M.Sc. Physics - First Year.

Syllabus

(Non-Semester)
M.Sc (PHYSICS) Br. III (C) Non
Paper II
Semester

Classical and Statistical Mechanics First year

PAPERII
Dear Student,

We have great pleasure in welcoming CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANICS

you to the M.Sc. Degree Course (non-

UNIT I
semester) in Physics through

Distance Mode. You have Classical Mechanics of a particle and system of

And Statistical Mechanics (Paper particles constraints DAlembert's
II) as one of the papers for the Principle - Lagrange's equations
course. You are requested to go Velocity dependence potentials,
through and make the best use of the dissipation function, applications of
study materials. In addition you can Lagrange's formalism.
enrich your knowledge of the subject

matter in personal contact sessions Hamilton's principle calculus of

and practical. variations Lagrange's equation

With best Wishes from the Hamilton's principle

Directorate of Distance Education

nonholonomic systems Advantages Independent coordinates of rigid Hamilton equations of motion and

of variational principle formulation body, matrix transformation Eculer Legendre transformations. Cyclic

conservation theorems and angles, Eulur theorem on rigid body coordinates arid conservation

symmetric properties. motion, finite rotations, infinitesimal theorems, Rouths procedure,

rotations, rate of change of a vector, Principle of least action, Hamilton's

UNITII
Coriolis force. equations from variational principle.

Reduction of two body problems into

UNIT III UNIT IV
one body and equivalent one

dimensional problems - equations of Angular momentum and kinetic Canonical transformation examples

motion and first integrals, virial energy solving Eulers equations, symplectic approach, Poisson

theorem, differential equations for torque free motion, symmetrical top brackets Canonical invariants

orbit integrable power law potential, and precession influence of Poisson bracket formulation for

Bertrand's theorem, Kepler's problem magnetic field. equations of motion infinitesimal

Laplace Range Lenz vector, canonical transformations and

Small oscillations formulation,
scattering in a central force field, conservation theorems, Hamilton
normal coordinates, eigen values,
transformation of the scattering to kb Jacobi theory harmonic oscillator as
linear matomic molecule, forced
coordinates. an example, Hamilton's characteristic
vibrations and dissipative forces.
function, separation of variables

action angle variables, Kepler's ideal gas in gravitationsfield Mechanics F.W. Sears and G.L.

problem as an example. equipartition energy linear Salinger, III edition, Narosa

oscillator specific heat of diatomic Publishing House.

UNIT V
gas, Paramagnetism negative 3. Statistical Mechanics B.K.

temperature the electron gas. Agarwal and Melvin Eisner, Willey

Statistical thermodynamics Energy

states and energy levels, micro and Eastern, II edition 1991.

Fluctuations: Mean Square Deviation,
macrostate, thermodynamic 4. Statistical and Thermal
Fluctuations in ensembles,
probability, B.E, F.D M B statistics, Physics Federick Reif, Me.
Fluctuations Quantum Statistics
entropy, B.E. F.D and classical Graw Hill, 1965.
Random Walk Brownian motion
distribution function and their 5. Classical Mechanics K.C.
Electrical Noise.
comparison, M.B. distribution Gupta, New Age Publishers.

function, Partition function, Books for Reference:

6. Classical Mechanics V.B.
thermodynamic properties.
Bhatia, Narosa Publishing house,
1. Classical Mechanics Herbert
1997.
Application of statistics to gases Goldstein, II edition. Narosa

monoatomic ideal gas distribution of Publishing house. 7. Classical Mechanics N.C.

molecular velocities, experimental Rana and P.S. Joag, TMH, 1994.

2. Thermodynamics , Kinetic
verification of M.B speed distribution, theory and Statistical
 8. Classical Mechanics CONTENTS
Study Paper II - Classical
B.D.Gupta, Satya prakash, Materials and Statistical

prepared by: Mechanics

Kedamath Ramnath, 2000. Units T itle

9. Modern physics Mr. D, David

Jebaraj
R.Murugesan, S.Chand and Mechanics....................symmetric
I Lecturer
company, properties. P.G. Dept of

Physics.
10. Classical Mechanics Gupta, Units - I , II & III
NMSSVN

Kumar Sharma, College

Reduction of two body
II Nagamalai
Pragatiprakashan, X Edition. problems..........Coriolis force.
Madurai 625

019.
1989.

Mr. T.

Mathavan

Lecturer

P.G. Dept of

Physics
Units - III , IV & V
NMSSVN

College

Nagamalai

Madurai 625

019.

UNIT I 1.1 Mechanics of a particle: particle may experience forces of

1.0. Mechanics various types, e.g., gravitational or

Let r be the radius vector of a electrodynamics, the vector sum of

Mechanics is the study of the these forces exerted on the particle is
particle from some given origin and
motion of physic bodies. The

v its vector velocity. the total force F .The mechanics of

possible and actual motions of
the particle is contained in Newton's
physical objects, whether large or

dr
Then v=
dt (1) Second Law of Motion, which states
small, fall under the domain of
that there exist frames of reference
mechanics. The motion of celestial Conservation of linear
in which the motion of the particle
bodies (planets, stars etc), path of
momentum:- is described by the differential
an artillery shell, or of a space
equation.
satellite sent from earth to a
The linear momentum p of the

planet are among its problems.

So too is the analysis of the

particle is defined as the product of F=
d

dt
()
mv
dp
= dt (3)

the particle mass and its velocity.

structure of an atom by way of In most instances the mass of the

motions of the particles ie., p = m v (2 ) particle is constant and eqn (3)
constituting it. reduces to
In consequence of interactions with

external objects and fields the

dv
=m aF =m (4 )
dt

close to the desired properties as
Where a is the vector acceleration of L=rp (6)
may be required.
the particle defined by

Where r is the radius vector from

2
Many of the important conclusions of
d d rd rd v
a=
= .= (5 ) O to the particle. And the torque or
2dtdt dt
mechanics can be expressed in the
dt momentum of force about the origin
form of conservation theorem.
The equation of motion is thus a
O as
differential equation of second order,
Conservation Theorem for the Linear


(7)
assuming F does not depend on Momentum of a particle is, if the total N=rF

higher order derivatives.
The equation for N is obtained by
dp
force, p is zero then dt = P = 0 and
A reference frame in which eqn (3) is forming the cross product of r with
valid is called an inertial or Galilean the linear momentum, p is
eqn (3):
system . Even within classical conserved.


dp
mechanics the motion of an inertial N= r F=r
dt (8)
Conservation of angular
system is something of an
momentum:- Equation (8) can be written in a
idealization. In practice, however, it
The angular momentum of the different form by using the vector
is usually feasible to set up a
particle about point O (say origin), identity:
coordinate system that comes as

denoted by L is defined as

moments are taken. Thus time rate is, if the forces are derivable from
dd r

( r p )= p
dtdt
(

)( +

r p
d

dt

) of change of the vector angular scalar potential energy function in

momentum of a particle is equal to the manner

(or)
the vector torque acting on it.

( )


d dp F = V
dt
rp = v m v + r
dt (9)
Equation (10) is the analogue of

Newton's second law of motion in the
Where the first term on the right case of rotational motion.
obviously vanishes (both vectors are
Conservation Theorem
parallel). The consequence of this
Angular Momentum of a particle is,
identity eqn (8) takes the form.
if the total torque, N is zero then
Then total energy of the particle
(kinetic + potential) is conserved.
Under the action of such a force,
for the
particle moves from position 1 to
position 2. So consider the work done
by the external force F upon the

( )


d dL
N = dt rp = dt (10) particle in going from point 1 to point
dL
dt = L =0 ,and the angular
2, is defined by


momentum L is conserved.
Note that both N and L depend 2

W12 = F .d s (11)
upon the point O, about which the 1
Conservation of Energy:
For constant mass the ontegral in
If the particle is acted upon by the
eqn(11) reduces to
forces which are conservative, that
 2 2

dv is said to be conservative. An always positive and the integral
F .d s =m . v dt
1 1 dt alternative description of a cannot vanish.
2 2
m d m conservative system is obtained by
=
2 dt (v 2dt=
) 2
2
(d v)
1 1 By a well known theorem of vector
imagining the particle being taken
analysis a necessary and sufficient
and therefore from point 1 to point 2 by one
condition that the W 12 be
possible path and then being
m
W12 = (12 ) independent of the physical path
v 2 v12)2( 2
returned to point 1 by another path.

2
mv The independent of W 12 on the taken by the particle is that F be
The Scalar quantity 2 is called the
particular path implies that the work the gradient of some scalar function
kinetic energy of the particle and is
done around such a closed circuit is of position.
denoted by T, so that the work done

is equal to the change in the kinetic zero, that is,

F= V (r) (14)
energy:
O F .d s = 0
Where V is called the potential or
W12 = T2 T1 (13)
Physically it is clear that a system potential energy.

