LED:

All PN junction semiconductors emit some energy in form of heat

or photons. But few semiconductor give them out in form of light and they
are called as light emitting diodes(LED).

Principle:

When an electron comes down from its higher energy level to lower energy level, it emits
energy in form of a photon. The energy of this photon is equal to the energy gap between these
two energy levels. When a pn junction diode is forward biased, current flows through the diode.
Flow of current through the semiconductor is caused by both flow of free electrons in opposite
direction of current and flow of holes in the direction of current.

Hence during flow of these charge carriers, there will be recombinations. Recombination mean
electrons in condition band jump down to the valence band. During this jump electron will emit
electromagnetic energy in form of photons whose energy is equal to forbidden energy gap Eg.
Again according to quantum theory, energy of a photon is the product of frequency of
electromagnetic radiation and Planck constant.

Where, h is Planck constant. Again velocity of electromagnetic radiation is fixed and it is equal
to the speed of light i.e. c. The frequency of radiation f is related to velocity of light as f = c / .
Where is wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation.
Hence from equation (1)

So we have seen that wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to the

forbidden energy gap. In normal silicon, germanium semiconductor this forbidden energy gaps
between condition and valence band are such that entire radiation of electromagnetic wave
during recombinations is in the form of inferred radiation. The wavelengths of the inferred are
out of our visible range so we can not see it. Inferred electromagnetic radiation is nothing but
heat. This is because, silicon and germanium semiconductor are not direct gap semiconductor
rather these are indirect gap semiconductor. In indirect gap semiconductor the maximum energy
level of valence band and minimum energy level of conduction band do not occur at same
momenta of electrons. Hence during recombinations of electrons and holes that is migration of
electrons from conduction band to valence band the momentum of electrons would be changed.
The photons originated from these electrons will be mostly utilized for the electron momentum.
In direct gap semiconductor the maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction band
occur at same electron momenta. Hence, there will be no change of momentum of electrons
during migration from conduction band to valence band so the photons originated due that
migration have not to provide momentum to electrons. As a result, the photons are emitted from
the surface of semiconductor crystal. There are some special type of specially alloyed direct
energy gap semiconductors whose energy gap between condition and valence band are such that
the electromagnetic radiation emitted during recombinations has wavelengths within our visible
range. That means in these special semiconductors when recombinations between electrons and
holes occur, there will be emissions of light.

Colors emitted by different semiconductors :

Color Semiconductor material

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Orange Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Yellow Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrateunder development

Violet Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) (385-400 nm)

Diamond (235 nm)[76]

Ultraviolet Boron nitride (215 nm)[77][78]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[79]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)down to 210 nm[80]

Blue with one or two phosphor layers,

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added afterwards,
Pink
white with pink plastic,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye over top.[82]

Dual blue/red LEDs,

Purple blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Cool / Pure White: Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
White
Warm White: Blue diode with orange phosphor

I-V Characteristics of LED:

The important characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there is the
only red color. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the semiconductor process and
doing the research on the new metals for LED, the different colors were formed.
 Advantages of LED:
The main advantages are briefly described below.

Size :-
Sizes of Light Emitting Diodes are from 3 mm to 8 mm long. The small size allows them to
be used in small spaces where tube lights cannot be used. Because of its small size, various
designs can be made very simply.

Larger lifetime :-
This is the number one benefit of LEDs lights. As an example a high power white LEDs life
time is projected to be 35,000 to 50,000 hours. Where as an incandescent bulbs life time is 750
to 2,000 hours. For compact fluorescent bulbs, the life time is 8,000 to 10,000 hours. Actually
unlike standard lighting LEDs do not burn out. They just gradually fade.

Lower Temperature :-
LED's mechanism does not consists of any step to produce heat. In conventional lights, the
production of heat are very common fact. They waste most of their energy as heat. They
remain cool.

Energy Efficiency :-
Light Emitting Diode is todays most energy efficient way of lighting its energy efficiency is
nearly 80% to 90% whereas traditional lights have 20% energy efficiency, 80% is lost, as heat.
More over the quality of lighting is very good.

Design Flexibility :-
LEDs can be merged in any shape or combination. They can be used in singly as an irony.
Single LED can be operated, resulting in a dynamic control of light. Superb lighting effects of
different colors can be achieved by well designed LED illumination system.

Ecologically Friendly:-
LED lights do not contain any toxic chemical. They do not leave any toxic material and 100%
recyclable. Their illuminations are close to no UV emission. The solid package of it can be
designed to focus its light also.

Color:-
LEDs can be emit light of intended color this is done by charging the compositions of the solid
state materials doping without using any color filter.

