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Gravity and Antigravity

Object 9

David Pratt
February 2001

Contents
Part 1
1. The mass error (revised May 2001)
1. Electrogravity
1. Empty space vs. the ether
1. Gravity anomalies
1. References

Part 2
Levitation technology (revised August 2001)
Human levitation
Theosophical writings
References

The mass error

It is said to have been the sight of an apple falling from a tree that, around 1665, gave Isaac Newton
the idea that the force that pulls an apple to earth is the same as that which keeps the moon in its
orbit around the earth. The reason the moon does not fall to earth is because of the counteracting
effect of its orbital motion. If the moon were to cease its orbital motion and fall to earth, the
acceleration due to gravity that it would experience at the earth's surface would be 9.8 m/s -- the
same as that experienced by an apple or any other object in free fall.
Newton's universal law of gravitation states that the gravitational force between two bodies is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. To calculate the gravitational force (F), their masses (m1 and m2) and the
gravitational constant (G) are multiplied together, and the result is divided by the square of the
distance (r) between them: F = Gm1m2/r. The newtonian theory is accepted by most scientists today
without question.
However, it involves a contradiction. On the one hand it states that the gravitational force
between two or more bodies is dependent on their masses, and on the other it admits that the
gravitational acceleration of an attracted body is not dependent on its mass: if dropped
simultaneously from a tower, and if air resistance is ignored, a tennis ball and a cannonball will hit
the ground simultaneously. Furthermore, although gravitational force and gravitational acceleration
are the same phenomenon, and force is proportional to acceleration, no symbol for the earth's
surface gravity (g) or a term for acceleration appears in the gravitational equation.
In the conventional approach, the above contradiction is overcome by invoking Newton's second
law of motion, which states that the force applied to a body equals the mass of the body multiplied
by its acceleration (F = ma); this implies that gravity pulls harder on larger masses. However, as
several physicists, mathematicians, and philosophers have pointed out, this law is not based on
experiment; it is an arbitrary definition -- a convention. Experiments cited in its support involve the
identification of weight and force; they prove only that the weight of a body is equal to its mass
times the acceleration (W = ma), and do not measure or define force per se [1].
Newton himself certainly believed that the gravitational force was due to and proportional to the
quantity or density of matter. But it is a historical fact that to deduce from the earth-moon system
that gravity obeys an inverse-square law (i.e. that its strength diminishes by the square of the
distance from the attracting body), he did not need, nor did he estimate, the masses of the earth and
moon. He needed to know only the acceleration due to gravity at the earth's surface, the radius of
the earth, the orbital speed of the moon, and the distance between earth and moon. As Pari Spolter
points out, 'there is no basis for inclusion of the term "product of the two masses (m1m2)", or for
that matter, for inclusion of any term for mass in the equation of the gravitational force' [2].
Combining Newton's two equations for force, i.e. the equation for gravitational force and the
second law of motion, gives: F = ma = Gm1m2/r. It can then be deduced that, for the equation to
balance, the gravitational constant (G) must have the dimensions m/kg.s (volume divided by mass
multiplied by time squared). Clearly G is a rather weird constant!
The value of the gravitational constant was first measured directly by the Cavendish torsion
balance experiment in 1798. However, a Cavendish-type experiment is not a proof of Newton's
equation: on the contrary, such experiments assume that the equation is correct. In Spolter's view, it
has not yet been ruled out that the very small angle of deflection of the torsion balance used in these
experiments (or the very small change in its period of oscillation) is due to electrostatic attraction of
the metallic spheres used; in one experiment in which the small mass of platinum was coated with a
thin layer of lacquer, consistently lower values of G were obtained [3]. Spolter has written to
several mainstream journals proposing further experiments to test this possibility, but her letters
have been rejected.
On the assumption that gravity is proportional to mass, the value of G can be used to estimate the
earth's mass, and also its mean density, which turns out to be 5.5 g/cm. This value is of course
purely theoretical. All we know from actual measurements is that the mean density of the earth's
outer crust is 2.75 g/cm. Scientists have concluded that to obtain an overall figure of 5.5 g/cm the
density of the inner layers of the earth must increase substantially with depth. Spolter points out that
the currently accepted earth model is inconsistent with the law of sedimentation in a centrifuge. The
earth has been rotating for several billion years, and if it was originally molten and rotated faster
than today, the highest-density matter should have migrated to the outer layers. Also, heavy
elements are rare in the universe, so it is hard to see how such large quantities of them could have
become concentrated in the earth's interior.
The 17th-century astronomer Johannes Kepler discovered the remarkable fact that the ratio of the
cube of the mean distance (r) of each planet from the sun to the square of its period of revolution (t)
is always the same number (r/t = constant). This relationship is known as Kepler's third law of
planetary motion. Pari Spolter has made the major discovery that Kepler's third law can be derived
from a new, simple equation for gravitational force: F = a.A , where a is the acceleration and A is
the area of a circle with a radius (r) equal to the semimajor axis of revolution of the planet, moon,
etc. in question (i.e. its average distance from the body it orbits).* Since A = (pi)r, this equation
naturally implies that the acceleration due to gravity declines by the square of the distance. And
since it includes no term for mass, it implies that neither gravitational force nor gravitational
acceleration depends on the mass of the bodies concerned, thereby eliminating the contradiction at
the heart of the newtonian theory of gravity.
*Spolter argues that force is always independent of mass [4]. It is not force that is equal to mass times
acceleration, but weight. Her equation for linear force is F = a.d (acceleration times distance). Her equation for
circular force is the one given above: F = a.A.

Using this equation, the gravitational force of the sun is found to be 4.16 x 1020 ms-2m2. This
quantity is constant for all the planets, asteroids, and artificial satellites orbiting the sun, and is
independent of the mass of the attracted body. The gravitational force of the sun calculated from
Newton's second law of motion, on the other hand, is not constant, and ranges from 4.16 x 10
newtons for Jupiter to only 0.31 newton for the satellite Pioneer 5. If we accept Newton's equation,
we have to assume that the sun somehow recognizes each body orbiting it and doles out a specific
amount of its attractive force for each one.
Using Spolter's equation, the gravitational force of the earth is also constant (1.25 x 1015ms-2m2)
-- for objects in free fall, for artificial satellites orbiting the earth, and for the moon. Using Newton's
equation, however, the gravitational force ranges from 0.2 newton for the satellite ERS 12 to 1.98 x
1020 newtons for the moon. Similar results are obtained for all the planets in our solar system [5].
Newton's theory of gravity (and Einstein's too) ignores the rotation of the central body and the
torque generated by the rotation. Spolter suggests that it is the rotation of a star, planet, etc. that
generates the gravitational force and causes other bodies to revolve around it. This idea was also
advanced by Johannes Kepler, and is supported by a number of other researchers [6]. Spolter shows
that the mean distances of each successive planet from the centre of the sun are not random but
follow an exponential law, which indicates that gravity is quantized, just as electron orbits in an
atom are quantized. For planets orbited by several moons, she shows that here too gravity is
quantized.
The figures given for the masses and densities of all planets, stars, etc. are purely theoretical;
nobody has ever placed one on a balance and weighed it! The masses of celestial bodies are
calculated from what is known as Newton's form of Kepler's third law, which arbitrarily assumes
that Kepler's constant ratio of r/t is equal to the inert mass of the body multiplied by the
gravitational constant. However, this equation is dimensionally inconsistent: it implies that mass is
equal to volume divided by time squared! The equation can be made to balance if G is assigned the
weird dimensions mentioned above: volume divided by mass multiplied by time squared. But a
constant such as G is only a proportionality number, and cannot be used to introduce the missing
dimensions into an equation.
The circular reasoning on which the newtonian theory of gravity is based is nicely summed up in
The Devil's Dictionary, which defines gravitation as follows: 'The tendency of all bodies to
approach one another with a strength proportioned to the quantity of matter they contain -- the
quantity of matter they contain being ascertained by the strength of their tendency to approach one
another' [7].

Electrogravity
Both gravity and electromagnetism obey the inverse-square law, i.e. their strength declines by the
square of the distance. In other respects, however, gravity and electromagnetism seem to be very
different. Electric and magnetic forces are bipolar, i.e. they attract and repel, whereas gravity is
commonly believed to have only one polarity -- attraction. The presence of matter can modify or
shield electric and magnetic forces and electromagnetic radiation, whereas no weakening of gravity
has allegedly been measured by placing matter between two bodies, and it is assumed that this is
true whatever the thickness of the matter in question.
However, some experiments have found evidence of gravitational shielding. In the course of a
series of very sensitive experiments over a period of 10 years, Q. Majorana found that placing
mercury or lead beneath a suspended lead sphere acts as a screen and slightly decreases the earth's
gravitational pull; other experimenters have found similar evidence of gravity absorption [1]. Erwin
Saxl and Mildred Allen measured significant variations in the period of a torsion pendulum during a
solar eclipse in 1970, implying that solar gravity was being shielded by the moon. Saxl also
detected unexpected daily and seasonal variations [2]. Attempts to explain away these results in
terms of poor experimental design are unconvincing [3].
Pendulum anomalies incompatible with newtonian gravity have also been detected by other
investigators. During solar eclipses in 1954 and 1959, Maurice Allais (who won the Nobel Prize in
Economics in 1988) detected anomalous disturbances in the azimuth of a paraconical pendulum (i.e.
one suspended on a ball) [4]. In the course of observations conducted since 1987, Shu-wen Zhou
and his collaborators have confirmed the occurrence of an anomalous force of horizontal oscillation
when the sun, moon, and earth are aligned, and have shown that it affects the pattern of grain
sequence in crystals, the spectral wavelengths of atoms and molecules, and the speed rate of atomic
clocks [5]. During the total solar eclipse in 1997, a group of scientists detected gravity variations
with a high-precision gravimeter [6]. Tom Van Flandern has suggested that anomalies in the
motions of certain artificial earth satellites during eclipse seasons may also be caused by shielding
of the sun's gravity [7].
 The existence of gravity shielding was given further support by experiments conducted by E.
Podkletnov and his coworkers at Finland's Tampere University of Technology in 1992. When a disk
of superconducting material was magnetically levitated and rotated at high speed, up to several
thousand revolutions per minute, in the presence of an external magnetic field, it was found that
objects placed above the rotating disk showed a variable but measurable weight loss* of up to 2%
[8]. Related research is being funded as part of NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program.
The effect discovered by Podkletnov is about 10 billion times greater than allowed for in general
relativity theory! Nevertheless, it is tiny compared with the gravitational shielding/antigravity
effects apparently achieved by some alternative researchers in the fields of free energy and
electrogravitics; weight losses of up to 100% have been reported, often involving spinning objects
[9].
*The weight of a body is equal to its mass multiplied by acceleration. Strictly speaking, an object with a mass
of 1 kg weighs 9.8 newtons on earth. However, weights are commonly given in kilograms, with the gravity
acceleration of 9.8 m/s at the earth's surface being taken for granted. If the force of gravity acting on a body is
reduced, its weight and inertia are likewise reduced, while its mass (in the sense of 'quantity of matter') remains
the same.

