1.

Introduction
2. Literature review
Aircraft inspection
Defects and failures in Aircraft
3. Problem definition
4. Scope of the work
5. Materials and Methods
Material used for make the aircraft
Carbon Nano tubes and properties
Self healing material
Self Healing Inspection Method
Special inspection
Sensors and working procedure
Future proposal and conclusion
6. Conclusions
7. References
 INTRODUCTION

Aviation is one in all the foremost developed sectors within the current era.
The aviation is employed in numerous fields reckoning on their purpose. for
instance traveler flights for transportation, single propeller flights for cultivation,
fighter jets within the defense sector, etc..,. This was earned by several scientists
from these several centuries United Nations agency found the physics in
numerous forms. The producing of craft is one in all the most expensive one in day
todays life. So, that has got to be inspected properly since an excessive amount
of of load can act on the craft.

The air ship assessment completes in distinctive routes and by diverse

mediums. Airplane upkeep checks are intermittent reviews that must be done on all
business/common air ship after a specific measure of time or utilization - the
military flying machine ordinarily take after particular support software engineers
which might be or not like the business/common administrators. Carriers and other
business administrators of vast or turbine-fueled flying machine take after a
constant review program affirmed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
in the United States or by different airworthiness powers, for example, Transport
Canada or the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).

Under FAA oversight, every administrator readies a Continuous

Airworthiness Maintenance Program (CAMP) under its Operations Specifications
or "Operation Specs". The CAMP incorporates both normal and nitty gritty
reviews. Aircrafts and airworthiness powers calmly allude to the point by point
examinations as "checks", generally one of the accompanying: A check, B check,
C check, or D check. An and B checks are lighter checks, while C and D are
considered heavier checks. These are all the fundamental classifications to assess
the flying machine. Be that as it may, these are not upheld completely for every
one of the issues. At the end of the day, it can be recommended for the exposed
level issues.

LITERATURE SURVEY

AN AIRCRAFT

Planes are transportation gadgets which are intended to move individuals

and payload starting with one place then onto the next. Planes come in a wide
range of shapes and sizes relying upon the mission of the flying machine. The
plane appeared on this report is a turbine-fueled carrier which has been chosen as
a representative aircraft.

For any aero plane to fly, one have to lift the weight of the aero plane itself,
the fuel, the passengers, and the cargo. The wings accomplish a lot of of the lift to
authority the even in the air. To accomplish lift, the aeroplane have to be pushed
through the air. The air resists the motion in the form of aerodynamic drag. Modern
airliners use winglets on the tips of the wings to reduce drag. The turbine engines,
which are located beneath the wings, provide the thrust to overcome drag and push
the airplane forward through the air. Smaller, low-speed airplanes use propellers
for the propulsion system instead of turbine engines.

To control and move the flying machine, smaller wings are located at the tail
of the plane. The tail usually has a fixed horizontal piece, called the horizontal
stabilizer, and a fixed vertical piece, called the vertical stabilizer. The stabilizers'
occupation is to give security to the air ship, to keep it flying straight. The vertical
stabilizer keeps the nose of the plane from swinging from side to side, which is
called yaw. The horizontal stabilizer prevents an up-and-down motion of the nose,
which is called pitch (On the Wright siblings' first air ship, the flat stabilizer was
put before the wings. Such a design is known as a canard after the French word for
"duck").
 At the back of the wings and stabilizers are little moving segments that are
joined to the settled areas by pivots. In the figure, these moving sections are
colored brown. Changing the rear portion of a wing will change the amount of
force that the wing produces. The capacity to change strengths gives us a method
for controlling and moving the plane. The hinged part of the vertical stabilizer is
called the rudder; it is used to deflect the tail to the left and right as viewed from
the front of the fuselage. The hinged part of the horizontal stabilizer is called the
elevator; it is used to deflect the tail up and down. The outboard hinged part of the
wing is called the aileron; it is used to roll the wings from side to side. Most
airliners can also be rolled from side to side by using the spoilers. Spoilers are little
plates that are utilized to upset the stream over the wing and to change the measure
of power by diminishing the lift when the spoiler is conveyed.

The wings have extra pivoted, rear sections near the body that are called
flaps. Flaps are deployed downward on takeoff and landing to increase the amount
of force produced by the wing. On some aircraft, the front part of the wing will
also deflect. Slats are used at takeoff and landing to produce additional force. The
spoilers are also used during landing to slow the plane down and to counteract the
flaps when the aircraft is on the ground. Whenever you fly on a plane, notice how
the wing shape changes amid departure and landing.

The fuselage or body of the plane holds every one of the pieces together. The pilots
sit in the cockpit at the front of the fuselage. Travelers and payload are conveyed in
the back of the fuselage. Some flying machines convey fuel in the fuselage; others
convey the fuel in the wings.

As specified over, the flying machine design in the figure was picked just as
a case. Singular flying machine might be designed uniquely in contrast to this
carrier. The Wright Brothers 1903 Flyer had pusher propellers and the elevators at
the front of the aircraft. Fighter aircraft often have the jet engines buried inside the
fuselage instead of in pods hung beneath the wings. Many fighter aircraft also
combine the horizontal stabilizer and elevator into a single stabilizer surface. There
are numerous conceivable air ship arrangements; however any design must
accommodate the four forces required for flight.

FOUR FORCES ON AN AIRCRAFT

A force may be thought of as a push or pull in a specific direction. A force is

a vector quantity so a force has both a magnitude and a direction. When describing
forces, we have to specify both the magnitude and the direction. This page shows
the forces that act on an airplane in flight.

Weight:
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The
size of the weight relies on upon the mass of all the plane parts, in addition to the
measure of fuel, in addition to any payload on load up (individuals, stuff, cargo,
and so on.). The weight is circulated all through the plane. But we can often think
of it as collected and acting through a single point called the center of gravity. In
flight, the airplane rotates about the center of gravity.

Flying includes two noteworthy issues; overcoming the weight of an object

by some opposing force, and controlling the object in flight. Both of these
problems are related to the object's weight and the location of the center of gravity.
During a flight, an airplane's weight constantly changes as the aircraft consumes
fuel. The distribution of the weight and the center of gravity also changes. So the
pilot must constantly adjust the controls to keep the airplane balanced, or trimmed.

Lift:
To conquer the weight power, planes produce a contradicting power lift. Lift
is created by the movement of the plane through the air and is a streamlined power.
"Aero" stands for the air, and "dynamic" denotes motion. Called Lift is directed
perpendicular to the flight direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on several
factors including the shape, size, and velocity of the aircraft. As with weight, each
part of the aircraft contributes to the aircraft lift force. Most of the lift is generated
by the wings. Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of pressure.
The center of pressure is defined just like the center of gravity, but using the
pressure distribution around the body instead of the weight distribution.

The distribution of lift around the aircraft is important for solving the control
problem. Aerodynamic surfaces are used to control the aircraft in roll, pitch, and
yaw.Lift is a partial vacuum created above the surface of an airplane's wing
causing the wing to be "lifted" upward. The special shape of the airplane wing (air
foil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater distance -
faster - resulting in a low pressure area thus lifting the wing upward. Lift is that
force which opposes gravity.
Drag:

As the plane travels through the air, there is another streamlined power
present. The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called
drag. Drag is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift, there are
many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the
aircraft, the "stickiness" of the air, and the velocity of the aircraft. Like lift, we
collect all of the individual components' drags and combine them into a single
aircraft drag magnitude. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of
pressure.

Thrust:

To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force

called thrust. The direction of the thrust force depends on how the engines are
attached to the aircraft. In the figure shown above, two turbine engines are located
under the wings, parallel to the body, with thrust acting along the body centerline.
On some aircraft, such as the Harrier, the thrust direction can be varied to help the
airplane take off in a very short distance. The magnitude of the thrust depends on
many factors associated with the propulsion system including the type of engine,
the number of engines, and the throttle setting.

For jet engines, it is often confusing to remember that aircraft thrust is a

reaction to the hot gas rushing out of the nozzle. The hot gas goes out the back, but
the thrust pushes towards the front. Action <--> reaction is explained by Newton's
Third Law of Motion.

The motion of the airplane through the air depends on the relative strength
and direction of the forces shown above. If the forces are balanced, the aircraft
cruises at constant velocity. If the forces are unbalanced, the aircraft accelerates in
the direction of the largest force.

Flow over the wing to create lift:

Laminar Flow is the smooth, continuous stream of air over the form of the
wings, fuselage, or different parts of an air ship in flight. Laminar flow is most
often found at the front of a streamlined body and is an important factor in flight. If
the smooth flow of air is interrupted over a wing section, turbulence is created
which results in a loss of lift and a high degree of drag. An airfoil designed for
minimum drag and uninterrupted flow of the boundary layer is called a laminar
airfoil.
The Laminar flow theory dealt with the development of a symmetrical airfoil
section which had the same curvature on both the high and lower surface. The
design was relatively thin at the leading edge and progressively widened to a point
of greatest thickness as far aft as possible. The theory in using an airfoil of this
design was to preserve the adhesion of the boundary layers of airflow which are
present in flight as far aft of the leading edge as possible. on normal airfoils the
boundary layer would be intervallic at high speeds and the resultant break would
cause a turbulent flow over the residue of the foil. This turbulence would be
realized as drag up the point of highest speed at which time the control surfaces
and aircraft flying characteristics would be affected. The design of the boundary
layer is a process of layers of air formed one next to the other, ie; the term laminar
is derived from the lamination principle involved.

The flow after that to any surface forms a "boundary layer", as the flow has
zero velocity exact at the surface and some distance out from the surface it flows at
the same velocity as the local "outside" flow. If this boundary layer flows in
parallel layers, with no energy transfer between layers, it is laminar. If there is
energy transfer, it is turbulent.

All boundary layers start off as laminar. Many influences can act to
destabilize a laminar boundary layer, causing it to transition to turbulent. Adverse
pressure gradients, surface roughness, heat and acoustic energy all examples of
destabilizing influences. Once the boundary layer transitions, the skin friction goes
up. A favorable pressure gradient is required to maintain laminar flow. Laminar
flow airfoils are designed to have long favorable pressure gradients. All airfoils
must have adverse pressure gradients on their aft end. The usual definition of a
laminar flow airfoil is that the favorable pressure gradient ends somewhere
between 30 and 75% of chord.

Angle of attack

The angle of attack is the angle that the wing presents to approaching air,
and it controls the thickness of the slice of air the wing is cutting off. Because it
control the slice, the angle of attack also controls the amount of lift that the wing
generates (although it is not the only factor).
 AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS

Investigations are visual examinations and manual checks to decide the state
of a flying machine or segment. An airplane investigation can run from an
easygoing stroll around to a point by point examination including finish
dismantling and the utilization of complex review helps. An examination
framework comprises of a few procedures, including reports made by mechanics or
the pilot or team flying a flying machine and routinely booked reviews of an air
ship. A review framework is intended to keep up a flying machine in the most ideal
condition. Careful and rehashed reviews must be viewed as the foundation of a
decent support program. Sporadic and heedless examination will perpetually bring
about slow and certain weakening of an air ship.
The time spent in repairing a manhandled air ship regularly adds up to
significantly more than at whatever time spared in rushing through routine
assessments and upkeep. It has been demonstrated that routinely planned
investigations and preventive upkeep guarantee airworthiness. Working
disappointments and breakdowns of hardware are apparently decreased if
unreasonable wear or minor deformities are distinguished and remedied early. The
significance of investigations and the best possible utilization of records
concerning these assessments can't be overemphasized. Airframe and motor
reviews might extend from preflight assessments to point by point investigations.
The time interims for the review periods change with the models of airplane
included and the sorts of operations being led. The airframe and motor producer's
directions ought to be counseled while setting up investigation interims. Flying
machine might be investigated utilizing flight hours as a premise for planning, or
on a date-book assessment framework. Under the schedule review framework, the
proper examination is performed on the termination of a predetermined number of
logbook weeks. The logbook assessment framework is an effective framework
from an upkeep administration point of view. Planned supplanting of segments
with expressed hourly working constraints is typically proficient amid the
timetable review falling closest the hourly impediment. In a few occurrences, a
flight hour restriction is built up to constrain the quantity of hours that might be
flown amid the timetable interim. Air ship working under the flight hour
framework are assessed when a predefined number of flight hours are collected.
Segments with expressed hourly working impediments are regularly supplanted
amid the examination that falls closest the hourly confinement.
Routine/Required Inspections
For the purpose of determining their overall condition,14 CFR provides for
the inspection of all civil aircraft at specific intervals, depending generally upon
the type of operations in which they are engaged. The pilot in command of a civil
aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe
flight. Therefore, the aircraft must be inspected before each flight. More detailed
inspections must be conducted by aviation maintenance technicians at least once
each 12calendar months, while inspection is required for others after each 100
hours of flight. In other instances, an aircraft may be inspected in accordance with
a system set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft over calendar or flight
time period.
To decide the particular review prerequisites and rules for the execution of
examinations, allude tithe CFR, which recommends the necessities for the
assessment and support of air ship in different sorts of operations. The principal
segment of an agenda incorporates a segment entitled Preflight Inspection. The
preflight examination agenda incorporates a "stroll around "area posting things that
the pilot is to outwardly check for general condition as he or she strolls around the
plane. Likewise, the pilot must guarantee that fuel, oil and different things required
for flight are at the best possible levels
Annual/100-Hour Inspections
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 discusses the
basic requirements for annual and 100-hour inspections. With some exceptions, all
aircraft must have a complete inspection annually. Aircraft that are used for
commercial purposes and are likely to be used more frequently than
noncommercial aircraft must have this complete inspection every 100 hours.
Despite the fact that the degree and point of interest of yearly and 100-hour
examinations is indistinguishable, there are two critical contrasts.
One difference involves persons authorized to conduct them. A certified
airframe and power plant maintenance technician can conduct a 100-hour
inspection, whereas an annual inspection must be conducted by a certified airframe
and power plant maintenance technician with inspection authorization (IA). The
other difference involves authorized over flight of the maximum 100 hours before
inspection. An aircraft may be flown up to 10 hours beyond the 100-hour limit if
necessary to fly to a destination where the inspection is to be conducted.

