to serving cell.
b) Event A4 Neighbour cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.
c) Serving cell becomes worse than an absolute threshold.
d) Event A1 Serving cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.
Q4. During the IRAT handover procedure, interactions between E-UTRA and the target
radio network are handled by the:
a) eNB
b) MME
c) SGW
d) PDN-GW
Q5. The Inter-RAT (LTEUMTS) event trigger 3b indicates:

a) An LTE neighbour becomes worse than an absolute threshold
b) An LTE neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
c) UMTS active set quality becomes worse than an absolute threshold and an LTE
neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
d) Best LTE neighbour cell change
Q6. The AMC process defines:

a) The modulation scheme only
b) The modulation scheme and how much error protection is needed, UL and DL
b) The modulation scheme and how much error protection is needed, UL only
c) The modulation scheme and how much error protection is needed, DL only

Name...
Question set

Section 1 Assignment
These questions are designed to encourage further research.
1. Based on the following measurements and thresholds, calculate the Srxlev for each
cell and determine which cell will initially be selected by the mobile.
Srxlev_A ________________
Srxlev_B ________________
Srxlev_C ________________
2. From the following parameters determine what value Qrxlevmin should be set to, if the
intra-frequency search is required to begin at 50 dBm.
Sintrasearch = 20 dB
Qrxlevmeas = 50
Qrxlevmin ________________
3. If no LTE neighbour was available and the Snonintrasearch threshold was set to 10
dB, what would Qmeas (signal strength) be when the UE began searching for an IRAT
neighbour?
Qmeas ________________

Section 1 Practice Paper
Q1. One benefit of using a Single Frequency Network is:

a) It reduces interference at cell edges
b) It allows the use of the widest channel bandwidth
c) It provides greater consistency across the coverage area
d) It reduces overall interference
Q2. The Inter-RAT (LTEUMTS) event trigger 3c indicates:

a) An LTE neighbour becomes worse than an absolute threshold
b) An LTE neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
c) UMTS active set quality becomes worse than an absolute threshold and an LTE
neighbour becomes better than an absolute threshold
d) Best LTE neighbour cell change
Q3. The LTE Measurement Report Trigger Event A1 states that:

a) Neighbour becomes better than an offset relative to serving cell.
b) Neighbour cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.
c) Serving cell becomes worse than an absolute threshold.
d) Serving cell becomes better than an absolute threshold.
Q4. SON can be used to optimise which of the following channels?

a) PRACH
b) RACH
c) PUCCH
d) PDCCH
Q5. In the PRACH Access Probe procedure, the parameter powerRampingStep indicates:
a) The total number of ramping steps before the procedure is abandoned
b) Wait time
c) Initial power for the first preamble transmission attempt
d) The amount by which power is stepped up for subsequent transmissions
Q6. SIB 11 is used for:

a) GSM/GPRS neighbour descriptions
b) UMTS neighbour descriptions
c) Wi-Fi hotspot descriptions
d) LTE neighbour descriptions

Q7. In line with intra-frequency measurement rules, the UE may not measure neighbours if:
a) SServingCell > Sintrasearch
b) SServingCell < Sintrasearch
c) SServingCell Sintrasearch
d) Sintrasearch not sent
Q8. Offsets and hysteresis values are used to influence ranking for cell reselection. These
are:
a) Layer-specific only
b) Cell-specific only
c) eNB-specific only
d) Both layer- and cell-specific
Q9. For PLMN selection purposes, the LTE high-quality criterion is defined as an RSRP:
a) Greater than or equal to 100 dBm
b) Greater than 110 dBm
c) Greater than or equal to 110 dBm
d) Lesser than 110 dBm
Q10. Which technology is likely to require a CCN (Cell Change Notification) for cell
reselection purposes?
a) GSM
b) GPRS
c) UMTS
d) CDMA2000
Q11. At Releases 8/9, which type of MIMO is fully supported?

a) 8 x 8
b) 4 x 4
c) 6 x 6
d) 2 x 2
Q12. LTE monitoring gap patterns occur in multiples of:

a) 6 ms
b) 10 ms
c) 16 ms
d) 1 ms

Self-Assessment Multiple Choice Answer Grid (Section 1)
Name...
Question set

SECTION 2
LTE ADVANCED (LTE-A)


Lesson 1 Introduction to LTE-A
The Capacity Problem
The rollout of higher-speed, higher-capacity networks has been followed by a phenomenal

growth in the number of connected devices and in traffic volume. There is also a
corresponding increase in the range and number of applications, many of which have varied
requirements and characteristics.
This massive upsurge in device numbers, capacity demands, and application requirements
is further complicated by the rise of M2M (Machine-to-Machine), or MTC (Machine-Type
Communications). Vehicles, surveillance cameras, smart-metering devices, smart-grid
devices and connected sensors are all joining the Internet of Things.
Some analysts suggest that overall traffic demands could increase by around a thousand
times over the next decade, an upsurge that will be partly caused by increasing uptake of
mobile broadband, but which will be augmented in no small degree by M2M
communications. Finding ways to handle this traffic growth is likely to present a significant
challenge to network operators over the next ten years or so.
It therefore becomes imperative for operators both to find ways to improve bit rates (in the
region of multi-Gbps locally and tens of Mbps elsewhere), to increase capacity not just by
acquiring more spectrum, but by better utilising the spectrum that they already possess
and by improving performance, particularly at cell edges.
The ongoing development of LTE-A is taking place with this in mind. LTE-A is not just about
providing higher data rates; it is also about better utilisation of bandwidth, and enabling more
devices to connect simultaneously, moving technology on to a point where a connected
world can become not just a concept, but a reality.
Figure 64 Rising Demands on the Network

What is LTE-A?
LTE-Advanced LTE-A is a further enhancement of LTE as specified at Release 8 and

Release 9. The technology was originally specified in Release 10 and is expected to meet
the market needs for the next decade. While it may take time for LTE-A to become
widespread, operators may choose to upgrade their networks to LTE-A in order to take
advantage of the spectral efficiency gains and capabilities that it offers.
The focus of Release 10 was to provide higher bit rates in a cost-efficient manner, and to
fulfil completely the ITUs requirements for IMT-Advanced from 3GPP Release 10 and
beyond, while retaining compatibility with Release 8.
The ITU ratified LTE-Advanced as conforming to IMT-Advanced in November 2010.
The first LTE-A network, using CA (Carrier Aggregation), was launched by SK Telecom in
South Korea in June 2013.
IMT-Advanced
The ITU defines IMT-Advanced systems as exceeding the capabilities of IMT-2000,

embracing advanced, packet-based mobile services, supported by mobile and fixed
networks:
IMT-Advanced systems support low to high mobility applications and a wide range of data rates in
accordance with user and service demands in multiple user environments. IMT Advanced also has
capabilities for high quality multimedia applications within a wide range of services and platforms,
providing a significant improvement in performance and quality of service.
Key IMT-Advanced requirements include:
A high degree of common functionality worldwide

Flexible and cost-effective support for a wide range of services and applications
Service compatibility within IMT and with fixed networks
Interworking capability with other radio access systems
High-quality mobile services
Globally compliant UEs
User-friendly applications, services and equipment
Worldwide roaming capability
Enhanced peak data rates 100 Mbit/s for high mobility and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility
In order to meet these requirements, in 20082009 the ITU-R invited submissions for
candidate RITs (Radio Interface Technologies) or SRITs (Set of RITs) from IMT-Advanced
(4G) candidates.

By the end of 2009, six candidate technology submissions had been received, all revolving
around LTE-Advanced and IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX).
Figure 65 IMT-Advanced Candidate Technologies
During an evaluation phase, the ITU-R monitored progress and responded to problems or
requests for guidance in order to assist in building consensus. Then, at the end of 2010, the
ITU-R announced which technologies it considered to be qualified as IMT-Advanced. These
were LTE-Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced.
The result of this process is an IMT-Advanced 4G family, which is globally recognised as

being able to grow to a marketplace, while retaining compatibility with existing 3G networks.
LTE-A Key Features
A summary of LTE-Advanced includes the following:
Flexible bandwidth up to 100 MHz, using aggregation of 20 MHz blocks (Carrier

Aggregation [CA])
Speeds in excess of 1 Gbps achievable (downlink) for low-mobility terminals
Greater efficiency, including downlink MIMO of up to 8 x 8 in R10
Heterogeneous Networks (HetNets)
Support for eICIC (enhanced Inter-Cell Interference Coorindation) and (at Release
11) FeICIC (Further-enhanced ICIC)
Relay nodes
A greater number of simultaneously active subscribers
Improved performance at cell edges
CoMP (Coordinated Multi Point operation)
A new channel, the E-PDCCH, adds new functionality to the physical layer.

3GPP Releases 10 to 13
The first Release to introduce LTE-A was Release 10, which was frozen in 2011. This has
since been followed by Release 11; and Releases 12 and 13 are ongoing.
The key features of each Release are shown in the diagram.
Figure 66 LTE-A Releases 10 to 13
While Release 10 lays down the foundations for LTE-A technology, subsequent Releases
provide enhancements and new features. Release 11, frozen in September 2012, offers
enhancements to MBMS, SON, CA, and CoMP for beamforming and/or scheduling and
better cell edge performance. It also offers Enhanced PDCCH (E-PDCCH), and advanced
interference cancellation techniques in the form of FeICIC (Further enhanced ICIC). R11
also addresses M2M, IMSWi-Fi integration, and further support for home eNBs
(femtocells).
Release 12, with a forecast freeze date of 2015, takes R11 one stage further, particularly in
the move towards a connected world. Enhancements include stronger small cell features,
further CA features, further improvements to MTC, Wi-Fi integration, and system capacity
and stability enhancements.
Release 13 is yet in its early stages, but four major projects have been approved by 3GPP,
with the expectation that further work items will be added. The four projects are LTE in
Unlicensed, which would enable LTE to work in unlicensed spectrum to meet growing
demand, LTE enhancements for MTC, elevation beamforming and full-dimension MIMO, and
indoor positioning to generate improved indoor positioning accuracy.

Q1. Which of the following 3GPP LTE-A Releases introduces the E-PDCCH?
a) Release 10
b) Release 11
c) Release 12
d) Release 13
Q2. Which of the following 3GPP LTE-A Releases introduces the eICIC?
a) Release 10
b) Release 11
c) Release 12
d) Release 13
Q3. Which of the following 3GPP LTE-A Releases will allow LTE to operate in unlicensed
bands?
a) Release 10
b) Release 11
c) Release 12
d) Release 13
Q4. Which of the following 3GPP LTE-A Releases introduces enhanced IMT-Advanced?
a) Release 10
b) Release 11
c) Release 12
d) Release 13
Q5. With LTE-A technology in place, low-mobility terminals may expect speeds in excess
of:
a) 500 Mbps
b) 800 Mbps
c) 1 Gbps
d) 2 Gbps
Q6. Which of the following is likely to create the greatest requirement for LTE-A over the
next ten years?
a) Demands on spectrum
b) An increase in machine-type communications
c) Smart cities
d) Uptake of LTE worldwide

Name...
Question set

Lesson 2 CA (Carrier Aggregation)
CA (Carrier Aggregation) is the core feature of LTE-A. Its purpose is to increase bandwidth,
and with it, bit rate. As it is a requirement that LTE-A is backwards-compatible with previous
LTE Releases, CA uses R8 and R9 carriers. It can be used in either the FDD or the TDD
scenario.
CA aggregates up to a maximum of five carriers, each aggregated carrier being referred to

as a CC (Component Carrier). Each CC can have a bandwidth of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, or 20
MHz. The maximum aggregated bandwidth, therefore, based on five carriers at 20 MHz, is
100 MHz. R8 and R9 UEs can be allocated resources on any one CC.
Figure 67 Carrier Aggregation
For FDD, UL and DL can support different numbers of CCs, but the number of CCs in the
uplink will never exceed that of the downlink. In TDD, the number of CCs will usually be the
same in the uplink and the downlink.
Contiguous and Non-Contiguous Carrier Aggregation
There are three ways in which aggregation can be arranged. The easiest way, depending on
the operators frequency allocation, is to use intra-band contiguous aggregation. With this
method, contiguous CCs within the same operating frequency band are used (as defined for
R8 and R9).
If this is not possible, then aggregation will need to be non-contiguous. In this scenario the
CCs belong to the same operating frequency, but are not situated together, hence will be
separated by a gap or gaps. This is common in regions where spectrum is fragmented, such
as North America and Europe.
Non-contiguous allocation can be either intra-band or inter-band. In the intra-band case, the
component carriers belong to the same operating frequency band, and have a gap, or gaps,
between. In the inter-band case, the component carriers belong to different frequency bands.

Figure 68 Aggregation Options
CA Configurations
In Release 10, intra-band carrier aggregation is limited to two component carriers, one
paired band (Band 1), and one unpaired (band 40). Release 11 adds a further three bands.
The inter- and intra-band carrier aggregation operating bands are set out in the tables
following.
Also see http://niviuk.free.fr/lte_ca_band.php for a full and up-to-date list of CA

combinations.
Figure 69 R11 Intra-Band Contiguous CA Operating Bands

Figure 70 R11 Intra-Band Contiguous CA Operating Bands
Bandwidth Class
UEs are defined by a CA Bandwidth Class. The bandwidth class is used to signal to the
network a UEs ability to handle carrier aggregation, and the level of aggregation it is able to
support.
For intra-band contiguous carrier aggregation, a UEs CA Bandwidth Class is defined by the
number of component carriers it can support and its aggregated transmission bandwidth
corresponding to the Number of aggregated Resource Block (NRB,agg)
Note that CA Bandwidth Class A is for UEs that do not support CA (at R8, R9 or R10). Thus
they can only support one CC, and a maximum of 100 RBs.