The gravitational force between two electrons is 42 orders of magnitude (1042) weaker than their
electrical repulsion. The reason the electromagnetic force does not completely overwhelm gravity in
the world around us is that most things are composed of an equal amount of positive and negative
electric charges whose forces cancel each other out. On the other hand, it is believed that gravity is
always attractive and that consequently there are no analogous cancellations. However, although it
is usually assumed that electrons are attracted by gravity, this has not been verified experimentally
due to the difficulty of the measurement. As we shall see, there is evidence that such an assumption
is wrong.
As long ago as 1830, O.F. Mossotti hypothesized that gravitational attraction resulted from the
very slight excess of the force of attraction between unlike electrical particles over the force of
repulsion between like electrical particles [10]. In the 20th century, physicist Max Born stated that
once we had a more complete knowledge of the interaction of the forces in the atomic nucleus we
might find that gravitation was the result of 'something left over, a sort of incomplete compensation'
[11]. And nuclear physicist Lucien Gerardin suggested that gravitational attraction may be due to
'kinetic electromagnetic phenomena within the atomic nuclei', 'a very small residue of interaction
between electricized particles' [12]. Mainstream science has not pursued such ideas, and is as far
away as ever from understanding gravity.
Various experimental results point to a link between electromagnetism and gravity. For instance,
Erwin Saxl showed that gravity and electricity interact under dynamic conditions. He found that
when a torsion pendulum was positively charged, it took longer to swing through its arc than when
it was negatively charged [13]. Bruce DePalma conducted numerous experiments showing that
rotation and rotating magnetic fields can have anomalous gravitational and inertial effects [14].
Podkletnov's experiments seem to confirm this.
One of the most important early figures in electrogravitics research was physicist and inventor T.
Townsend Brown [15]. Beginning in the mid-1920s, he discovered that it is possible to create an
artificial gravity field by charging an electrical capacitor to a high voltage. He built a capacitor
which utilized a heavy, high charge-accumulating dielectric material between its plates and found
that when charged with between 75,000 and 300,000 volts it would move in the direction of its
positive pole (this is known as the Biefeld-Brown effect). When oriented with its positive side up, it
would lose about 1% of its weight. He attributed this motion to an electrostatically-induced gravity
field acting between the capacitor's oppositely charged plates. By 1958, he had succeeded in
developing a 15-inch-diameter model saucer that could lift over 110% of its weight. He obtained
many patents for his devices.
Brown succeeded in arousing the interest of the US Air Force:
As early as 1952, an Air Force major general witnessed a demonstration in which
Brown flew a pair of 18 inch disc airfoils suspended from opposite ends of a rotatable
arm. When electrified with 50,000 volts, they circuited at a speed of 12 miles per hour.
About a year later, he flew a set of 3 foot diameter saucers for some Air Force officials
and representatives from a number of major aircraft companies. When energized with
150,000 volts, the discs sped around the 50 foot diameter course so fast that the subject
was immediately classified. Interavia magazine later reported that the discs would attain
speeds of several hundred miles per hour when charged with several hundred thousand
volts.
Brown's discs were charged with a high positive voltage on a wire running along their
leading edge and a high negative voltage on a wire running along their trailing edge. As
the wires ionized the air around them, a dense cloud of positive ions would form ahead
of the craft and a corresponding cloud of negative ions would form behind the craft.
Brown's research indicated that, like the charged plates of his capacitors, these ion
clouds induced a gravitational force directed in the minus to plus direction. As the disc
moved forward in response to its self-generated gravity field, it would carry with it its
positive and negative ion clouds with their associated electrogravity gradient.
Consequently, the discs would ride their advancing gravity wave much like surfers ride
an ocean wave. [16]

Skeptics claimed that the discs were propelled by more mundane effects such as the pressure of
negative ions striking the positive electrode, but Brown later carried out vacuum chamber tests
which proved that a force was present even in the absence of such ion thrust. It is interesting to note
that the occupants of one of Brown's saucers would feel no stresses at all, no matter how sharply it
turned or how fast it accelerated, because the ship and occupants would respond equally to the
distortion of the local gravitational field.

Figure. A side view of one of Brown's circular flying discs showing the location of its
ion charges and induced gravity field.
 Early in 1952 Brown submitted a proposal that the military develop a disc-shaped antigravity
combat vehicle with Mach 3 capability. A declassified aviation industry intelligence report indicates
that by September 1954 the Pentagon had launched a secret government programme to develop a
manned antigravity craft of the type proposed. In the mid-1950s, over ten major aircraft companies
were actively involved in electrogravitics research. Since then no publicity has been given to
whatever work in electro-antigravity the US military has conducted. Paul LaViolette suggests that
electrogravitic technology developed since then may have been put to use in the B-2 Stealth
Bomber to provide an auxiliary mode of propulsion. He bases this inference on the disclosure that
the B-2 electrostatically charges both the leading edge of its wing-like body and its jet exhaust
stream to a high voltage.
Positive ions emitted from its wing leading edge would produce a positively charged
parabolic ion sheath ahead of the craft while negative ions injected into its exhaust
stream would set up a trailing negative space charge with a potential difference in
excess of 15 million volts. . . . [This] would set up an artificial gravity field that would
induce a reactionless force on the aircraft in the direction of the positive pole. An
electrogravitic drive of this sort could allow the B-2 to function with over-unity
propulsion efficiency when cruising at supersonic velocities. [17]

Figure. A side view of the B-2 showing the shape of its electrically charged Mach 2
supersonic shock wave and trailing exhaust stream. Solid arrows show the direction of
ion flow; dashed arrows show the direction of the gravity gradient induced around the
craft.

Another electrogravitics researcher is John Searl, an English electronics technician [18]. In 1949
he discovered that a small voltage (or electromotive force) was induced in spinning metal objects.
The negative charge was on the outside and the positive charge was around the centre of rotation.
He reasoned that free electrons were thrown out by centrifugal force, leaving a positive charge in
the centre. In 1952 he constructed a generator, some three feet in diameter, based on this principle.
When tested outdoors, it reportedly produced a powerful electrostatic effect on nearby objects,
accompanied by crackling sounds and the smell of ozone. The generator then lifted off the ground,
while still accelerating, and rose to a height of about 50 feet, breaking the connection with the
engine. It briefly hovered at this height, still speeding up. A pink halo appeared around it, indicating
ionization of the surrounding atmosphere. It also caused local radio receivers to go on of their own
accord. Finally, it reached another critical rotational velocity, rapidly gained altitude, and
disappeared from sight. Searl says that since then he and his colleagues have built over 50 versions
of his 'levity disk', of various sizes, and have developed a form of control. He claims to have been
persecuted by the authorities, resulting in wrongful imprisonment and the destruction of most of his
work, so that he has had to start all over again.
Although he has been dismissed as a con man, there is evidence that the Searl effect is genuine.
Two members of the Russian Academy of Science, V.V. Roschin and S.M. Godin, carried out an
experiment with a Searl-type generator, and observed a 35% weight reduction, luminescence, a
smell of ozone, anomalous magnetic-field effects, and a fall in temperature. They concluded that
orthodox, etherless physics cannot explain these results [19].