If the force field is such that the work cannot be conservative if friction or
Then we can write
W 12 is the same for any physically other dissipation forces are present,

possible path between points 1 and
because F .d s due to friction is
2, then the force (and the system)

2

W1 2 =
1
(
V. dr both d s & d r are small amonut of displacement
) Energy Conservation Theorem for a motion in terms of Newton's second
2 2
dV particle is, if the forces acting on law for the ith particle is to be written
= dr = dV
1 dr 1

(or) a particle are conservative, then the

W12 = V1 V2 (15)

total energy of the particle, T + V, is
F ji + F i(e) = pi (17 )
j
conserved.
Combining eqn (15) with eqn (13) we

have the result 1.1.1. Mechanics of a system of Where F i(e) stands for an external

particles:-
V 1 V 2 = T 2 T 1 force, and F ji is the internal force

In generalizing the ideas of systems on the ith particle due to the jth
(or)
of many particles, that is, when the
particle (naturally, F ij is zero). We

T 1 + V 1 = T 2 + V 2 = constant (16) mechanical system consists of two or

also assume that the F ij obey

more particles, we must distinguish
or in general
Newton's third law of motion in its
between the external forces acting on
T + V = constant original form, that the forces of two
the particles due to sources outside
particles exert on each other are
the system, and internal forces
That is the total energy of the equal and opposite.
arising on account of interactions
particle is conserved.
between the particles of the system Summed over all particles eqn(17)
themselves. Thus the equation of takes the form
 2
d gravity, of the system (fig 1.1). With system concentrated at the center of
(m r )

dt
2 i i= F i(e ) + F ji (18)
i i i, j
this definition eqn (18) reduces to mass. Purely internal forces, if they
ij
obey Newton's third law, therefore
The first sum on the right is simply
have no effect on the motion of the
(e )
the total external force F while center of mass.

the second term vanishes, since the

By eqn (19)the total linear
law of action and reaction states that
momentum of the system is
each pair is zero. To reduce the left
expressed as

hand side, we define a vector R

as the average of the radii vectors of

the particles, weighted in proportion

P=
dt
d ri
= MRmi (21)

Fig 1.1: The centre of mass of a system of

to their mass, that is, particles .

is the total mass of the system times

dR
2 (e ) (e) the velocity of the center of mass.
mi ri
mi ri M
dt
2
= F
i
i F (20 )
R= = (19)
M
mi 1.1.2. Conservation of Linear
Which states that the center of mass momentum:

The vector R defines a point known moves as if the total external forces
Consequently, the equation of motion
as the center of mass or center of were acting on the entire mass of the
for the center of mass, eqn (21),

can be , restated as the conservation the moment of the external force

L=
d
( r pi ) =
dt i
[ (i r
pi ) ( ri pi )
]
theorem for the Linear momentum of i i
about the given point. Corresponding

a system of particles; and stated as = ( r
i
i pi )
( because ri pi = 0
) to eqn (23) is the conservation

follows, if the total external force is (e) Theorem for Total Angular
= ( r i Fi )+ ( r i Fji )
(22)
zero, the total linear momentum is i i,j Momentum, and stated as, L is
ij
conserved. constant in time if the applied

The second term is the sum of (external) torque is zero.

Conservation theorem for
internal torques which, as we shall
Eqn (21) states that the total linear
angular momentum: prove, vanishes if the interacting
momentum of the system is the same
forces are Newtonian in character
We obtain the total angular as if the entire mass were

momentum of the system by forming

(Fij = Fji
) concentrated at the center of mass

and moving with it. The analogous

the cross product ri p i and

dL (e) theorem for angular momentum is
summing over i. If this operation, is (e ) (23)
=
dt ri F i = N
i more complicated. With the origin O
performed in eqn (17) there results,

= Sum of the external torques as reference point the total angular

with the aid of the identity, eqn (9)
momentum of the system is
The time derivative of the total

angular momentum is thus equal to L= r i p i

i

is the velocity of the ith particle The last two terms in this expression
Let R be the radius vector from O to
relative to the center of mass of the vanishes, for both contain the factor
the center of mass. and let r' i be the
system.
mi r i, which, it will be recognized,
radius vector from the center of mass
defines the radius vector of the
to the ith narticle. Then
center of mass in the very coordinate

We have (fig 1.2) system whose origin is the center of

(24) mass and is therefore a null vector.

r i = r i' + R
Rewriting the remaining terms, the
and total angular momentum about O is

v i = v i' + v L = R M v + ri p i ' (25 )
i
Fig 1.2: The vectors involved in the shift of
where reference point for the angular momentum.
In words, eqn (25) says the total


v=
dR Using eqn(24), the total angular angular momentum about a point O is
dt
momentum takes on the form the angular momentum of the system
is the velocity of the center of mass concentrated at the center of mass,

relative to O, and
L= ( R
i
+ r 'i ) mi v + v i ' ( )
plus the angular momentum of

d

= R mi v + r' i mi v i ' + ( mi r i ') v + R m i r i
motion about the center of mass.
i i i dt i
dr'
v=
dt.

1.1.3. Conservation of Energy: Hence the work done can still be and by the reasoning already

written as the difference of the final employed in calculating the angular

Conservation of the mechanical
and initial kinetic energies, that is, momentum, the last term vanishes,
energy of a system is to be expected
leaving
W12 = T2 T1
when the forces acting on the
112 (28)
particles are conservative ones. As Where T, the total kinetic energy of T=
Mv + . mv i i1
2

22 i

in the case of a single particle, we the system, is

The kinetic energy, like the angular
calculate the work done by all forces
1 (27 )
T=
2 mv i i2
momentum, thus also consists of two
in moving the system from an initial i

parts, is the kinetic energy obtained

configuration 1, to a final
Making use of the transformations to
if all the mass were concentrated at
configuration 2.
center of mass coordinates, given in
the centre of mass, plus the kinetic
2

2

2

eqn (24), we may write T also as
W 12 = F i. dsi = F i
(e ). ds i + F ji. dsi ( 26) energy of motion about the centre of
i 1 i 1 i,j 1

ij mass.

2
1
T= m( v i +v i1)

2 i
Again, the equations of motion can Consider now the right land side of

1 1
be used to reduce the integrals to = mv + i
2
mv ' ii
2
+v. m i v i'
eqn (26) In the special case that the
2 i 2 i i

external forces are derivable in terms

( )
2
1
m v + 1 mv
2 1 d
2 2 2
= i ii +v. m i r i1

F i. dsi = m v . v i i i dt = d ( m v 1
i i2 ) 2 i 2 i dt i

i 1 i 1 i 1 2

of the gradient of a potential, the
|
V ij = Vij( r i r j |
)
(29 ) i V ij = ij V ij = j V ij

first term can be written as
ds i dsj = dri drj = dril
The two forces are then automatically
2 2

so that the term for the ij pair has
F i( e). ds i = i V i. ds i equal and opposite,
i 1 i 1
the form
2
= V| i 1

F ji = i V ij = + i Vji = F

ij
(30)
i

When the forces are all conservative

ij Vij. drij

Where the subscript i on the del

the second term in eqn (26) can be
operator indicates that the The total work arising from internal
rewritten as a sum over pairs of forces then reduces to.
derivatives are with respect to the
particles, the terms for each pair
2
components of ri If the Internal

|
being of the form
2

forces are also conservative, then the 1 1
2 ij Vij.drij =
2 V ij (31)

mutual forces between the i th and 2 i,j 1 i,j
( i
V ij . d si + j Vji . d sj)
ij ij
1
1

j th particles, F ij and F ji, can be

1
The factor 2 appears in eqn (31)
obtained from a potential function If the difference vector ri rj be
because in summing over both i and
V ij , is a function only of the distance
denoted by rij and if ij stands for
j each member of a given pair in
between the particles, that is

the gradient with respect to rij then included twice, first in the i

summation and then in the j conservation theorem for a single Examples:-

i. Rigid bodies, where the
summation. particle.
constraints on the motions of the
From these considerations it is dear 1.2 CONSTRAINTS: particles keep the distances r ij
that if the external and internal unchanged.
forces are both derivable from A constrained motion is a motion
ii. The beads of an abacus are
potentials it impossible to define a which cannot proceed arbitrarily in
constrained to one-dimansional
total potential energy, V, of the any manner. Particle motion is
motion by the supporting wire.
system. restricted to occur only, for example,
iii. Gas molecules with in a container
along some specified path, or on a
1
V= V + 2 V
i ij
surface arbitrarily oriented in space.
are constrained by the walls of
i
(32 )
i,j
ij
the vessel to move only inside
It may be necessary to take into
the container.
Eqn (32) shows that. if. the external account the constraints that limit the

motion of the system. Thus imposing iv. A particle placed on surface of a

forces are derivable from a scalar
constraints on a mechanical system solid sphere is subjected to the
potential function and if the internal
is to simplify the mathematical constraint that it can move only
forces are central then the total
description. on the surface or in the region
energy T + V of the system is
exterior to the sphere.
conserved the analog of the
Constraints are classified in various a nonholonomic. The constraint Forces of constraints in the case of

ways. If the conditions of constraints involved in the example of a particle a bead sliding on the wire is the

can be expressed as equations placed on the surface of a sphere reaction by the wire exerted on the

connecting the coordinates of the is also nonholonomic, for it can be bead at each point. Similarly, the

particles (and possibly the time) expressed as an inequality surface of sphere exerts a reaction

having the form force on the particle normally at each

2 2
r a 0

point. In the case of a rigid body the
(33)
F( r1 , r2 , r3 ,...,t) = 0 Where a is the radius of the sphere,
internal potential energy is constant
which is not in the form of eqn (33)
then the constraints are said to be in time since this is a function of

holonomic. The simplest example of mutual distances of its particles

There is one significant point to note.
holonomic constraints is the rigid which are held fixed and the internal
Constraints not only interfere with
body. Where the constraints are forces act along the line joining the
the solution of the problems in that
expressed by equations of the form particles.
the co-ordinates are no longer

independent but they are always

( rr
i j
)
2 C ij2 = 0
associated with the forces by virtue
There forces are, however, artificial,

which are reactions of wire, walls,

constraints not expressible in this of which they restrict the motion of
surface etc.
fashion are called non holonomic. The the system. Such forces are termed

walls of a gar, container constitute the forces of constraints.

