CHAPTER-V

C H A K -L O N G

Conceptual Aspects :

The human society developed from its primitive state to a more

disciplined way of life. The social psychology originated in the family.
The natural law is that the man and the woman must be united to
achieve certain righteous goals, which can be called religion or
Dharma. According to Hindu laws, the Dharma must be practised by a
man together with his wife.
The Ahom marriage or Chak-long has a concept. The concept may
be seen into two aspects : one social and the other religious.
Performing marriage by Chak-long, a young couple strides to begin a
new family and, therefore, there are rights and obligations between
them. They make a promise before the lighted lamps and in the
presence of elders and the parents to start a new life. In its religious
aspect, Chak-long is a sacrament and not a contract. It involves in
oblations to gods and goddesses. The marriage ceremony of Narig-hun-
pha which begins with asking for hands of the bride, followed by
finding out an auspicious day with the help of astrology, invitation to
 122

the ceremony, performance of Rik-khwan, feast in memory of nine

generations, oblations to Dam and Phi, the bridal procession etc. give a
complete picture of Chak-long. Though the word Chak-long is not
found in LRi-lit Nang-hun-phS, the Ahoms regard it as Chak-long
ceremony. In the life cycle of man, the most important event is to have
a wife for future generation. The civilised nations regard it as the most
important one. One may be adorned to a high plane of status and for
such occasion a festive-arrangement is generally made to extol the
person. The Ahom kings (Swargadeo) at the time of first ascending the
throne at the Hulung Ghar had to perform several ceremonies
including Rik-khwan and other rituals. During the Ahom period, the
nobles of the kings administration followed the procedure of Chak-
long. The young couple (the bridegroom and the bride) witnessing the
hundred and one lamps in a madala (cakra) make prayers to the God,
the Almighty, in presence of the mo-lung and the elders of the society.
They promised to lead a family life as husband and wife, accept advice
from the mo-lung as well as from their parents and elders. This
process of moving forward to future encourage the young couple to be
bold enough for any eventualities in life.

Mantras and Gods : .

Mantras are hymns for praying gods. It is a formula or an

incantation for driving away the evil spirits from the body of a person.
 123

When a person becomes sick for some time, Khwan is performed for
recovery from illness. The Ahom king performed Rik-khwan, Ban-
khung-mung or Rik-khwan-mung for prosperity, happiness of the
people of his kingdom, to subdue the revolution against the king and
for success in wars. Rik-khwan-phra-khanmit was performed for
keeping the sword in order. When the swords (heng-dSng) were handed
over to Khun-Lung and Khun-Lai, 'Leng-don, the king of heaven
advised that the sword should be kept in order, in a proper place by
performing ceremonies.
There are also mantra books in Tai Ahom language for praying to
the Ahom gods, such as Leng-don, Lang-kuri, La-reng, Ja-shing-pha,
Jan-shai-hung, Lit-chak-ban-dai. A vessel having a neck is filed up
with water. The flower, block-ching-phs, a piece of silver and copper
put into the vessel. Three mo-lungs chant mantras, and thereafter the
water in the vessel is used for sanctifying the offerings kept in the
altar, and the same is used for drink by mo-lungs and others for
purifying their bodies and minds. The water from the flowing river or
a pond is brought in an earthen vessel. Before filling up the water, the
mo-lung prayed to the god Khao-kham (god of the water) by offering
flowers and betel-nuts. The water is cut thrice by a sickle before
filling up the water into the vessel. On return, the vessel is to be
placed on a leaf of banana plant. A sickle, three pieces of thatched
grass brought from the roof of the house, a branch of the plant called
 124

sonbarial (ban-hun), a piece of ginger (maran ada), a piece of elephant

tusk, a small piece of a tooth of tiger and pieces of eight kinds of
mineral, such as gold, silver, copper, tin, brass, iron and lead, were to
be put into the pitcher. The neck of the pitcher is to be rounded by
three coloured cotton thread. A basket containing eggs, rice and coins
is offered. The priest having his seat, first prays to Pha and afterwards
uttered the Aptsng-mantra. This purified water in the pitcher (vessel)
is used for bathing by the bride or the groom.
In all prayers in Chak-long ceremony, at the beginning, the mo-
lung utters Chao-nuru-chao-kao-oi, which means O my Lord over head ! But
the real meaning is O my Lord Supreme over my head in the sky.
In the human world, whether civilised or otherwise, gods and
goddesses are prime factors for worshipping when disease or illness
visit them. The Ahoms are no exception to it. J. N. Phukan states that
the Ahom kings worshipped twenty four gods. According to him the
Ahoms not only worshipped their own gods and goddesses, but also
due to acculturation, some local gods and spirits were accepted for a
better harmony with the local people. The Ahom kings after their
Hindusation, besides worshipping their own gods and goddesses, also
picked up gods and goddesses of their subjects and incorporated them
into the Ahom pantheon. Therefore, there was no clash with the local
tribes in the matters of religion. In his article, J. N. Phukan analyzed
and discussed gods and goddesses in a broad canvass. 1 B. J. Terweil
 125

discussed in details regarding the Ahom sacrificial ritual by

2
mentioning some of the gods and goddesses of the Ahoms. He also

discussed the Ahom gods and goddesses by making reference to the

articles in Tai Ahom Religion and Customs of Padraeswar Gogoi. Here

I confine myself to the gods and goddesses as found in the mantras of

Chak-long. The names of gods and goddgsses which appear in A!3ng-

hun-phs are Leng-don, Thao-moung, Khu-moung-yiaw, Cheng-hu,

Khut-su, Lao-khri, Dam and Phi of the house, Luk-pha, Fa-nuru, Nang-

phungu, Pha-mut-rung, Chang-dam, Phra-along. Lang-don alias Sai-re-

pha, Ja-shing-pha, Lao-Khri, Cham-cheng, Pa-phi-shu, Pha-lai-bet also

appear in the Ahom-Buranji. In the important rituals like Rik-khwan

and Deo-ban performed on the final day of the marriage ceremony, the

names of five gods and goddesses, viz. Lang-kuri, Jan-sai-hung, La-

reng, Leng-don and Ja-sing-pha appear. In Lit-Chak-Ban-Dai, the

different forms of DSm is mentioned. In prufying water by chanting

Pat-nam Kai khao-kham, the god of water and Phra are worshipped.

