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Q.1: Chomsky believes that the principle Concept of a behaviorists approach to
language is totally inadequate to account for language behavior. Discuss the
statement in the light of Chomskys theory of mental-ism.

Behaviorism is the earliest language learning theory which is propounded by J.B. Watson (1878-1957) in 1913.
This theory is supported and believed by some behaviorists who are Skinner, Pavlov and Thorndike; also,
profoundly developed the theory of behaviorism on learning.
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors which are changed as the symptoms of learning. Learning only
occurs when there are changes in behavior and observable as an evidence of changing. Feeling and mental
process are not accepted in Skinner's human behavior's theory; however, he still accepted the existence of mind.
Behaviorists consider learning a language as a set of mechanical habits which are formed through a process of
imitation and repetition. Humans learn a language through repeating the same form and text until it becomes a
habit. Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around. So, it was proposed that learners would
repeat words they heard and tried to use it in their conversation until it became a regular basis in life.
Behaviorists therefore think that learning a language especially second language (L2) should be learnt through
extensive drill and practice. Besides that, behaviorists also justified that learning a new language is learning a
new set of habit.
learning could be effected by manipulating the environment to provide the required experience. This
lead to the theory formation of habit is related to the environment where learning process actually takes place.
These habits formation and the environment are recognized as Stimulus-Response (S-R) by Pavlov and Skinner.
According to the theory, behavior happens in casual, associative chains; all learning is thus characterized as
associative learning, or habit formation, brought about by the repeated association of a stimulus with a response.
So, its best known proponent, B.F. Skinner used rats conclude that conditioning has a 3-state procedure: stimulus,
response and reinforcement. From here, Skinner presumed that human learning and animal learning are parallel;
thus, L2 learning is also similar as other kind of learning can be explained by the same laws as well as principles.
Every process of learning has to be followed by reinforcement. All learning is the establishment of
habits as the results of reinforcement and reward. In behaviorism, there are two different types of reinforcement.
The first one is positive reinforcement, where the response or behavior is strengthened and positively augmented
by praise or reward. For instance, when a student answer a question correct and the teacher award him/her a star,
then the student will try to answer another question because he/she is more confident and motivated. In contrast,
the second reinforcement is negative reinforcement. If a student been scolded by his/her teacher after got the
answer wrong, he/she would tend not to give answer by the next Q & A session because it would make him/her
feel embarrassed. In short, positive reinforcement helps learners develop correct habits.
Furthermore, Behaviorism learning theory also claimed that old habits interfere with the acquisition of new ones.
Learning of the foreign language would be facilitated since all the learners had to do was to transfer native
language habits. That means errors in first language learning (first language) are the result of interference in
second language. It has to be avoided and prevent first language interference happened as well as corrected on
the spot if they do occur.
One of the examples of extensively drilling in learning is Audio Lingual Method which is an American
method. It is function as a structural approach designed to develop oral communication fluency in second
language. Audio Lingual Method is focuses on accuracy (pronunciation and intonation), mistakes should be
avoided and corrected immediately if it happened. In short, language learning's pattern has to be "over-learnt"
and the content based on common day's dialogues as well as expression. If follow by the positive reinforcement

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
which will help students to develop correct habits. By then, learning the structures of the language is more
emphasized if compare to the vocabulary.
MENTALISM:
Noam Chomsky's innateness theory (or nativist theory) proposes that children have an inborn or innate faculty
for language acquisition that is biologically determined. According to Goodluck nativists view language as a
fundamental part of the human genome, as a trait that makes humans human, and its acquisition is a natural part
of maturation. Chomsky has determined that being biologically prepared to acquire language regardless of
setting is due to the child's language acquisition device (LAD), which is used as a mechanism for working out
the rules of language. Chomsky believed that all human languages share common principles, such as all
languages have verbs and nouns, and it was the child's task to establish how the specific language she or he hears
expresses these underlying principles. For example, the LAD already contains the concept of verb tense and so
by listening to word forms such as "worked" or "played". The child will then form a hypothesis that the past
tense of verbs are formed by adding the sound /d/,/t/ or /id/ to the base form. According to Chomsky, infants
acquire grammar because it is a universal property of language, an inborn development, and has coined these
fundamental grammatical ideas that all humans have as universal grammar (UG). Children under the age of three
usually don't speak in full sentences and instead say things like "want cookie" but yet you would still not hear
them say things like "want my" or "I cookie" because statements like this would break the syntactic structure of
the phrase, a component of universal grammar. Another argument of the nativist or innate theory is that there is a
critical period for language acquisition, which is a time frame during which environmental exposure is needed to
stimulate an innate trait. Linguist Eric Lenneberg in 1964 postulated that the critical period of language
acquisition ends around the age of 12 years. He believed that if no language was learned before then, it could
never be learned in a normal and functional sense. It was termed the critical period hypothesis and since then
there has been a few case examples of individuals being subject to such circumstances such as the girl known as
Genie who was imposed to an abusive environment, which didn't allow her to develop language skills.
Differences in behaviorism and mentalism

Behaviorism Mentalism
B.F Skinner believes that habits can be Chomsky believes that there are structures of
shaped through positive reinforcement. the brain that controls the interpretation and
production of speech.
Language is an environmental process. Language is a mental process.
Primary source of acquiring language is Primary source of acquiring language is
environment learners mind.
Language is learnt through imitation and Language is learnt through cognitive process.
repetition.
Approaches child as a blank slate that is Children do not need any kind of formal
filled up by knowledge gained through teaching to learn to speak.
experience.
Language learnt through language exposure. Innate learning mechanism enables a child to
figure out how the language works.
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
Learning process involving the shaping of Innate biologically ability that all humans
grammar into a correct form by the posses. He believed that every child has a
reinforcement of other stimulus. language acquisition device.
Presented operant conditioning theory. Child does not need any kind of trigger to
start.

