Aim of Speed and Feed Regulation

A machining operation should be conducted at such values of cutting

parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut, etc.) that ensure the minimum cost
price of the machined component
The machining cost can be expressed by the equation:
C = Cmt + Cnpt + Ctc + Ct
Cmt = (W+ E)tm represents the cost of machining time; W is the
wage rate, E is cost of operating the machine tool per unit time and
tm, the machining time
Cnpt = (W + E)tnpt represents the cost of non-productive time; tnpt is
the total time of non-productive operations, such as loading and
unloading, idle travel of cutting tool
Ctc = (W+E)ttc/Q represents the tool changing cost per component;
ttc is the time required for replacing a blunt tool and setting the new
one and Q the number of components machined during the period of
tool life.
Ctc = T/Q represents the cost of the tool per component; T is the cost
of the tool for a period equal to the tool life
 Aim of Speed and Feed
Regulation
If the machining cost is optimized, it yields a particular value of tool
life which corresponds to minimum machining cost.
This optimum tool life can be achieved on a particular operation
only by working at optimum values of cutting speed v, feed s, and
depth of cut t.
In order to machine a part of arbitrary diameter, the spindle rpm
must be set as n = 1000v/D, i.e., there must be a stepless regulation
of v so that any desired value of the spindle rpm may be set
corresponding to the optimum cutting speed.
By a similar logic, the machine tool should have provision for
stepless variation of the feed rate.
Economically, viable systems of stepless speed and feed rate
regulation have, however, not yet been designed for a majority of
machine tools.
On such machine tools only certain discrete values of the spindle
rpm and feed rate are available.
 Determination of Maximum &
Minimum Speed
The maximum and minimum cutting and feed speeds are specified
by a number of extreme conditions under which the machine is
supposed to operate.
These conditions include materials of the workpiece and tool, cutting
environment etc.
 Various Laws of Stepped
Regulation
It was stated above that in stepped regulation of speed only certain discrete values of the
spindle rpm are available on the machine tool.
A pertinent question that arises is what should be the criterion for choosing these discrete
steps?
Between two extreme available values n1 and nz of the spindle rpm, the same number of z
intermediate steps may be placed in a number of ways.
The various series of rpm values will have different operational characteristics.
Let us analyze four cases and select the most suitable law of speed range distribution
Arithmetic Progression
Geometric Progression
Harmonic Progression
Logarithmic Progression
Arithmetic Progression
Geometric Progression
Harmonic Progression
Logarithmic Progression
Kinematic advantages of GP series
1. Constant Loss of Economic Cutting Speed in the Whole rpm Range:
Suppose the spindle rpm values constitute the following series:

Consider that the optimum cutting speed vopt is such that it lies between the
rpm values nj and nj+1, i.e.

Obviously, of the two rpm values, nj and nj+1 we select the one which gives
a cutting speed closer to vopt.
The difference between the actual cutting speed and the optimum cutting
speed is known as the loss of economic cutting speed.
The difference between the actual cutting speed and vopt, and hence the loss
of economic cutting speed is maximum when the optimum cutting speed lies
at the middle of two speeds provided by nj and nj+1.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
The maximum loss of economic cutting speed is then:

From the above two equations, we obtain:

It may be concluded that in order that may be constant in the

whole range of exploitation of the machine tool, the ratio must be
constant.
This means that the spindle rpm values must lie in a geometric
progression.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
2. Constant Loss of Productivity in the Whole rpm Range:
The productivity of a machining operation can be expressed as the
surface area of metal removed in unit time, i.e., by the quantity:

where v is the cutting speed, m/min

s is the feed, mm/rev
3. Better Design Features:
When all the rpm values of a spindle are obtained from a single
transmission, then any of the series discussed above can be utilized for
designing the speed box;
The desired rpm values are obtained by using appropriate transmission
ratios of various gear pairs.
If the rpm values are changed by mounting a new pair of gears on the
shaft every time, then changing of speeds becomes time consuming,
inconvenient and economically infeasible.
If the rpm values are obtained by mounting gear pairs of the appropriate
transmission ratio on the shafts permanently, then the axial dimensions of
 Kinematic advantages of GP series