Empty space vs. the ether

In newtonian gravity theory, it is assumed that gravity propagates instantaneously across empty
space, i.e. it is believed to be a form of action at a distance. However, in a private letter Newton
himself dismissed this idea:
That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act
upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the mediation of any thing else,
by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to
me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man, who has in philosophical matters a
competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it. [1]

Newton periodically toyed with the idea of an all-pervading ether (filling his 'absolute space'), and
thought that the cause of gravity must be a spiritual agency, by which he understood 'God'.
The need to postulate an ether is underlined by G. de Purucker:
We either have to admit the existence of [the] ether or ethers, i.e., of this extremely
tenuous and ethereal substance which fills all space, whether interstellar or
interplanetary or inter-atomic and intra-atomic, or accept actio in distans -- action at a
distance, without intervening intermediary or medium of transmission; and such actio in
distans is obviously by all known scientific standards an impossibility. Reason, common
sense, logic . . . demand the existence of such universally pervading medium, by
whatever name we may choose to call it . . . [2]

Logically, every type of force must ultimately be produced by the activity of material -- though not
necessarily physical -- agents of some kind, moving at finite, though possibly superluminal, speeds.
 In 1905 Albert Einstein rejected the ether as 'superfluous', preferring the vacuous concept of
'empty space'. In 1915 he published his general theory of relativity, which is essentially a theory of
gravity. He did not challenge the newtonian notion that inert mass was the cause of the gravitational
force. But whereas Newton attributed gravitational attraction to the density of matter, Einstein
assumed that the same quantity of matter ('gravitational mass') somehow warped the hypothetical
four-dimensional 'spacetime continuum' and that this deformity made the planets orbit the sun. In
other words, gravity is not regarded as a force that propagates but is said to result from masses
distorting the 'fabric of spacetime' in their vicinity in some miraculous way. Thus, rather than being
attracted by the sun, the earth supposedly follows the nearest equivalent of a straight line available
to it through the curved spacetime around the sun. However, 'curved spacetime' is a geometrical
abstraction -- or rather a mathematical monstrosity! -- and can in no way be regarded as an
explanation of gravity. Although it is commonly claimed that relativity theory has been confirmed
by observational evidence, there are alternative -- and far more sensible -- explanations for all the
experiments cited in its support [3].
General relativity theory claims that matter, regardless of its electrical charge, produces only an
attractive gravitational force, and allows for only very tiny gravitational shielding or antigravity
effects. Furthermore, it does not predict any coupling between electrostatic and gravitational fields.
In fact, T.T. Brown's pioneering 1929 paper that first reported the discovery of electrogravity was
turned down by Physical Review because it conflicted with general relativity.
According to quantum field theory, the four recognized forces -- gravity, electromagnetism, and
the weak and strong nuclear forces -- arise from matter particles constantly emitting and absorbing
different types of force-carrying 'virtual' particles (known as bosons), which are constantly
flickering into and out of existence. The gravitational force is supposedly mediated by gravitons --
hypothetical massless, uncharged, infinitesimal particles travelling at the speed of light. Since
gravitons would apparently be identical to their antiparticles, this theory, too, appears to rule out
antigravity, and it also fails to explain electrogravity.
Experimental support for these particle-exchange theories is completely lacking, and it is not
clear how they can account for attractive as well as repulsive forces. It is sometimes said that
bosons carry a 'message' telling matter particles whether to move closer or move apart -- but this
explains nothing at all. Moreover, in the standard model, force-carrying particles, like fundamental
matter particles, are regarded as infinitely small, zero-dimensional point-particles -- which is clearly
absurd. As a result of these idealized notions, quantum calculations tend to be plagued with
infinities, which have to be done away with by a trick known as 'renormalization'.
Einstein spent the last 40 years of his life attempting to extend the geometrical notions of general
relativity to include electromagnetic interactions, and to unite the laws of gravitation and the laws of
electromagnetism in a unified field theory. Many other mathematicians also worked on this subject,
and some of these theories introduced a fourth, curled-up dimension. None of these attempts was
successful, and the search for a unified theory continues. Some scientists believe that string (or
superstring) theory, which first emerged in the 1970s, is a major step towards a 'theory of
everything'.
String theory postulates that all matter and force particles, and even space (and time!) as well,
arise from vibrating one-dimensional strings, about a billion-trillion-trillionth a centimetre (10-33
cm) long but with zero thickness, inhabiting a ten-dimensional universe in which the six extra
spatial dimensions are curled up so small that they are undetectable! This theory has no
experimental support; indeed, to detect individual strings would require a particle accelerator at
least as big as our galaxy. Moreover, the mathematics of string theory is so complicated that no one
knows the exact equations, and even the approximate equations are so complicated that so far they
have only been partially solved [4].
Some scientists believe that beyond string theory lies M-theory, which postulates a universe of 11
dimensions, inhabited not only by one-dimensional strings but also by two-dimensional membranes,
three-dimensional blobs (three-branes), and also higher-dimensional entities, up to and including
nine dimensions (nine-branes). It is even speculated that the fundamental components of the
universe may be zero-branes [5]. Such crazy ideas do nothing to advance our understanding of the
real world and merely show how surreal, if not grotesque, pure mathematical speculation can
become. There are, however, several more promising approaches that link gravity and
electromagnetism.
According to quantum theory, electromagnetic fields (and other force fields) are subject to
constant, utterly random* fluctuations even at a temperature of absolute zero (-273C), when all
thermal agitation should cease. As a result, 'empty space' is believed to be teeming with zero-
temperature energy in the form of fluctuating electromagnetic radiation fields (the zero-point field)
and short-lived virtual particles (the 'Dirac sea') [6]. Formally, every point of space should contain
an infinite amount of zero-point energy. By assuming a minimum wavelength of electromagnetic
vibrations, the energy density of the 'quantum vacuum' has been reduced to the still astronomical
figure of 10108 joules per cubic centimetre!
The reason we do not normally notice this energy is said to be because of its uniform density, and
most scientists are happy to ignore it altogether. However, many experiments have been carried out
whose results are widely regarded as consistent with the existence of zero-point energy. The
presence of surfaces changes the density of vacuum energy and can result in vacuum forces, an
example being the Casimir effect -- an attractive force between two parallel conducting plates.
However, far more experimental work is needed to test the theory and alternative explanations.
NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center is studying the possibility of harnessing zero-point energy for
spacecraft propulsion as part of its Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program [7].
*H.P. Blavatsky writes: 'It is impossible to conceive anything without a cause; the attempt to do so makes the
mind a blank' (The Secret Doctrine, 1:44). This implies that there must be a great many scientists walking
round with blank minds!

Whereas the conventional theory (known as quantum electrodynamics) derives the zero-point
field (ZPF) -- sometimes called the 'quantum ether' -- from quantum theory and assumes that it is
generated by physical matter-energy, there is a competing approach stochastic electrodynamics)
which regards the ZPF as a very real, intrinsic substratum of the universe. Such a view is closer to
the traditional concept of the ether, as held by researchers and experimenters such as Baron von
Reichenbach (who called it 'odic force'), John Keely, Nikola Tesla, Wilhelm Reich (who called it
'orgone energy'), and a large number of more recent investigators in the field of ether physics. One
of them, Dan Davidson, estimates that there are 2000 to 3000 experimenters worldwide conducting
unorthodox research into technologies beyond the currently accepted paradigms of science,
including gravity control, superluminal energy transfer, and 'free energy' devices [8].
Some scientists have argued that mass, inertia, and gravity are all connected with the fluctuating
electromagnetic energy of the ZPF [9]. Inertia (a body's resistance to a change in its state of motion)
is said to be an acceleration-dependent, electromagnetic drag force stemming from interactions
between a charged particle and the ZPF. The fluctuations of the ZPF are also said to cause charged
particles to emit secondary electromagnetic fields, which give rise to a residual attractive force --
gravity. In this theory, then, gravity is seen as a manifestation of electromagnetism. It is thought that
by reconfiguring the ZPF surrounding a body, it may be possible to modify its inertia, or 'inertial
mass', and to control gravity.
Some ZPF researchers suggest that there is no such thing as mass -- only charges, which interact
with the all-pervasive electromagnetic field to create the illusion of matter [10]. However, since
they do not go on to present a concrete picture of what they understand by 'charge', or 'charged
particle', this theory does not get us very far. In the standard model of particle physics, 'fundamental'
charged particles such as electrons and quarks are modelled as infinitely small particles with no
internal structure -- which is clearly a physical impossibility.
Researchers in the field of ether physics have developed a variety of more concrete models to
explain the structure of matter and the forces of nature [11]. Such theories are already 'unified' in the
sense that physical matter and forces are all derived from the activity of the underlying ether.
Subatomic particles are often modelled as self-sustaining vortices in the ether; this means that
masses continuously radiate and absorb flows of ether. Inertia can be pictured as the drag force
exerted by the disturbed ether as a body accelerates through it. Electric charge may represent a
difference in ether concentration, while magnetic forces may involve circular flows of ether. Some
researchers, such as Dan Davidson, say that just as electric charge is a gradient in ether, the
gravitational force is a gradient of electric charge. This means that if the etheric gradient is changed
around an atom, the gravity force will also change, as demonstrated by the Biefeld-Brown effect.
The effect can be amplified by synchronizing ether flows through the nucleus of a given mass, and
this can be achieved either by rotation or movement or by sonic stimulation, which causes all the
atoms to resonate together [12].
Paul LaViolette has developed a theory known as 'subquantum kinetics', which replaces the 19th-
century concept of a mechanical, inert ether with that of a continuously transmuting ether [13].
Physical subatomic particles and energy quanta are regarded as wavelike concentration patterns in
the ether. A particle's gravitational and electromagnetic fields are said to result from the fluxes of
different kinds of etheric particles, or etherons, across their boundaries, and the resulting etheron
concentration gradients. Positively charged particles such as protons generate matter-attracting
gravity wells whereas, contrary to conventional theory, negatively charged particles such as
electrons generate matter-repelling gravity hills; this would explain the Biefeld-Brown effect.
Electrically neutral matter remains gravitationally attractive because the proton's gravity well
marginally dominates the electron's gravity hill.
In Joseph Cater's model of 'soft particle physics', ether particles combine to form light-photons of
different frequencies, which in turn combine to form denser particles. Physical matter particles
('hard' particles) are said to be composed of gamma-ray photons, whereas lower-frequency photons
form subtler ('softer') particles. Gravity effects are said to be produced by highly penetrating
electromagnetic radiation located between the lower portion of the infrared and the radar band [14].
The energies emitted by the sun are transformed into ever lower frequencies as they penetrate the
earth, and a small amount is transformed into gravity-inducing radiations, which hold the earth in its
orbit. The earth's own gravity is said to arise mainly from the thermal agitation of atoms and
molecules, as the resulting radiation is most readily transformed into gravity-inducing radiations.
Cater argues that what are usually regarded as electrically neutral atoms and molecules actually
have a small positive charge (as does the earth as a whole). Positively charged matter is attracted by
gravity, whereas negative charges are repelled by gravity, so that if matter is impregnated with
sufficient quantities of negative charges (especially soft electrons) it will lose weight and even
levitate.
It is sometimes theorized that gravity is caused by the bombardment of physical matter by gravity
particles. Tom Van Flandern, for example, argues that the universe is full of tiny particles ('classical
gravitons') moving at extremely high speed in all directions, and that the collisions of these particles
cause bodies to be 'attracted' (i.e. pushed) towards one another, since bodies screen one another
from a certain proportion of counteracting collisions [15]. While it is logical to suppose that all
attractive forces ultimately arise from pushes at some level,* the impact theory of gravity is too
simplistic to account for all the relevant facts.
*If we reason by analogy (as above, so below), the microscopic world is a vastly scaled-down and speeded-up
version of the macroscopic world (see The infinite divisibility of matter). At the macroscopic level, it is
impossible to find an attractive or pulling force that is not really a push. For instance, a person who is 'sucked'
out of a pressurized cabin if the door opens while the aircraft is in flight is really pushed out by the greater
number of molecular bombardments 'behind' them. If an object immersed in an elastic fluid emits waves of
condensation and rarefaction, other bodies will be attracted or repelled depending on whether the wavelength is
very large or very small compared with their dimensions (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., 1898, p. 64). This
case therefore involves both attractive and repulsive forces, and both are ultimately reducible to pushes, but the
situation is far more complex than in the aircraft example.