Progressive Inspections
Since the degree and point of interest of a yearly examinations exceptionally
broad and could keep an air ship out of administration for an impressive period of
time, option assessment programs intended to minimize down time might be used.
A progressive inspection program allows an aircraft to be inspected progressively.
The scope and detail of an annual inspection is essentially divided into segments or
phases (typically four to six). Finish of the considerable number of stages finishes
a cycle that fulfills the prerequisites of a yearly examination.
The benefit of such a system is, to the point that any required portion might
be finished overnight and along these lines empower the flying machine to fly day
by day without missing any income acquiring potential. Progressive inspection
programs include routine items such as engine oil changes and detailed items such
as flight control cable inspection. Routine items are accomplished each time the
aircraft comes in for a phase inspection and detailed items focus on detailed
inspection of specific areas. Detailed inspections are typically done once each
cycle. A cycle must be completed within 12 months. In the event that every
required phas are not finished inside of 12 months, the remaining stage reviews
must be directed before the end of the twelfth month from when the first stage was
finished.
Continuous Inspections
Nonstop assessment projects are like dynamic review programs, aside from
that they apply to extensive or turbine-controlled flying machine and are
consequently more entangled. Like progressive inspection programs, they require
approval by the FAA Administrator. The approval maybe sought based upon the
type of operation and the CFR parts under which the aircraft will be operated. The
maintenance program for commercially operated aircraft must be detailed in the
approved operations specifications (Op Specs) of the commercial certificate
holder. Airlines utilize a continuous maintenance program that includes both
routine and detailed inspections. However, the detailed inspections may include
different levels of detail. Often referred to as checks, the A-check, B-check, C-
check, and D-checks involve increasing levels of detail. A-checks are the least
comprehensive and occur frequently. D-checks, on the other hand, are extremely
comprehensive, involving major disassembly, removal, overhaul, and inspection of
systems and components. They might occur only three to six times during the
service life of an aircraft.

Altimeter and Transponder Inspections

Aircraft that are operated in controlled airspace under instrument flight rules
(IFR) must have each altimeter and static system tested in accordance with
procedures described in 14 CFR parts 43, appendix E, within the preceding 24
calendar months. Aircraft having an air traffic control (ATC) transponder must
also have each transponder checked within the preceding 24 months. All these
checks must be conducted by appropriately certified individuals.

DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN AIRCRAFT

Corrosion and fatigue cracks are always expected in aging aircraft structure.
Corrosion is a critical problem of aircraft structure, which directly affects the
praiseworthiness of an aircraft. Corrosion causes thinning of aircraft structure skins
lead to a degradation of structural integrity. Fatigue cracks also occur in multi-
layered riveted joint especially in aluminum-alloy structures. Failure of an aircraft
structural component can have catastrophic consequences, with resultant loss of
life and of the aircraft. The investigation of defects and failures in aircraft
structures is, thus, of vital importance in preventing further incidents.
All in all, disappointments happen when a part or structure is no more ready
to withstand the stresses imposed on it amid operation. Commonly, failures are
associated with stress concentrations, which can occur for several reasons
including:
Design errors, e.g. the presence of holes, notches, and tight fillet radii
The microstructure of the material may contain voids, inclusions etc
Corrosive attack of the material, e.g. pitting, can also generate a local stress
concentration.
From different records and case histories data, an assessment can be made of
the frequency of failure modes (Table 1). This reveals that the incidence of fatigue
failure dominates the distribution in aircraft. This would suggest, therefore, that
fatigue is the predominant failure mode in service. The detection and rectification
of corrosion damage on in-service aircraft, however, consumes more effort than the
repair of fatigue cracking.
The high occurrence of fatigue failure observed probably reflects the
destructive nature of this failure mode, while corrosive attack is generally slower
than fatigue, and normally all the more effortlessly spotted and redressed amid
routine support.

Table 1 Frequency Of Failure Mechanisms

Percentage Of Failures
Engineering Components Aircraft Components
Corrosion 29 16
Fatigue 25 55
Brittle Fracture 16 -
Overload 11 14
High Temperature Corrosion 7 2
SCC/Corrosion/Fatigue/HE 6 7
Creep 3 -
Wear/Abrasion/Erosion 3 6

Common failure modes

Fatigue is a process whereby cracking occurs under the influence of repeated
or cyclic stresses, which are normally substantially below the nominal yield
strength of the material. Components that fail by fatigue usually undergo three
separate stages of crack growth, which are described as follows:
Initiation of a fatigue crack. This can be influenced by stress concentrations such
as material defects or design
Propagation of the fatigue crack. This is progressive cyclic growth of the crack.
Final sudden failure. Eventually, the propagating crack reaches a critical size at
which the remaining material cannot support the applied loads and sudden rupture
occurs.
Fatigue failures generally leave characteristic markings on the fracture
surface of cracks from which the failure investigator can deduce a great deal of
information. The most obvious are the classic beach marks, which are commonly
observed macroscopically. Beach marks indicate successive positions of the
advancing crack front and are usually the first telltale signs that the mode of crack
growth is fatigue. Fatigue fractures tend to be relatively smooth near the origin and
show slight roughening of the surface as the crack progresses. There tends to be
little or no macroscopic ductility associated with fatigue cracking. Detailed
examination of the fracture surface in a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
usually shows evidence of fatigue striations (dependent on the material), which
represent one cycle of load and crack propagation. If the magnitude of load cycle
remains constant, the striations normally appear closer near the origin, gradually
increasing in spacing as the crack front progresses due to the increasing stress at
the crack tip. By taking measurements of striation spacing at various distances
from the origin to the end of the crack, it is possible to estimate the total number of
load cycles to cause failure. If the cause of the loading can be determined, the
number of cycles to failure can then be used to estimate the time required for crack
growth.
Fatigue cracking is the most common cause of structural failure in aircraft,
even though the laboratory fatigue behavior of most metals and alloys is well
understood. Materials and their design can be taken into consideration so that the
probability of fatigue cracks occurring can be reduced, but it is often the case that
the possibility cannot be removed completely. Therefore many aircraft structural
Components are designed with a safe or inspection-free life, below which fatigue
cracking should not be a cause for concern. The fact that fatigue failures still occur,
however, indicates the complex nature of this problem. There are many variables
that influence fatigue, some of which are the mean stress, peak stress, frequency of
loading, temperature, environment, material microstructure, surface finish, and
residual stresses. Many of these factors are taken into account when determining
the safe life of a component and, therefore, the majority of fatigue failures in
aircraft causing catastrophic failure tend to be those that initiate as the result of
unforeseen circumstances.
Material surface defects such as forging laps or surface cracking can
increase the local stress, producing concentration at these points that could initiate
fatigue much quicker than would be expected. However, many aircraft components
are thoroughly inspected by non-destructive techniques after manufacturing and
these types of defects are usually detected and rectified. Stress concentrations
caused by surface defects such as scratches and wear tend to be more common as
these may not be present at build, but can be introduced during service. Another
common cause of stress concentration is corrosion, which can lead to fatigue crack
initiation.

Table 2 shows a summary of the common fatigue crack initiation sites

observed in aircraft1,2 that have led to accidents.
Table 2 Summary of fatigue initiation sites observed in aircraft
 Number of Accidents
Initiation Site
Fixed Wing Rotary Wing
Bolt, stud or screw 108 32
Fastener hole or other hole 72 12
Fillet, radius or sharp notch 57 22
Weld 53 3
Corrosion 43 19
Thread (other than bolt or stud) 32 4
Manufacturing defect or tool mark 27 9
Scratch, nick or dent 26 2
Fretting 13 10
Surface or subsurface flaw 6 3
Improper heat treatment 4 2
Maintenance-induced crack 4 -
Work-hardened area 2 -
Wear 2 7

Ductile or overload failure occurs when a material has been exposed to an

applied load at a relatively slow rate to the breaking point of the material. This
results in a ductile fracture of the material, with the fracture surface exhibiting
tearing of the metal and plastic deformation. On rapid application of a load, fast
fracture or brittle failure can occur. Microscopic examination of brittle fractures
reveals inter-granular or trans-granular facets on the fracture surface.
Corrosion is the chemical degradation of metals as a result of a reaction
with the environment. It usually results in failure of components when the metal
wastes to such an extent that the remaining material cannot support the applied
loads or the corrosion renders the component susceptible to failure by some other
mode (e.g. fatigue).Extensive work has been carried out on the rates and types of
corrosion observed in different materials so that selecting suitable material in terms
of corrosion resistance for a known environment is relatively straightforward.
In aircraft structures, however, the strength to weight ratio can be a more
desirable property than corrosion resistance and in these circumstances the most
suitable material cannot always be used. In cases like this, measures must be taken
to limit corrosion, which most commonly involve the use of coating, such as a
paint system, to act as a barrier to the environment. There are various forms of
corrosion that exist, each of which poses different problems to aircraft structures.

The most common types of corrosion observed are discussed below:

Uniform corrosion, as its name suggests, is corrosion that occurs without
appreciable localized attack, resulting in uniform thinning
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of attack, in which pits develop in a
material causing localized perforation of the material. Pitting corrosion
occurs when one area of a metal surface becomes anodic with respect to the
rest of the surface of the material. The pits formed by this type of attack are
generally very small and, therefore, difficult to detect during routine
inspection. Pitting attack can cause failure by perforation with very little
weight loss to the material
Crevice corrosion occurs when localized changes in the corrosive
environment exist and lead to accelerated localized attack. These changes in
the localized corrosive environment are generated by the existence of narrow
crevices that contain a stagnant environment, which results in a difference in
concentration of the cathode reactant between the crevice region and the
external surface of the material. Crevices can be formed at joints between
two materials, e.g. riveted, threaded, or welded structures, contact of a metal
with a nonmetallic material, or a deposit of debris on the metal surface
Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are in direct electrical
contact in a corrosive environment. This results in enhanced and aggressive
corrosion of the less noble metal and protection of the more noble metal of
the bimetallic couple. This type of corrosion can be recognized by severe
corrosion near to the junction of the two dissimilar metals, while the
remaining surfaces are relatively corrosion-product free. Galvanic corrosion
is generally a result of poor design and materials selection
 Stress corrosion cracking is a mechanical-environmental failure process in
which tensile stress and environmental attack combine to initiate and
propagate a fracture. Failure by stress corrosion cracking is frequently
caused by simultaneous exposure to an apparently mild chemical
environment and to a tensile stress well below the yield strength of the
material. The stress required for failure can originate from in-service
conditions or from residual stress during component manufacturing
Hydrogen embrittlement is a failure process that results from the retention
or absorption of hydrogen in metals, usually in combination with applied
tensile or residual stresses. It most frequently occurs in high-strength steels
(>1100 MPa). For aircraft components, the common source of hydrogen
embrittlement is hydrogen absorption during manufacturing processes such
as pickling and electroplating.
 PROBLEM DEFINITION

All the aliment checks are done for the aircraft to acquisition out the flaws in
it. The aircrafts are made up of composite materials which contain epoxy
resins and carbon fibers to add strength. The microscopic level flaws are
very hard to find in the manual check and also in the other mediums like
ultrasonic testing. If at all the flaw is begin out, it is actual harder to adjust
that; due to its size. For example crack may happen in a minor level and
rectifying it is a hard task. So the cost for producing it is of no use, if
suppose it is not rectified. That small crack can get worse if that flaw is not
found and rectified before flying. At that time the entire aircraft is in the
chancy area which leads to accident of abounding lives and accessories in
the aircraft. So the high pressure acts on the wings, fuselage and rudders.
These parts have to be given more attention while inspecting.
 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

Aim
The aim of the project is to implement an inspection method in the aviation
field where the hidden cracks can be begin out to abstain the accident of
accessories and lives.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are as follows,
To study the available information about the materials and inspection
methods.
To abstraction about the carbon tubes for making the gridlines and epoxy
resins for healing the material.
Methods and Methodology
The following methodology is to be followed to meet the objectives of the project,
Study of the available literature and understanding the different materials
and inspection methods to evaluate an aircraft.
Spot the drawbacks in the present aircraft manufacturing material and in
the aircraft inspection methods.
Need to find out the consequences of those drawbacks if it is not
rectified.
Choosing an alternative approach to overcome those defects and if it is
not reliable again the alternative approach has to be optimized.
Once the voltage fluctuation is adjusted the temperature at that spots will
be increased than the melting point of the self- healing material. Then the
self -healing material will fill the crack.
Ultimately the implementation of new inspection method is getting
fulfilled when the crack is healed by the self- healing material.
 AIM

STUDY OF EXISTING
DESIGN

STUDY OF EXISTING
INSPECTION METHODS

DEMERITS OF EXISTING
DESIGN

EFFECTS OF DEMERITS

ALTERNATIVE
APPROACH

NO

IF
ALTERNATIV
E APPROACH
IS RELIABLE

YES

COMPOSITES USED TO
DESIGN SELF HEALING
STRUCTURES

1.CARBON NANO TUBES

2.EPOXY RESINS
3.ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

ALTERNATIVE INSPECTION. METHOD

USING GRID SENSORS

IF CRACK NO
IS
DETECTED STOP

YES

APPLY VOLTAGE

NO

IF
CRACK
HEALED

YES

STOP
 OUR PROPOSAL

In order to overcome this kind of error a new abstraction of self-healing

would be a better one. Any way the composite material is used for the aircraft
manufacturing. So the self-healing materials are already present in that material.
Our concept is to include an inspecting technique where the repairing will be done
on its own. Electric current plays a vital role in this concept. The part which is to
be inspected is laid over with a cathode and anode where the electric current passes
through that particular part in the form of grid throughout. If there is a crack in that
part the electric current passage is interrupted because of that. So the disconnected
points offer the resistance due to their potentials and that time the heat is getting
generated due to the resistance.

