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DESIGNER
HANDBOOK S TA I N L E S S
with Directory of
STEEL
Fastener Manufacturers
FASTENERS
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
TO THEIR SELECTION
Stainless
Steel
The
Value
Option
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 4
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1
IDENTIFICATION 2
ANCHORS 8
FASTENER BASICS 20
DIRECTORY OF FASTENER
MANUFACTURERS INSIDE BACK COVER
The Specialty Steel Industry of North suitability for any general and specific
America (SSINA) and the individual use. The SSINA assumes no liability
companies it represents have made or responsibility of any kind in con-
every effort to ensure that the infor- nection with the use of this informa-
mation presented in this handbook is tion. The reader is advised that the
technically correct. However, neither material contained herein should not
the SSINA nor its member companies be used or relied on for any specific
warrants the accuracy of the informa- or general applications without first
tion contained in this handbook or its securing competent advice.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 5
There are two basic methods for pro- expanded the market for special chiefly responsible for corrosion and heat
ducing fastenersmachining and cold fasteners. resistance; the other alloying elements
headingboth of which are applicable to Cold heading has many important are present in stainless steel to enhance
stainless steels. advantages in both quality and economy. corrosion resistance and to impart certain
MACHINING is the oldest method of Production rates, for example, can characteristics with respect to strength
fastener production, and it is still specified exceed 12,000 parts per hour. Cold and fabricability.
for very large diameters and for small pro- heading also cold works stainless steels, A total of 60 commercial stainless
duction runs. Machining, however, has a which results in significant increases in steel types were originally recognized by
significant disadvantage, as illustrated in strength for the 300 Series types. the American Iron and Steel Institute
Figure 1a. It disrupts metal grain flow and Following heading, the blank is ready (AISI) as standard compositions. A com-
creates planes of weakness in the critical for threading, which is frequently done by plete listing of all stainless steels and a
head-to-shank fillet area. The result is roll threading, another cold forming tech- description of each are contained in the
some loss in load-carrying ability and a nique that preserves grain flow patterns. SSINA publication, Design Guidelines for
drastic reduction in fatigue resistance. There are other operations involved in the Selection and Use of Stainless Steel.
COLD HEADING is a method of forming fastener production, such as head slot- In addition to the standard AISI types,
wire into various shapes by causing it to ting, shank slotting (for thread-cutting many special analysis and proprietary
plastically flow into die and punch cavities screws), head drilling, etc. But the making stainless steels are produced in the
without preheating the material (Figure of and threading the blank are the two United States and Canada.
1b). Bolts, screws, nails and rivets have major processes.
long been made by cold heading, but The markings for stainless steel fas- IDENTIFICATION
recent developments in this field have teners are defined in ASTM Specification Most AISI stainless steels are identified by
A193/193M. The grades of stainless a system of numbers in either 200, 300,
steel are also organized within classes, or 400 Series. In addition, all are identified
1 through 2C. The grade, listed in Table 1 by the Unified Numbering System (UNS).
on page 1, and manufacturers identifica- For example, Type 304 is Type S30400 in
tion symbols can be found on the end UNS. Special analysis and proprietary
of the stud or bolt that indicates confor- stainless steels are identified by trade
mance to the specification. names, some of which may resemble
AISI numbers.
WHAT IS There are five primary classifications
STAINLESS STEEL of stainless steel:
Stainless steel is a family of iron-based Austenitic
alloys containing about 10.5% chromium Martensitic
or more, plus other alloying elements Ferritic
such as nickel, manganese, molybde- Precipitation hardening
num, sulfur, selenium, titanium, etc. (See Duplex
Table 2 on page 3.) The chromium is Each characterizes its metallurgical
structure, which, in turn, reflects different
characteristics with respect to corrosion
Figure 1a M E T A L L U R G I C A L M E T A L F L O W F O R M A C H I N E D M A T E R I A L S
resistance, hardenability and fabricability.
AUSTENITIC stainless steels are
chromium-nickel-manganese and
chromium-nickel compositions identified
by 200 and 300 Series numbers, respec-
tively. They can only be hardened by cold
work and are non-magnetic in the
annealed condition. Typical of the
austenitic group is Type 304, which con-
Figure 1b M E T A L L U R G I C A L M E T A L F L O W F O R C O L D H E A D E D M A T E R I A L S tains nominally 18% chromium and 8%
nickel; hence the 18-8 name.
FERRITIC stainless steels are straight-
chromium steels in the 400 Series that are
not hardenable by heat treatment and only
slightly hardenable by cold working. All are
magnetic. Type 430 is typical of this group.