Aggregated Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Bandwidth
For intra-band contiguous carrier aggregation, Aggregated Channel Bandwidth, Aggregated

Transmission Bandwidth Configuration and Guard Bands are defined as shown in the figure.
Note that the total aggregated channel bandwidth comprises the bandwidth within which a
UE transmits multiple contiguous channels at the same time. However, the presence of
guard bands means that this bandwidth will always be lower than the total bandwidth.
Figure 71 Aggregated Channel Bandwidth and Aggregated Channel

Bandwidth Edges
The aggregated channel bandwidth, BW Channel_CA, is defined as:
_ = , , []
The lower bandwidth edge , and the upper bandwidth edge , of the
aggregated channel bandwidth are used as frequency reference points for transmitter and
receiver requirements and are defined as:

, = , ,
, = , ,
The lower and upper frequency offsets depend on the transmission bandwidth configurations
of the lowest and highest assigned edge component carrier and are defined as:
(0.18, + 1 )
, = + []
2
(0.18, + 1 )
, = + []
2
where 1 = for the downlink with the subcarrier spacing and 1 = 0 for the uplink,
while , and , are the transmission bandwidth configurations for the lowest and
highest assigned component carrier, respectively.
CA Cell Types
Carrier aggregation supports a number of cell types.
The PCell (Primary serving cell) is where the UE establishes the RRC connection. The PCell
assigned to a UE is a standard LTE serving cell all traffic travels via the PCell and all UE
signal quality measurements are made on the PCell. The PCell is served by the PCC
(Primary Component Carrier). The UE receives NAS information on the downlink PCC;
PUCCH is used on the uplink. During handover or reselection a new PCell is selected for the
UE. A UEs current PCell is assigned Serving Cell Index 0.
The SCell (Secondary serving cell) is served by the SCCs (Secondary Component Carriers).
The UE could be monitoring these for DL assignment and using them to transmit UL data.
SCells may be bidirectional or DL only, but are never UL only. SCCs are added and
removed as required. Cross-carrier scheduling information for the SCell is transmitted over
the PDCCH of the PCell.
The Serving Cell comprised one or more SCells, if configured for a UE supporting carrier
aggregation. There is one serving cell for each CC. Coverage from serving cells will differ,
for example when CCs using different frequency bands experience different path loss.
Aggregated channel bandwidth will be the cumulative channel bandwidth for all the carriers.
Cell planning for CCs can provide different coverage through different cell sizes. In the inter-
band CA case, the CCs will experience varying path loss, and this increases with the
frequency. In the figure below, the blue UE can used all three CCs, but the black UE is out of
range of CC A.

Figure 72 CA Cell Types
CA Scheduling
3GPP defines two main alternatives for CA scheduling. Resources can either be scheduled
on the same carrier over which the scheduling grant is received (PDCCH), or they can be
scheduled on a different carrier.
For scheduling on the same carrier, PDCCH is coded separately for each CC serving the UE
(PCell and SCells). The Release 8 and Release 9 PDCCH structure and DCI (Downlink-
scheduling Control Information) formats are used.
The second option is known as cross-carrier scheduling. An optional feature introduced at

Release 10, cross-carrier scheduling is designed to reduce interference in HetNets. It is
activated through RRC during the UE capability transfer procedure. A 3-bit CIF (Carrier
Indicator Field) within the DCI indicates which component carrier the PDSCH allocation in
the PDCCH is designed for.
Cross-carrier scheduling is only used to schedule resources on an SCell without PDCCH. It

is not used on PCells as these are always scheduled from their own PDCCH.

Figure 73 Cross-Carrier Scheduling
Mobility for Carrier Aggregation
Mobility in LTE networks is based on event-triggered measurements, reported by the UE,

which generate handovers to a neighbour cell. CA event triggers are as follows:
Event A3 (PCell) Neighbour becomes amount of offset better than PCell

Event A5 (PCell) PCell becomes worse than absolute threshold AND neighbour
becomes better than another absolute threshold
Event A6 (SCell) Neighbour becomes amount of offset better than SCell
Handovers are only performed on PCells, and a change of PCell will always necessitate a
handover. Changes of SCell are managed by a reconfiguration procedure. Before handover
is in progress the CA or the SCell may be deconfigured, and a new cell configured for the
UE in the target eNB. This process occurs through RRC Reconfiguration.
The following diagram illustrates the inter-band handover case. The CA-capable UE has
assigned Band 1 as the PCC and Band 2 and the SCC.
Figure 74 CA Handover Scenario (Inter-Band)

1. As soon as the UE moves into a region of poor coverage on Band 1, Band 2 begins
inter-frequency measurements. Inter-frequency handover is triggered, and Band 2
becomes the PCC. Band 1 may at this point be reconfigured as the SCC.
2. An inter-frequency handover takes place to the neighbour cell on Band 2. Band 2 is

still the PCC.
3. Band 1 in the new cell is added as the SCC, and CA is scheduled.
The PCC Switching procedure is shown in more detail below.
Figure 75 PCC Switching Procedure
RRC Aspects
The E-UTRAN needs to be kept informed of the UEs CA capabilities. This is done using the
RRC UE Capability Transfer procedure during EPS Bearer Establishment. The information
relating to CA that is sent by the UE includes the following:
UE category CA capability is indicated by UE categories 6, 8 and 8. The particular

type of CA supported is signalled separately

Cross-carrier scheduling support This shows that the UE can receive scheduling
orders from the PCell regarding SCells
Simultaneous PUCCH and PUSCH transmission support This indicates that the UE
can support simultaneous PUCCH and PUSCH transmission on different CCs
Non-contiguous UL resource allocation within a CC support Indicating the RF
(band-specific) support for non-contiguous UL resource allocations within CCs
Supported band combinations The specific frequency band and channel bandwidth
configurations utilised by the UE in support of CA
Event A6 reporting support This indicates that a UE can report Event A6, which
occurs when a neighbour PCell is stronger than a serving SCell by an offset
SCell addition during handover to E-UTRA support The UE can support E-UTRAN
inbound IRAT handovers directly into CA mode
Periodic SRS transmission on all CCs support This states that the UE can transmit
periodic SRSs on all SCells.
Figure 76 RRC Procedures for CA
CA and Interference Reduction in HetNets
Providing a UE supports it, carrier aggregation can be used, together with cross-carrier
scheduling, to reduce interference in a HetNet deployment. The principle is illustrated below,
where a macro and pico layer are used, and two downlink carriers (fM and fP).
For data (PDSCH) transmission, both carriers are available in both cell layers and
interference can be handled using ICIC; and as both carriers can be assigned to one
terminal for transmission, there is no spectrum fragmentation with respect to PDSCH
transmission.

However, the macro cell needs to avoid high-power transmission on carrier fP, within the
control region. This will reduce interference to the control region of an under-laid pico cell on
this carrier, and the pico cells can use the carrier for control signalling to any terminal within
the high-interference region.
Because cross-carrier scheduling can be used, even if the macro cell only transmits control
information (as well as DL scheduling assignments) on carrier fM, DL-SCH transmission on
PDSCH can still be scheduled on both carriers, and can still be aggregated. The same is
true of the pico cell, in respect of fP. It may only be able to use fP to transmit scheduling
assignments to UEs in the high-interference region, but SCH transmissions can still be
scheduled on both carriers.
Note that if a reduced power transmit is employed, the pico cell can still use carrier fM, and
the macro cell fP, for L1/L2 control signalling.
Figure 77 Carrier Aggregation and HetNet Interference Avoidance

Q1. Carrier aggregation allows how many carriers to be aggregated?

a) Three
b) Four
c) Five
d) Six
Q2. Which of the following best describes SCells?

a) They are always uplink only
b) They are always downlink only
c) They are bidirectional
d) They may be either (a) or (b), depending on the configuration
Q3. For an R10 UE, the maximum aggregated bandwidth is:

a) 50 MHz
b) 100 MHz
c) 120 MHz
d) 200 MHz
Q4. The downlink operating band for unpaired Band 40 is:

a) 2300 MHz 2400 MHz
b) 2110 MHz 2170 MHz
c) 2620 MHz 2690 MHz
d) 2496 MHz 2690 MHz
Q5. PUCCH is used on which one of the following component carriers?

a) PCC downlink
b) PCC uplink
c) SCC downlink
d) SCC uplink
Q6. Which CA event trigger signifies that a neighbour cell has become an amount of offset
better than the SCell?
a) Event A3
b) Event A4
c) Event A5
d) Event A6

Name...
Question set

Lesson 3 Relay Nodes, CoMP, and MIMO Enhancements
Relay Nodes
In LTE-A, relay nodes are used to enable efficient heterogeneous network planning .
A relay node is a low-power base station that can provide enhanced coverage and capacity
at cell edges and in hot-spot areas. It can also be used to connect to remote or under-served
areas without the need for a fibre connection.
The relay node supports the same general functionalities as the eNB, but the DeNB (Donor
eNB) is responsible for MME selection.
Note that connection between the base station and the relay is often referred to as the
backhaul link, whilst the connection between the relay and the terminal is often known as the
access link. The donor cell is the term given to the cell which is connected to the relay using
the backhaul link. The donor cell may also serve one or several relays, as well as terminals
not connected via a relay.
Figure 78 Backhaul Links and Access Links
Interference Issues
Because the relay communicates with the terminals served by the relay and the donor cell
itself, interference avoidance between backhaul and access links has to be avoided. The
power difference between the access-link transmission and backhaul-link reception could be
more than 100 dB, so if interference is not handled effectively, it may prove impossible to
receive the backhaul link. Isolation between the access and backhaul links is therefore
required, and this should be obtained in the frequency, time, and/or spatial domains.

Figure 79 Interference Issues
Outband and Inband Relays
There are two types of relay node, Type 1 and type 1a.
In the Type 1 scenario, the same frequency is used. This is sometimes referred to as in-
band. In this case, mechanisms may be required to avoid interference between the access
and backhaul links, for example by antenna arrangements. Otherwise, activity on the access
and backhaul links in the time domain has to be separated.
Type 1a relay nodes use different frequencies, and this scenario is sometimes known as out-
band. In this scenario interference can easily be avoided if the frequency separation
between backhaul and access links is large enough, and sufficient isolation exists in the
frequency domain. This method requires no enhancements to the R8 radio interface.
RN Architecture
The following diagram shows the overall LTE relay architecture.
Towards the UEs, the relay behaves like a conventional eNB, using the access link; the UE
doesnt know whether it is communicating with a standard eNB or a relay. Towards the
donor cell, the relay initially behaves like a UE, using the LTE radio interface to establish a
connection to the donor cell. Once this connection is established, the relay can be
configured and is able to communicate on the backhaul link.
The donor eNB acts as a proxy between the core network and the relay. The donor eNB
appears as an MME for the S1 interface, and X2 towards the relay. As a result of this, the
relay thinks it is directly connected to the core network.
From the core network side, the relay appears to belong to the donor eNB. A proxy in the
donor eNB sorts out this dichotomy. The proxy also minimises the impact to the core
network from the use of relays, and enables tight coordination of radio resource
management between the relay and the eNB.

Figure 80 Relay Architecture
MBSFN Subframes and the Backhaul Link
In order to separate activity on the access and backhaul links and reduce interference, the
relay cannot be permitted to transmit on the access link at the same time as it is transmitting
on the backhaul link.
One way of achieving this is by configuring a number of the access-link subframes as

MBSFN subframes. This enables the relay to stop transmitting in the latter part of the
subframes, and instead receive transmissions from the donor cell.
As shown in the diagram, the interval in which the donor can transmit in the MBSFN
subframe is shorter than a standard 1 ms subframe. The first OFDM symbols in the
subframe are not available for the reception of donor-cell transmission, so L1/L2 control
signalling from donor to relay cannot be transmitted via the PDCCH. To manage this, a
specific control channel for relay, called the R-PDCCH, was introduced at Release 10.
Figure 81 The Use of MBSFN Subframes

Transmission gaps are required in the access downlink to allow for transmission from the
donor cell. Reception gaps are also needed in order to transmit from relay to donor on the
backhaul. These gaps can be created using efficient scheduling of uplink transmissions.
Backhaul Configuration for FDD
The following diagram gives an example of how the backhaul may be configured for FDD.
The subframes configured for DL backhaul transmission have a periodicity of 8 ms, which
matches the HARQ round-trip time. (It should be remembered that for the backhaul link, it is
necessary to maintain the timing structures used in Release 8 for scheduling grants and
HARQ acknowledgements). This also enables PUCCH to be received in the access link.
A problem arises, however, with the use of MBSFN subframes with a10 ms structure. This
creates a mismatch with the 8 ms subframes. To resolve this, some backhaul subframes
may be sited 16 ms apart. Uplink backhaul subframes then follow 4 ms after a DL backhaul
subframe.
Figure 82 Possible FDD Backhaul Configuration
The RPDCCH (Relay PDCCH)
The R-PDCCH, specified in Release 10, is used to carry downlink scheduling assignments
and uplink scheduling grants. It uses the same DCI formats as PDCCH.
In the time domain, R-PDCCH is received in the MBSFN part of the subframe; in the
frequency domain it appears in a set of semi-statically allocated RBs. DL assignments are
located in the first slot of a subframe, and UL grants in a second slot, enabling early
decoding of time-critical DL assignments. If there is no UL grant to transmit to the relay, the
R-PDCCH resources in the second slot could be used for PDSCH transmission, to the same
relay.

Coding, scrambling, and modulation follow the same principles for the R-PDCCH as they do
for the PDCCH.
Figure 83 R-PDCCH
R-PDCCH Mapping
There are two options for mapping R-PDCCH resources to time frequency resources: with
cross-interleaving, and without cross interleaving.
Figure 84 R-PDCCH Mapping

Without cross-interleaving, there is a one-to-one mapping between an R-PDCCH and a set

of virtual RBs. The number of RBs, either one, two, four, or eight, will depend on the
aggregation level. It is possible to obtain frequency diversity for the higher aggregation levels
if the RBs are located far enough apart in the frequency domain. Non-interleaved mapping
may be used for beam-forming of the backhaul transmission or for applying frequency-
selective scheduling to the R-PDCCH.
In the cross-interleaving case, a set of R-PDCCHs is multiplexed together, interleaved, and

mapped to the set of RBs that have been allocated for R-PDCCH transmission. This enables
frequency diversity for the lowest aggregation level. On the negative side, however, it blocks
additional RBs from PDSCH transmission, as a number of RBs need to be used for the R-
PDCCH.
In both cases, a set of candidate R-PDCCHs is monitored by the relay node. This is
configurable by the donor cell, which can signal a set of virtual RBs using resource allocation
types 0, 1, or 2. If necessary, the sets can overlap across multiple relay nodes.
As shown in the following figure, the relay attempts to receive and decode each R-PDCCH
candidate. If appropriate DL control information is discovered, it applies this to the DL or the
UL as appropriate.
Figure 85 R-PDCCH Monitoring

Backhaul Timing
For the relay to receive transmissions from the donor cell, there needs to be a timing relation
between the donor and relay cells. This needs to include any guard time necessary to allow
the relay to switch between access and backhaul transmission/reception.
The time-framing of the access link can be synchronised to that of the backhaul link, from
the point of view of the relay. The timing of the access-link transmission is derived from this
backhaul DL timing reference. The uplink timing of the backhaul depends on the normal
timing advance controlled by the donor cell. This ensures that such UL backhaul
transmissions are time-aligned with other UL transmissions received by the DeNB.
The first OFDM symbol in the data region is left unused in the downlink backhaul. This
provides a guard-period for relay switching; a short time-offset distributes the guard between
transmission and reception switching at the relay. The guard symbol is only required at the
relay side, and placing it at the end rather than the beginning of the data region enables the
transmission of PDCCHs to UEs in the donor cell.
Figure 86 Relay Cell Timing Derived from Backhaul Timing
The backhaul uplink is dependent on the normal timing advance controlled by the donor
eNB. This ensures that the backhaul UL transmissions are time-synchronised with any other
UL transmissions that may be received by the DeNB. A guard period may also be required in
the uplink to switch between backhaul and access links. This is implementation-dependent.