CONCLUSION:
Environment makes contribution in both theories:
1. as for Chomsky, he believes as long there are people available to speak to the child, the child biologically
endowments will do the rest.
2. But for the Skinner, he believes that children will learn by imitation, reinforcement that comes from the
environment.
On the other hand mental cognition for learning a new language is as so for concern as environment.

Q.2 Discuss in detail the role of the following elements in foreign language
learning?

Success in learning a second or a foreign language, unlike success in first language acquisition, is very variable.
Learner strategies, as conscious actions in learning and using a second or a foreign language, are one of the
variable factors that have profound effects on how individual learners approach language learning and how
successful they are. The more we learn about learner strategies, the more we gain a sense of the complex system
of language learning and teaching.
1: Motivation:
motivation is a major factor in the successful study of language acquisition. It is considered goal directed and
defined as the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable
attitudes toward learning the language Motivation is also an important contributor to language achievement in
terms of linguistic outcomes, which traditionally embrace the knowledge structure of the language, i.e.
vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation and the four basic skills of the language, including listening,
understanding, reading and writing.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation:
Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation refers to whether the motivation is more inside a person or outside of him/her.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivation which is originated inside a person. There is no reward except the
activity itself. It means that the essence of motivated action that is, sense of autonomy and the desire is self-
initiating and self-regulating while in extrinsic motivation there is an anticipation of reward from outside and a
person is motivated from an outside source rather than the self.
Maslow (1970) believed that intrinsic motivation is noticeably superior to extrinsic because we are motivated to
achieve "self-actualization".
Bruner (1966, cited in chalak & Kassaian 2010) claimed that one of the most effective ways to help students is
to free them from the control of rewards.

Instrumental and Integrative Motivation:

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
Within the field of language learning, the typical model is the division made between integrative and
instrumental motivation If a person learns a language primarily for a purpose like getting a job or fulfilling an
academic requirement, s/he is affected by instrumental motivation. In other words, instrumental motivation
refers to the motivation to acquire a language as means of achieving goals such as promoting a career or job or
reading technical texts while integrative motivation has to do with wanting to be accepted by another community.
Integrative motivation means integrating oneself within a culture to become a part of that society.

2: PERSONALITY:
For second language learners to make maximum progress with their own learning styles, their individual
differences must be recognized and attended to. A number of theories hold that personality factors significantly
influence the degree of success that individuals achieve in learning a second language based on the assumption
that some features of the learner's personality might encourage or inhibit second language learning by enhancing
certain facets of language learning while impeding others. There are two types of personality, defined as:

Extrovert and introvert personality:

Extrovert and introvert are two characterizations of how one relates to the outside world. Extrovert means a
person more interested in what is happening around him than in his own thoughts and emotions. That is to say,
the extrovert experiences the world more through contact with others and shared experience than through self
examination or study. If the problem were to come about for an extrovert, they would more than just likely find
someone to help. On the contrary, introvert is a person who is more interested in his own thoughts and feelings
than in things outside himself, and is often shy and unwilling to speak or join in activities with others. In other
words, an introvert tends to remain "in" oneself. If the same problem were to arise, that person might open a
book or pace back and forth to come to a solution.

3. LEARNING STRATEGIES:
learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the
obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information."
Richards and Platt state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during
learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information."
According to Stern"the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously
engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived
intentional directions and learning techniques." All language learners use language learning strategies either
consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom.
Since language classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face
new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest or easiest way to do
what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is in escapable.
Rubin's (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
Rubin, who pionered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies
contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin, there are three
types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are:
Learning Strategies
Communication Strategies
Social Strategies
Learning Strategies
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
They are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system
constructed by the learner:
Cognitive Learning Strategies
Meta-cognitive Learning Strategies
Communication Strategies
They are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a
conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communication strategies are
used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their
communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker.
Social Strategies
Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and
practice their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute
indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language.
3.LANGUAGE APTITUDE:
Language learning aptitude refers to the prediction of how well, relative to other individuals, an individual can
learn a given amount foreign language of time and under given conditions.As with many measures of aptitude,
language learning aptitude is thought to be relatively stable once a person matures. Many people show a
remarkable learning aptitude for learning their language.
John B. Carroll an influential psychologist in the field of educational linguistics, developed a theory about a
cluster of four abilities that factored into language learning aptitude, separate from verbal intelligence and
motivation. Using these four distinct abilities (phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, rote learning
ability, and inductive learning ability), Carroll developed the MLAT, a language aptitude assessment for adults.

The four ability components are defined as follows:

Component Definition
Phonetic coding ability to perceive distinct sounds, associate a symbol with that sound and
ability retain that association
Grammatical ability to recognize the grammatical function of a lexical element (word,
memory phrase, etc.) in a sentence without explicit training in grammar
Associative ability to learn associations between words in a foreign language and their
memory meanings and retain that association
Inductive learning
ability to infer or induce rules governing the structure of a language
ability

Q.3 How do you think first language acquisition theories might help us to plan a
course for second or foreign language learning? Discuss with examples.
The 4 Language Skills

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. When we learn our
native or second language, we usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write. These
are called the four "language skills"
1. Listening
2. Reading
3. Speaking
4. Writing
These four language skills can be impart or planned by using language acquisition theories.
Language acquisition is the process whereby children acquire their first languages. All humans have an innate
capability to acquire language. Children may acquire one or more first languages. For example, children who
grow up in an environment in which only Urdu is spoken and heard will acquire only Urdu as their first language.
However, children who grow up in an environment in which both Urdu and English are spoken and heard
equally will acquire both Urdu and English as their first languages. Acquisition occurs passively and
unconsciously through implicit learning. In other words, children do not need explicit instruction to learn their
first languages but rather seem to just "pick up" language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl, and
walk. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen.