MARTENSITIC stainless steels are
straight-chromium, 400 Series that can be
2
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 7
hardened by heat treatment only. All are condition and uniform hardening achieved ments are encountered. They have higher
magnetic. Type 410 is typical of this group. without a high-temperature treatment that nickel and molybdenum contents for
PRECIPITATION HARDENING stainless may result in distortion and scaling. improved pitting and crevice corrosion
steels are hardenable by a combination of DUPLEX stainless steels are character- resistance.
a low-temperature aging treatment and ized by their 50% austenitic 50% ferritic
cold working. The AISI types are identified structures which allow these materials to STAINLESS STEEL
by UNS numbers only, e.g. Type S17400, offer the corrosion resistance for the CHARACTERISTICS
although many are referred to in literature austenitic grades of material while provid- The austenitic stainless steels are charac-
by proprietary trade names such as 17- ing higher design properties. terized as having excellent corrosion
4PH. The precipitation hardening stainless SUPER - AUSTENITIC stainless materials resistance. For example, Type 304 is the
steels are especially useful because fabri- should be given consideration in those most widely used material that withstands
cation can be completed in an annealed cases where aggressive chloride environ- ordinary rusting. It is virtually immune to
Table 2 C H E M I C A L C O M P O S I T I O N L I M I T S O F R A W M A T E R I A L ( A S T M F 5 9 3 - 9 1 )
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS1
DESCRIPTION COVERING
OF RAW MATERIALS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, % MAX
GRADE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS (UNLESS SHOWN AS MIN OR MAX/MIN LIMITS GIVEN)
STAINLESS STEEL
C Mn P S Si Cu Mo Ni Cr Other
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 303 8.00 17.00
303 Stainless QQ-S-764 Class 303 0.15 2.00 0.20 0.15 1.00 0.603 to to
Steel AISI 303 min 10.00 19.00
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 304 8.00 18.00
304 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 304 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to
Steel AISI 304 12.00 20.00
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 305 10.00 17.00
305 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 305 0.12 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to
Steel AISI 305 13.00 19.00
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 316 2.00 10.00 16.00
316 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to to
Steel AISI 316 3.00 14.00 18.00
Austenitic 3.0 8.00 17.00
XM7* Stainless ASTM A493 Type XM7 0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to to
Steel 4.0 10.00 19.00
Austenitic 17.00 15.00
384 Stainless AISI 384 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to
Steel 19.00 17.00
Martensitic ASTM A276 Type 410 11.50
410 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 410 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 to
Steel AISI 410 13.50
Martensitic ASTM A276 Type 416 12.00
416 Stainless QQ-S-764 Class 416 0.15 1.25 0.060 0.15 1.00 0.602 to
Steel AISI 416 min 14.00
Ferritic ASTM A276 Type 430 14.00
430 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 430 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 to
Steel AISI 430 18.00
Precipitation ASTM A564 3.0 3.0 15.00 See
17-4 PH Hardened AISI 630 0.07 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 to to to Note
Austenitic Stainless 5.0 5.0 17.50 (4)
Duplex ASTM A479 N
2205 Stainless ASTM A276 0.03 2.00 0.030 0.015 1.00 3.20 5.50 22.00 0.18
Steel
NOTES TO TABLE 2
1. Legend of specification designations 2. May be added at manufacturers option. *Type S30430
ASTMAmerican Society for Testing and Materials 3. ASTM A276 permits addition of molybdenum, and also
AISIAmerican Iron and Steel Institute 0.12/0.30% lead at manufacturers option. AISI requires
QQ-X-XXXFederal Government the addition of molybdenum but permits no lead.
4. Cb & Ta 0.15 to 0.45 3
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 8
foodstuffs, sterilizing solutions, most This photograph shows a secondary clarifier retrofit improved pitting and crevice corrosion-
organic chemicals and dyestuffs, and a at a municipal wastewater treatment plant. resistant properties, especially in environ-
wide variety of inorganic chemicals. In ments containing chlorides. It has wide
fact, the 18-8 austenitic stainless steels application in pulp and paper mills and
are used in the food and beverage, phar- water treatment plants (see photograph
maceutical and electronic chip industries, of clarifier construction, bolted weirs and
because they maintain product purity, handrail). It is also widely used in phos-
with the minimum of contamination. phoric and acetic acids that tend to
A general characterization for stainless cause pitting corrosion in the 18-8 types.
steels in handling these environments is In more aggressive pitting environ-
summarized as follows: ments, those materials with higher levels
Corrosion of molybdenum should be considered.
Category Type Resistance For further guidance on material selec-
Austenitic 316 Superior tion, consult with a corrosion engineer.