1.2.1 Degrees of Freedom: that of rotation angle about the are not the most convenient Co-

axis. ordinate interms of which we are to

The number of independent ways in
describe the motion of the system.
which a mechanical system can move We then conclude that imposing
Therefore a set of generalised
without violating any constraint constraints in a way of simplifying
Coordinates is any set of Co-
which may be imposed, is called the the problems mathematically in that
ordinates which describe the
number of degrees of freedom of the the number of equations of motion
configuration. The most general
system. It is indicated by the least are reduced to the same number as
definition is
possible number of co-ordinates to the number of degrees of freedom.

describe the system completely. The generalised co-ordinates of a

1.2.2. Generalised Co-
material system are the independent
ordinates:-
For examples, when a single particle
parameters q 1 , q 2 , q 3 ,..., q k which
moves in space, it has three degrees To describe the configuration of a completely specify the configuration
of freedom, but if it is constrained to system, we select the smallest of the system.
move along a certain space curve, it possible number of variables. These
has only one. Similarly, a rigid body For the suitable selection of
are called the generalised co-
rotating about a axis fixed in space generalised Co-ordinates, we must
ordinate of the system. We shall not
has only one degree of freedom follow the following three principles.
restrict our choice only to Cartesian

Co-ordinates. In many cases these

 i. Their values determine the Thus when a particle described by (Because some co-ordinate system

configuration of the system. Cartesian Co-ordinates x, y or the moves uniformly with same velocity).

ii. They may be varied arbitrarily polar Co-ordinates r, are so on and

and independently of each other, we write

}
q1 = q1(x 1, y 1, z1; x 2, y 2, z2; ....., t)
without violating the constraints q2 = q2(x 1, y 1, z1; x 2, y 2, z2; ....., t)
q1 = x q1 = r =
(x2+y2) . .
on the system. (34)
(or) . .

iii. There is no uniqueness in the . .

q2 = y q2 = = tan
1
() y
x
q3N = q3N(x 1, y 1, z1; x 2, y 2, z2; ....., t)
choice of generalised co-

ordinates. Then one choice When the problem involves some

should fall on a set of spherical symmetry, it is suitable to For a system of N particles free from
coordinates that will give us a use spherical coordinates; constraints which require the

reasonable mathematical 1 specification of 3N generalised co-

simplification of the problem.
(2
q1 = r = x + y + z
2 2
) 2

ordinates. Equ (34) one then the

When we switch over to describe a

q2 = = cot
1
( ) 2
x +y
z
2 transformation equations from a set

of 3N cartesian co-ordinate of 3N
specific problem, the symbols q 1 , q 2 , q3 = = tan
1
()
y
x
generalised co-ordinates. If
. . . correspond to co-ordinates that
In general, we can always express constraints are present, the number
we choose to describe the motion.
generalised possible function of time.

of generalised co-ordinates will be example:

reduced accordingly. Consider the simple pendulum fig

(1.3) of mass m 1 , with fixed length

If is also possible to express
r 1 . The simple co-ordinate 1 , will
cartesian co-ordinates interms of the
determine uniquely the position of
generalised coordinates.
m 1 , since the simple pendulum is a

X1 = x1(q1, q2, ..., q3N,t) system of one degree of freedom.

Y2 = y2(q1, q2, ..., q3N,t) Here the only variable involved is 1,

. .
and it can be chosen as the
. .
. . generalised co-ordinate.
Z N = Zn(q1, q2, ..., q3N,t)

Thus q = 1,
The necessary and

sufficient condition that the The two co-ordinates x 1 and y 1 could

transformation from a set of Co- also be used to locate m 1 , but would
ordinates qi( i = 1, 2,..., 3N) to set require the inclusion of the equation
of (x 1 , y 1 ,..., Z n ) is called Jacobean 2 2 2
of the constraint x 1 + y 1 =r 1 . Here
condition.
x1 and y1 are not independent,
therefore they are not generalised generalised momentum p k associated independently of each other since

co-ordinate. with a co-ordinate q k , that is, generalised co-ordinates are all

independent constraints have no

T
1.2.3 Generalised Velocity: pk =
qk effect on them.

The generalised velocities of a Where T is the kinetic energy. Here 1.3 D' Alembert's Principle and
system are total time derivatives of p k need not always have dimensions Lagrange's Equation:
the generalised co-ordinates of the of linear momentum, if q k happens to
This method is based on the principle
system, that is, it is described in be an angular co-ordinate, p k is the

dqk
of virtual work. The system is
terms of time derivative qk = dt of corresponding angular momentum.
subjected to an infinitesimal
the generalised co-ordinate q k which
Like wise the generalised displacement consistent with the
is then generalised velocity
acceleration, force, potential and etc. forces and constraints imposed on
associated with a particular co-
The obvious advantage that we have the system at the given instant t.
ordinate q k .
in formulating laws of mechanics in This change in the configuration of

1.2.4 Generalised momentum: terms of generalised coordinates and the system is not associated with a

the associated mechanical quantities change in time, that is, there is no

The momentum associated with
is that equation of motion then look actual displacement during which
generalised Co-ordinate qk is
simpler and can be solved forces and constraints may change
similarly defined and is called the

and hence the displacement is F i( ). ri + f i. ri = 0 The above eqn is often called the
i i
termed as virtual displacement. principle of virtual work.
We now restrict overselves to
Suppose the system is in equilibrium, To interpret the equilibrium of the
systems for which the net virtual

ie., the total force on each particle
work of the forces of constraint is systems, D Alembert adopted an

varnishes, Fi = 0 . Then work done by zero. We have seen that this idea of a reversed force. Then

this force in a small virtual condition hold true for rigid bodies conceived that a system will remain
and it is. valid for a large number of in equilibrium under the action of a
displacement ri will also vanish,

ie., other constraint. Thus if a particle is
force equal to the actual force F i
constrained to move on a surface, the

i

F i. r =0
i
(35 ) (virtual work ) force of constraint is perpendicular

to the surface, while the virtual,

plus a reversed effective force p

Thus
i .

displacement tangential to it, and
Decompose F i into the applied force,

hence the is virtual work by the F i + ( pi ) = 0

F i() and the force of constraint, fi (or )

applied forces varnishes. Thus



F i = F i() + fi F i pi = 0
F i(). ri = 0
i

So that eqn (35) becomes Thus the principle of virtual work

takes the form



( F i p i). ri = 0 Thus not depend explicitly on time, thus

i
for conservative system
( F i p i). r i = 0 (36)
Again writing i

L(q,q) = T(q,q)V(q)

F i = F i() + fi
which is called DAlembert's Principle.

Lagrange's equations of
We have 1.3.1 Lagrange's Equation:
motion:

( F i ( ) p i). r i + fi . r i = 0 Lagrangian Function:

i i Eqn (36) (DAlembert's Principle) is

Lagrangian function L is the still not in a useful form to furnish

We again restrict ourselves to

difference between the kinetic energy equations of motion for the system.
systems for which the virtual work of

(T) and potential energy (V) of a We must now transform the principle
the forces of constraint vanishes and

system. And it is a function of into an expression involving virtual

therefore obtain

generalised Co-ordinate, generalised displacements of the generalised

coordinates, which are then
( F i( ) p i). r i = 0. velocity and time, ie.,
i
independent of each other, so that
L (q, q, t) = T (q , q, t) V (q, t) the coefficients of the q i can be
Since force of constraints are no

more in picture, it is better to drop separately equal to zero.

The potential energy and Lagrangian
superscript .
function of a conservative system do

The co ordinate transformation
ri r i Where the Qj are called the
ri = t qj +
equations are j qjt components of the generalized force

But last term is zero since in virtual defined as

ri = ri (q1,q2,q3,...,qn,t)
displacement only coordinate
ri
and is carried out by means of the displacement is considered and not
Qj = F. q
i
j (39 )
j

usual chain rule of the calculus of that of time. Therefore.