On first entering the husbands bed chamber, the couple propitiates the

five deities, namely, Lang-kuri, La-reng, Jan-sai-hung, Leng-don and

Ja-sing-pha by offering a platter of betel-nuts and lighting a lamp and

praying for granting a happy and peaceful life. P. Gogoi compares

4
some Tai-Ahom gods and goddesses with Hindu gods and goddesses.
 126

Tai-Ahom Hindu
1. Ai-A-Nang Laksmi
2. Ai-Jang-Nao Kubera
3. Ban Suryya
4. Chang-Dam Brahma
5. Den Chandra
6. Fai Agni
7. Ja(ya)-Shing-Pha Saraswati
8. Lang-kuri Siva
9. Lao-Khri Viswakarma
10. Leng-don Indra
11. Pha-Pin-Bet Visnu
The Ahoms had no graven images of their gods and goddesses, a
most pertinent fact to be noticed. It is, however, said that Chomdeo/
Shengdeo, the tutilary god of the Ahom kings had their idols, but no
one has even seen it.
The Ahom Chak-long and its society is nettled in one invisible
cord though they adopted themselves to the cultures of other tribes or
races. The aculturation, no doubt, a progressive view, but the inherent
customary systems still prevalent in the society. The hymns are echoed
and re-echoed in their religious performances. The concept of Ahom
marriage, Chak-long may be an evolvement from the hymns of these
religious ceremonies.
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II

Meaning o f the term 'C h a t-lo n g :

The term Chak-long does not appear in any Ahom dictionery. As

such its meaning still remains largely speculative. One of the reasons
for the supposed missing of the actual meaning of the term was that
the Ahom language to which this word belongs was lost for the Ahoms
themselves. With the territorial expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the
Ahoms became minority, while the majority of the people of the Ahom
kingdom spoke Assamese or other local languages.
In Ahom language, the meaning of the word depends on intonation,
and as such, the same word may have different meanings according to
pronunciation. For example, the Ahom word m aa when pronounced in
different tones bear different meanings, such as to come, horse,
dog etc. A probable meaning of the term in relation to marriage may
be looked into for discussion as they appear in the Ahom Lexicons and
the Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary.
Ahom words Meaning in English
chak (noun) Impure or ceremoniously unclean; bright;
the pestle of a husking pedal; a washer
man; a crowd; a proper place; multitude;
a mat.
ch a k (verb) To wash; to come near; to husk paddy;
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to wash cloth; to select; to thrust with a

pointed instrument.
lung (adjective) Large; great.
klang (noun) a gun; a drum; trilling sound caused by
the repeated movement of the tongue
specially by woman ; a continuous
shrilling sound made by an owl;
worship; strength.4
ki-lang (noun) Nearness, vicinity.
ki-lang (adjective) Near, close to.
lung (verb) To eat something on the road; to come
down, to descend; to bead, to pack grain
in a wicker grain basket; to become
silted up (as a tank).
shak (noun) The pestle of a rice-husking pedal; a
washerman; a mat; a place; the proper
place for anything; a crowd, a multitude.
shak (verb) To husk paddy; to thrust a pointed
instrument; to come near, to be near; to
wash clothes; to select.
shang (verb) To glitter; to give out light; to
illuminate.
chong (numeral) The number two.5
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The word Chak-long does not appear in any chronicle written in

Tai-Ahom language. In a manuscript, called Lai-lit Nang-hun-pha
written in Tai-Ahom language, the term Chak-long appears. The date
of its compilation is, however, not known. This word appears only in
Tungkhungiya Buranji (Assamese) wherein it is said that the Ahom
king Rajeswar Singha married princess KuranganayanI, the daughter of
the king Jay Singha of Manipur by performing Chak-long. The same
buranji at another place also mentions that the younger sister of the
king Kamaleswar Singha was given in marriage by Chak-long to the
second son of Kuwnai Gayna Buragohain DangarlyE.6 Thus Chak-long
appears in the Assamese language buranjls while recording the Ahom
marriage of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centureies. In the
Bibidh Khanda Buranji, incorporated in the Deodhai Asam Buraajj an
7
account dealing with the mode of performing Chak-long is narrated.
Descriptions of Ahom Chak-long is given by Padmanath Gohain
Baruah and Hiteswar Borbaruah in their works. An Assamese book,
entitled Raja-Gharlya Buranji, ed. by Ripunath Buragohain narrates the
marriage ceremony of Nang-hun-pha, but details of Chak-long is not
given. It appears that it was a later compilation.
In the context of the meaning of Chak-long, the views of B. J.
Terwiel may be cited. The fact that the meaning of the word Chak-
long was not known to those performing the ritual. It was also unknown
to the Ahom chief priests with whom I subsequently discussed this
point. Even more surprising was the fact that, when I interviewed the
 130

leading Ahom scholar Dr. Padmeswar Gogoi, who published the most
extensive record of this ritual, even he could not suggest an
etymology. (Recreating the Past Revivalism in Northeasterm India)
According to him, the word Chak-long is derived from the Ahom
words Chak, the Tai form of the Indian word chakra, meaning
wheel and long, the Tai word for 'big or great (luang in central
8
Thai). Sri Biswa Mohan Phukan, an Ahom priest who has seen the
original manuscript of Nang-h ung-pha, called it Chong-klong, instead
of Chak-long, and gives its meaning as chong = two; klong = a
promise, and thus the combination Chong-klong means two (the bride
9
and the groom) make promise. This view is also supported by one
Guna Kanta Mohan of the Deodhai Mohan family, who still follows
the age-old tradition. 10 Therefore, it is probable that the original word
Chong-klong is transformed into Chak-long as it passed from mouth to
mouth for generations. The philologistic view considering the elision
of prefix, tone and natural process of derivation may come to chong-
klong > cha-klong > chak-long.
ll
Padmanath Gohain Barua and Hiteswar Barbarualz state that the
Ahom marriage is of GMndharva-type of Hindu marriage system.
Gandharva marriage is the voluntary union of a youth and a damsel out
of desire and sensual inclinations. To us, this opinion of the two
writers can hardly be accepted. After examining the processes of the
rites and the rituals involved, and the performances of the Ahom Chak-
long marriage ceremony, it can be safely asserted that the Chak-long
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marriage is performed according to the Prajapatya form of the Hindu

Marriage, akin to the Brahma form.'
Nabin Shyam Phalung, who possesses a good knowledge of Tai
Ahom language and literature, says' that the word Ckak-long may have
been originally derived from Chao and Along to Chao long * and
then finally to Chak-long, when viewed from the narration of the
13
Jatakas. Admittedly, it is a fact that on the marriage day both the
groom and the bride are elevated from common people to Deva and
Devi (god and goddess) and respected by all in that higher plane of
status, and shown respects and honour.