304 Excellent
Duplex 2205 Superior STRENGTH
Precipitation Nickel is added to the iron-base alloys to
Hardened 17-4 Excellent provide fabricability and improved ductil-
Ferritic 430 Good ity. It is a primary austenite former that
Martensitic 410 Fair directly benefits the workability character-
This guideline can be helpful in nar- istics for these alloys. Carbon and nitro-
rowing down the choice of materials for gen directly impact the strength of these
any given corrosive environment. The final alloys. The nitrogen variant of these alloys
determination, however, should be based will offset the loss of mechanical proper-
on tests conducted under actual working ties of low carbon grades of austenitic
conditions. If this is not practical for a stainless steels.
designer, he should consult with a corro- Alternatively, the addition of aluminum,
This is a close up of the weirs of the clarifier and titanium and/or columbium to the
sion engineer having experience with shows the use of 316 stainless steel bolting.
stainless steels. austenitic stainless steel chemistry can
water, steam, carbonic acid, crude oil, significantly increase the mechanical
CORROSION gasoline, blood, alcohol, ammonia, properties for these materials through
RESISTANCE mercury, soap, sugar solutions and other heat treatment (ageing). Types UNS
Chromium is the element that provides reagents. It also has good scaling and S13800, UNS S15500, UNS S17400 and
the stainless steel with its stainless oxidation resistance up to 1000F (649C). UNS S17700 are used to advantage by
name. Generally those alloys with greater Type 416 is a free-machining variation of designers in the aerospace industry or in
than 12% chromium in their composition Type 410 and has similar characteristics. the manufacture of large diameter bolting
will not rust. The martensitic grades of If an application calls for a material for major civil engineering requirements.
material (such as Type 400) offer marginal with corrosion resistant properties better Mixed structures (ferrite/austenite),
or lower corrosion resistance than the than that of Type 304, Type 316 is the typical of the duplex stainless steels, will
300 series stainless steel for this reason. next logical candidate. Type 316 stainless also provide higher strength characteris-
However, type 410, performed well steel is a higher alloyed material contain- tics than those of the fully austenitic
in mild atmospheres, fresh water, mine ing 2-3% molybdenum, which provides grades, while retaining excellent corrosion
properties.
4
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 9
MACHINABILITY For instance, Type 303 has a consid- ered to have similar corrosion resistance
The addition of sulfur and selenium to the erably higher sulfur content that enhances to one another, the sulfide stringers in
austenitic grades of material improves the machining characteristics. This property Type 303 can result in end grain attack at
machinability of these alloys. These ele- might be very beneficial in the production cut ends, especially when exposed to
ments, in combination with the chromium of large bolts or where small production water or some chemical solutions.
and manganese in these alloys, form runs or specials are needed. Accordingly, a designer should specify
stringer like inclusions in the structure, However, it should be recognized that Type 304 when it is known that Type 303
which allow better chip removal. while the 18-8 stainless steels are consid- is not suitable for the application. When in
Table 3 M E C H A N I C A L R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R S T A I N L E S S S T E E L B O L T S , S C R E W S , S T U D S A N D N U T S ( A S T M F 5 9 3 - 9 1 )
MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
BOLTS, SCREWS AND STUDS NUTS
FULL SIZE BOLTS, MACHINED TEST SPECIMENS OF
SCREWS, STUDS BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS
PROOF
YIELD2 TENSILE YIELD2 TENSILE ELON- HARDNESS LOAD HARDNESS
GENERAL STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH GATION3 ROCKWELL STRESS ROCKWELL
GRADE1 DESCRIPTION min ksi min ksi min ksi min ksi % Min Min ksi Min
Austenitic
303-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 B75 75 B75
304-A Sol. Annealed
304
305 Austenitic
316 Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 B85 90 B85
384 Cold Worked
XM7*
305-A Austenitic
316-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 B70 75 B70
384-A Sol. Annealed
XM7-A*
304-SH Austenitic See See See See See
305-SH Stainless Steel- Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 15 C25 Note 6 C20
316-SH Strain Hardened
Martensitic
410-H Stainless Steel- 95 125 95 125 20 C22 125 C22
416-H Hardened and
Tempered
Martensitic
410-HT Stainless Steel- 135 180 135 180 12 C36 180 C36
416-HT Hardened and
Tempered
Ferritic 40 70 40 70 20 B75 70 B75
430
Stainless Steel-
* Type 30430
KEYS TO TABLE 3 NOTES
1. Legend of grade designations: 4. Loads at minimum yield strength and minimum ultimate tensile
Asolution annealed strength for full size products may be computed by multiplying the
SHstrain hardened yield strength and tensile strength stresses as given in Table 3 by the
Hhardened and tempered at 1100 F min. stress area for the product size and thread series as given in Table 5.