The impact theory cannot explain why all the planets orbit the sun in planes which form only
small angles to the sun's equatorial plane, or why all the planets circle the sun in the same direction
as the sun's sense of rotation. It also ignores the evidence that gravitation is bipolar and is linked
with electromagnetism. Another problem is that gravity-particle impacts would heat all material
bodies to an enormous temperature. Defenders of the theory reply simply that this heat must be re-
radiated isotropically into space. However, there is no clear evidence to support this in the case of
the earth. Further evidence against the theory was discovered by Q. Majorana, who found that
placing a lead mass between a lead sphere and the earth reduced the earth's gravitational pull on the
sphere very slightly, whereas placing the lead mass above the sphere did not [16]. He concluded that
this contradicted Le Sage's theory; it is also inconsistent with newtonian theory, which does not
allow gravitational shielding.
Van Flandern argues that if the sun's force propagated at the speed of light, it would accelerate the
earth's orbital speed by a noticeable amount; he calculates from binary-pulsar data that gravity must
propagate at least 20 billion times faster than light [17]! Pari Spolter argues that since the sun's
gravitational force is constantly spread in all directions, and since the angular velocities of the sun
and planets remain constant for long periods of time, it is immaterial what the speed of gravity is.
The lag period would be important only at the beginning and end of a planet's evolution [18].
Gravity anomalies
In theory, all freely falling bodies -- individual atoms as well as macroscopic objects -- should
experience a gravitational acceleration (g) of 9.8 m/s near the earth's surface. In reality, the value of
g varies all over the earth owing to its departure from a perfect sphere (i.e. the equatorial bulge and
local topography) and -- in the conventional theory -- to local variations in the density of the crust
and upper mantle. These 'gravity anomalies' are believed to be fully explicable in the context of
newtonian theory. We have seen, however, that there is no empirical basis for the assumption that
gravity is proportional to inert mass.
Rather than being a direct function of the quantity of matter, the strength of the gravitational
force appears to depend on the electrical and other properties of matter. The local gravity field may
vary due to the ability of negatively charged particles and ions to screen or counteract the attractive
force of gravity, and to the capacity of different types of rock to emit and absorb gravity-inducing
radiation under different conditions. There may also be huge caverns in the earth's outer shell. This
would be impossible if the newtonian theory were correct and gravity had unlimited penetrability,
since pressures would increase all the way to the earth's centre. Even a few miles beneath the earth's
surface the immense pressures would cause any large cavities to collapse. But if the orthodox
assumptions are wrong, many interesting possibilities open up.
On the basis of the newtonian theory of gravity, it might be expected that gravitational attraction
over continents, and especially mountains, would be higher than over oceans. But this is not the
case. In fact, the gravity on top of large mountains is less than expected on the basis of their visible
mass while over ocean surfaces it is unexpectedly high. To explain this, the concept of isostasy was
developed: it was postulated that low-density rock exists 30 to 100 km beneath mountains, which
buoys them up, while denser rock exists 30 to 100 km beneath the ocean bottom. However, this
hypothesis is far from proven. Maurice Allais commented: 'There is an excess of gravity over the
ocean and a deficiency above the continents. The theory of isostasis provided only a
pseudoexplanation of this' [1]. The standard, simplistic theory of isostasy is contradicted by the fact
that in regions of tectonic activity vertical movements often intensify gravity anomalies rather than
acting to restore isostatic equilibrium. For example, the Greater Caucasus shows a positive gravity
anomaly (usually interpreted to mean it is overloaded with excess mass), yet it is rising rather than
subsiding.
While scientists know the value of many 'fundamental constants' to eight decimal places, they
disagree on the gravitational constant (G) after only three; this is regarded as an embarrassment in
an age of precision [2]. And if certain highly anomalous results are taken into account, scientists
disagree even about the first decimal place. In 1981 F.D. Stacey and G.J. Tuck published a paper in
which they showed that measurements of G in deep mines, boreholes, and under the sea gave values
about 1% higher than that currently accepted [3]. Furthermore, the deeper the experiment, the
greater the discrepancy.
However, no one took much notice of these results until 1986, when E. Fischbach and his
colleagues reanalyzed the data from a series of experiments by Etvs in the 1920s, which were
supposed to have shown that gravitational acceleration is independent of the mass or composition of
the attracted body. Fischbach et al. found that there was a consistent anomaly hidden in the data that
had been dismissed as random error. On the basis of these laboratory results and the observations
from mines, they announced that they had found evidence of a short-range, composition-dependent
'fifth force'. Their paper caused a great deal of controversy and generated a flurry of experimental
activity in physics laboratories around the world [4].
The majority of the experiments failed to find any evidence of a composition-dependent force.
But one or two did. Is it safe to simply dismiss these results as 'experimental error', or is there a
genuine unexplained anomaly which only experimental setups of the right design and sensitivity are
capable of detecting? Several earlier experimenters have detected anomalies incompatible with
newtonian theory, but the results have long since been forgotten. For instance, Charles Brush
performed very precise experiments showing that metals of very high atomic weight and density
tend to fall very slightly faster than elements of lower atomic weight and density, even though the
same mass of each metal is used. He also reported that a constant mass or quantity of certain metals
may be appreciably changed in weight by changing its physical condition [5]. Experiments by
Victor Crmieu showed that gravitation measured in water at the earth's surface appears to be one
tenth greater than that computed by newtonian theory [6]. Donald Kelly has demonstrated that if the
absorption capacity of a body is reduced by magnetizing or electrically energizing it, it is attracted
to the earth at a rate less than g [7]. Physicists normally measure g in a controlled manner which
includes not altering the absorption capacity of bodies from their usual state. Bruce DePalma
discovered that rotating objects falling in a magnetic field accelerate faster than g [8].
As already mentioned, measurements of gravity below the earth's surface are consistently higher
than predicted on the basis of Newton's theory (which includes a universal gravitational constant
and the inverse-square law) [9]. Sceptics simply assume that hidden rocks of unusually high density
must be present. However, measurements in mines where densities are very well known have given
the same anomalous results, as have measurements to a depth of 1673 metres in an homogenous ice
sheet in Greenland, well above the underlying rock. Instead of inventing new forces to explain such
results, it would be better to reexamine the fundamental assumption that gravity is proportional to
inert mass.
Like Pari Spolter, Stephen Mooney believes that the Cavendish torsion balance experiment
actually measures electrostatic attraction rather than gravitational attraction [10]. He argues that the
mechanism of this attraction is the same as that for the gravitational attraction between macro-scale
bodies -- namely, the absorption of radiation. Repulsion, on the other hand, involves bodies pushing
away from each other due to the equivalence of their radiation. He also points out that when
Cavendish first conducted the torsion balance experiment, he discovered, but did not understand,
that the attraction increased when he heated the larger of the two bodies. Mooney suggests that this
is due to the increased exchange of radiation between the bodies. He believes that experiments to
measure G actually measure the radiation density at the earth's surface, which is not absolutely
constant. Similarly, he attributes the increased gravitational attraction in a deep mine shaft to the
fact that the decay of the surrounding rocks increases the density of the radiation impacting on the
bodies.
Newtonian gravity theory is challenged by various aspects of planetary behaviour in our solar
system. The rings of Saturn, for example, present a major problem [11]. There are tens of thousands
of rings and ringlets separated by just as many gaps in which matter is either less dense or
essentially absent. The complex, dynamic nature of the rings seems beyond the power of newtonian
mechanics to explain. The gaps in the asteroid belt present a similar puzzle. Another major anomaly
concerns the deviations in the orbits of the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)
[12]. A 'Planet X' beyond Pluto has been hypothesized, but despite extensive searches no such
planet has been found. Alternatively, the deviations may point to defects in the current theory of
gravitation.