The material gets melted and that will fix the crack part. The heat may be
increased or decreased by changing the potentials of the current passage. This
should be tested both horizontally and vertically for rectifying the flaws. This kind
of test can be done on the wings, rudders and fuselage, where the high pressure
acts on them while flying. The amount of heat will depend on the melting point of
the composite material that is used. The sensors can be done to recognize the
amount of heat got generated.

MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES USED FOR

MANUFACTURING AN AIRCRAFT

Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other

characteristics of structural metals is vital to properly construct and maintain any
equipment, especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight
deviation from design specification, or the substitution of inferior materials, may
result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can
readily erase the finest craftsmanship. The selection of the correct material for a
specific repair job demands familiarity with the most common physical properties
of various metals.

Properties of Metals
Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are such general properties of
metals and their alloys as hardness, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness,
density, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity contraction and expansion, and so forth.
These terms are explained to establish a basis for further discussion of structural
metals.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration,
cutting action, or permanent distortion. Hardness may be increased by cold
working the metal and, in the case of steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat
treatment. Structural parts are often formed from metals in their soft state and are
then heat treated to harden them so that the finished shape will be retained.
Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of metals.

Strength
One of the most important properties of a material is strength. Strength is the
ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the ability of a material
to resist stress without breaking. The type of load or stress on the material affects
the strength it exhibits.

Density
Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the
specified weight of a material per cubic inch is preferred since this figure can be
used in determining the weight of a part before actual manufacture. Density is an
important consideration when choosing a material to be used in the design of a part
in order to maintain the proper weight and balance of the aircraft.
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes
without cracking, breaking, or leaving some other detrimental effect, is said to be
malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is worked into curved
shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or wingtips. Copper is an example of a
malleable metal.

Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently
drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. This property is
essential for metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly
preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure
under shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl rings;
fuselage and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and
bulkheads. Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes.
Ductility is similar to malleability.

Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size
and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is removed. This
property is extremely valuable because it would be highly undesirable to have a
part permanently distorted after an applied load was removed. Each metal has a
point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing
permanent distortion. In aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed
that the maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond
their elastic limits. This desirable property is present in spring steel.

Toughness
 A material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and
may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a
desirable property in aircraft metals.

Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or
deformation without shattering. A brittle metal is apt to break or crack without
change of shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads,
brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast-iron, cast aluminum, and very hard
steel are examples of brittle metals.

Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of
heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse around 2,600 F and aluminum
alloys at approximately 1,100 F.

Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or
electricity. The heat conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding
because it governs the amount of heat that will be required for proper fusion.
Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent, determines the type of jig to be used
to control expansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity must also
be considered in conjunction with bonding, to eliminate radio interference.

Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions
produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling. Heat applied to a metal will
cause it to expand or become larger. Cooling and heating affect the design of
welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for hot rolled material.
 FERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS

Many different metals are required in the repair of aircraft. This is a result of
the varying needs with respect to strength, weight, durability, and resistance to
deterioration of specific structures or parts. In addition, the particular shape or
form of the material plays an important role.
In selecting materials for aircraft repair, these factors plus many others are
considered in relation to the mechanical and physical properties. Among the
common materials used are ferrous metals. The term ferrous applies to the group
of metals having iron as their principal constituent.
Iron
If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1
percent, the product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.
Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon
steel with other elements known to improve the properties of steel.
A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have
been added is called an alloy. The addition of other metals changes or improves the
chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.

Steel and Steel Alloys

To facilitate the discussion of steels, some familiarity with their
nomenclature is desirable. A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is
used to identify the chemical compositions of the structural steels. In this system, a
four-numeral series is used to designate the plain carbon and alloy steels; five
numerals are used to designate certain types of alloy steels. The first two digits
indicate the type of steel, the second digit also generally (but not always) gives the
approximate amount of the major alloying element, and the last two (or three)
digits are intended to indicate the approximate middle of the carbon range.
However, a deviation from the rule of indicating the carbon range is sometimes
necessary. Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are
not specified as required. These elements are considered as incidental and may be
present to the maximum amounts as follows: copper, 0.35 percent; nickel, 0.25
percent; chromium, 0.20 percent; molybdenum, 0.06 percent.

Types, Characteristics, and Uses of Alloyed Steels

Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 percent is
classed as low carbon steel. The equivalent SAE numbers range from 1010 to
1030.Steels of this grade are used for making such items as safety wire, certain
nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod ends. This steel in sheet form is used for
secondary structural parts and clamps, and in tubular form for moderately stressed
structural parts. Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from0.30 to 0.50
percent is classed as medium carbon steel. This steel is especially adaptable for
machining or forging, and where surface hardness is desirable. Certain rod ends
and light forgings are made from SAE 1035 steel. Steel containing carbon in
percentages ranging from0.50 to 1.05 percent is classed as high carbon steel. The
addition of other elements in varying quantities adds to the hardness of this steel.
In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard, will withstand high shear and
wear, and will have little deformation. It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in
sheet form is used for making flat springs and in wire form for making coil springs.
The various nickel steels are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel.
Steels containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly used. Nickel
increases the hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of steel without
appreciably decreasing the ductility. It also intensifies the hardening effect of heat
treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts,
terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.

NONFERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS

The term nonferrous refers to all metals which have elements other than
iron as their base or principal constituent. This group includes such metals as
aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as
Monel and babbit.

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

 Commercially pure aluminum is a white lustrous metal which stands second
in the scale of malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high in its resistance to
corrosion. Aluminum combined with various percentages of other metals forms
alloys which are used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys in which the
principal alloying ingredients are manganese, chromium, or magnesium and silicon
show little attack in corrosive environments. Alloys in which substantial
percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The total
percentage of alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 percent in the wrought
alloys. Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft
construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength to
weight ratio and its comparative ease of fabrication. The outstanding characteristic
of aluminum is its light weight. Aluminum melts at the comparatively low
temperature of 1,250 F. It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but its
strength may be approximately doubled by rolling or other cold working processes.
By alloying with other metals, or by using heat-treating processes, the tensile
strength may be raised to as high as 65,000 psi or to within the strength range of
structural steel. Aluminum alloys, although strong, are easily worked because they
are malleable and ductile. They may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or
drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter. Most aluminum alloy sheet stock used in
aircraft construction range from0.016 to 0.096 inch in thickness; however, some of
the larger aircraft use sheet stock which may be as thick as 0.356 inch. The various
types of aluminum may be divided into two general classes: (1) casting alloys
(those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold, or die castings)and (2)
wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging). Of
these two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in aircraft construction,
being used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Aluminum casting alloys are divided into two basic groups. In one, the
physical properties of the alloys are determined by the alloying elements and
cannot be changed after the metal is cast. In the other, the alloying elements make
it possible to heat treat the casting to produce the desired physical properties. The
casting alloys are identified by a letter preceding the alloy number. When a letter
precedes a number, it indicates a slight variation in the composition of the original
alloy. This variation in composition is simply to impart some desirable quality. In
casting alloy 214,for example, the addition of zinc to improve its pouring qualities
is indicated by the letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation
A214.When castings have been heat treated, the heat treatment and the
composition of the casting is indicated by the letter T, followed by an alloying
number. An example of this is the sand casting alloy 355, which has several
different compositions and tempers and is designated by 355-T6, 355-T51, or
C355-T51.
Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods: (1)
sand mold, (2) permanent mold, or (3) die cast. In casting aluminum, it must be
remembered that in most cases different types of alloys must be used for different
types of castings. Sand castings and die castings require different types of alloys
than those used in permanent molds. Sand and permanent mold castings are parts
produced by pouring molten metal into a previously prepared mold, allowing the
metal to solidify or freeze, and then removing the part. If the mold is made of sand,
the part is a sand casting; if it is a metallic mold (usually cast iron) the part is a
permanent mold casting. Sand and permanent castings are produced by pouring
liquid metal into the mold, the metal flowing under the force of gravity alone.
The two principal types of sand casting alloys are 112and 212. Little
difference exists between the two metals from a mechanical properties standpoint,
since both are adaptable to a wide range of products. The permanent mold process
is a later development of the sand casting process, the major difference being in the
material from which the molds are made. The advantage of this process is that
there are fewer openings (called porosity) than in sand castings. The sand and the
binder, which is mixed with the sand to hold it together, give off a certain amount
of gas which causes porosity in a sand casting. Permanent mold castings are used
to obtain higher mechanical properties, better surfaces, or more accurate
dimensions.
There are two specific types of permanent mold castings: (1) permanent
metal mold with metal cores, and (2) semi-permanent types containing and cores.
Because finer grain structure is produced in alloys subjected to the rapid cooling of
metal molds, they are far superior to the sand type castings. Alloys122, A132, and
142 are commonly used in permanent mold castings, the principal uses of which
are in internal combustion engines.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites have been used throughout history, i.e., straw in bricks, metal
rod-reinforced concrete, and lightweight aerospace structures. Fiber reinforced
polymer matrix composite materials are being introduced in ever-increasing
quantities in military systems and have become a key element in the Department of
defenses effort to lighten the force. However, polymer matrix composites have an
inherent temperature limitation based on their hydrocarbon structure. The high
temperature alternative to high density metals is ceramics, offering weight savings
as well high temperature capability and oxidation resistance.
The sensitivity of monolithic ceramics to small flaws and the resulting brittle
fracture has severely limited the use of their unique properties (high temperature
strength, low density, chemical stability, and wear resistance) in military and
aerospace applications. The development of ceramic composites and associated
flaw-tolerant microstructures has been a major goal of structural ceramics over the
past two decades. A composite is defined as a material containing two or more
distinct phases combined in such a way so that each remains distinct. Based on this
broad definition of composite, ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are
conveniently separated into two categories: discontinuous reinforced and
continuous fiber reinforced CMCs.
Discontinuous reinforced CMCs include particulate, platelet, whisker, fiber
and in situ reinforced composites (including Nano composites). CMCs containing
discontinuous second phases are, in general, processed by shaping techniques
commonly used for monolithic ceramics; i.e., injection molding, slip casting, and
tape casting, followed by sintering to density the composite. By contrast
continuous fiber ceramic composites (CFCCs) have required the development of
infiltrate ion (vapor, sol, melt, and liquid pre ceramic polymers) methods that
enable the densification of various ceramic matrices in continuous fiber lay-ups
and/or net shape woven fiber performs.
Continuous fiber reinforced CMCs are further subdivided into carbon fiber
reinforced carbon composites, a.k.a. carbon-carbon composites and other
composites. Both discontinuous reinforced and continuous fiber reinforced
composites decrease the susceptibility of ceramic components to catastrophic
thermal-structural "brittle failure". The mechanisms by which discontinuous
reinforced and continuous reinforced CMCs retard crack initiation and/or
propagation are dependent on the nature of material reinforcements (geometry,
quantity, and distribution). Understandably, the reinforcements in discontinuous
and continuous CMCs give rise to inherently different mechanical properties,
different advantages, and different end uses.
A ceramic's resistance to small flaws, crack propagation, and failure can be
quantified by measuring a property termed fracture toughness. The fracture
toughness coupled with sufficient statistical mechanical property data provide
designers the information needed for structural analysis and design safety margins
of ceramics. In general, the fracture toughness values of monolithic ceramics
excluding transformation toughened materials do not exceed values of 4.5 ksi in (5
MPam1/2).
Discontinuous reinforced CMCs have typical values in the range of 6 to
10.92 ksi in (7 to 12 MPam1/2). Continuous fiber CMCs reach values around
18 ksi in (20 MPam1/2) and depending on the fiber architecture can approach
values similar to good metallic systems, 27 ksi in (30 MPam1/2). Continuous fiber
reinforced CMCs and discontinuous CMCs also exhibit significant differences in
yield strengths, linear stress-strain proportional limits, and ultimate strengths.
Discontinuous whisker, in situ toughened, and particulate Nano composites
ceramics can reach yield strengths and ultimate strengths approaching 1000 MPa.
Applications
Carbon-carbon composites are a mature technology. The graphite-like
matrix maintains its strength to exceptionally high temperatures of 4000F
(2204C) in non-oxidizing environments. The historical use of carbon-carbon
composites can be traced to ICBM rocket nozzles over three decades ago. Over the
past decade and a half, carbon-carbon brakes for military and commercial aircraft
have developed into the largest single market for CMCs. The lightweight and high-
temperature stiffness-to-weight properties of carbon-carbon have continued to spur
funding of military demonstration projects such as solar array, radar antenna and
mirror support structures, heat shields, and radiators for spacecraft. Turbine engine
components, reentry vehicle nose tips, and hypersonic leading edge articles have
also received demonstration funding.
The development of very high conductivity carbon fibers coupled with lower
cost matrix densification techniques offer promise as printed wiring board or
multichip module substrates, thermal planes and other heat dissipation
components. A wide range of abrasive and corrosive wear applications are
emerging for these types of composites. Protective sleeves for molten Al mixer
shafts, hot gas filters, fire proof floor tiles and a host of other application sare
emerging .Most of these applications are thermal-structural environments in
turbine and rocket engines where metallic alloys cannot meet the performance
and/or durability requirements and where carbon-carbon composites would ablate
due to oxidation.
The afterburner divergent flaps and seals for fighter aircraft turbine engines
and divert propulsion and attitude control nozzles for exo-atmospheric interceptor
missile rocket engines are prime examples. The next generation, reusable launch
vehicle will likely use CMCs for the thrust cells and the ramp of the aero spike
engine. CMCs are presently being evaluated for leading edges, nose section, inlet
cowlings, and the nozzle of future hypersonic vehicles. Future turbine engine
applications may include combustors, shrouds, stators, vanes, and other augmenter
components for turbine engines. Heat shields to protect metallic structures are also
being considered in many aircraft applications.
Industrial applications include porous radiant burner tubes, immersion heater
tubes, heat exchangers, tube hangers for oil refining, brakes for racing motorcycles,
diesel engine valve guides, and/or corrosion resistant containment shells for
chemical pumps.