Plan A Course For Speaking:

Duration: 6 months
level: Metric students
objective:
Students must be able to speak fluently second language.
They must be able to understand native like accent.
Learning out comes:
1. controlled environment (first language acquisition behaviorism)
A major difference in first and second language acquisition stems from the initial position
of the learner in each instance. Simply put, the initial state of L1 learning reflects an innate
capacity and desire for language acquisition, but the prior knowledge of L1 cannot be
negated when considering the initial state for L2 learning (Saville-Troike 2012)
to eliminate the L1 and impart the L2 it is necessary to provide the cntrolled environment to the students .
Behaviourist learning theories posited principally by Skinner (1957, cited in Lightbown and
Spada 2013) state that the fundamentals of language are essentially developed through
conditioning and the formation of good language habits (Mitchell, Myles and Marsden
2013). Competence is achieved as the learner responds to stimuli (primarily the speech of
caregivers) and receives feedback in the form of positive reinforcement or correction (de
Bot, Lowie and Verspoor 2005). In practical terms, it is an oral-situational approach where
the child imitates and memorises language used in context and along with specific
behaviours. Errors made during FLA are viewed as bad habits that can be eliminated with
sufficient amounts of rote learning and drilling (Candlin and Mercer 2001). Thus the
acquisition and understanding of grammar becomes an inductive process, rather than an
instinctive one.
2. Native-Like Pronunciation (The Critical Period and the LAD ):
Many theories have suggested a neurological basis to language acquisition; of these,
Lennebergs Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) published in 1967 remains the framework
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
for much of the research undertaken on age related aspects of language learning (SavileTroike 2012). According
to the CPH, there is a finite period during which it is possible to
acquire a language flawlessly. The mastery of morphology, phonology and syntax is limited
to those who do so in the years before puberty, regardless of the amount of time spent later.
From this notion stems the generally accepted view that children are better at achieving
native-like pronunciation in second languages (Hakuta 2001)
Termed the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), this internal mechanism enables the
systematic perception of language: identifying speech sounds; categorising linguistic data
and refining these classifications over time; establishing acceptable linguistic structures and
those which deviate from them; and continually streamlining the details of the emerging
language system (Brown 2007). Within the LAD are principles of what is considered a
Universal Grammar (UG), a set of internal rules that govern the initial state of the language
faculty and determine ones ability to comprehend and produce language (Palmer 2000).
Once activated through exposure to speech in the childs surroundings, UG initiates a
process of aligning what is heard to this pre-existing knowledge of grammatical structure
(White 2003).
Following on from this Nativist approach is the perception of the childs first language as a
system in itself. In contrast to the behaviourist view of FLA, the aligning process within
Universal Grammar is not the gradual eradication of mistakes, but rather the continual
development, trial and appraisal of hypotheses in speech and comprehension based on input
received (Meisel 2011).
3. Input, interaction and environment for learning L2 (Krashens Theory):
Input is defined by Richards et al. (1989:143) as language which a learner hears or receives
and from which they can learn. Scholars broadly acknowledge the significance of input in
language acquisition (Tucker 2003) although the focus and nature of the learning
environment will influence the type and quantity of language input.
Lightbown and Spada (2013) describe three types of environment that expose the learner
to:
1. Natural interaction (e.g. in work or a social forum)

2. Traditional acquisition (e.g. conventional EFL/ESL classrooms, where form, grammar and vocabulary are
emphasized)

3. Communicative teaching environments (where interaction is emphasised over form) Of these, both the natural
and communicative environments are, to some extent, in keeping
with the Interaction Hypothesis put forward by Krashen (1981), which states that successful
transition from exposure to assimilation is facilitated by collaborative and social efforts in
the target language (also Lightbown and Spada 1999). However the reality of many L2
classroom environments is reflected in the traditional setting, where exposure in the target
language is limited to only a few hours each week. In addition, this interaction comes
through the instruction of teachers, rather than being learner-driven as in the case of L1.
Although L2 learners bring highly transferable social, contextual and linguistic knowledge
to the classroom, working to a syllabus that is forced on the learner from outside (Nemati