Origion o f Chak-long :

The origin of the Ahom marriage ceremony can be traced back to

the year 558 A.D. corresponding to.the year ka-cyeu of the Ahom
sexagony cycle as noted in a Tai-Ahom manuscript, called Lai-lit
Nang-hun-pha. A booklet C h a k -lo n g published in the year 1972,
referred to the book Lai-lit Nang-hun-pha regarding Chak-long
ceremony. Jonaram Changbun Phukan edited one book, Nang-hun-
pha in Tai Ahom language, and it is published under the banner of
the Purbanchal Tai Sahitya Sabha in the year 1994. The original copy
of Nang-hun-pha is not found when searched for except a
transcribed copy in which the meaning of the Tai words are given on
one side of each leaf.
 132. -

. A vigorous search was made at various places of Assam including

Patsako, the centre of religious culture of the Ahoms, and as many as
forty one persons including some Ahom scholars and pundits (mo-
lung) were interviewed (see Appendix..,k...p..$..). Utimately, a copy
of iL ai-lit Nang-hun-pha is found in the house of mo-lung
Biswamohan Phukan of Dhopabar, Sibsagar (see Appendix.A....p.A'S).
Mo-lung Phukan showed me some pages of the original manuscript,
which are moth-eaten and almost worn out. The description of the
Ahom marriage ceremony, Chak-long, is found in the manuscript and
also in the booklet Nang-hun-pha, already referred to. The relevant
part of the Chak-long ceremony may be summerised as below.
The god Pha-mut-rung Changdam has seen the great Leng-don,
the Supreme God of Heaven, who, after getting down from his
golden throne, came down to Mung-phi, the kingdom of the gods,
and saw Nang-hun-pha, the daughter of the great scholar Ak-kai
Mo-hung. Charmed by the beauty of Nang-hun-pha, Leng-don
proposed to marry the beautiful girl, sent an emissary headed by
god Mo-lao-khri to Ak-kai Mo-hung. Mo-lao-khri, accompanied
by others, came to Mo-hung, taking with them betel leaves and
areca nuts clipped on both ends and well-trimmed, and put in two
platters with stands, beautifully covered with well-decorated red
14
towels. On arrival, the party was cordially welcomed by Ak-kai
Mo-hung and his wife, Yang-Su-mung-jang by presenting betel-
nuts in platters and offered a feast with meat of buffalos and
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cows, and also lao (drink). Mo Lao-Khri explained the object of

his mission. Following a discussion among the seven great
scholars who were expert in astrology, both parties agreed to
settle the marriage.They also performed Rik-khwan for longer
life of the bride and the bridegroom. On the occasion it was
recounted that white crane never changes its colour to black,
black crow cannot be white and big stone will not float in the
water, the creation .of the world will never change. The
astrologers calculated an auspicious day for the marriage. The
morning time was found to be the best one. The son-in-law and
the daughter Nang-hun-pha should come out of the house in the
evening. The household Dam and Phi were to be worshipped by
offering necessary articles praying for a happy married life. A
feast was offered and the elders gathered, remembering the
ancestors upto the ninth generation (degrees) and offered prayers
for well being of the bride. The bride put on bright and dazzling
dress of golden silk, jang-phai and the gold ornaments clinging
on the ears. Everybody present admitted that it was extra
ordinary. The brides mother advised her (Nang-hun-pha) that the
son-in-law should not utter ill-motivated words or behave in a
manner which is not decent and not acceptable to all. The bride
was accompanied by a huge crowd in a procession consisting of
seven elders, two maids and thousands of people with hundreds
of loads. They entered the palace"of Lord Leng-don in heaven.
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Performance o f Chak-long :

As Chak-long is a religious ceremony, it was performed in earlier

days by the Ahom priests. The prayers or the hymns were remembered,
passed from mouth to mouth, and repeated by the people generation
after generation. Hence, there was no need for a vivid narration to be
written down. In the case of royal marriage of the Ahom royalty, the
king sat at the bor-tup (a comer of the royal palace). After the
performance of necessary rituals by the priest (mo-lung), the bride was
brought to the premises by the high officials along with the parents of
the bride. The bride bowed down by kneeling, touching the feet of
the king and then sat on the left side of the bridegroom, the king.
The mo-lung prayed to the god Almighty. The articles brought by the
brides parents are to be placed near the alter and ten to twenty trays
(sarSi) with ten to twelve chSks placed properly. One Barua or an
officer of the high rank having knowledge of the history of the Ahoms,
narrated the ancient pedigree of the kings, showing the relationship of
the ancestors between the king and the bride. While narrating the past
history before the married couple, the mo-lung shakes the bundle of
cowri before them to make sounds at some intervals to draw attention.
It is said that the sound of cowri is auspicious according to the Ahom
tradition. After recounting the family history, the pancSmrta (i.e. a
mixture of milk, honey, ghee, curd, milk and sugar) placed before the
married couple on a msihsng (dish with a stand); they were to touch
 135

the mixture by finger and smell, but do not take it. Thereafter, the
married couple is advised to lead a happy married life by performing
their respective duties, to the family as well as to the country, in their
traditional way.
In case of others, after the reception at the gate of the brides
house, the bridegroom with his best friend and others are escorted to
the pandal. The bridegroom takes his seat facing east with the alter,
made at the centre of the pandal, before him. A seat is also reserved
for the bride to the left of the bridegroom. To the left of the brides
seat, the father or guardian of the bride sits and to his left, the priest
mo-lung sits facing south. To help the mo-lung, elderly persons with
the knowledge of ceremonial procedure of the Chak-long, his one or
two assistants occupy seats near him. Those who are coming with the
groom sit to the right side of the bridegroom and those of brides side
sit on the left side or behind the bride, (see Figure.?............)
Padmeswar Gogoi gives a vivid narration of the madala, lamps and
the arrangement of seats in the pandal.
The bridegroom sits facing the altar made at the centre of the
pandal bearing the majestic figure of a lotus drawn with seven
coloured lines. It is popularly, called mandala ( madala in
Assamese.) Seven different kinds of colour powder white,
black, blue, green, purple, red and yellow, are used to give
colour to the lines. The lotus has sixteen petals of large size.
At the centre there are two concentric circles, one smaller
Figure - 9 East
Seat arrangement in Chak-long North South
West

1. Assistant to mo-lung 6. Bridegroom

2. Mo-lung 7. Bridegroom's best man
3. Assistant to mo-lung 8. Bridegroom's party
4. Bride's father 9. Bride's party.
5. Bride
 136

within a larger one. The space between the two circles, are
divided into four equal parts by four straight lines, the length
of which is limited by the circumferences of the two circles.
One large lighted earthen lamp is placed at the centre, that is,
within the innermost circle with the wick pointed to the east,
and four such lamps of smaller size are placed in the same
position within the four parts into which the space between
the inner and outer circles are divided.
Then at the sixteen petal ends sixteen lamps are placed in the
same manner. The remaining points for the lamps to be placed
are the eighty crossing points of the petal lines. One such
lamp is placed at each of these points. This lotus figure is the
accepted figure illuminated with one hundred and one lamps,
each containing mustard oil pourd into it and a wick to burn.
All the lamps, pointed to the east, are lighted just before the
bridegroom takes his seat. He is to take his seat after saluting
the illuminated altar.