References
The mass error
[1] Pari Spolter, Gravitational force of the sun, Granada Hills, CA: Orb Publishing, 1993, pp. 137-
138.
[2] Ibid., p. 18.
[3] Ibid., p. 117.
[4] Ibid., pp. 231-238.
[5] Ibid., pp. 195-198.
[6] Johannes Kepler, Epitome of Copernican astronomy (1618-21), in Great books of the western
world, Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1952, vol. 16, pp. 895-905; Stephen Mooney,
'From the cause of gravity to the revolution of science', Apeiron (http://redshift.vif.com), v. 6, no. 1-
2, pp. 138-141, 1999.
[7] Quoted in Meta Research Bulletin, 5:3, p. 41, 1996.
Electrogravity
[1] Q. Majorana, 'On gravitation. Theoretical and experimental researches', Phil. Mag., v. 39, pp.
488-504, 1920; Q. Majorana, 'Sur l'absorption de la gravitation', Comptes Rendus de l'Acadmie des
Sciences, v. 173, pp. 478-479, 1921; Teodor Schlomka, 'ber die Abhngigkeit der Schwerkraft
vom Zwischenmedium', Zeit. fur Geophys., 1927, pp. 397-400; Q. Majorana, 'Quelques recherches
sur l'absorption de la gravitation par la matire', Journal de Physique et le Radium, I, pp. 314-324,
1930.
[2] E.J. Saxl, 'An electrically charged torque pendulum', Nature, v. 203, pp. 136-138, 1964; E.J.
Saxl and M. Allen, '1970 solar eclipse as "seen" by a torsion pendulum', Physical Review D, v. 3,
pp. 823-825, 1971; Rho Sigma (Rolf Schaffranke), Ether-technology: A rational approach to
gravity control, Lakemont, GA: CSA Printing & Bindery, 1977, pp. 23, 50-3.
[3] Journal of Scientific Exploration (http://www.scientificexploration.org), 10:2, pp. 269-279, and
10:3, pp. 413-416, 1996.
[4] M.F.C. Allais, 'Should the laws of gravitation be reconsidered?', parts 1 and 2, Aero/Space
Engineering, v. 18, pp. 46-52, September 1959, and v. 18, pp. 51-55, October 1959
(http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/Science.htm).
[5] Shu-wen Zhou, 'Abnormal physical phenomena observed when the sun, moon, and earth are
aligned', 21st Century Science and Technology, Fall 1999, pp. 55-61.
[6] Qian-shen Wang et al., 'Precise measurement of gravity variations during a total solar eclipse',
Physical Review D, v. 62, 041101, 2000; for abstract, see http://users.telemail.it/gmodanese/rei.htm.
[7] Tom Van Flandern, 'Possible new properties of gravity', Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 244,
pp. 249-261, 1996.
[8] The Gravity Society, http://www.gravity.org; Quantum Cavorite,
http://inetarena.com/~noetic/pls/gravity.html.
[9] Jeane Manning, The coming energy revolution: The search for free energy, NY: Avery, 1996, pp.
66, 75; Dan A. Davidson, 'Free energy, gravity and the aether', 1997,
http://216.60.190.54/davidson/npap1.htm; Dan A. Davidson, Shape power, Sierra Vista, AR:
RIVAS, 1997; Antigravity News and Space Drive Technology, http://www.padrak.com/agn.
[10] Laurence Hecht, 'Rethinking the laws of gravitation', 21st Century Science and Technology,
Fall 1998, pp. 2-3 (http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/media9-1.htm).
[11]Ether-technology, p. 42.
[12] Ibid., pp. 40, 43.
[13] E.J. Saxl, 'An electrically charged torque pendulum', Nature, v. 203, pp. 136-138, 1964.
[14] The Home of Primordial Energy (Bruce DePalma), http://www.depalma.pair.com; Manning,
The coming energy revolution, pp. 82-86.
[15] Paul LaViolette, 'The U.S. antigravity squadron', in Thomas Valone (ed.), Electrogravitic
systems: Reports on a new propulsion methodology, Washington, DC: Integrity Research Institute,
1999, pp. 82-101; Paul LaViolette, Subquantum kinetics: The alchemy of creation, Schenectady,
NY, 1994, pp. 168-183 (http://www.etheric.com); Ether-technology, pp. 25-49; Thomas Townsend
Brown Website, http://www.soteria.com/brown.
[16] 'The U.S. antigravity squadron', pp. 84-85.
[17] Ibid., p. 82.
[18] Ether-technology, pp. 73-82, 87-88, 108; John Davidson, The secret of the creative vacuum,
Saffron Walden, Essex: Daniel Company, 1989, pp. 200-216; Joseph H. Cater, The ultimate reality,
Pomeroy, WA: Health Research, 1998, pp. 359-369; The Searl Effect, http://www.searleffect.com.
[19] V.V. Roschin and S.M. Godin, 'Experimental research of the magnetic-gravity effects',
http://www.watchersnet.com/nightwatch/antigrav_paper.html.
Empty space vs. the ether
[1] Quoted in G. de Purucker, The esoteric tradition, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press,
2nd ed., 1940, pp. 443-444fn; H.P. Blavatsky, The secret doctrine, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical
University Press, 1977 (1888), 1:490-491.
[2] The esoteric tradition, 901-902fn.
[3] See Space, time, and relativity (Einstein's fallacies), http:/ ourworld
.compuserve.com/homepages/relativ.htm.
[4] Brian Greene, The elegant universe: Superstrings, hidden dimensions, and the quest for the
ultimate theory, London: Vintage, 2000, p. 19.
[5] Ibid., pp. 287-288, 379.
[6] R. Forward, 'Mass modification experiment definition study', Journal of Scientific Exploration,
10:3, pp. 325-354, 1996.
[7] Breakthrough Propulsion Physics, http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/bpp/summ.htm.
[8] Dan A. Davidson, 'Free energy, gravity and the aether', 1997,
http://216.60.190.54/davidson/npap1.htm; Jeane Manning, The coming energy revolution: The
search for free energy, NY: Avery, 1996; Rho Sigma (Rolf Schaffranke), Ether-technology: A
rational approach to gravity control, Lakemont, GA: CSA Printing & Bindery, 1977;
Elektromagnum, www.newphys.se/elektromagnum; KeelyNet, http://www.keelynet.com.
[9] B. Haisch and A. Rueda, 'The zero-point field and the NASA challenge to create the space
drive', Journal of Scientific Exploration, 11:4, pp. 473-485, 1997; 'Questions and answers about the
origin of inertia and the zero-point field', http://www.calphysics.org/questions.html.
[10] B. Haisch, A. Rueda and H.E. Puthoff, 'Beyond E=mc', The Sciences, 34:6, pp. 26-31, 1994.
[11] E.g. Caroline H. Thompson, 'Phi-waves and forces', December 2000,
http://users.aber.ac.uk/cat/Papers/phi-waves.htm. See also refs. 8, 12, 13, 14.
[12] Dan A. Davidson, Shape power, Sierra Vista, AR: RIVAS, 1997, pp. 1-7.
[13] Paul LaViolette, Beyond the big bang: Ancient myth and the science of continuous creation,
Rochester, VE: Park St Press, 1995, pp. 309-314; Paul LaViolette, Subquantum kinetics: The
alchemy of creation, Schenectady, NY, 1994, pp. 168-183.
[14] Joseph H. Cater, The ultimate reality, Pomeroy, WA: Health Research, 1998, pp. 73-82, 167-
181.
[15] Tom Van Flandern, Dark matter, missing planets & new comets, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic
Books , 1993, pp. 27-57.
[16] Q. Majorana, 'Quelques recherches sur l'absorption de la gravitation par la matire', Journal de
Physique et le Radium, I, pp. 314-324, 1930.
[17] Tom Van Flandern, 'The speed of gravity -- what the experiments say', Meta Research Bulletin,
6:4, 1997, pp. 49-62.
[18] Pari Spolter, pers. com., 2001.
Gravity anomalies
[1] M.F.C. Allais, 'Should the laws of gravitation be reconsidered?', part 2, Aero/Space Engineering,
v. 18, October 1959, p. 52.
[2] D. Kestenbaum, 'The legend of G', New Scientist, 17 January 1998, pp. 39-42.
[3] F.D. Stacey and G.J. Tuck, 'Geophysical evidence for non-newtonian gravity', Nature, v. 292,
pp. 230-232, 1981.
[4] Rupert Sheldrake, Seven experiments that could change the world, London: Fourth Estate, 1994,
pp. 174-176; Pari Spolter, Gravitational force of the sun, Granada Hills, CA: Orb Publishing, 1993,
pp. 146-147.
[5] Charles F. Brush, 'Some new experiments in gravitation', Proceedings of the American
Philosophy Society, v. 63, pp. 57-61, 1924.
[6] Victor Crmieu, 'Recherches sur la gravitation', Comptes Rendus de l'Acadmie des Sciences,
Dec. 1906, pp. 887-889; Victor Crmieu, 'Le problme de la gravitation', Rev. Gen. Sc. Pur. et Appl.,
v. 18, pp. 7-13, 1907.
[7] Stephen Mooney, 'From the cause of gravity to the revolution of science', Apeiron, v. 6, no. 1-2,
pp. 138-141, 1999; Josef Hasslberger, 'Comments on gravity drop tests performed by Donald A.
Kelly', Nexus, Dec. 1994-Jan. 1995, pp. 48-49.
[8] The Home of Primordial Energy (Bruce DePalma), http://www.depalma.pair.com; Jeane
Manning, The coming energy revolution: The search for free energy, NY: Avery, 1996, pp. 82-86.
[9] S.C. Holding and G.J. Tuck, 'A new mine determination of the newtonian gravitational constant',
Nature, v. 307, pp. 714-716, 1984; Mark A. Zumberge et al., 'Results from the 1987 Greenland G
experiment', Eos, v. 69, p. 1046, 1988; R. Poole, ' "Fifth force" update: more tests needed', Science,
v. 242, p. 1499, 1988; Ian Anderson, 'Icy tests provide firmer evidence for a fifth force', New
Scientist, 11 August 1988, p. 29.
[10] Mooney, 'From the cause of gravity to the revolution of science'.
[11] W.R. Corliss (comp.), The moon and the planets, Glen Arm, MD: Sourcebook Project, 1985,
pp. 282-284.
[12] Tom Van Flandern, Dark matter, missing planets & new comets, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic
Books , 1993, pp. 315-325.