HThardened and tempered at 525 F 50 F 5. Proof loads of nuts (in pounds) may be computed by multiplying the
2. Yield strength is the stress at which an offset of 0.2% of gauge length proof load stress as given in Table 3 by the stress area for the nut
occurs for all stainless steels. size and thread series given in Table 5.
3. Elongation is determined using a gauge length of 2 in. or 4 diameters 6. Ausenitic stainless steel, strain hardened bolts, screws, studs and
of test specimen in accordance with Federal Standard 151, Method 211. nuts shall have the following strength properties:
5
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 10
STAINLESS STEEL
NO PROTECTIVE
COATING NECESSARY
Some designers may be inclined to think
of plated fasteners as a low-cost solution
to corrosion. While plated fasteners do
doubt, the designer should consult with a serve a useful purpose in some applica- protection is inherent within the material
corrosion engineer. tions, such as when a plated coating is itself and not just added to the surface.
Type 416-ferritic stainless steel also added for purposes of creating a special Stainless steels do not need any form
has sulfur in its composition in order to finish or color match, it is far more desir- of protective coating for resistance to cor-
provide improved machinability for the able to use a fastener in which corrosion rosion, in contrast with plain steel and
martensitic grades of stainless steel. some nonferrous fastener materials.
While plated or galvanized steel fasteners
COLD HEADING are adequate where corrosive conditions
QUALITY are not severe, many designers consider
The addition of copper in Type 302 stain- the extra cost of stainless steel fasteners
less steel (UNS S30430) and higher levels as inexpensive insurance against possible
of nickel in Types 305 (UNS S30500) and failure or loss of eye appeal. When the
384 (UNS S38400) results in lower work- cost of failure is considered, in conjunc-
hardening rates, which allows improved tion with the ease in which damage can
cold heading and workability for these occur to a protective coating, it makes
grades of material. This is very desirable for good sense to specify a fastener made of
lower costs and for large production runs. a material which is inherently corrosion
These materials have been used for fas- resistant. Often, a minute discontinuity in a
teners, cold headed bolts, screws, upset plated surface is all that is needed to lead
nuts, instrument parts and jobs involving to corrosive failure. Such discontinuities
severe coining, extrusion and swaging. result from wrench or driver damage,
poor plating practices, or simply from the
APPEARANCE/ turning action of thread against thread.
AESTHETICS Furthermore, while the cost of stain-
Type 304 and 316 fasteners have been less steel fasteners may be more than
used extensively in architectural applica- plated fasteners, the overall cost of the
tions for both their eye appeal and their finished product (from a small appliance
structural and corrosion properties (see to a large plant) will generally be affected
photograph of handrails and sign sup- only by an insignificant amount.
ports at Ronald Reagan Washington Interestingly, plated coatings are
National Airport). applied to stainless steels for purposes of
Some applications do not require the changing appearance. For instance, the
high degree of corrosion resistance designer may want a black fastener, or a
offered by the 18-8 stainless steels or the highly reflective chrome plated fastener to
higher alloyed types. In these cases, the match the surfaces being joined. Such
designer can consider types that may be requirements can be accommodated in
lower in cost. For example, Type 430 stainless steel.
stainless steel contains about 18%
chromium, but no nickel. Although it has CHOOSING THE RIGHT
lower corrosion-resistance properties STAINLESS STEEL
than the 18-8 types, it has wide applica- Once the design engineer has determined
tion for decorative trim because when it is the correct candidate fastener materials
buffed it closely resembles a material that on the basis of their corrosion-resistant
has been chromium plated. Typical appli- Bolting applications at the Ronald Reagan National properties, the next concern probably will
cations include trim on automobiles, Airport, Washington, DC. be the mechanical and physical properties
6
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 11
Table 4 S T R E N G T H - T O - W E I G H T R A T I O
Typical
Tensile Strength Density Strength-to-Weight
Material ksi Lbs./Cu. In. Ratio Inches x 102
Martensitic Stainless
180 .280 6.4
Steel (410, 416)
Aluminum (2024-T4) 60 .098 6.1
Austenitic Stainless
Steel (18-8) 125 .290 4.3
Strain hardened
Titanium
Commercially pure 50 .163 3.1
ANCHORS
There are a number of types of mechani-
cal anchor systemsinserts; wedge-
type; drop-in; shell-type; sleeve-type. All
types can be considered for anchorage
into concrete. Sleeve-type anchors can
be considered for use in masonry, grout
filled block and hollow block.