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
and Taghizadeh 2013) may mean that the learning experience fails to meet the learners
Immediate Goals With The Same Efficacy As In The L1 Setting:
While it is possible to create situations where different varieties of speech are taught and
spoken, as an educator there are expectations of the role that will be manifest in the adoption
and/or omission of certain linguistic features. When viewed in this manner, the L2
classroom represents an artificial construct that is constrained in the types of input available
and somewhat removed from any naturalistic environment or usage. It is unsurprising
then, that L2 learners typically acquire second languages slowly, with some effort and
incompletely (Towell and Hawkins 1994)
4. Motivation For Speaking Second Language (behaviorism)
Though the driving forces behind learners efforts are diverse, Gardner and Lambert (1972)
categorise them as being either instrumental or integrative. Instrumental motivations are
utilitarian and often found in typical classroom environments. Examples include overseas
employment, or high school English test that determine access to further education. Those
with integrative motivations are led by largely affective factors, having a desire to learn
about the culture associated with the target language, to associate themselves with its users
and to integrate in the L2 speech community (Saville-Troike 2012). Drnyeis Motivational
Self System (2009) further developed these ideas with a third set of executive and
motivations related to the immediate process of learning: these include the impact of the
teacher, the curriculum, the peer group and the experience of successful engagement with
the language.
Positive motivation can be given in context to behaviorism that there must be some award or feed back on doing
successful action then students will persuade to repeat that particular action. And then they will improve day by
day to get fluency in speaking second language.
5. Educational Context (social Interaction Theory):
The contexts in which FLA and SLA take place have a significant bearing on learning, and
specifically in the case of the language classroom, pedagogical considerations should be
taken into account as these can greatly alter the expectations and outcome of learning (Hulya
2009). A first language is taught by native speakers in the social group into which the child
is born and is expected to fully integrate. In this purely natural environment, the learner
interacts with others, receiving and communicating information, entirely in the target
language. In effect, they are taught through a process of full immersion one that is
simulated to varying degrees in the communicative approaches adopted in contemporary
classrooms.
Second language learners receive instruction in a much more formal manner (Medgyes
1999; Hayes 2009). that is why students are facing much more diffeiculty to learn native like speakin because
second language practice is just going on inside the class room. To overcome this problem we have to focus on
social interaction theory and need to expand the circle of classroom that students will be able to get more chance
to practice their language.
6. Errors And Feedback ( Behaviorism):
Approaches to correction distinguish FLA and SLA, as well as the perceived significance
of these errors. On a basic level, the efforts made by small children to express themselves
using language are encouraged and seldom corrected, despite the utterances being largely
inaccurate in syntactic and phonological terms. It is only in subsequent stages of language
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
development possibly years later that corrective feedback is routinely given. In the
classroom, however, teachers are expected to implement a wide range of error correction
strategies from the outset. A more controlled and form-focussed learning atmosphere such
as this can, at its extreme, produce more remote and stilted classroom interactions in
comparison with those experienced during FLA (Nemati and Taghizadeh 2013).
as in the behaviorism B.F Skinner showed that required action can be learnt through trial and error theory. So, let
the students be free to say what ever they want to say, dont stop them while speaking, mistakes can be corrected
later on.
7. Increase Vocabulary ( Mentalism):
In order to get fluency in spoken it is necessary to increase the vocabulary of second language that might be
helpful to build confidence in learner to practice the target language more and more. At this stage Chomskys
theory of Mentalism helps us how to increase the vocabulary of target language. On the contrary, his theory is
based on the hypothesis that innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (UG) permits all children
to acquire the language of their environment. describes that Universal Grammar underlies the belief that all
grammar of a language was based on universal principles or structures of the target language which only need to
be used. They do not need to be learned because they are part of the human mind.

Theories of language learning:

1. Behaviorist Theory for Language Learning

Under this theory, it is believed that the second language learning learner tries to imitate what he hears and
practices the second language regularly to develop habits in the language. This theory also believes that learners
try to relate their knowledge of the native language to the second language and this could lead to positive as well
as negative results. However the imitation of one language with the other is not recommended as this does not
help in real life situations. The behaviorists believe that First language learners (FLL) consists of learners
imitating what they hear and develop habits in the first language (FL) by routine practice. In this view, the
learners are thought to relate what they know of their first language to what they recognize in the second
language. "Positive transfer" is a result of similarities between the first language and the second language,
because habits used in the first language easily transfer to the second language. On the other hand, "negative
transfer is caused by differences between the first language and the second language, because errors result from
using habits from the first language in the second language.

2.Chomsky Theory of Mentalism for Second Language Learning:

Learning via imitation and behaviouristic elements held the sway of the teaching community as their main
influence for an extended period of time. In 1980 Noam Chomsky highly criticised this view, insisting in his
view that the language was not a habit that could be learned. On the contrary, his theory is based on the
hypothesis that innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (UG) permits all children to acquire
the language of their environment. describes that Universal Grammar underlies the belief that all grammar of a
language was based on universal principles or structures of the target language which only need to be used. They
do not need to be learned because they are part of the human mind. Chomskys innate UG has often been
characterized as a very good starting point for L2 learning.

3. Critical Hypothesis Theory for Second Language Learning

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
Acquisition depends on children receiving linguistic input during the critical period. The critical period is
defined as the window of time, up to about the age of twelve or puberty, in which humans can acquire first
languages. Children must receive adequate linguistic input including phonology (speech sounds), semantics
(vocabulary and meaning), grammar (syntax or word order and morphology or grammatical markers), and
pragmatics (use and context) and prosody (intonation, rhythm, stress) before the end of the critical period in
order to acquire their first languages. If linguistic input is not adequate, children will never fully acquire
language. However, various investigations proved the Critical Period Hypothesis to be false because even
adolescents and adults have been able to achieve very good abilities in the target language, and sometimes they
show better results than children do. Age appears to neither significantly simplify nor harden L2 learning.
Changes of personality, cognitive maturity, motivation and sociology-psychological reasons have a great
influence on language learning.

4.Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Stephen Krashen's theory of second language acquisition has been of much debate in the psycholinguistic circles.
His theories are well regarded, and provide a different insight into how the mind works in learning a second
language.
1. Natural Order Hypothesis:
The first of the five of Krashen's theories is the Natural Order Hypothesis. Based on a powerful analysis of
research results, Krashen's natural order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition of language, especially the rules
of language, follows a predictable natural order. For any given language, some grammatical structures tend to be
acquired earlier than others. This idea reflects Noam Chomsky's revolutionary notion that have a built-in
Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which within the first year of the children lives begins to enable them to
understand and acquire language. Because of the nature of the LAD, children tend to learn different structures at
different levels as young children.
2. Learning Hypothesis:
Secondly, is the Acquisition or Learning Hypothesis. The distinction between acquisition and learning is the
most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory, since it suggests that language comes to children in
two rather different ways. Acquisition is one. Language can be acquired by using it for real communication
while learning, which he describes as "knowing about" language, is quite a different thing. Acquisition is the
product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first
language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language-natural communication, in which speakers
concentrate not on the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. Learning, on the other hand,
provides conscious knowledge about the target language. It is therefore less important than acquisition for basic
communication, but it still plays an important role in language learning.
3. Monitor Hypothesis:
Thirdly, is the Monitor Hypothesis. The monitor hypothesis relegates language learning to a secondary place in
the scheme of language learning. The monitor hypothesis is the idea that conscious learning - that is, the
outcome of grammar instruction and other activities that were the traditional stock in trade of the language
teacher - serve only as a monitor or an editor for the language student. Real acquisition takes place as
"meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers is concerned not with
the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.
4. Input Hypothesis