Figure 87 Backhaul Timing (Time Synchronised)
CoMP (Coordinated Multi-Point) Transmission
CoMP (coordinated Multi-Point Transmission) is designed to improve coverage, and

particularly network performance at cell edges and/or spectral efficiency.
CoMP works on the basis that the UE, depending on its location, may be able to receive
transmissions from multiple cell sites, and transmit to multiple cell sites, regardless of system
load. The benefit in the downlink is that performance is significantly increased, for example
by interference avoidance (a simple case); in the uplink the system can utilise multiple-site
reception to improve the link performance, for example through interference cancellation.
Transmit points provide coordinated transmission in the downlink direction, while receive
points do the same in the uplink. A transmit point comprises a set of co-located antennas
which provide coverage in the same sector.
CoMP can be used in both homogenous and heterogeneous networks.
Inter-Site and Intra-Site CoMP
CoMP can be either inter-site or intra-site. Intra-site CoMP enables significant information
exchange between cooperating cells, as backhaul connections between base stations are
not involved. Inter-site CoMP requires the co-operation of multiple sites for CoMP
transmission, and therefore requires backhaul transport, and therefore may affect backhaul
design.

Figure 88 Inter-Site and Intra-Site CoMP
Within this framework, CoMP can be implemented in two ways. Firstly, using autonomous
distributed control, which is based on an independent eNB configuration; or centralised
control, which utilises RRE (Remote Radio Equipment), coordinated through a single eNB.
Figure 89 Autonomous Distributed Control and Centralised Control
In the former case, signalling between eNBs to coordinate amongst cells takes place over
wired transmission paths. This can be achieved through a regular cell configuration, but it
needs to be borne in mind that signalling delay and overheads can create problems.
With an RRE configuration, high-capacity optical fibre is used to connect the RREs to the
central eNB, which performs baseband signal control and processing, enabling centralised

control of radio resources. This minimises signalling delay and overhead issues, and it is
relatively easy to control high-speed radio resources between cells.
As the number of RREs increases, so does the processing load on the central eNB. So the
use of both distributed control based on independent eNBs and centralised control based on
RRE configurations is recommended.
CoMP Deployment Scenarios
3GPP has specified CoMP so that it can be used in different deployment scenarios, and in
both homogenous and heterogeneous networks. Four scenarios were considered:
Scenario 1 Homogeneous macro network with intra-site CoMP

Scenario 2 Homogeneous macro network with inter-site CoMP
Scenario 3 Heterogeneous network with low-power pico cells within the macro cell
coverage areas
Scenario 4 Heterogeneous network with low-power RREs within the macro cell
area, the RREs having the same physical cell identity as the macro cell
The scenarios are illustrated below.
Figure 90 CoMP Scenarios

In CoMP scenario 1, a homogeneous network case, the coordination area is restricted to the
cells controlled by a single eNB. This is the only scenario that limits the coordination to cells
of the same site. However, there is no need for external connections. This makes early
practical deployment perhaps easier than the other use cases.
With Scenario 2, another homogeneous case, the coordination area is expanded to include
the cells of different sites. This could be done by the use of a single eNB controlling the
RREs at different sites, or by having multiple eNBs at different sites, which then coordinate
with each other. There may be performance gains over scenario 1, depending on the
number of cells deployed and the latency of connections between them (which is network-
implementation dependent).
Scenario 3 introduces a solution for heterogeneous networks. In this case, macro cells with
high transmission power and pico cells with low transmission power coexist. Thus, a single
eNB may control a macro cells high-power RRE and a pico cells low-power RRE within the
macro cell coverage. Alternatively, different pico cell and macro cell eNBs can coordinate
with each other.
With CoMP scenario 4, another heterogeneous-network solution, RREs with low

transmission power are distributed with a macro cells coverage area. In this case, however,
all the low-power RREs share the same physical cell identity as the macro cell; in other
words, they are forming a set of distributed antennas for the macro cell. The coordination is
effected among the distributed antennas of a single cell, so there is no need for mobility
support. In addition, because the RREs are not independent cells, a low-delay, high-capacity
backhaul is required, such as optical fibre, between the macro cell site and the RREs.
Scenarios 3 and 4 are most likely to be used in metropolitan areas where deployment is
dense and RREs with different transmission power levels coexist.
Downlink CoMP
At Release 11, there are three main downlink CoMP variants:
CS/CB (Coordinated scheduling/beamforming)

DPS (Dynamic Point Selection)
JT (Joint Transmission)
With CS/CB, user scheduling/beamforming decisions are coordinated by cooperating

transmit points, but transmission data to UEs is only available at, and transmitted from, one
transmit point. The transmit point responsible for UE data transmission is configured by RRC
signalling (i.e. it is not changed dynamically on a sub-frame basis). A sub-frame is
transmitted from a cell to a UE, while coordinated beamforming and scheduling between
cells reduces the amount of interference caused to other cells.

Figure 91 CS/CB
In the DPS scenario, data is available for transmission from two or more transmit points, but
is only scheduled from one transmit point in each subframe. This will be dependent on
resource availability and channel state information.
Figure 92 DPS
With the JT option, two or more transmit points transmit data to the UE on the same
frequency in the same subframe. This solution can improve the received signal quality and
throughput of the UE in a timefrequency resource. JT can be classed as either coherent or
non-coherent.
In the coherent case, the transmission signal from multiple TPs is jointly pre-coded, which
achieves coherent combining in the wireless channel.
In the non-coherent JT case, the UE receives multiple transmissions, which have been
individually pre-coded by individual TPs without coherent combining.

Figure 93 JT
LTE Release 11 supports a new PDSCH Transmission Mode 10, which includes support for
CS/CB and DPS. The common framework allows for multiple non-zero power CSI-RS
(Channel-State Information-Reference Symbol) resources, and interference measurement
CSI-IM (Channel State Information Interference Measurement) resources to be configured
for UE using RRC signalling. The set of CSI-RS resources that is used by the UE to
measure and report CSI is known as the CoMP Measurement Set. The maximum size of
this is three, but up to four CSI feedback processes can be configured for a UE, with each
CSI feedback process corresponding to a particular combination of a channel measurement
from a non-zero-power CSI-RS resource and an interference measurement from a CSI-IM
resource. The number of feedback processes that can be configured is UE-specific.
For CS/CB support, different CSI processes would need to be configured, corresponding to
different cooperating transmission points. A UEs CSI feedback on the CSI process of the
serving cell will provide the CQI, i.e. de-codable transport block size, and PMI, i.e. the
preferred decoder, for serving cells transmissions to the UE. The same UEs PMIs for other
transmission points will indicate which pre-coders need to be avoided by the transmission
points those, that is, which would generate the most interference.
For DPS support, each CSI process will provide the preferred CSI and PMI for a given
transmission point. Dynamic DL control signalling will indicate the PDSCH rate-matching and
resource-element mapping, in line with the chosen transmission point in each frame. This
will include the location of the zero-power CSI-RS, the CRS ports the PDSCH data is
mapped around, and the starting OFDM symbol for the subframe data.
MIMO Enhancements
LTE-Advanced introduces of 8 x 8 MIMO in the downlink and 4 x 4 in the uplink.
A number of TMs (Transmission Modes) have been defined, which allow the type of multiple
antenna scheme to be adjusted, for example to reflect the radio environment. There are nine
transmission modes in the downlink, TM9 (enabling DL 8 x 8 MIMO) having been introduced
at Release 10. There are two modes in the uplink; R1 was introduced at Release 8, and R2
(enabling UL 4 x 4 MIMO) at Release 10. RRC signalling will tell the UE which TM to use.

TMs differ in terms of:
Antenna ports
Types of reference signal, CRS (Cell Reference Signal) or DM-RS (Demodulation
Reference Signal)
Number of layers (streams/rank)
Precoding type
Figure 94 LTE-A MIMO
Precoding maps modulation symbols onto the different antennas, its aim being to ensure
that the best possible data reception occurs at the receiver. Which type of precoding is usd
depends on the antenna technique, the number of antenna ports, and the number of layers.
Fading can affect the signal, so reference signals are transmitted with the data, and used by
the receiver when demodulating the received signal. In LTE-A, the DM-RSs are added to the
data streams before precoding, which differs from R8, where one CRS per antenna was
added after. Information about the reference signal provides details of the combined
influence of radio channel and precoding. The receiver needs no prior knowledge about the
pre-coder. This is known as non-codebook-based precoding.
ICIC (Inter-Cell Interference Coordination)
ICIC manages radio resources in such a way that inter-cell interference is kept under control.
It is basically a multi-cell radio resource management function that takes into account
resource usage and traffic load from multiple cells: by avoiding scheduling transmissions to
and from terminals at the cell border simultaneously in neighbouring cells, the worst
interference situations can be reduced.
R8 ICIC manages interference on traffic channels only.

Uplink ICIC
The interference level in the uplink depends not on the transmitting terminal, but on the
location of the interfering terminals. Interfering terminals located closer to the cell border
tend to cause most interference to neighbouring cells. The aim, therefore, is to coordinate
uplink scheduling between cells to avoid terminals at cell borders in neighbouring cells
transmitting simultaneously and thereby causing severe interference to each other.
A number of messages communicated between eNBs across the X2 interface provide

information about interference. These give details about the interference and/or scheduling
strategies of the issuing eNB, and can be used by the receiving eNB to assist in its
scheduling process.
For uplink ICIC, there are two messages defined: the OI (Overload Indicator) and the HII
(High Interference Indicator).
HII provides information about the set of RBs an eNB is likely to use for scheduling
transmissions to cell-edge UEs i.e. those from which neighbouring cells can expect higher
interference. From this information, the receiving eNB can attempt to avoid scheduling its
own cell-edge UEs on the same RBs. The effect of this will be to reduce interference both to
its own cell, and in the cell from which the HII message was received.
OI indicates the UL interference experienced by a cell on its RBs. There are three levels of
OI: low, medium, and high. On receipt of the OI message, the receiving eNB can alter its
scheduling to reduce interference for the issuing eNB.
In the DL, ICIC operation is supported by the RNTP (Relative Narrowband Transmit Power).
RNTP operates in a similar way to the HII, in that it provides information on whether or not
the relative transmit power for a given RB is likely to exceed a certain level. Neighbouring
cells are able to use this information for its own UE scheduling purposes especially those
near cell edges.

Figure 95 UL and DL ICIC
eICIC (enhanced ICIC)
Enhanced ICIC, introduced at Release 10, reduces interference issues in HetNets, and
deals with interference on both traffic and control channels. To do this it uses the power,
frequency and time domains.
In the frequency domain, eICIC manages the radio resource specifically, the radio
resource blocks to enable multiple cells to coordinate their use of frequency domain
resources. In the time domain, eICIC subframe use across different cells is coordinated
through ABS (Almost Blank Subframe) patterns. ABS subframes dont transmit traffic
channels; they are mostly composed of very-low-power control channel frames. If ABS
frames are configured on a macro cell, then a UE connected to a pico cell or femto cell can
transmit data during an ABS frame, thereby avoiding interference from the macro cell.
FeICIC (Further enhanced ICIC)
Release 11 introduces further enhancements to non-CA-based enhanced ICIC. This further

reduces interference through interference cancellation on control channels of ABSs, which
may be caused by CRS (Cell-specific Reference Signals) from high-power macro cells.
If proper CRS-based measurements are to be defined, and demodulation for time-domain

ICIC to be improved, signalling support needs to be defined that can indicate which
neighbour cells have configured ABS.
Another FeICIC feature is the ability to transmit SIB1 information via dedicated RRC
signalling. This enables the UE to decode important system information in cases of strong
interference, i.e. PLMN IDs, TAC, cell ID, access restrictions, and scheduling information.

E-PDCCH (Enhanced PDCCH)
3GPP Release 11 is introduces a new downlink control channel, the E-PDCCH (Enhanced
Physical Downlink Control Channel). The E-PDCCH provides support for carrier
aggregation, MU-MIMO, small cells, and M2M communications.
The E-PDCCH shares physical resources with PDSCH, and is frequency-division

multiplexed with PDSCH. It occupies as many physical resource block pairs as are
necessary, which gives it a larger control capacity than PDCCH. Control and resource data
can be balanced relative to the number of served UEs, maximising throughput.
When reliable CSI feedback is available, E-PDCCH transmission can benefit from
frequency-selective gain as the network can schedule E-PDCCH onto a narrow bandwidth
with good radio conditions for a UE. This makes MU-MIMO and beamforming possible in
localised transmission, further improving spectral efficiency.
E-PDCCH also introduces distributed transmission, which helps to maintain the robustness
of control-channel transmissions. This can be used when reliable CSI feedback is
unavailable.
E-PDCCH resources are spread across a wide bandwidth, making the most of frequency-
diversity gain. Spatial diversity is also achieved by resource-element-level pre-coder cycling
via two antenna ports.
Figure 96 E-PDCCH
The E-PDCCH uses PDSCH resources for control channel transmission. It has a similar
format to the PDSCH, but instead of using first symbols of a subframe, where the DCI is
spread over the entire bandwidth the E-PDCCH uses the same resources as the PDSCH.

The E-PDCCH is UE-specific; different UEs may have different E-PDCCH configurations. A
UE can be configured with two sets of E-PDCCHs, and configuration between sets may
differ. Each E-PDCCH set can have 2, 4, or 8 resource-block pairs.
Each RB pair comprises a number of ECCEs (Enhanced Control Channel Elements). One
ECCE normally consists of four EREGs (Enhanced Resource Element Groups), but in some
cases, such as a special subframe in a TDD system, it could have eight EREGs. Each
EREG is composed of nine resource elements.
The E-PDCCH configuration is configured using RRC signalling.