Unlike mechanical anchors, which exert
pressure on concrete when expanded,
chemical anchors using adhesives provide
secure fastening in which the load is dis-
tributed along the length of the anchor. DESIGNING & est-strength thread, however, is achieved
These systems are suitable for anchoring by thread rolling. This is because the
ENGINEERING plastic deformationor cold working
concrete and hollow masonry applications.
The austenitic stainless steels provide C O N S I D E R AT I O N S involved in rolling threads results in; (1)
excellent corrosion resistance in a wide more accurate and uniform thread dimen-
In selecting a stainless steel on the basis
variety of masonry and concrete environ- sions, giving a better fit between threaded
of mechanical and physical properties,
ments, where high alkalinity (pH) is preva- parts and fewer concentrated loads at
designers should keep in mind the follow-
lent. They also provide axial strength in points of misfit; (2) smoother thread sur-
ing considerations.
wall tie systems to withstand wind load- faces and, thus, fewer scratches and
THREAD STRENGTH - Thread forms on
ings and tension and compression other markings to initiate cracks, or
fasteners are manufactured by cutting,
stresses in accommodating normal build- galling; and (3) higher yield, tensile, and
rolling, or grinding. The best quality high-
ing movement. shear properties to better withstand ser-
8
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 13
Table 5 T E N S I L E S T R E S S A R E A S A N D T H R E A D S P E R I N C H
COARSE THREAD (UNC) FINE THREAD (UNF)
PRODUCT SIZE STRESS AREA THREADS STRESS AREA THREADS
DIA. in. sq in. per in. sq in. per in.
6 0.00909 32 0.01015 40
8 0.0140 32 0.01474 36
10 0.0175 24 0.0200 32
12 0.0242 24 0.0258 28
1
4 0.0318 20 0.0364 28
5
16 0.0524 18 0.0580 24
3
8 0.0775 16 0.0878 24
7
16 0.1063 14 0.1187 20
1
2 0.1419 13 0.1599 20
9
16 0.1820 12 0.2030 18
5
8 0.2260 11 0.2560 18
3
4 0.3340 10 0.3730 16
7
8 0.4620 9 0.5090 14
1 0.6060 8 0.6630 12
118 0.7630 7 0.8560 12
114 0.9690 7 1.0730 12
138 1.1550 6 1.3150 12
112 1.4050 6 1.5810 12
Tensile stress areas are computed using the Where As= tensile stress area in square inches
following formula: D = nominal size (basic major diameter)
This is a photograph of a sluice gate (open position)
[ ] in inches
2
on the Thames River Barrier in London. Monel alloy 0.9743
As = 0.7854 D n = number of threads per inch
K-500 bolting was used for all the structurals. n
vice loads. Design characteristics are shear if the load on the pulley exceeds Manual, 1974 Edition. The allowable shear
based on the number of threads per inch the shear value of the rivet. Shear stress for bolts with no threads in the shear
of stock and the bolt diameter, as shown strength is defined as the load in pounds plane was taken as 60% of the minimum
in Table 5. This can be important in civil to cause rupture, divided by the cross tensile strength divided by a safety factor
engineering applications as shown in the sectional area in square inches of the part of 3.0. This allowable shear stress provides
sluice gate photograph. along the rupture plane. a minimum safety factor of about 1.2
SHEAR STRENGTH - Shear is transverse The allowable shear stresses for stain- against shear yielding of the bolt material.
rupture. It is caused by a pushing or less steel bolts are given in Table 6, which When threads are included in the shear
pulling force at 900 from the axis of a part. is based on the AISI publication, Stainless plane, 70% of the nominal allowable shear
Thus, a rivet used as a pulley axle will Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design stress is used due to the fact that the
Table 6 A L L O W A B L E S H E A R S T R E S S F O R S T A I N L E S S S T E E L B O L T S
Minimum Tensile Requirements Allowable Shear Stress (ksi)
Diameter d 0.2% Yield Tensile No Threads Threads
Type Finish Condition and Specification (in.) Strength (ksi) Strength (ksi) in Shear Plane in Shear Plane
Condition A (Annealed)
302** in ASTM A276-71
304 Hot Finished Class 1 (solution treated) all 30.0 75.0 15.0 10.5
316 in ASTM A193-71
302 Condition A (Annealed)
304 Cold Finished in ASTM A276-71 12 45.0 90.0 18.0 12.6
316
Condition B (cold-worked)
302** in ASTM A276-71
304 Cold Finished Class 2 (solution treated 34 100.0 125.0 25.0 17.5
316 and strain hardened)