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 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
The input hypothesis suggests that people acquire language in only one way: by understanding messages, or by
receiving 'comprehensible input'. According to the input hypothesis, learner's progress by receiving second
language input that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence.
5. Affective Filter Hypothesis
Finally, the Affective Filter Hypothesis proposes that a mental block caused by Affective or emotional factors
can prevent input from reaching the student's language acquisition device. The Affective filter hypothesis says
that Affective variables like self-confidence and anxiety play a role in language acquisition. When the filter is up,
that is, when negative emotional factors are in play, language acquisition suffers while when the filter is down,
language acquisition benefits.
6. Social Interaction Theory:
The interaction theory of language development is a compromise between the nativist theory and the behaviorist
theory of language development. The interaction theory recognizes that both environmental and biological
factors are important in language development [2]. Within this theory of compromise are theorists who are closer
to one end of the extreme than the other. However, all interventionists believe that language acquisition occurs
as a result of the natural interaction between children and their environment, more specifically, their parents or
caregivers.
For example, interactionists believe that language is a byproduct of childrens social interactions with the
important people in their lives.

Conclusion
From Piaget to Lenneberg, their works in this field have provided a wide insight as to how human acquire and
learn a language. However, there are some stark differences which separate acquisition and learning, and it has
been a point of contention for the linguists and psychologists. Nevertheless, language acquisition is and will
always be an important biological aspect of a human being.

Q.4 Keeping in mind the four stages of teaching/learning, plan a lesson of an hour
to teach the difference between present and simple past tense.
Grammar Lesson Plan: Simple Past vs. Simple Present
Target Audience: Intermediate level
Learner Objectives:
By the end of this lesson students will be able to
1. Recognize the basic form of simple past.
2. Determine when to use simple past and simple present appropriately

Time: 40 min
1. Warm-up: (5 min)
Very short activity designed to help students activate their language, just like stretching before exercise or tuning
an instrument before a performance. The goal is to have students begin class ready to practice and actively
participate, not wait for the instructor to tell them what to do.
Brainstorming:

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

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Development of the lesson: (15 min)

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple

irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of
irregular verbs: see 2nd column of irregular irregular verbs
verbs
Example:
Example:
I / you / we / they have spoken
I spoke
he / she / it has spoken

regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed

regular verbs: infinitive + ed
Example:
Example:
I / you / we / they have worked
I worked
he / she / it has worked
Exceptions

Exceptions when adding 'ed':

when the final letter is e, only add d

Example: love - loved
after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
Example: admit - admitted
final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English)
Example: travel - travelled
after a consonant, final y becomes I (but: not after a vowel)
Example:
worry - worried
but: play - played

Pair Activity (5 min)Student directions:

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
Work in pairs to write down 3-4 complete sentences using simple past and simple present tense. Make the two
groups of class by giving them names past and present group.
Describing to past group what you did over the weekend. Work with your partners to identify all of the past
tense verbs. I walked to the cafe yesterday. Pairs read examples to class. Ask to present group to write write
simple present sentences about todays activities. Ask students to identify verb and say if it is regular (-ed ending)
or irregular

3. Discussion Questions (5 min)

Solicit answers from students, refer to warm-up sentences if needed

1. What are the differences between the simple past and present?
2. How can you recognize simple present tense?
3. When do you use simple past tense?

4. Individual Activity (5 min):

give following worksheet to the students and tell them to think and then write.

5. Wrap Up Activity (3 min):

write some regular and irregular verbs
on board and ask from students to identify and then discuss answers with the students.

6. Follow up (2 min):
assign a worksheet to the students to identify simple past and present perfect tense.

Q.5 Discuss the major approaches underlying the traditional methods of

language learning. Also highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each of these
approaches.
1.Grammar-translation

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

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Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized and long
lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability.
Advantages of Translation Method
1. This method is useful in the class in which there are a large no of students.
2. It helps the teacher to clear the meaning of a word and sentence easily by translating it in to the mother tongue.
3. The students understand the things very easily if taught using this method.
4. It doesnt consume the time in finishing the syllabus.
5. Precise pictures of the words and the things are made in to the minds of the learners through this method.
6. This Translation Method is very useful for the average and below-average students.
Disadvantages of Grammar-Translation Method
1. No oral work takes place in the class room due to this method.
2. The main focus remains only on the mother-tongue and the target language remains ignored.
3. No Speaking in the target language is possible. The only thrust remains on the reading.
4. The students dont develop the power of thinking in the target language.
5. It doesnt help the students to learn correct pronunciation of English Language or the target language.
6. Main emphasis is given on the Rules of Grammar.
7. Students try to do everything by translating.
8. This method doesnt involve the students mentally and just like story telling method
Direct Method
This approach, also known as the oral or natural method, originated around the 1900s as an alternative to the
traditional grammatical translation method. The Direct Method is based on the direct involvement of the student
when speaking, and listening to, the foreign language in common everyday situations. Consequently, there is lots
of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammar rules
and syntax.
The focus is on good pronunciation, with spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little grammar
analysis.
The focus of the lessons is on good pronunciation, often introducing learners to phonetic symbols before they see
standard writing examples. The Direct Method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it is not
an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation. It requires small classes and high student motivation, and in
the artificial environment of a classroom it is difficult to generate natural situations of understanding and
guarantee sufficient practice for everyone.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Lessons are in the target language
There is a focus on everyday vocabulary
Visual aids are used to teach vocabulary
Particular attention is placed on the accuracy of pronunciation and grammar
A systematic approach is developed for comprehension and oral expression.