Need For Carbon Nano Tubes

These carbon nanotubes are actually a unique allotropic form of carbon with
an exceptionally great hardness, electric conductivity and tensile strength. These
physical properties make these nanotubes find a large number of applications in the
modern science. Now there are different shapes and different occurrences of these
allotropes in nature and these can also be synthesized in laboratory. More
importantly, these vary in their thickness as well as these can be single celled and
multi layered at the same time. In this manner, it would be exceptionally sheltered
and reasonable to say that carbon Nano tubes have been one of the fundamental
logical developments of the present period conveying a gigantic change and office
to the researcher group specifically and to the entire humankind by and large.
Following the carbon Nano tubes have extremely recognized electronic
properties, a few employments of the carbon Nano tubes have been found. Also,
because of their properties in the environment of heat and their rather
commendable strength attributes, the nanotubes have been used for various
purposes. The nanotubes are usually rolled into tubes and they are known to have
hexagonal shapes, having been discovered in the early 90s. In the field chemistry,
they are regarded the strongest and probably most resilient bonds and they are even
stronger than the bonds that hold diamond in one piece. The structure of these
nanotubes is quite unique in comparison to the structures of other elements in
terms of not just structure but also properties such as thermal as well as electronic.
The component in this way responds rather distinctively to these conditions when
contrasted with alternate components.
Carbon nanotubes are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with
outstanding properties. They are among the stiffest and strongest fibers known, and
have remarkable electronic properties and many other unique characteristics. For
these reasons they have attracted huge academic and industrial interest, with
thousands of papers on nanotubes being published every year. Business
applications have been somewhat ease back to grow, in any case, principally in
view of the high generation expenses of the best quality Nano tubes.
There are various angles that call for utilizations of Carbon Nano tubes for
case the making of space lifts. Subsequent to the component is much more
grounded than the standard components such as steel, it develops as the most
suitable strategy in the production of structures that are high and space lifts.
Originally, cells were created with elements like human hair, silicon as well as
plastic. However, today, there is the intention to create cells with Carbon
Nanotubes. This will create another of the applications of Carbon Nanotubes that
will have emerged from the precious element.
Employing materials made from carbon nanotubes to reduce the
weight of aircraft like the one shown below while retaining or even
increasing the structural strength.
Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space
elevator, a system which could significantly reduce the cost of
sending material into orbit.
Using carbon nanotubes to build lightweight solar sails that use the
pressure of light from the sun reflecting on the mirror-like solar cell to
propel a spacecraft. This solves the problem of having to lift enough
fuel into orbit to power spacecraft during interplanetary missions.
 Working with Nano sensors to monitor the levels of trace chemicals in
aircraft to monitor the performance of life support systems.

Subsequent to finding them over 10 years back, researchers have been

investigating conceivable utilization's for carbon Nano tubes, which show
electrical conductivity as high as copper, thermal conductivity as high as diamond,
and as much as 100 times the quality of steel at one-6th the weight. In order to
capitalize on these properties, researchers and engineers need a set of tools -- in
this case, chemical processes like pyro lytic fluorination -- that will allow them to
cut, sort, dissolve and otherwise manipulate nanotubes.

Molecular and Nanotube Memories

Nanotubes hold promise for non-volatile memory; with a commercial
prototype nanotube-based RAM predicted in 1-2 years, and terabit capacity
memories ultimately possible. Similar promises have been made of molecular
memory from several companies, with one projecting a low-cost memory based on
molecule-sized cylinders by end 2004 that will have capacities appropriate for the
flash memory market. These approaches offer non-volatile memory and if the
predicted capacities of up to 1Tb can be achieved at appropriate cost then hard
drives may no longer be necessary in PCs.
`
 PROPERTIES OF NANOTUBES

Mechanical
Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in
terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results
from the covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000,
a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 giga-
pascals (GPa). Further studies, such as one conducted in 2008, revealed that
individual CNT shells have strengths of up to ~100 GPa, which is in agreement
with quantum/atomistic models. Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a
solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g/cm3, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kNmkg1 is the
best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel's 154 kNmkg1.
Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which
means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of
approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before
fracture by releasing strain energy.
Although the strength of individual CNT shells is extremely high, weak
shear interactions between adjacent shells and tubes leads to significant reductions
in the effective strength of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube
bundles down to only a few GPas. This limitation has been recently addressed by
applying high-energy electron irradiation, which crosslinks inner shells and tubes,
and effectively increases the strength of these materials to ~60 GPa for multi-
walled carbon Nano tubes and ~17 GPa for double-walled carbon nanotube
bundles.
CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow
structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed under
compressive, torsional, or bending stress.
 Geometry of carbon Nano tubes
Rollup Vector (n, m)
n-m=3d
Chiral Angle

tan ()= 3m/(2(n2+m2+nm))

Arm Chair (n,n), =30
Zig-zag (n,0), =0
Chiral, 0< <30

Material Young's modulus Tensile strength Elongation at break

(TPa) (GPa) (%)

SWNTE ~1 (from 1 to 5) 1353 16

Armchair SWNTT 0.94 126.2 23.1

Zigzag SWNTT 0.94 94.5 15.617.5

Chiral SWNT 0.92

Kevlar29&149E 0.060.18 3.63.8 ~2

Hardness

Standard single-walled carbon nanotubes can withstand a pressure up to 24

GPa without deformation. They then undergo a transformation to super hard phase
nanotubes. Maximum pressures measured using current experimental techniques
are around 55 GPa. However, these new super hard phase nanotubes collapse at an
even higher, albeit unknown, pressure. The bulk modulus of super hard phase
nanotubes is 462 to 546 GPa, even higher than that of diamond (420 GPa for single
diamond crystal).

Thermal properties
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the
tube, exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction", but good insulators
laterally to the tube axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a room-
temperature thermal conductivity along its axis of about 3500 Wm1K1;
compare this to copper, a metal well known for its good thermal conductivity,
which transmits 385 Wm1K1. A SWNT has a room-temperature thermal
conductivity across its axis (in the radial direction) of about 1.52 Wm1K1.
This is about as thermally conductive as soil. The temperature stability of carbon
nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 C in vacuum and about 750 C in air.

Thermal properties of Kevlar resins

Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures
(196 C); in fact, it is slightly stronger at low temperatures. At higher
temperatures the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 1020%, and
after some hours the strength progressively reduces further. For example at 160 C
(320 F) about 10% reduction in strength occurs after 500 hours. At 260 C (500
F) 50% strength reduction occurs after 70 hours.
 SELF HEALING MATERIALS

Carbon Nano Tubes

A geodome that you may be familiar with is "Spaceship Earth" at Epcot

Center (Disney World). The soccer ball shaped C60 molecule was named
buckminsterfullerene or Bucky ball for short. The unique geometric properties
of this new allotrope of carbon did not end with soccer shaped molecules, it was
also discovered that carbon atoms can form long cylindrical tubes. These tubes
were originally called Bucky tubes but now are better known as carbon
nanotubes or CNT for short. These molecules are shaped like a tube; imagine a
sheet of graphite ("grapheme sheet") or chicken wire rolled into a tube.
This is a microscopic structure made of carbon atoms in the shape of a
hollow cylinder. The cylinders are typically closed at their ends by semi-fullerene-
like structures.
There are three types of carbon nanotubes:
Armchair
zigzag
Chiral (helical) nanotubes
These differ in their symmetry. Namely, the carbon nanotubes can be
thought of as graphene planes 'rolled up' in a cylinder (the closing ends of carbon
nanotubes cannot be obtained in this way). Depending on how the graphene plane
is 'cut' before rolled up, the three types of carbon nanotubes are obtained. Within a
particular type, carbon nanotubes with many different radii can be found
(depending on how large is the graphene area that is folded onto a cylinder). These
tubes can be extremely long (several hundreds of nanometers and more). Some
consider them as special cases of fullerenes. When produced in materials, carbon
nanotubes pack either in bundles (one next to another within a triangular lattice) -
single-walled carbon nanotubes, or one of smaller radius inside others of larger
radii - multi-walled carbon nanotubes.
Carbon nanotubes have unique physical and chemical properties that
chemists are trying to better understand through laboratory research. One of the
physical properties of carbon nanotubes is that its possible to make them only a
single atomic layer thick. This means that they can be about 1/50,000th the
thickness of a human hair. Because of the bonding characteristics of carbon atoms,
the physical appearance of carbon nanotubes can often resemble rolled up chicken
wire. One of the interesting physical properties about carbon nanotubes is that
when you have two of them which have slightly different physical structures and
they are joined together, the junction (gap or small space) between them can
function as an electronic device. This electronic behavior depends upon the
structure of the two tubes.
Currently scientists are trying to make carbon nanotubes in large amounts
(high yield) with a high degree of purity (little or no material defects), so that the
physical structures are all the same. If they have similar physical and chemical
properties then it becomes easier to predict their behavior which would ultimately
make them more useful for possible Nano sensors. These Nano sensors could
behave like semiconducting materials in microelectronic circuits, or detect small
changes in electric current, or register chemical reactivity, or changes in air
pressure or temperature.
 Since carbon nanotube science is relatively new, scientists from the fields of
chemistry, physics and the material sciences are just beginning to unlock its
mysteries and hypothesize about its potential applications.

Nano Tube Geometry

There are three unique geometries of carbon nanotubes. The three different
geometries are also referred to as flavors. The three flavors are armchair, zigzag,
and chiral [e.g. zigzag (n, 0); armchair (n, n); and chiral (n, m)]. These flavors can
be classified by how the carbon sheet is wrapped into a tube (see pictures below).

Carbon Nanotubes have many structures, differing in length, thickness, and

in the type of helical and number of layers. Although they are formed from
essentially the same graphite sheet, their electrical characteristics differ depending
on these variations, acting either as metals or as semiconductors.
Carbon Nanotubes can be categorized by their structures:

Single-wall Nanotubes (SWNT)

Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT)
Double-wall Nanotubes (DWNT)

Properties of a carbon Nano tube

The intrinsic mechanical and transport properties of Carbon Nanotubes make

them the ultimate carbon fibers. The following tables (Table 1 and Table 2)
compare these properties to other engineering materials. Overall, Carbon
Nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness, strength, and tenacity
compared to other fiber materials which usually lack one or more of these
properties. Thermal and electrical conductivity are also very high, and comparable
to other conductive materials.