in ASTM A193-71*
** For Class 2: B8M in ASTM A193, the allowable shear stress
** is 22.0 ksi when threading is excluded from the shear plane,
** or 15.0 ksi when threads are in the shear plane.
** ASTM A276-71 only.
9
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 14
to specific torque values. The most trou- Some engineers are of the opinion
ble occurs when replacement is being that the only way to avoid seizing and
made under conditions where torque galling is to lubricate the threaded joint
tools are not available. There are some before its assembled. Adding a lubricant
guidelines for these circumstances: can affect the torque-tension relation-
1. Tighten the nut finger tightabout ships, as shown in Figure 4. A lubricated
one foot-pound of torque or less. fastener requires less torque to achieve
2. Tighten the nut one additional turn, the same degree of tension or clamping
360 degrees, for proper torque. This is an force. Different lubricants have different
arbitrary figure that applies primarily to effects also. Wax, for example, on either
300 Series fasteners. For hardened and the bolt or nut, or both, acts to reduce
tempered 400 Series fasteners, they may the torque requirements.
be too high. In any event, a trial test If a lubricant is going to be used, tests
should be conducted with a torque should be conducted to determine torque
wrench for best results. requirements and to evaluate the com-
In service at elevated temperature, the patibility of the lubricant to the environ-
buildup of oxides or scale on fastener mentsuch as high temperature. Among
surfaces may fuse threaded surfaces the popular lubricants are those which
together. Regular loosening and re-tight- contain substantial amounts of molybde-
ening can prevent this from happening. num disulfide, graphite, mica, talc, cop-
Figure 4 F A S T E N E R L U B R I C A T I O N
Figure 5 G A L V A N I C S E R I E S O F M E T A L S & A L L O Y S I N S E A W A T E R
current to flow with corrosion occurring at one another when exposed in sea water, By comparison, steel or copper alloy
the anodic component of the cell. Figure which is known as the galvanic series of studs for joining stainless steel would
5 provides a guide to the relative anodic metals and alloys. The further apart the accelerate corrosion of the fastener sys-
and cathodic relationships of metals to combination of alloys, the greater is the tem, although the extent of the galvanic
corrosion attack at the anodic compo- attack would depend upon the relative
nent. It is well recognized that magne- area of each material.
sium, zinc and aluminum anodes, when The area relationship depends not only
attached to a steel hull of a ship, will cor- on the relative area of the materials in the
rode preferentially, thereby protecting the structure, but also on the number of fas-
structural integrity of the cathodic com- teners. Sometimes an acceptable balance
ponents. By comparison, no serious gal- of incompatible metals may be achieved
vanic action will result from the coupling by adjusting the number of fasteners to
of metals with the same group (stainless distribute them more uniformly to avoid a
to stainless) or to near alloys in the gal- local condition of low relative area.
vanic series (stainless to copper-nickel). A general rule to remember is to use
It is also important to have an under- the more-noble metal for the part with the
standing of the relative areas of the two smaller surface area. This makes a good
different materials that are in direct con- case for using stainless steel fasteners for
tact with one another (the fastener sys- joining metals that are less corrosion
tem will normally represent the smallest resistant. Table 12 on page 20 provides
surface area for materials being joined). guidelines for the selection of fasteners for
Consequently, the fastener system various base metals. If the potential is
should be cathodic to the materials being high for galvanic corrosion in a fastened
joined. This can be seen in the pho- joint, it is possible to insulate the fastener.
tographs showing the bolting materials CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION
used in the construction of the Thames occurs when two or more areas on the
River Barrier on page 14. surface of a metal are exposed to differ-
In the aircraft industry, designers ent concentrations of the same solution,
depend on this area-relationship principle such as under deposits or in crevices.
when they specify stainless steel fasteners A difference in electrical potential results
in aluminum structures. The greater the and corrosion takes place. Unlike gal-
relative area of the anodic (aluminum vanic corrosion, it does not require dis-
material), the less severe is the corrosion. similar metals.
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Fasteners 3/28/00 8:28 AM Page 18
Figure 6 E F F E C T O F C H R O M I U M C O N T E N T O N S C A L I N G R E S I S T A N C E O F
Figure 6 C H R O M I U M - I R O N A L L O Y S ( A T 1 8 0 0 0 F O R 9 8 2 0 C )
1000ppm. Higher molybdenum contain- stainless steels are not subject to this
ing alloys offer greater corrosion resis- form of attack, but usually they do not
tance to this form of attack than the 300 provide suitable corrosion resistance.
series stainless steel materials. CORROSION FATIGUE is accelerated
To avoid this form of corrosion, keep fatigue failure occurring in a corrosive
surfaces smooth and minimize or elimi- medium. The general fatigue characteris-
Typical stainless steel structural bolting.