These considerations underline the fact that speed steps in a speed box
should be obtained not through a single transmission between two shafts
but through a group of transmissions between a number of shafts.
This features can be realized in an actual speed box design only if the
rpm values lie in a geometric progression and may be explained by the
following properties of a geometric progression:
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
The following information is essentially required
before we can start designing a stepped drive.
1. The highest output rpm, nmax
2. The lowest output rpm, nmin
3. The number of steps z into which the range
between nmax and nmin is divided.
4. The number of stages in which the required
number of speed steps are to be achieved.
There is a tendency of assigning higher cutting
speeds for machining operations as new tool
materials permitting higher cutting speeds are
developed.
While selecting the lowest and highest speed
limits for a new machine tool, we must take into
account its exploitation in actual production
conditions.
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
An important parameter in designing speed boxes is the range ratio Rn
given by:

Here Rv represents the range of cutting speeds employed on the

machine tool and Rd the range of workpiece diameters machined.
A very wide speed range is generally neither practicable nor
economically feasible, thus value of Rv should, therefore, be kept
within reasonable limits.
The range of diameters should also be selected on the basis of the
statistical study of the working of similar machine tools.
Investigations conducted by ENIMS (Machine Tool Research Institute,
Moscow, Russia) reveal that a ratio of Rd = dmax/dmin = 4 covers
more than 85% of the workpieces, while Rd = 6 covers 92% of the
workpieces.
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
Typical values of Rn for some groups of machine tools are given in the
following Table:

A variety of cutting tools of different shapes and compositions are used

on general-purpose machine tools, and therefore, Rn values are
relatively large.
On the other hand, in grinding machines the grinding wheel diameter
generally varies in the range Rd < 2 and the wheel material being the
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Speed Step
The number of speed steps in which the total range of rpm values
available on the machine tool is divided is determined as follows:
Suppose the rpm values n1, n2,nz constitute a geometric
progression. Then,

Which can also be written as:

The value of z can be determined provided Rn and are known.

 Standard Values of Geometric Progression Ratio
and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper Value
The standard values of are established from the following two main
considerations:
1. In machine tool drives, two speed motors are often used; the ratio
of the two speeds is generally equal to 2 (e.g., motors have rpm
values of 3000 and 1500, or 1500 and 750, etc.). If the spindle rpm
values constitute a geometric progression for the lower rpm of the
motor, then according to the property of geometric progression,
the spindle speeds should increase two times when the motor
speed is switched to the higher one.

2. The geometric progression should be developed by keeping the

standards of preferred numbers and preferred series in mind. The
geometric progression should then satisfy the condition:
 Standard Values of Geometric Progression Ratio
and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper Value

The standard values of are obtained from the condition that they must
simultaneously satisfy the previous two equations:

where S' is an arbitrary whole number, then

The standard values of S2 from the series of preferred numbers are 40,
20, 10 and 5. Correspondingly S'= S2/l0 = 4, 2, 1 and 0.5 and S1 = 3S' =
12, 6, 3 and 1.5. The corresponding standard values of are:
 Standard Values of Geometric Progression Ratio
and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper Value

The standard values of , their characteristics and the specific loss of economic cutting
speed:

It is desirable to select a small value of so that the loss of economic cutting speed and,
hence, productivity loss is low.
Also, for a particular value of the range ratio, the number of speed steps increases with
a reduction in the value of .
On the other hand, a large number of speed steps make the drive complicated and
expensive.
The proper value of must be selected by weighing these contradictory factors and
striking a judicial balance.
 Standard Values of Geometric Progression Ratio
and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper Value

Recommended values of in machine tools:

The most commonly used values of are 1.26, 1.41 and 1.58.
Smaller values of ( = 1.12 and 1.06) complicate the drive to an extent
where it cannot normally compete with stepless regulation.
Large values of ( = 1.78 and 2.0) result in very rough regulation leading
to large productivity losses. They are rarely used and that too only in special-
purpose machine tools
 Break up of Speed Steps