Leading out the bride from her chamber :

The bride remains in her chamber surrounded by her friends

and other women who continue to sing wedding songs and
also songs called jura-nam attacking the bridegroom and his
bestman and young relatives.
From the bridegrooms side also similar counter-attacks are
 137

made by the party of accompanying girls on the bridegrooms

party. It is actually a battle of wits through songs between the
two sides. All these attacks are taken in good humour by the
persons attacked.
In the meantime the bride is dressed up exquisitely with the
choicest of wedding apparel, gold ornaments and embroidered
lady shoes with the hair combed and tied up into a beautiful
chignon. She is thus made ready to go to the pandal to
participate in the ceremony of Chak-long. But by custom she
would not move unless requested by the bridegrooms side by
sending a platter of betel-nuts. The elders of the bridegroms
party then send to the brides mother who stays inside her
house, a platter of honour (man dhara sarai) with a few coins
asking for the bride and another such platter without coins is
sent to the women attending the bride. 15 A similar platter of
honour (sarai, indicating man) is also given to the father of
the bride in the open pandal in presence of the assembly of
guests. On accepting these platters the parents order the bride
to be taken out to the pandal where the bridegroom is sitting
alone. The bride is then with uludhvani conducted by the
women (sometimes bodily lifted by a man who is a relative)
to the pandal. She wears a veil covering the face and is made
to sit with uludhvani, after salutation to the altar, on a
separate carpet with a pillow behind just on the left of the
 138

bridegroom. Behind them are the women, girls mustering in

strength, who sit and sing the appropriate class of wedding
songs except when a function takes place. At the religious
service to be conducted by the officiating priest (mo-lung)
the assembled women utter the auspicious uludhvani at
intervals as required. Marriage songs have many varieties of
tunes expressing the feelings of the occasions.

To the left of the bride the father or guardian of the bride

sits and to his left is the officiating priest (mo-lung) who sits
facing south. Those who are of the brides side sit on the left
and those of the bridegrooms side sit on the right side of the
bride and the bridegroom. Other guests and young people sit
behind them on benches and chairs as spectators on the
gallery.
When all are seated in an orderly manner another platter of
betel-nuts covered with a kerchief is placed ahead in honour of
the father or guardian of the bride as mentioned above. A few
more platters of betel-nuts may be put forward as a token of
respect for the nearest related elders of the brides family . 16

The mo-lung who sits near the madala, is requested by the father/
guardian of the bride, by holding the dress for the mo-lung along with
mSnani (fees of the priest) to solemnize the Chak-long ceremony
mentioning the name of the bride and her fathers name and the name
 139
of the bridegroom and his fathers name. The mo-lung then agrees to
perform the Chak-long and utters : (Fig. to )

Phra laibetphra tu chongphrang-hum Chao nu ru chao kao o i

krup ong boy mou khu/

meaning, O the Great God above all gods, we are beseeching to

you. Let all our faults be pardoned and bless us to perform the Chak-
long smoothly.

After this, the mo-lung would utter the hymn :

Prayer of mo-lung in the ceremony :
Mo-lung srara boy-tang
The priest of the ceremony with folded palms prays :
Chao nu ru chao kao o i
Khun thao nyeu lang-ku-ri
Po phi khru me phi nyeu
Tang myu ba mung khreu
Teng pha ba myung nyeu
Chao kao o i /

Na teu pha ba mung nyeu

Chao kao o i

Jim myu bou min tubag

Byeng lung tek pin chyao
Ngi khrai m3 leng-don
Tek pin khun //
 Figure: JO
Mo-lung and Madal

Figure: 13
Mo-lung and Phra-lung ceremony.
 140

Phi Is reng phi bute dong

Chso cheng hun cheng bsn
Chso kso oi /

Luk ni luk khui

Jim rSo ns tek khwan
RSo jSn khwan rSo ming
Chso kso oi /

Msk khu khsm ks chui choi run

Pin khun khwan chsng lsk
ChSo kso o i /

MSk khu mSm ks chsi run pin

Khun chso lsk
Chso kso oi /

Literal Translation :
O the Great God over our heads, I pray to you. You are the
Lord of all and the only God. You have created all beings
and this world, and you are the protector as well as the lord
of destruction. The sun and the moon manifested your
glorious creations. Peace and tranquility prevail through air
and fire. The air and the fire are propagating the peace and
harmony in this universe proclaiming your divine power. O
the Great God, to-day on this auspicious occasion, the bride
and the groom prayed and beseech your blessings. Be kind to
 141

them. Let their married lives be fruitful glittering like gold

and coral bead.
The prayer is very clear and simple. There is only one God who is
all in all and the God is above our head and nowhere else. There are
no gods like that in the prayer of the Hindu priest at the homa-
samskara. From the prayer of the mo-lung it can be seen that no other
gods except the almighty one over our heads is remembered on the
occasion. Some explain that there are as many as one hundred and one
17
gods. But the text of the prayer does not mention them. Mo-lung
utters the names of gods in such a sacred ceremony, in which two
persons are going to live a happy married life, and the priest is to
beseech blessings for them. Furthermore, sitting at the Chak-long
ceremony, having one hundred an one lamps burning, the priest does
not refer to any god mentioning by name.

The main rites begins with the prayer of the mo-lung. All the cakis
(lamps) bum with dazzling delight creating an atmosphere of serene
gracious religious occasion. The women utter uludhwani.
At the direction of the mo-long, the bridegroom and the bride make
prayer to the God, by offering rice and flowers to the lighted madal.
The prayer is
O phra, ban nai chak-long chi chim hew tim.
(O God, let our marriage be solemnized peacefully, today).

The women would utter uludhwani

 142

The father or guardian of the bride sitting near the mo-lung makes
prayer to the madal by saying
Chao nuru chao kao oi
Kao a phu ming phrao jan hew tai
Lang bak lang ka phi ka mai
Chao kao oi
meaning , O my God overhead, I pray you. I am offering this bride
to the bridegroom for procreation according to the natural law.
After the prayer, the father/guardian of the bride presenting new
good clothes and ornaments to the bridegroom as the husband of the
bride and puts a ring on the finger of the bridegroom. Then keeping
the right hand thumb of the bride on the right hand thumb of the
bridegroom, he would say -
Chao nu ru chao kao oi
Ban M i luk chai kao nang chao kao pi chao kao a kao lan
chao kao chao phura mai khang na bai si hang mao kha yao
mou ku mou enu aota.
meaning, O the Lord above us, in presence of you all, to day I am
offering my daughter / younger sister / elder sister / niece / grand
daughter to you. Keep her with love and affection.
Then the bridegroom would say
Khreang lu mo-chao kao di di chi hap 3o j3o / kao hang luk
chao mang chao pi chao a kao lan chao, mou chao di di chi ti
bai jao.
 143

meaning, I respectfully accept your offer. I shall keep your daughter

/....... with all love and affection.