Table 1 Mechanical Property of Engineering Fibers

Fiber Material Specific Density E (TPa) Strength (GPa) Strain at Break (%)

Carbon Nanotube 1.3 2 1 10 - 60 10

HS Steel 7.8 0.2 4.1 < 10

Carbon Fiber - 1.7 2 0.2 - 0.6 1.7 - 5 0.3 - 2.4

PAN

Carbon Fiber - 2 - 2.2 0.4 - 2.2 - 3.3 0.27 - 0.6

Pitch 0.96

E/S - glass 2.5 0.07 / 2.4 / 4.5 4.8

0.08

Kevlar* 49 1.4 0.13 3.6 - 4.1 2.8

Table 2 Transport Properties of Conductive Materials

Material Thermal Conductivity (W/mk) Electrical Conductivity

Carbon Nanotubes > 3000 106 - 107

Copper 400 6 x 107

Carbon Fiber - Pitch 1000 2 - 8.5 x 106

Carbon Fiber - PAN 8 105 6.5 - 14 x 106

The advantages of this new technologic advance are:

It is electrically conductive
Its a very hard material
It is extremely flexible

Applications of Carbon Nano tubes

Conductive plastics
Structural composite materials
Flat-panel displays
Gas storage
Antifouling paint
Micro- and Nano-electronics
Radar-absorbing coating
Technical textiles
Ultra-capacitors
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips
Batteries with improved lifetime
Biosensors for harmful gases
Extra strong fibers

Manufacturing of Carbon Nano tubes

There are various methods of production of carbon Nano-tubes such as
production of nanotubes by arc discharge, chemical vapor deposition, laser
ablation, flame synthesis, high pressure carbon monoxide (HiPco), electrolysis,
pyrolysis etc. But they can be mainly classified into following groups.
Physical Processes
Chemical Processes
Miscellaneous Processes

Physical processes
These are the processes, which make use of physical principles of carbon
conversion into nanotubes. These include popular process of carbon nanotubes
production such as arc discharge and laser ablation. Due to their wide spread
popularity they are by far the most widely used processes for nanotubes production
for experimental purposes.
There are two processes in the physical process
Arc discharge process
Laser ablation process
Disadvantages of Physical processes
Both arc-discharge and laser ablation produces some of the most high-
quality nanotubes but suffers from following disadvantages which limit their use as
large scale industrial processes.
1) They both are energy extensive methods-a large amount of energy is needed to
produce arc or laser used for ablation processes. Such a huge amount of energy is
not only impossible but also uneconomical for large scale production.
2) Both methods require solid carbon/graphite as target which has to be
evaporated to get nanotubes. It is difficult to get such large graphite to be used as
target in industrial process which limits its exploitation as large scale process.
3) Both processes grow nanotubes in highly tangled form, mixed with unwanted
form of carbon or catalysts.
Thus CNTs produced by these processes require purification to get purified
and assembled forms. The designing of such refining processes is difficult and
expensive. All the above mentioned factors severely limit the use of both arc-
discharge and laser ablation as large scale processes for production of carbon
nanotubes.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Chemical Vapor Deposition

In 1996 Chemical vapor deposition emerged as potential method for large

scale production and synthesis of carbon nanotubes. This method is capable of
controlling growth directions on a substrate and synthesizing a large quantity of
carbon nanotubes [14]. In this process a mixture of hydrocarbon gas (ethylene,
methane or acetylene)and a process gas (ammonia, nitrogen, hydrogen) is made to
react in a reaction chamber on heated metal substrate at temperature of around
700C - 900C, at atmospheric pressures. CNTs formed as a result of
decomposition of hydrocarbon gas and deposit and grow on metal catalyst
(substrate). The catalysts particle can stay at the bottom or top of growing carbon
nanotube. The use of the catalyst and preparation of the substrate is one of the most
important factors in CVD, as this substrate will define the nature and type of
carbon nanotubes formed. The usually substrate material is silicon, but glass and
alumina are also used. The catalysts are metal nanoparticles, like Fe, Co and Ni,
which can be deposited on substrates by means of electron beam evaporation,
physical sputtering or solution deposition. Porous silicon is an ideal substrate for
growing self-oriented nanotubes on large surfaces. The nanotube diameter depends
on the catalyst particle size; therefore, the catalyst deposition technique should be
chosen carefully to yield desired results.

High Pressure Carbon Monoxide Reaction (HiPco)

This is a unique method developed at Rice University in1999 for the

production of carbon nanotubes. Unlike other methods in which the metal catalysts
are deposited or embedded on the substrate before the deposition of the carbon
begins, in this method catalyst is introduced in gas phase. Both the catalyst and the
hydrocarbon gas are fed into a furnace, followed by catalytic reaction in the gas
phase. This method is suitable for large-scale synthesis, because the nanotubes are
free from catalytic supports and the reaction can be operated continuously. Usually
CO gas is used as hydrocarbon gas which reacts with iron penta-carbonyl
(Fe(CO)5) to form SWNT. This process is called HiPco process.

SWNT have also been synthesized in a variant of HiPco process in which a

mixture of benzene and ferrocene, Fe(C5H5)2 reacts in a hydrogen gas flow to
form SWNT [18]. In both methods, catalyst nanoparticles are formed through
thermal de- composition of organometallic compounds, such as iron penta-
carbonyl and ferrocene.
Advantages of Chemical Processes

These methods have many advantages as compared to fore mentioned

processes.

Reaction process and reactor design is simple, reaction is easy to control and
manipulate.
Raw materials are abundant and available readily in the form of gases.
Due to absence of expensive and difficult to produce targets and huge
amount of energy needed, process is cheap in terms of unit price.
Process is capable of producing CNTs directly onto substrates which ease
out the process of further collection and separation and eliminates post
refining processes to a large extent. Some refining is required in some cases
for further purification.
Process is unique for the production of vertically aligned nanotubes. No
other process can produce aligned Nano tubes.
Process can be designed for continuous operation (HiPco) and easily scaled
up to large industrial process due to its nature of operation similar to
chemical unit operations.

SELF HEALING INSPECTION METHOD

When the aircraft flies the higher pressure acts on the entire body, but
comparatively the maximum force acts on the wings, fuselage and rudders. The
inspection method will be able to detect the flaws which in more naked and even if
it is in microscopic level. The hidden cracks in the body are very hard to find out.
The defects are very hard to be healed in this kind of situation, so thatll lead to a
great disaster which includes the loss of human lives and the high tech equipment.
In order to overcome this scenario, the self-healing technology would be a great
one to the aviation field. The materials strength is no lesser to a composite
material, where the strength and stiffness would be greater than that.
 Material Composition
% of
Metal Description
composition
Magnesium/Aluminium The alloys are used in a major composition as
70
alloys it becomes a good conductor.
It adds more strength and stiffness to the
Carbon Nano tubes 10 material, as carbon items are one of the
strongest
It acts as the self-healing material in this
Epoxy resins 20
composition

The Epoxy Resins and Carbon Nano tubes cant be used entirely throughout the
materials, since the cost factor plays a vital role. The self-healing materials will be
having the epoxy resins in form of microcapsules which has carbon Nano tubes in
it. The addition of carbon Nano tubes in the materials adds more strength to it. The
epoxy resins will be present in such a way like honey comb structure. So that it is
present everywhere to. So where ever the crack is formed the epoxy resins will fill
them on their own during the inspection time based on the pressure gradient getting
developed across that area. The epoxy resins are melted when the temperature of it
crosses its melting point. The entire thing happens in such a way that the inspection
is done in a shorter duration with the self-healing. This inspection method is done
without affecting the strength and stiffness of the material.

Procedure:

The current passes between two conducting materials, so the cathodes and
anodes are placed on both the ends of the part (wing, fuselage, etc.). The current is
made to pass through them and this kind of arrangement is done on both ways
vertically and horizontally. This current passing path are formed in the path of grid
lines which has very less gap in between them, in order to be more precise in the
inspection. Firstly the current is made to pass through the part in a direction. If the
crack is parallel to the gridlines, itll be hard to detect and heal it.

So thats the reason why the inspection is done on either ways. When a crack
is found on the aircraft part during the inspection, the gridlines gets disconnected.
Apart from that region the current passage will be spontaneously passing in the
other gridlines. So, wherever the current is getting cut-off at that terminal the
resistance will get created due to the continuous supply of voltage. The RTD is
placed on the apparatus to detect the temperature around the disconnected
terminals. That temperature must be greater than the melting point of the epoxy
resins. When the voltage is increased the resistance will get increased and it will
offer more heat, since temperature and resistance are directly proportional. The
voltage is kept on adjusted until it reaches the melting point of the epoxy resins.
The temperature around that terminal is increased by this way to melt the epoxy
resins. The temperature is sensed by the RTD sensors.

In order to achieve that temperature the voltage is increased. As the voltage

increases the resistance increases, the sensors are used to find where the current is
getting cut-off i.e. the cracked regions. The RTD is a computerized mechanism
where the values are more accurate and it allows us to be more precise in work.
Once the epoxy resins are melted during the inspection, they get filled in the crack
which gets healed up. This is entirely an automated one which reduces man power
a lot. In order to clearly understand the grid pattern, the images of the wing with
both horizontal and vertical gridlines are present below as an example.

Wing root
Wing Trailing (Cathode)
edge (Anode)

Wing Leading
edge (Cathode)
 Wing model to be tested

Wing with the gridlines for inspection

 Grid lines (horizontal and vertical) on the wing

Merits of Self-healing inspection method

This is actually a combination of inspection and as well as rectifying the

flaws in the parts
This method reduces human efforts much more by getting self-healed
The time consumption is very less for rectifying and it happens in fractions
of second
Compared to the other inspection methods like ultrasonic, radiography etc.
this one is far better in all aspects (instruments, technicians for each
operation, special equipment and isolated working environment)
The important factor is cost factor. This increases the life of the parts by
healing the hidden fatigue damages and cracks. Inspection cost is also less
compared to the other inspection methods.
Its a safer one and less hazardous when compared to the other methods
The strength can increased by either changing the composites or the
composite proportions
Demerits/limitations of self-healing method

The inspection is an affordable one and better one in various aspects except
the materials
More caution is needed towards the material and deposition of the
composites in it
More importance is needed in the composite deposition pattern which makes
more convenient one for healing
The RTD operated only in a particular range (up to 700 degree Celsius)
The sensors should be more precise since these are microscopic operations

SPECIAL INSPECTIONS

During the service life of an aircraft, occasions may arise when something
out of the ordinary care and use of an aircraft might happen that could possibly
affect its airworthiness. When these situations are encountered, special inspection
procedures should be followed to determine if damage to the aircraft structure has
occurred. The procedures outlined on the following pages are general in nature and
are intended to acquaint the aviation mechanic with the areas which should be
inspected. As such, they are not all inclusive. When performing any of these
special inspections, always follow the detailed procedures in the aircraft
maintenance manual. In situations where the manual does not adequately address
the situation, seek advice from other maintenance technicians who are highly
experienced with them.
Hard or Overweight Landing Inspection The structural stress induced by a
landing depends not only upon the gross weight at the time but also upon the
severity of impact. However, because of the difficulty in estimating vertical
velocity at the time of contact, it is hard to judge whether or not a landing has been
sufficiently severe to cause structural damage. For this reason, a special inspection
should be performed after landing is made at a weight known to exceed the design
landing weight or after a rough landing, even though the latter may have occurred
when the aircraft did not exceed the design landing weight. Wrinkled wing skin is
the most easily detected sign of an excessive load having been imposed during a
landing. Another indication which can be detected easily is fuel leakage along
riveted seams. Other possible locations of damage are spar webs, bulkheads,
nacelle skin and attachments, firewall skin, and wing and fuselage stringers. If
none of these areas show adverse effects, it is reasonable to assume that no serious
damage has occurred. If damage is detected, a more extensive inspection and
alignment check may be necessary.
Severe Turbulence Inspection/Over G When an aircraft encounters a gust
condition; the air load on the wings exceeds the normal wing load supporting the
aircraft weight. The gust tends to accelerate the aircraft while its inertia acts to
resist this change. If the combination of gust velocity and airspeed is too severe,
the induced stress can cause structural damage. A special inspection should be
performed after a flight through severe turbulence. Emphasis should be placed
upon inspecting the upper and lower wing surfaces for excessive buckles or
wrinkles with permanent set.
Where wrinkles have occurred, remove a few rivets and examine the rivet
shanks to determine if the rivets have sheared or were highly loaded in shear.
Through the inspection doors and other accessible openings, inspect all spar webs
from the fuselage to the tip. Check for buckling, wrinkles, and sheared
attachments. Inspect for buckling in the area around the nacelles and in the nacelle
skin, particularly at the wing leading edge.

Lightning Strike
Although lightning strikes to aircraft are extremely rare, if a strike has
occurred, the aircraft must be carefully inspected to determine the extent of any
damage that might have occurred. When lightning strikes an aircraft, the electrical
current must be conducted through the structure and be allowed to discharge or
dissipate at controlled locations. These controlled locations are primarily the
aircrafts static discharge wicks, or on more sophisticated aircraft, null field
dischargers. When surges of high voltage electricity pass through good electrical
conductors, such as aluminum or steel, damage is likely to be minimal or
nonexistent. When surges of high voltage electricity pass through on-metallic
structures, such as a fiberglass radome, engine cowl or fairing, glass or plastic
window, or a composite structure that does not have built-in electrical bonding,
burning and more serious damage to the structure could occur.
Visual inspection of the structure is required. Look for evidence of
degradation, burning or erosion of the composite resin at all affected structures,
electrical bonding straps, static discharge wicks and null field dischargers. Fire
Damage Inspection of aircraft structures that have been subjected to fire or intense
heat can be relatively simple if visible damage is present. Visible damage requires
repair or replacement. If there is no visible damage, the structural integrity of an
aircraft may still have been compromised.
Since most structural metallic components of an aircraft have undergone
some sort of heat treatment process during manufacture, an exposure to high heat
not encountered during normal operations could severely degrade the design
strength of the structure. The strength and airworthiness of an aluminum structure
that passes a visual inspection but is still suspect can be further determined by use
of conductivity tester. This is a device that uses eddy current and is discussed later
in this chapter. Since strength of metals is related to hardness, possible damage to
steel structures might be determined by use of a hardness tester such as a Rockwell
C hardness tester.

Flood Damage
Like aircraft damaged by fire, aircraft damaged by water can range from
minor to severe, depending on the level of the flood water, whether it was fresh or
salt water and the elapsed time between the flood occurrence and when repairs
were initiated. Any parts that were totally submerged should be completely
disassembled, thoroughly cleaned, dried and treated with a corrosion inhibitor.
Many parts might have to be replaced, particularly interior carpeting, seats, side
panels, and instruments. Since water serves as an electrolyte that promotes
corrosion, all traces of water and salt must be removed before the aircraft can again
be considered airworthy.