On/Off Time:-
Light Emitting Diodes can be operated very quickly. They can be used in frequent on/off
operation in communication devices.
Disadvantages of LED:

High price:
LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than
most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the
relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However,
when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs),
LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten compact fluorescent
lamps.
Temperature dependence:
LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating
of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required
to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical and
military applications, where the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and
is required to have a low failure rate.
Voltage sensitivity:
LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the
rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.
Light quality:
Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator
like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the
colour of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight
or incandescent sources, due to metamerism; red surfaces being rendered particularly badly
by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the colour-rendering properties of
common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white
LEDs.
Area light source:
LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, but rather a lambertian distribution.
So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical light field. LEDs are not
capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers, which
can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.
Blue hazard:
There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard, as defined in eye safety
specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photo
biological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.
Blue pollution:
Because cool-white LEDs (i.e. LEDs with high colour temperature) emit much more blue
light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium lamps, the strong
 wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more
light pollution than other light sources. It is therefore very important that cool-white LEDs
are fully shielded when used outdoors.Compared to low-pressure sodium lamps, which emit
at 589.3 nm, the 460 nm emission spike of cool-white and blue LEDs is scattered about 2.7
times more by the Earth's atmosphere. Cool-white LEDs should not be used for outdoor
lighting near astronomical observatories.

Applications:

1)Remote controls:

Remote operates using electromagnetic waves. Light, x-rays, radio waves,

and microwaves are all examples of electromagnetic waves: vibrating packets of electrical and
magnetic energy that travel through the air at the speed of light. Most remote controls send
signals using infrared radiation though some use radio waves instead.

The top of your remote control unit consists a small plastic light-emitting diode (LED)
where the infrared radiation comes out. In the receiver a very small infrared light detector is
fixed . When you press the remote control, a beam of infrared radiation travels from the remote
to your TV at the speed of light and the detector picks it up.

2)Optical fibers:

LED fiber optic transmitters are cheap and reliable. They emit only incoherent light with
a relatively wide spectrum as a result of the fact that the light is generated by a method known as
spontaneous emission. A typical LED used for optical communications may have its light output
in the range 30 - 60 nm. In view of this the signal will be subject to chromatic dispersion, and
this will limit the distances over which data can be transmitted
It is also found that the light emitted for a LED is not particularly directional and this means that
it is only possible to couple them to multimode fiber, and even then the overall efficiency is low
because not all the light can be coupled into the fiber optic cable.
LEDs have significant advantages as fiber optic transmitters in terms of cost, lifetime, and
availability. They are widely produced and the technology to manufacture them is
straightforward and as a result costs are low.

3)Lighting:
A significant difference from other light sources is that the light is more directional, i.e.,
emitted as a narrower beam. LED lamps are used for both general and special-purpose lighting.
Where colored light is needed, LEDs that inherently emit light of a single color require no
energy-absorbing filters.
White-light LED lamps have longer life expectancy and higher efficiency (more light for the
same electricity) than most other lighting when used at the proper temperature. LED sources are
compact, which gives flexibility in designing lighting fixtures and good control over the
distribution of light with small reflectors or lenses. Because of the small size of LEDs, control of
the spatial distribution of illumination is extremely flexible, and the light output and spatial
distribution of an LED array can be controlled with no efficiency loss.
LEDs using the color-mixing principle can emit a wide range of colors by changing the
proportions of light generated in each primary color. This allows full color mixing in lamps with
LEDs of different colors. Unlike other lighting technologies, LED emission tends to be
directional, which can be either advantageous or disadvantageous, depending on requirements.
For applications where non-directional light is required, either a diffuser is used, or multiple
individual LED emitters are used to emit in different directions.

4) LED backlight screens:

LED TV is a type of LCD television that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to backlight
the display instead of the cold cathode fluorescent lights (CCFLs) used in standard LCD
televisions. LED TVs are more formally known as LED-backlight LCD television.

There are three different LED technologies used. The most commonly used of the three is
edge-lit LED, in which white LEDs are situated around the edge of the screen and a diffusion
panel employed to illuminate the display evenly. Edge-lit LED displays can be very thin.
Another type is dynamic RGB LED, which are placed behind the panel. RGB LEDs make it
possible to target areas for dimming more precisely, which in turn leads to truer reproduction of
blacks and whites. In the third type of display, full-array LED, LEDs are positioned behind the
panel similarly to the way they are with RGB LED displays but there is no capacity for localized
dimming.

Quantum dot-based LED displays, in the research stage, are expected to enable LED TVs
that will rival plasma for picture quality, and possibly even OLED.

Pros: Use less power and produce less heat than plasma or other LCD TVs. RGB LED: Brighter,
sharper display and better contrast ratio than other LCD TVs. Edge-lit LED: Thinner format.

Cons: More expensive than plasma or other LCD TVs.