Presentation :

(Cothes and other articles for use) :

The father/guardian of the bride would show to the bridegroom the
articles presented and kept nearby the madala and says to the
bridegroom as follows :
iBopa (my son-in-law), for smooth running of your wedded life, I
am offering these articles according to my capabilities. Please
accept it as enough.
The bridegroom then says,
With much obliged, I accept your presents as a great gift.

Offering of garland of floweres :

Picking up a garland of flowers one hundred and one in count with

both hands from a platter, the bride stands up. The bridegroom also
stands up, and the bride respectfully places the garland round the neck
of the bridegroom by addressing thus :
Phu chSo p sk pak hlok khsn khup tang jSn heu.
18
(I adore you with this garland of 101 flowers of 101 ideas
and choose you as my husband.)
The women folk simultaniously raise uluddhvani and shower rice
and flowers on the couple.
 144

The bridegroom also takes up his garland of 101 flowers already

kept on a tray and puts it round the neck of the bride uttering :
Nang chso blok khan ru hew di,V
(Lady, please accept this garland of flowers, which means I
accept you as my wife.)
Simultaneously, the women shower flowers and rice on their heads,
and voice uluddhvani which creates an atmostphere of magnificence.
The bridegroom and the bride take their seats.
The mo-lung then says :
Phrs tra phra laibet sa tu ching phrong hum (hung) som
phuma phiimi jan khan rao jan khan ming.
(O the Great God, God of all gods, bless the couple so that
they can live happily being united.)

Lagna-gathi :

Lagna-gathi is now made a part of the Ahom marriage ceremony. It

is originated from Hindu vivSha. One end of the brides cloth is tide
up with the bridegrooms garment in a knot. This process is mentioned
by P. Gogoi, P. R. T. Gurdon, Bimala Barua in their respective
articles. But there is no mention of such lagna-gathi in the monograph,
Chak-long published in (1972) by Tai Historical and Cultural Society
of Assam, and in the Ahomar Chak-long (1987) written by Rameswar
Bora, a senior advocate of Jorhat. Nothing is mentioned about lagna-
gathi in the Ahomar Din (1922) of Hiteswar Borbaraa, the Asomar
Buranji (1899) written by Padmanath Gohain Barua and in the article
 145

A hom RajSr Biya, published in BSnhJ (1923), Bhadra, pp. 169-70.

When interviewed, Nabin Chandra Borgohain (94), a mo-lung , told me
that there was no lagna-gathi in Chak-long. Assessing the events and
scrutinizing the historical facts and chronicles, we may confirm that
there was no lagna-gathi in the Chak-long marriage of the Ahoms from
thirteenth century to the nineteenth century A. D. At the time of lagna-
gathi the assembly of persons in the pandal blesses the pair by making
a chorus of voice wishing their happy life.

Joint Prayer :

The bridegroom and the bride then pray to the Almighty God with
folded palms, the hymn in Tai Ahom language :
'O phra chao, O Leng-don mau chao
Hang tang lu k m e t khan kao ja u /

Mau chao n i lung hang mau kao ka cham //

Tang lung n i lo i/

Mau chao chao khan kao chao a lu /

Mau chao cang lang nu chi khan ka khan/

Mau chao cum lo i khvan cam ci cim khem sa//

O p o kao chao hang rao/
Tang lung luk si tang khring tang m ai hao
Pun wai taZ
A n rao tang lung an m e yang heu ja n g ta//
Rao h it a m u cang k o kh en //
 146

Tang lung heu di cing ta/

Khvan cam hang rao an pe heu heng
Nang nai rao kan lang di nai
Hang rao ao mau chao heng pe ju /
A nai su tang ja o /
O cl cim khem chao of po chao sen pha an
Rao cang ko nau lao cik pi heu phit kan ta/
O chao khun lung a khu cang do rak
Kan heu ta pin tang di nai oi wakta 7

The literal meaning of the prayer :

O Lord, O Leng-don, you are the mightiest and greatest of
all. You are the holy one among all and all become sacred if
You are recalled. You are the Lord of all and giver of
everything; You are the soul of all. You are delightful and
kind. Keep us away from the sorrows and anxieties of the
world. Please fulfill our desires and wants. Whatever we
prefer that must go in favour of attaining our own welfare
and prosperity. Bestow us such power so that we may follow
a noble path and noble mind in life. It is our prayer to You.
O Lord of the earth, the Benevolent one, guide us with Your
almighty noble principles so that no conflict arises between
us. O our most revered Lord, bless us for our conjugal and
prosperous happy life.
 147

At the end of the prayer, the bride and the groom would make
oblation by offering flowers and rice to the central light of the madala.
Simultaneously, the women would make uluddhvani, and shower
flowers on the heads of the bride and the groom.
Prayer to Madala :

Then the bridegroom and the bride would again take rice and
flowers into the fold of their palms and focusing their eyes on the
central light of the madala make prayer :

O phra tra a long khup tang boy mu chao

Khup tang boy mu phi het mut hit c3ng
Nai chao kao o i /
meaning : O the Great God, we are praying to You, we are also
praying to god Phi and the deity and other gods. Make us clean and
pure in body and mind.
Then they throw the oblation of flower and rice in the central light
in the madala.

Prayer to Dharma :

The bride and the bridegroom again hold in their folded palms
flowers and rice, and then focusing their eyes on the central light
salute to Dharma, praying as follows

Ophra tra a long sa thu sa thu cheng

Hang boy mu chao kao o i /
 148

The meaning : We are praying to Dharma, Phra-Tra-Along. Be all

good, O my Great God, and then they throw flowers and rice to the
central light.

Prayer to gods and deities :

The bridegroom and the bride would hold flowers and rice in their
folded palms, look at the madala, salute the gods, praying
O phrS tra a long cheng hun cheng bun
Chaophaphet kham boy heu chao kao o T /
The meaning :
O Phra-Tra-Along, the Almighty God, holder of golden vajra,
(god of lightning), we pray to you.
Then they throw flowers and rice to the lights in madala.