(Thames River Barrier) nate lap joints, crevices, and seams. tics of the ferritic, martensitic and alloy
Surfaces should be clean of organic steels are usually significantly reduced,
In the case of very tight stationary material and dirt. Bolts and nuts should as a result of general aqueous corrosion
crevices, oxygen depletion at the inter- have smooth surfaces, especially in the or pitting attack. The austenitic, duplex
face of the metals, relative to the aqueous seating areas. Flush-head bolts should be and super austenitic stainless steels
environment, can create localized anodic used where possible. exhibit some lowering of their air-fatigue
and cathodic differences at the mating CHLORIDE ION STRESS CORROSION properties.
interfaces. Such might be the case at CRACKING is a recognized phenomenon Factors extending fatigue perform-
flanged joints where gaskets or o-ring with the 300 series stainless steel materi- ance are application and maintenance of
seals are used, or at bolted connections. als. Three conditions must exist before it a high preload, and proper alignment to
Underdeposit or crevice attack may can occur; chlorides (environment) must avoid bending stress.
occur, especially when chlorides are pre- be present; stress (inherent with tension-
sent in the aqueous system. ing of fasteners); and temperature (usually HIGH TEMPERATURE
In the case of ambient temperature, it does not occur below 600C). Under this SERVICE
has been determined that this form of combination of conditions, alternative The selection of stainless steel fasteners
attack is unlikely to occur with Type 304 stainless steel materials can be consid- for high-temperature service is complex
stainless steel systems when the chloride ered, namely the duplex stainless steels because of the many factors involved.
levels are less than 200ppm, and, in the or the more highly alloyed nickel contain- Mechanical and physical properties have
case of Type 316 stainless steel systems, ing materials, typical of 6% molybdenum to be considered together with corrosion
when the chloride levels are less than grades. The straight chromium 400 series resistance.
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Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 19
Table 9 T H E R M A L E X P A N S I O N O F C O R R O S I O N - R E S I S T A N T F A S T E N E R A L L O Y S
Mean Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion
Alloy Temperature Range Fo
In./In./oF(106)
32 to 212 9.6
Type 304 Stainless Steel 32 to 572 9.9
32 to 1112 10.4
32 to 212 8.9
Type 316 Stainless Steel 32 to 572 9.0
32 to 1112 10.3
32 to 212 6.1
Type 410 Stainless Steel
32 to 1000 7.2
Brass 68 to 572 11.3
Naval Bronze 68 to 572 10.0
Silicon Bronze 68 to 572 11.8
Monel 68 to 212 7.8
32 to 68 4.7
Titanium
32 to 1600 5.6
-76 to 68 21.4
Aluminum (2024) 68 to 212 22.8
68 to 392 23.9
Source: ITT Harper
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Table 10 S C A L I N G ( O X I D A T I O N ) R E S I S T A N C E O F
Table 10 T Y P I C A L S T A I N L E S S S T E E L F A S T E N E R M A T E R I A L S
MAX. CONTINUOUS MAX. INTERMITTENT
AISI TYPE S E R V I C E , A I R , OF S E R V I C E , A I R , OF
303 1650 1400
304 1650 1550
305 1650
309 1950 1850
310 2050 1900
316 1650 1550
321 1650 1550
347 1650 1550
430 1550 1650
446 1950 2050
410 1300 1450
416 1250 1400
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data
base metal joints; otherwise, there can be becomes even more complex.
over-stressing and possible failure, or a Nevertheless, stainless steels are widely LNG processing for piping and heat
rapid loss in clamping stress. used in these environments. A fairly com- exchanger flanges, pumps and various
The oxidation or scaling resistance of prehensive discussion of their application related equipment.
stainless steels under constant tempera- is found in a publication by The Austenitic stainless steels are the most
ture condition is, for the most part, International Nickel Company, Corrosion widely used materials in cryogenic appli-
related to chromium content, as illus- Resistance of the Austenitic Chromium- cations, especially Type 304, because it
trated in Figure 6 on page 14. In Table 10, Nickel Stainless Steels in High- does not become brittle as it is chilled.
scale resistance is expressed as temper- Temperature Environments. Not only does Type 304 remain tough
ature at maximum continuous service and and ductile at LNG temperatureminus
maximum intermittent service (in which LOW TEMPERATURE 260F (-162C)but it retains excellent
temperature cycling occurs). SERVICE properties with liquid hydrogen at minus
As the high-temperature environment Of primary importance to the develop- 423F (-253C) and liquid helium at minus
becomes contaminated by compounds ment of the worlds natural gas supplies 452F (-268C). Table 11 shows low-tem-
of sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and the halo- is the handling and storage of liquid nat- perature mechanical properties of several
gens, the problem of materials selection ural gas (LNG). Fasteners have a role in stainless steels used in cryogenic service.