Aerial Application Aircraft

Two primary factors that make inspecting these aircraft different from other
aircraft are the corrosive nature of some of the chemicals used and the typical
flight profile. Damaging effects of corrosion may be detected in a much shorter
period of time than normal use aircraft. Chemicals may soften the fabric or loosen
the fabric tapes of fabric covered aircraft. Metal aircraft may need to have the paint
stripped, cleaned, and repainted and corrosion treated annually. Leading edges of
wings and other areas may require protective coatings or tapes. Hardware may
require more frequent replacement.
During peak use, these aircraft may fly up to 50 cycles (takeoffs and
landings) or more in a day, most likely from an unimproved or grass runway. This
can greatly accelerate the failure of normal fatigue items. Landing gear and related
items require frequent inspections. Because these aircraft operate almost
continuously at very low altitudes, air filters tend to become obstructed more
rapidly.

Nondestructive Inspection/Testing
The preceding information in this chapter provided general information
regarding aircraft inspection. The remainder of this chapter deals with several
methods often used on specific components or areas on an aircraft when carrying
out the more specific inspections. They are referred to as nondestructive inspection
(NDI) or nondestructive testing (NDT). The objective of NDI and NDT is to
determine the airworthiness of a component without damaging it, which would
render it un-airworthy. Some of these methods are simple, requiring little
additional expertise, while others are highly sophisticated and require that the
technician be highly trained and specially certified.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Penetrant inspection is a nondestructive test for defects open to the surface
in parts made of any nonporous material. It is used with equal success on such
metals as aluminum, magnesium, brass, copper, cast iron, stainless steel, and
titanium. It may also be used on ceramics, plastics, molded rubber, and glass.
Penetrant inspection will detect such defects as surface cracks or porosity. These
defects may be caused by fatigue cracks; shrinkage cracks, shrinkage porosity, cold
shuts, and grinding and heat treat cracks, seams, forging laps, and bursts. Penetrant
inspection will also indicate a lack of bond between joined metals. The main
disadvantage of penetrant inspection is that the defect must be open to the surface
in order to let the penetrant get into the defect.
For this reason, if the part in question is made of material which is magnetic,
the use of magnetic particle inspection is generally recommended. Penetrant
inspection uses a penetrating liquid that enters a surface opening and remains there,
making it clearly visible to the inspector. It calls for visual examination of the part
after it has been processed, increasing the visibility of the defect so that it can be
detected. Visibility of the penetrating material is increased by the addition of one
of two types of dye, visible or fluorescent. The visible penetrant kit consists of dye
penetrant, dye remover emulsifier, and developer. The fluorescent penetrant
inspection kit contains a black light assembly, as well as spray cans of penetrant,
cleaner, and developer. The light assembly consists of a power transformer, a
flexible power cable, and a hand-held lamp. Due to its size, the lamp may be used
in almost any position or location.
 Pits of porosity Tight crack or partially Crack or similar
welded lap opening
False Indications
With the penetrant inspection, there are no false indications in the sense that
they occur in the magnetic particle inspection. There are, however, two conditions
which may create accumulations of penetrant that are sometimes confused with
true surface cracks and discontinuities. The first condition involves indications
caused by poor washing. If all the surface penetrant is not removed in the washing
or rinsing operation following the penetrant dwell time, the un-removed penetrant
will be visible. Evidences of incomplete washing are usually easy to identify since
the penetrant is in broad areas rather than in the sharp patterns found with true
indications.
When accumulations of unwashed penetrant are found on a part, the part
should be completely reprocessed. Degreasing is recommended for removal of all
traces of the penetrant. False indications may also be created where parts press fit
to each other. If a wheel is press fit onto a shaft, penetrant will show an indication
at the fit line. This is perfectly normal since the two parts are not meant to be
welded together. Indications of this type are easy to identify since they are regular
in form and shape.

Eddy Current Inspection

Corrosion and fatigue cracks are always expected in aging aircraft structure.
Corrosion is a critical problem of aircraft structure, which directly affects the
airworthiness of an aircraft. Corrosion causes thinning of aircraft structure skins
lead to a degradation of structural integrity. Fatigue cracks also occur in multi-
layered riveted joint especially in aluminum-alloy structures. Inspections in critical
areas and maintenance of its structure are essential to maintain a high degree of
quality and reliability. To ensure the structural integrity and safety of aircraft, all
operators are effectively maintaining an inspection program. In this inspection
program nondestructive-testing inspection is playing a vital role.
Non-destructive inspection [NDI] is frequently used at certain interval in
different critical areas of aircraft structure for detection of hidden small damage
and to clarify the real condition of aircraft structure for appropriate repair and
corrective action.
Although aircraft structures are assembled with different types of materials,
considering the accessibility and cost 'Eddy Current' method is widely used for
subsurface defect in aircraft structure. Damage tolerance and NDT reliability
programs also proved eddy current inspection is superior to other NDT methods
especially for detection of tight cracks and corrosion.
Electromagnetic analysis is a term which describes the broad spectrum of
electronic test methods involving the intersection of magnetic fields and
circulatory currents. The most widely used technique is the eddy current. Eddy
currents are composed of free electrons under the influence of an induced
electromagnetic field which are made to drift through metal. Eddy current is
used in aircraft maintenance to inspect jet engine turbine shafts and vanes, wing
skins, wheels, bolt holes, and spark plug bores for cracks, heat or frame damage.
Eddy current may also be used in repair of aluminum aircraft damaged by
fire or excessive heat. Different meter readings will be seen when the same metal is
in different hardness states. Readings in the affected area are compared with
identical materials in known unaffected areas for comparison. A difference in
readings indicates a difference in the hardness state of the affected area. In aircraft
manufacturing plants, eddy current is used to inspect castings, stampings, machine
parts, forgings, and extrusions.
Different Eddy Current Technique:

1. Defect and estimate corrosion loss on aluminum back surface

This inspection procedure is designed to detect and estimate material
thinning caused by corrosion on the back surface or back surface interface of
aluminum structures, where one surface is accessible for setting the inspection
probe. This method utilizes the variable conductivity effect of the eddy current by
the reduction of the conductive layer cross section caused by corrosion. But this
process cannot be used precisely measure the depth of corrosion or to make an
estimate of the decrease in the material thickness of less than 10 percent.

Following items are used to carry out this inspection;

i. Eddy current flaw detector with impedance plane display and frequency
control between 3khz and 50khz.Preliminary instrument operating frequency
may be adjusted considering the thickness of test item during calibration
procedure from Table-01

Table 01: Reference standard and frequency selection for back surface corrosion loss
for clad 2024-T3/T4 &7075-T6 AL alloys

Thickness of aircraft
Thickness of reference standard Test frequency
structure [layer- 1] in
[layer- 1] in inches range [kHz]
inches

0.032-0.034 0.032 37-45

0.035-0.038 0.036 35-44
0.039-0.045 0.04 25-35
0.046-0.056 0.05 16-25
0.057-0.068 0.063 11-16
0.069-0.076 0.072 9-11
0.077-0.085 0.08 7-9
0.086-0.095 0.09 5.6-7
0.096-0.105 0.1 4.6-5.6
0.106-0.118 0.11 3.6-4.6
0.119-0.125 0. 125 3.2-3.6
ii. Eddy current flat surface probe with 'selected frequency' for application.
Small diameter probes are preferred because they find small area of
corrosion more accurately.
iii. Reference standard to be fabricated from panels representing the material, in
the inspection area with basic thickness and specified material loss.
iv. Eddy current flaw detector with impedance plane display. Set operating
frequency at approximate value has shown in Table-02 considering skin
thickness of inspection area.

Skin thickness [inches] Frequency (kHz)

0.032 20
0.04 19
0.05 17.5
0.063 14
0.071 10
0.08 7

v. 1/4-inch diameter spot probe [minimum frequency range 4 kHz-20 kHz].

vi. Reference standard with EDM notch to be made from same material and
thickness.
vii. Access to the external surface of the repair location is essential.
viii. Eddy current flaw detector with- impedance plane display/frequency range
settings.
ix. Low frequency reflection/sliding probe [1khz-100 kHz].
x. Stackable reference standard to be constructed to simulate the structure to be
inspected and subject defects.
xi. Nonconductive straightedge, sandpaper and Teflon tape.
xii. Eddy current flaw detector with impedance plane display/meter display.
xiii. Hand held rotor and eddy current probes to fit the range of the hole
diameters.
xiv. Reference standard must be fabricated with same material and contain the
appropriate hole sizes representing the range of holes to be inspected.
 2. Subsurface crack detection at damaged location

This inspection is designed [only aluminum skins with conductivity in the

range of 29.5% to 38.5 %ICAS] to inspect for sub surface cracks in aluminum
skin panels. Such cracking may result when skin is deformed from mechanical
damage and straightening operations. This method only is used when access is
limited to the panel surface on the opposite side of the suspected crack location.

3. Detection of cracks beneath external repair doublers

This procedure is used to detect fatigue cracks in the fuselage plating under
external repair doubler and other repaired aluminium structures when specified.
This procedure will also detect cracks in the outer row of fastener holes common
to the external doubler and the fuselage plating. The crack must be oriented
normal with the repair edge to be detected.

4. Open hole defect detection

This inspection procedure is designed to detect discontinuities, which initiate

from or intersect the inner surface of holes in the subject to be inspected. Open
hole eddy current is often used to detect defects which are too small to be
detected with fasteners or hardware installed in the holes, or when surfaces are
not accessible for inspection by other methods.

Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

When an alternating current is passed through a coil, it develops a magnetic
field around the coil, which in turn induces a voltage of opposite polarity in the
coil and opposes the flow of original current. If this coil is placed in such a way
that the magnetic field passes through an electrically conducting specimen, eddy
currents will be induced into the specimen. The eddy currents create their own
field which varies the original fields opposition to the flow of original current.
 The magnitude and phase of this counter field is dependent primarily upon
the resistance and permeability of the specimen under consideration, and which
enables us to make a qualitative determination of various physical properties of the
test material. The interaction of the eddy current field with the original field results
is a power change that can be measured by utilizing electronic circuitry similar to a
Wheatstone bridge.
The specimen is either placed in or passed through the field of an
electromagnetic induction coil, and its effect on the impedance of the coil or on the
voltage output of one or more test coils is observed. The process, which involves
electric fields made to explore a test piece for various conditions, involves the
transmission of energy through the specimen much like the transmission of x-rays,
heat, or ultrasound The specimen is either placed in or passed through the field of
an electromagnetic induction coil, and its effect on the impedance of the coil or on
the voltage output of one or more test coils is observed. The process, which
involves electric fields made to explore a test piece for various conditions, involves
the transmission of energy through the specimen much like the transmission of X-
rays, heat, or ultrasound.
Eddy current inspection can frequently be performed without removing the
surface coatings such as primer, paint, and anodized films. It can be effective in
detecting surface and subsurface corrosion, pots and heat-treat condition.

Ultrasonic Inspection
A linear phased array (PA) transducer usually consists of 64 elements that
can be independently driven. By incorporating suitable time delays, it is possible to
steer the beam to any required angle (Fig. 3a) and/or focus it to any particular
depth (Fig. 3b). Electronic scanning consists of moving a beam in space by
activating different active apertures selectively where each aperture is made up of
several elements of a phased array probe.
 Ultrasonic detection equipment makes it possible to locate defects in all
types of materials. Minute cracks, checks, and voids too small to be seen by x-ray
can be located by ultrasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test instrument requires
access to only one surface of the material to be inspected and can be used with
either straight line or angle beam testing techniques.
Two basic methods are used for ultrasonic inspection. The first of these
methods is immersion testing. In this method of inspection, the part under
examination and the search unit are totally immersed in a liquid coolant, which
may be water or any other suitable fluid.
The second method is called contact testing, which is readily adapted to field
use and is the method discussed in this chapter. In this method, the part under
examination and the search unit are coupled with a viscous material, liquid or a
paste, which wets both the face of the search unit and the material under
examination.
There are three basic ultrasonic inspection methods:
(1) Pulse echo
(2) Through transmission
(3) Resonance.
 Eddy current inspection circuit

Pulse Echo
Flaws are detected by measuring the amplitude of signals reflected and the
time required for these signals to travel between specific surfaces and the
discontinuity. The time base, which is triggered simultaneously with each
transmission pulse, causes a spot to sweep across the screen of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). The spot sweeps from left to right across the face of the scope50 to 5,000
times per second, or higher if required for high speed automated scanning. Due to
the speed of the cycle of transmitting and receiving, the picture on the oscilloscope
appears to be stationary.
 Block diagram of basic pulse-echo system

A few microseconds after the sweep is initiated, the rate generator

electrically excites the pulse emitter, and the pulse emitter in turn emits an
electrical pulse. The transducer converts this pulse into a short train of ultrasonic
sound waves. If the interfaces of the transducer and the specimen are properly
oriented, the ultrasound will be reflected back to the transducer when it reaches the
internal flaw and the opposite surface of the specimen. The time interval between
the transmission of the initial impulse and the reception of the signals from within
the specimen are measured by the timing circuits. The reflected pulse received by
the transducers amplified, then transmitted to and displayed on the instrument
screen. The pulse is displayed in the same relationship to the front and back pulses
as the flaw is in relation to the front and back surfaces of the specimen.
 Block diagram of basic pulse-echo system

Pulse-echo instruments may also be used to detect flaws not directly

underneath the probe by use of the angle beam testing method. Angle beam testing
differs from straight beam testing only in the manner in which the ultrasonic waves
pass through the material being tested. As shown in the above figure, the beam is
projected into the material at an acute angle to the surface by means of a crystal cut
at an angle and mounted in plastic. The beam or a portion thereof reflects
successively from the surfaces of the material or any other discontinuity, including
the edge of the piece. In straight beam testing, the horizontal distance on the screen
between the initial pulse and the first back reflection represents the thickness of the
piece; while in angle beam testing, this distance represents the width of the
material between the searching unit and the opposite edge of the piece.