Q1. In the case of relays, isolation between access and backhaul links is required. This can
be obtained in which domain?
a) Time
b) Frequency
c) Spatial
d) Time, frequency, and/or spatial
Q2. Which one of the following statements is TRUE?

a) In the time domain, R-PDCCH is received in the MBSFN part of the subframe
b) In the frequency domain, R-PDCCH is received in the MBSFN part of the subframe
c) In the time domain, R-PDCCH is received as a set of RBs
d) The R-PDCCH uses different DCI formats to standard PDCCH
Q3. In which type of CoMP are backhaul transmissions NOT required?

a) Inter-site CoMP
b) Intra-site CoMP
c) Both inter- and intra-site CoMP
d) Neither type requires backhaul transmissions
Q4. Which of the following CoMP scenarios does NOT require mobility support, i.e.
handover?
a) Heterogeneous network with low-power RREs within the macro cell area
b) Homogeneous macro network with inter-site CoMP
c) Heterogeneous network with low-power pico cells within macro cell coverage areas
d) Homogeneous macro network with intra-site CoMP
Q5. With which other channel does the E-PDCCH share physical resources?
a) PRACH
b) PDSCH
c) PDCCH
d) R-PDCCH
Q6. Which one of the following best describes DPS (Dynamic Point Selection)?
a) Data is transmitted from, and scheduled at, from one transmit point
b) Data is transmitted from two or more transit points, but only scheduled from one
transmit point per subframe
c) Data is transmitted from, and scheduled by, two or more transit points in different
subframes
d) Data is transmitted from, and scheduled by, two or more transit points on the same
frequency in the same subframe

Name...
Question set

These questions are designed to encourage further research.
Q1. What advantages do using 8 x 8 MIMO in the downlink and 4 x 4 in the uplink bring?
What are the real performance improvements likely to be in practice, and how are
these being achieved?
Q2. When planning a heterogeneous network, what considerations are there to take into
account? How do these differ from the problems you face in planning homogeneous
networks?
Q3. Bearing in mind your answers to Q1 above, what measures would you take to address
any HetNet issues you have identified?

Q1. Which one of the following best describes CS/CB (Coordinated scheduling/
beamforming)?
subframes
Q2. What is the maximum size of a CoMP Measurement Set?

a) Two
b) Three
c) Four
d) Five
Q3. With respect to the CoMP Measurement Set, what is the maximum number of CSI
feedback processes that can be configured for a UE?
a) Two
b) Three
c) Four
d) Five
Q4. Which of the following best describes PCells?

a) They are always uplink only
b) They are always downlink only
c) They are bidirectional
d) They are where the UE establishes an RRC connection
Q5. In order to reduce interference, eICIC uses which of the following domains?
a) Power and frequency
b) Power and time
c) Frequency and time
d) Power, time and frequency
Q6. The uplink operating band for unpaired Band 40 is:

a) 2300 MHz 2400 MHz
b) 2110 MHz 2170 MHz
c) 2620 MHz 2690 MHz
d) 2496 MHz 2690 MHz

Q7. Which CA event trigger signifies that a neighbour cell becomes an amount of offset
better than PCell?
a) Event A3
b) Event A4
c) Event A5
d) Event A6
Q8. How many resource blocks can E-PDCCH occupy?

a) As many as are required
b) 2
c) 4
d) 8
Q9. Which of the following 3GPP LTE-A Releases introduces FeICIC?

a) Release 10
b) Release 11
c) Release 12
d) Release 13
Q10. FeICIC allows the transmission of SIB1 information via RRC signalling. What does this
do for the UE?
a) Allows it to transmit only when interference is sufficiently low
b) Tells the UE to power down
c) Tells the UE to power up
d) Allows the UE to decode system information in cases of strong interference
Q11. Which of the following CoMP scenarios is the coordination area restricted to cells
controlled by a single eNB?
a) Heterogeneous network with low-power RREs within the macro cell area
b) Homogeneous macro network with inter-site CoMP
c) Heterogeneous network with low-power pico cells within macro cell coverage
d) Homogeneous macro network with intra-site CoMP
Q12. Which one of the following best describes JT (Joint Transmission)?

subframes

Name...
Question set

SECTION 3
SMALL CELLS AND HETNETS


Lesson 1 Introducing Small Cells and HetNets
Meeting the Demands of Coverage
According to Cisco, global mobile data traffic will increase by a factor of almost eleven times
between 2013 and 2018, putting a tremendous strain on network capacity. It can be a
significant challenge for operators to provide full or even adequate in-building coverage. It is
also important for carriers to find cost-effective ways of providing coverage and capacity in
dense urban areas and to rural communities. For mobile operators, improving user
experience in the home, office, or in public spaces is essential for reducing churn and
gaining market share and new revenues.
In order to meet demand, operators can upgrade to LTE, improve spectrum efficiency, and
use Wi-Fi offload, but arguably the most effective way of maximising capacity is through the
use of small cells.
What are Small Cells?
The Small Cell Forum, an organisation that supports, promotes and helps drive the wide-
scale adoption of small cell technologies, defines small cells as follows:
Small cells is an umbrella term for operator-controlled, low-powered radio access nodes,
including those that operate in licensed spectrum and unlicensed carrier-grade Wi-Fi. Small cells
typically have a range from 10 meters to several hundred meters.
There are a number of different types of small cells: these include femtocells, pico cells and
micro cells, with femtocells being the smallest and micro cells the largest. These cells are all
likely to be based on femtocell technology.
Cell Sizes and Types
In a mobile cellular network, each cell has a maximum coverage, which is the greatest
distance at which the signal can be successfully received. It also has a maximum capacity,
which is the maximum total data rate that it can handle. These two limitations lead to the use
of cells with a wide range of sizes. They are usually classified as:
Macro cells: These are a few kilometres across and are controlled by masthead
antennas at a height of 2030 metres, so that the radio signals travel over the roofs
of the intervening buildings. They are generally used in rural or suburban areas,
where the capacity requirements are reasonably low. They are also used for fast-
moving vehicles, for which smaller cells would lead to frequent handovers
Micro cells: These are a few hundred metres across, and are used in urban areas to
increase the capacity of the network. They are controlled by antennas that are below
rooftop level, so that the radio signals travel down the streets
Pico cells: These are a few tens of metres across. They are used in indoor or outdoor

hotspots such as shopping centres and large offices. A metrocell is an outdoor micro
cell or pico cell
Femtocells: These are smaller, down to a few metres across. Enterprise femtocells
are used in commercial buildings, while residential femtocells are sold to consumers
for installation within the home.
Figure 97 Small Cell Deployment Scenarios
Macro, micro and pico cells are open to all users, while access to femtocells is generally
restricted through the use of CSGs (Closed Subscriber Groups). Macro, micro and pico cells
are planned by the network operator, while femtocells can be either planned or unplanned.
Small Cell Use Cases
Many operators have become familiar and comfortable with the working of small-cell
technology. Through their deployment of femtocells they are already planning to extend their
use of small cells into a range of applications, which can broadly be classified as:
Residential small cells

Enterprise small cells
Urban small cells
Rural and remote small cells

Figure 98 Small Cell Use Cases
Residential Small Cells
Using femtocells solves residential and SOHO challenges with a small, single device that
employs power and backhaul via the users existing resources. Femtocells also provide
capacity equivalent to a full 3G network sector at very low transmit powers, dramatically
increasing battery life of phones without needing to introduce Wi-Fi enabled handsets.
Enterprise Small Cells
Small cells also make sense in many enterprise contexts, providing a simpler, low-cost
alternative to traditional in-building solutions. Enterprise femtocells enable business users to
take advantage of high-quality mobile services in the office, while improving coverage,
accelerating data rates and significantly reducing capital costs. These deployments may
have large geographic areas and many users. Their requirements are largely driven by
capacity, coverage, and the need for reliability. Multiple parties may be involved at this level
(for service, site, facilities, etc.).
Urban Small Cells
In metro hotspots, regions of high population density and service demand, operators can
deploy small cells to improve local coverage, increase capacity and offload macro network
traffic. Small cells are deployed on an open-access basis by all customers of a particular
operator. They are likely to be sited outdoors, or internally, for example in transport hubs and
shopping malls.
Rural and Remote Small Cells
Due to their low cost and easy deployment, small cells are also a viable and cost-effective
alternative to traditional macro networks in remote rural areas with little or no terrestrial
network infrastructure. Such provisions include:

Rural communities coverage for areas that are not otherwise served
Remote industrial coverage at hard-to-reach sites
Public safety for the emergency services and first responders
Disaster recover/humanitarian aid enabling a rapid return to service after a
catastrophic event and/or the destruction of the mobile-network infrastructure
Special events coverage for short-term events, such as music festivals
Military services provided to military personnel
Transport providing services to travellers on trains, aircraft, and ships.
Macro Cells versus Small Cells
Small cells have a number of advantages over macro cells. They can be used for capacity
hotspots (mostly for stationary users), providing additional, targeted capacity and providing
other benefits such as spectral efficiency and cell-edge performance, as well as traffic-
management advantages and reduced capex and opex. They can also be deployed in
clusters to provide a new capacity layer where required in larger areas, reducing load on the
macro cell.
In rural areas, reduced load on macro cells is an important consideration. These areas are
traditionally populated with lower subscriber numbers and coverage is notoriously difficult to
achieve and potentially expensive. Rural macro cells require effective frequency planning
and often complex installation; small cells could be deployed cost-effectively, enabling
smaller, more outlying areas and villages to receive significantly improved coverage.
Reasons for Deploying Small Cells
Telecoms analysts predict that in terms of deployment, the three most important reasons for
deploying small cells will be to increase capacity and coverage and to cover high-traffic
public areas.
Small-cell base stations provide higher capacity than macro cells because of the deployment
scenario. One reason is because these base stations are mounted low above ground, they
are less susceptible to interference. This translates directly into higher capacity.
Higher signal quality leads to better throughput because it allows the system to use a more
spectrally efficient transmission scheme where more bits can be transmitted at the same
time. Therefore, the areas where users can transmit and receive at higher data rate are
larger in a small cell than a macro cell. This is significant because, again, it leads directly to
a large increase in overall capacity: the capacity of small cell base station is approximately
89% higher than that of a macro cell.
The established consumer femtocell market is expected to have a strong impact and small
cells are expected to be used primarily in capacity-constrained areas, mainly metro, as LTE
deployments start to mature.

Other benefits of using small cells are:
Users will experience lower latency (delay) for data services, and will enjoy faster
download and upload time
Small cells provide better outdoor-to-indoor coverage. Considering that 40 per cent of
mobile traffic originates from home and 25 per cent from work, this can represent a
significant source of revenue
Macro base stations provide poor service at the cell edge, which includes a large
percentage of the cell area. Small cells provide better cell-edge performance,
particularly for the uplink than large cells
There are lower energy requirements, as mobile devices will transmit less uplink
power, reducing output and improving battery life. In addition fewer, smaller, and less
complicated components will be used
Finally, small cells use IPsec/IKEv2 (Internet Key Exchange version 2) security
protocols, which allow them to communicate with operators core networks over the
public Internet in a highly secure manner
Capacity Gains
The case for small-cell deployment is most commonly founded on capacity gains. The Small
Cell Forum estimates that, in a 3G network, the introduction of a single small cell per macro
can offload up to 21% of user traffic, while 10 small cells can achieve an average of 75%
offload.
However, it also points out that the addition of four small cells within a macro can triple the
median data throughput across both the small cells and the macro, and believes that these
gains could also be a driver for small-cell adoption.
The figure below shows the relative contribution different network layers have on easing
capacity density, measured in Mbps per square kilometre. The corresponding axis on the
right shows the number of active data users the network can support per square kilometre,
assuming a traffic load of 0.5 Mbps per subscriber.
Starting from a 3G HSPA baseline, Wi-Fi brings a more than seven-fold increase in capacity
density. From the initial 200 subscribers, the combined network can support 1,500 active
subscribers per square kilometre. The further addition of the LTE macro layer only provides
a further 17% increase in capacity, because of the inherently coverage-oriented nature of
macro configurations.
The next large increase in capacity density is provided the by the addition of LTE small cells,
which provide over six times more incremental capacity density than the LTE macro layer,
adding a further 90% increase in overall network capacity.

Figure 99 Total RAN Capacity Density
Network Challenges
A high number of small cell nodes are required to provide the necessary coverage. These
are typically not mounted on telecom assets like cell towers, which operators are
accustomed to managing or leasing. Mobile operators will therefore need to identify locations
where installation and leases are affordable, and from which they can reach their
subscribers. Because the range of small cells is short, location is crucial to optimise network
utilisation. Locations for small cell installations typically include lampposts, interior and
exterior building walls, or utility poles.
While the equipment and installation costs are substantially lower for a single small cell than
for a macro cells sector, the total cost of installing and maintaining a dense network of small
cells can still be substantial because of the large number of locations.
Small cell locations sites frequently have strict limitations on equipment size, power
availability and accessibility, and are difficult to secure. As a result, flexible, compact, and
low-power form factors will greatly accelerate the rollout speed, and reduce installation and
operating costs.
The small-cell underlay network must be fully integrated with the LTE EPC and support SON
capabilities to enable the operator to see and manage of user data traffic, support mobility,
mitigate interference, and implement policy consistently across different networks.

Figure 100 Network Challenges
Backhaul Technologies
Early LTE-network deployments are focusing on coverage rather than capacity in order to
attract subscribers and provide some level of return on investment and profitability. It is
clear, however, that next-stage deployments will focus on capacity to satisfy traffic
challenges operators are facing in urban areas.
Small cell backhaul vendors are focusing on a variety of technologies providing holistic
offerings. Due to the fragmented and heterogeneous nature of small-cell deployments, a
single technology will not satisfy all operator demands. Therefore, vendors are armed with
wide array of wireless technologies to fulfil all backhaul conditions. These include NLOS
(Non-Line-of-Sight), e-band, mm-wave and PMP radiation, along with PON (Passive Optical
Network) and active fibre.
Figure 101 Small-Cell Backhaul Technologies Compared

Backhaul Challenges
Microwave and mm-wave frequencies are generally licensed, with a few exceptions, many
E-band frequencies are light-licensed, meaning a quick process for assigning them and low
costs (US$100200) for individual links and high frequencies (above 10 GHz) are subject to
increased atmospheric attenuation. These frequencies therefore require very directive
antennas, relieving some of the pressure involved in frequency planning.
Most LTE macro cells are connected via fibre to the core network. However, it is not
economically viable to connect all small cells via fibre because of the high cost of installation.
The lowest-cost option for fibre backhaul is to extend an existing link from the macro cell to
the small cell. Extending fibre from the macro site to the small cell will not be an option in
most cases, as it will probably require trenching, pits and ducts (which could cost more than
US$100,000 per kilometre), thus breaking the business case of small cells.
Figure 102 Backhaul Challenges
Outdoor Challenges
The challenges for outdoor small cells are very different from their consumer counterparts.
Practical issues including antenna placement, power, ecological and environmental impact
and backhaul are the biggest challenges that dominate all other responses.
These challenges are to be expected, as outdoor small cells require new skill sets and
engineering capability that need to be developed in cooperation with infrastructure vendors.
Additionally, small cell base stations have met with challenges from a business-case
perspective, despite the fact that they can be made at a fraction of the cost of larger base
stations. The issue is how to backhaul such base stations, as well as the cost of the
backhaul. As most small-cell base stations are mounted low above ground, typical

microwave systems are not technically effective because they require a clear line of sight
between the two nodes of the microwave link. This can be difficult to provide in dense urban
areas where small cells are typically deployed below building rooflines.
Summary
To summarise, the challenges that are hindering small-cell deployment are:
The consumer value proposition is difficult to communicate

Consumer femtocells have been far more expensive than expected
Operators have not committed enough to drive economies of scale
Integration of Wi-Fi into Small Cells
Wi-Fi, and especially Wi-Fi offload from the network, is considered a very important topic for
mobile operators and its operation puts it adjacent to small cells. Most vendors are now
integrating Wi-Fi into their existing portfolios and there is a very keen interest from small
specialist Wi-Fi vendors that are addressing the carrier Wi-Fi market.
The unlicensed nature of Wi-Fi and its best-effort operation is the opposite of cellular
networks, and mobile operators are very sceptical of operating their own hotspots in
interference-prone, busy areas. Small cells, on the other hand, are managed and deployed
by operators, operate in managed spectrum, and may be more secure.
Operators may initially find it easier to keep their Wi-Fi offload network separate from their
cellular network, and manage traffic and subscribers independently, thereby diverting
specific types of traffic, based on application, subscriber tier or other criteria, to different
networks. This approach reduces the upfront efforts to roll out a Wi-Fi offload solution, but it
precludes them from fully benefitting from the Wi-Fi infrastructure, especially in the long
term.
Instead, mobile operators that choose to integrate Wi-Fi within the cellular network can more
effectively take advantage of the capacity increase that Wi-Fi brings by managing all traffic
within a unified framework within the same core network, and present a consistent
authentication and service interface across RATs to their subscribers.
Furthermore, Wi-Fi and cellular integration will enable them to roll out LTE small cells more
easily as a network upgrade by sharing network resources, such as locations and backhaul,
with the Wi-Fi offload infrastructure rather than as a standalone network.