The value of the number of speed steps z found is rounded off to the
nearest whole number, preference being given to the number which
can be broken into multiples of 2 and 3.
For example,
Numbers between 5 and 7 are rounded off to z = 6
Numbers between 7 and 8.5 are rounded off to z = 8
Numbers between 8.5 and 10 are rounded off to z = 9
Numbers between 10 and 11 are rounded off to z = 10
Numbers between 11 and 13 are rounded off to z = 12
Numbers between 13 and 15 are rounded off to z = 14
 Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
Suppose a speed on one shaft yields two speed values on the next shaft,
i.e., the number of speed steps of the particular transmission group is p =
2.
The maximum reduction of speed is limited to four times to keep the radial
dimensions of the speed box within reasonable limits, while the maximum
increase of speed is restricted to two times due to limitations of the pitch
line velocity. The transmission range of the group is given by

Suppose there are z speed steps n1, n2, n3.nz in a particular

transmission group such that
 Structural Diagrams and Their
SinceAnalysis to Select the Best One
the speeds on the last shaft of the speed box must constitute a
geometric progression, the following relationship must be satisfied:

Here X is known as the characteristic of the transmission group and it

denotes the number of steps of the spindle rpm geometric progression
by which two adjacent rpm values of the particular group are
separated.
As earlier explained, the number of speed steps is represented in the
form
This expression can be written in a number of ways by arranging p1,
p2, p3,..pu in different positions.
The total number of possible combinations = u!/q! , where q is the
number of groups with identical transmissions.
 Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One

Since the rpm values of the output shaft of the speed box ought to be in a geometric
progression, there must be one transmission group that has a characteristic X1 = 1; this
group is known as the main transmission group and it has a progression ratio = 1 =
The next transmission group has a characteristic X2 = p1 and
a progression ratio = X2 = p1 where p1 is the number of speed steps in the first group;
similarly, the third transmission group has a characteristic X3 = p1 * p2 and a progression
ratio p1p2 .
Thus, a more elaborate expression for z may be written as follows:

Where,
The following equation is known as the structural formula of the speed box.
 Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
Let us consider an example. Suppose the number of speed steps z = 12 of
a speed box are to be realized in three stages, i.e., u = 3. The number 12
may be written as a multiplication of 2 and 3 in three different ways.
Let us consider one such combination, z = 2 x 3 x 2
Structural Diagrams and Their Analysis to
Select the Best One
The structural formulae are represented in the form of special graphs
known as structural diagrams.
For plotting the structural diagram, we draw u + 1 vertical lines at a
convenient distance from each other; the first vertical line represents
the transmission from the motor shaft and the rest represent the
transmission groups of the speed box
We now draw an array of horizontal lines intersecting the vertical
lines at a distance of log from each other.
The number of horizontal lines is equal to the number of speed steps
z of the speed box.
The structural diagram gives information about
1. the number of shafts in the speed box.
2. the number of gears on each shaft.
3. the order of changing transmissions in individual groups to get
the desired spindle speed.
4. the transmission range and characteristic of each group.
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
 The selection of the best structural
diagram
The selection of the best version is guided by the following two factors:
1. Transmission ratio restriction: This requirement has already
been discussed and it need only be emphasized that the maximum
value of the transmission range of a group is ig < 8.
2. Minimum total shaft size: The dimensions of a shaft are
determined for the lowest rpm at which it rotates, because the
lower the rpm of the shaft, the higher is the torque that the shaft
has to transmit and hence the larger its diameter. The required
accuracy of machining of a shaft depends upon the highest rpm at
which it rotates; the higher the rpm of the shaft the higher should
be its accuracy and surface finish. In a speed box the nmax and
nmin values on the last shaft (spindle) must necessarily be the
same in all the versions of structural diagrams. However, the nmin
and nmax values for the intermediate shafts will differ for each
version. The best version is the one which ensures,
 The selection of the best structural
diagram
Besides factors (a) and (b) discussed above the following guidelines,
which stem from rationality of the speed box design and its exploitation
can also be helpful in selecting the best diagram:
1. The number of gears on the last shaft (spindle) should be the
minimum possible.
2. The transmission ratio between the spindle and the shaft
preceding it should be the maximum possible, i.e., speed reduction
should be the maximum possible.
3. The number of gears on the shafts should not generally be more
than three, though in exceptional cases it may be four.
4. imax * imin = 1 favors the least radial dimensions of the gear
box.
 The selection of the best structural
diagram

Let us now analyze structural diagrams a and e that we have drawn.