Offering of Hengdan :

At the end of the joint prayer, the bride picks up the hengdan kept
on a platter, and addresses the bridegroom thus :
Ao khrang na cheng nap chak nai
Cham mong mau chao luk ao
Rewai ta /

The meaning ;
O my beloved, please hold this hengdan, subdue your
enemies, look after your family and do good for the welfare of
the country and the honest men.
 149
The bridegroom then accepts the hengdan and says
Kun ju k kun khin tak tyuk 3o pe
Phu met kun ni tak jang ba si
Khun cham khyung bao a kiu rao tak
Heu khen kha si kao nap cak nai rap
A o jao di kin lao jau//
The meaning :
Now holding this hengdan in presence of all here, I promise to
subdue the wicked persons, to adm inister goodwill and
friendship amongst the honest one, to protect the country from
enemies, to uphold dhaimma to prevail over, and further to
protect my wife, her sons and the family in future and their
wealth.( see Figure..#..... ........)
At this the women would shower flowers on the bridegroom and
the bride with uludhvani.

Offering o f Kavac-kSpor :

The bride then holding a cloth girdle, called kavac-kapor.

addresses the bridegroom :
O paw chao p i nang khung pha nai cham
Ao nung si heu pe heu ang ta//

The meaning :
O my bahgahardew, by wearing this kavac-kapor you protect
all.
Figure l l Brjdegroom.s promise with Hengdan.
 150

The groom accepts the cloth and says

Ao pha nai cham kso si hit phs
Phuk ing si ju k phu khin tak so pe

Ba d ik in Iso /

The meaning :
O my father-in-law and kinsmen present here, with the
cloth offered to me, which I have on my body, I promise to

subdue the enemies and the wicked persons.

Then the women would shower flowers on them with uludhvani.
On earlier days, the kings made promise to protect the country, to

bring peace and happiness by administering judiciously, by subduing

enemies and punishing the wicked after making a fair trial. The

method of having a promise was also done by the nobles, and members
of the royal families as well as other Ahoms. After the end of the
Ahom rule, the Ahom bridegroom in general makes promise to protect
the country.

The custom of making promise by the bridegroom in the Chak-long

is an unique feature in the Ahom marriage. We have no information of

having such custom in the ancient world. This promise with hengdan

manifests the courage of a person. It can also be safely said that it is a

process towards national integration, and it expresses a deep sense of
sentiment of the newly wedded couple towards their dear motherland.
 151

The kavac-kspor is to be made by the girl within a single night

beginning from the spining of the cotton to the end of the weaving the
cloth and finishing it for use. It requires a girls firm determination to
make it on the same night, dreaming of her would be husband, a
person beautiful, good in charater with manliness. The making of a
kavac-kspor within a night proves the ability of a girl. Even today, the
Aiton, Turungs and others make the kavac-kspor in a single day.
The mo-lung advises the newly married couple after narrating the
past history of the bridegroom and the bride.

Narration o f Ancestral History :

During the period from the thirteenth century up to the end of the
nineteenth century, the recounting of the great deeds of the ancestors
of both the bride and the groom formed an important feature in the
Chak-long marriage.
Such narration encourages and inspires the couple to look forward
for a happy married life and to work for the good of the country. The
practice of repeating the past history is no longer in vogue in present
day marriage. The reason, Ahoms are no longer a ruling race, the
advancement of knowledge and learnings and the views of progressive
modern world, made the Ahoms to mix up with other communities.
But some sort of recount of present history of the bridegroom and the
bride at this august moment may inspire the couple towards future.
 152

Duty of the mo-lung :

The mo-lung will put marks on the forehead of the bride and the
groom from the ashes of the cotton pod burnt at the earthen lamps of
the madala.

Advice to the newly married couple :

Among the Chinese, the newly married girl (bride) when kneeling
before the parents on the eve of her departure to her husbands home,
the father exhorts her to obey the commands of her father-in-law and
mother-in-law, and to perform the duties of a wife. The mother does
the same, saying Take courage, daughter and be always submissive
19
to the will of your husband. In Hindu marriage, too, duties of the
husband and the wife are prescribed.
In the first Chak-long as recorded in Nang-hun-pha, the mother
advised her daughter saying that the son-in-law ought not speak of evil
or generate ill-will against anybody and he should not be aggressive in
character. The Tai Ahom text in Chak-long ceremony very specifically
emphasises the newly married couple to follow the advice. The advice
in Tai Ahom language is as below :

Mo-lung wa kham lao :

Pa chai kha p i y m g mau pin hum si

Nu le pha khrung pha khrung ju koi//
Ba si lit lai cang khai ba /
 153

K s p n a i c h s n g n a i c h a n g h u c h a o c h s n g tim /

K a o le m k h a h u c h a o m o u la o c h ik a m u l o n g j u k p a i h i t ta/

A m u ta n g lu n g s o n g k h u k u m k a m s i h i t ta/

L a i n a i n a n g na n k u m k an k h e n ta h u sy a o l o n g h a e n u p i h a o

C e n g ka /

T a n g lu n g k u m k a n m a u c h a o le n g j u h i t ta /

K u m y u k y u ban c h a o n a o ban le n g p o c h a o m e c h a o

L u n g ta k h e o k h a o p u n n a i c h a m m a n m a u nan

T h u n g c h e n n a n g k a n m 3 ta k h u n sam e e n uta /

A m u lu r y in ch a m c h a o lu n g /

K y u k k a su c h a o tu k a p e k a n a i n u s i c h a o ch a m

A m u n a k h a o h u m h u m c h u m c h u m h a o p a j a o n a i k iu k a ta/

P e k iu c h a k a c h a m d a i c h e n g /

K h a n s i p h a o s ik ta n g d i m a n a i p e /

P a i k h a n tu an ta n g m a u k a h o n g l a i t i n o n

L u k a m u n a o re n k a m ta /

L a o p h in g p u n n a i k h r a n g m u k h r o n g m a o

H a n g h e t y a p c h a o m u la o k a p a i tu /

A a n a i k h a o k iu lu n g m a n m a n /

K u m y u l o n g su k h a n c h a m k h a m t i tan y n ta /

C h a o n a m c h a n g p u n c h o i h u sao p a i k h u ta /

L a i p u n a i ta n g lu n g lo n g h a i h i t k a s o m p h a n c h u m k o i /

H a n g p h ra k u m o u k a o ta /
 154

Hang pun h it di k a chama chao phra hum hum lai /

Kao ti phra su tang ja o khen ta a kiu m un chao

Chong khu j u tang di hao p o nai chi chim khem cha

L u k m i m un nai si phan su hao p o khang /

Chao phra hong su n3ng nai si tu swam kao chao

Heu nai heng /

The literal meaning of the advice as rendered in to English thus :