Figure 103 Advantages of Wi-Fi Integration with the Cellular RAN
Home eNBs
A HeNB (Home evolved Node B) is the 3GPP term for a residential or enterprise femtocell.
The following diagram shows the architecture for the home eNB.
Figure 104 HeNB Architecture
A HeNB has the following features:
It can only control one cell

It can only support the X2 interface from Release 10 onwards
Optionally, the network operator can deploy a HeNB-GW (Home eNB Gateway) on

the S1-MME interface, between the home eNB and the MME. The HeNB-GW shields
the MME from the need to know about the potentially large number of HeNBs in a
geographical area. The HeNB-GW appears as an MME to its home eNBs, and as an
eNB to its MME
The S1 interface is typically deployed across the consumers Internet service
provider backbone, so may not be under the direct control of the network operator.
Communications over the S1 interface are therefore secured by means of IPsec
Optionally, access to the home eNB can be restricted by the use of CSGs.
CSGs (Closed Subscriber Groups)
A UE can store the identity of one or more CSGs in its USIM, either by pre-configuration or
by downloading the information from a device management server. If it has done so, then
the UE is a member of the CSG.
Using CSGs, three forms of access are possible: open access (normal cell), closed access
(CSG cell), and hybrid access (hybrid cell).
Using open access, the cell is open to all UEs, whereas with closed access the cell can only
be selected by UEs that have the CSG ID stored in their USIM, for example the purchaser
and their family. With hybid access, specified from Release 9 onwards, all UEs can select
the cell and can access it. However, the HeNB gives a better quality of service to UEs that
are members of the closed subscriber group, and inferior QoS to other UEs such as visitors
and passers-by.
The UE discovers the type of CSG access that a cell is using by reading two parameters
from SIB 1, the CSG indication (true/false) and the CSG identity. Using open access (normal
cell), no CSG identity is broadcast. With closed access (CSG cell), the CSG identity is
broadcast and the CSG indication set to true. Using hybrid access (hybrid cell), the CSG
identity is broadcast, and the CSG indication is set to false.
A closed or hybrid cell can also broadcast a home eNB name as part of SIB 9, to help the
user during manual CSG selection. Closed subscriber groups can lead to interference
problems between large and small cells on the same carrier frequency, so are important
during radio network planning.
Evolution of HeNB Support
The support for home eNBs and closed subscriber groups has evolved as the 3GPP
specifications have progressed.
Access modes: Hybrid access was first introduced in Release 9

X2 support: Home eNBs only support the X2 interface from Release 10
Cell reselection: This is fully supported. A UE can only carry out a reselection into a
closed CSG cell if it is a member of the closed subscriber group

Handover from a closed or hybrid cell to an open cell: This can take place using an
S1-based handover from Release 8, or an X2-based handover from Release 10
Handover to a hybrid cell: This can take place using an S1- or X2-based handover
from Release 10
Handover to a closed cell is more complicated. This is not supported at Release 8, for two
reasons. Firstly, the Release 8 handover procedure makes no attempt to discover whether
the UE is a member of the target CSG. Secondly, there is a risk that one macro cell may be
a neighbour to several small cells that all have the same physical cell identity. Release 8
makes no attempt to resolve this ambiguity, which risks a handover to the wrong cell.
At Release 9, S1-based handovers are supported. The source eNB resolves any ambiguity
in the target physical cell identity, and the MME determines whether the UE is a member of
the CSG. At Releases 10, and 11, X2-based handovers are also supported, provided that
the source and target cells are in the same CSG.
Cell Detection and Small Cells
In UMTS and GSM, a UE is not expected to identify nearby cells by itself as it moves around
the RAN. Instead, the serving cell passes the identity of nearby cells to the UE, in the form of
a neighbour list. The UE can then search for these cells and measure their received signal
power, in preparation for a cell reselection in RRC Idle, or a measurement report and
handover in RRC Connected.
Small cells are often deployed without any network planning, so a macro cell usually knows
nothing about nearby small cells and cannot include them in its neighbour list. In UMTS or
GSM, that often makes it impossible for a UE to carry out a reselection or handover from a
macro cell into a small cell. Instead, the UE often has to switch off and on again.
In LTE, a UE can identify nearby cells by itself, so neighbour lists are not required. Subject to
restrictions, this allows a UE to do a reselection or handover from a macro cell into a small
cell, thus easing the deployment of small cells.
The rules for inter-system mobility are slightly more complicated. With UMTS or GSM to
LTE, The UE can find LTE neighbours by itself, as before. With LTE to UMTS or GSM, in
RRC Idle, the UE can find UMTS or GSM neighbours by itself, as before. But in RRC
Connected, the UE is not expected to find neighbouring cells by itself, so it requires a
neighbour list. That should not be a problem, however, as the LTE cell can populate that list
using measurement reports from UEs that have previously discovered the UMTS or GSM
neighbours while in RRC Idle.

Heterogeneous Networks
A heterogeneous cellular network (HetNet) is a cellular network that contains different types
of cell, all of which are ideally controlled by a single entity. It is characterised by some or all
of the following:
Different layers of cells with different sizes, such as macro cells, micro cells and pico
cells
Different radio access technologies, such as LTE, UMTS and Wi-Fi
Interference issues, due to the operation of different layers on the same carrier
frequency
Mobility management issues, due to the need to hand mobiles over between different
frequency layers and different radio access technologies
Restricted access, in which some of the layers or technologies may be restricted
through the use of closed subscriber groups
DAS (Distributed Antenna Systems), in which a single cell is controlled by multiple
widely-spaced antennas so as to provide uniform coverage
Repeaters and relays, which receive a signal from the base station, amplify it and re-
transmit it
Device-to-device communications, in which two mobile devices can communicate
with each other directly.
Many of the network planning issues that affect small cells arise because they are using
used as part of a heterogeneous network.
Figure 105 HetNets (Heterogeneous Networks)

Q1. Between 2013 and 2018, global mobile data traffic is predicted to rise by how many
times?
a) x5
b) x11
c) x30
b) x22
Q2. Of the following cell types, which is the smallest?

a) Micro cell
b) Pico cell
c) Macro cell
d) Femtocell
Q3. According to the Small Cell Forum, a single small cell per macro cell could offload how
much user traffic?
a) 15%
b) 21%
c) 55%
d) 75%
Q4. Which of the following is NOT a reason why small cells have seen slow adoption thus
far?
a) The consumer value proposition is difficult to communicate
b) Consumer femtocells have been far more expensive than expected
c) Small cell performance is not efficient enough to justify the cost
d) Operators have not committed enough to drive economies of scale
Q5. Which of the following best describes a HetNet?

a) A single cell type, controlled by a single entity
b) Different cell types, controlled by multiple entities
c) Different cell layers, multiple access network types, and controlled by a single
entity
d) Different cell layers, but a single access network type
Q6. How many cells can a HeNB control?

a) One
b) Two
c) A maximum of five
d) As many as it needs to

Name...
Question set

Lesson 2 Small Cell Planning Considerations
Initial Design
During the initial design phase, it is necessary to estimate the number of cells and antennas
that will be required, make an initial decision about the locations of the antennas, and
simulate the expected performance of the network.
Figure 106 Initial Design
As shown above, the work proceeds roughly as follows:
Link budget estimation: Estimate the maximum propagation loss that the installation
will be able to handle, on both the uplink and downlink
Propagation modelling: Using the chosen propagation model, estimate the
relationship between distance and propagation loss
Coverage estimation: By combining the link budget with the propagation model,
estimate the maximum distance between the base station antenna and the user
equipment, and estimate the number of antennas that the installation will require
Capacity estimation: Estimate the capacity of each cell, and estimate the number of
separate cells that the installation will require
Initial antenna placement: Using the building and clutter data gathered earlier, make
an initial decision about the desired antenna locations
Initial network planning simulation: Simulate the performance of the network using
the chosen network planning software, and confirm that the results are consistent
with the expectations of the link budget
Initial approval: Gain approval for the initial design from the person responsible
Site Survey
The aim of the site survey is to validate and refine the initial design, and acquire information
that is sufficiently detailed for use during the final design.
The site survey for an indoor design proceeds as follows.

Physical survey: Photograph key parts of the building, particularly the proposed
antenna locations, the routes of any cable runs, the dominant sources of clutter, and
the handover zone around the building entrance; establish the feasibility of the
proposed antenna locations
Radio propagation measurements: Place test transmitters at the proposed antenna
locations, and measure the received signal power over a planned measurement
route, at various distances and across various types of clutter; also make
measurements outside the building, to check the level of leakage from the building
Measurements of penetration loss: Check the materials used for floors and walls and
their thickness; measure the reduction in power as the signal travels through them,
for example by measurements on a different floor from the test antenna
Interference measurements: Measure the levels of interference from external
transmitters on the same carrier frequency. This should be done outside the building,
immediately inside and at other locations inside. Some of the interior measurements
should be made with windows open and on different floors. If more than one carrier
frequency is still feasible then the measurements should be made for each one.
The survey for an outdoor design would be somewhat simpler, but broadly similar.
Detailed Design
During detailed design, the results from the earlier stages are combined and refined so as to
make a final decision about the nature of the installation.
Figure 107 Detailed Design
Validate and refine the initial design: Using the results from the site survey, validate
and refine issues such as the choice of propagation model and the levels of external
interference
Detailed antenna and cable placement: Refine the initial antenna placement, bearing
in mind issues such as the nature of the radio environment and the feasibility of siting
the antennas and cables in the desired locations
Detailed network planning simulation: Simulate the performance of the network using
the network planning software, and confirm that the results are consistent with the
measurements made during the site survey
Parameter setting and optimisation: Set any remaining parameters, and refine the
network planning simulation so as to optimise its performance; iterate these stages
until the final design is reached
Final approval: Gain final approval from the person responsible

Requirements of an Indoor Antenna System
There are several requirements in designing an indoor antenna system. Some of the most
important ones are as follows:
Provide uniform coverage over the desired coverage area, offering a high probability
of coverage in all important locations, and offering a data rate that remains roughly
constant from one point to another
Provide enough capacity to meet the demands of the systems users
Provide isolation from external sources of interference, notably any nearby macro
cells that are operating on the same carrier frequency
The relative impact of these requirements will influence the choice of antenna system.
If the capacity requirements are sufficiently high, then a pico cell or femtocell solution may
be the most appropriate, spanning the coverage area with many individual cells, each with
its own capacity limit. These cells typically uses an IP backhaul, which makes it
straightforward to install in an office environment. The range is typically a few tens of metres,
although that inevitably depends on the transmit power and the nature of the radio
environment.
As far as possible, different cells should be kept isolated from each other, so as to minimise
the interference between them and maximise the capacity of the network. That suggests the
following principles:
Use different cells for different floors, so as to exploit the penetration losses between
the floors of the building
Usually, the capacity or coverage requirements will dictate the use of multiple cells
on the same floor. In these situations, try to use the internal walls so as to keep the
cells mutually isolated
If possible, avoid designs with large overlapping areas, in which a user receives a
high power from more than one cell
These isolation issues are especially important in 3G designs (UMTS or CDMA2000). These
use CDMA-based radio transmission, in which there is a high level of interference between
neighbours, and the need for soft handover in overlapping areas. They are less important in
LTE, in which there is less interference and no need for soft handover, and much less
important in GSM.
In other situations, the capacity requirements may only suggest a small number of cells, but
the need for uniform coverage implies a large number of individual antennas. These
situations suggest the use of a DAS (Distributed Antenna System), in which signals are
distributed around the building from one or more centralised base stations to a large number
of antennas. Each antenna acts as a source of multipath, and the device processes the
received signals in exactly the same way as it does for multipath.

Figure 108 Distributed Antenna Systems
Passive and Active DAS
There are two main types of distributed antenna system: passive DAS and active DAS.
A passive DAS has traditionally been the most common indoor solution, particularly for small
buildings. In a passive DAS, the base station converts the downlink signal to analogue,
mixes it up to radio frequency and amplifies it. The signal is then distributed by coaxial cable
and passive splitters or couplers to the antennas, which transmit it without any further
amplification. The same process happens in reverse on the uplink.
Ideally, a passive DAS will have the same transmit power from each individual antenna. That
can be difficult to achieve in a system where the different antennas require different lengths
of cable and different numbers of connectors. In turn, that can make it difficult to balance the
link budgets on the uplink and downlink. To overcome this issue, it is necessary to calculate
the lengths and types of all the cables as part of the detailed design. That in turn requires an
accurate site survey, so that the exact routes that the cables will take is known.
In an active DAS, the distribution path includes amplifiers that compensate for the inevitable
cable and connector losses. Various distribution techniques can be used, in which the
master and remote units in the diagram (see below) take on different roles.
An active DAS has several advantages over a passive DAS. The cable lengths can be
considerably longer, and it can compensate for its internal losses automatically, by means of
internal calibrating units and amplifiers, to ensure that the power transmitted by each
antenna is the same. That makes the processes of link budget estimation and detailed
design far easier than before.