Note that just as the q's need not
partial differentiation. Thus vi is

ri have the dimensions of length, so
ri = qj
expressed in terms of the qk by the j qj the Q's do not necessarily have the
formula dimensions of force, but Q j q j must
In terms of the generalised co


always have the dimensions of work.

ri dq1 ri dq2 ri dtd ri ordinates the virtual work of the Fi
vi =++ ... +
dt q1 dt q 2 dt q1 dt becomes Now turn to the other term involved
(or)
in eqn (36) which may be written as

ri
ri
vi = (37) ri
qk +
qkt
F .r i i = Fi . qj
qj
k i i,j
p i . r =i m i ri . ri

= Q j qj (38 ) i i

Similarly, the arbitrary virtual j

Substitute for ri we have
displacement ri can be connected

with the virtual displacement qi by


..
hence to satisfy above equation the
{( }

ri v i v id

i

pi . ri =
i,j
mi ri .

ri

qj
qj mr .
i
i i
q=
qj j

j dtqj qj
)
miv i m v i qj
coefficient of each q j should

{( ) ( separately vanish ie.,

rid d ri

( ( )) (
= mi. ri . mi ri . dt qj qj (40)
i,j dt qj
d 1 1
d TT

)}
= dt miv i2 qj miv i2 qj

( )= Qj (41)
j qj i 2 i 2
dt qj

)}{
qj
In the last term of eqn (40) we can
1 There are n such equations in all, and
Identifying 2 with the system
interchange the differentiation with mi v i
2 are often referred to as Lagrange's
kinetic energy T, DAlembert's
respect to t and q j , in analogy to eqn
equations.
principle Alembert's principle
(37)
becomes.
Case I. Conservative system:-

( ) r2i ri d ri
()
2
d ri vi
dt qj = =qk + = qj
k qj qk q j t qj dt
Q q
j
j j

j
{ dt qj
qj
Td T
}
qj = 0
For a conservative system, forces Fi

are derivable from potential function

From eqn (37), we also see that (or)
V, ie.,

( })

vi ri Td T
= ( ) Qj qj = 0

Fi = i V
qj qj j dt qj
qj V
=

{

Substitution of these changes in eqn ri
Since the constraints are holonomic,
(40) leads to the result that
q j are independent of each other and

In this case the generalised forces We know T V = L , the Lagrangian generalised force, are obtained from

can be written as

for the conservative system, we see

that equations becomes.

()
a function U qi, qj such that

ri ri
Qj = Fi . = i V. qj
d LL Qj =
Ud U
i qj i (43 ) + ( )
( )=0
qjdt
dt qj
qj
V ri qj
= .
i ri qj Which are known as Lagrange's Putting this value of Q j in eqn (41)
V
= ri
equations of motion for conservative we get

system. Ud UTd T
Eqn (41) can then be rewritten as = + ( )
dt qj qjdt
qj qj
d T ( TV ) Case II. Nonconservative (or)
( )=0 (42 )
dt qj
system:
qj

As the potential V, does not depend

( )
dt
qj
qj
d ( TU )
( TU ) = 0

If potentials are velocity dependent,

on the generalized velocities, hence
called generalised potentials, then If we take Lagrangian L=T U,where
one can introduce a term in V in the
though the system is not U is generalised potential velocity
partial derivative with respect to q.
conservative, yet the above form of dependent potential then above
Thus eqn (42) becomes
Lagrange's equations can be retained equation is
d ( TV ) ( TV )
=0 provided Qj, the components of
dt qj
qj
 Ld L

( )=0 that the frictional force is F f = v F

dt qj
qj proportional to the velocity of the
One can also give a physical
Which is exactly, of the same form particle, so that its component has
interpretation to the dissipation
as eqn (43). The possibility of using the form
function. The work done by the
such a potential (velocity
F fx = kx x
system against friction is
dependent potential) is not
Frictional forces of this type may be
academic, it applies to one very dWf = F f. dr = F f. v dt
derived in terms of a function F ,
important type of force field,the =(kxvx2 + kyv y2 + kz vz2)dt
known as Rayleigh's dissipation
electromagnetic forces on moving
function, and defined as
charges. Hence 2 f is the rate of

1 energy dissipation due to

1.4 Dissipation function:
F=
2 (k v +k v
x ix2 y iy2+kz viz2 )
i
friction. The component of the

where the summation is over the generalized force resulting from the
If a system involves frictional forces
particles of the system. From this force of friction is then given by
or in general dissipating forces, then
definition it is clear that
in suitable circumstance, such a


ri ri
system can also be described in Ffx =
F Qj = F if. = v F. qi
vx
i qj
terms of extended Lagrangian

formulation. It frequently happens or, symbolically,

forces and accelerations. With the Thus T is given is general by

ri vi ri Lagrangian method one has only to
= F. by
= qj
2

( )
v
qj qj 1 1 r i ri

=
F

qj

(
) deal with two scalar functions, T and

V, which greatly simplifies the

T=
i 2
mv2 =
ii

i 2
m
i

i
qj +
qjt

problem. One has only to write T and It is clear that an carrying out the
The Lagrange equation now become V in generalized coordinates, form L expansion , the expression for T in
from them, and substitute in eqn generalized coordinates will have the
LFd L
( )+ =0
dt qj (43) to obtain the equations of form
qj qj
motion. The needed transformation
So that two scalar functions, L and
1

of T and V from Cartesian

T = Mo + M q + M j j
jkqj qk

f must be specified to obtain the j 2 j,k

Coordinates to general generalised is

equations of motion. Where M0, Mj, M jk are definite
obtained by applying the
functions of the r's and t and hence
1.5 Applications of the transformation equation.
Lagrangian Formulation:- of the q's and t. Infact a comparison

r = ri (q1,q2,...qN,t) show that
In setting up the original form of the
and
equations of motion eqn (17), it is

necessary to work with many vector
d ri r i ri
=v i q+
dt k q k kt
 2 12

Let us now consider simple examples

()
T=
ri1 mv
Mo = m 2
of this procedure. 2 2 2
i 2 i t

1
(
= m x +y +z
2
)
ri ri
Mj = Mi .
1. Single particle in space.
The equation of motion is
i t
qj a. Cartesian coordinate d TT
and
( )= Qj
dt qj
ri ri b. Plane polar coordinate qj
Mjk = M. i This set of equations will yield
i qj qk
2. Atwood's machine.
three equations,
Thus the kinetic energy of a system 3. Simple pendulum. Td T
( )= Fx
is always written as the sum of three 4. Time dependent Constraint dtx
x
Td T
homogeneous functions of the Dead sliding on rotating wire. ( )= Fy
dty
generalized velocities, y
Td T
and
1.5.1 ( )= Fz
dtz
T = T0 + T1 + T2 z
a. Motion of one particle : From the expression for T, we get

Where T0 is independent of the Using Cartesian TTT

==0=
generalized velocities, T 1 is linear in xzy
coordinates T

T

T

= mx, = my, = mz
the velocities, and T 2 is quadratic in
The generalised forces Q j are Fx, x y z

the velocities. and the equations of motion are

Fy and Fz. Then, the kinetic

energy is

ddd x = r cos r sin
= (mx) = Fx,(my) = Fy,(mz) = Fz
dtdtdt y = r sin +r cos
(or)
2 2
1

The kinetic energy T = m (x +y ) then reduces formally to
m x = Fx , m y = Fy, m z = Fz
2
2
12
This is original Newton's T = m ( r +(r) )
2

equations of motion, The components of the

generalized force is obtained

b. Using plane polar
from the definition, eqn (39)
Coordinates:

rr
Qr = F .
= F .F
Here we express T in terms of rr r


r
r and . The equations of Q = F .= F .r n = r F Fig L4: Derivative of r with respect to .


transformation, in this case are There are two generalized
Sine the derivative of r with
simply, coordinates, and therefore two
respect to is by definition of
x = r cos a derivative, a vector in the lagrarge equations,
Td T
y = r sin ( )= Fr
direction of n (fig : 1.4)
dtr
The velocities are given by r
d TT
( )= r F
dt

From the expression for T, we get
 2
T T d T 1.5.2 The Atwood's Machine:-
r = mr , = m r, dt
=m r
r r

and An example of a conservative system

T T 2 d T 2 with holonomic
= O, = m r , dt = mr + 2 mr r

And the eqns are Consider a system consist of too

2
masses M 1 and M 2 , connected by
m r m r = Fr
a light inextensible rope of length
Here the second term being the
l passing over a frictionless light
centripetal acceleration terms.
pulley. It is found that the heavier
And
particle descends while the lighter Fig 1.5: Atwood's machine
2
Mr + 2m r r = r F
ascends, and the system moving with
Here the left is first the time The potential energy is
a constant acceleration.
derivative of the angler
V = M 1 gx M 2 g (l x)
momentum, and the right is There is only one independent

exactly the applied torque, so coordinate x. The position of the While the kinetic energy is
that it is a torque equation. other particle is determined by the
2
1
constraint that the length of the rope T= ( M1 + M2)x
2
between them is l. (fig. 1.5)

Combining the two, the Lagrangian (M1+M2) x ( M1 M2)g=0 In coming from position B to A, the

has the form (or) mass has fallen freely through a

M1-M2
1
2
x)
( gx =
M1+M2
) vertical distance CA Thus potential

L = V= ( M1 + M2)x + M1gx+M2g( energy is

2
Which is the standard result.
As x is chosen as generalised
V = m g CA = mg (OA OC)
coordinate, Lagrangian equation of
1.5.3 Simple Pendulum:
motion takes the form
= mg (l lcos )

Let the mass of the pendulum bob

d LL
( )=0 = mg l(l cos )
dtx be m. The angle between rest
x
position(OA) and deflected position
From the expression for L,
(OB) is chosen as the generalized Where the reference level or zero

L level of potential energy has been

Coordinate. If the string is of length l
= (M1 M2)g
x
(Fig. 1.6) then kinetic energy is taken at a distance l below the point

L
= (M1+M2)x of suspension.
x 2

so that we have
T=
112
mv = m
22
()
2
12
= m
2

Thus Lagrangian is g
+ =0

L=TV
Which is equation for simple
2
12
mg(1 cos )
=2m haromonic motion with period
The Lagrangian equation in the generalised coordinate is 2

d L

L
=O
T= ( ) g
dt ( )

From the expression of L. 1.5.4 A bead sliding on a
L 2
uniformly rotating wire in a force
=m free space.