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Gravity and Antigravity

Object 10
 David Pratt
February 2001

Part 2
Levitation technology
Human levitation
Theosophical writings
References

Levitation technology
The megalithic structures found at various sites around the world have generated endless
controversy as to how they were built. Conventional archaeologists, who dismiss the possibility of
highly advanced civilizations in the remote past, insist that they were built solely with the use of
primitive tools and brute force. Some of the structures, or parts of them, could have been built in
this way. However, a number of engineers have stated that some features would be difficult if not
impossible to duplicate today, even using the most advanced technology. The sheer weight and size
of some of the stone blocks have prompted several researchers to wonder whether the ancient
builders had mastered some form of levitation technology.*
*The acoustic and magnetic levitation techniques currently under development by mainstream scientists create
a physical lifting force stronger than the force of gravity and are not designed to modify gravity or generate an
antigravitational force.

The pre-Incan fortresses at Ollantaytambo and Sacsayhuaman in the Peruvian Andes consist of
cyclopean walls constructed from tight-fitting polygonal stone blocks, some weighing 120 tonnes or
more. The blocks used at Ollantaytambo were somehow transported from a quarry located on
another mountaintop 11 km away, the descent from which was impeded by a river canyon with 305-
metre vertical rock walls. The ruins of Tiahuanaco near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia include a number
of blocks weighing around 100 tonnes, which were transported from quarries 50 km away [1].
According to the local Aymara Indians, the complex was built at the 'beginning of time' by the
founder-god Viracocha and his followers, who caused the stones to be 'carried through the air to the
sound of a trumpet'. An alternative theme is that they created a 'heavenly fire' that consumed the
stones and enabled large blocks to be lifted by hand 'as if they were cork'. According to a Mayan
legend, the temple complex of Uxmal in the Yucatan Peninsula was built by a race of dwarfs who
were able to move heavy rocks into place by whistling [2].
Legends of sound being used to lift and transport stone blocks are in fact universal. For instance,
according to early Greek historians, the walls of the ancient city of Thebes were built by Amphion,
a son of Jupiter, who moved the large stones 'to the music of his harp', while his 'songs drew even
stones and beasts after him'. Another version claims that when he played 'loud and clear on his
golden lyre, rock twice as large followed in his footsteps'. The 10th-century Arab historian Mas'udi
wrote that, to build the pyramids, the ancient Egyptians inserted papyri inscribed with certain
characters beneath the stone blocks; they were then struck by an instrument, producing a sound
which caused them to rise into the air and travel for a distance of over 86 metres [3].
The achievements of the ancient Egyptian builders have caused even some fairly orthodox
investigators to wonder whether levitation might have been employed [4]. For instance the roof of
the King's Chamber in the Great Pyramid, 200 feet up, consists of huge granite beams weighing up
to 70 tonnes. What's more, the major temples on the Giza plateau -- the two next to the Sphinx and
those besides the Second and Third Pyramids -- contain colossal limestone blocks weighing
between 50 and 200 tonnes and placed on top of one another. The largest are an incredible 9 metres
long, 3.6 metres wide and 3.6 metres high. It is interesting to note that there are only a few cranes in
the world today capable of lifting objects weighing 200 tonnes or more [5].
The largest blocks used in any known man-made structure are found in the ancient platform
beneath the Roman Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek in Lebanon [6]. The foundation platform is
enclosed by a cyclopean retaining wall; in the western side, on the fifth level, at a height of 10
metres, there are three colossal stones known as the Trilithon, each measuring about 19.5 metres
long, 4.5 metres high and 3.5 metres deep, and weighing a staggering 1000 tonnes. The stones fit
together perfectly and not even a knife blade can be pushed between them. At the quarry, half a
kilometre away, there remains a fourth, even larger block, weighing as much as 1200 tonnes, the
lower part of its base still attached to the bedrock. The course beneath the Trilithon contains seven
mammoth stones weighing about 450 tonnes each. There are no traces of a roadbed leading from
the quarry and no traces of any ramp. Nor are there any written records as to how the platform was
built. According to local Arab legend, Baalbek's first citadel was built before the Flood, and rebuilt
afterwards by a race of giants. The Phoenician historian Sanchoniatho stated that Lebanon's first
city was Byblos, founded by the god Ouranus, who designed cyclopean structures and was able to
make stones move as if they had a life of their own.

Figure. The massive Trilithon at Baalbek. (The silhouetted two-storey house has been
inserted for scale.) [7]
 Figure. The 'Stone of the South' still in the quarry at Baalbek. [8]

Evidence that worldwide legends of acoustic levitation might have a basis in fact, was provided
by the Swedish engineer Henry Kjellson, who in the 1950s recorded the experiences of two separate
western travellers who had allegedly witnessed demonstrations of sonic technology in Tibet [9].
Since neither of the following accounts can be verified, sceptics assume that Kjellson probably
made them up himself.
During a visit to a Tibetan monastery situated southwest of the capital Lhasa, the Swede Dr Jarl
was taken to a meadow where there was a high cliff to the northwest. About 250 metres up the face
of the cliff was an entrance to a cave, in front of which was a wide ledge where monks were
building a stone wall. Embedded in the ground 250 metres from the foot of the cliff, was a large
rock slab with a bowl-shaped depression in it. A block of stone, 1.5 metres long, 1 metre wide, and
1 metre high, was manhandled into the depression. Monks with 19 musical instruments, consisting
of 13 drums and 6 very long trumpets, were arranged in an arc of about 90 degrees, 63 metres from
the bowl-stone. The drums, open at one end, were aimed at the stone block. Behind each instrument
was a line of monks eight to ten deep. A monk in the middle of the arc started chanting and beating
out a rhythm on a small drum, and then the other instruments joined in. After four minutes, the large
stone block began to wobble and floated into the air rocking from side to side. All the instruments
were trained constantly on the stone as it rose upwards at an accelerating rate and finally crashed
onto the ledge. The monks continued to perform this feat at the rate of 5 or 6 stones per hour. The
role of the 200 or so monks behind the instruments was unclear: one suggestion is that they used
some form of coordinated psychokinesis to aid the flight of the stone.
 Figure. Dr Jarl's sketch showing how Tibetan monks were able to raise stone blocks
into the air using the power of sound.

The second case involved an Austrian named Linauer, who stated that while at a remote
monastery in northern Tibet during the 1930s, he had witnessed the demonstration of two curious
sound instruments which, when used in concert, could induce weightlessness in stone blocks. The
first was an extremely large gong, 3.5 metres in diameter, composed of a central circular area of
very soft gold , followed by a ring of pure iron, and finally a ring of extremely hard brass. When
struck, it produced an extremely low dumph which ceased almost immediately. The second
instrument was also composed of three different metals; it had a half-oval shape like a mussel shell,
and measured 2 metres long and 1 metre wide, with strings stretched longitudinally over its hollow
surface. Linauer was told that it emitted an inaudible resonance wave when the gong was struck.
The two devices were used in conjunction with a pair of large screens, positioned so as to form a
triangular configuration with them. When the gong was struck with a large club to produce a series
of brief, low-frequency sounds, a monk was able to lift a heavy stone block with just one hand.
Linauer was informed that this was how their ancestors had built protective walls around Tibet, and
that such devices could also disintegrate physical matter.
A man who appears to have gone a long way to unlocking the secrets of sound was John Ernst
Worrell Keely of Philadelphia (1827-1898). He spent 50 years developing and refining a wide
variety of devices that used 'sympathetic vibratory force' or 'etheric force' to levitate objects, spin
large wheels, power engines, and disintegrate rock. He performed many convincing demonstrations
in his laboratory for scientists and other interested observers. He attempted to put his apparatus into
commercial production, but this was hampered by the fact that it had to be tuned to the bodily
vibrations of the operator and also to the surroundings [10].
 Figure. John Keely.

Keely built several devices to manipulate gravity [11]. One of them was the 'sympathetic
transmitter', a copper globe about one foot (30 cm) in diameter, containing a Chladni plate and
various metal tubes, whose position could be adjusted by means of a knob. The globe was held by a
metal stand, around the base of which projected small metal rods a few inches long, of different
sizes and lengths, which vibrated like tuning forks when twanged by the fingers. In one experiment,
the transmitter was connected by a wire made of gold , platinum, and silver to the top of a water-
filled glass jar. When the right chord was sounded on the strings of a zither, metal balls, weighing 2
pounds (0.9 kg), rose from the bottom of the jar until they hit the metal cap, and remained there
until a different note was played which caused them to sink again. Witnesses relate how, after
further experimentation, Keely was able to make heavy steel balls move in the air by simply playing
on a kind of mouth organ. Using the same combination of transmitter, connecting cord, and musical
instrument, he was able to make a 3.6-kg model of an airship rise into the air, descend, or hover
with a motion 'as gentle as that of thistledown'. He was also able to lift extremely heavy weights by
connecting them to vibratory appliances worn on his person; several people witnessed him levitate
and move a 3-tonne cast-iron sphere in this way, and also make it heavier so that it sank into the
ground as if into mud.
Keely was able to catalyze the vibratory force necessary to make objects move using a variety of
musical instruments, including trumpets, horns, harmonicas, fiddles, and zithers, and could even
operate the equipment just by whistling. One sceptic, however, claimed that Keely did not play on
an instrument to set up sympathetic vibration but to signal to a confederate in another part of the
building when to turn on or off the compressed air that supposedly powered his 'fraudulent' devices!
A man who in more recent times claimed to know the secret of how the pyramids and other
megalithic structures were built was Edward Leedskalnin [12]. He lived in a place called Coral
Castle, near Miami, Florida, which he built himself from giant blocks of coral weighing up to 30
tons. In 28 years, working alone, without the use of modern construction machinery, he quarried
and erected a total of 1100 tons. He was very secretive and usually worked at night, and died in
1952 without divulging his construction techniques, despite visits from engineers and government
officials. Some teenagers spying on him one evening claimed they saw him 'float coral blocks
through the air like hydrogen balloons'. It is widely thought that he had discovered some means of
locally reversing the effects of gravity. From the remaining contents of Leedskalnin's workshop and
photographic evidence, engineer Chris Dunn suggests that he generated a radio signal that caused
the coral to vibrate at its resonant frequency, and then used an electromagnetic field to flip the
magnetic poles of the atoms so that they were repulsed by the earth's magnetic field.