An active DAS can also be upgraded by the addition of extra antennas, without the need for
an extensive re-design, and it can automatically detect problems such as cable failures,
which is not the case for a passive DAS.
Figure 109 Active DAS
MIMO Antennas
An indoor system can use MIMO antennas for transmit diversity and for spatial multiplexing.
Transmit diversity is useful indoors, as the nature of the indoor environment means that a
mobile can get stuck in a wide bandwidth fade for a long period of time. Spatial multiplexing
is also useful, as periods of high received signal power can be exploited by increasing the
data rate.
To support MIMO in a distributed antenna system, completely different distribution paths for
each of the MIMO antenna ports have to be set up. In a 2 x 2 MIMO system, for example,
the first MIMO antenna port will drive one distributed antenna system, and the second MIMO
antenna port will drive a completely different distributed antenna system.
To ensure a low correlation between the received signals, the separation of the MIMO
antennas should ideally be a few wavelengths of the carrier signal, typically 37 (e.g. 0.4
to 1 metre at a frequency of 2100 MHz). That is easy to achieve in a distributed antenna
system. It is harder in a pico cell or femtocell, but the spacing requirements can be relaxed if
the antennas are using different polarisations.

However, it is necessary to ensure that the received signal power from the MIMO antennas
is roughly the same. That implies that the antennas should not be too far apart.
Figure 110 Using MIMO Antennas
Leaky Feeders
It is also possible to use leaky feeders. A leaky feeder or radiating cable is a length of
coaxial cable with slots that transmit and receive along the length of the cable. The size,
shape and orientation of the slots can be tuned so as to radiated signals to the desired
locations. The most common application is in tunnels, but they can also be used in other
difficult environments such as lift shafts, long corridors, and airport terminals.
Like other coaxial cables, the leaky feeder has to be correctly terminated with a matched
load, to prevent the signal energy from being reflected back to the transmitter.
Relays and Repeaters
If the capacity requirements are low enough, there is no need to cover the indoor area with a
new cell. Instead, it is possible to communicate with an external macro cell by means of a
repeater or relay.
A repeater is a device that receives a signal from a base station, and amplifies and
retransmits it. It increases the coverage area of the parent cell, but it also amplifies the
received noise and interference as well as the wanted signal.
A relay is a more complex device, which decodes the received signal before re-encoding,
amplification, and retransmission. In doing so, it can remove the received noise and
interference, so can achieve a higher performance. Support for relays was first introduced
into LTE in 3GPP Release 10.

The external antenna is usually highly directional, to ensure that the repeater receives a
strong signal from the donor cell. Internally, the repeater can drive either a single antenna or
a distributed antenna system.
Repeater Isolation
The isolation value of a cell repeater is the coupling loss between its transmit and receive
antennas. Any signal coupled from the output of the repeater via the antennas will be
re-amplified, leading to a danger of positive feedback, and a degradation in capacity due to
an increase in noise levels. It is therefore critical to keep the repeater gain below the
isolation value to avoid self-oscillation.
As a general rule, the repeater gain should in practice be set at least 15 dB below the
isolation value. For example, a repeater with a potential gain of 90 dB and 70 dB of antenna
isolation should in practice have its gain limited to no more than 55 dB.
Isolation between TX and RX antennas should be determined once the repeater is installed.
To measure the antenna isolation value, it may be necessary to drive the repeater antenna
with a suitable signal, and then measure the result at the donor antenna. Bear in mind that
the isolation could fall if doors and windows are opened.
Figure 111 Repeater Isolation

Repeaters and Handover
The repeaters external antenna should be sited so that it receives a strong signal from the
donor cell, preferably with line-of-sight propagation. It is especially important to ensure that
the external antenna receives one dominant signal from a single donor cell. Otherwise, an
LTE repeater will impose frequent hard handovers on all of the indoor mobiles. Worse, a 3G
repeater will place all the indoor mobiles in a permanent state of soft handover, which will
impose an extra unwanted load on the macro network.

To avoid this problem, it is recommended that the donor antenna is placed in a position
where there is a minimum margin of 8 to 10 dB between the donor cell signal and other
nearby cells. This must then be reflected in handover thresholds.
Figure 112 Repeaters and Handover
Repeaters and Donor Cell Desensitization
A potential problem may exist using repeaters if there is an inadequate coupling loss
between donor cell and repeater antenna. The problem arises because a repeater amplifies
its own internal noise, as well as the uplink signal that it receives from the mobile. If the
coupling loss to the donor base station is too low, then that amplified noise may in turn
overwhelm the donor base station.
Figure 113 Donor Cell Desensitisation Example

Consider the example above. The repeaters uplink gain is set to 80 dB, and the repeater
has a noise figure of 6 dB. Assuming kTB over a 5 MHz bandwidth gives a thermal noise of
07.2 dBm, the output level from the repeater will be 107.2 + 80 + 6 = 21.2 dBm.
Now assume that the input sensitivity at the base station is 102 dBm. If the coupling loss is
less than 80.8 dBm, then the noise received from the repeater will be greater than the base
stations input sensitivity, which will result in the desensitisation of the base station.
To prevent desensitisation, a coupling loss at least 15 dB higher is needed, i.e. of order 95

dB or more. In turn, this suggests a physical separation between donor NB and repeater
antenna of at least several hundred meters. It is therefore worth taking into consideration the
distance between donor and repeater antennas in situations where a repeater is used close
to a donor NB.

Q1. A relay is a device that:

a) Receives a signal from a base station, and amplifies the wanted signal only
b) Receives a signal from a base station, and amplifies the wanted signal with noise
and interference
c) Decodes the received signal and re-encodes it, removing noise and interference
d) Decodes the received signal and re-encodes it, along with noise and interference
Q2. Which of the following techniques should be used to minimise interference and
maximise the capacity of the network?
a) Use different cells for different floors
b) Use internal walls to keep cells mutually isolated
c) Avoid designs with large overlapping areas
d) All of the above
Q3. Which of the following is a feature of an active DAS?

a) The base station converts the downlink signal to analogue
b) Internal amplifiers and calibrators compensate automatically for internal losses
c) Cable lengths are shorter
d) Antennas transmit signals without further amplification
Q4. Which of the following techniques, usually used in tunnels, might you employ in long
corridors or lift shafts?
a) A relay
b) A repeater
c) Leaky feeder
d) MIMO antenna
Q5. As a general rule, repeater gain should in practice be set at least _________ below the
isolation value.
a) 5 dB
b) 10 dB
c) 15 dB
d) 20 dB
Q6. To avoid indoor mobiles from performing hard handovers too frequently, the donor
antenna should be placed where there is a minimum margin of _________ between
the donor cell signal and other nearby cells.
a) 24 dB
a) 46 dB
a) 68 dB
a) 810 dB

Name...
Question set

Lesson 3 Small Cell Performance
Indoor Solutions
The environment of interest is a building such as an indoor office or shopping centre, often
with several different floors. Penetration losses imply that the coverage from the external
macro cell is poor, which dictates the need for an indoor solution. If, however, the indoor
cells are on the same carrier frequency as the external macro cell, then there may be severe
interference problems between them. Sometimes the indoor users will belong to a closed
subscriber group, which leads to particular interference issues.
There needs to be a high coverage probability through all the important areas of the building,
and enough capacity to offer users the data rates that they require.
Coverage Issues
The coverage of the access network is determined by the number of antennas. Guidelines
dealing with coverage alone are as follows:
Maximise the antenna footprint: By placing antennas in locations which are free from
clutter and which have a clear line-of-sight to the users nearby, the coverage area of
each individual antenna is maximised
Exploit corridors: The radio signal is likely to be channelled along the corridors in the
building, leading to a high received signal power for mobiles that are along the
corridor and close to it. It is often easier to install antennas in corridors than in other
locations, and corridor locations can lead to fewer concerns about radiated power
than antennas close to the users desks
Exploit fire zones: A building is often divided into several fire zones, which are
separated by heavy walls and doors that will attenuate the radio signal. Good
coverage implies the use of at least one antenna within each fire zone.
There are several other rules to consider as well, which address issues such as traffic,
interference, and high-rise buildings. Some of these rules contradict each other, so they
cannot be addressed in isolation.
Traffic Issues
Traffic levels are likely to vary from one location to another within the building. Indoor
antennas should be placed in locations where the users are concentrated and the traffic is
high, and coverage holes (or regions with a low coverage probability) should only be in
locations where the traffic is low. Examples might include storage rooms and staircases.
There also needs to be good coverage in particularly important areas of the building, such as
managers offices and meeting rooms.

Note that corner offices can be a particular problem, since these locations often receive the
highest levels of interference, but are often used by the most senior managers.
Figure 114 Indoor Coverage and Traffic
Interference Issues
If the indoor network is on the same carrier frequency as an external macro network, then it
will receive interference from the macro cells. In these situations, the isolation between the
two networks needs to be maximised so as to minimise the interference between them. This
ensures that the indoor network is the dominant one throughout the building.
To achieve this, indoor antennas should be placed close to the walls or corners of the
building, rather than in the centre. This helps to ensure that the indoor signals are strongest
in the places that suffer the greatest interference. In doing so, the use of directional
antennas, with a few dB of gain, can help to increase the received signal power within the
building. It can also help to reduce the amount of interference that the macro network
receives from the indoor network.
Tinted windows can attenuate the interfering signal by 20 to 40 dB or more, so can greatly
improve the isolation of the indoor network. Note, however, that the strategy will not be so
effective if the windows can be opened.

Figure 115 Interference Issues
Multiple Floors
The penetration losses between the different floors of a building can be high, typically
around 10 to 20 dB. The need for good coverage on all the floors of a building suggests a
number of rules.
Indoor antennas should be laced on all the floors of the building, so that the mobiles can
receive signals that are free from floor-to-floor penetration losses.
In a multiple cell design, different cells for different floors should be used if possible, while
minimising the number of cells used for any one floor. This allows the floor-to-floor
penetration losses to be used to maximise the isolation between adjacent cells
If there are different cells on adjacent floors, antennas should be placed symmetrically, in the
same locations on each floor. Doing so helps ensure that each mobile is served by a cell on
the same floor, and not by a cell on the floor above or below. But, if adjacent floors are
served by antennas from the same cell, then it is better to place the antennas non-
symmetrically, in different locations. In that way, signals can leak from one floor to another,
and can help to fill coverage holes in the floors above or below.
Lifts
It can be hard to deliver satisfactory mobile coverage in lifts. The lift car is a metal enclosure,
with a penetration loss of several tens of decibels. There needs to be good reception with
minimal interference, both inside and immediately outside the lift, and with the lift door open
and closed. Furthermore, the lift is a high-speed device. This makes it difficult to hand over a
mobile that is moving inside a lift.
If whole building uses just one cell, then the lift can be treated as part of that cell. Otherwise,
it is generally best to use a single, distinct cell for the lift-shaft, lift and any adjacent
staircase. That ensures that the user is always doing low-speed handovers while walking

into and out of the lift, and avoids the use of unreliable high-speed handovers while inside
the lift car.
There are then various solutions for placing the antennas. The antennas could be placed
close to the lift shaft on each floor, relying on sufficient penetration through the lift car. By
using directional antennas, mobiles outside the lift will have a dominant signal from the
antennas serving the lift or the rest of the floor, with a small handover zone between them.
Alternatively, a directional antenna could be situated at the top of the lift shaft. This is
straightforward in theory, but the antenna requires a high transmit power to penetrate the lift
car. When the lift doors are open, the signal can spill out into the rest of the floor, causing
interference for nearby users. It can even make them hand over to the lifts cell, which runs
the risk of a dropped connection when the lift doors abruptly close. It can also be hard to get
permission to install antennas in the lift-shaft.
It is also possible to place an antenna at the top of the lift shaft, but also place a repeater in
the lift car. The repeater gain has to be adjusted so that it does not exceed the penetration
losses, both when the lift door is closed and when it is open.
Another solution would be to place an antenna in the lift car itself. It can be hard to deliver
the cables to the inside of the lift car, so the solution is likely to be restricted to the case of a
standalone femtocell or an active DAS.
Figure 116 Antenna Solutions for Lifts
High Rise Buildings
High rise buildings can lead to particular problems, as the levels of external interference are
not uniform throughout the building. Instead, it is best to design the building in a few distinct
zones.

In the basement, the isolation between the indoor and outdoor networks is very high
(perhaps 70 to 80 dB or more), so the levels of external interference are low. Instead, most
of the interference comes from other cells within the indoor network.
Below the level of the surrounding rooftops, there are moderate levels of interference from
the external network. Leakage from these floors needs to be minimised to avoid degrading
the macro reception for passers-by outside.
Above the surrounding rooftops, line-of-sight signals can be received from many different
cells in the macro network, so the levels of external interference can be high. Particular
attention therefore has to be paid to interference management issues, to ensure good
coverage throughout the building, while leaking as little interference as possible into the
external network.
Entry and Exit Points
There are several issues to consider when designing handover regions within the building.
But generally, it is necessary to ensure that there is one dominant cell throughout most of
the building. This minimises the interference in the network, and the number of hard
handovers in GSM and LTE. It is particularly important in a 3G system, where the inter-cell
interference is especially high, and excessive soft handover is an unnecessary extra load on
the network. In addition, small, clearly defined handover zones should be used, preferably in
areas where the traffic is low.
We can also exploit the penetration losses offered by obstructions such as floors and fire
zones, and design the lift coverage with handovers in mind
However, particular attention must be paid to the handover zone where the users enter and
leave the building. Siting directional antennas near the entrances ensures that users just
inside the building are served by the indoor network while users just outside are served by
the macro cell, with minimal interference between them.
Figure 117 Entry and Exit Points

Outdoor Solutions
The main use of outdoor small cells is to increase the capacity of the network in small
regions where the number of users and the amount of network traffic is high. Examples
include outdoor environments such as city centres or parks, transportation hubs such as bus
stations and railway stations, retail areas such as shopping malls, and entertainment venues
such as sports stadiums.
In most of these scenarios the demand can fluctuate considerably, with, for example, an
enormous increase in traffic in a sporting venue at a time of a major event. One difference
from the indoor scenario is that the network is nearly always available on open access,
without the use of closed subscriber groups.
Antennas are typically mounted on existing structures. Examples include building walls,
utility structures such as lampposts or traffic lights, and street furniture such as bus shelters
or news stands. They can also be mounted on specially designed structures that fit in with
the surrounding environment, such as artificial trees.
Capacity and Coverage Outdoors
Antenna placement for capacity and coverage follows the same broad principles as in the
indoor scenario, although there are inevitably several differences in the detail. Useful
guidelines include the following:
Maximise the antenna footprint: Place antennas in locations where there is little
clutter, such as city squares or intersections, to ensure that there is a clear line-of-
sight to users who are nearby
Use street canyons: Place antennas in locations that exploit the channelling effect of
the city streets, so as to minimise the propagation losses along the street and
maximise the coverage area of the cell. This can be aided by the use of directional
antennas in which the main beam is directed along the street
Exploit the isolation from surrounding buildings: Similarly, use the surrounding
buildings to maximise the isolation between nearby cells, and ensure that the levels
of interference within the network are as small as possible
Follow the traffic: Place antennas in locations where there are large numbers of
users who are generating a large amount of network traffic, to ensure that those
users receive a high signal power and a high data rate
Locate coverage holes: Similarly, locate any coverage holes in places where the
network traffic is low, and where users can easily get a better signal by moving to
locations nearby.
Note, though, that these rules are sometimes contradictory.