L
= mg sin

d L 2
A wire is straight, and the bead is
= m
dt ( )
rotated uniformly about some fixed

so that, we get axis perpendicular to the wire. In this

example, constraint is time

2
m + mg sin =0

( or)
dependent given by the relation

g = , where is the angular velocity
+ =
sin
of rotation. The transformation
If the amplitude of the motian is
equations will therefore containing
small enough, that is, sin ,then
the time explicitly as
Fig 1.6: Simple pendulum

x = r cos t

T d TT
y = r sin t = mrw,( )=m r= mr,
differential principle such as
rdt
rr D'Alembert's principle. It is also
Therefore
The equation of motion is possible to obtain Lagrange's

equations from a principle that
x = r cos t - r sin t
2

m r mr =0
considers the entire motion from the
y = r sin t + r cos t
(or)
actual motion of the system between
2
r =r
The Kinetic energy is
times t 1 and t 2 , and small virtual

2 2 2 Which shows that the bead moves variations of the entire motion from
1

2
()
T = m x +y
12 2

2
(
= m r +r ) outward because of centripetal the actual motion. A principle of this

acceleration. nature is known as an integral

The equation of motion is
principle.
d TT 1.6 Hamilton's Principle:-
( )= Qj
dtq
q The integral Hamilton's principle
The derivation of Lagrange's
Since bead is rotating uniformly in a describes the motion of the
equations has started from a
force free space, we have mechanical systems for which all
consideration of the instantaneous
forces are derivable from a
d TT
( )=0 state of the system and small virtual
dtr
generalized scalar potential that may
r displacements about the
be a function of the coordinates,
From the expression for T, we get instantaneous state, ie., from a
velocities, and time. Such systems
will be denoted as monogenic where position at time t 2 , it will actually

the potential is an explicitly function travel along that path for which the

of position coordinates only, then a value the integral eqn (44) is

monogenic system is also stationary. By the term stationary

conservative. For monogenic valuefor a line integral we mean that

systems, Hamilton's principle is the integral along the given path has

stated as The motion of the system the same value to within first-order

from time t 1 to time t 2 is such that infinitesimals as that along all

the line integral neighbouring paths (ie., those that

t2
differ from it by infinitesimal Fig 1.7: Path of the system point in configuration

I= Ldt (44) displacement) (fig1.7). The notation

space

t1

of a stationary value for a line We can summarize Hamilton's

Where L = T V, has a stationary integral thus corresponds in ordinary principle by saying that the motion
value for the correct path of the function theory to the vanishing of is such that the variation of the line
motion. the first derivative. integral I for fixed t 1 and t 2 is zero.

That is, out of all possible paths by t2

which the system point could travel I=

t1
(
L q , q , ..., q , q ,q ,...,q ,t dt
1 2 n 1 2 n
) (45)

from its position at time t 1 , to its =0

Where the system constraints are of motion. Such a formulation has on a path y = y(x) between two

holonomic, Hamilton's principle eqn advantages, for example, since the
values x 1 , and X 2 where y is the
(45) is both a necessary and integral is obviously invariant to the
derivative of y with respect to x. We
sufficient condition for Lagrange's system of generalized coordinates
find a particular path y (x) such that
equations eqns (43). Thus, it can be used to express L, the equations of
the line integral J of the function f
shown that Hamilton's principle motion must always have the
between x 1 and x 2 ,
follows directly from Lagrange's Lagrangian from no matter how the

dy
equations. Instead we shall prove the generalised coordinates are Y
,
dx
x2
converse, namely, that Lagrange's transformed.

equations follow from Hamilton's

J=
x1
()
f y, y,x dx (46 )

1.7 Calculus of Variations.

principle, as being the more
has a stationary value relative to
important theorem. That Hamilton's
The calculus of variations is to find paths differing infinitesimally from
principle is a sufficient condition for
the curve for which some given line the correct function y(x). The
deriving the equations of motion
integral has a stationary value. variable x here plays the role of the
enables us to construct the
parameter, t and we consider only
mechanics of monogenic systems Consider first the problem in an
such varied paths for which y(x 1 ) =
from Hamilton's principle as the basic essentially one dimensional frame :
y 1 , y(x 2 ) = y 2 . (fig. 1.8).

postulate rather than Newton's laws
we have a function f y, y,x
() defined
 y(x,). with y(x,0) representing the and the condition for obtaining a

correct path. For example, if we stationary point is the familiar one

select any function (x) that varishes that

at x = x 1 and x = x 2 , then a possible

set of varied paths is given by

()
dJ
d
=0
=0
(48 )

y (x,) = y(x,0 ) + (x) (47 ) Thus,

For simplicity, it is assumed that both x2

the correct path y(x) and the

dJ

d
=
x1
{ f yf xf y
++dx
y x
y
}
Fig: 1.8 Varied paths in the one-dimensional
auxiliary function (x)are well
x
extremum problem. Since x is not a function of ,
behaved functions continuous and = 0, so that

x2

{ }
nonsingular between x 1 and X 2 , with
Since J must have a stationary value dJ f yf y
= + dxy
(49 )
continuous first and second d x1 y
for the correct path relative to any
derivatives in the same interval. Consider the second of these integrals
neighboring path, the variation must x2 x2
2
f yf y
be zero relative to some particular dx = dx
Thus integral J, which will now be a x

set of neighboring paths labeled by x1 yx 1 y

function of a, can be written as
an infinitesimal parameter . Such a Integrating by parts the integral
x1

set of paths might be denoted by becomes

J( ) = f[y(x, ), y(x, ), x]dx,
x2

x2 x2
2 x2 To find the stationary value, we x2

[ ]
f yf y d f y
dx = | ( )dx
(50)
J=
d ff
( ) y dx
x x1 x1 yy dx multiply the above equation by d
x1 y ydx
x1
y
and evaluate the derivative at = 0, But J=0, then
Since the end points (x 1 , y 1 ) and
x2
so that
(X 2 , y 2 ) are fixed and same for every

curve so at end points X 1 and X 2 , x2

x1
[ fd f
( ) y dx = 0
ydx
y
]
differentiation of different paths of
y
dJ

d
d=
x1
[ d fyf
( ) () d dx
ydx
y0
] (51)
Here y represents some arbitrary
motion vanishes, =0
ie.,ie.,
J variation of y(x) with respect to the
But )0d = increase in the
.Therefore the first term of eqn (50) (
arbitrary parameter about its
vanishes and eqn (49) reduces to integral J as we pass from the
extremum value ( = 0). Since y is
extremum path to the comparison
x2 arbitrary
dJ

d
=
x1
( d f yf
dx
ydx
y
) path at the same value of x ie.,

variation of I = J. d ff
( )=0
(52 )
ydx
y y
The condition for a stationary value, Similarly ( )d = y
Which is a relation that should be
equ (48) is therefore equivalent to
Therefore equ (51) takes the form satisfied by a function f, if the
the equation
integral J is to be exteremum.
x2

x1
( d f yf
) .dx(
ydx
y0
)
 2 x2
1.7.1 Few Examples:- dy This solution can be valid only if
I= ds =
1 x1
() 1+
dx
dx

y=a
1. Shortest distance between
The condition that the curve be
Where a is a constant related to c, by
two points in a plane.
the shortest path is that I be a a
a=
A straight line is regarded as the 1 c2
minimum, Therefore I = 0, ie.,
giving
shortest distance between two the equation.
points in a plane. Thus straight y = ax + b.
d ff
( )=0
line is an extremum path of a ydx where b is another constant of
y

particle in a plane and With integration. This is an equation

2
consequently, the equation of f= 1 + y representing a straight line. The

such a path should conveniently substitute in the above eqn., with constants of integration, a and b

be obtained from the above ff y are determined by the condition
= 0, = 2

technique of the calcus of y 1 + y that the curve pass through the

y
We have two end points (x 1 , y 1 , (x 2 , y 2 ).
variations.