Diagram e
 The selection of the best structural
We can similarly analyze thediagram
remaining four structural diagrams also.
Upon analysis, we find that,

Hence, if the selected value of the progression ratio is = 1.26, then all
the six structural diagrams qualify for selection as far as consideration of
factor (a) is concerned.
If = 1.41, then diagrams b and e are ruled out.
If > 1.41, then none of the structural diagrams is suitable for
designing the speed box and an attempt must be made with a different
arrangement of the speed step distribution, e.g., z = 3 x 2 x 2
 The selection of the best structural
diagram
If more than one structural diagram satisfies the
transmission-range constraint, then these must be
analyzed keeping factor (b) and the additional
guidelines in mind.
A comparison of the six structural diagrams
reveals that diagrams a and c are better than the
rest because nmin values of shaft III in both these
diagrams are maximum.
However, diagram a scores over diagram c when
shaft II is compared; the nmin value of shaft II in
diagram a is higher as compared to the
corresponding values of diagram c.
It may be thus seen that structural diagram a is
the best among all the considered versions.
 General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
All requirements that are essential for the proper
functioning of a gear transmission must be
satisfied and gear-box dimensions kept
minimum.
1. These essential requirements for proper
functioning of a gear transmission may be
summed up as:
(i) The number of teeth on the smallest
gear of a transmission should be such that
there is no undercutting of gear teeth;
generally for gears with an uncorrected
profile and 20 pressure angle, Zmin > 17.
(ii) If gear pairs on parallel shafts have
the same module, the sum of the number of
teeth of mating gear pairs must be the same.
(iii) The spacing between adjacent gears
on a shaft should be such that one gear pair
gets completely disengaged before the next
begins to mesh (Fig. 2.18).
 General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
(iv) The number of teeth of adjacent gears must differ by at least four. This
point may be proved by considering the following example (Fig. 2.19).
The sliding block mounted on shaft I provides three speeds on shaft II
depending upon which of the gear pairs is used for transmission. The
centre distance between the shafts is

where m is the module of all the gears.

The sum of the addendum radii of gears
Z5 and Z4 is

When the sliding gear is moved rightward

to make gear Z1 mesh with Z2, gear Z5 will
pass over Z4 without interference only if
 General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
Besides the four essential requirements, a major consideration is how to
achieve minimum possible dimensions of the gear box.
It is helpful to remember that the radial dimensions of a gear box are
minimum when the maximum speed reduction and maximum speed
increase in a transmission group are equal.

The radial dimensions can be reduced by making coincident the axes of

shafts of adjacent transmission groups, e.g., shafts I and III in Fig. 2.20
have been made coincident.
 General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
2. Specific features peculiar to the functioning of the machine tool for
which the gear box is being designed should be taken into account.
Some of these features are discussed below:
(i) In machine tools with large inertia of the driven member, such as vertical
turret lathes, planers, etc., a friction clutch and brake should be provided
on the input shaft.
(ii) Reversing devices with friction clutches should be provided on turret
lathes, thread-cutting lathes, radial drilling machines, etc., so that after
cutting the thread, the tool can be returned to its initial position. The
reversal speed should be 1.3-1.5 times greater than the cutting speed.
However, in light machine tools having a drive motor rating of up to N
= 3.5 kW, spindle rotation may be reversed by applying an opposing
current, e.g., by reversing two connections of the stator winding.
(iii) If the spindle head traverses during the working operation, the electric
motor should be mounted on the speed box and the transmission from
motor shaft to the input shaft of the speed box obtained through a clutch or
gear pair.
 General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
(iv) If the spindle is kinematically linked to the feed mechanism, the
transmission from the spindle to the feed train must be shown on the
gearing diagram.
(v) Gear transmissions that do not slide during speed changing should be
made helical to provide smooth running of the spindle; this is especially
desirable of gears mounted on the spindle.