Interference Issues
If the small cell layer is on the same carrier frequency as the macro cell layer, then the
network will suffer similar interference issues to the ones that arise in the indoor scenario.
However, there are two clear differences. There is less isolation between outdoor small cells
and macro cells than between indoor small cells and macro cells. This issue means that
most of the layer-to-layer interference problems are worse than before.
On the other hand, outdoor small cells do not generally belong to closed subscriber groups.
This issue removes one of the sources of interference altogether.
Outdoor DAS
An outdoor distributed antenna system has a similar goal to an indoor one. By equipping
each cell with several remote radio heads, the coverage of the network can be more uniform,
fill in any coverage holes, and provide the user with a more consistent data rate over the
region of interest.
The signal has to be distributed over a greater distance in an outdoor system than indoors,
which makes it beneficial to use a high-speed digital link rather than the more traditional
analogue distribution. The digital link can be standardised so as to simplify multi-vendor
deployments. Two examples are the CPRI (Common Public Radio Interface), which
standardises the digital link alone, and the OBSAI (Open Base Station Architecture
Initiative), which also standardises some of the internal architecture of the base station.
Figure 118 Outdoor DAS

Indoor Coverage from Outdoor Cells
By deploying outdoor small cells, the indoor coverage in nearby buildings can be greatly
improved. There are several issues in our favour, which are much the same for outdoor and
indoor users: for example, the cells are more isolated than before, the distance between the
user and the base station is much less than before, the signal from the small cell does not
have to reflect and diffract down to street level.
On the other hand, penetration losses still have to be managed as the signal travels into the
buildings. The network load from indoor users has to be accounted for when designing the
capacity of the network.
Figure 119 Indoor Coverage from Outdoor Small Cells

Q1. Which of the following solutions might you employ to maximise an antennas footprint?
a) Cite it in a corridor
b) Place it in an area that is free from clutter
c) Use a more powerful antenna
d) Place it where most users are likely to be
Q2. When planning coverage in an office environment, where should antennas ideally be
cited?
a) Where traffic is mostly high
b) Where traffic is mostly low
c) Everywhere
d) In corner offices
Q3. Penetration losses between floors of a building are typically around ______.
a) 010 dB
b) 1015 dB
c) 1020 dB
d) 2030 dB
Q4. Levels of external interference are likely to be highest in which of the following
locations?
a) Basement
b) Lower floors
c) Upper floors
d) Exits and entrances
Q5. When using an outdoor DAS, why is it beneficial to use a high-speed digital link?
a) Because it can improve indoor coverage as well
b) Because the signal is distributed over a greater distance outdoors than indoors
c) Because it can provide coverage for more users
d) Because it is easily adaptable to match changing traffic load
Q6. Tinted windows, when closed, can greatly improve the isolation of the indoor network
because they can attenuate the interfering signal by ______ or more.
a) 40 dB
b) 45 dB
c) 50 dB
d) 55 dB

Name...
Question set

Lesson 4 Managing Interference
Downlink Interference
DL Scenario 1 Macro BS to a Femto UE
If the small cell network covers the same area as a macro cell on the same carrier
frequency, then they will interfere with each other. There are a few interference scenarios.
First, consider the case where a mobile is receiving downlink data from a femtocell, and
there is a nearby macro cell on the same carrier frequency. Interference from the macro cell
degrades the SINR (Signal-to-Interference and Noise Ratio) at the mobile receiver. The
interference is worst in the following circumstances:
Low path loss to the macro cell (strong interference)

High path loss to the femtocell (weak signal)
Low femtocell transmit power (weak signal)
This case can be simulated for a range of parameter values, notably the distance from
macro cell and the small cell transmit power. In the simulations, interference reduces the
small cell networks capacity by around 1%.
As expected, the greatest reductions are with a small distance from the macro cell (250
metres) and a low femtocell transmit power (0 dBm). More problems should be expected if
the femtocell is located near the centre of the macro cell.1
Figure 120 Scenario 1: Macro BS to Femto UE
1
For further details about this and the following scenario see SCF 012, Interference Management in OFDMA
Femtocell (Small Cell Forum, 2014), Scenario A1; Chu, Lopez-Perez, Yang and Gunnarsson,
Heterogeneous Cellular Networks (Cambridge, 2013), Section 4.9.1.

DL Scenario 2 CSG BS to a Non-CSG UE
The other case of downlink interference arises if CSGs are used. Consider a CSG base
station (typically a femtocell) and a nearby mobile. The mobile may be unable to connect to
the CSG base station for two reasons: either the mobile does not belong to the CSG, or the
base station can only accommodate a very small number of mobiles and has already
reached its limit. In both of these situations, the mobile is forced to connect to a more distant,
non-CSG base station (typically a macro cell). It then receives interference from the CSG
base station, which degrades the SINR at the mobile receiver.
The interference is worst in the following circumstances:
High path loss to the non-CSG macro cell (weak signal)

Low path loss to the CSG femtocell (strong interference)
High CSG femtocell transmit power (strong interference)
These are the opposite circumstances from the ones described previously.
Simulations suggest that the interference is much worse than in the first scenario, and can
greatly degrade the performance of the network. SCF 012, for example, suggests that the
throughput of the macro cell network might fall by 40%, although the exact figure depends
on the exact set of simulation parameters.
Figure 121 Scenario 2: CSG BS to Non-CSG UE
Reducing Downlink Interference
Downlink interference problems can be reduced by limiting the power transmitted by a CSG
femtocell.
If the femtocell is close to the macro cell (or, more accurately, the path loss to the macro cell
is low), then the femtocell requires a high transmit power. This will overcome the interference
from the macro cell base station to the femtocell UEs (case 1).

If the femtocell is far from the macro cell (or, more accurately, the path loss to the macro cell
is high), then the femtocell requires a low transmit power. This will reduce the interference
from the femtocell base station to the non-CSG macro cell UEs (case 2).
This method is easily implemented during radio network planning.
Figure 122 Reducing Downlink Interference
The Downlink Interference Reduction Method
The algorithm is roughly as follows:
Establish the desired coverage requirement for each femtocell antenna

Using the propagation model, calculate the MAPL (Maximum Allowed Propagation
Loss) on the downlink
Establish how much interference is being received from nearby macro cells within the
small cell network
Using the downlink link budget, calculate the power that the femtocell has to transmit,
in order to overcome the interference from the macro cell. A high power is needed
when close to the macro cell, and a low power when far away. Limit the base
stations transmit power at that value
Using network planning simulations, establish how much the macro cell network is
degraded, because of interference from CSG femtocells to non CSG UEs
If the impact on the macro cell network is too severe, increase the number of
femtocell antennas by the use of a DAS. This allows us to reduce the coverage
requirement of each femtocell antenna, and to reduce the power that it transmits.
This reduces the impact on the macro cell network, while maintaining the
performance of the femtocell network itself.

This algorithm illustrates one of the uses of a distributed antenna system: it helps us design
a small cell network with a high coverage probability, while minimising the impact on any
external macro cell network.
We can also reduce interference between large and small cells using the LTE technique of
eICIC.2
Figure 123 Downlink Interference Reduction Method
Downlink Interference Example
This diagram shows the results of simulations by the Small Cell Forum, which illustrate the
benefit of limiting the base stations downlink transmit power in the manner described. The
information is as follows:
Each chart shows the received signal-to-interference ratio (specifically, the CPICH
Ec/Io in a WCDMA network.) High values are red and low values are blue
The femtocell is far from the macro cell in the left-hand charts, and nearby in the
right-hand charts
The upper charts use a fixed femtocell transmit power. The transmit power at the
bottom is adjustable, and one more antenna has been added to fill a coverage hole
2
SCF 012, Interference Management in OFDMA Femtocells (Small Cell Forum, 2014); SCF 032, Enterprise
Femtocell Deployment Guidelines (Small Cell Forum, 2014).

If the femtocell transmit power is set to a level that gives satisfactory performance at the
edge of the macro cell (top left), then its coverage close to the macro cell is insufficient, due
to interference from the macro cell (top right). By adjusting the transmit power on a cell-by-
cell basis, the coverage of the femtocell can be optimised without causing excessive
interference into the macro cell network (bottom left and right).3
Figure 124 Downlink Interference Example
Uplink Interference
UL Scenario 1 Femto UE to Macro BS
There are also two uplink interference scenarios, which mirror those above.
First, consider the case where a mobile is sending uplink data to a femtocell, and there is a
nearby macro cell on the same carrier frequency. Interference from the mobile will degrade
the SINR at the macro cell receiver.
The interference is worst when there is low path loss to the macro cell (strong interference),
or high path loss to the femtocell (high mobile transmit power).
Simulations by the Small Cell Forum suggest that the effect on the macro cell network can
be severe. Reductions of tens of per cent were observed in the throughput of the macro cell
network, depending on the simulation parameters such as the number of femtocells
present.4
3
SCF 032, Enterprise Femtocell Deployment Guidelines (Small Cell Forum, 2014), Section 4.2.
4
SCF 012, Interference Management in OFDMA Femtocells (Small Cell Forum, 2014), Scenario D2.

Figure 125 Uplink Scenario 1: Femto UE to Macro BS
UL Scenario 2 Non-CSG UE to CSG BS
The other case of uplink interference arises if CSGs are used. Consider the case where a
non-CSG mobile is sending uplink data to a distant non-CSG base station. If there is a
nearby CSG femtocell, then interference from the mobile will degrade the femtocell receiver.
The interference is worst when there is a high path loss to the non-CSG macro cell (high
mobile transmit power), or when there is a low path loss to the CSG femtocell (strong
interference).
These are the opposite circumstances from the ones considered above.
Simulations by the Small Cell Forum suggest that the resulting interference is usually mild.
Although the presence of the macro UEs causes a rise in the interference at the femtocell,
the interference in their simulations remains low relative to the thermal noise, and the
throughput is not affected.5
Figure 126 UL Scenario 2 Non-CSG UE to CSG BS
5
SCF 012, Interference Management in OFDMA Femtocells (Small Cell Forum, 2014), Scenario B1.

Reducing Uplink Interference
Uplink interference problems can be reduced by limiting the mobiles uplink transmit power in
a femtocell.
If the femtocell is close to the macro cell (or, more accurately, the path loss to the macro cell
is low), then the mobile should be limited to a low transmit power; this will limit the
interference that the mobile delivers to the macro cell (case 1). Admittedly, that will degrade
the femtocell UEs whose power has been limited, but that problem is not as serious as
degrading the whole of the macro cell.
If the femtocell is a long way from the macro cell (or, more accurately, the path loss to the
macro cell is high), then the mobile can use a high transmit power. This should overcome
the interference received from non-CSG mobiles that are communicating with the macro cell
(case 2), without causing undue interference to the macro cell itself.
It is harder to limit the uplink transmit power than the downlink transmit power. The exact
technique will depend on the technology used, but will typically require signalling messages
between the base station and the mobile. In LTE, the base station can instruct the mobile to
return regular power headroom reports. It can then limit the mobiles transmit power by
limiting its transmission bandwidth and sending power control commands. However, the
base station does not have full control of the mobiles transmit power, because the mobile
does most of the power calculations by itself.
A femtocell can still be overwhelmed by transmissions from a non-CSG mobile that is very
close to it. It is not possible to prevent that from happening using the femtocell alone, but it
can be prevented if the two cells can communicate over an X2 interface.
Figure 127 Reducing Uplink Interference

The Uplink Interference Reduction Method
By analogy with the downlink, that suggests the following algorithm for the uplink:
Establish the desired coverage requirement for each femtocell antenna

Using the propagation model, calculate the MAPL on the uplink
Establish the amount of interference that the femtocell will tolerate from other nearby
mobiles, quantified as the uplink noise rise limit
Using the uplink link budget, calculate the power that the mobile has to transmit, in
order to overcome the interference received from mobiles that are transmitting to
other cells. A low power is needed when close to the macro cell, and a high power
when far away. Limit the mobiles transmit power at that value
Using network planning simulations, establish how much the macro cell network is
degraded, because of interference from femtocell UEs to the macro cell base station
If the impact on the macro cell network is too severe, increase the number of
femtocell antennas by the use of a DAS. This allows the coverage requirement of
each femtocell antenna to be reduced, and also the power that its mobiles transmit to
be decreased. In turn, that lessens the impact on the macro cell network, while
maintaining the performance of the femtocell network itself.6
Figure 128 Uplink Interference Reduction Method
6
SCF 012, Interference Management in OFDMA Femtocells (Small Cell Forum, 2014); SCF 032, Enterprise
Femtocell Deployment Guidelines (Small Cell Forum, 2014).

Uplink Interference Example
The diagram shows the results of simulations by the Small Cell Forum, which illustrate the
benefit of limiting the mobiles uplink transmit power in the manner described.
The information is as follows:
Each chart shows the CDF (Cumulative Distribution Function) of cell throughput. The
further the line is to the bottom right, the better the performance.
The left-hand charts refer to the macro cell, while the right-hard charts refer to the
femtocell.
The femtocell is close to the macro cell in the upper charts, and far away in the lower
charts.
The green lines are when the macro cell and femtocell are on different carrier
frequencies, so that there is no interference
The red lines are when the macro cell and femtocell are on the same carrier
frequency, without any uplink interference management. The performance degrades.
The degradation is particularly severe in the macro cell, when the femtocell is nearby
(uplink case 1 from earlier)
The blue lines are when the macro cell and femtocell are on the same carrier
frequency, uplink interference management is being used. The macro cell is greatly
improved, at the expense of a slight degradation in the femtocell.7
Figure 129 Uplink Interference Example
7
SCF 032, Enterprise Femtocell Deployment Guidelines (Small Cell Forum, 2014), Section 4.3.

Uplink/Downlink Imbalance
A final source of interference is the imbalance between uplink and downlink. This arises
because measurement reporting and handover are determined by the mobiles downlink
received signal power. Macro cells have a high downlink transmit power, so a mobile is more
likely to connect to a macro cell than to a femtocell. On the other hand, the mobile transmits
with a single power level. As a result, a femtocell can receive excessive interference from
nearby mobiles that are connected to a macro cell.
Consider, for example, the LTE scenario shown in the diagram. The macro cell has a
maximum transmit power of 43 dBm, across a bandwidth of 10 MHz (600 resource
elements). The power transmitted per RE is 43 10 log10 (600), which is about 15 dBm. If
the antenna gain is 18 dB and the path loss is 100 dB, then the received power per resource
element is 15 + 18 100 = -67 dBm. If the reference signals have the same transmit power
as the other resource elements, then this equals the RSRP (Reference Signal Received
Power).
The femtocell has a maximum transmit power of 21 dBm across the same bandwidth. The
power transmitted per RE is 21 10 log10 (600) = 7 dBm. If the antenna gain is 6 dB and
the path loss is 70 dB, then the received power per resource element is 7 + 6 70 = 71
dBm. Again this equals the RSRP. The mobile uses the RSRP for measurement reporting
and handover, so it is served by the macro cell.
The situation on the uplink is different. Assume that the mobile is transmitting with its
maximum power of 21 dBm. If the base station antenna gain is included, then the power
received by the macro cell is 21 100 + 18 = 61 dBm.
The power received by the femtocell is 21 70 + 18 = 31 dBm. This is much greater, and
causes uplink interference for the femtocells own mobiles. The femtocell raises its transmit
power, which in turn increases the interference to the macro cell network.