An element of are length in a

plane is
d
dx ( ) 1+y
y
2
=0
2. Minimum

revolution
surface of

2 2 or
ds = dx +dy
Suppose we form a surface of
and the total length of any curve y
= a constant = c
2
revolution by taking some curve
going between points 1 and 2 is 1 + y

passing between two fixed end surface area. Let us consider a

points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) and strip at point A formed due to

d
dx ( ) xy

1+y
2
=0

revolving it about the y axis (fig: the revolution of are length ds or

1.9) about y axis. It distance of this xy
2
= a,a constant of integration

arc from y axis by x, then 1 + y

surface are of strip squaring and arranging, we get
2
dy a
=2 x ds y x a(2 2
)= a 2or solving =
2 dx
x2 a 2

=2x 1 + y dx
the integration of which yields
The total surface area is then

I=
2

2x1 + y
2
dx
y=a
x
dx

2 2
+Q

1 yb
or x = a cos h(
)
and will be minimum if I = 0, a
Which is the equation of a
for which the equation
catenary.
d ff
( )=0
ydx 3. The brachistochrone
y
2
should be satisfied. For this problem f = x 1 + y so that problem.
Fig 1.9: Minimum surface of revolution

Our aim is to find a curve which f f xy In this problem, we find a curve

= 0,
= 2

on revolving about a certain axis

y y 1 + y joining two points along which a
Putting in the said equation, we get
forms geometry of minimum particle falling form rest under
 the influence of gravity travels Then the expression for t 12
or
from higher to the lower point in becomes
2

2 +y 2 y
the minimum time. (fig : 1.10) = c, is a constant
t12 =
12gx dx ( )
x 1+y
2

If v is the speed along the curve, 1

and f is identified as
then the time required to fall an
On reauanging the above equation, we find
2

arc length ds is ds/v, and the f=

1+y
2gx 2
y
2
problem is to find a minimum of For t 12 to be minimum, the = x(1 + y )
c
the integral or
equation
2

t12 =
2

v
ds d ff
( )=0
y ( 1
x =x )
c
1 dxy 2

If x is measured down from the must be

y
satisfied. From the
or y
x22
x =x ( )
c
2 1
x2
initial point of release the expression for f, we find that or y =
x x ( ) 2

c
conservation theorem for the
f 1
energy of the particle can be =0 Let us put c = 2a, so that an
y

written as f y integration,

= 2 1

12 y

2 gx 1 + y y = a cos
1
(1
x
a) 2ax x ( 2
) 2
+c'
mv = mg x so that above equation becomes
2
or

v =2gx d
dx (2 gx 1 + y
y

2
)
=0

t2

If we account for all possible paths
Where c' is the new constant of
J= f(y (x), y (x), ...; y (x), y (x), ...;x)dx
1 2 1 2
t1
of motion of the system in
integration
is zero,ie., configuration space and label each
Obviously, if c' be zero then y will
with a value of parameter , then,
t2
be zero for x to be zero. In such
J = f(y (x), y (x), ...; y (x), y (x), ...; x)dx = 0
1 2 1 2 (53 ) the paths are being represented by
a case, t1
q i (t, ), I also becomes a function
1
x2
y = a cos
1
(
(1 ) 2ax x ) 2
For present purpose, the integral in of so that we write
a
Which represents an invented Hamilton's principle is,
t2

cycloid with its base along y 2 I( ) = L(q (t,)q (t, ),t)dt
i i

axis and cus p at the origin. I=

1
(
L q , q , t dt i i ) so that
t1

t2

1.8 Lagrange's Equations from

Hamilton's Principle:
has just the form stipulated in eqn

(53) with the transformations.

I()

=
t1 i
( L qi L tL qi
+ +dt
qi t
qi
)
According to Hamilton's variational xt
since in variation, there is no time
yi qi
principle, motion of a conservative
variation along any path and also at

system from time t 1 to time t 2 is such

f(yi,y i,x)
L(qi, qi, t)
end points and hence t / is zero
Thus eqn(53) becomes
that the variation of the line integral. along all paths. Therefore on
t2

I = L(q , q , t)dt = 0
i i multiplying by d, above equation is
t1
 t2 t2
I() L qi L q i qi

d =
t1 i
q d dt +
i

t1 i
q d dt
i
Where ( )d = q ,
i since qi are 1.9 Nonbolonomic Systems:
Integrating second term by parts,
t2 t2
independent of each other, the
t2
L qi L qi d L qi
= q d dt + d | dt ( ) d dt
variations q i , will be independent. If is possible to extend Hamilton's
t1 i i i t1 t1 i qi
qi

Hence I() = 0 if and only if the principle, at least in a formal sense,

The middle term is zero since coefficients of q i separately vanish, to cover certain types of non

variation involves fixed end points ie., holonomic systems. The

nonholonomic constraints which can

ie.,
qi
| t2

t1
is zero at end points t 2 and
Ld L
( )=0
qidt
qi
be put in the form

or
t1.
d LL a 1kdqk + a ltdt=0, = .1, 2, ..., m (54)
( )= 0, i=1,2,...,n k

dt qi
t2

[ ]
qi
I() Ld L qi
that is, a linear relation connecting

d = ( )d dt
t1 i qidt
qi Which are Lagrange's equations of the differentials of the q's. The
or
motions for a conservative system. It Lagrange's equations are then
t2

I() =
t1 i
[ Ld L
( ) qi dt
qidt
qi
] is thus obvious that these equations

follow directly from Hamilton's

obtained by inserting equs (54) into

the Hamilton's variational principle

principle. and comparing the individual

coefficients to zero.

t2

( )
The virtual displacements in 2 n
L dt = 0
dt
Ld
ak qk = 0 (59 )
t1
+
Hamilton's variation process are 1 k=1 qkdt
qk
taken at constant times and so the is assumed to hold for the
The q k 's are still not independent,
constraints eqn (54) for our purpose, nonholonomic system. Hamilton's
but they are connected by m
should have the form principle then implies that
equations (55). That while the first

a 1kqk =0 (55 ) (n-m) of these may be chosen

( )
2
k Ld L
dt qk = 0 (57)
independently, the last m are then
1 k qkdt
and if there are m constants, we have qk
fixed by eqn (55). However, the
m equations in all, l = 1,2,... m, Now we combine eqn(57) with the n
values of the 's remain at one
multiply eqn (55) by m constants equations of constraint an the virtual
disposal.
= 1 , 2 ,...... m , ie., Lagrange displacements q k by summing eqn

undermined multiplies. If eqn (55) (56) once l and integrating the result Suppose we now choose the 's to be

hold, then it is also true that with respect to time from point 1 and such that

point2: Ld L
, alk spk = 0 (56 ) + ak = 0, k = n m + 1,...,n (60)
k q kdt
2
qk
al k qk dt = 0 (58)
In addition, Hamilton's principle 1 k, with the r determined by (60), we

can write eqn (59) as

Sum of eqns (57) and (58) is then the

relation
 ( )
2 nm
Ld L
dt + ak qk = 0 a kqk + ak = 0 (63) d LL
(64 )
k = Q' k
1 k=1 qkdt dt q
qk qk

Eqns (63) and (62) together

Here the only q k 's involved are the But the must be identical with eqns
constitute n + m equations for n + m
independent ones. Hence it follows (62). Hence we can identify l a k
unknowns.
that with Q' k the generalized forces of

constraint.
d LL Suppose one removed the constraints
+ ak = 0, k=1,2,...,n m. (61)
q kdt
on the system, but instead applied
qk This can be most easily seen by
combine eqn (60) and (61) we have external forces Q' k in such a manner
rewriting Hamilton's principle in the
finally the complete set of Lagrange's as to keep the motion of the system
form
equations for nonholonomic systems. unchanged. The equation of motion t2 t2 t2

d L L would likewise remain the same.

Ldt = Tdt U dt = 0
= ak, k = 1,2,...,n (62) t1 t1 t1

dt qk
qk
These extra applied forces must be
where T is the kinetic energy of the
Although there are (n-m) + m= n equal to the forces of constraint, for
system and U is the generalized
equations in all, the additional they are the forces applied to the
potential. If the variation of the
equations needed, of course, are system so as to satisfy the condition
integral over the generalized
exactly the equations of constraint of constraint. Under the influence of
potential is carried out, the principle
linking up the qk's, eqn (54), except these forces Q' k , the equation of
takes the form
that they are now to be considered as motion are
first-order differential equations:

If we take the same Hamilton's to derive the full form of the

t2 t2

Tdt =
t1 t1 k
( d uU

qkdt
qk
qk dt ) principle to hold for both holonomic

and non holonomic systems, it must

nonholonomic Lagrange's equations,

eqn (62). The condition that the

by
be required that the additional forces virtual work of the constraint forces
Ud u
Qj = + ( ) we have
qjdt
of nonholonomic constraints do no is zero can be written as
qj
t2 t2
work in the displacements q k .
Tdt = Q q k k dt iQ'k q k =0 (65)
t1 t1 k