The Audio-lingual Teaching Method

With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and
enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first
to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology. Based on Skinners Behaviorism theory, it assumed
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behavior receives positive feedback,
while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the
lesson takes place entirely in the target language.
The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the
understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue.
These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language
are automatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Drills are used to teach structural patterns
Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation
Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum
Vocabulary is taught in context
Audio-visual aids are used
Focus is on pronunciation
Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately.

Communicative Language Teaching

The Communicative Method is in reality an umbrella term a broad approach rather than a specific teaching
methodology, and has now become the accepted standard in English language teaching. Communicative
Language Teaching is a natural follow-on from the reaction during the 70s against previous methods which over-
focused on teaching grammatical structures and template sentences, and which gave little or no importance to
how language is actually used practically.
Emphasizes the ability to communicate the meaning of the message, instead of concentrating on grammatical
perfection.

The Communicative approach emphasizes the ability to communicate the message in terms of its meaning,
instead of concentrating exclusively on grammatical perfection or phonetics. Therefore, the understanding of the
second language is evaluated in terms of how much the learners have developed their communicative abilities
and competencies. In essence, it considers using the language to be just as important as actually learning the
language. The Communicative Language Teaching method has various characteristics that distinguish it from
previous methods.

Understanding occurs through active student interaction in the foreign language

Teaching occurs by using authentic English texts
Students not only learn the second language but they also learn strategies for understanding
Importance is given to learners personal experiences and situations, which are considered as an
invaluable contribution to the content of the lessons
Using the new language in unrehearsed contexts creates learning opportunities outside the classroom

Q.6 What role does a teacher play in successful learning of a second language?
Do you think first language acquisition and second language learning involve
similar strategies? Discuss with relevant examples.
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 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274

Role Of A Teacher In Successful Learning Of A Second Language

The primary role of the teacher in a multidimensional language class is to establish conditions and
develop activities so that students are able to practice the language in a meaningful context. It is one of the
teacher's greatest responsibilities to develop in the students a positive attitude to learning a second language.

1. Teacher as facilitator
It is the teacher who acts as facilitator, resource person and language model for the second- language classroom.
If developing units, the teacher needs to predict the possible needs of the students and have communicative
language activities readily available to meet these needs. The activities should be designed so that the students
experience a high degree of success. Teachers will also experience greater success when activities are planned
around the students' interests and take into account subjects that they have some knowledge about.
2. Teacher Being An Instrumental:
The teacher is also instrumental in creating a positive and supportive learning environment within the class.
Students who feel safe and secure are much more willing to practice a second language. A healthy classroom
climate promotes risk-taking and allows the students to experiment. Positive experiences in the classroom lead to
an excellent attitude toward language and culture.
3. Spiral Approach
The constant re-entry and review of linguistic content throughout the different units enable the students to
practice and internalize the language. Although this spiral approach is ideal in language learning, the teacher
must be aware of the program objectives and ensure that the objectives are being met. Instruction and evaluation
must reflect these objectives.

4. Teacher as Language Model

The teacher will continue to serve as a language model for the students. While remaining the person with whom
the students will communicate most often, one of the main functions of the teacher will now be to discover or
invent ways to encourage students to communicate meaningfully with each other. Instead of actively directing
and controlling all activities the teacher will aim to set up conditions for meaningful practice and then take on
the role of a resource person.
5. Student-Centered Environment
The classroom becomes student-centered rather than teacher-centered; the students do most of the talking and
the role of the teacher is to facilitate, advise, assist and offer direction. As the students most often work in small
groups the teacher will observe the activities, noting problem areas for future work. During these activities, the
teacher will interrupt to correct students only if the errors are so serious as to block communication. The role of
the Second Language teacher in the classroom has traditionally been to convey knowledge.
6.Teacher should Ready to Gain Knowledge:
Teachers are encouraged to become more knowledgeable about theories and methods of second language
instruction. This can be done through reading and attending workshops, professional developm ent days and
conferences whenever the opportunity lends itself. Mini-immersion or immersion courses are instrumental in
providing the opportunity for improvement/maintenance of communicative competence. Meeting with
colleagues, formally or informally, also provides an opportunity for discussion, sharing and practicing the
language on another level.

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First Language Acquisition And Second Language Learning Strategies:

We have all observed children acquiring their first language easily and well, yet the learning of second Language,
Particularly in an education setting, often meets with great difficulty and sometimes failure. We should therefore
able to learn something from a systematic study of that first language learning experience. First Language
acquisition is the natural process in which children subconsciously possess and develop the linguistic knowledge
of the setting they live in. In contrast, Second language learning takes place where the target language is the
language spoken in the language community that differs from the mother tongue first language and
distinguished
from Foreign language learning in which the language is absent from the setting of that community.

Note the following facts concerning first and second language acquisition
1) The level of competence acquired with SLA (second language acquisition) depends not so much on the time
spent learning a language as the time at which one begins.

2) In general linguists maintain that a first language is acquired, i.e. that knowledge is stored unconsciously, and
that a second language is learned, i.e. that knowledge is gained by conscious study of the second languages
structure. However, this distinction is not watertight and SLA can involve acquisition to a certain degree. FLA
(first language acquisition) does not, however, learned as no instruction is required. Remember that you know
your first language before you start school.