Human levitation
Over 200 Christian saints are reported to have levitated -- usually involuntarily -- during religious
raptures, and some cases are supported by an impressive amount of eyewitness testimony [1]. For
instance, the 16th-century mystic St Teresa of Avila was observed on many occasions, typically
when deep in prayer, to rise anywhere from a few feet to as high as the ceiling of the room. When
she felt an 'attack' coming on she would beg the sisters in her convent to hold her down, though they
were not always successful. Once while receiving Holy Communion from the Bishop of Avila, she
felt her knees begin to leave the floor so she clutched onto the grille. But after receiving the
sacrament, she let go -- with predictable results.
The 17th-century Franciscan monk St Joseph of Copertino began levitating during services and
was often observed by whole congregations. Once while walking in the monastery grounds, he
soared up into the branches of an olive tree and remained kneeling on a branch for half an hour, the
thin stem hardly moving under his weight. Unable to glide down, after his ecstasy had passed, he
had to wait for a ladder to be brought. For 35 years he was banned from all public services, but he
levitated not only before the Pope and his fellow monks but also before Europe's titled heads and
the philosopher Leibnitz. The Spanish ambassador to the papal court watched him fly over the
heads of a crowd to a statue of the Virgin Mary, where he briefly hovered. After giving his
customary shriek, he flew back; the ambassador's wife had to be revived with smelling salts. The
duke of Brunswick hid himself in a stairway to observe one of Joseph's levitations. After observing
a second levitation, the duke renounced his Lutheran faith and became a Catholic. At Osimo, Joseph
flew eight feet into the air to kiss a statue of Jesus then carried it off to his cell and floated about
with it. He is also reported to have caught up another friar and carried him in the air around the
room.
The annals of 19th-century spiritualism contain many references to human levitations, as well as
to tables, chairs, and other objects gaining or losing weight, levitating, and moving without human
contact [2]. The most famous levitator of all was the medium Daniel Dunglas Home (pronounced:
Hume). His first recorded levitation took place at a seance in August 1852. He was suddenly 'taken
up into the air . . . He palpitated from head to foot with the contending emotions of joy and fear . . .
Again and again he was taken from the floor, and the third time he was carried to the ceiling of the
apartment , with which his hands and feet came into gentle contact.' He later became able to
levitate at will, and believed he was lifted up by 'spirits'. During a public career lasting 30 years,
hundreds of people witnessed his levitations. The most famous of Home's levitations was when in
the company of Lord Adare, the Master of Lindsay, and a friend of theirs, he floated out of one
window of a London house and in at another. The eminent English scientist Sir William Crookes
saw him levitate on several occasions and verified that there was no trickery involved. On one
occasion, Crookes' wife, who was sitting beside Home, was raised off the ground in her chair [3].
The magician Harry Kellar, who enjoyed showing audiences how mediums did their tricks,
described how during a world tour in the 1870s he was watching a Zulu witch doctor go into a
trance when suddenly 'to my intense amazement, the recumbent body slowly arose from the ground
and floated upward in the air to the height of about three feet, where for a while it floated, moving
up and down'. In 1882 he challenged the medium William Eglinton to perform some feat which no
conjuror could repeat. Eglinton then levitated, carrying Kellar, holding his foot, into the air -- an
achievement which Kellar had to admit he could not account for [4].
The Italian medium Eusapia Palladino occasionally used to levitate and was also able to increase
or decrease the weight of objects. Her paranormal powers were verified in investigations conducted
by European scientists around the turn of the 20th century. After witnessing her demonstrations, the
French astronomer Camille Flammarion stated that levitation should no longer be any more in
question than the attraction of iron by a magnet [5]. Levitations of mediums have frequently been
reported since then in spiritualist journals, but no medium has been able to produce them in
conditions which could be called fraud-proof.
In the mid-19th century, Louis Jacolliot, Chief Justice of Chandernagore, travelled all over India
to learn more about wonder-working fakirs. He witnessed many extraordinary phenomena, which
he tried to view without prejudice or emotion, as a judge would weigh evidence in a court of law. In
Varanasi (Benares) he met a fakir named Covindasamy, who performed various paranormal
phenomena for him. On one occasion he crossed his arms on his chest and slowly levitated to a
height of ten to twelve inches, remaining in the air more than eight minutes [6]. Another of his
levitations is described by Jacolliot as follows:
Leaning upon [his] cane with one hand, the Fakir rose gradually about two feet from the
ground. His legs were crossed beneath him, and he made no change in his position . . .
For more than twenty minutes I tried to see how Covindasamy could thus fly in the
face and eyes of all the known laws of gravity; it was entirely beyond my
comprehension; the stick gave him no visible support, and there was no apparent contact
between that and his body, except through his right hand. [7]

A similar display was reported by the American journalist John Keel. While travelling in Sikkim
in the 1950s, he met an old lama who demonstrated his ability to levitate.
He . . . pressed one hand on top of his stick, a heavy branch about four feet long,
frowned a little with effort, and then slowly lifted his legs up off the floor until he was
sitting cross-legged in the air! There was nothing behind him or under him. His sole
support was his stick, which he seemed to use to keep his balance. I was astounded.

The lama then conducted the rest of the conversation 'sitting there in empty space' [8].
In July 1916, P. Muller, a German veterinarian stationed in Turkey, attended a gathering of the
Rufai dervishes. He described a large hall in which white-robed dervishes wearing tall black caps
'moved in a circle with sideways steps and curious jerking motions'. About an hour into the
ceremony, the music and dancing and cries of the dancers intensified, when suddenly one of them
bounded into the middle of the circle. He stood still, with his arms upraised, palms facing the sky:
And now the incomprehensible happened . . . [S]lowly the whole tense body of this man
elevated itself about eighteen inches off the floor and remained there, floating in the air
with the toes pointing down.

The ecstatic man remained suspended for about a minute [9].

Tibetans speak of a power of fast-walking known as lung-gom. An eye-witness account was
provided by Alexandra David-Neel, an early 20th-century explorer, journalist, and Buddhist. While
in northern Tibet, she saw a man approaching with an 'unusual gait' and 'extraordinary swiftness'.
I could clearly see his perfectly calm impassive face and wide-open eyes with their gaze
fixed on some invisible far-distant object situated somewhere high up in space. The man
did not run. He seemed to lift himself from the ground, proceeding by leaps. It looked as
if he had been endowed with the elasticity of a ball and rebounded each time his feet
touched the ground. His steps had the regularity of a pendulum. [10]

The native American Indians apparently knew of a similar method of magical running. In the 1920s
anthropologist Carobeth Laird reported on one of the last men to travel 'the old way': the tracks left
by his feet were very faint and far apart , as if his feet had barely touched the ground [11].
In 1984 a German film crew filmed the levitation of an African witch-doctor, Nana Owaka, in
Togo. After meditating for a full day, he placed dry leaves and twigs in a circle and sat in the
middle.
Just as the sun was setting, Owaka started to stir. A villager lit the circle of twigs and
flames shot up. Drums began beating wildly -- then we were hardly able to believe our
eyes as Owaka stood and rose straight upward! It was as if he were being lifted on a
pillow of air. He simply hung as if suspended, with nothing above or below him.

After about a minute, Owaka fell back to earth. He was filmed from two angles, and no one who has
examined the film has been able to detect any signs of trickery [12].

Theosophical writings
As already mentioned, Kepler believed that the rotation of the sun generated its gravitational force.
A disciple of Pythagoras and Plato, he believed in an ether of subtler matter and that stars and
planets were animated by souls. He took the view that it was solar magnetism that held the planets
in their orbits, and he conceived magnetism to be a form of vortical motion. More recent
theosophical writers such as H.P. Blavatsky, W.Q. Judge, and G. de Purucker have also highlighted
the link between gravity and electromagnetism, along with the bipolar nature of gravity, as the
following quotations show.
[T]here is no gravitation in the Newtonian sense, but only magnetic attraction and
repulsion; . . . it is by their magnetism that the planets of the solar system have their
motions regulated in their respective orbits by the still more powerful magnetism of the
sun, not by their weight or gravitation. [1]

Gravitation . . . depends entirely on electrical law, and not on weight or density. [2]

[The theosophical adepts] reject gravity as at present explained. They deny that the so-
called 'impact theory'* is the only one that is tenable in the gravitation hypothesis. They
say that if all efforts made by the physicists to connect it with Ether, in order to explain
electric and magnetic distance-action have hitherto proved complete failures, it is again
due to the race ignorance of the ultimate states of matter in nature, foremost of all the
real nature of the solar stuff. Believing but in the law of mutual magneto-electric
attraction and repulsion, they agree with those who have come to the conclusion that
'Universal gravitation is a weak force,' utterly incapable of accounting for even one
small portion of the phenomena of motion. [3]

*This refers to the idea that gravity is caused by bombardment (as in Van Flandern's theory).