Indeed, if the assumption of workless

In this case, Hamilton's principle says constraints is made from the start, At the same time the equations of

that the difference in the time then the physical arguments leading constraint simply that

integral of the kinetic energy to eqns(64) can be directly extended

a k qk = 0, = 1, 2, , ...............m
k
between two neighboring paths is

equal to the negative of the time Hence, eqn (65) will be satisfied if

integral of the work done in the the constant forces are given by

virtual displacements between the

Q' k = a k
paths. The work involved is that done

only by the forces derivable from the

Where the l's are undetermined
generalized potential.
multipliers.
Notice that eqn(54) is not the most Thus the Lagrange multiplier method

general type of nonholonomic can be used also for holonomic

constraint, e.g., it does not include constraints when

equations of constraint in the form of

1. it is inconvenient to reduce all
inequalities.
the q's to independent

On the other hard, it does include coordinates or

Fig 1.11: A hoop rolling down an inclined plane.
holonomic constraints. A holonomic 2. we might wish to obtain the
equation of constraint, forces of constraint. The two generalized coordinates are

x,, and the equation of rolling

f(q 1 , q 2 , q 3 ,... ,q n , t) = 0 1.9.1 Application: Cylindrical
rolling down an inclined plane: constraint is

is equivalent to a differential
rd = dx
equation, As an example, we consider a hoop

rolling down on inclined plane (fig:

ff The kinetic energy can be resolved
dt = 0dp k +
1.11) without slipping.
k qkt into kinetic energy of motion of the

which is identical in the form of with centre of mass plus the kinetic

equation (54) with co-efficients energy of motion about the centre of

mass
ff
a
, a
k qkt t

Thus a = r constitutes three equations for three

unknowns, , x, . Differentiating
2 2
11 a x =1
T = Mx + I eqn (68) with respect to time,
22
2 2
11 2
= Mx + Mr The two Lagrange equations
22 we have
therefore are
The potential energy is
r=x
d LL
( )= ax
V = Mgh = Mg (l x) sin dtx
Hence from (67)
x
or

Where l is the length of the inclined (66 )

M x Mg sin + =0 Mx =
plane and the Lagrangian is and
d LL
( )= a0
dt and (66) becomes
L = TV
or
2 2
2

(67) g sin
MxMr 2 x=
= Mr r = 0 2
+Mg( x)sin
22
Which along with the equation of along with
since there is one equation of
constraint, Mg sin
constraint, only one Lagrange = 2

multiplier is needed. The
r =x (68 )
g sin
and =
coefficients appearing in the 2r

constraint equation are

Thus the hoop rolls down the incline useful when the Lagrangian of extended easily to describe systems

with only one half the acceleration independent coordinates can be set that are not normally considered in

it would have slipping down a up for the system. dynamics such as the elastic field,

frictionless plane, and the friction the electromagnetic field, field

The variational principle formulation
force of constraint is = Mg sin / 2. properties of elementary particles.
has been justly described as elegant

dv
From x = v
ds for in the compact Hamilton's A simple example of its application
g sin
= 2

principle is contained all of the outside the usual framework of
g sin
or v dv = dx
o o 2 mechanics of holonomic systems with mechanics, let us consider the
2
g sin v
or
=

or
22
v =g.sin is the velocity at the bottom of the inclined plane.
forces derivable from potentials. The following case.

principle has the further merit that it

Suppose we have a system for which
1.10 Advantages of a Variational involves only physical quantities that
there is a Lagrangian.
Principle Formulation can be defined without reference to

a particular set of generalized 2 2

qj
1 1
Practically, the Hamilton's principle L= Lq +
j M jkq jq k 2C+
j
E j( t) jq (69)
coordinates, namely, the kinetic and 2 j 2j j,k j j

eqn(45) which includes some j/k

potential energies.
nonholonomic constraints, is most and a dissipation function

Another advantage is that the 2

1 (70)
F= R q jj
Lagrangian formulation can be 2 j

The Lagrange equations are function of the generalized velocities. so that the 1/C j 's represent spring

2 2
Whenever the system constraints are constants. The last term corresponds
d qj d qk qjdqj
Lj
dt
2
+ Mjk2 + Rj dt + C = Ej(t)j (71 )
independent of time, the kinetic to the potential due to driving forces
k dt
jk
energy, T 1 can be put into such a Ej = Qj. Finally, the dissipation

These equations of motion is form the coefficients L j , M jk then function corresponds to the existence

interpreted in two ways. One can say partake of the character of masses of dissipative or viscous forces,

the q's are charges, the L j 's self they are inertial terms. The next proportional to the generalized

inductance, the M jk 's mutual term in the Lagrangian exactly velocities.

inductances, the R j 's resistances, the corresponds to the potential energy

This description of two different
C j is capacities, and the E j 's external of a set of springs harmonic
physical systems by Lagrangions of
emfs. Then eqns(71) are a set of oscillators where the forces obey
the same form means that all. the
equations describing a system of Hooke's law.
results and techniques devised for
mutually inductively coupled
F = kx investigating one of the systems can
networks, e.g., for j = 1,2,3 we would
be taken over immediately and
have three networks. On the other With the resulting potential
applied to the other.
hand, it is seen that the first two 2
kx
V=
terms in L together constitute 2

arbitrary homogeneous quadratic

 1.11 Conservation Theorems and Which are first order differential 1.11.2 Generalised momentum:-
Symmetry Properties: equations.
It is also termed as conjugate or
The study of conservation theorems 1.11.1 cyclic or Ignorable canonical momentum.
for a system in motion provides the Coordinate:

constants of motion, the knowledge Let us consider a system of mass

Lagrangian L is a function of
of which helps in describing the points acted upon by forces derived
generalized coordinate qj,
motion of the system. The Lagrange's from potentials dependent as position
generalized velocity q j , and time t.
equations of motion are very only. For such a system, called
If the Lagrangian ofa system does
appropriate for recognizing the conservative one, Lagrange's
not contain a particular coordinate
constants of motion. equations of motion are
q k , then obviously for such a system
L d LL
The conservation theorems to be qk =0 .Such a coordinate is ( )=0
dt qj
referred to cyclic or ignorable qj
discussed are first integrals of
coordinate symmetry operations, Suppose q j coordinate is cyclic ie., it
equations of motion, by this we mean
which leave the description of motion doesnot occur in Lagrangian L, then
relations of the type
invariant, determine the cyclic co- for this coordinate Lagrange's
f(q1, q2, ......, q , q2 , ...., t) = constant.
1
ordinate. equation reduces to

d L
( )=0 (72 )
dt
qj

Which on integration yields Hence, we can state as a general the system as a whole in some

conservation theorem that the given direction. Obviously qj

L

= constant
qj
generalized momentum conjugate to cannot appear in T, because it

a cyclic coordinate is conserved. depends upon velocities which

Now consider an example, a system
involve time derivative of dence,
of mass point under the influence of 1. Conservation of linear
and therefore the partial
forces derived from potentials momentum: derivative of T with respect to
dependent on position only. Then
A coordinate corresponding to a qj must be zero ( T
qj =0 )
L T V T displacement is cyclic,
= .Further, we consider a

xi xi xi xi translation of the system has no conservative system for which
2 2 2
1
= mi(x i +yi +zi ) effect on the problem, ie., V V
= 0 and only . Then
qj exists

2 qj
xi

description of system motion
= mixi = pix Lagrange equation of motion for
remains invariant under such a
such a coordinate is defined as
eqn(72)becomes translation, linear momentum is
d TV
conserved. ( )+=0
d pj dt qj
=0 qj

dt Consider first a generalized or pj =
V
= Qj

qj
which means that p j = constant coordinate q j , for which a change

dq j represents a translation of
 Thus
Which is the equation of motion Suppose q j is a cyclic coordinate,

for the total linear momentum.

Qj =
F i . n = n. F
then
V
Here Qj represents the Which is the component of the
= Qj = 0
qj
component of the total force This gives
total force in the direction of n
along the direction of translation

of q j and p j is. the component of

Further kinetic energy is
2
(
pj = 0 pj = Q j
)
1
the total linear momentum along T= mri i or
2
pj = constant
the conjugate momentum is
this direction. In general, the
Thus if a given component of the
generalized force Q j is given by

T ri
=P total applied force vanishes, the
ri .
=m j i

r i qj i qj
Qj = Fi .

corresponding component of the
i qj
ri
= mv . q i
j linear momentum is conserved.
It n is the unit vector along the i

= m v . n 2. Conservation of angular
direction of translation,then i
i

momentum:
r i=n q j = n. m v i i

or i If a coordinate corresponding to

r i Which shows that P j represents a rotation is cyclic, rotation of
=n
qj the component of total linear the system about the given axis

momentum along the direction of has no effect on the description

translation.

of the system motion ie,, system same axis. And the above eqn

remains Invariant under such a will represent the equation of

coordinate rotation and angular motion for the total angular

momentum is conserved. momentum.