Through Transmission
Through transmission inspection uses two transducers, one to generate the
pulse and another placed on the opposite surface to receive it. A disruption in the
sound path will indicate a flaw and be displayed on the instrument screen. Through
transmission is less sensitive to small defects than the pulse-echo method.
Resonance
This system differs from the pulse method in that the frequency of
transmission may be continuously varied. The resonance method is used
principally for thickness measurements when the two sides of the material being
tested are smooth and parallel and the backside is inaccessible. The point at which
the frequency matches the resonance point of the material being tested is the
thickness determining factor.

Pulse- echo angle beam testing

It is necessary that the frequency of the ultrasonic waves corresponding to a

particular dial setting be accurately known. Checks should be made with standard
test blocks to guard against possible drift of frequency. If the frequency of an
ultrasonic wave is such that its wavelength is twice the thickness of a specimen
(fundamental frequency), then the reflected wave will arrive back at the transducer
in the same phase as the original transmission so that strengthening of the signal
will occur. This results from constructive interference or a resonance and is shown
as a high amplitude value on the indicating screen. If the frequency is increased
such that three times the wavelength equals four times the thickness, the reflected
signal will return completely out of phase with the transmitted signal and
cancellation will occur. Further increase of the frequency causes the wavelength to
be equal to the thickness again and gives a reflected signal in phase with the
transmitted signal and a resonance once more. By starting at the fundamental
frequency and gradually increasing the frequency, the successive cancellations and
resonances can be noted and the readings used to check the fundamental frequency
reading.
In some instruments, the oscillator circuit contains a motor driven capacitor
which changes the frequency of the oscillator. The change in frequency is
synchronized with the horizontal sweep of a CRT. The horizontal axis thus
represents a frequency range. If the frequency range contains resonances, the
circuitry is arranged to present these vertically. Calibrated transparent scales are
then placed in front of the tube, and the thickness can be read directly. The
instruments normally operate between 0.25 mill cycle (mc) and 10 mc in four or
five bands.
The resonance thickness instrument can be used to test the thickness of such
metals as steel, cast iron, brass, nickel, copper, silver, lead, aluminum, and
magnesium. In addition, areas of corrosion or wear on tanks, tubing, airplane wing
skins, and other structures or products can be located and evaluated. Direct reading
dial-operated units are available that measure thickness between 0.025 inch and 3
inches with an accuracy of better than 1 percent.

Acoustic Emission Inspection

Acoustic emission is an NDI technique that involves the placing of acoustic
emission sensors at various locations on an aircraft structure and then applying
load or stress. The materials emit sound and stress waves that take the form of
ultrasonic pulses. Cracks and areas of corrosion in the stressed airframe structure
emit sound waves which are registered by the sensors. These acoustic emission
bursts can be used to locate flaws and to evaluate their rate of growth as a function
of applied stress. Acoustic emission testing has an advantage over other NDI
methods in that it can detect and locate all of the activated flaws in a structure in
one test. Because of the complexity of aircraft structures, application of acoustic
emission testing to aircraft has required a new level of sophistication in testing
technique and data interpretation.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection is a method of detecting invisible cracks and
other defects in ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel. It is not applicable
to nonmagnetic materials. In rapidly rotating, reciprocating, vibrating, and other
highly stressed aircraft parts, small defects often develop to the point that they
cause complete failure of the part. Magnetic particle inspection has proven
extremely reliable for the rapid detection of such defects located on or near the
surface. With this method of inspection, the location of the defect is indicated and
the approximate size and shape are outlined.
The inspection process consists of magnetizing the part and then applying
ferromagnetic particles to the surface area to be inspected. The ferromagnetic
particles (indicating medium) may be held in suspension in a liquid that is flushed
over the part; the part maybe immersed in the suspension liquid; or the particles, in
dry powder form, may be dusted over the surface of the part. The wet process is
more commonly used in the inspection of aircraft parts. If a discontinuity is
present, the magnetic lines of force will be disturbed and opposite poles will exist
on either side of the discontinuity. The magnetized particles thus form a pattern in
the magnetic field between the opposite poles. This pattern, known as an
indication, assumes the approximate shape of the surface projection of the
discontinuity. A discontinuity maybe defined as an interruption in the normal
physical structure or configuration of a part, such as a crack, forging lap, seam,
inclusion, porosity, and the like. A discontinuity may or may not affect the
usefulness of a part.

Development of Indications
When a discontinuity in a magnetized material is open to the surface, and a
magnetic substance (indicating medium) is available on the surface, the flux
leakage at the discontinuity tends to form the indicating medium into a path of
higher permeability. (Permeability is a term used to refer to the ease with which a
magnetic flux can be established in a given magnetic circuit.) Because of the
magnetism in the part and the adherence of the magnetic particles to each other, the
indication remains on the surface of the part in the form of an approximate outline
of the discontinuity that is immediately below it. The same action takes place when
the discontinuity is not open to the surface, but since the amount of flux leakage is
less, fewer particles are held in place and a fainter and less sharply defined
indication is obtained. If the discontinuity is very far below the surface, there may
be no flux leakage and no indication on the surface. The flux leakage at a
transverse discontinuity and at longitudinal discontinuity is shown in the below
figures.

Flux leakage at transverse discontinuity

Flux leakage at longitudinal discontinuity

 The following types of discontinuities are normally detected by the magnetic
particle test: cracks, laps, seams, cold shuts, inclusions, splits, tears, pipes, and
voids. All of these may affect the reliability of parts in service. Cracks, splits,
bursts, tears, seams, voids, and pipes are formed by an actual parting or rupture of
the solid metal. Cold shuts and laps are folds that have been formed in the metal,
interrupting its continuity. Inclusions are foreign material formed by impurities in
the metal during the metal processing stages.
They may consist, for example, of bits of furnace lining picked up during the
melting of the basic metal or of other foreign constituents. Inclusions interrupt the
continuity of the metal because they prevent the joining or welding of adjacent
faces of the metal.

Radiographic
X and gamma radiations, because of their unique ability to penetrate
material and disclose discontinuities, have been applied to the radiographic (x-ray)
inspection of metal fabrications and nonmetallic products. The penetrating
radiation is projected through the part to be inspected and produces an invisible or
latent image in the film. When processed, the film becomes radiograph or shadow
picture of the object. This inspection medium and portable unit provides a fast and
reliable means for checking the integrity of airframe structures and engines.
Radiographic inspection techniques are used to locate defects or flaws in
airframe structures or engines with little or no disassembly. This is in marked
contrast to other types of nondestructive testing which usually require removal,
disassembly, and stripping of paint from the suspected part before it can be
inspected. Due to the radiation risks associated with x-ray, extensive training is
required to become a qualified radiographer. Only qualified radiographers are
allowed to operate the x-ray units.

Three major steps in the x-ray process discussed in subsequent paragraphs

are,
 1. Processing of film,
2. Exposure to radiation; including preparation,
3. Interpretation of the radiograph.

There are three basic categories of flaws:

1. Voids,
2. Inclusions, and
3. Dimensional irregularities.
The last category, dimensional irregularities, is not pertinent to these
discussions because its prime factor is one of degree, and radiography is not exact.
Voids and inclusions may appear on the radiograph in a variety of forms ranging
from a two-dimensional plane to a three-dimensional sphere. A crack, tear, or cold
shut will most nearly resemble a two-dimensional plane, whereas a cavity will look
like a three-dimensional sphere. Other types of flaws, such as shrink, oxide
inclusions, porosity, and so forth, will fall somewhere between these two extremes
of form.
It is important to analyze the geometry of a flaw, especially for items such as
the sharpness of terminal points. For example, in a crack-like flaw the terminal
points appear much sharper in a sphere-like flaw, such as a gas cavity. Also,
material strength may be adversely affected by flaw shape. A flaw having sharp
points could establish a source of localized stress concentration. Spherical flaws
affect material strength to a far lesser degree than do sharp pointed flaws.
Specifications and reference standards usually stipulate that sharp pointed flaws,
such as cracks, cold shuts, and so forth, are cause for rejection. Material strength is
also affected by flaw size.
A metallic component of a given area is designed to carry a certain load plus
a safety factor. Reducing this area by including a large flaw weakens the part and
reduces the safety factor. Some flaws are often permitted in components because of
these safety factors; in this case, the interpreter must determine the degree of
tolerance or imperfection specified by the design engineer. Both flaw size and flaw
shape should be considered carefully, since small flaws with sharp points can be
just as bad as large flaws with no sharp points. Another important consideration in
flaw analysis is flaw location.
Metallic components are subjected to numerous and varied forces during
their effective service life. Generally, the distribution of these forces is not equal in
the component or part, and certain critical areas may be rather highly stressed. The
interpreter must pay special attention to these areas. Another aspect of flaw
location is that certain types of discontinuities close to one another may potentially
serve asa source of stress concentrations creating a situation that should be closely
scrutinized.

Inspection of Composites
Composite structures should be inspected for delaminating, which is
separation of the various plies, de-bonding of the skin from the core, and evidence
of moisture and corrosion. Previously discussed methods including ultrasonic,
acoustic emission, and radiographic inspections may be used as recommended by
the aircraft manufacturer. The simplest method used in testing composite structures
is the tap test.

Tap Testing
Tap testing, also referred to as the ring test or coin test, is widely used as a
quick evaluation of any accessible surface to detect the presence of delaminating or
de-bonding. The testing procedure consists of lightly tapping the surface with a
light hammer (maximum weight of 2 ounces), a coin or other suitable device. The
acoustic response or ring is compared to that of a known good area. A flat or
dead response indicates an area of concern. Tap testing is limited to finding
defects in relatively thin skins, less than 0.080"thick. On honeycomb structures,
both sides need to be tested. Tap testing on only one side would not detected-
bonding on the opposite side. Electrical Conductivity Composite structures are not
inherently electrically conductive. Some aircraft, because of their relatively low
speed and type of use, are not affected by electrical issues.
Manufacturers of other aircraft, such as high-speed high-performance jets,
are required to utilize various methods of incorporating aluminum into their
structures to make them conductive. The aluminum is imbedded within the plies of
the lay-ups either as a thin wire mesh, screen, foil, or spray. When damaged
sections of the structure are repaired, care must be taken to ensure that the
conductive path be restored.
Not only is it necessary to include the conductive material in the repair, but
the continuity of the electrical path from the original conductive material to the
replacement conductor and back to the original must be maintained. Electrical
conductivity may be checked by use of an ohmmeter. Specific manufacturers
instructions must be carefully followed.

GMR Sensor Array Inspection

The higher inspection depths are only possible at low EC frequencies
because of the electromagnetic skin effect. Use of the sensitive magnetic field
sensors such as SQUID's or magneto resistive sensors can increase the efficiency
of the EC measurement since this type of sensors compared with coils indicates
frequency-independent sensitivity beginning with0 Hz.
Magnetic field sensors based on the GMR-effect are available on the market
and offer a good compromise between magnetic field sensitivity on one hand and
simple handling on the other hand. Since the first application in 1998, GMR
sensors are used in Fraunhofer IZFP for eddy current technique as well as for
magnetic flux leakage technique.

Especially for developing of efficient sensor arrays, the combination of the key
features of the GMR sensors is important:
High, frequency-independent sensitivity to the magnetic field,
 Small geometrical dimensions (in comparison with inductive sensors of the
same sensitivity),
Simplicity in use, low power consumption (in comparison with other sensor
technologies).

GMR Array Design

Fig. 1 shows the basic construction of the single GMR-based EC probe
developed in the IZFP (EC GMR probe, fig. 1 a) as well as a comparable
conventional EC probe with high inspection depth (fig. 1 b). The EC GMR probe
provides higher sensitivity than the inductive probe with same geometrical
dimensions but at lower inspection frequencies.

Based on the experience with this probe design [2], [3], a GMR sensor array
with one transmitter coil (excitation coil) and 16 GMR elements as receiver has
been realized. Fig.2 shows the selected arrangement of the array elements.

The following array parameters are documented:

Total inspection width of the array is 64 mm: 16 GMR elements, element
spacing (pitch) 4 mm.
The dimensions of the transmitter coil have been determined empirically.
The width of the coil (here: 77 mm) should be as large as possible - to
 provide the homogeneous distribution of the excitation field at the locations
of GMR elements. For the determination of the coil length (here: 20 mm)
should be considered that reducing of the coil length causes decreasing of
the penetration depth of the excitation field.