In sacred books it is stated that if a man or woman remains
without being united in worldly life, he or she is incomplete in this
world. Now you can fulfill your mission by being united. I hope,
you will not do anything which is against morality. All works
should be done with the mutual consent and understanding. The
mutual advice or work must not be a bud for future evil or sin. All
household works should be done after consultation and acquiring
knowledge and wisdom. Respect your father, mother (parent),
father-in-law and mother-in-law, elder brother and be kind and
affectionate to the members of the family. It is very difficult to
lead a happy married worldly life. Do the hard work as far as you
can physically tolerate and do it sincerely with eagerness and
attentive mind. To be happy, one must do the work which will be a
productive one and it should be done with a smilling face. Lazy
and indolent people cannot be happy. Shun laziness. Start your
household work before the first call of the crow in the early
 155

morning. Please do not be addicted to liquour, wine or opium

unless it is necessary for the purpose of good health as medicine.
These are the root causes for leading to misfortune. Always speak
the truth and be simple. Hypocracy breeds enmity. Please do not be
haughty to engage oneself in doing evil deeds which brings
misfortune to the family. Have faith in God and help people/others
in their needs according to, your capacity.
We pray to the Almighty God for your happy married and
prosperous life. Virtues like morality be endowed to you for having
children of good character. Let the Great God above, bless you
bestowing mental and physical strength.
The advice ineoporated in Asamar BuranjI by Padma Nath Gohain
Barua, and Ahomar Din by Hiteswar Barbarua is not the exact
translation of the advice as shown in the Tai Ahom scripts. The advice
given in these two books are general in character and was adopted
after the Ahoms adoption to Hinduism.
Among the Paloung of the Shan States, there is also the system of
20
giving advice to the wedded couple.

Advices found in Buddhist literature :

On her wedding day before leaving for her father-in-laws house,

Dhananjoy, the father of Vishakha gave advice to her, to be followed
for maintaining the wordly affairs in her father-in-laws house.
 156

The advice:

1. A wife should not criticise her husband and parents-in-law in

front of other people.
Neither should their weakness nor household quarrels be
reported elsewhere.
2. A wife should not listen to the stories or reports of other
household.
3. Things should be lent to those who do return them.
4. Things should not be lent to those who do not return them.
5. Poor relatives and friends should be helped even if they do
not repay.
6. A wife should sit gracefully. On seeing her parents-in-law or
her husband, she should respect them by rising from her seat.
7. Before taking her food, a wife should first see that her
parents-in-law and husband are served. She should also make
sure that her servants are well cared for.
8. Before going to bed, a wife should see that all doors are
closed, furniture is safe, servants have performed their duties,
and that parents-in-law have retired. As a rule, a wife should
rise early in the morning and unless she is sick, she should
not sleep during the day.
9. Parents-in-law and husband should be treated very carefully
like fire.
 157

10. Parents-in-law and husband should be given respect due to

* the Devas.
When Lord Buddha was staying at Jetavana in Vaddhdyanagar, a
Setthi named Ugraha Mendakanatta_prayed to the Buddha for advice to
girls who were ready for going to their respective fathers-in-laws
house. The Buddha, accordingly, gave instructions to the girls. It may
be that Dhananjoya, the father of Vishakha also heard those advices
from others.
' _21
In Saddhamma Sikkha, the duties of husband and wife are given
as below :

Duties of the husband towards his wife :

1. A husband should always treat his wife with friendly feeling

using respectful words.
2. A wife should not be neglected by using words of disrespect.
3. A husband should not have attachment with the wife of other
man and he should not illtreat his wife anyway by using
physical force or in any manner.
4. The wife should be entrusted with the duties of the household
affairs.
5. The wife should be adorned with ornaments and clothes at
appropriate time according to the financial capacity of the
husband.
 158

Duties of the wife towards her husband :

1. A wife should perform her household affairs diligently and

effectively.
2. A wife should be able to get respect and attraction from the
members of the family and the relatives for her honest
behaviour and cordial relationship with them.
3. She should be faithful to her husband and never get attracted to
other man.
4. A wife should take care of the properties earned by her husband
and everything in the house be looked after properly and
diligently.
5. She should perform the daily routine work and other household
affairs diligently and efficiently without having any idleness
lethargy.
Such advice is as good as for today, though the human world is
heading for the twenty-first century. The Indian culture is still in its
pride due to its universal religious character.
After the deliverence of advice by the mo-lung the bridegroom and
the bride bow respectfully to the elders assembled and the elders
would bless them to lead a happy and prosperous married life.
Here ends the function of the priest and the Chak-long is over.
After the ceremony of the Chak-long is over, the bridegroom and
the bride are taken inside the house; the practice is, the bride is to lead
 159

the bridegroom. In a room the couple are made to sit on a carpet or a

patf; the dunari filled with rice is placed before them. They are
surrounded by a group of young men and women for having the tid
bits in the mixed up guests and relatives. A conductor usually an elder
person, performs the function.

Exchange of gold rings and silver boxes and knives :

At the instruction of the conductor the bridegroom takes of his ring

from his finger and puts its inside the rice keep in the dunari and says
to the bride thus :
Khrang rak tang lung kao nai bai bai
ti nai jao tha ao n i//
(I have just kept here my cordial gift of love for you. Find it
and take it.)
The bride searches for the ring in the heap of rice in the dunari and
when she finds it replied to the bridegroom as :
Cum cum me me di kao bap
Ao jao//
(I cordially accept it.)
The bride then puts her ring inside the rice in the dunari and in the
same way the bridegroom is to find it out.
In earlier days, in some cases, the silver box (temi) and the knife
(katari) held by both the bridegroom and the bride are also exchanged
between them, putting these knives and silver boxes hiding in the rice
 160

in the dunari. One party put silver box and knife inside the rice kept in
the dunari and the other party to find out. It appears that the change of
22
the box and the knife is to finalise the union between them.

Paficamrta bhojana :

Then they are treated with pancamrta, namely a mixture of milk,

curds, ghee, honey and sugar placed before them in a banbati on a
maihang (dish with a stand). If they do not take pancamrita, they
should at least touch it with fingers. According to Padmeswar Gogoi
the marriage formalities is ended here.

Playing on dice and cowrie :

The next step for the couple is to play the game of dice and
cowrie.(see F i g u r e . ......)
When all this tid-bits are over, the lagna-gathi is removed from the
body of the bride and the bridegroom.

Hie Bride leaves her house :

The bridegroom and the bride would bow before the brides parents
before their departure. The moment the bride is to live her parents
house, all the doors and the windows of the house are to be closed. It
is customary in the Ahom society that the mother of the bride would
^ stand on the threshold of the front door of the house, and extend her
left hand up touching the wall of the door and the bride is to come out
Figure: 12
-

Bridegroom playing cowrie.