[T]he phenomenon of gravitation or 'falling' does not exist, except as the result of a
conflict of forces. It can only be considered as an isolated force by way of mental
analysis . . . [4]

[G]ravitation [is] the same fundamentally as cosmic electro-magnetism. [5]

[G]ravitation is: Vital Cosmic Magnetism; the efflux or outflow of cosmic vitality from
the heart of the celestial bodies . . . It is this Vital Electricity or Vital Magnetism in the
Cosmic Structure which attracts in all directions, thus uniting all things into the vast
body corporate of the Cosmos. Furthermore, some day it will be discovered that this
Cosmic Magnetic Vitality contains or includes in itself as powerful and as greatly
functional an element of repulsion as it does of attraction; and that behind all its
phenomenal workings, in fact, behind and within itself, lie the still higher and
incomparably more potent principles or elements of the inner and invisible Universe
which thus infallibly guide its activities everywhere. [6]

[Einstein's] ideas with regard to the nature of gravitation as being . . . a warping or

distortion of space in the proximity of material bodies seem to be a mathematical pipe-
dream, purely and simply, although doubtless very creditable indeed to the gentleman's
mathematical ability . . . [7]

The earth is a magnetic body . . . It is charged with one form of electricity -- let us call it
positive -- which it evolves continuously by spontaneous action, in its interior or centre
of motion. Human bodies, in common with all other forms of matter, are charged with
the opposite form of electricity -- negative. That is to say, organic or inorganic bodies, if
left to themselves will constantly and involuntarily charge themselves with, and evolve
the form of electricity opposed to that of the earth itself. . . . [T]here is an attraction
between our planet and the organisms upon it, which holds them upon the surface of the
ground. But the law of gravitation has been counteracted in many instances, by
levitations of persons and inanimate objects . . . [T]he action of our will . . . can produce
. . . a change of this electrical polarity from negative to positive; the man's relations with
the earth-magnet would then have become repellent, and 'gravity' for him would have
ceased to exist. It would then be as natural for him to rush into the air until the repellent
force had exhausted itself, as, before, it had been for him to remain upon the ground.
The altitude of his levitation would be measured by his ability, greater or less, to charge
his body with positive electricity. This control over the physical forces once obtained,
 alteration of his levity or gravity would be as easy as breathing. [8]

Until gravitation is understood to be simply magnetic attraction and repulsion, and the
part played by magnetism itself in the endless correlations of forces in the ether of space
. . . it is neither fair nor wise to deny the levitation of either fakir or table. Bodies
oppositely electrified attract each other; similarly electrified, repulse each other. Admit,
therefore, that any body having weight, whether man or inanimate object, can by any
cause whatever, external or internal, be given the same polarity as the spot on which it
stands, and what is to prevent its rising? [9]

Levitation of the body in apparent defiance of gravitation is a thing to be done with ease
when the process is completely mastered. It contravenes no law. Gravitation is only half
of a law. The Oriental sage admits gravity, if one wishes to adopt the term; but the real
term is attraction, the other half of the law being expressed by the word repulsion, and
both being governed by the great laws of electrical force. Weight and stability depend
on polarity, and when the polarity of an object is altered in respect to the earth
immediately underneath it, then the object may rise. . . . The human body . . . will rise in
the air unsupported, like a bird, when its polarity is thus changed. [10]

Blavatsky says that the flight of birds and swimming of fishes, including the rapid sinking of
whales, involve changes in polarity and gravity not yet admitted by science. Animals can do this
instinctively, while humans can learn to do so by will [11].
Mainstream scientists have occasionally speculated on whether the 'gravitational constant' is truly
constant over very long periods of time, but no conclusive evidence of a gradual increase or
decrease has been found [12]. Theosophy asserts that during the life-period of a planet or star,
gravitational forces do not in fact remain constant. The first half of a planet's life (the 'descending
arc') is said to be characterized by the condensation of matter from a primordial, ethereal state,
implying an increase in the attractive and cohesive forces. It is followed by the reverse process of
etherealization and spiritualization (the 'ascending arc'), when the attractive and cohesive forces
weaken and matter becomes increasingly radioactive [13].

References
Levitation technology
[1] Paul LaViolette, Beyond the big bang: Ancient myth and the science of continuous creation,
Rochester, VE: Park Street Press, 1995, p. 320; Ian Lawton and Chris Ogilvie-Herald, Giza: The
truth, London: Virgin, 1999, p. 201.
[2] Andrew Collins, Gods of Eden: Egypt's lost legacy and the genesis of civilisation, London:
Headline, 1998, pp. 58-62.
[3] Ibid., pp. 35-37, 62-63.
[4] Giza: The truth, pp. 198-210.
[5] Robert Bauval and Graham Hancock, Keeper of genesis, London: Heinemann, 1996, pp. 28-29.
[6] Andrew Collins, 'Baalbek Lebanon's sacred fortress',
http://www.andrewcollins.net/page/articles/baalbek.htm; Collins, Gods of Eden, pp. 63-64; David
Hatcher Childress, Lost cities of Atlantis, ancient Europe & the Mediterranean, Stelle, IL:
Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996, pp. 31-36, 48-50; Christian and Barbara Joy O'Brien, The
shining ones, Kemble, Cirencester: Dianthus Publishing, 2001, pp. 265-82.
[7] The shining ones, p. 269.
[8] http://www.lessing4.de/megaliths/non_europ.htm.
[9] Gods of Eden, pp. 66-72.
[10] H.P. Blavatsky, The secret doctrine, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1977
(1888), 1:554-566.
[11] Theo Paijmans, Free energy pioneer: John Worrell Keely, Lilburn, GA: IllumiNet Press, 1998,
pp. 58, 144, 200, 207-212; Clara Bloomfield Moore, Keely and his discoveries: Aerial navigation,
London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner & Co., 1893, Mokelumne Hill, CA: Health Research, 1971,
pp. 106, 122-123; Dale Pond, Universal laws never before revealed: Keely's secrets, Santa Fe, NM:
Message Company, 1996, pp. 54-60, 214-217, 232-234, 257 (http://www.svpvril.com); Dan A.
Davidson, Energy: Breakthroughs to new free energy devices, Greenville, TE: RIVAS, 1990, pp. 12-
13.
[12] Christopher Dunn, The Giza power plant: Technologies of ancient Egypt, Santa Fe, NM: Bear
& Co, 1988, pp. 109-119; Frank Joseph, 'Mysteries of Coral Castle', Fate, 1998,
http://www.parascope.com/en/articles/coralCastle.htm; Kathy Doore, 'The enigma of Coral Castle: a
geomantic wonder', http://www.labyrinthina.com/coral.htm.
Human levitation
[1] Rodney Charles and Anna Jordan, Lighter than air: Miracles of human flight from Christian
saints to native American spirits, Fairfield, IO: Sunstar Publishing, 1995, pp. 155-180; Stuart
Gordon, The paranormal: An illustrated encyclopedia, London: Headline, 1992, p. 395; Brian
Inglis, The paranormal: An encyclopedia of psychic phenomena, London: Paladin, 1985, pp. 159-
160; Richard S. Broughton, Parapsychology: The controversial science, New York: Ballantine
Books , 1991, pp. 52-53.
[2] William Crookes, Researches in the phenomena of spiritualism, London: J. Burns, 1874,
Pomeroy, WA: Health Research, n.d., pp. 9-19, 21-43, 88-91; H.P. Blavatsky, Isis unveiled,
Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1972 (1877), 1:202-204, 358-359.
[3] Researches in the phenomena of spiritualism, pp. 89-90; Gordon, The paranormal, pp. 395-396;
Inglis, The paranormal, p. 161.
[4] Inglis, The paranormal, pp. 161-162.
[5] Brian Inglis, Natural and supernatural: A history of the paranormal, Bridport, Dorset: Prism
Press, Lindfield, NSW: Unity Press, 1992, p. 425.
[6] Louis Jacolliot, Occult science in India and among the ancients, NY: University Books , 1971,
p. 257.
[7] Ibid., pp. 237-238.
[8] Lighter than air, pp. 64-65.
[9] Ibid., p. 132.
[10] Alexandra David-Neel, With mystics and magicians in Tibet, London: Penguin Books , 1937,
p. 186.
[11] Lighter than air, pp. 98-99.
[12] D. Hatcher Childress (ed.), The anti-gravity handbook, Kempton, IL: Adventures Unlimited
Press, 1993, p. 171.
Theosophical writings
[1] H.P. Blavatsky, Isis unveiled, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1972 (1877), 1:271.
[2] William Q. Judge, Echoes of the orient, San Diego, CA: Point Loma Publications, 1975, 1:336.
[3] H.P. Blavatsky collected writings, Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House, 1950-91,
5:152-153.
[4] Blavatsky collected writings, 10:391.
[5] G. de Purucker, The esoteric tradition, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 2nd ed.,
1940, p. 441.
[6] Ibid., pp. 860-861.
[7] Ibid., p. 861fn.
[8] Isis unveiled, 1:xxiii-iv; 1:497-498.
[9] Blavatsky collected writings, 1:244.
[10] W.Q. Judge, The ocean of theosophy, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1973
(1893), p. 154.
[11] Blavatsky collected writings, 4:167-169.
[12] Rupert Sheldrake, Seven experiments that could change the world, London: Fourth Estate,
1994, pp. 176-178.
[13] H.P. Blavatsky, The secret doctrine, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1977
(1888), 1:159, 2:68fn, 250, 308fn; The esoteric tradition, pp. 324-327, 453-454, 760; G. de
Purucker, Studies in occult philosophy, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical University Press, 1945, pp.
450-451; A.T. Barker (comp.), The mahatma letters to A.P. Sinnett, Pasadena, CA: Theosophical
University Press, 2nd ed., 1926, pp. 98-99.

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