If qj be first assumed as The generalized force Q j is given

generalized coordinate, then by

since T does not depend on q j
ri
Qj = F i
and V does not depend, for a i qj

conservative system, on q j we Here the change in qj must

set correspond to an infinitesimal

pj = Q j
rotation of the vector ri keeping
If we show that with qj, a the magnitude of the vector
rotation coordinate, the constant.
Fig: 1.12 Change of position vector under
generalized force is then
Rotation of the system.

component of the total applied

From fig. 1.12, the magnitude of
torque about the axis of rotation
the derivative can easily be
and p j is the component of total
obtained
angular momentum along the

V
Where N is the total torque. The = 0 and hence p j = 0Qj =
qj
||
d ri = ri sin dqj
expression shows that Q j is the or
and component of total torque about p j = constant

|| ri
= ri sin
qj
the rotation axis. Further or


the direction of which is n . L = constant
T ri

Pj =
= miv i. qj
qj i
ie., if the rotation coordinate q j
perpendicular to both ri and n
is cyclic, them Q j which is the
= m v . n i i ri
Thus i
component of the applied torque

ri
= n ri
= n . ri mi v i
along n vanishes and the
qj i

Generalised force can be
= n. L i= n . L component of L along n is
i
expressed as
constant.
Which shows that pj is the

Qj = F i.n ri
component of total angular 3. Conservation of energy:
i

momentum along the axis of Let us consider:
= F i.( n ri )
i
rotation and hence pj = Qj
i. a conservative system so
= ( n ri ). Fi
represents equation of motion
i that potential energy is a

= n . ri Fi for the total angular momentum function of coordinates only
i
of the system. and not that of velocities.
reducing to
Suppose q j is a cyclic coordinate,
Qj = n . N i = n.N ii. Constraints do not change
i
then
with time, ie., they are

independent of time and The quantity H is one of the first

consequently, equations of
dL

dt
= [ j
L dqjd L
( ) qj +
dt qj dt
qj
] integrals of equations of motion,

transformation to and it represents the total

()

dL
generalised coordinates do = qj energy of the system.
j dt
not involve time explicitly qj
If constraints are independent of

and hence L can be written

=
j dt
()

qj
Td time, ie., equations of

as L(qj,qj) qj transformation do not involve

because for a conservative system time explicitly and constraints
Thus its total time derivative will
L T V

=
as
=0 are holonomic, then kinetic
be qj qj qj
energy can be expressed as
dL L dqj L dqj Thus
= + q dt j
homogeneous quadratic function
dt qj dt

()
j j dL d
q -p = 0
of generalised velocities and
Putting dt j dt j j

Ld L or therefore
= ( )
qjdt
d
qj
( qj jp L) = 0 T= a jkqjq k
from Lagrangian equation, dt j j,k

we get or Euler's theorem states that if f

is a homogeneous function, of
qj jp L = constant = H
j
order n, of a set of variable q j ,

then
 f
q j
=nf ie., it continues to be a constant
j qj ri = ri (q1, q2, ..., qn, t) involves
of motion. Therefore
But here n is 2 so that time explicity because of rotation
identification of H as a constant
T if coordinate axes or due to some
q j

= 2T
j qj of motion and as the total energy
other reasons, then we cannot
or are two separate matters and the
write

conditions sufficient for one are
qjpj = 2T

T


qj = 2T
qj not enough for other as stated
Thus
Since kinetic energy is no more a above.

homogeneous quadratic function

H = 2TL = 2T(TV)
Questions
of velocities and thus H will not

or H=T+V by (T + V), total energy. On the

1. Obtain the Lagrange's equations
other hand, L still may not
of motion using D'Alembert's
Which shows that H equals the involve time explicitly so that the
principle for holonomic system.
total energy and is conserved. quantity
2. State Hamilton's principle and
Suppose constraints are d

( qj jp L)=0 derive Lagrange equation of

independent of time even then dt j

or motion from it.

coordinate transformation dH
=0 3. What are constraints? Explain in
equations dt
or H = constant,is conserved
detail.

4. Define generalized coordinate UNIT II motion about the centre of mass and

and obtain the expression for hence six independent generalized

In this unit we shall discuss the
generalized momentum. coordinates. Let us choose them to
problem of two bodies moving under

5. Define generalised moment and be the three components of the

the influence of a mutual central
show that the angular radius vector to the centre of mass,
force as an application of the
momentum is conserved. R, plus the three components of the
Lagrangian formulation.
difference vector

2.1 Reduction of two body

problems into one body
r = r 2 r1 ,the Lagrangian will then
have the form
Consider a conservative system of

two mass points, m 1 and m 2 , where
L = T( R , r ) U(r, r ...) (1 )
the only forces are those due to an
The kinetic energy T can be written
interaction potential U, is purely a
as the sum of the kinetic energy of
function of r .Such a system has
the motion of the centre of mass,
six degrees of freedom because the
plus the kinetic energy of motion
motion of the system consisting of
l
about the centre of mass, T :
m 1 and m 2 can be thought as made
12l
up of motion of centre of mass and T=
(m1 + m2)R + T
2
With always be reduced to an equivalent

Thus T takes on the form one - body problem.

l 1ll
T= m1r 2 + m2r 2)
221
It is seen that the three coordinates
Here r1 and r2 And the total lagrangian eqn. 1 is
R are cyclic, so that the centre of
are the radii vectors of the two

2 2
m1m2m1 + m21 mass is either at rest or moving
particles relative to the centre of L=R +r u( r , r , ...)
2 m1 + m22 uniformly.
mass and are related

=
1
2
MR +
2 1

2
2

r U( r , r , ...) (2 )
2.2 Equations of Motion and First
the r by
Integrals:
Where M = m 1 + m 2 is the total mass
m2
r
m1 + m2
of the system, and Lagrange's Equation of Motion:
m2
r
m 1m2
m1 + m2 = m1 + m 2 is known as the reduced Let us describe the position of the

mass. Frequently it is written in the particle in plane polar coordinates of

form r and , the Lagrangian is

111
=+
m1 m2
( ) 3 L = TV

2 2

Thus the central force motion of two

(
=1/2 m r + r
2
) V(r)
(4)

Fig. 21 : Co-ordinates for the two-body problem.

bodies about their centre of mass can

2
is a cyclic coordinate, so it does not dVd
(m r) (mr )=0
dtdr
6 The factor
1
2 is inserted because 12
2r
appear in L, and hence momentum
2 is just the areal velocity the area
conjugate to this will be a constant,
d

dt
(mr ) = 0 7
swept out by the radius vector per
ie.,
unit time. From fig.2.2, dA is the area
Equations 6 and 7 are the equations
swept out by the radius vector in a
of motions of the particle.


L 2
p0 = = mr = 5

time dt, then

From eqn 7 we have
1
dA =
There will be two equations of r(rd)
2
motion, they are p =
d2

dt
mr = 0 ( ) 8
and the rate at which this area is

with the immediate integral swept out will be
d

dt
( L / r) L
/
r=0

/ / 1 2 ddA

2
d mr = =r
and ) L = 0 dt2 dt
( L

dt 12
where is the constant magnitude of O=r
2
Putting the values of derivatives from the angular momentum. From eqn 8
eqn 4, we get it also follows that

d1

dt 2
() 2
r =0 9
 sweeps out equal areas in equal time. Multiplying both sides of above

The law is true for any central force:
equation by r we have
that is, even if the law of force is

d2
different from the inverse square law, mr r= V+ ( / 2mr
2
) r
dr
2
this law holds and can be treated dd 12 dr
(or) ( mr ) = V+ ( /2mr 2 )dr
dt 2dr
as general theorem for central force d2
=
V+ ( /2mr 2 )
Fig. 2.2: swept out by radius vector motion. dt
so that

2
From equ. 9, we write Expression for r(t) and (t):
d 12
[ mr +
dt 2
/ 2
2mr + V(r)] = 0

1 2 (or)
r = Constant The another Lagrangian eqn, for the
2
2
dA
= Constant
coordinate r, eqn 6 is
12

2
mr + / 2
2mr + V(r ) = Constant
10

dt
2
dV We can easily show that left hand
The conservation of angular m r mr =
dr

momentum is thus equivalent to side of above equation is the total

saying the areal velocity is constant.

Putting =
/ 2
mr , we get
2

energy of the system Putting = mr
2
dV
Here we have the proof of the well mr = dr
mr
3
left hand side reduced to
known kepler's second law of

d2
planetary motion: the radius vector
or mr =
V+( /2mr 2 )
dr

2 2 t
1 21 At time t = 0, let r has the initial 13
m r + mr + V(r ) 2
= dt/mr (t) + 0
22
(or ) value r 0 . Then the integral of both 0

2 2
12m( r + r ) + V(r) sides of the equation from the initial
2 Equations 12 and 13 are the two
state to the state at time t takes the
remaining integrations, provides us
or simply T+V form
r(t) and (t) from which we can

Which is the total energy, E, of the

r locate the position of the particle on

system. Since

equal to a constant, it proves the

right hand side is t=
ro
2 m EV (
dr
2
/2mr 2 )
the path at any time t. If the law

of force, ie., form of V(r) is known,

conservation of energy directly from / integration of said equations can be

It gives t as a function of r and the performed easily. The results will
equations of motion. Thus we write
constants of integration E, l, and r 0 . involve for as constants of integration
2
12

2
mr + / 2
2mr + V(r) = E
11 Once the solution for r is thus found, l, E, r 0 and 0 .
the solution follows immediately
or 2.3 Equivalent one - Dimensional

1
from eqn, mr2 = which gives
[/ ( )] Problem:
2
2 2
r=2 m EV / 2mr

or
d= / mr 2dt
With a system of known energy and
dr
dt = 1
If the initial value of is 0 , then the angular momentum, the magnitude
[/ ( )]
2
2 2
2 m EV / 2mr
integral is simply, and direction of the velocity of the