 161

through the extended hand. It is a symbol of obstruction to her, for she

was cared and loved by her parents.
When the bride comes out of the house of her parents, the custom
is that she should not look back to her parents house. The women
would raised uludhvani at the time of the bridegroom and the bride
leaving the wedding place with their companions in a procession
Receiption of the bride at the new house :
On return of the bridegroom with the bride to his house in a
procession the couple is welcomed at the gate. White rice is kept in a
bamboo basket, (don Skt. drona) filled to the brim and betel-nuts on it
and also a jar full of water are kept ready. These are shown to the
bride by the mother-in-law or an elderly women relative. The Ahom
being a rice eating people, rice is generally accepted as one of the
most important items in the household and is regarded as Lakshmi
(Goddess of fortune).
After this, the married couple show their respects by kneeling and
bowing down at the feet of the bridegrooms parents - placing before
them mSnani on a platter. The showing of bowl of rice to the bride is
also noticed amongst the other Tais.
On first entering the husbands bed chamber the couple would
propitiate the five deities by offering a tray containing betel-nuts and
lighting a lamp (chski). These five deities are Lang-kuri, La-reng, Jan-
sai-hung, Leng-don and Ja-sing-pha.
 162

The Grand concluding fe ast:

Better to say, in honour of the daughter-in-law, to make her

acquainted with the procedures in new home, a smptuous dinner is
arranged in the bridegrooms house. The elders of the village, relatives
and the persons accompanied in bridal procession are invited. In
addition, some selected persons from the brides house are also
invited. A suitable day is fixed just after the marriage ceremony is
over. The menu in the feast, includes rice, vegetables as usual, fish,
chicken or pork are a must in the menu. The elders are served with
rice-beer.
The bride and the groom prays for blessings from the elders by
bowing in a kneeling position. The elders, wise and witty, bless the
new couple. This continued for fifteen minutes to half an hour. The
joys of laughter in the blessings are such that the groom and the bride
enjoy it.
After this, the persons present are seved with dinner. It is
obligatory on the part of the new couple to serve the young groups
with rice, meat etc. Interesting jokes amused all, and the new pair
becomes happy to distribute the items of the feast. This process of
community feast string together all the persons into a big family. In
the present day society, this dinner is arranged in a marriage hall by
the affluent families.
 163

Ghar utha :

On the third day of the Chak-long marriage, the married couple

visits the brides parents and they are treated warmly by inviting them
to come again on the eighth day. The visit on the eighth day is called
athmangala and on this day a small feast is arranged in honour of the
soh-in-law. It is called Ghar-utM.
The Chak-long is performed at night. The young and the elders
who witness the Chak-long ceremony amused themselves and leave the
marriage pandal with a joyous heart, having a photographic impression
of one hundred and one lamps in the madala. It inscribes an inedible
impression in their minds of the married couple. It helps each other to
forgive and forget the misdoings, to remember the promises in their
future life. The Chak-long marriage encourages unity and it leads
towards patriotism. The Chak-long marriage keeps the divorce away. It
is not a contract in its true meaning, nor it is like the vivSha-snmskSra
of the Hindus. The Chak-long is a socio-religious ceremony.

In all the prayers in Chak-long ceremony at the beginning the mo-

lung utters Chao-nuru-chao-kao oi which means "O my Lord over
head shows that there is only One God.
 Chapter V

Notes and References :

1. J. N, Phukan, (Gen. ed) Lik Phan Tai
Vol. II, 1981, pp. 33-44
2. B. J. Terwiel, The Tai o f Assam and Ancient Tai Ritual
Vol. II, 1981, pp. 37-64
3. Padmeswar Gogoi, Tai-Ahom Religion and Customs, 1976,
p. 8
4. B Barua &
N. N. Deodhai Phukan (ed.) Ahom Lexicons, 1964, pp. 17, 128,
133
5. G. A. Grierson,
G.C. Barua, Tai Language and Ahom-Assamese-
English Dictionary, 1920, pp. 8-9, 244-45,
254-55, 282-83
6. Suryya Kumar Bhuyan (ed.) Tungkhmgia Buranji, 1st Edn. 1932,
2nd Edn. 1964, pp. 51, 174
7. Suryya Kumar Bhuyan (ed) Deodhai Asam Buranji, 1st Edn. 1932,
2nd Edn. 1962, pp. 146-149.
8. B. J. Terwiel, Recreating The Past Recivalism in
Northeastern India , p.281.
9. Shri Biswa Mohan Phukan was inter
viewed on 22. 4. 2000 at his residence
Dh]pabar, Sibsagar.
10. Shri Guna Kanta Mohan was interviewed
on 9. 12. 2000 at his residence, Betola,
Guwahati.
 165

11. Padmanath Gohain Barua, Asamar Buranji, 1st Edn. 1899, 19th Edn.
1937, p. 116.
12. Hiteswar Barbarua, Asomar Din, 1st Edn. 1981, 2nd Edn.
1997, p. 439.
13. - Shri Nabin Shyam Phalung was inter
viewed on 26. 4. 2001 in his office in the
Directorate o f Historical and Antiquarian
Studies, Govt, o f Assam, Guwahati.

14. The load so carried to the place o f Ak-Kai

Mo-hung is now termed Sodhani-bhsf or
Sakali-bhsf in Assamese.

15. - The Tais in Daikong follow the custom,

asking the bride to be brought to the
pandal for her husband.Yos Santa-
sombat, Kinship and marriage in
Daikong, Tai Culture, 1998, Vol. Ill,
N o .l, p. 77

16. Padmeswar Gogoi, Tai Ahom Religion and Customs, 1976.

17. Padmanath Gohain Barua,
18. There may be a variety o f good folwers,
19. H. N. Hutchinson,
20. Mrs. Leslie Milne,
pp. 78-80.
Asamar Buranji (Assamese), 1st Edn.
1899, 19th Edn. 1937, p. 117.
but the sinkarS flowers (called the king of
folwers) supposed to be in the string.
Marraige Customs o f the World, Edn.
1989, p. 47.
The Home o f an Eastern Clan, 1924, pp.
142, 143, 156.
 166

21. Sashanabangsha Vikkhu, Saddharmma Siksha (Assamese), Edn.

1969, pp. 335-37
22. Ahoms by P. R. T. Gurdon in
Encyclopaedia o f Religon and Ethics,
Vol. I, by James Hastings, Edinburg,
1908, p. 235.
Gazetteer o f India, Assam State, Sibsagar
District, Shillong, 1967