3) There is a critical period, that of puberty, around 12 or 13 years of age, after which it is difficult, if not
impossible to acquire a second language with the same degree of competence as the first language. The decline
in ability to acquire a second language may also be connected with the lateralisation of the brain just before
puberty, i.e. with the fixing of functions in one or other of the two halves of the brain. The decline in
acquisitional ability after lateralisation/puberty is a widespread phenomenon and affects other activities such as
sports, playing music, etc.

4) Because SLA is very largely conscious it is dependent on factors such as motivation and personality. This
does not apply to FLA which is triggered by birth, i.e. it is an instinct in the biological sense of the word.
Remember that no-one ever refuses to acquire ones first language and that no-one dislikes ones own first
language. Because FLA is an instinct there is no choice involved, contrast this with a second language.

5) Note that something which is acquired does not require conscious decisions when activated. However, if you
have learned something, like the rule of chess then you must Raymond Hickey First and second language
acquisition: A brief comparison Page 2 of 2 think consciously about how to move the pieces. An unconscious
activity, apart from language, acquired in childhood would, for instance, be the ability to ride a bicycle.

6) Your first language is acquired without too much input from your surroundings. Furthermore, this input does
not have to be ordered: children make sense of what they hear and create the order needed to stored knowledge
of their first language themselves. It is not necessary to speak to young children in a babyish way: children do
not end up speaking like this anyway.

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 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
7) First language acquisition is not dependent on intelligence or special ability for languages. Everyone acquires
their native language fully and properly. What is true, of course, is that some people have a greater stylistic range
and larger vocabulary in their native language, but that is not connected with first language acquisition. You
learn style in school when you learn how to write the standard of your language and you learn specialised words
consciously after childhood.

8) First language acquisition is connected to cognitive development with the latter preceding the former
somewhat. With the second language (acquired after puberty) you have all the cognitive structures necessary to
deal with the language
. 9) You cannot forget your first language, although it may become inactive if you spend many years speaking
just a second language. Backsliding, reverting to a lower level of competence, making mistakes you know
mistakes, are features of second language acquisition only.

10) There are certain phases in first language acquisition: one-word, two-word and multi-word stages.
Furthermore, in early childhood children make maximally simpler generalisations about language, e.g. that all
verbs are weak. After a while they correct themselves (when they just hear the adult forms). Once they have
acquired the latter they remember them.

11) In FLA children make errors, systematic ill-formed structures based on the level of acquisition on which they
happen to be. In post-puberty SLA individuals make mistakes which are often random and erratic, though a
degree of regularity can be recognised here. With SLA there can be interference from the first language, i.e.
structures from L1 are carried over into L2 where they do not occur natively. Interference obviously does not
occur in FLA.

12) FLA children build up competence, the internalised knowledge of ones native language, from the
performance of others, i.e. by accepting spoken input from those people surrounding them. The parents are
obviously important here, but siblings and playmates can play an equally important role if they are present.

13) In the strict sense bilinguals are those individuals who have acquired two languages simultaneously in early
childhood. Normally, one of these languages will be dominant, but the degree of competence in the non-
dominant language is still very high and far exceeds that of a second language learned after puberty

Conclusion:
Learner strategies are tools that learners choose to use to assist their language learning and language use. They
are one of the variable factors that differentiate successful from less successful language learners. The studies of
learner strategies can be done from different perspectives (i.e. cognitive theories, humanistic approaches, and
social interactionism), all of which try to indicate, classify, and analyze how learners approach language learning
and language use. The results from the studies help inform language teachers how to train the less successful
learners to become more successful in language learning. As a result of that, there have been a variety of
strategies training programs; i.e. awareness training, strategy workshop, peer tutoring, ARECLS, 2008, Vol.5,
186-204. 202 and strategies-based instruction. All types of strategies training involve an expansion of the
learners repertoire of language learning strategies. In addition to the aim to teach language content, the
strategies training programs also have the aim to: (1) heighten learner awareness of their own strengths and
weaknesses in language learning and the range of strategies which they can choose to help them learn the target

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 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
language most efficiently (Metacognitive knowledge), and (2) to develop responsibility for their own learning; in
short, to develop learner autonomy. I also added that, for the strategies training to be effectively implemented,
the students should have positive attitudes toward the target language and language learning. They should be
encouraged to be aware of the learning strategies they already use and become more responsible for their efforts
in learning and using the target language.

Q.7 Corrections limit the childs ability to learn language freely. Justify your
answer with examples.
There are other language skills also but Language has a great concern with spoken, and there will be fluency in
spoken only when we are sure about it. Once if some one is afraid of mistakes, thats mean he/she loose the
confidence to utter the words in front of someone. Every time when he/she will forced to speak or he/she want to
speak by themselves there will be always a battle in his/her mind that may be I will comit any mistake. So,
language teacher has to be very smart that they should not ignore the mistakes but they should not allow
themselves to make the correction on the spot when a student is speaking. There are lot of researches on why,
when, where and how to make corrections that a child should not limit his ability to learn language freely.

The Definition of Errors:

Before the 1960s, during the dominance of the behaviouristic view upon language there existed a dominated
view of language to consider learners errors as something undesirable. Making errors was seen as a sign of
mislearning and regarded as undesirable to proper processes of language learning. According to the
behaviouristic point of view, the reason behind making errors lies in inadequate teaching methods which if had
been perfect they would never be committed. This way of thinking was considered to be naive as there is
nothing to be called perfect methodology especially with the appearance of the Universal Grammar concept
proposed by Chomsky in 1965. The latter claimed that each human being has an innate capacity that can guide
him through a vast numberof sentence generation possibilities. Since then, a shift by language teachers towards
the cognitive approach has started. Chomskys theory contributes in raising researchers interests about learners
errors as a source of hypotheses formation.