Figure 130 UL/DL Imbalance
Range Expansion
The problem of uplink/downlink imbalance can be reduced by increasing the range of the
femtocell. The technique is known as range expansion.
The LTE specifications allow the power of the downlink reference signals to be boosted by
up to 6 dB. This means that distant mobiles are more likely to be served by the femtocell,
instead of by the macro cell. On the uplink, the femtocell can then limit the power that those
mobiles transmit, which reduces the levels of uplink interference in the network.
The diagram continues the LTE example from before. By boosting the power of the
femtocells reference signals by 6 dB, the mobile can be transferred to the femtocell.
Assuming that the received signal power in the serving cell is the same as before, the
mobiles maximum transmit power can fall by 30 dB, to 9 dBm.
There is a drawback, however. The femtocell UE is now receiving interference from the
macro cell base station, which is the same as the first downlink interference scenario,
considered earlier. Fortunately, that scenario appears be mild, but it will set a limit on the
amount of range expansion that can be used.
We can also implement range expansion by adjusting the cells measurement reporting
thresholds. However, that requires co-operation between the large cell and the small one, so
is trickier to implement.

Figure 131 Range Expansion
Interference Summary
This slide summarises the interference issues discussed above.
Figure 132 Summary of Interference Issues
The worst problems arise when the small cell network is the aggressor and the macro cell
network is the victim. They can be addressed by limiting the power transmitted within the
small cell network, which in turn is aided by the use of a distributed antenna system.

Q1. Interference is worst when there is low path loss to the macro cell (strong interference),
or high path loss to the femtocell (high mobile transmit power). Which of the following
scenarios does this point to?
a) Femto UE to Macro BS
b) Non-CSG UE to CSG BS
c) Macro BS to a Femto UE
d) CSG BS to a Non-CSG UE
Q2. Interference is worst when there is high path loss to the non-CSG macro cell, low path
loss to the CSG femtocell, and high CSG femtocell transmit power. Which of the
following scenarios does this point to?
Q3. Interference is worst when there is a high path loss to the non-CSG macro cell, or
when there is a low path loss to the CSG femtocell. Which of the following scenarios
does this point to?
Q4. Interference is worst when there is low path loss to the macro cell, high path loss to the
femtocell, and low femtocell transmit power. Which of the following scenarios does this
point to?
Q5. The LTE specifications allow the power of the downlink reference signals to be boosted
by up to _______.
a) 2 dB
b) 4 dB
c) 6 dB
d) 8 dB

Q6. Downlink interference problems can be reduced by limiting the power transmitted by a
CSG femtocell. In this respect, which of the following statements is correct?
a) If a CSG femtocell is close to the macro cell, the femtocell requires a low transmit
power
b) If a CSG femtocell is close to the macro cell, the femtocell requires a high transmit
power
c) If a CSG femtocell is far from the macro cell, the femtocell requires a high transmit
power
d) If a CSG femtocell is far from the macro cell, the femtocell requires a medium
transmit power

Name...
Question set

1. Using the following diagram, calculate:
a) The required isolation gain between the repeater and antenna A.
b) The repeater gain required to produce 10 dBm from antenna B.
c) The subsequent EIRP from all antennas.

2. The diagram is a plan of an indoor shopping centre. Using numbers 1 to 4 to

correspond with the antenna types below, mark on the plan where you would cite your
antennas to maximise efficiency and coverage.
1. Antenna type 1: hot-spot antennas to maximise data performance. Identify the

regions where the traffic levels are likely to be highest. Think about how you would
place antennas with respect to Wi-Fi.
2. Antenna type 2: cost-cutting antennas. Identify the regions where the antenna
coverage will be the greatest, and place antennas there. Think about the corridor
effect and how it may be utilised in different directions.
3. Antenna type 3: antennas to isolate the building. Think about placing antennas
so that you isolate external macro cells and set up clearly defined handover zones.
4. Antenna type 4: filling in the gaps. Place antennas in the locations where you
think they might fill any remaining coverage holes.

Q1. A cell spanning several hundred metres and used in urban areas is:
a) A macro cell
b) A micro cell
c) A pico cell
d) A femtocell
Q2. CSGs are used to limit access to:

a) A macro cell
b) A micro cell
c) A pico cell
d) A femtocell
Q3. What do analysts think are the three most important reasons for deploying small cells?
a) Increase capacity, increase coverage, better provision for rural areas
b) Increase capacity, increase coverage, better provision for high-traffic public areas
c) Reduce costs, increase capacity, better provision for high-traffic public areas
d) Reduce costs, increase coverage, better provision for rural areas
Q4. In a 3G network, according to the Small Cell Forum, one small cell per macro cell can
offload around how much user traffic?
a) 10%
b) 75%
c) 21%
d) 51%
Q5. The addition of LTE small cells provides how many more times incremental capacity
density than the LTE macro layer?
a) Two
b) Four
c) Six
d) Eight
Q6. What differentiates hybrid access from open access and closed access?
a) It offers a worse QoS to passers-by than to members of a CSG
b) It offers a better QoS to passers-by than to members of a CSG
c) It charges visitors for access to the HeNB service
d) It requires visitors to become temporary members of the CSG
Q7. Isolation issues such as using different cells for different floors, and avoiding designs
with overlapping high-power areas, are most important in which technology?

a) LTE
b) UMTS/CDMA 2000
c) GSM
d) LTE-A
Q8. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of an active DAS over a passive DAS?
a) Ease of upgrade
b) Auto-detection of cable failures
c) Cable lengths can be longer
d) Cable lengths can all be the same length
Q9. Penetration losses between floors of a building can be high. Which of the following is a
typical figure?
a) 0 dB to 10 dB
b) 10 dB to 20 dB
c) 20 dB to 40 dB
d) 50 dB
Q10. In a high-rise building, where is interference likely to be highest?

a) In corner offices
b) In the lifts
c) In the basement
d) On the floors above the height of surrounding buildings
Q11. Which of the following is a particular challenge with respect to network planning?
a) Frequency issues
b) Regulatory issues
c) Securing mounted assets
d) Capacity bottlenecks
Q12. Which of the following is a particular challenge with respect to outdoor small cells?
a) Integration with the core network
b) Increased opex
c) Securing active equipment
d) Environmental impact

Name...
Question set

GLOSSARY OF TERMS


Term Definition
2G Second Generation
3G Third Generation
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
4G Fourth Generation
64QAM 64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
ABS Almost Blank Subframe
AS Access Stratum
BSIC Base Station Identity Code
BSS Base Station System
CA Carrier Aggregation
CC Component Carrier
CCN Cell Change Notification
CCO Cell Change Order
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CE Control Element
CIF Carrier Indicator Field
CMAS Commercial Mobile Alert System
CoMP Coordinated Multi-Point
CP Cyclic Prefix
CPICH Common Pilot Channel
CPRI Common Public Radio Interface
CQI Cell Quality Indicator
C-RNTI Cell Radio Network Temporary Identifier
CRS Cell-specific Reference Signal
CS/CB Coordinated scheduling/beamforming
CSG Closed Subscriber Group
CSG ID Closed Subscriber Group Identity
CSI-IM Channel-State Information Interference Measurement
CSI-RS Channel-State Information Reference Symbol
DAS Distributed Antenna Systems
DCI Downlink-scheduling Control Information
DeNB Donor evolved Node B
DL Downlink
DM-RS Demodulation Reference Signal
DPS Dynamic Point Selection

Term Definition
DRX Discontinuous Reception
DwPTS Downlink Pilot Time Slot
EARFCN E-UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number
ECCE Enhanced Control Channel Element
EDGE Enhanced Data-rates for GSM Evolution
eICIC enhanced Inter-Cell Interference Coorindation
eMBMS enhanced MBMS
eNB Evolved Node B
EPC Evolved Packed Core
E-PDCCH Enhanced Physical Downlink Control Channel
EPS Evolved Packet System
EREG Enhanced Resource Element Group
ETWS Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System
E-UTRA Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
E-UTRAN Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FeICIC Further-enhanced ICIC
GERAN GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network
GP Guard Period
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HCS Hierarchical Cell Structure
HeNB Home evolved Node B
HeNB-GW Home eNB Gateway
HetNet Heterogeneous Network
HII High Interference Indicator
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
ICIC Inter-Cell Interference Coordination
IE Information Element
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IKEv2 Internet Key Exchange version 2
IMS IP Multimedia Subsystem
IMT International Mobile Telecommunications
IP Internet Protocol
IPsec IP security

Term Definition
IRAT Inter-Radio Access Technology
International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication
ITU-R
Standardisation Sector
JT Joint Transmission
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LTE Long Term Evolution
LTE-A Long Term Evolution Advanced
M2M Machine-to-Machine
MAC Medium Access Control
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MAPL Maximum Allowed Propagation Loss
MBMS GW Multimedia Multicast Broadcast Service Gateway
MBMS Multimedia Multicast Broadcast Service
MBSFN Multicast Broadcast Single Frequency Network
MCE Multi-cell/multicast Coordination Entity
MCS Modulation and Coding Scheme
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MME Mobility Management Entity
MTC Machine-Type Communications
MU-MIMO Multiple User Multiple Input Multiple Output
NACC Network Assisted Cell Change
NAS Non-Access Stratum
NLOS Non-Line-of-Sight
OBSAI Open Base Station Architecture Initiative
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
OI Overload Indicator
PCC Primary Component Carrier
PCell primary serving cell
PCI Physical Cell Identifier
PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network
PMI Precoding Matrix Indicator
PMP Point to Multipoint
PON Passive Optical Network
PRACH Physical Random Access Channel
P-SCH Primary Synchronisation Channel

Term Definition
PSS Primary Synchronisation Signal
PTP Point to Point
PUCCH Physical Uplink Control Channel
PUSCH Physical Uplink Shared Channel
QoS Quality of Service
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RACH Random Access Channel
RAN Radio Access Network
RA-RNTI Random Access Radio Network Temporary Identifier
RAT Radio Access Technology
RB Resource Block
RB Resource Block
RIT Radio Interface Technology
RMS Root-Mean-Square
RN Relay Node
RNTP Relative Narrowband Transmit Power
R-PDCCH Relay Physical Downlink Control Channel
RRC Radio Resource Control
RRE Remote Radio Equipment
RSCP Received Signal Code Power
RSRP Reference Signal Received Power
RSRQ Reference Signal Received Quality
RSSI Received Signal Strength Indication
SCC Secondary Component Carrier
SCell Secondary serving cell
SC-FDMA Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
SFN Single Frequency Network
SIB System Information Block
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SINR Signal-to-Interference and Noise Ratio
SISO Single Input Single Output
SOHO Small Office, Home Office
SON Self-Optimising Network
SRB Signalling Radio Bearer
SRIT Set of Radio Interface Technologies
S-SCH Secondary Synchronisation Channel

Term Definition
SSS Secondary Synchronisation Signal
SU-MIMO Single User Multiple Input Multiple Output
TAC Tracking Area Code
TAU Tracking Area Update
TDD Time Division Duplex
TM Transmission Mode
TPC Transmit Power Control
UARFCN UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number
UE User Equipment
UL Uplink
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
UpPTS Uplink Pilot Time Slot
USIM Universal Subscriber Identity Module
UTRA Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access


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Informa Telecoms and Media

Maximising Performance and Efficiency

2 Informa Telecoms and Media

Module Aims and Objectives 11

SECTION 1 NETWORK OPTIMISATION 13

Lesson 1 Optimising the Radio Network 15

Lesson 2 Idle Mode Procedures and Mobility 30

Informa Telecoms and Media 3

GSM Measurement Rules ................................................................................................... 46

Lesson 3 Connected Mode Procedures and Mobility 55

4 Informa Telecoms and Media

SECTION 2 LTE ADVANCED (LTE-A) 83

Lesson 1 Introduction to LTE-A 85

Lesson 2 CA (Carrier Aggregation) 91

Lesson 3 Relay Nodes, CoMP, and MIMO Enhancements 103

Informa Telecoms and Media 5

SECTION 3 SMALL CELLS AND HETNETS 127

Lesson 1 Introducing Small Cells and HetNets 129

Lesson 2 Small Cell Planning Considerations 144

Lesson 3 Small Cell Performance 155

Lesson 4 Managing Interference 165

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 185

6 Informa Telecoms and Media

Figure 1 Network Optimisation Workflow.......................................................................... 15

Informa Telecoms and Media 7

Figure 41 Measurement Objects E-UTRA ........................................................................ 60

8 Informa Telecoms and Media

Figure 87 Backhaul Timing (Time Synchronised) ........................................................... 110

Informa Telecoms and Media 9

10 Informa Telecoms and Media

Module Aims and Objectives

This module is designed to provide a comprehensive introduction to the ways in which

By the end of this module you will be able to:

Informa Telecoms and Media 11

12 Informa Telecoms and Media

Informa Telecoms and Media 13

14 Informa Telecoms and Media

Lesson 1 Optimising the Radio Network

Optimisation Goals and Performance KPIs

Figure 1 Network Optimisation Workflow

Informa Telecoms and Media 15

Figure 2 Ockams Razor

Cell Configuration Parameters

PCI (Physical Cell Identifier)

16 Informa Telecoms and Media

LTE Frequency Bands

Figure 3 LTE FDD Frequency Bands

Informa Telecoms and Media 17

Figure 4 LTE TDD Frequency Bands

Centre Frequencies and EARFCNs

18 Informa Telecoms and Media

SFN (Single Frequency Network) or Frequency Plan?

The frequency-planned approach mitigates, to some extent, the problems of inter-cell

Figure 6 SFN or Frequency Plan?

Informa Telecoms and Media 19

Figure 7 SFN Interference Mitigation

Cyclic Prefix Length

20 Informa Telecoms and Media

Figure 8 Normal and Extended CP

Downlink/Uplink Switching in TDD Mode

Subframes 1 and 6 are referred to as special subframes; subframe 1 is mandatory and

Informa Telecoms and Media 21

Figure 9 TDD Frame Structure

Figure 10 TDD UL/DL Switching Options