Table 11 C R Y O G E N I C P R O P E R T I E S O F S T A I N L E S S S T E E L S
Yield Strength Elongation
AISI Test Temperature 0.2% Offset Tensile Strength % in 2" % Reduction Izod-Impact
TYPE o
F o
C ksi kg/mm2 ksi kg/mm2 (5.08 cm) of Area ft-lb kg-m
-40 -40 34.0 24.0 155.0 109.0 47.0 64.0 110 15.2
-80 -62 34.0 24.0 170.0 120.0 39.0 63.0 110 15.2
304 40.0 55.0 110 15.2
-320 -196 39.0 27.0 221.0 155.0
-423 -252 50.0 35.0 243.0 171.0 40.0 50.0 110 15.2
-40 -40 41.0 29.0 104.0 73.0 59.0 75.0 110 15.2
-80 -62 44.0 31.0 118.0 83.0 57.0 73.0 110 15.2
316
-320 -196 75.0 53.0 185.0 130.0 59.0 76.0 Not Available
-423 -252 84.0 59.0 210.0 148.0 52.0 60.0 Not Available
-40 -40 41.0 29.0 76.0 53.0 36.0 72.0 10 1.4
430 -80 -62 44.0 31.0 81.0 57.0 36.0 70.0 8 1.1
-320 -196 88.0 62.0 92.0 65.0 2.0 4.0 2 0.3
-40 -40 90.0 63.0 122.0 86.0 23.0 64.0 25 3.5
410 -80 -62 94.0 66.0 128.0 90.0 22.0 60.0 25 3.5
-320 -196 148.0 104.0 158.0 111.0 10.0 11.0 5 0.7
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data
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Figure 7 WHEN COLD WORKING IS EMPLOYED, SOME Figure 8 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY OF AUSTENITIC ALLOYS
Figure 7 NORMALLY NON-MAGNETIC AUSTENITIC Figure 8 SUBJECTED TO COLD WORKING CAN ALSO BE EXPRESSED
Figure 7 STEELS BECOME SUBSTANTIALLY MAGNETIC Figure 8 AS A FUNCTION OF TENSILE STRENGTH
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FASTENER MARKINGS
NOTE: Unless otherwise specified on the inquiry or order, fasteners will be supplied in the above condition.
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Note: The same markings are used for ASTM Specification F593 (Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and Studs)
ASTM A836 AISI 303, 304, 305, A Machined from ann. or soln.
AISI 384, XM1, XM7 A1-50 A ann stock and re-annealed
A1-70 CW M Machined from strain
A1-80 M hardened stock.
AISI 321, 347 A2-50 A CW Cold worked
A2-70 CW H565 Hardened and tempered
A2-80 M at 565C
AISI 316 A4-50 A H275 Hardened and tempered
A4-70 CW at 275C
A4-80 M AH Solution annealed and age
AISI 430, 430F F1-45 M hardened after forming
C1-70 H565
C1-110 H275
AISI 431 C3-80 H565
C3-120 H275
AISI 416, 416Se C4-70 H565
C4-110 H275
Alloy 630 P1-90 AH
ASTM F738 AISI 303, 303Se, 304, 305, A Headed and rolled from
AISI 384, XM1, XM7 A1-70 CW annealed stock and
A1-80 M re-annealed
AISI 321, 347 A2-50 A M Machined from strain
A2-70 CW hardened stock
A2-80 M CW Cold Worked
AISI 316 A4-50 A H580 Hardened and tempered
A4-70 CW at 565C min.
A4-80 M H275 Hardened and tempered
AISI 410 C1-50 M at 275C min.
C1-70 H565
C1-110 H275
AISI 431 C3-80 H565
C3-120 H275
AIAI 416, 416Se C4-50 M
C4-70 H565
C4-110 H275
AISI 430, 430F F1-45 A
F1-60 CW
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Fasteners3/28/008:30AMPage24
FASTENER BASICS
An analysis of standard
fasteners, such as bolts
and screws, reveals that all
have certain characteristics
in common. Further, their dif-
ferences can be classified as
shown here. Each bolt and
screw is, in effect, made up of
a series of component parts;
thus, the fasteners may have
some or all of these: (a) a
head; (b) a driving recess; (c)
a shoulder; (d) an unthreaded
shank; (e) a threaded shank;
and (f) a point.
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