Complete GMR Array System

Fig. 3 shows the block diagram of the complete prototype inspection system
with EC GMR sensor array. Some of the most complex functions of the EC signal
processing are realized by the standard components (PC with multifunction ADC
card) in combination with the PC software. For this hardware concept, the
electronics of the GMR array can be essentially simplified. The hardware and the
software of the GMR array are realized for operation with sinusoidal EC excitation
at a single frequency between 100 and 3000 Hz.
 Fig. 4 shows the EC GMR sensor array including the array electronics (fig. 4
a) and the complete inspection system including the GMR sensor array and the PC
with software (fig. 4 b).
 SENSORS

A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical

quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an
instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured
temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a
calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage
which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against
known standards.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons

(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are
also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware.
Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and
robotics.

A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal when touched. A

sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves
1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/C (it is
basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Sensors that measure
very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact
on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into
a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors
need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor
smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological
progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic
scale as micro sensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a micro sensor
reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared
with macroscopic approaches

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a

medium. There are 2 kinds on temperature sensors: 1) contact sensors and 2)
noncontact sensors. However, the 3 main types are thermometers, resistance
temperature detectors, and thermocouples. All three of these sensors measure a
physical property (i.e. volume of a liquid, current through a wire), which changes
as a function of temperature. In addition to the 3 main types of temperature
sensors, there are numerous other temperature sensors available for use.

Contact Sensors

Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of the object to which

the sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that the two (sensor and the
object) are in thermal equilibrium, in other words, there is no heat flow between
them.

Examples,

Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Full System Thermometers

Bimetallic Thermometers
Noncontact Sensors

Most commercial and scientific noncontact temperature sensors measure the

thermal radiant power of the Infrared or Optical radiation received from a known
or calculated area on its surface or volume within it.

An example of noncontact temperature sensors is a pyrometer, which is described

into further detail at the bottom of this section.

Thermometers

Thermometers are the most common temperature sensors encountered in

simple, everyday measurements of temperature. Two examples of thermometers
are the Filled System and Bimetal thermometers.

Filled System Thermometer

The familiar liquid thermometer consists of a liquid enclosed in a tube. The

volume of the fluid changes as a function of temperature. Increased molecular
movement with increasing temperature causes the fluid to expand and move along
calibrated markings on the side of the tube. The fluid should have a relatively large
thermal expansion coefficient so that small changes in temperature will result in
detectable changes in volume. A common tube material is glass and a common
fluid is alcohol. Mercury used to be a more common fluid until its toxicity was
realized. Although the filled-system thermometer is the simplest and cheapest way
to measure temperature, its accuracy is limited by the calibration marks along the
tube length. Because filled system thermometers are read visually and dont
produce electrical signals, it is difficult to implement them in process controls that
rely heavily on electrical and computerized control.

Bimetal Thermometer

In the bimetal thermometer, two metals (commonly steel and copper) with
different thermal expansion coefficients are fixed to one another with rivets or by
welding. As the temperature of the strip increases, the metal with the higher
thermal expansion coefficients expands to a greater degree, causing stress in the
materials and a deflection in the strip. The amount of this deflection is a function
of temperature. The temperature ranges for which these thermometers can be used
is limited by the range over which the metals have significantly different thermal
expansion coefficients. Bimetallic strips are often wound into coils and placed in
thermostats. The moving end of the strip is an electrical contact, which transmits
the temperature thermostat.

Resistance Temperature Detectors

A second commonly used temperature sensor is the resistance temperature

detector (RTD, also known as resistance thermometer). Unlike filled system
thermometers, the RTD provides an electrical means of temperature measurement,
thus making it more convenient for use with a computerized system. An RTD
utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance and temperature, which may
either be linear or nonlinear. RTDs are traditionally used for their high accuracy
and precision. However, at high temperatures (above 700C) they become very
inaccurate due to degradation of the outer sheath, which contains the thermometer.
Therefore, RTD usage is preferred at lower temperature ranges, where they are the
most accurate.

There are two main types of RTDs, the traditional RTD and the thermistor.
Traditional RTDs use metallic sensing elements that result in a linear relationship
between temperature and resistance. As the temperature of the metal increases,
increased random molecular movement impedes the flow of electrons. The
increased resistance is measured as a reduced current through the metal for a fixed
voltage applied. The thermistor uses a semiconductor sensor, which gives a power
function relationship between temperature and resistance.

There are 4 major categories of RTD sensors. There are carbon resistors,
film thermometers, wire-wound thermometers and coil elements.

Carbon resistors are the most commonly used. They are inexpensive and are
accurate for low temperatures. They also are not affected by hysteresis or strain
gauge effects. They are commonly used by researchers.

Film thermometers have a very thin layer of metal, often platinum, on a plate. This
layer is very small, on the micrometer scale. These thermometers have different
strain gauge effects based on what the metal and plate are composed of. There are
also stability problems that are dependent on the components used.

In wire-wound thermometers the coil gives stability to the measurement. A larger

diameter of the coil adds stability, but it also increases the amount the wire can
expand which increases strain and drift. They have very good accuracy over a large
temperature range.

Coil elements are similar to wire-wound thermometers and have generally replaced
them in all industrial applications. The coil is allowed to expand over large
temperature ranges while still giving support. This allows for a large temperature
range while decreasing the drift.
 As shown in Figure 1, the RTD contains an outer sheath to prevent
contamination from the surrounding medium. Ideally, this sheath is composed of
material that efficiently conducts heat to the resistor, but resists degradation from
heat or the surrounding medium.

The resistance sensor itself is responsible for the temperature measurement,

as shown in the diagram. Sensors are most commonly composed of metals, such as
platinum, nickel, or copper. The material chosen for the sensor determines the
range of temperatures in which the RTD could be used. For example, platinum
sensors, the most common type of resistor, have a range of approximately -200C
800C. (A sample of the temperature ranges and resistances for the most common
resistor metals is shown in Table 1). Connected to the sensor are two insulated
connection leads. These leads continue to complete the resistor circuit.
RTD Operation

Most traditional RTD operation is based upon a linear relationship between

resistance and temperature, where the resistance increases with temperature. For
this reason, most RTDs are made of platinum, which is linear over a greater range
of temperatures and is resistant to corrosion. However, when determining a resistor
material, factors such as temperature range, temperature sensitivity, response time,
and durability should all be taken into consideration. Different materials have
different ranges for each of these characteristics.

The principle behind RTDs is based upon the Callendar Van Dusen
equation shown below, which relates the electrical resistance to the temperature in
C. This equation is merely a generic polynomial that takes form based upon
experimental data from the specific RTD. This equation usually takes on a linear
form since the coefficients of the higher-order variables (a2, a3, etc.) are relatively
small.

RT: Resistance at temperature T, in ohms

R0: Resistance at temperature = 0C, in ohms

an: Materials resistance constant, in Cn 1

 Another type of RTD is the thermistor, which operates based upon an
exponential relationship between electrical resistance and temperature. Thermistors
are primarily composed of semiconductors, and are usually used as fuses, or
current-limiting devices. Thermistors have high thermal sensitivity but low
temperature measuring ranges and are extremely non-linear. Instead of the
Callendar - Van Dusen equation, the thermistor operates based upon the nonlinear
equation, equation (2), shown in degrees K.

T0: Initial temperature, usually set at 298K

b: Material's temperature coefficient of resistance, in K

Errors associated with resistance thermometers will occur due to the

individual or collective efforts of defective insulation, contamination of the
resistor, or insecure lead wire connections.

Relation Between Resistance And Temperature

The relationship between resistance and temperature is determined by a

material's temperature coefficient of resistance (symbol, the Greek letter 'alpha'). In
general, pure metal conductors are said to have a positive temperature coefficient
of resistance, which means that their resistance increases with increase in
temperature; in general, insulators have a negative temperature of resistance, which
means their resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. Carbon, a
conductor, also has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This negative
temperature coefficient of resistance explains why insulators fail at higher
temperatures. The resistance of a metal is dependent on the temperature and
usually increases as the temperature increases. The resistance and temperature are
directly proportional to each other.

For many metals, over a certain range of temperature, the relationship can be
expressed by the formula. Assuming we know the resistance (R0) of a material at
0oC, then we can find its resistance (Rx) at another temperature (Tx), using the
following equation:

Rx = R0 (1 + alpha Tx)
The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear
approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and
100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, and its unit is
ohm/ohm/C.

Pure platinum has an alpha of 0.003925 ohm/ohm/C and is used in the

construction of laboratory grade RTDs. Conversely two widely recognized
standards for industrial RTDs IEC 60751 and ASTM E-1137 specify an alpha of
0.00385 ohms/ohm/C. Before these standards were widely adopted several
different alpha values were used. It is still possible to find older probes that are
made with platinum that have alpha values of 0.003916 ohms/ohm/C and
0.003902 ohms/ohm/C.

These different alpha values for platinum are achieved by doping; basically
carefully introducing impurities into the platinum. The impurities introduced
during doping become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and result
in a different R vs. T curve and hence alpha value.
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:

High accuracy

Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitability for precision applications
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature
changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller
temperature range and stability.

Since the electrical resistance of a conductor such as a copper wire is dependent

upon collisional processes within the wire, the resistance could be expected to
increase with temperature since there will be more collisions. An intuitive
approach to temperature dependence leads one to expect a fractional change in
resistance which is proportional to the temperature change:

Or, expressed in terms of the resistance at some standard temperature from a

reference table

When a conductors resistance increases, the molecules move in place more

rapidly. Like a car moving on a highway with increasing traffic, the electrons
cannot move as freely through the conductor. The result is the increase in
temperature.
Joule heating

Resistors (and other elements with resistance) oppose the flow of electric
current; therefore, electrical energy is required to push current through the
resistance. This electrical energy is dissipated, heating the resistor in the process.
This is called Joule heating (after James Prescott Joule), also called ohmic heating
or resistive heating. The dissipation of electrical energy is often undesired,
particularly in the case of transmission losses in power lines. High voltage
transmission helps reduce the losses by reducing the current for a given power.
On the other hand, Joule heating is sometimes useful, for example in electric stoves
and other electric heaters (also called resistive heaters). As another example,
incandescent lamps rely on Joule heating: the filament is heated to such a high
temperature that it glows "white hot" with thermal radiation (also called
incandescence). The formula for Joule heating is,
 Where, P is the power (energy per unit time) converted from electrical
energy to thermal energy, R is the resistance, and I is the current through the
resistor.
 THE CALLENDAR VAN DUSEN EQUATION

The CallendarVan Dusen equation is an equation that describes the

relationship between resistance (R) and temperature (t) of platinum resistance
thermometers (RTD). The relationship above 0 C (up to the melting point of
aluminum ~ 660 C) is a simplification of the equation that holds over a broader
range down to -200 C. The longer form was published in 1925 (see below) by
M.S. Van Dusen and is given as:

While the simpler form was published earlier by Callendar, it is generally

valid only over the range between 0 C to 661 C and is given as:

Where constants A, B, and C are derived from experimentally determined

parameters , , and using resistance measurements made at 0 C, 100 C and
260C. It is important to note that these equations are listed as the basis for the
temperature/resistance tables for idealized platinum resistance thermometers and
are not intended to be used for the calibration of an individual thermometer, which
would require the experimentally determined parameters to be found.
These equations are cited in International Standards for platinum RTD's resistance
versus temperature functions DIN/IEC 60751 (also called IEC 751), also adopted
as BS-1904, and with some modification, JIS C1604.
The equation was found by British physicist Hugh Longbourne Callendar, and
refined for measurements at lower temperatures by M. S. Van Dusen, a chemist at
the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now known as the National Institute of
Standards and Technology) in work published in 1925 in the Journal of the
American Chemical Society. Starting in 1968, the Callendar-Van Dusen Equation
was replaced by an interpolating formula given by a 20th order polynomial first
published in the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 by the Comit
International des Poids et Mesures.
 FUTURE PROPOSAL

In future, we plan to do research on this title to use the altered composite

materials. which will be useful for this approach and to improve the strength of the
aircraft. And also we have planned to do analysis on space elevators using carbon
Nano tubes from earth to orbit level. We are trying to do checks on the aircraft
parts like wing, fuselage, rudder and flaps etc. In these zones, elevated pressure
acting on it to tends to oscillate and induces for fatigue loadings.

To check any minor cracks on the aircraft parts its very easy to check to
find the cracks and rectify it by itself in this approach. For checking those and
calibrate frequently to predict the failure (crack). We plan to execute on checking
of aircraft calibration and checking aircrafts, this cathode and anode electron
passage approach is very useful to making connectivity on the minor/major cracks
to fix it.

However, due to the gap between basic research and the requirements of
real world applications, small Nano tubes are facing technical difficulties such as
dispersion, chirality selection, and handling. Therefore, it is important to transfer
the basic findings to industries and to commercialize the novel technologies
rapidly.
 CONCLUSION

In this paper, we've reviewed the viable routes to apply and make a study on
the applications of carbon Nano tubes (single and multi-walled), with an electric
conductivity applications in electrochemical systems to fix the cracks in the
aircraft. The unique electronic properties of Nano tubes make them also good
conductive material in the electronic industry, so that silicon-based technologies
could be replaced or supplemented by Nano carbons. The accessible applications
of carbon Nano tubes range from electronics, field emission displays, energy
storage devices, functional fillers in composites, and biomedical applications.
These have attracted both commercial and academic interest.

So we are concluding that by passing electric current on the aircraft parts which is
manufactured by the healing material will heal the hidden cracks on that instant;
this is been possible with the Nano tubes technology and epoxy resins.

REFERENCES