The importance of errors in language learning:

The importance of errors in language learning was first advocated by Corder (1967). He proved that strategies of
L2 learners could be inferred through the analysis of their errors and that could be helpful for researchers of L2
learning process. Selinker (1992) highlighted two fundamental contributions of Corders study in L2 learning.
The first one is that the learners errors are systematic and the second is that they are not negative or
interfering but a positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. There are a lot of definitions developed for
the concept of error. According to Lennon (cited in Brown, 2000), an error is a linguistic form or
combination of forms which, in the same context and under the same context and under similar conditions of
production, would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakercounterparts. Corder
(1967), on the other hand, differentiates between the mistake which is a performance error due to a random guess
or slip and the error that refers to idiosyncrasies in the interlanguage of the learner manifesting the learners
system of operation while learning. The later can be seen as L2 a deviation from the adults grammar of a native
speaker which reflects the interlanguage of the learner. Errors are systematic and may give valuable insight into
language acquisition because they are goofs in the learners underlying competence. When native speakers make
mistakes, they can identify and correct them immediately because they have almost full knowledge of the
linguistic structure of their mother tongue (Scovel 2001). Non-native speakers, L2 learners not only make
Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)
 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
mistakes, they also commit errors and as they have only an incomplete knowledge of the target language, they
are not always able to correct the errors that they make. Thus the learners errors reflect a lack of underlying
competence in the language that they are learning.

Teachers Attitude to Errors:

Teachers are often afraid of their students making errors. They feel that students might learn their mistakes and
so they must make sure that everything they say is correct. This attitude goes back to the earlier belief,
influenced by the behaviourist model of learning, which maintains that the language can be learnt by repeating
correct forms until they become automatic, that is why repeating incorrect forms is harmful. It is now widely
agreed that language is not learnt this way: it is a system of rules that the learner has to acquire, that trying out
language and making errors are natural and unavoidable parts of this process. Doff (1993) explains that learners
are applying rules from their own first languages and they are applying rules which they have internalised but
they
are in some way intermediate between their native languages (L1) and the target language (L2)

When Make The Correction:

Error treatment is a very complicated and weighty problem. Language teachers need to be armed with some
theoretical foundations and be aware of what they are doing in the classroom. Henrickson (1978) lists the "five
fundamental questions" and reviews the literature that addresses them:

1. Should errors be corrected?
2. If so, when should errors be corrected?
3. Which learner errors should be corrected?
4. How should learner errors be corrected?
5. Who should correct learner errors?

Second language acquisition theory has "answers" to four of these questions, answers that are, themselves
hypotheses. Hendrickson (1978) predicts that if error correction is done according to the principles described
below, it will be effective.

Ways of Correction:

There are several ways of correction that can be employed in the classroom.

Self-correction:
After the student recognizes what is incorrect in his/her response, s/he should be able to correct him/herself. Self
correction is the best technique, because the student will remember it better

Peer correction:
If the student cannot correct him/herself the teacher can encourage other students to supply correction. This
technique is to be applied tactfully, so that the student who originally made the mistake will not feel humiliated.

Course: Psycholinguistics (5655) Semester: Spring, 2017 (Level: Diploma TEFL)

 Hajira Fida Roll #.BN526274
In the case of errors, it is useful if after peer correction the teacher goes back to the student who made the error
and gets him/her to say it correctly.

Teacher correction:
If no one can correct, the teacher must realise that the point has not yet been learnt properly. In that case the
teacher can re-explain the problematic item of language, especially if the teacher sees that the majority of the
class has the same problem. There might be more repetition and practice necessary. We must not forget that the
main aim of correction is to facilitate the students to learn the new language item correctly. That is why it is
important that after correction the teacher has to ask the student who originally made the error or mistake to give
the correct response.

Conclusion:

Language teachers need to take careful stock of the transfer and interference of the students' mother tongue in
their spoken or written production. Therefore, one way to highlight the influences of the mother tongues on the
students' learning of English is to collect these errors and ask the students to analyze them and if they could to
correct them. Some errors need to be handled; otherwise, they will become fossilized. EFL teachers should be
aware of what is going on in the field of Error Analysis and keep a keen eye on the related theories. In addition,
while placing an emphasis on error correction in the classroom, as language teachers, we should take the
teaching objectives, students linguistic competence, their effective factors and the effectiveness of the error
correction into consideration. Consequently, we can employ more flexible strategies in error correction and make
more contributions to the EFL classroom teaching and learning Error analysis is significant, but it also has its
limitations. First, there is a danger in too much attention to learners errors and in the classroom teacher tends to
become so preoccupied with noticing errors that the correct utterance in the second language will go unnoticed.
While the diminishing of errors is an important criterion for increasing language proficiency, the ultimate goal of
second language learning is the attainment of communicative fluency in a language. Another shortcoming in
error analysis is the over stressing of production data.

Factually language comprehension is as important as production. It also happens that production lends itself to
analysis and thus becomes the prey of researchers, but comprehension data is equally important in developing an
understanding of the process of language acquisition. Thirdly, it fails to account for the strategy of avoidance. A
learner who for one reason or another avoids a particular sound, word, structure or discourse category may be
assumed incorrectly to have no difficulty therewith. The absence of error therefore does not necessarily reflect
native like competence since learners may be avoiding the very structure that poses difficulty for them. Finally,
error analysis can keep us too closely focused on specific languages rather than viewing universal aspects of
language.

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